# kb

id: list-of-inventors-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-12.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
=== R === Jacob Rabinow (1910–1999), U.S. – Magnetic particle clutch, various Phonograph-related patents John Goffe Rand (1801–1873), U.S. – Tube (container) Robert Ransome (1753–1830), England – improvement to the plough Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes) (865–965), Persia/Iran – distillation and extraction methods,hydrochloric acid, soap kerosene, kerosene lamp, chemotherapy, sodium hydroxide Alec Reeves (1902–1971), UK – Pulse-code modulation Karl von Reichenbach (1788–1869), Germany – paraffin, creosote oil, phenol Tadeus Reichstein (1897–1996), Poland/Switzerland – Reichstein process (industrial vitamin C synthesis) Ira Remsen (1846–1927), U.S. – saccharin Ralf Reski (born 1958), Germany – Moss bioreactor 1998 Josef Ressel (1793–1857), Czechoslovakia – ship propeller William Reynolds (1758–1803), England – canal inclined plane Ri Sung-gi (1905–1996), North Korea – Vinylon Charles Francis Richter (1900–1985), U.S. – Richter magnitude scale Adolph Rickenbacker (1886–1976), Switzerland – Electric guitar Hyman George Rickover (1900–1986), U.S. – Nuclear submarine Niklaus Riggenbach (1817–1899), Switzerland – Riggenbach rack railway system, Counter-pressure brake Dennis Ritchie (1941–2011), U.S. – C (programming language) Gilles de Roberval (1602–1675), France – Roberval balance John Roebuck (1718–1794) UK – lead chamber process for sulfuric acid synthesis Francis Rogallo (1912–2009), U.S. – Rogallo wing Heinrich Rohrer (1933–2013), together with Gerd Binnig (1947–), Switzerland/Germany – Scanning tunneling microscope Peter


id: list-of-inventors-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-13.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
=== S === Albert Bruce Sabin (1906–1993), U.S. – oral Polio vaccine Alexander Sablukov (1783–1857), Russia – centrifugal fan Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu (1385–1468), Turkey – illustrated surgical atlas Andrei Sakharov (1921–1989), Russia – invented explosively pumped flux compression generator, co-developed the Tsar Bomba and tokamak Jonas Edward Salk (1914–1995), U.S. – injection Polio vaccine Robert Salmon (1763–1821), England – agricultural implements Franz San Galli (1824–1908), Poland/Russia (Italian and German descent) – radiator, central heating Frederick Sanger (1918–2013), U.S. – Sanger sequencing (= DNA sequencing) Yoshiyuki Sankai (born c. 1957), Japan – Robotic exoskeleton for motion support (medicine) Alberto Santos-Dumont (1873–1932), Brazil – non-rigid airship and airplane Arthur William Savage (1857–1938) – radial tires, gun magazines, Savage Model 99 lever action rifle Thomas Savery (1650–1715), UK – steam engine Adolphe Sax (1814–1894), Belgium – saxophone Vincent Joseph Schaefer (1906–1993), U.S. – Cloud seeding by dry ice Bela Schick (1877–1967), Hungary – diphtheria test Wilhelm Schickard (1592–1635), Germany – mechanical calculator Hugo Schiff (1834–1915), Germany – Schiff test (histology) Pavel Schilling (1786–1837), Estonia/Russia – first electromagnetic telegraph, mine with an electric fuse Gilmore Schjeldahl (1912–2002), U.S. – Airsickness bag Hubert Schlafly (1919–2011), U.S. – Teleprompter = Autocue Wilhelm Schlenk (1879–1943), Germany – Schlenk


id: list-of-inventors-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-14.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
=== T === Gyula Takátsy (1914–1980), Hungary – first Microtiter plate Esther Takeuchi (born 1953) – holds more than 150 US-patents, the largest number for any woman in the United States Igor Tamm (1895–1971), Russia – co-developer of tokamak Ching W. Tang (born 1947), Hong Kong/U.S., together with Steven Van Slyke, U.S. – OLED Mardi bin Ali al-Tarsusi (c. 1187), Middle East – counterweight trebuchet, mangonel Gustav Tauschek (1899–1945), Austria – Drum memory Kenyon Taylor (1908–1986), U.S. – Flip-disc display Bernard Tellegen (1900–1990), Netherlands – pentode Edward Teller (1908–2003), Hungary – hydrogen bomb Eli Terry (1772–1852) Michel Ter-Pogossian (1925–1996), Armenia/U.S. – Positron emission tomography (PET) Nikola Tesla (1856–1943), Serbia – induction motor, high-voltage / high-frequency power experiments, the transmission of electrical power Avie Tevanian (born 1961), Armenia/U.S. – Mach kernel, NeXTSTEP, macOS Léon Theremin (1896–1993), Russia – theremin, interlace, burglar alarm, terpsitone, Rhythmicon (first drum machine), The Thing (listening device) Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar (1785–1870), France – Arithmometer Valerie Thomas (born 1943), U.S. – illusion transmitter Elihu Thomson (1853–1937), UK, U.S. – Prolific inventor, Arc lamp and many others William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin (1824–1907), UK – Kelvin absolute temperature scale Eric Tigerstedt (1887–1925), Finland – Sound-on-film, triode vacuum


id: list-of-inventors-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-15.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
=== Y === Pavel Yablochkov (1847–1894), Russia – Yablochkov candle (first commercially viable electric carbon arc lamp) Hidetsugu Yagi (1886–1976), together with Shintaro Uda (1896–1976), Japan – Yagi–Uda antenna Alexander Yakovlev (1906–1989), Russia – Yak-series aircraft, including Yakovlev Yak-40 (the first regional jet) Linus Yale Jr. (1821–1868), U.S. – cylinder lock Linus Yale Sr. (1797–1858), U.S. – pin tumbler lock Shunpei Yamazaki (born 1942), Japan – patents in computer science and solid-state physics, see List of prolific inventors Gazi Yaşargil (1925–2025), Turkey – Microneurosurgery Ryōichi Yazu (1878–1908), Japan – Yazu Arithmometer Gunpei Yokoi (1941–1997), Japan – Game Boy Arthur M. Young (1905–1995), U.S. – Bell Helicopter Vladimir Yourkevich (1885–1964), Russia/France/U.S. – ship hull design Tu Youyou (born 1930), China – Artemisinin Sergei Yudin (1891–1954), Russia – cadaveric blood transfusion and other medical operations Muhammad Yunus (born 1940), Bangladesh – microcredit, microfinance Abraham Albert Yuzpe (born 1938), U.S. – Yuzpe regimen (= form of Emergency contraception) === Z === Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis) (936–1013), Islamic Spain – catgut surgical suture, various surgical instruments and dental devices Frank Zamboni (1901–1988), U.S. – Ice resurfacer Giuseppe Zamboni (1776–1846), Italy – Zamboni pile (early battery) Ludwik Łazarz Zamenhof (1859–1917), Russia/Poland – Esperanto Walter Zapp


id: list-of-african-american-inventors-and-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_African-American_inventors_and_scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of African-American inventors and scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_African-American_inventors_and_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:41.417249+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-african-american-inventors-and-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
This list of African-American inventors and scientists documents many of the African-Americans who have invented a multitude of items or made discoveries in the course of their lives. These have ranged from practical everyday devices to applications and scientific discoveries in diverse fields, including physics, biology, math, and medicine. == History == African-Americans have been the victims of oppression, discrimination and persecution throughout American history, with an impact on African-American innovation according to a 2014 study by economist Lisa D. Cook, which linked violence towards African-Americans and lack of legal protections over the period from 1870 to 1940 with lowered innovation. Despite this, many black innovators have been responsible for a large number of major inventions. Among the earliest was George Washington Carver, whose reputation was based on his research into and promotion of alternative crops to cotton, which aided in nutrition for farm families. He wanted poor farmers to grow alternative crops both as a source of their own food and as a source of other products to improve their way of life. The most popular of his 44 practical bulletins for farmers contained 105 food recipes using peanuts. He also developed and promoted about 100 products made from


id: list-of-albanian-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Albanian_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Albanian inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Albanian_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:42.572843+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-albanian-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of Albanian inventors and discoverers. The following incomplete list comprises individuals from Albania, the Albanian diaspora, and those of Albanian heritage who have contributed to the invention, innovation, or discovery of objects, processes, or techniques, either wholly or in part while working locally or abroad. The list is arranged in alphabetical order by surname. == A == Grigor Andoni: Designed and developed Albania's first armored military vehicle, Shota MRAP. == B == Veso Bey: Invented the Gjirokastër alphabet. == C == == D == == E == == F == Carol Folt: Pioneering research on the effects of dietary mercury and arsenic on human and ecosystem health. Her pioneering scientific research profoundly influenced national and global policies, leading to important recommendations on consumption, particularly regarding human health and ecosystem well-being, shaped by dietary factors. == G == Karl Ritter von Ghega: Designed the Semmering railway, the first standard-gauge mountain railway in Europe, commonly known as the world's first true mountain railway. Ghega was awarded the title of (Ritter) in recognition of his exceptional contributions to the country and was appointed as the chief planner for the entire railway network of the Austrian Empire. Savo Gjirja: Innovated


id: list-of-armenian-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Armenian_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Armenian inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Armenian_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:43.942176+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-armenian-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
The following list contains notable inventions and discoveries made by ethnic Armenians, including those not born or living in modern-day Armenia and those of partial Armenian ancestry. == List == Default sorted chronologically == See also == List of Armenians List of Armenian scientists List of Armenian Nobel laureates == References ==


id: list-of-austrian-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Austrian_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Austrian inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Austrian_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:45.136440+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-austrian-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of Austrian inventors and discoverers. The following list comprises people from Austria, and also people of predominantly Austrian heritage, in alphabetical order of the surname. == B == Georg Joseph Beer, introducing a flap operation for treatment of cataracts (Beer's operation), as well as popularizing the instrument used to perform the surgery (Beer's knife). Günther Burstyn, co-inventor of the tank (independent from him William Tritton and Walter Gordon Wilson) == C == Carl Cori (Nobel Prize), co-discovered Cori cycle. Gerty Cori (Nobel Prize), co-discovered Cori cycle. == D == Carl Djerassi, inventor of birth control pills Christian Doppler, discoverer of the Doppler effect == E == Paul Eisler, inventor of the printed circuit board. == F == Otto Frenzl: aeronautical pioneer, developed the area rule in 1943, a design technique for airfoils used to reduce an aircraft's drag at transonic and supersonic speeds. Later it was independently developed again by Richard T. Whitcomb in 1952. Sigmund Freud: neurologist who became known as the founding father of psychoanalysis Karl von Frisch: (Nobel Prize), one of the founders of modern ethology, studies on waggle dance Paul Fürst: inventor of the Mozartkugel == G == David Gestetner, inventor of


id: list-of-bulgarian-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Bulgarian_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Bulgarian inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Bulgarian_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:46.262406+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-bulgarian-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of Bulgarian inventors and discoverers, working locally or overseas, and also a list of Bulgarian inventions and creations. The list comprises people from Bulgaria and also people of predominantly Bulgarian heritage. == Art and architecture == Early Renaissance of the Tărnovo Artistic School – the world famous frescos in the Boyana Church from 1239 AD have been described by Andre Grabar and many scholars, as Early Renaissance or precursors of Renaissance Art well before this period started in Italy. The murals are work of the unknown Boyana Master and his disciples who are believed to have been representatives of the Tarnovo Artistic School of the Second Bulgarian Empire (1185–1396 AD). The frescos have been compared to the work of Giotto who is generally considered the first in a line of great artists who contributed to the Italian Renaissance. The Boyana Church has been declared by UNESCO a World Heritage Site. Architecture of the Tarnovo Artistic School – characteristic for the Second Bulgarian Empire, influenced the architecture in many countries of Southeast Europe and parts of Central Europe. == Medicine and pharmacology == Stamen Grigorov – discovered Lactobacillus bulgaricus, patented bacteria used for the production of yogurt


id: list-of-celebrity-inventors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_celebrity_inventors-0.md
category: reference
title: List of celebrity inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_celebrity_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:47.528733+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-celebrity-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of celebrity inventors and their patents. (For the purposes of this article, an inventor is a person who has been granted a patent.) After Google released a patent search online in December 2006, a website called Ironic Sans, made the public aware of a number of celebrity patents found through the new patent search engine. Additional lists of inventors can be found at List of inventors. See also Category:Inventors. == A == George Antheil, U.S. patent 2,292,387 — with co-inventor Hedy Lamarr, used a code (stored on punched paper tape) to synchronize random frequencies later known as frequency hopping spread spectrum radio for jam-proof remote control of torpedoes. This work led to their posthumous induction into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2014. == B == Marlon Brando, U.S. patent 6,812,392 — Drumhead tensioning device and method. An invention which makes it possible to tune a drum. Gary Burghoff, U.S. patent 5,235,774 — Enhanced fish attractor device. A way of luring fish up closer, to attract them, so they are easier to fish. == C == Harry Connick, Jr., U.S. patent 6,348,648 — System and method for coordinating music display among players in an


id: list-of-cornish-engineers-and-inventors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Cornish_engineers_and_inventors-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Cornish engineers and inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Cornish_engineers_and_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:48.759095+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cornish-engineers-and-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of engineers and inventors from Cornwall, England, United Kingdom. John Arnold, watchmaker and pioneer of the marine chronometer William Bickford, inventor of the safety fuse Joseph Henry Collins, mining engineer, mineralogist and geologist Sir John Coode, civil engineer William Cookworthy, discoverer of china clay (kaolinite) in Cornwall Sir Humphry Davy, scientist, inventor and President of the Royal Society Sir Goldsworthy Gurney, inventor of limelight Jonathan Hornblower, inventor of the compound engine and the steam valve William Husband, civil and mechanical engineer Thomas Brown Jordan, engineer Michael Loam, inventor of the man engine Sir Thomas Matthews, civil engineer and builder of lighthouses William Murdoch, engineer, inventor and sometime Cornish resident Andrew Pears, inventor of transparent soap William Westcott Rundell, inventor and engineer from Falmouth Adrian Stephens, inventor of the steam whistle Richard Tangye, engineer John Taylor, inventor of the Cornish rolls Joseph Thomas, architect and civil engineer Joseph Treffry, engineer and industrialist Henry Trengrouse, inventor of a rocket-powered maritime rescue system Richard Trevithick, inventor, engineer and builder of the first steam locomotive Robert Trewhella (1830-1909; it:Robert Trewhella), railway engineer and contractor Andrew Vivian, Trevithick's cousin and collaborator, and captain of Dolcoath Mine Arthur Woolf, inventor of the


id: list-of-cornish-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Cornish_scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Cornish scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Cornish_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:50.006173+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cornish-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of scientists from Cornwall, a county of England, in the United Kingdom. == Biologists == Henry Charlton Bastian, physiologist and neurologist Lieutenant-Colonel Frederick Nicholson Betts, Indian Army officer and ornithologist George Carter Bignell, entomologist William Borlase, naturalist, geologist and antiquary, Rector of Ludgvan William Clift, naturalist and Fellow of the Royal Society Jonathan Couch, naturalist and physician Richard Quiller Couch, naturalist Frederick Hamilton Davey, botanist Jean Golding, epidemiologist Henry Brougham Guppy, naturalist and botanist Charles Alexander Johns, botanist and clergyman Oscar Kempthorne, statistician and geneticist William Lobb, plant collector John Keast Lord, veterinarian and naturalist Richard Lower, blood transfusion pioneer John Mayow, physiologist William Noye of Paul, entomologist Francis Polkinghorne Pascoe, entomologist John Ralfs, botanist Edward Hearle Rodd, ornithologist John Coulson Tregarthen, naturalist Ethelwynn Trewavas, ichthyologist Sir Richard Vyvyan, Bart, MP for Cornwall and scientist William Wagstaff, ornithologist and naturalist Elizabeth Andrew Warren, botanist == Earth scientists == William Borlase, naturalist, geologist and antiquary, Rector of Ludgvan Edward Budge, geologist and clergyman Elizabeth Carne, geologist and philanthropist Joseph Carne, geologist, industrialist and Fellow of the Royal Society Richard Edmonds, geologist and antiquary Robert Were Fox, geologist William Gregor, discoverer of titanium and clergyman John Hawkins, geologist,


id: list-of-croatian-inventors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Croatian_inventors-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Croatian inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Croatian_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:51.323213+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-croatian-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of Croatian inventors. == B == Zlata Bartl Josip Belušić Ruđer Bošković == D == Ivan Đikić Igor Dvornik == F == Vilim Srećko Feller == G == Marin Getaldić == H == Franjo Hanaman == J == Aleksandar Just == K == Franjo Kajfež Marcel pl. Kiepach Ivo Kolin Benedikt Kotruljević Ferdinand Kovačević == L == Antun Lučić Ivan Lupis-Vukić == M == Ante Maglica Peter Miscovich Andrija Mohorovičić == P == Slavoljub Penkala Herman Potočnik Vladimir Prelog Mario Puratić == R == Mate Rimac Lavoslav Ružička == S == David Schwarz Pavao Skalić Marin Soljačić == U == Tomislav Uzelac == V == Faust Vrančić Ivan Vučetić == External links == Hrvati koji su mijenjali svijet ima ih više nego slutite, Politika plus


id: list-of-english-inventors-and-designers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_English_inventors_and_designers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of English inventors and designers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_English_inventors_and_designers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:52.532703+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-english-inventors-and-designers-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of English inventors and designers. == A == Roma Agrawal, structural engineer who contributed to the design of The Shard building in London Sir Richard Arkwright (1732–1792) invented the spinning frame (also known as the water frame) Joseph Aspdin (1788–1855), Portland cement == B == Roger Bacon (1214–1292), magnifying glass Edward Barber (1969– ), London 2012 Olympic Torch Julia Barfield (1952– ), architect who contributed to the design of the London Eye and the i360 observation tower in Brighton, England Trevor Baylis (1937–2018), wind-up radio Tim Berners-Lee (1955– ), World Wide Web == C == Margaret Calvert (1936– ), graphic designer who designed many of the road signs used throughout the United Kingdom Edmund Cartwright (1743–1823) invented the power loom George Cayley (1773–1854), man-carrying glider, tension spoke wheels, hot air engine, continuous track "universal railway" vehicle propulsion system Imran Chaudhri (1973– ) invented the user interface and interactions of the iPhone, also worked on the Mac, iPod, iPad, Apple TV and Apple Watch John Clark (1785-1853) invented the first automated poetry generator, The Eureka, and patented a method to waterproof fabric for air beds and air cushions in 1813. Terence Conran (1931–2020), Design Museum founder Ilse


id: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of German inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:53.767080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of German inventors and discoverers. The following list comprises people from Germany or German-speaking Europe, and also people of predominantly German heritage, in alphabetical order of the surname. For the list containing items and ideas invented and/or discovered by Germans, see list of German inventions and discoveries. == A == Ernst Abbe: Invented the first refractometer, and many other devices. Donated his shares in the company Carl Zeiss to form Carl-Zeiss-Stiftung, still in existence today. Franz Carl Achard: Developed a process to produce sugar from sugar beet. Built the first factory for the process in 1802. Robert Adler: Invented a better television remote control. Konrad Adenauer: Invented soya sausage (1916; "Kölner Wurst") and, together with Jean and Josef Oebel, [coarse] wholemeal bread (1917; Kölner Brot). Georgius Agricola: Named "the father of mineralogy". Wilhelm Albert: Invented the wire rope 1834. Kurt Alder: Discovery of the Diels–Alder reaction, Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1950. Richard Altmann: Discovery of the Mitochondrion Alois Alzheimer: Psychiatrist who discovered Alzheimer's disease, a degeneration of the brain in old age. Momme Andresen (1857-1951): industrial research chemist who made inventions relating to photography Ottomar Anschütz: in 1883 he patented a camera with an internal roller


id: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-1.md
category: reference
title: List of German inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:53.767080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
Walter Baade: astronomer. With Fritz Zwicky, he identified supernovae as a new category of astronomical objects Karl Ernst von Baer: discovered mammal ovum. Ralph Baer: Inventor of the first home video game console. Adolf von Baeyer: Chemist. Synthesized indigo, discovered the phthalein dyes, and investigated polyacetylenes, oxonium salts, nitroso compounds (1869) and uric acid derivatives (1860 and onwards) including the discovery of barbituric acid (1864). Nobel laureate 1905. Otto Bayer: Chemist. Invented polyurethane. Albert Ballin: Father of modern cruise ship travel Heinrich Band: Developed a musical instrument and called it bandoneón in 1846. It is still used in most tango orchestras. Heinrich Barkhausen: Discovered what is now called the Barkhausen effect, to describe the phenomenon, which is caused by rapid changes of size of magnetic domains in 1919, and Barkhausen stability criterion. Oskar Barnack: The father of the first mass marketed 35mm camera and Leica. Heinrich Anton de Bary: Father of Phytopathology, the science of plant diseases and modern Mycology. Coined the word symbiosis in 1879. Karl Adolph von Basedow: Discovery and description of Graves-Basedow disease Andreas Friedrich Bauer: first functional steam-powered printing press with his colleague Friedrich Koenig Wilhelm Bauer: Inventor and engineer, who built several hand-powered submarines. Eugen


id: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-2.md
category: reference
title: List of German inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:53.767080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
== C == Georg Cantor: Mathematician, discoverer of the set theory (1870s), which has become a fundamental theory in mathematics. Ernst Boris Chain: biochemist, co-recipient of the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for his work on penicillin (together with Fleming). Carl von Clausewitz: The father of modern military theory. Rudolf Clausius: Mathematician and physicist known for the Second law of thermodynamics. Justus Claproth: Jurist and inventor of recyclable paper and deinking. Nicolaus Copernicus: Astronomer, formulated a heliocentric model of the universe which placed the Sun, rather than the Earth, at the centre. Manfred Curry: German American yachtsman, developed the cam cleat used on sailboats to easily and quickly secure a rope, discoverer of the pseudoscientific phenomenon of "geomagnetic lines" called the Curry Grid. == D == Gottlieb Daimler: Invented the first high-speed internal combustion petrol engine and the first four-wheel automobile, also the first internal combustion motorcycle, the Reitwagen. Adolf "Adi" Dassler: Sports shoes with and without spikes; founder of Adidas. Rudolf Dassler: First sport shoes with screw-in shoe spikes, 1949; founder of Puma. Hans Georg Dehmelt: Physicist. Co-developed the non-magnetic quadrupole mass filter which laid the foundation for what we now call an ion trap. Shared the Nobel


id: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-3.md
category: reference
title: List of German inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:53.767080+00:00
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parent: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit: Fahrenheit, temperature scale, Fahrenheit hydrometer Gerd Faltings: Mathematician known for his work in arithmetic algebraic geometry, Fields Medal in 1986 for proving the Mordell conjecture. Otto Feick: Wheel gymnastics in 1925. Wilhelm Emil Fein: Invented the electrically driven hand drill in 1895. Adolf Gaston Eugen Fick: Glass Contact lenses Richard Fiedler: Invented the modern flamethrower in 1901. Artur Fischer: Invented the (split) wallplug made of plastic in 1958. He invented flash light photography. Fischer held over 1100 patents and currently holds the records for most patents for any single human, even more than Thomas Alva Edison. Further inventions are (bone-)plugs for fixing bone fractures and one of Fischer's most recent inventions is a gadget that makes it possible to hold and cut the top off an egg of any size. Hermann Emil Fischer: German chemist and 1902 recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. He discovered the Fischer esterification. He developed the Fischer projection, a symbolic way of drawing asymmetric carbon atoms. He is known for study of sugars & purines. Franz Fischer and Hans Tropsch: Invented a process in 1925 to turn coal into synthesis gas, and still further into liquid hydrocarbons. The process is a


id: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-4.md
category: reference
title: List of German inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:53.767080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
Fritz Haber: German chemist and Nobel laureate who pioneered synthetic ammonia and chemical warfare. Theodor W. Hänsch: Physicist, developed laser-based precision spectroscopy further to determine optical frequency extremely accurately. Nobel laureate in 2005. Otto Hahn: German chemist and Nobel laureate who pioneered the fields of radioactivity and radiochemistry. Considered to be "the father of nuclear chemistry" and the "founder of the atomic age". Discovered many isotopes, Protactinium and nuclear fission. Samuel Hahnemann: Physician, best known for creating a system of alternative medicine called homeopathy. Harald zur Hausen: Virologist, discovered the role of papilloma viruses in the development of cervical cancer. His research made the development of a vaccine against papilloma possible, which will drastically reduce cervical cancer in future. Nobel laureate as of 2008. Werner Heisenberg: Theoretical physicist who made fundamental contributions to quantum mechanics. Discovered a particle's position and velocity cannot be known at the same time. Discovered atomic nuclei are made of protons and neutrons. Wolfgang Helfrich: Co-inventor of Twisted nematic field effect. Rudolf Hell: Inventor of an early printer and fax machine (Hellschreiber). Richard Hellmann: Hellmann's (Blue Ribbon) Mayonnaise, 1905. Hermann von Helmholtz: Discovered the principle of conservation of energy. Peter Henlein: Inventor of the portable watch.


id: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-5.md
category: reference
title: List of German inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:53.767080+00:00
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parent: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
Ferdinand Adolf Kehrer : Introduction of the transverse incision technique to minimize bleeding by modern Caesarean section Donald J. Kessler: Astrophysicist, known for developing the Kessler syndrome. Hermann Kemper: Invented the magnetic levitation train. Patent granted in 1934. Johannes Kepler: Discovered the laws of planetary motion. Wolfgang Ketterle: German-American physicist who developed an "atom laser", amongst other breakthroughs. Nobel laureate 2001. Erhard Kietz: Pioneer discoverer of video technology. Gustav Kirchhoff: Discovery of the principles upon which spectroscopy is founded. He contributed to the fundamental understanding of electrical circuits, spectroscopy, and the emission of black-body radiation by heated objects. He coined the term "black body" radiation in 1862, and two different sets of concepts (one in circuit theory, and one in spectroscopy) are named "Kirchhoff's laws" after him; there is also a Kirchhoff's Law in thermochemistry. The Bunsen–Kirchhoff Award for spectroscopy is named after him and his colleague, Robert Bunsen, who both invented the spectrometer in 1859. Martin Heinrich Klaproth: Discovered the element Uranium. Klaus von Klitzing: Physicist, known for discovery of the integer quantum Hall effect, 1985 Nobel Prize in Physics. Ludwig Knorr: Chemist, who together with Carl Paal, discovered the Paal-Knorr synthesis, and the Knorr quinoline synthesis and Knorr


id: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-6.md
category: reference
title: List of German inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:53.767080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
Maria Goeppert-Mayer: Maria Goeppert Mayer was a German-born American theoretical physicist, and Nobel laureate in Physics for proposing the nuclear shell model of the atomic nucleus. She was the second woman to win a Nobel Prize in physics, after Marie Curie Georg Hans Madelung: Academic and aeronautical engineer; a participant in the development of the Junkers F.13. Karl Marx: Political economist and philosopher, who defined the political/economical background of capitalism and discovered the mechanics of Marxism. J. Heinrich Matthaei: Together with Marshall Nirenberg, they show that a sequence of nucleotide can encode particular amino acid, laying the foundations for deciphering the genetic code. Wilhelm Maybach: Together with Gottlieb Daimler the first gasoline-powered motorcycle, power-engine boat and later, 1902, the Mercedes car model. Ottomar von Mayenburg: Inventor of "Chlorodont", the first commercial brand of toothpaste. Georg Meissner: Discovered Meissner's plexus. Lise Meitner: Nuclear physicist, who, together with Otto Frisch, provided a theoretical account of nuclear fission. Julius Lothar Meyer: With Mendeleev he developed the periodic classification of the elements in order of their atomic weight. Christian Erich Hermann von Meyer: He discovered the Triassic predator Teratosaurus, the earliest bird Archaeopteryx lithographica (1861), the pterosaur Rhamphorhynchus, and the prosauropod dinosaur Plateosaurus Gregor


id: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-7.md
category: reference
title: List of German inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:53.767080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
Wolfgang Paul: Physicist. Co-developed the non-magnetic quadrupole mass filter which laid the foundation for what we now call an ion trap. Shared the Nobel Prize in 1989. Hans von Pechmann: Chemist, renowned for his discovery of diazomethane in 1894. Pechmann condensation and Pechmann pyrazole synthesis. Rudolf Peierls: nuclear physicist. Julius Richard Petri: Bacteriologist who is generally credited with inventing the Petri dish while working as assistant to Robert Koch. Emil Pfeiffer: Discovery of Infectious mononucleosis Fritz Pfleumer: Inventor of magnetic tape for recording sound. He built the world's first practical tape recorder, called Magnetophon K1. Joseph Pilates: inventor of the physical fitness system named after him: Pilates Max Planck: Physicist, Scientist. He is considered to be the founder of the quantum theory, and one of the most important physicists of the twentieth century. Robert Wichard Pohl: In 1938, together with Rudolf Hilsch, built first functioning solid-state amplifier using salt as the semiconductor. Ludwig Prandtl: First to explain the boundary layer and its importance for drag and streamlining in aircraft in 1904. He established and headed the Aerodynamische Versuchsanstalt in Göttingen, now Max Planck Institute for Dynamics and Self-Organization. During his tenure the first wind tunnel in Germany was built here,


id: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-8.md
category: reference
title: List of German inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:53.767080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
Otto Schoetensack: Named the Homo heidelbergensis. Otto Schott: Inventor of borosilicate glass. Donated his shares in the company Carl Zeiss to form Carl-Zeiss-Stiftung, still in existence today. Walter H. Schottky: Played a major early role in developing the theory of electron and ion emission phenomena, invented the screen-grid vacuum tube and the pentode. Johannes Heinrich Schultz: developed the desensitization-relaxation technique called Autogenic training. Marx Schwab: Silversmith, invented coining with the screw press around 1550. Theodor Schwann: Discovery of properties of cells in animals. Karl Schwarzschild: astronomer, Schwarzschild metric, Deriving the Schwarzschild solution, Schwarzschild radius Alois Senefelder: He invented the printing technique of lithography in 1796. Friedrich Sertürner: First to isolate morphine from the opium poppy in 1803/1804, discovering morphine. Philipp Franz von Siebold: Physician and naturalist, detailed description and collection of the Japanese flora and fauna. Introduced Western medicine to Japan and opened a medical school. Ernst Werner von Siemens: Dynamo, pointer telegraph that used a needle to point to the right letter, first electric elevator, trolleybus. Max Skladanowsky: Bioscop, German inventor and early filmmaker. Friedrich Soennecken: Invented Hole punch and ring binder. Arnold Sommerfeld: Theoretical physicist who pioneered developments in atomic and quantum physics. Johannes Stark: Discovery of the


id: list-of-italian-inventors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Italian_inventors-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Italian inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Italian_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:55.010938+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-italian-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of Italian inventors: == A == Archimedes Giovanni Battista Amici == B == Flavio Baracchini Eugenio Barsanti Robert Ludvigovich Bartini Enrico Bernardi Gianni Bettini Alfonso Bialetti Lucio Bini Augusto Bissiri Claudio Bordignon Enea Bossi, Sr. Giovanni Branca Francesco Antonio Broccu Luigi Valentino Brugnatelli Tito Livio Burattini Carlo Felice Buzio == C == Temistocle Calzecchi-Onesti Tullio Campagnolo Secondo Campini Mario Capecchi Arturo Caprotti Gerolamo Cardano Antonio Benedetto Carpano Giovanni Caselli Ugo Cerletti Leonardo Chiariglione Alberto Ciaramella Giuseppe Cipriani Francesco Cirio Bartolomeo Cristofori Alessandro Cruto == D == Luigi Dadda Salvino D'Armate Corradino D'Ascanio Leonardo da Vinci Raimondo di Sangro Giuseppe Donati == F == Francesco Faà di Bruno Fabio Perini Gabriele Falloppio Federico Faggin Enrico Fermi Salvatore Ferragamo Galileo Ferraris Pietro Ferrero Carlo Forlanini Enrico Forlanini == G == Galileo Galilei Luigi Galvani Gasparo da Salò Giovanni Francesco Gemelli Careri Flavio Gioja Giuseppe di Giugno Guido of Arezzo == J == Candido Jacuzzi == K == Pedro Kanof == L == Ruggero Lenci Leonardo da Vinci Domingo Liotta Cesare Lombroso Vincenzo Lunardi Giovanni Luppis == M == Amatino Manucci Innocenzo Manzetti Guglielmo Marconi Felice Matteucci Antonio Meucci Guido Monaco Maria Montessori Angelo Moriondo == N == Giulio


id: list-of-inventors-killed-by-their-own-invention-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors_killed_by_their_own_invention-0.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors killed by their own invention
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors_killed_by_their_own_invention
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:56.184974+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-killed-by-their-own-invention-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of people whose deaths were in some manner caused by or directly related to a product, process, procedure, or other technological innovation that they invented or designed. == Ill-fated inventors == === Automotive === Sylvester H. Roper (1823–1896), inventor of the Roper steam velocipede, died of a heart attack or subsequent crash during a public speed trial in 1896. It is unknown whether the crash caused the heart attack, or the heart attack caused the crash. William Nelson (c. 1879–1903), a General Electric employee, invented a new way to motorize bicycles. He then fell off his prototype bike during a test run. Francis Edgar Stanley (1849–1918) was killed while driving a Stanley Steamer automobile. He drove his car into a woodpile while attempting to avoid farm wagons travelling side by side on the road. Fred Duesenberg (1876–1932) was killed in a high-speed road accident in a Duesenberg automobile. David Ogle (1921–1962) was killed in an auto accident when he lost control while driving the Ogle SX1000 he had designed. === Aviation === Ismail ibn Hammad al-Jawhari (died c. 1003–1010), a Kazakh Turkic scholar from Farab, attempted to fly using two wooden wings and a rope. He


id: list-of-inventors-killed-by-their-own-invention-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors_killed_by_their_own_invention-1.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors killed by their own invention
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors_killed_by_their_own_invention
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:56.184974+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-killed-by-their-own-invention-20260505-0
summary:
Henry Winstanley (1644–1703) designed and built the world's first offshore lighthouse on the Eddystone Rocks in Devon, England between 1696 and 1698. Boasting of the safety of his invention, he expressed a desire to shelter inside it "during the greatest storm there ever was". During the Great Storm of 1703, the lighthouse was completely destroyed with Winstanley and five other men inside. No trace of them was found. John Day (c. 1740–1774) was an English carpenter and wheelwright who died during a test of his experimental diving chamber. Horace Lawson Hunley (1823–1863) was a Confederate American marine engineer who built the H. L. Hunley submarine and perished inside it as a member of the second crew to face drownings while testing the experimental vessel. After Hunley's death, the Confederates resurfaced the ship for another mission that proved fatal for its own crew: the successful sinking of the USS Housatonic during the American Civil War. The feat made the H. L. Hunley the first submarine to sink an enemy warship in wartime. Karl Flach (1821–1866) was a German living in Valparaiso, Chile. He built the submarine Flach (brother of the Peruvian "Toro", sunk, refloated by the Chilean Navy and then disappeared,


id: list-of-inventors-killed-by-their-own-invention-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors_killed_by_their_own_invention-2.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors killed by their own invention
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors_killed_by_their_own_invention
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:56.184974+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-killed-by-their-own-invention-20260505-0
summary:
== Popular legends and related stories == In Greek mythology, Daedalus built wings made of feathers and blankets to escape the labyrinth of Crete with his son Icarus, who died while ignoring his father's instructions not to "fly too close to the sun". Perillos of Athens (c. 550 BCE), according to legend, was the first to be roasted in the brazen bull he made for Phalaris of Sicily for executing criminals. Li Si (208 BCE), Prime Minister during the Qin dynasty, was executed by the Five Pains method which some sources claim he had devised. However, the history of the Five Pains is traced further back in time than Li Si. Wan Hu, a possibly apocryphal 16th-century Chinese official, is said to have attempted to launch himself into outer space in a chair to which 47 rockets were attached. The rockets exploded, and it is said that neither he nor the chair were ever seen again. João Torto, a most likely apocryphal 16th-century Portuguese man who jumped from the top of Viseu Cathedral wearing a biplane-like flying rig and an eagle-shaped helmet. Orban, the designer and manufacturer of the Basilic, a gigantic cannon used to break down the walls of


id: list-of-national-inventors-hall-of-fame-inductees-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_National_Inventors_Hall_of_Fame_inductees-0.md
category: reference
title: List of National Inventors Hall of Fame inductees
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_National_Inventors_Hall_of_Fame_inductees
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:58.685506+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-national-inventors-hall-of-fame-inductees-20260505-0
summary:
The National Inventors Hall of Fame (NIHF) is an American not-for-profit organization, founded in 1973, which recognizes individual engineers and inventors who hold a U.S. patent of significant technology. The inventor list constitutes historic persons from the past three centuries in addition to living inductees. Nominees must hold a U.S. patent of significant contribution to public welfare, and which advances science and the useful arts. John Fitch (anno 1743) was the earliest born inventor inducted into the NIHF. == Inductees == == References == == External links == The official website of the National Inventors Hall of Fame


id: list-of-new-zealand-inventors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_New_Zealand_inventors-0.md
category: reference
title: List of New Zealand inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_New_Zealand_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:59.899853+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-new-zealand-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of New Zealand inventors and inventions. Godfrey Bowen – developer of an improved sheep-shearing technique John Britten – designer of the Britten motorcycle Thomas Brydone and William Soltau Davidson – refrigerated shipping pioneers Morton Coutts – invented the continuous fermentation method of brewing Bill Gallagher – developer of the electric fence and founder of Gallagher Group Limited Ernest Godward – improved eggbeater A. J. Hackett – popularised of commercial Bungy jumping Bill Hamilton – developed the modern jetboat Frederick Hanson – inventor of chipseal, known in New Zealand as tar seal Peter Lynn – leading kitemaker, aeronautical theoretician and inventor of the tipping blade portable sawmill Colin Murdoch – inventor of the disposable syringe and the tranquilliser gun Richard Pearse – aviation pioneer Bill Pickering – rocketry and space pioneer, former NASA Jet Propulsion Lab director Alan Prichard – pioneer of aerial topdressing Bill Robinson – inventor of the lead rubber bearing used for seismic base isolation in earthquake engineering == References ==


id: list-of-polish-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Polish_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Polish inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Polish_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:01.301700+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-polish-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of Polish inventors and discoverers. The following incomplete list comprises people from Poland and of Polish origin, and also people of predominantly Polish heritage, in alphabetical order of surname. == A == Bruno Abakanowicz: invented integrapf, a mechanical analog computing device for plotting the integral of a graphically defined function. Osman Achmatowicz Jr.: specialist in the field of organic chemistry. Inventor of the Achmatowicz reaction. Karol Adamiecki: management theorist. Together with Frederick Winslow Taylor and Henry Fayola the creator of organisation and management science. In 1925 Adamiecki founded the Polish Institute of Scientific Management. Albert Wojciech Adamkiewicz: pathologist. His research of the variable vascularity of the spinal cord was an important contribution to the development of modern clinical vascular surgery. He is known for Artery of Adamkiewicz and Adamkiewicz reaction. Henryk Arctowski: scientist and explorer. Living in exile for a large part of his life, he was one of the first persons to reach Antarctica during winter and became an internationally renowned meteorologist. == B == Joseph Babinski: neurologist, discoverer of the Babinski reflex. Stefan Banach: considered one of the world's most important and influential 20th-century mathematicians, creator of Banach space. He was one of the


id: list-of-polish-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Polish_inventors_and_discoverers-1.md
category: reference
title: List of Polish inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Polish_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:01.301700+00:00
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parent: list-of-polish-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
== H == Józef Hofmann: musician, invented Paper clips. Johannes Hevelius: astronomer who gained a reputation as "the founder of lunar topography", and described ten new constellations, seven of which are still used by astronomers. == J == Stefania Jabłońska: physician; in 1972 Jabłońska proposed the association of the human papilloma viruses with skin cancer in epidermodysplasia verruciformis; in 1978 Jabłońska and Gerard Orth discovered HPV-5 in skin cancer; Jabłońska was awarded the 1985 Robert Koch Prize. Wojciech Jastrzębowski: scientist, naturalist and inventor, one of the fathers of ergonomics. Walery Jaworski: one of the pioneers of gastroenterology in Poland who made one of the first observations of Helicobacter pylori and published those findings in 1899 in a book titled Podręcznik chorób żołądka (Handbook of Gastric Diseases). == K == Jacek Karpiński: pioneer in computer engineering and computer science. He became a developer of one of the first machine learning algorithms, techniques for character and image recognition. In 1971, he designed one of the first minicomputers, the K-202. Adam Adamandy Kochański: mathematician, physicist, clockmaker, who found an approximation of π today called the Kochański's Approximation. He also suggested replacing the clock's pendulum with a spring, constructed a clock with a magnetic


id: list-of-polish-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Polish_inventors_and_discoverers-2.md
category: reference
title: List of Polish inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Polish_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:01.301700+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-polish-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
== R == Tadeusz Reichstein: Polish-Swiss chemist and the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine laureate (1950), who was awarded for his work on the isolation of cortisone. Zbigniew Religa: a pioneer in human heart transplantation in Poland, he led the team that performed the first successful heart transplantation in the country, and in June 1995 he was the first surgeon to graft an artificial valve created from materials taken from human corpses. Marian Rejewski: mathematician and cryptologist who reconstructed the sight-unseen German military Enigma cipher machine. Jerzy Rudlicki: aerospace engineer and pilot. He is best known for his inventing and patenting of the V-tail in 1930, which is an aircraft tail configuration that combines the rudder and elevators into one system. Ludwik Rydygier: surgeon, who performed the first in Poland and second in the world successful surgical removal of the pylorus in a patient suffering from stomach cancer, and the first peptic ulcer resection in the world. == S == Andrew Schally: endocrinologist and Nobel Prize laureate (1977) whose research contributed to the discovery that the hypothalamus controls hormone production and release by the pituitary gland, which controls the regulation of other hormones in the body. Michael Sendivogius: pioneer


id: list-of-prolific-inventors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_prolific_inventors-0.md
category: reference
title: List of prolific inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_prolific_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:02.576128+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-prolific-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
The 100 known most prolific inventors based on worldwide utility patents are shown in the following table. While in many cases this is the number of utility patents granted by the United States Patent and Trademark Office, it may include utility patents granted by other countries, as noted by the source references for an inventor. == Prolific Inventors == This table is usually updated every Tuesday, and is current as of April 28, 2026. The columns are defined as follows: Inventor: The name of the inventor. Pats: The number of utility patents that have been issued. Only utility patents (or the international equivalent) are listed, as a utility patent is a patent for an invention. Not all patents are for inventions. Other patent types include: design patents for the ornamental design of an object; plant patents for plant varieties; and reissue patents, where a correction is made to an already granted patent. This list does not include patent applications (patents pending) as there is no guarantee that a patent application actually describes a novel invention until the patent is granted. Fams: The number of patent families, which in USPTO data includes an original or continuation-in-part patent by itself or with


id: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:03.955699+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
Before Christopher Columbus and the Spanish Conquistadors landed on the island of "Borikén" (Puerto Rico), the Taínos who inhabit the island depended on their astronomical observations for the cultivation of their crops. In 1581, Juan Ponce de León II, the grandson of the Conquistador Juan Ponce de León, studied an eclipse and its effects on the island and was able to establish the exact geographical coordinates of San Juan with his observations. During the 19th century the economies of many countries in the world suffered from the spread of crop failures. Puerto Rico, whose economy depended heavily on its agriculture, felt the effects of some of the crop diseases. Scientists such as Agustín Stahl, Fermín Tangüis and Fernando López Tuero conducted investigations and experiments in the fields of agriculture, botany, ethnology and zoology. The findings of their investigations helped Puerto Rico's agricultural industry. With the advances in medical technologies and the coming of the Space Age of the 20th century, Puerto Ricans have expanded their horizons and have made many contributions in various scientific fields, among them the fields of aerospace and medicine. There are many Puerto Rican scientists involved in the American space program at the National Aeronautics and


id: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-1.md
category: reference
title: List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:03.955699+00:00
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parent: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
Olga D. González-Sanabria is a scientist and inventor. She is the highest ranking Hispanic at NASA Glenn Research Center, and a member of the Ohio Women's Hall of Fame. As Director of the Engineering and Technical Services, she is responsible for planning and directing a full range of integrated services including engineering, fabrication, testing, facility management and aircraft services for the Glenn Research Center. She played an instrumental role in the development of the "Long Cycle-Life Nickel-Hydrogen Battery" that helps enable the International Space Station power system. Among the technical reports that she has authored and or co-authored are:1. Effect of NASA advanced designs on thermal behavior of Ni-H2 cells (1987)2. Component variations and their effects on bipolar nickel-hydrogen cell performance (1987)3. NASA Aerospace Flight Battery Systems Program – Issues and actions (1988)4. Effect of NASA advanced designs on thermal behavior of Ni-H2 cells 2 (1988)5. Energy storage considerations for a robotic Mars surface sampler (1989) Amri Hernández-Pellerano is an electronics engineer and scientist who designs, builds and tests the electronics that will regulate the solar array power in order to charge the spacecraft battery and distribute power to the different loads or users inside various spacecraft at NASA's Goddard


id: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-2.md
category: reference
title: List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:03.955699+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
Fermín Tangüis (1851–1930) was a Puerto Rican businessman, agriculturist and scientist who in 1901 developed the seed that would eventually produce the Tanguis cotton in Peru when that nation's cotton industry suffered because of a fungus plague caused by a plant disease known some places as "cotton wilt" and in others as "Fusarium wilt" (Fusarium vasinfectum) saving that nation's cotton industry. Tangüis began to study some species of the plant that were affected by the disease to a lesser extent and experimented in germination with the seeds of various cotton plants. In 1911, after 10 years of experimenting and failures, Tangüis was able to develop a seed that produced a superior cotton plant resistant to the disease. The seeds produced a plant that had a 40% longer (between 29 mm and 33 mm) and thicker fiber that did not break easily and required little water. The cotton grown in Peru (Egyptian cotton) before the fungus plague grew only once a year; the Tangüis cotton grows six times a year. This type of fiber showed a better resistance and performance than other fibers. Tangüis cotton grows in Canete's valley (south of Lima) and in the Central Coast of Peru. The success


id: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-3.md
category: reference
title: List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:03.955699+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
Enectalí Figueroa-Feliciano is a mechanical engineer, Astronaut applicant and an Associate Professor of Physics at Northwestern University and the author of various papers including "Position-sensitive low-temperature detectors". Figueroa's research interests revolve around the development of high-energy-resolution imaging spectrometers for space-borne applications in experimental astrophysics and cosmology. Figueroa pioneered the development of position-sensitive detectors that will provide an order of magnitude more pixels (and thus larger field of view) than traditional single-pixel X-ray microcalorimeters." He is an expert and researcher on dark matter. and a researcher with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and a professor of physics Northwestern University. Adolfo Figueroa-Viñas is the first Puerto Rican astrophysicist at NASA working in solar plasma physics. As a senior research scientist, he is involved in many NASA missions, such as Wind, SOHO, Cluster and MMS projects, in which he is the author and co-author of numerous scientific papers in his field. Figueroa-Viñas has served as Guest Co-Investigator of the International Sun Earth Explorer (ISEE-1) mission and the Voyagers program. He is currently a Co-Investigator in the WIND/SWE experiment of the International Solar Terrestrial Program (ISTP) and the Space Physics Theory Program grant entitled The Role of Turbulence in Heliospheric Plasmas. Viñas


id: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-4.md
category: reference
title: List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:03.955699+00:00
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parent: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
== Marine biology == Pablo Clemente-Colon is the first Puerto Rican to serve as Chief Scientist of the National Ice Center (NIC), headquartered in Alexandria Virginia, a position he has held since 2005. As such, he serves the three entities that operate the NIC, the United States Navy, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the United States Coast Guard. Carlos Del Castillo was the Program Scientist for the Ocean Biology and Biogeochemistry Program at NASA Headquarters, in Washington, D.C. Del Castillo is the recipient of the Presidential Early Career Award for Scientists and Engineers (PECASE) award, the highest honor bestowed by the United States government on scientists and engineers beginning their independent careers. He began working in the Mississippi River plume and in the application of remote sensors to study coastal environments. He co-edited with Richard Miller and Brent McKee, Remote Sensing of the Coastal Environment, a book that provides extensive insight on remote sensing of coastal waters from aircraft and space-based platforms Antonio A. Mignucci-Giannoni is a biological oceanographer specializing in the biology, management and conservation of marine mammals. He is the founder of the international conservation organization Red Caribeña de Varamientos (Caribbean Stranding Network) dedicated to


id: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-5.md
category: reference
title: List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:03.955699+00:00
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parent: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
Isaac González Martínez (1871–1954) was one of the first urologist in Puerto Rico and pioneer in the fight against cancer in the island. González Martínez conducted many investigations and experiments in parasitology, bilharzia, leprosy and typhoid fever. González Martínez and Bailey K. Ashford formed the first commission in Puerto Rico to study the causes of anemia. In 1914, he was named director of the biological laboratory of the sanitation service of Puerto Rico. In 1935, González Martínez founded The Puerto Rican League against Cancer. He also promoted the construction of Puerto Rico's first hospital specializing in oncology. Organ transplantation Iván González Cancel is a cardiovascular and thoracic surgeon who is credited with the realization of the first heart transplant in Puerto Rico. He participated in his first heart transplant at the University of Pittsburgh. González Cancel returned to Puerto Rico in 1993 and was named Director of the Department of Surgery of the Cardiovascular Center of Puerto Rico and the Caribbean (Centro Cardiovascular de Puerto Rico y el Caribe). González Cancel implemented a cardiovascular program in the institution and on June 27, 1999, with the help of Hector Banchs Pieretti performed the first heart transplant in Puerto Rico. Diego R.


id: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-6.md
category: reference
title: List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:03.955699+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
José F. Cordero is a pediatrician, epidemiologist, teratologist and Dean of the Graduate School of Public Health at the University of Puerto Rico. Cordero was an Assistant Surgeon General of the United States Public Health Service and the Founding Director of the National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities (NCBDDD) at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in Atlanta, Georgia. In 1994, Cordero was appointed deputy director of the National Immunization Program, where he made important and long-lasting contributions in many areas of one of the nation's most successful public health programs. In 2001, he was named the first director of the NCBDDD that was created by the Children's Health Act of 2000. In a few years, NCBDDD became a leading international institution devoted to research and prevention of birth defects and developmental disabilities and health promotion of people of ages living with disabilities. Cordero, whose work has been published in many national and international journals, has promoted the eradication of rubella (German measles), a major cause of birth defects that can be prevented through vaccination. He has also promoted research to determine the causes of birth defects and developmental disabilities, and has promoted efforts to prevent


id: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-7.md
category: reference
title: List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:03.955699+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
== Psychology == Carlos Albizu Miranda (1920–1984) was one of the first Hispanics to earn a PhD in Psychology in the United States and the first Hispanic educator to have a North American University renamed in his honor. Albizu Miranda, cousin of the Puerto Rican Nationalist leader Pedro Albizu Campos, was born in Ponce. In 1953, he earned his doctorate degree (PhD) in Clinical Psychology from Purdue University, located in West Lafayette, Indiana, becoming one of the first Hispanics to earn a PhD in Psychology in the United States. He was concerned that the universities in Puerto Rico did not offer graduate programs in psychology and that the few students who pursued a career as psychologist had to study outside of Puerto Rico, where they were trained with models and techniques that were not always sensitive to the needs and sociocultural characteristics of Hispanic clients. In 1966, he established in San Juan, Puerto Rico, the first independent professional school of psychology in North America, initially known as the "Instituto Psicológico de Puerto Rico" (Puerto Rican Institute of Psychology), which is modeled after the institutes of psychology in Europe where the practice and internship are done at the same time. The


id: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-8.md
category: reference
title: List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:03.955699+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
== Inventors == Puerto Rican inventors earned an average of sixteen patents per year in the late 1970s, twenty patents per year in the 1980s, and twenty-seven patents per year in the 199s. The total number of patents issued by the U.S. Patent Office has seen similar increases. === Aerospace === Olga D. González-Sanabria contributed to the development of the "Long Cycle-Life Nickel-Hydrogen Battery" that helps enable the International Space Station power system; Mercedes Reaves contributed to the design of a viable full-scale solar sail and the development and testing of a scale model solar sail; Pedro Rodriguez invented a portable, battery-operated lift seat for people suffering from knee arthritis; Felix Soto Toro developed the Advanced Payload Transfer Measurement System (ASPTMS) (Electronic 3D measuring system) and Juan R. Cruz contributed in the development of entry, descent, and landing (EDL) systems for robotic and human exploration missions. === Art === Ileana Sánchez invented a book for the blind that brings together art and braille. Ms. Sanchez used a new technique called TechnoPrint and TechnoBraille. Rather than punch through heavy paper to create the raised dots of the Braille alphabet for the blind, these techniques apply an epoxy to the page to


id: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-9.md
category: reference
title: List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:03.955699+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
Jorge Negrón Crespo of San Juan, Puerto Rico, has invented a hydroelectric wave-energy conversion system. According to the U.S. Patent & Trademark Office: "A method and system to capture kinetic energy of the sea waves and convert it to electrical power is presented. The hydrodynamic power of the waves is converted to mechanical power after impacting and moving a special panel. The mechanical power is converted into a controlled-cycle hydraulic power to activate a hydraulic motor, which in turn activates an electrical generator." Semiconductors David O. Ramos of Isabela, and Martin Bresciani of Guaynabo, developed a semiconductor substrate that includes electronic circuitry and has a machined feature formed therein. According to the U.S. Patent & Trademark Office: "A semiconductor substrate is formed by a process which includes providing the semiconductor substrate having the electronic circuitry formed therein, and performing a machining process on the substrate to form the machined feature therein." === Medical technology === Jorge N. Amely Vélez (born 1955) – a native of San German, is an inventor who holds various patents in the field of medical technology. In 1989, Amely Vélez earned his master's degree in electrical engineering from California State University at Northridge. Among Amely Vélez's


id: list-of-romanian-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Romanian_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Romanian inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Romanian_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:05.206884+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-romanian-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of Romanian Inventions and Discoveries of Romanian people or inventors/discoverers of Romanian heritage in alphabetical order. == A == Ion I. Agârbiceanu: designer of the first gas laser in Romania. Andrei Alexandrescu: pioneering work on policy-based design implemented via template metaprogramming; co-inventor of D programming language. Ana Aslan: inventor of Gerovital, an anti-aging product widely used by famous personalities, such as Charles de Gaulle, John F. Kennedy, Indira Gandhi, Charlie Chaplin and Salvador Dalí. Gheorghe Atanasiu: inventor of infrared monochromator and creator of the method of optical determination of heat of dissociation. Ion Atanasiu: known as the originator of cerimetry, an analytical method based on cerium (IV) as titration reagent. == B == Aurel Babeș: discovered the vaginal smear as screening test for cervical cancer. Victor Babeș: he discovered a parasitic sporozoan of the ticks, named Babesia (of the genus Babesiidae), and which causes a rare and severe disease called babesiosis; he also discovered cellular inclusions in rabies-infected nerve cells. Emanoil Bacaloglu: he is known for the "Bacaloglu pseudosphere". This is a surface of revolution for which the "Bacaloglu curvature" is constant. Radu Bălescu: he worked on the statistical physics of charged particles (Bălescu-Lenard collision operator).


id: list-of-romanian-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Romanian_inventors_and_discoverers-1.md
category: reference
title: List of Romanian inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Romanian_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:05.206884+00:00
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parent: list-of-romanian-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
George Emil Palade: discoverer of the ribosomes. Nicolae Paulescu: physiologist, research on endocrine pancreas secretion. Gheorghe Paun: prominent for work on membrane computing and the P system. Eugen Pavel: inventor of the Hyper CD-ROM, a 3D optical data storage medium with a claimed initial capacity of 10 TB and with a theoretical capacity of 1 PB on a single disc. Aurel Perșu: built the first car to have wheels inside its aerodynamic line. Ion N. Petrovici: he described the Alternating Asphygmo-Pyramidal Syndrome in occlusions of the carotid arteries. Petrache Poenaru: invented the world's first fountain pen. Ioan Pușcaș: professor proposed the use of carbonic anhydrase (CA) inhibitor acetazolamide to heal peptic ulcers. In 1972 patented the first 100% efficient drug against gastroduodenal ulcer Ulcosilvanil. Dimitrie Pompeiu: His contributions were mainly in the field of mathematical analysis, complex functions theory, and rational mechanics. In an article published in 1929, he posed a challenging conjecture in integral geometry, now widely known as the Pompeiu problem. Nicolae Popescu: known for his contributions to Algebra and the theory of abelian categories with applications to rings and modules. Vasile M. Popov: He is well known for having developed a method to analyze stability of nonlinear


id: list-of-russian-inventors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Russian_inventors-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Russian inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Russian_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:06.604047+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-russian-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of inventors from the Russian Federation, Soviet Union, Russian Empire, Tsardom of Russia and Grand Duchy of Moscow, including both ethnic Russians and people of other ethnicities. This list also includes those who were born in Russia or its predecessor states but later emigrated, and those who were born elsewhere but immigrated to the country or worked there for a considerable time, (producing inventions on Russian soil). For Russian inventions in chronological order, see the Timeline of Russian inventions and technology records. == Alphabetical list == === A === === B === === C === === D === === E === === F === === G === === H === === I === === J === === K === === L === === M === === N === === O === === P === === R === === S === === T === === U === === V === === W === === Y === === Z === == See also == List of Russian scientists Russian culture Timeline of Russian inventions and technology records == References ==


id: list-of-serbian-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Serbian_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Serbian inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Serbian_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:07.830912+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-serbian-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
This is a List of Serbian inventors and discoverers, working locally or overseas. The list comprises people from Serbia and ethnic Serb people. == Science, Mathematics and Technology == Voja Antonić: Galaksija home computer (1983). Mihajlo Pupin: Loading coil Mihajlo Pupin Institute: HRS-100 CER Computers ATLAS-TIM AT 32 Nikola Tesla: Induction motor Radio-controlled model Wireless power transfer Plasma globe Capacitor discharge ignition Magnifying transmitter Teleforce Telegeodynamics Teleoperation Tesla coil Tesla turbine Tesla's oscillator Tesla valve Wardenclyffe tower World Wireless System Violet ray Vacuum variable capacitor Pioneer in alternating current research Slobodan Ćuk: Ćuk converter Iván Gutman: Graph energy Matching polynomial Jovan Karamata: Karamata's inequality Slowly varying function Improved the Hardy–Littlewood tauberian theorem Đuro Kurepa: Kurepa tree Bogdan Maglich: Migma Milutin Milanković: Milankovitch cycles Revised Julian calendar (second most accurate calendar ever written) Calculated temperatures of the upper layers of the earths atmosphere as well as temperature conditions of planets on the inner solar system as well as depth of the atmosphere of the outer planets. Tihomir Novakov: Father of black carbon Aethalometer Vlatko Vedral: Quantum discord Vladimir Vukićević: webGL APNG Jovan Cvijić: Study of Karst Father of karst geomorphology Petar Gburčik: Author of first mathematical models of the numerical weather


id: list-of-spanish-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Spanish_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Spanish inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Spanish_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:09.131879+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-spanish-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of inventors and discoverers who are of Spanish origin or otherwise reside in continental Spain or one of the country's oversees territories. == A == José de Acosta (1540–1600), one of the first naturalists and anthropologists of the Americas. Andrés Alcázar (1490-1585), neurosurgeon and anatomist, designed new tools for surgical treatments. José María Algué (1856–1930), meteorologist, inventor of the barocyclometer, the nephoscope, and the microseismograph. José Antonio de Artigas Sanz (1887–1977), created luminescence with noble gases. Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont (1553–1613), registered a design for a steam-powered water pump for use in mines. José Luis Ayuso Fernández (1897-1992), inventor, engineer, mechanic, electrician and cinematographic projectionist. He was a pioneer in sound film industry, inventing one of the first systems to synchronize sound and video in films. == B == Ignacio Barraquer (1884–1965), leading ophthalmologist, pioneer of cataract surgery. José Ignacio Barraquer (1916–1998), leading ophthalmologist, father of modern refractive surgery, he invented the microkeratome and the cryolathe, developed the surgical procedures of keratomileusis and keratophakia. Juan Pablo de Bonet (1573-1633), pioneer of education for the deaf, he published Reducción de las letras y arte para enseñar a hablar a los mudos ("Summary of the letters and


id: list-of-spanish-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Spanish_inventors_and_discoverers-1.md
category: reference
title: List of Spanish inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Spanish_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:09.131879+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-spanish-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
== O == Severo Ochoa (1905–1993), doctor and biochemist, achieved the synthesis of ribonucleic acid (RNA), Nobel prize Laureate (1959). Federico Olóriz Aguilera, (1855-1912), doctor, created the primary fingerprint classification system used in Portugal and Spain prior to the use of computer filing systems. Mateu Orfila (1787–1853), doctor and chemist, father of modern toxicology, leading figure in forensic toxicology. Joan Oró (1923–2004), biochemist, carried out important research about the origin of life, he worked with NASA on the Viking missions. == P == Julio Palacios Martínez (1891–1970), physicist and mathematician. Isaac Peral (1851–1895), engineer and sailor, designer of the first fully operative military submarine, with electric propulsion making full propulsion feasible. Juan Tomás Porcell (1528-1580), doctor and anatomist, carried decisive research on the Black Death and wrote influential treaties of epidemiology. == R == Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1852–1934), father of Neuroscience, Nobel prize Laureate (1906). Julio Rey Pastor (1888–1962), mathematician, focusing on geometry. Wifredo Ricart (1897–1974), engineer, designer and executive manager in the automotive industry. Andrés Manuel del Río (1764–1849), geologist and chemist, discovered vanadium (as vanadinite) in 1801. Pío del Río Hortega (1882–1945), neuroscientist, discoverer of the microglia or Hortega cell. Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente (1928–1980), naturalist,


id: list-of-swedish-inventors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Swedish_inventors-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Swedish inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Swedish_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:10.393424+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-swedish-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
Swedish inventors are Swedish people who invented novel ideas, machines or tools. In the 18th century, Sweden's Scientific Revolution took off. Previously, technical progress had mainly come from professionals who had emigrated from mainland Europe. In 1739, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences was founded, with people such as Carl Linnaeus and Anders Celsius as early members. Sweden had a total of 49,974 patents as of 2015 according to the United States Patent and Trademark Office, and only ten other countries had more patents than Sweden. The traditional engineering industry is still a major source of Swedish inventions, but pharmaceuticals, electronics and other high-tech industries are gaining ground. A large portion of the Swedish economy is to this day based on the export of technical inventions, and many large multinational corporations from Sweden have their origins in the ingenuity of Swedish inventors. == 17th century == Christopher Polhem (1661–1751) was a Swedish scientist, inventor and industrialist. He made significant contributions to the economic and industrial development of Sweden, particularly mining. He reinvented the Cardan joint under the name of "Polhem knot" (Polhemknut) independently of Gerolamo Cardano, an Italian mathematician who invented the knot in 1545. His greatest achievement was an


id: list-of-swedish-inventors-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Swedish_inventors-1.md
category: reference
title: List of Swedish inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Swedish_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:10.393424+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-swedish-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
Jonas Offrell (1803–1863) was a Swedish priest who developed a revolver at the same time and independently of Samuel Colt. Martin Wiberg (1826–1905) is known as a computer pioneer for his 1875 invention of a machine the size of a sewing machine that could print logarithmic tables. Apart from this invention, Wiberg invented numerous other devices and gadgets, among these a cream separator and a pulse jet engine. Alfred Nobel (1833–1896) invented dynamite and instituted the Nobel Prizes. Helge Palmcrantz (1842–1880), Swedish inventor and industrialist. In 1873 Palmcrantz patented the multi-barrel, lever-actuated, machine gun that later would be known as the Nordenfelt machine gun. Willgodt Theophil Odhner (1845–1905) was a Swedish mechanic and inventor of the Odhner arithmometer, a mechanical calculator. Lars Magnus Ericsson (1846–1926) started the company bearing his name, Ericsson, still one of the largest telecom companies in the world. Jonas Wenström was an early pioneer in alternating current and is, along with Nikola Tesla, credited as one of the inventors of the three-phase electrical system. Johan Petter Johansson (1853–1943) built and patented the adjustable spanner/wrench in 1892. Gustaf de Laval (1845–1913) was a Swedish engineer and inventor who made important contributions to the design of steam turbines


id: list-of-swedish-inventors-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Swedish_inventors-2.md
category: reference
title: List of Swedish inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Swedish_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:10.393424+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-swedish-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
== 20th century == Laila Ohlgren (1937–2014), inventor of mobile phone call-button dialling based on phone storage of the number to be dialled Arne Asplund (1903–1993) was inventor of the Defibrator pulping refiner and the defibrator-method (also called Asplund-method) for pulping wooden chips. Oscar Kjellberg was a Swedish inventor and industrialist. Founder of ESAB, in 1904, and Kjellberg Finsterwalde, in 1922. He invented the coated electrode used in manual metal arc welding (Swedish Patent: 27152, 29 June 1907), by dipping a bare iron wire in a thick mixture of carbonates and silicates. His pioneering of covered electrode development paved the road during the next twenty years in the research of reliable flux coated electrodes. Nils Alwall (1904–1986), a Swedish professor was a pioneer in hemodialysis and the inventor of one of the first practical dialysis machines. Alwall pioneered the technique of ultrafiltration and introduced the principle of hemofiltration. Alwall is referred to as the "father of extracorporeal blood treatment." Austria's Carl Hellmuth Hertz (1915–80) began research on ultrasound in medical examinations in the early 1950, thereby becoming known throughout the world. A Swedish physician, Inge Edler (b. 1911-2001) told Hertz that he wanted to devise a non-invasive method for examining


id: list-of-swiss-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Swiss_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Swiss inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Swiss_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:11.569735+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-swiss-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of Swiss inventors and discoverers. The following list comprises people from Switzerland, and also people of predominantly Swiss heritage, in alphabetical order of the surname. == A == Carl Roman Abt inventor of Abt rack system Werner Arber, (nobel prize) discovered restriction endonucleases. Their work would lead to the development of recombinant DNA technology. Aimé Argand, inventor of Argand lamp. == B == Maximilian Bircher-Benner, invented modern muesli Felix Bloch, (nobel prize) discovered Bloch equations Johann Georg Bodmer Daniel Bovet (nobel prize), discovered drugs that block the actions of specific neurotransmitters. He is best known for his discovery in 1937 of antihistamines, which block the neurotransmitter histamine and are used in allergy medication. Jacques E. Brandenberger, inventor of cellophane == D == Henry Dunant, (nobel prize), inventor of The Red Cross. He shared the Nobel Peace Prize in 1901 with Frédéric Passy, famous French Peace activist. Jacques Dubochet (chemistry nobel prize 2017), bio-physicist, received a nobel for his work on the development of cryogenic electron microscopy for the high-resolution structure determination of bio-molecules in solution. In 2020, the developments in the field helped to support the fight against COVID-19 pandemic. This technology help to study the


id: list-of-welsh-inventors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Welsh_inventors-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Welsh inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Welsh_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:12.840017+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-welsh-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of people of Welsh origin who are recognised as innovators or inventors who have made notable contributions to technical or theoretical world advancements. Edward George Bowen pioneer of radar. Worked at 'Woomera Rocket Testing Base' in Australia. Born in Gendros, Swansea. David Brunt pioneer of modern meteorology. Head of Meteorological Office, secretary of Royal Society From Penfforddlas, Wales. Martha Hughes Cannon pioneer in women and children's medicine. The State of Utah's Health Department is named in her honour. Born in Llandudno, Wales. Archie Cochrane Founder of Cochrane Collaboration, Cochrane library, Cochrane reviews. UK Cochrane Centre in Oxford. Conducted much of his groundbreaking medical research in Wales. Alan Cox is a programmer heavily involved in the development of the Linux kernel since 1991. Sir Clifford Darby, geographer and leader in promoting the relationships between geography and other subjects. Knighted in 1988. Born in Neath, South Wales. Donald Davies Proposed and developed packet switching, an important technology of the Internet. Born in Treorchy, Rhondda, Wales. Walter Davies (inventor), along with his brother Thomas, invented the 'Stepney Spare Wheel' used on almost all early motor cars. Born in Llanelli, South Wales John Dee Founder of the new school of


id: list-of-creators-of-writing-systems-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_creators_of_writing_systems-0.md
category: reference
title: List of creators of writing systems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_creators_of_writing_systems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:14.001648+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-creators-of-writing-systems-20260505-0
summary:
This is an alphabetical list of any individuals, legendary or real, who are purported by traditions to have invented alphabets or other writing systems, whether this is proven or not. == A == Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa – German alchemist, created the Transitus Fluvii, Malachim, and Celestial Alphabets, c. 1525. Guru Angad – Sikh Guru, ascribed invention of Gurmukhi script c. 1539 according to tradition. Anigouran – Tuareg folk hero, ascribed invention of Tifinagh according to tradition == B == Celadet Bedir Khan – Kurd linguist, developed Bedirxan alphabet in 1932. Alexander Melville Bell – American teacher, invented Visible Speech in 1867 Anton Bezenšek – Slovenian linguist, developed Bezenšek Shorthand c. 1879 Charles K. Bliss – Australian engineer, invented Blissymbolics c. 1949. Lako Bodra – Indian railway clerk and community leader. Invented the Warang Citi script in the mid-1900s. Robert Boyd – American, invented Boyd's Syllabic Shorthand in 1903. Louis Braille – French teacher, invented Braille writing around 1821. Frédéric Bruly Bouabré – Ivorian artist, invented the Bété syllabary in the mid-1950s. Momolu Duwalu Bukele – Liberian, invented Vai syllabary around 1833. John Byrom – British poet, invented a system of shorthand c. 1715. == C == Cadmus – legendary Phoenician


id: list-of-creators-of-writing-systems-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_creators_of_writing_systems-1.md
category: reference
title: List of creators of writing systems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_creators_of_writing_systems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:14.001648+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-creators-of-writing-systems-20260505-0
summary:
== O == Odin/*Wōdanaz – the chief god in Scandinavian/Germanic paganism. Associated in the Hávamál with the origins of the Runic alphabet Futhark (Later Futhorc). Ogma – legendary Irish deified chieftain, also ascribed invention of Ogham writing c. 1875 BC (?) according to tradition. == P == Zaya Pandita – – Oirat lama, developed Todo script in 1648. Paracelsus – Swiss alchemist, invented Alphabet of the Magi c. 1520. Chögyal Phagpa – Tibetan monk, invented Phagspa script in 1269. Pharnavaz I of Iberia – Iberian king, ascribed development of Georgian alphabet in 284 BC, according to tradition. Francisco de Pina, and other Portuguese missionaries – created the Vietnamese alphabet c. 1620s. Isaac Pitman – British teacher, invented Pitman shorthand in 1837. Sam Pollard – British missionary, invented Pollard script in 1905. Parley P. Pratt – American Mormon leader, developed Deseret alphabet with George D. Watt c. 1855. George Psalmanazar – European impostor and scholar, invented a (fraudulent) Formosan alphabet in 1704. == R == Ram Khamhaeng the Great – Thai king, ascribed invention of Thai alphabet in 1283, according to tradition. Ronald Kingsley Read – British, invented the Shavian (early 1960s) and Quikscript (1966) writing systems. Jeremiah Rich – English,


id: outline-of-linguistics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_linguistics-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of linguistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_linguistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:15.750363+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-linguistics-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview and topical guide to linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language. Someone who engages in this study is called a linguist. Linguistics has two subdivisions, general and applied. == Branches of linguistics == === Subfields of linguistics === General linguistics Phonetics – the study of the speech faculty Phonology – the usage of vocalized sounds and systems of sounds to form language Morphology – the property of sound and meaning dynamics in language Syntax – the property of grammar that governs sentence structure Semantics – the study of meaning as encoded in grammar Pragmatics – the study of how context contributes to meaning Graphemics – the study of writing systems Graphetics – the study of writing shapes as assigned to sounds or ideas Theoretical linguistics – the study of language as an abstract object Generative linguistics – an approach which seeks to ground grammar in a specialized language module Formalism (linguistics) – the theory of language as a formal system with mathematical-logical rules and a formal grammar Functional linguistics – language as used and coming from use Quantitative linguistics – the study of quantitative language laws and corresponding general theories Formal


id: outline-of-linguistics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_linguistics-1.md
category: reference
title: Outline of linguistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_linguistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:15.750363+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-linguistics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Other subfields of linguistics === Contrastive linguistics – an approach which seeks to analyze a pair of languages via their similarities and differences Corpus linguistics – an empirical linguistic methodology that aims to study language by using large, searchable, annotated databases (corpora) Dialectology – the study of language dialects, i.e, subsets of a language Discourse analysis – an approach that studies language as it is naturally used and constituted within discourses, with discourses considered generally as semiotic structures Grammar – the system of rules and principles governing the composition and usage of a language Interlinguistics – the study of auxiliary and planned languages for the facilitation of communication between speakers of different languages and their design Language acquisition – process by which an individual acquires their first language (L1) Language education – teaching specific language and language science Language for specific purposes – the study of language learning in context of highly specific goals and purposes for which the language is learnt, particularly in education and applied linguistcs Lexicology – the study of the lexicon of a given language and its structure Orthography – sets of conventions for writing a language, including spelling, punctuation, word boundaries, capitalization, hyphenation, and


id: outline-of-linguistics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_linguistics-2.md
category: reference
title: Outline of linguistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_linguistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:15.750363+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-linguistics-20260505-0
summary:
Linguistics can be described as an academic discipline and, at least in its theoretical subfields, as a field of science, being a widely recognized category of specialized expertise, embodying its own terminology, nomenclature, and scientific journals. Many linguists, such as David Crystal, conceptualize the field as being primarily scientific. Linguistics is a multi-disciplinary field of research that combines tools from natural sciences, social sciences, formal sciences, and the humanities. Historically, there has been some lack of consensus on the disciplinary classification of linguistics, particularly theoretical linguistics. Linguistic realists viewed linguistics as a formal science; linguistic nominalists (the American structuralists) viewed linguistics as an empirical or even physical science; linguistic conceptualists viewed linguistics as a branch of psychology and therefore a social science; others yet have argued for viewing linguistics as a mixed science. Linguistics is heterogeneous in its methods of research, so that each area of theoretical linguistics may resemble methodologically either formal science or empirical science, to different degrees. For example, phonetics uses empirical approaches to study the physical acoustics of spoken language. On the other hand, semantically and grammatically, the usability of a formal or natural language is dependent on a formal and arbitrary axiomatization of rules or


id: list-of-animal-sounds-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_animal_sounds-0.md
category: reference
title: List of animal sounds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_animal_sounds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:17.039193+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-animal-sounds-20260505-0
summary:
Certain words in the English language represent animal sounds: the noises and vocalizations of particular animals, especially noises used by animals for communication. The words can be used as verbs or interjections in addition to nouns, and many of them are also specifically onomatopoeic. == List of animal sounds == == See also == Animal communication Animal epithet Animal language Bioacoustics Cat organ & piganino Cross-linguistic onomatopoeias Field recording List of animal names List of onomatopoeias "Old MacDonald Had a Farm" "The Fox (What Does the Fox Say?)" == References == == External links == List of animal sounds to download, listen and use for free. Multilingual list of animal sounds Derek Abbott, University of Adelaide


id: list-of-artworks-known-in-english-by-a-foreign-title-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_artworks_known_in_English_by_a_foreign_title-0.md
category: reference
title: List of artworks known in English by a foreign title
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_artworks_known_in_English_by_a_foreign_title
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:18.403847+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-artworks-known-in-english-by-a-foreign-title-20260505-0
summary:
The following is an alphabetical list of works of art that are often called by a non-English name in an English context. (Of course, many such titles are simply the names of people: Don Quixote, Irma la Douce, Madame Bovary, Tosca, Pelléas et Mélisande. These have been omitted, as have examples where the English may easily be inferred: Symphonie fantastique, Les liaisons dangereuses.)


id: list-of-language-related-awards-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_language-related_awards-0.md
category: reference
title: List of language-related awards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_language-related_awards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:19.637037+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-language-related-awards-20260505-0
summary:
This list of language-related awards is an index to articles on notable awards given for language-related work. == List == == See also == Word of the year Lists of awards List of writing awards List of literary awards == References ==


id: list-of-calques-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_calques-0.md
category: reference
title: List of calques
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_calques
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:20.996893+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-calques-20260505-0
summary:
A calque or loan translation is a word or phrase borrowed from another language by literal, word-for-word (Latin: "verbum pro verbo") translation. This list contains examples of calques in various languages. == English == === From Mandarin Chinese === Running dog calques Chinese: 走狗; pinyin: zǒu gǒu. brainwashing calques Chinese: 洗腦; pinyin: xǐ nǎo – usage via U.S. military during Korean War. lose face calques Chinese: 丟臉; pinyin: diū liǎn Paper tiger calques Chinese: 紙老虎; pinyin: zhǐ lǎohǔ Potsticker calques Chinese: 鍋貼; pinyin: guōtiē Long time no see calques Chinese: 好久不見; pinyin: hǎojiǔ bùjiàn. === From French === By heart (or off by heart) probably calques Middle French par cœur Free verse calques vers libre Old Guard calques Vieille Garde (the most senior regiments of the Imperial Guard of Napoleon I) Flea market calques marché aux puces Marriage of convenience calques French mariage de convenance New Wave (artistic period) calques Nouvelle Vague rhinestone calques caillou du Rhin "Rhine pebble" that goes without saying calques cela va sans dire Forget-me-not calques Old French ne m'oubliez mye crime of passion from crime passionnel J. R. R. Tolkien used the name "Bag End" as a calque of "cul-de-sac", to poke fun at the


id: list-of-calques-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_calques-1.md
category: reference
title: List of calques
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_calques
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:20.996893+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-calques-20260505-0
summary:
French courriel (contraction of courrier électronique) calques English email (contraction of electronic mail) French disque dur calques English hard disk French carte mère calques English motherboard French eau de vie calques Latin aqua vitae French en ligne calques English online French hors-ligne (literally: "out of line, off line") calques English offline French haute résolution calques English high resolution French haute tension calques English high voltage French disque compact calques English compact disc French haute fidélité calques English hi-fi (high fidelity) French large bande calques English broadband French modulation de fréquence calques English frequency modulation (FM) French média de masse calques English mass media French seconde main calques English second hand French sortir du placard calques English to come out of the closet French surhomme calques German Übermensch (Nietzsche's concept) French souris calques English mouse (computer peripheral) French OVNI (Objet Volant Non Identifié) calques English UFO (Unidentified Flying Object) In some dialects of French, the English term "weekend" becomes la fin de semaine ("the end of week"), a calque, but in some it is left untranslated as le week-end, a loanword. French cor anglais (literally English horn) is a near-calque of English French horn. In English cor anglais refers to a


id: list-of-calques-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_calques-2.md
category: reference
title: List of calques
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_calques
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:20.996893+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-calques-20260505-0
summary:
=== Macedonian === Macedonian ракопис (rakopis) calques Latin-derived 'manuscript' and 'handwriting': Mac. root рака (raka) = Lat. manus = 'hand' Mac. root пис- (pis-) = Lat. scribo = 'to write' Macedonian правопис (pravopis) calques Greek-derived 'orthography': Mac. root право (pravo) = Gr. ορθός (orthos) = 'correct'; Mac. root пис- (pis-) = Gr. γράφειν (graphein) = 'to write' Macedonian православие (pravoslavie) calques Greek-derived 'orthodoxy': Mac. root право (pravo) = Gr. ορθός (orthos) = 'correct'; Mac. root славие (slavie) = Gr. δοξα (doxa) = 'glorification' In more recent times, the Macedonian language has calqued new words from other prestige languages including German, French and English. Macedonian натчовек (natčovek) = calques German-derived 'overman' (Übermensch) Mac. root над- (nad-) = Ger. über = 'over' Mac. root човек (čovek, man) = Ger. mensch = 'people' Macedonian облакодер (oblakoder) = calques English skyscraper: Mac. root облак (oblak, cloud) Mac. root дере (dere, to flay) Macedonian клучен збор (klučen zbor) = calques English keyword: Mac. root клуч (kluč, key) Mac. root збор (zbor, word) Some words were originally calqued into Russian and then absorbed into Macedonian, considering the close relatedness of the two languages. Therefore, many of these calques can also be considered Russianisms. === Russian ===


id: list-of-calques-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_calques-3.md
category: reference
title: List of calques
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_calques
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:20.996893+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-calques-20260505-0
summary:
mesilat barzel (obsolete term for railway) from German Eisenbahn (iron track); "sach-rachok" (a proposed term for telephone that became famous for not catching on) from German "Fernsprecher" (itself a calque from Greek "telephone") "zarkor" (searchlight) from German "Scheinwerfer" (light-thrower=>zorek-or, contracted to "zarkor") iton (newspaper) from German Zeitung and Yiddish צײַטוּנג tsaytung (Zeit and Et both mean time or era, first syllable e become i with the -on suffix) tappuach adamah (potato) from French pomme-de-terre gan yeladim from German Kindergarten kaduregel (כדורגל) (football, specifically association football/soccer) from English football; "kadursal" (basketball); "kaduryad" (handball);... "kelev yam" (seal) from German "Seehund" ("sea dog") "karnaf" (contraction of "keren af"/"nosehorn") from Greek rhinoceros, possibly via German Nashorn names of many chemical elements are calqued from German and/or Greek: "meiman" (hydrogen) from Wasserstoff, "pachman" (carbon) from Kohlstoff, "chankan" (nitrogen) from Stickstoff, "chamtzan" (oxygen) from Sauerstoff, zarkhan (phosphorus) from Greek, and ashlagan (potassium) from English ("ashlag"=potash) many computing terms are calqued from English: "luach em" (motherboard), "me'abed" (processor), "natav" (router), akhbar (mouse), cartis reshet (network card), sapak koach (power supply), mat'en (charger). According to linguist Ghil'ad Zuckermann, the more contributing languages have a structurally identical expression, the more likely it is to be calqued into the target


id: list-of-common-false-etymologies-of-english-words-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_false_etymologies_of_English_words-0.md
category: reference
title: List of common false etymologies of English words
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_false_etymologies_of_English_words
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:22.234711+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-false-etymologies-of-english-words-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of common contemporary false etymologies for English words. == Profanity == Crap: The word "crap" did not originate as a back-formation of British plumber Thomas Crapper's surname, nor does his name originate from the word "crap", although the surname may have helped popularize the word. The surname "Crapper" is a variant of "Cropper", which originally referred to someone who harvested crops. The word "crap" ultimately comes from Medieval Latin crappa, meaning "chaff". Fuck: The word "fuck" did not originate as an acronym for "For Unlawful Carnal Knowledge", either as a sign posted above adulterers in the stocks, or as a criminal charge against members of the British Armed Forces; nor did it originate during the 15th-century Battle of Agincourt as a corruption of "pluck yew" (an idiom falsely attributed to the English for drawing a longbow). The word also did not originate in Christianized Anglo-Saxon England as an acronym for "Fornication Under Consent of King"; Modern English was not spoken until the 16th century, and the words "fornication" and "consent" are derived from Anglo-Norman and hence did not exist in Old English. The earliest recorded use of "fuck" in English comes from c. 1475, in the


id: list-of-common-false-etymologies-of-english-words-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_false_etymologies_of_English_words-1.md
category: reference
title: List of common false etymologies of English words
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_false_etymologies_of_English_words
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:22.234711+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-false-etymologies-of-english-words-20260505-0
summary:
[Military] Brat: Not an acronym for "British Regiment Attached Traveller". This is just a specific instance of the word brat, meaning child or offspring, first attested in 16th-century Scotland. "Chav": see under "Other" Coma: Some falsely believe that the word coma originates from "cessation of motor activity". Although this describes the condition of coma, this is not the true derivation. The word is actually derived from the Greek kōma, meaning deep sleep. Fuck: see under "Profanity" Golf: did not originate as an acronym of "gentlemen only, ladies forbidden". The word's true origin is unknown, but it existed in the Middle Scots period. News: The word news has been claimed to be an acronym of the four cardinal directions (north, east, west, and south). However, old spellings of the word varied widely (e.g., newesse, newis, nevis, neus, newys, niewes, newis, nues, etc.). Additionally, an identical term exists in French, "les nouvelles", which translates as the plural of "the new". "News" also does not stand for "notable events, weather, and sports". The word "news" is simply a plural form of new, and is attested in this sense from the early 15th century. Pom or pommy is an Australian English, New Zealand English,


id: list-of-common-false-etymologies-of-english-words-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_false_etymologies_of_English_words-2.md
category: reference
title: List of common false etymologies of English words
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_false_etymologies_of_English_words
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:22.234711+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-false-etymologies-of-english-words-20260505-0
summary:
420 did not originate as the Los Angeles police or penal code for marijuana use. Police Code 420 is "juvenile disturbance", and Penal Code 420 defines the prevention, hindrance, or obstruction of legal "entry, settlement, or residence" on "any tract of public land" as a misdemeanor. Some LA police codes that do relate to illegal drugs include 10-50 ("under influence of drugs"), 966 ("drug deal"), 11300 ("narcotics"), and 23105 ("driver under narcotics"). The number's association with marijuana originated with a group of students who would meet on the campus of San Rafael High School at 4:20 pm to smoke. Adamant is often believed to have come from Latin adamare, meaning to love to excess. It is in fact derived from Greek ἀδάμας, meaning indomitable. There was a further confusion about whether the substance referred to is diamond or lodestone. Buck: The use of "buck" to mean "dollar" did not originate from a practice of referring to African slaves as "bucks" (male deer) when trading. "Buck" was originally short for "buckskin", as buckskins were used in trade. Butterfly: The word "butterfly" did not originate from "flutterby". It is, as it appears, a compound of "butter" and "fly", first formed in Old


id: list-of-common-false-etymologies-of-english-words-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_false_etymologies_of_English_words-3.md
category: reference
title: List of common false etymologies of English words
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_false_etymologies_of_English_words
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:22.234711+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-false-etymologies-of-english-words-20260505-0
summary:
Both forms now have currency, though the form with "rabbit" is in fact the original. Furthermore, the word "Welsh" in this context was used in a pejorative sense, meaning "foreign" or "substandard", and does not indicate that the dish originated in Wales. Wi-Fi is not short-form for 'Wireless Fidelity,' although it was likely co-opting the similar phrase of the time, Hi-Fi, referring to High Fidelity audio systems. Woman does not originate from "woven from man", nor from "womb". It came from the Old English wifmann ("woman human"), a compound of wif ("woman" – cf. "wife") + man ("human being"). Adult human males were called wer (as in weregeld and world, and also the first element in "werewolf", man-wolf). Mann, the word for "person", eventually came to be used for adult human males specifically. Both "wer" and "wyf" may be used to qualify "man", as in this Old English example: God gesceop ða æt fruman twegen men, wer and wif (then at the beginning, God created two human beings, man and woman) Yankee does not originate from the Cherokee word eankke meaning "coward". The word does not exist in the Cherokee language. It also does not come from a native tribe


id: concepticon-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concepticon-0.md
category: reference
title: Concepticon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concepticon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:23.469181+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: concepticon-20260505-0
summary:
Concepticon is an open-source online lexical database of linguistic concept lists (word lists). It links concept labels (i.e., word list glosses) in concept lists (i.e., word lists) to concept sets (i.e., standardized word meanings). It is part of the Cross-Linguistic Linked Data (CLLD) project, which is hosted by the Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History in Jena, Germany. Version 1.0 was released in 2016. == Concept == Concept lists in the Concepticon include: Swadesh list (100 items, 207 items, etc.) Swadesh–Yakhontov list Dolgopolsky list Leipzig–Jakarta list ASJP list == See also == Conceptualization (information science) Ontology (information science) Intercontinental Dictionary Series == References == List, Johann Mattis & Rzymski, Christoph & Greenhill, Simon & Schweikhard, Nathanael & Pianykh, Kristina & Tjuka, Annika & Hundt, Carolin & Forkel, Robert (eds.) 2021. CLLD Concepticon 2.5.0 [Data set]. Zenodo. doi:10.5281/zenodo.4911605 == External links == Official website Langavia Dictionary Synonyms Dictionary Concepticon on GitHub


id: list-of-linguistics-conferences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguistics_conferences-0.md
category: reference
title: List of linguistics conferences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguistics_conferences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:24.779701+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-linguistics-conferences-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of recurring linguistics conferences. Included are also a list of organisations that hold recurring meetings under the same name. == By geographical location == === International === Association for Laboratory Phonology (LabPhon) Formal Approaches to Slavic Linguistics (FASL) International Conference on Sociolinguistics International Congress of Linguists (ICL) International Society for the Linguistics of English (ISLE) Southeast Asian Linguistics Society (SEALS) === North America === American Dialect Society (ADS) Canadian Linguistic Association (CLA) Chicago Linguistic Society (CLS) Linguistic Society of America (LSA) North American Conference on Chinese Linguistics (NACCL) West Coast Conference on Formal Linguistics (WCCFL) Western Conference on Linguistics Workshop on Structure and Constituency in Languages of the Americas (WSCLA) === South America === Associação Brasileira de Linguística (ABRALIN) === Europe === Conference on Mediterranean and European Linguistic Anthropology (COMELA) Days of Swiss Linguistics (DSL) Generative Linguistics in the Old World (GLOW) International Conference on Sociolinguistics ("ICS") 4th International ESP Conference, Nis, Serbia Linguistic Intersections of Language and Gender Conference, (LILG) Moscow Student Conference on Linguistics (MSCL) Annual Meeting of the Societas Linguistica Europaea (SLE) === Asia === Conference on Asian Linguistic Anthropology (CALA) GLOW in Asia === Africa === West African Linguistic Society (WALS) African


id: list-of-consonants-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_consonants-0.md
category: reference
title: List of consonants
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_consonants
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:26.147099+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-consonants-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of all the consonants which have a dedicated letter in the International Phonetic Alphabet, plus some of the consonants which require diacritics, ordered by place and manner of articulation. == Ordered by place of articulation == === Labial consonants === (articulated by using the lips) ==== Bilabial consonants ==== bilabial clicks e.g. [kʘ] bilabial nasal [m] (man) bilabial ejective [pʼ] voiced bilabial implosive [ɓ] voiceless bilabial plosive [p] (spin) voiced bilabial plosive [b] (bed) voiceless bilabial affricate [pɸ] voiced bilabial affricate [bβ] voiceless bilabial fricative [ɸ] voiced bilabial fricative [β] bilabial approximant [β̞] bilabial trill [ʙ] bilabial percussive [ʬ] ==== Labiodental consonants ==== labiodental approximant [ʋ] labiodental nasal [ɱ] (symphony) voiced labiodental fricative [v] (van) Voiced labiodental plosive [b̪] Voiced labiodental affricate [b̪v] voiceless labiodental fricative [f] (fan) voiceless rounded velarized labiodental fricative [ɧ] Voiceless labiodental plosive [p̪] Voiceless labiodental affricate [p̪f] === Bidental consonants === voiceless bidental fricative [h̪͆] === Coronal consonants === (articulated by using the tip of the tongue) ==== Dental consonants ==== dental clicks e.g. [kǀ] dental lateral clicks e.g. [kǁ̪] dental ejective [t̪ʼ] dental nasal [n̪] voiced dental fricative [ð] (this) voiced dental implosive [ɗ̪] voiced dental plosive [d̪] voiceless bidental


id: list-of-consonants-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_consonants-1.md
category: reference
title: List of consonants
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_consonants
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:26.147099+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-consonants-20260505-0
summary:
=== Fricative consonants === Sibilant fricatives voiceless alveolar sibilant [s] voiced alveolar sibilant [z] voiceless palato-alveolar sibilant [ ʃ ] voiced palato-alveolar sibilant [ʒ] voiceless alveolo-palatal sibilant (palatalized postalveolar) [ɕ] voiced alveolo-palatal sibilant [ʑ] voiceless retroflex sibilant [ʂ] voiced retroflex sibilant [ʐ ] Central non-sibilant fricatives voiceless bilabial fricative [ɸ] voiced bilabial fricative [β] voiceless labiodental fricative [f] voiced labiodental fricative [v] voiceless bidental fricative [h̪͆] voiceless dental fricative [θ] voiced dental fricative [ð] voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative [θ̠] voiced alveolar non-sibilant fricative [ɹ̝] voiceless palatal fricative [ç] voiced palatal fricative [ ʝ] voiceless velar fricative [x] voiced velar fricative [ɣ] voiceless uvular fricative [χ] voiceless pharyngeal fricative [ħ] voiceless epiglottal fricative [ʜ] voiceless palatal-velar fricative (not possible) [ɧ] Lateral fricatives voiceless alveolar lateral fricative [ɬ] voiced alveolar lateral fricative [ɮ] voiceless retroflex lateral fricative [ꞎ ] voiceless palatal lateral fricative [𝼆]) voiceless velar lateral fricative [𝼄]) voiced velar lateral fricative [ʟ̝] both fricatives and approximants voiced uvular fricative [ʁ] voiced pharyngeal fricative [ʕ] voiced epiglottal fricative [ʢ] Pseudo-fricatives voiceless glottal fricative [h] voiced glottal fricative (murmured) [ɦ] === Affricate consonants === Sibilant affricates voiceless postalveolar affricate [tʃ] voiced postalveolar affricate [dʒ] voiceless alveolar affricate [ts] voiced alveolar affricate [dz]


id: list-of-consonants-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_consonants-2.md
category: reference
title: List of consonants
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_consonants
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:26.147099+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-consonants-20260505-0
summary:
=== Glottalized consonants === ==== Reinforced airstream ==== Voiceless labioglottal plosive[ʔᵖ] Voiceless alveologlottal plosive[ʔᵗ] Voiceless veloglottal plosive[ʔᵏ] ==== Blocked airstream ==== Voiced glottalized alveolar nasal [nˀ] Voiced glottalized alveolar plosive [tˀ] Voiced glottalized dental fricative [ðˀ] ==== Restricted airstream ==== Creaky-voiced bilabial nasal [m̰] ==== Whispery voice ==== Breathy-voiced bilabial nasal [mʱ] Breathy-voiced bilabial plosive [bʱ] Breathy-voiced alveolar plosive [dʱ] Breathy-voiced velar plosive [gʱ] === Click consonants === The less common clicks, such as are found in Taa, are not included. Simple clicks bilabial clicks (= ⟨ɋ⟩) either velar: voiceless bilabial click [ᵏʘ] voiced bilabial click [ᶢʘ] bilabial nasal click [ᵑʘ] or uvular: [𐞥ʘ], [𐞒ʘ], [ᶰʘ] dental clicks (= ⟨ʇ⟩) either velar: voiceless dental click [ᵏǀ] voiced dental click [ᶢǀ] dental nasal click [ᵑǀ] or uvular: [𐞥ǀ], [𐞒ǀ], [ᶰǀ] (post)alveolar click (= ⟨ʗ⟩) either velar: voiceless alveolar click [ᵏǃ] voiced alveolar click [ᶢǃ] alveolar nasal click [ᵑǃ] or uvular: [𐞥ǃ], [𐞒ǃ], [ᶰǃ] alveolar lateral clicks (= ⟨ʖ⟩) either velar: voiceless alveolar lateral click [ᵏǁ] voiced alveolar lateral click [ᶢǁ] alveolar lateral nasal click [ᵑǁ] or uvular: [𐞥ǁ], [𐞒ǁ], [ᶰǁ] retroflex clicks (= ⟨ψ⟩) either velar: voiceless retroflex click [ᵏ𝼊 ] voiced retroflex click [ᶢ𝼊 ] retroflex nasal click [ᵑ𝼊 ]


id: cyrillic-alphabets-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets-0.md
category: reference
title: Cyrillic alphabets
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:27.700181+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cyrillic-alphabets-20260505-0
summary:
Numerous Cyrillic alphabets are based on the Cyrillic script. The early Cyrillic alphabet was developed in the 9th century AD and replaced the earlier Glagolitic script developed by the theologians Cyril and Methodius. It is the basis of alphabets used in various languages, past and present, Slavic origin, and non-Slavic languages influenced by Russian. As of 2011, around 252 million people in Eurasia use it as the official alphabet for their national languages. About half of them are in Russia. Cyrillic is one of the most-used writing systems in the world. The creator is Saint Clement of Ohrid from the Preslav literary school in the First Bulgarian Empire. Some of these are illustrated below; for others, and for more detail, see the links. Sounds are transcribed in the IPA. While these languages largely have phonemic orthographies, there are occasional exceptions—for example, Russian ⟨г⟩ is pronounced /v/ in a number of words, an orthographic relic from when they were pronounced /ɡ/ (e.g. его yego 'him/his', is pronounced [jɪˈvo] rather than [jɪˈɡo]). Spellings of names transliterated into the Roman alphabet may vary, especially й (y/j/i), but also г (gh/g/h) and ж (zh/j). Unlike the Latin script, which is usually adapted to different


id: cyrillic-alphabets-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets-1.md
category: reference
title: Cyrillic alphabets
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:27.700181+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cyrillic-alphabets-20260505-0
summary:
The Bulgarian names for the consonants are [bɤ], [kɤ], [ɫɤ] (bǔ, kǔ, lǔ) etc. instead of [bɛ], [ka], [ɛl] (be, ka, el) etc. Е represents /ɛ/ and is called "е" [ɛ]. Unlike in other Slavic languages, the sound [jɛ] does not exist in native words, being replaced with Е in most cases. The sounds /dʒ/ (/d͡ʒ/) and /dz/ (/d͡z/) are represented by the digraphs дж and дз respectively, as in Belarusian and Ukrainian. Short I (Й, й) represents /j/, as in Russian. Щ represents /ʃt/ (/ʃ͡t/) and is called "щъ" [ʃtɤ] ([ʃ͡tɤ]). Ъ represents the vowel /ɤ/, and is called "ер голям" (IPA: [ˈɛr ɡoˈʎam]) ('big er'). Despite the official name being "big er", the letter is only referred to as that in the context of the alphabet, and is usually called /ɤ/ in common speech. The vowel Ъ /ɤ/ is sometimes approximated to the /ə/ (schwa) sound found in many languages for easier comprehension of its Bulgarian pronunciation for foreigners, but it is actually a back vowel, not a central vowel. Ь is used on rare occasions (only after a consonant [and] before the vowel "о"), such as in the words 'каньон' (canyon), 'шофьор' (driver/chauffeur), etc. It represents the


id: cyrillic-alphabets-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets-2.md
category: reference
title: Cyrillic alphabets
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:27.700181+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cyrillic-alphabets-20260505-0
summary:
Between Ze (З з) and I (И и) is the letter З́, which represents /ʑ/ (voiced alveolo-palatal fricative). It is written ⟨Ź ź⟩ in the corresponding Montenegrin Latin alphabet, previously written ⟨Zj zj⟩ or ⟨Žj žj⟩. Between Es (С с) and Te (Т т) is the letter С́, which represents /ɕ/ (voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative). It is written ⟨Ś ś⟩ in the corresponding Montenegrin Latin alphabet, previously written ⟨Sj sj⟩ or ⟨Šj šj⟩. The letter Dze (Ѕ ѕ), from Macedonian, is used in scientific literature when representing the /d͡z/ phoneme, although it is not officially part of the alphabet. A Latin equivalent was proposed that looks identical to Ze (З з). ==== Macedonian ==== The Macedonian alphabet differs from Serbian in the following ways: Between Ze (З з) and I (И и) is the letter Dze (Ѕ ѕ), which looks like the Latin letter S and represents /d͡z/. Dje (Ђ ђ) is replaced by Gje (Ѓ ѓ), which represents /ɟ/ (voiced palatal stop). In some dialects, it represents /d͡ʑ/ instead, like Dje. It is written ⟨Ǵ ǵ⟩ in the corresponding Macedonian Latin alphabet. Tshe (Ћ ћ) is replaced by Kje (Ќ ќ), which represents /c/ (voiceless palatal stop). In some dialects,


id: cyrillic-alphabets-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets-3.md
category: reference
title: Cyrillic alphabets
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:27.700181+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cyrillic-alphabets-20260505-0
summary:
Ve (В в) represents /ʋ/ (which may be pronounced [w] in a word final position and before consonants). He (Г г) represents a breathy-voiced glottal transition, (/ɦ/), similar to the respective sound in Belarusian. Ge (Ґ ґ) appears after He, representing /ɡ/. It looks like He with an "upturn" pointing up from the right side of the top bar. This letter is generally restricted to loanwords/borrowed words. (This letter was removed in Soviet Ukraine in 1933–1990, so it may be missing from older Cyrillic fonts.) E (Е е) represents /ɛ/. Ye (Є є) appears after E and represents the sound /jɛ/. I (И и) represents the sound /ɪ/, unlike in Russian. Dotted I (І і) appears after И and represents the sound /i/, as in Belarusian. Yi (Ї ї) appears after I and represents the sound /ji/. Jot (Й й) represents /j/, as in Russian Shcha (Щ, щ) represents the cluster /ʃt͡ʃ/. An apostrophe (’) is used to mark the lack of palatalization of the preceding consonant before Ya (Я, я), Yu (Ю, ю), Ye (Є, є), Yi (Ї, ї), the same as how it is used in Belarusian. Before 1990, Ь was positioned at the end of the alphabet


id: cyrillic-alphabets-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets-4.md
category: reference
title: Cyrillic alphabets
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:27.700181+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cyrillic-alphabets-20260505-0
summary:
Ң ң = /ŋ/ (velar nasal) Ү ү = /y/ (close front rounded vowel) Ө ө = /œ/ (open-mid front rounded vowel) Bold letters are used only in loanwords. === Tatar === Tatar has used Cyrillic since 1939, but the Russian Orthodox Tatar community has used Cyrillic since the 19th century. In 2000 a new Latin alphabet was adopted for Tatar, but it is used generally on the Internet. Ә ә = /æ/ Ң ң = /ŋ/ Ө ө = /œ/ У у = /uw/, /yw/, /w/ Ү ү = /y/ Һ һ = /h/ Җ җ = /ʑ/ The Cyrillic letters Ёё, Цц, Щщ are not used in native Tatar words, but only for Russian loans. === Turkmen === Turkmen, written 1940–1994 exclusively in Cyrillic, since 1994 officially in Roman, but in everyday communication Cyrillic is still used along with Roman script. === Uzbek === From 1941 the Cyrillic script was used exclusively. In 1998 the government has adopted a Latin alphabet to replace it. The deadline for making this transition has however been repeatedly changed, and Cyrillic is still more common. It is not clear that the transition will be made at all. В в = /w/ Ж


id: cyrillic-alphabets-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets-5.md
category: reference
title: Cyrillic alphabets
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:27.700181+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cyrillic-alphabets-20260505-0
summary:
=== Buryat === The Buryat (буряад) Cyrillic script is similar to the Khalkha above, but Ьь indicates palatalization as in Russian. Buryat does not use Вв, Кк, Пп, Фф, Цц, Чч, Щщ or Ъъ in its native words (Пп may occur in native onomatopoeic words). Е е = /jɛ/, /jœ/ Ё ё = /jo/ Ж ж = /dʒ/ Й й = the second element of closing diphthongs (ай, ой, etc.), it never indicates /j/ in native words Н н = /n-/, /-ŋ/ Өө өө = /œː/, ө does not occur in short form in literary Buryat based on the Khori dialect У у = /ʊ/ Ү ү = /u/ Һ һ = /h/ Ы ы = /ei/, /iː/ Ю ю = /ju/ === Kalmyk === The Kalmyk (хальмг) Cyrillic script differs from Khalkha in some respects: there are additional letters (Әә, Җҗ, Ңң, Һһ), letters Ээ, Юю and Яя appear only word-initially, long vowels are written double in the first syllable (нөөрин), but single in syllables after the first. Short vowels are omitted altogether in syllables after the first syllable (хальмг = /xaʎmaɡ/). Жж and Пп are used in loanwords only (Russian, Tibetan, etc.), but Пп may occur in native


id: list-of-departments-of-linguistics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_departments_of_linguistics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of departments of linguistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_departments_of_linguistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:28.954162+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-departments-of-linguistics-20260505-0
summary:
Australia Australian National University [1] La Trobe University [2] Macquarie University [3] Monash University [4] University of Adelaide [5] University of Melbourne [6] University of Newcastle [7] University of New England [8] University of New South Wales [9] University of Queensland [10] University of Sydney [11] University of Western Australia [12] University of Western Sydney [13] Bangladesh University of Dhaka [14] Brazil Universidade de São Paulo [15] Canada Brock University [16] Carleton University, Ottawa [17] (BA MA) [18] (MA) Concordia University [19] McGill University, Montréal [20] (BA MA PhD) McMaster University [21] Memorial University of Newfoundland [22] Simon Fraser University [23] Trinity Western University [24] Université de Montréal [25] (BA MA PhD) Université du Québec à Chicoutimi [26] (BA MA) Université du Québec à Montréal (BA MA PhD) [27] Université Laval [28] (BA MA PhD) University of Alberta [29] University of British Columbia [30] University of Calgary [31] University of Manitoba [32] (BA MA PhD) University of Ottawa, Ottawa [33] (BA MA PhD) University of Saskatchewan [34] University of Toronto, Toronto [35] (BA MA PhD) University of Victoria [36] York University, Toronto [37] (BA MA PhD) Croatia University of Zadar [38] University of Zagreb [39] Czech Republic Charles University in


id: list-of-dictionaries-by-number-of-words-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_dictionaries_by_number_of_words-0.md
category: reference
title: List of dictionaries by number of words
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_dictionaries_by_number_of_words
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:30.285933+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-dictionaries-by-number-of-words-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of dictionaries considered authoritative or complete by approximate number of total words, or headwords, included number of words in a language. == See also == Comparison of English dictionaries == Notes == == References ==


id: dolgopolsky-list-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolgopolsky_list-0.md
category: reference
title: Dolgopolsky list
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolgopolsky_list
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:31.565992+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dolgopolsky-list-20260505-0
summary:
The Dolgopolsky list is a word list compiled by Aharon Dolgopolsky in 1964 based on a study of 140 languages from across Eurasia. It lists the 15 lexical items that he found have the most semantic stability, i.e. the 15 words least likely to be replaced. == List == The words, with the first being the most stable, are: I/me two/pair you (singular, informal) who/what tongue name eye heart tooth no/not nail (finger-nail) louse/nit tear/teardrop water dead The first item in the list, I/me, has been replaced in none of the 140 languages during their recorded history; the fifteenth, dead, has been replaced in 25% of the languages. The twelfth item, louse/nit, is well kept in the North Caucasian languages, Dravidian and Turkic, but not in some other proto-languages. The Leipzig–Jakarta list of 100 lexical items includes all but five of these words: two/pair, heart, nail (fingernail), tear, die/dead. == See also == Swadesh list Comparative linguistics == References == Trask, Robert Lawrence (2000). The dictionary of historical and comparative linguistics. p. 96. == External links == Concepticon


id: list-of-english-irregular-verbs-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_English_irregular_verbs-0.md
category: reference
title: List of English irregular verbs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_English_irregular_verbs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:32.921300+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-english-irregular-verbs-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of irregular verbs in the English language. == Past tense irregular verbs == For each verb listed, the citation form (the bare infinitive) is given first, with a link to the relevant Wiktionary entry. This is followed by the simple past tense (preterite), and then the past participle. If there are irregular present tense forms (see below), these are given in parentheses after the infinitive. (The present participle and gerund forms of verbs, ending in -ing, are always regular. In English, these are used as verbs, adjectives, and nouns.) In the case of modal verbs the present and preterite forms are listed, since these are the only forms that exist, with the present form identical for all persons. The right-hand column notes whether the verb is weak or strong and whether it belongs to a subclass, and links to descriptions elsewhere. Information about the development of these verbs generally can be found at English irregular verbs; details of the etymology and usage of specific verbs can be found by consulting Wiktionary. In some cases, there are two or more possibilities for a given form. In the table, the preferred or more common usage is generally listed


id: list-of-linguistic-example-sentences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguistic_example_sentences-0.md
category: reference
title: List of linguistic example sentences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguistic_example_sentences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:34.058624+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-linguistic-example-sentences-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a partial list of linguistic example sentences illustrating various linguistic phenomena. == Ambiguity == Different types of ambiguity which are possible in language. === Lexical ambiguity === Demonstrations of words which have multiple meanings dependent on context. Will, will Will will Will Will's will? – Will (a person), will (future tense auxiliary verb) Will (a second person) will (bequeath) [to] Will (a third person) Will's (the second person) will (a document)? (Someone asked Will 1 directly if Will 2 plans to bequeath his own will, the document, to Will 3.) Buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo. – Bison (the plural of "buffalos" or "buffalo" is also accepted) from Buffalo, New York, whom bison from Buffalo bully, bully bison from Buffalo. Police police Police police police police Police police. – Police officers from Police, Poland, whom police officers from Police patrol, patrol police officers from Police. Rose rose to put rose roes on her rows of roses. (Robert J. Baran) – Rose [a person] rose [stood] to put rose [pink-colored] roes [fish eggs as fertilizer] on her rows of roses [flower]. James while John had had had had had had had had had had had a


id: list-of-linguistic-example-sentences-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguistic_example_sentences-1.md
category: reference
title: List of linguistic example sentences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguistic_example_sentences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:34.058624+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-linguistic-example-sentences-20260505-0
summary:
Colorless green ideas sleep furiously (Noam Chomsky): example that is grammatically correct but based on semantic combinations that are contradictory and therefore would not normally occur. Hold the news reader's nose squarely, waiter, or friendly milk will countermand my trousers. == Semantics and context == Demonstrations of sentences where the semantic interpretation is bound to context or knowledge of the world. The large ball crashed right through the table because it was made of Styrofoam: ambiguous use of a pronoun: The word "it" refers to the table being made of Styrofoam; but "it" would immediately refer to the large ball if we replaced "Styrofoam" with "steel" without any other change in its syntactic parse. The bee landed on the flower because it had nectar: The pronoun "it" refers to the "flower" but changes to the "bee" if we replace "had" with "wanted". We bought the boys apples because they were so hungry: "they" refers to the boys, but if "hungry" is replaced with "cheap", with no grammatical change, it refers to the apples. St Paul’s Cathedral is amusing, awful, and artificial: The adjectives are contronyms and their main, contemporary meanings conflict with minority meanings of "amazing, awe-inspiring, and artistic." ===


id: list-of-linguistic-example-sentences-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguistic_example_sentences-2.md
category: reference
title: List of linguistic example sentences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguistic_example_sentences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:34.058624+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-linguistic-example-sentences-20260505-0
summary:
=== German === A famous example of lexical ambiguity is the following sentence: "Wenn hinter Fliegen Fliegen fliegen, fliegen Fliegen Fliegen hinterher.", meaning "When flies fly behind flies, then flies fly in pursuit of flies." It takes advantage of some German nouns and corresponding verbs being homonymous. While not noticeable in spoken language, in written language the difference shows: "Fliegen" ("flies"), being a noun, is written with a capital "F", whereas "fliegen" ("to fly"), being a verb, is not. The comma can be left out without changing the meaning. There are several variations of this sentence pattern, although they do not work as smoothly as the original. Dutch language shares this same example, with the noticeable difference of not capitalising the initials of nouns, making it "Als achter vliegen vliegen vliegen, vliegen vliegen vliegen achterna." === Dutch === Kees Torn expanded on the example given in the German section ("Als achter vliegen vliegen vliegen, vliegen vliegen vliegen achterna."), from which he created: "Als, in de plaats waar van de makkelijk te zeven zeven zeven zeven zeven zeven zeven, Zeven, zeven zeven zeven zeven zeven, zeven zeven zeven zeven zeven." which uses the fact that "zeven" has multiple roles: it is


id: list-of-family-name-affixes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_family_name_affixes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of family name affixes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_family_name_affixes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:35.382968+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-family-name-affixes-20260505-0
summary:
Family name affixes are a clue for surname etymology and can sometimes determine the ethnic origin of a person. This is a partial list of affixes. == Prefixes == === Arabic === Abu – (Arabic) "father of"; Al – (Arabic) "Family of" or "House of" (in conjunction with name of ancestor) Bet – (Arabic from "Beyt") "house of" Bint – (Arabic) "daughter of"; Binti, Binte (Malaysian version) El – (Arabic see Al) Ibn – (Arabic) "son of" === Armenian === Ter – (Eastern Armenian) "son/daughter of a Priest" Der – (Western Armenian) "son/daughter of a priest"; (German) "the" (masculine nominative), "of the" (feminine genitive) === Berber === Ayt/At/Ag/Id u- – (Berber) "of" At/n Ath – (Berber) "(son[s]) of" U - (Berber) "son of"/"descendent of" Ult - (Berber) "daughter of" === Dutch === de – (Dutch) "the" 's – (Dutch) "of the"; contraction of des, genitive case of the definite article de. Example: 's Gravesande. 't – (Dutch) "the"; contraction of the neuter definite article het. ter – (Dutch) "at the" van – (Dutch) "of", "from" van de, van den, van der, van 't – (Dutch) "of the", "from the" === French === "of", "of the", "from"; often a sign of


id: list-of-family-name-affixes-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_family_name_affixes-1.md
category: reference
title: List of family name affixes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_family_name_affixes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:35.382968+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-family-name-affixes-20260505-0
summary:
== Suffixes == -a, -ya Kurdish means "of" (female) (by two surnames) -à (Catalan) feminine -ana "of or from [a locality or place]" (Català -Catalan); and also the name of a job (Manyà -ironsmith), from Latin -ānus, -āna -ac (Croatian, Serbian, Slovenian, Southern French) -ach (Ukrainian, Belarusian /Belarusian Latin: -ač/) -acz (Polish) -aei (Persian) (See -i) for words that end in the long vowel A -aitis (Lithuanian) "son of" -aitė (Lithuanian) signifies an unmarried female -aty Americanized form -aj (Albanian) (pronounced AY; meaning “of the") It denotes the name of the family, which mostly comes from the male founder of the family, but also from a place, as in, Lash-aj (from the village Lashaj of Kastrat, MM, Shkodër). It is likely that its ancient form, still found in MM, was an [i] in front of the last name, as in ‘Déda i Lékajve’ (Déd of Lekës). For ease of use, the [i] in front of the last name, and the ending _ve, were dropped. If the last name ends in [a], then removing the [j] would give the name of the patriarch or the place, as in, Grudaj - j = Gruda (place in MM). Otherwise, removing the whole ending


id: list-of-family-name-affixes-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_family_name_affixes-2.md
category: reference
title: List of family name affixes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_family_name_affixes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:35.382968+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-family-name-affixes-20260505-0
summary:
-ik (Estonian) if it follows a tree name, has a meaning "grove" -ikh, -ykh (Russian) -in (Russian (all Eastern Slavic languages), Bulgarian) possessive -ina (female equivalent of -in; especially rare for male names, but the suffix alone is an actual female name) -yn (Russian, Belarusian, Ukrainian) possessive -in (French) diminutive -in (Dutch, German) suffix attached to old Germanic female surnames (e.g. female surname "Mayerin", the wife of "Mayer") -ge (Sinhalese) "From the house of" -ing, ink (Anglo-Saxon, Dutch, German) "descendant" -ino (a common suffix for male Latino and Italian names) -ipa (Abkhazian) "son of" -ipha (Abkhazian) "girl of" -is (Greek, /male/ Lithuanian) -ienė (Lithuanian) female version -ytė (Lithuanian) unmarried female version -ishin, -yshyn (Ukrainian) possessive (e.g. Romanishin = son of wife of Roman) -ishina, -yshyna (female equivalent of -ishin, -yshyn) -iu (Romanian) -ius (Lithuanian) "son of" -iv (Ukrainian) possessive. -iz (Spanish) including Spanish-speaking countries "son of", very unfrequent compared to -ez (Muñiz < Muño) -j (Adygean)"old" -ja (Sindhi, Punjabi) "from, of", often denoting ancestral hometowns and villages. Mostly with the combinations -ija, -uja and -eja (eg. Makhija, Ahuja, Taneja) -jerhin/-jerin (Kyrghyz) "place (of origin)" Usually, this form of the surname is assigned to kairylmans who do not have a surname.


id: list-of-family-name-affixes-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_family_name_affixes-3.md
category: reference
title: List of family name affixes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_family_name_affixes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:35.382968+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-family-name-affixes-20260505-0
summary:
-vich (Belarusian /Belarusian Latin: -vič/, occasionally a respelling of original Serbian, Croatian -vić) "son of" -vych (Ukrainian) -wicz (Polish), -wic (Polish) -vić (Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian, Montenegrin) -vič (Slovenian, Slovak, Czech [rarely]), -vic (Slovak, Czech [rarely]) -vici (Romanianized respellings) -vics, -vits (Hungarianized respellings) -vitz, -witz, -witch, -witsch (Germanized or Anglicized respellings) -vičius (Lithuanian) Lithuanianized version of the Belarusian -vich (Belarusian Latin: -vič) and Polish -wicz -vičiutė (Lithuanian) signifies an unmarried female -vičs (Latvian) Latvianized version of the Belarusian -vich (Belarusian Latin: -vič) and Polish –wicz -vedi (Sanskrit, Hindi) "learned in _ Vedas" (e.g. Trivedi = "learned in 3 Vedas") -wala, -wallah, wali, vala, vali (Hindustani, Gujarati, Bengali, Marathi) denotes the occupation or place of origin (Occupation example: Batliwala – one who deals with bottles. Place example: Suratwala – one from Surat) -wan (Indonesian) denotes a male name -war (Marathi), often used to signify members of the Arya Vyshya community, residing in central and western India. -wati (Indonesian) denotes a female name -wi (Arabic) "from" -y (Arabic/Persian) Means descendant of. -y (See -i) -yal -ycz (Polish) -yk (Polish, Belarusian, Ukrainian) -ynas (Lithuanian) "son of" -ys (English) representing i. the archaic plural form, or ii. a diminutive form. Variant forms not limited to


id: father-honorific-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Father_(honorific)-0.md
category: reference
title: Father (honorific)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Father_(honorific)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:36.654088+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: father-honorific-20260505-0
summary:
Father has been used as both title and honorific in various languages, synonyms and historical contexts. It may sometimes denote a title of authority or of honour. == List of uses of "father" in various languages == === By culture and/or language === Ab (Semitic) Bwana ("our father"), from Swahili, meaning an important person or safari leader Abu in Kunya (Arabic), used as epithet for "father of X" Baba, mark of respect in: Indian honorific Hindu and Sikh Baba (honorific) in Persian language In Malaysia as an honorific of respect to address Chinese people born in the British Straits Settlements Batko, a Ukrainian honorific meaning "father" List of people considered father or mother of a field Founding father Father of the Nation/Father of the Country Pater Patriae Fathers of Confederation Founding fathers of the European Union Founding Fathers of the United States Pater familias (Latin), title for head of household in Ancient Rome === Personifications === Father Time Father Christmas Ded Moroz ("Father Frost") === By religion === God the Father ==== Buddhism ==== Abbot (Buddhism) a title for a monk who holds the position of administrator of a Buddhist monastery or Buddhist temple ==== Christianity ==== Patriarch (Greek, literally


id: list-of-formal-language-and-literal-string-topics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_formal_language_and_literal_string_topics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of formal language and literal string topics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_formal_language_and_literal_string_topics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:37.827966+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-formal-language-and-literal-string-topics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of formal language and literal string topics, by Wikipedia page. == Formal languages == Abstract syntax tree Backus-Naur form Categorial grammar Chomsky hierarchy Concatenation Context-free grammar Context-sensitive grammar Context-sensitive language Decidable language ECLR-attributed grammar Finite language Formal grammar Formal language Formal system Generalized star height problem Kleene algebra Kleene star L-attributed grammar LR-attributed grammar Myhill–Nerode theorem Parsing expression grammar Prefix grammar Pumping lemma Recursively enumerable language Regular expression Regular grammar Regular language S-attributed grammar Star height Star height problem Syntactic monoid Syntax (logic) Tree-adjoining grammar == Literal strings == Anagram Case sensitivity Infinite monkey theorem Lexical analysis Lexeme Lexicography Lexicon Lipogram The Library of Babel Palindrome Pangram Sequence alignment == Classical cryptography == Atbash cipher Autokey cipher Bazeries cylinder Bible code Bifid cipher Caesar cipher Cardan grille Enigma machine Frequency analysis Index of coincidence Playfair cipher Polyalphabetic substitution Polybius square ROT13, ROT47 Scytale Steganography Substitution cipher Tabula recta Transposition cipher Vigenère cipher


id: gardiner-s-sign-list-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardiner's_sign_list-0.md
category: reference
title: Gardiner's sign list
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardiner's_sign_list
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:39.245476+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gardiner-s-sign-list-20260505-0
summary:
Gardiner's sign list is a list of common Egyptian hieroglyphs compiled by Sir Alan Gardiner. It is considered a standard reference in the study of ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs. Gardiner lists only the common forms of Egyptian hieroglyphs, but he includes extensive subcategories, and also both vertical and horizontal forms for many hieroglyphs. He includes size-variation forms to aid with the reading of hieroglyphs in running blocks of text. In contrast, for example, the Budge Reference has about 1,000 hieroglyphs listed in 50 pages, but with no size variations. Gardiner does not cross-index signs; once a sign is put on one of his lists, other significant uses may be overlooked. One example of this is 𓅒 G16, nbtỉ, the ideogram for the Two Ladies, goddesses Wadjet as the cobra and Nekhbet as the white vulture. These are the protective and patron goddesses of the separate Egyptian kingdoms that joined into ancient Egypt, who were both then displayed on the uraeus of Wadjet when the unification occurred and afterward considered jointly to be the protectors of Egypt and the pharaohs. This ideogram is listed only in the bird list (G), and overlooked on the deity list (C) and the reptile list (I).


id: list-of-grammatical-cases-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_grammatical_cases-0.md
category: reference
title: List of grammatical cases
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_grammatical_cases
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:40.445790+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-grammatical-cases-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of grammatical cases as they are used by various inflectional languages that have declension. This list will mark the case, when it is used, an example of it, and then finally what language(s) the case is used in. == Location and movement == Note: Most cases used for location and motion can be used for time as well. === Location === === Motion from === === Motion to === === Motion via === === Time === === Chart for review for the basic cases === == Morphosyntactic alignment == For meanings of the terms agent, patient, experiencer, and instrument, see thematic relation. == Relation == == Semantics == == State == == References ==


id: grammatical-mood-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_mood-0.md
category: reference
title: Grammatical mood
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_mood
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:41.638208+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: grammatical-mood-20260505-0
summary:
In linguistics, grammatical mood is a grammatical feature of verbs, used for signaling modality. In other words, it is the use of verbal inflections that allow speakers to express their attitude toward what they are saying (for example, a statement of fact, of desire, of command, etc.). The term is also used more broadly to describe the syntactic expression of modality – that is, the use of verb phrases that do not involve inflection of the verb itself. Mood is distinct from grammatical tense or grammatical aspect, although the same word patterns are used for expressing more than one of these meanings at the same time in many languages, including English and most other modern Indo-European languages. (See tense–aspect–mood for a discussion of this.) Some examples of moods are indicative, interrogative, imperative, subjunctive, injunctive, optative, and irrealis/potential. These are all finite forms of the verb. Infinitives, gerunds, and participles, which are non-finite forms of the verb, are not considered to be examples of moods. Some Uralic Samoyedic languages have more than ten moods; Nenets has as many as sixteen. The original Indo-European inventory of moods consisted of indicative, subjunctive, optative, and imperative. Not every Indo-European language has all of these


id: grammatical-mood-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_mood-1.md
category: reference
title: Grammatical mood
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_mood
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:41.638208+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: grammatical-mood-20260505-0
summary:
The conditional mood is used for speaking of an event whose realization is dependent upon another condition, particularly, but not exclusively, in conditional sentences. In Modern English, this type of modality is expressed via a periphrastic construction, with the form would + infinitive, (for example, I would buy), and thus is a mood only in the broad sense and not in the more common narrow sense of the term "mood" requiring morphological changes in the verb. In other languages, verbs have a specific conditional inflection. In German, the conditional mood is identical to one of the two subjunctive moods (Konjunktiv II, see above). In the Romance languages, the conditional form is used primarily in the apodosis (main clause) of conditional sentences, and in a few set phrases where it expresses courtesy or doubt. The main verb in the protasis (dependent clause) is usually in the subjunctive or in the indicative mood. However, this is not a universal trait and among others in German (as above), Finnish, and Romanian (even though the last is a Romance language), the conditional mood is used in both the apodosis and the protasis. A further example is a sentence "I would buy a house if


id: grammatical-mood-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_mood-2.md
category: reference
title: Grammatical mood
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_mood
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:41.638208+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: grammatical-mood-20260505-0
summary:
The presumptive mood is used to express presupposition or hypothesis, regardless of the fact denoted by the verb, as well as other more or less similar attitudes: doubt, curiosity, concern, condition, indifference, and inevitability. It is used in Romanian, Hindi, Gujarati, and Punjabi. In Romanian, the presumptive mood conjugations of the verb vrea are used with the infinitive form of verbs. The present tense and the past tense infinitives are respectively used to form the present and the past tense of the presumptive mood. In Hindi, the presumptive mood conjugations of the verb honā (to be) are used with the perfective, habitual, and progressive aspectual participles to form the perfective presumptive, habitual presumptive, and the progressive presumptive moods. The same presumptive mood conjugations are used for present, future, and past tenses. Note: The translations are just the closest possible English approximations and not exact. Only masculine conjugations are shown for Hindi. === Hypothetical === A few languages use a hypothetical mood, which is used in sentences such as "you could have cut yourself", representing something that might have happened but did not. === Inferential === The inferential mood is used to report unwitnessed events without confirming them. Often, there is


id: greenberg-s-linguistic-universals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenberg's_linguistic_universals-0.md
category: reference
title: Greenberg's linguistic universals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenberg's_linguistic_universals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:42.812249+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: greenberg-s-linguistic-universals-20260505-0
summary:
The American linguist Joseph Greenberg (1915–2001) proposed a set of linguistic universals based primarily on a set of 30 languages. The following list is verbatim from the list printed in the appendix of Greenberg's Universals of Language and "Universals Restated", sorted by context. The numbering is fixed to keep Greenberg's number associations as these are commonly referenced by number; e.g.: "Greenberg's linguistic universal number 12". == Typology == "In declarative sentences with nominal subject and object, the dominant order is almost always one in which the subject precedes the object." "In languages with prepositions, the genitive almost always follows the governing noun, while in languages with postpositions it almost always precedes." "Languages with dominant VSO order are always prepositional." "With overwhelmingly greater than chance frequency, languages with normal SOV order are postpositional." "If a language has dominant SOV order and the genitive follows the governing noun, then the adjective likewise follows the noun." "All languages with dominant VSO order have SVO as an alternative or as the only alternative basic order." == Syntax == == Morphology == == References ==


id: index-of-linguistics-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_linguistics_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of linguistics articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_linguistics_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:57.009286+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-linguistics-articles-20260505-0
summary:
Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. Someone who engages in this study is called a linguist. == A == Abbreviation - Abessive case - Ablaut - Absolutive case - Abugida - Accusative case - Acute accent - Accent (phonetics) - Accent (sociolinguistics) - Acronym - Adessive case - Adjective - Adjunct - Adposition - Adpositional phrase - Adverb - Adverbial - Adverbial phrase - Affix - Affricate consonant - Agglutination - Agglutinative language - Allative case - Allomorph - Allophone - Alphabet - Analytic language - Anaphora - Animacy - Anthropological linguistics - Alveolar consonant - Antonym - Aorist - Applied linguistics - Approximant - Areal feature - Article - Articulatory gestures - Articulatory phonetics - Aspect - Asterisk - Attrition - Attraction - Augment (Bantu languages) - Augment (Indo-European) - Auxiliary verb == B == Back-formation - Backronym - Bilabial consonant - Breathy voice - Breve == C == Calque - Capitalization - Capitonym - Cardinal vowel - Case - Case in tiers - Cedilla - Chiasmus - Circumfix - Circumflex - Clefting - Click consonant - Closed-class word - Cognate - Cognitive science - Coherence - Colloquialism - Comitative case - Comparative - Comparative linguistics -


id: iron-metaphor-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_(metaphor)-0.md
category: reference
title: Iron (metaphor)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_(metaphor)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:58.214234+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: iron-metaphor-20260505-0
summary:
Iron, when used metaphorically, refers to certain traits of the metal iron. Used as an adjective and sometimes as a noun, it refers to something stern, harsh, strong, unyielding, inflexible, rigid, sturdy, strong, robust, hard. == List of iron metaphors == === Persons and characters === Iron Duke (disambiguation) Iron Felix (disambiguation) Iron Lady (disambiguation) Iron Man (disambiguation) Iron Mike (disambiguation) Princess Iron Fan (disambiguation) Otto von Bismarck, known as the Iron Chancellor Iron Chef, a Japanese cooking show Joseph LaFlesche, known as Iron Eye Iron Eyes Cody, Sicilian-American actor The Iron Heinrich, a rough translation of the German fairy tale The Frog Prince Iron Heroes, a variant book of rules for the game Dungeons & Dragons Iron John, a German fairy tale Eon Kid, English title of the TV series Iron Kid Iron Lad, a fictional superhero Iron Maniac, an evil alternative universe character of fictional Marvel superhero Iron Man Iron Munro, a fictional superhero Persephone, known as the Iron Queen Hossein Khosrow Ali Vaziri, known as the Iron Sheik Iron Shell, Brule Sioux chief Iron Tail, Oglala Sioux warrior Tigran Petrosian, known as Iron Tigran Timur as a name, meaning iron in Turkic languages, widespread in Western and


id: list-of-language-creators-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_language_creators-0.md
category: reference
title: List of language creators
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_language_creators
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:59.391484+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-language-creators-20260505-0
summary:
A language creator, sometimes referred to as a conlanger (), is a person who invents constructed languages (or "conlangs"). == Professional language creators == Individuals who have been hired to create languages. Victoria Fromkin - Paku (a.k.a. Pakuni) Paul Frommer - Na'vi, Barsoomian Madhan Karky - Kiliki Marc Okrand - Klingon, Vulcan, Atlantean Matt Pearson - Thhtmaa David J. Peterson - Dothraki, Valyrian, Kastithanu (Castithan), L'Irathi (Irathient), Indojisnen, Sondiv, Shiväisith, Lishepus, Trigedasleng, Noalath, Inha, Munja'kin John H. G. Scott - Baldung (for Archive 81) Britton Watkins - Yautja (for Predator: Badlands) Wolf Wikeley - Tho Fan == Published international auxiliary language creators == Individuals who have created languages intended for international communication. George Boeree: Lingua Franca Nova Léon Bollack: Bolak Louis Couturat and Louis de Beaufront: Ido language Alexander Gode: Interlingua Lancelot Hogben: Interglossa Otto Jespersen: Novial Francis Lodwick: Common Writing Jackson Moore: Moss François Sudre: Solresol Charles Kay Ogden: Basic English Giuseppe Peano: Latino sine flexione Waldemar Rosenberger: Idiom Neutral Johann Martin Schleyer: Volapük Kenneth Searight: Sona Edgar de Wahl: Interlingue John Wilkins: unnamed universal language L. L. Zamenhof: Esperanto == Published zonal auxiliary language creators == Individuals who have created zonal auxiliary languages intended to facilitate communication speakers


id: list-of-latin-script-alphabets-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Latin-script_alphabets-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Latin-script alphabets
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Latin-script_alphabets
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:01.086550+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-latin-script-alphabets-20260505-0
summary:
The lists and tables below summarize and compare the letter inventories of some of the Latin-script alphabets. In this article, the scope of the word "alphabet" is broadened to include letters with tone marks, and other diacritics used to represent a wide range of orthographic traditions, without regard to whether or how they are sequenced in their alphabet or the table. Parentheses indicate characters not used in modern standard orthographies of the languages, but used in obsolete and/or dialectal forms. == Letters contained in the ISO basic Latin alphabet == === Alphabets that contain only ISO basic Latin letters === Among alphabets for natural languages the English,[36] Indonesian, and Malay alphabets only use the 26 letters in both cases. Among alphabets for constructed languages the Ido and Interlingua alphabets only use the 26 letters, while Toki Pona uses a 14-letter subset. ==== Extended by ligatures ==== German (ß), Scandinavian (æ) ==== Extended by diacritical marks ==== Spanish (ñ), German (ä, ö, and ü) ==== Extended by multigraphs ==== Filipino (ng) Old French (ch) === Alphabets that contain all ISO basic Latin letters === Among alphabets for natural languages the Afrikaans,[54] Aromanian, Azerbaijani (some dialects),[53] Basque,[4] Celtic British, Catalan,[6] Cornish, Czech,[8]


id: list-of-latin-script-alphabets-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Latin-script_alphabets-1.md
category: reference
title: List of Latin-script alphabets
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Latin-script_alphabets
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:01.086550+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-latin-script-alphabets-20260505-0
summary:
=== Notes === ↑↑↑↑ In classical Latin, the digraphs ⟨ch⟩, ⟨ph⟩, ⟨rh⟩, ⟨th⟩ were used in loanwords from Greek, but they were not included in the alphabet. The ligatures ⟨æ⟩, ⟨œ⟩ and ⟨w⟩, as well as lowercase letters, were added to the alphabet only in Middle Ages. The letters ⟨j⟩ and ⟨u⟩ were used as typographical variants of ⟨i⟩ and ⟨v⟩, respectively, roughly until the Enlightenment. ↑↑↑↑ In Afrikaans, ⟨c⟩ and ⟨q⟩ are only (and ⟨x⟩ and ⟨z⟩ almost only) used in loanwords. ↑↑↑↑ Albanian officially has the digraphs ⟨dh, gj, ll, nj, rr, sh, th, xh, zh⟩, which is sufficient to represent the Tosk dialect. The Gheg dialect supplements the official alphabet with 6 nasal vowels, namely ⟨â, ê, î, ô, û, ŷ⟩. ↑↑↑↑ Arbëresh officially has the digraphs ⟨dh, gj, hj, ll, nj, rr, sh, th, xh, zh⟩. Arbëresh has the distinctive ⟨hj⟩, which is considered as a letter in its own right. ↑↑ Achomi also has the digraph ⟨a'⟩. ↑↑↑↑ Azeri only uses the letter ⟨ä⟩ as a substitute for ⟨ə⟩ if the latter cannot be used (it was replaced by the schwa one year later because it is the most common letter). These cases should be


id: list-of-latin-script-alphabets-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Latin-script_alphabets-2.md
category: reference
title: List of Latin-script alphabets
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Latin-script_alphabets
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:01.086550+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-latin-script-alphabets-20260505-0
summary:
Many pairs or triplets are read as digraphs or trigraphs depending on context, but are not treated as such lexicographically: consonants ⟨ph, (ng), th, gu/gü, qu, ce, ch/(sh/sch), rh⟩; vocal vowels ⟨(ee), ai/ay, ei/ey, eu, au/eau, ou⟩; nasal vowels ⟨ain/aim, in/im/ein, un/um/eun, an/am, en/em, om/on⟩; the half-consonant -⟨(i)ll⟩-; half-consonant and vowel pairs ⟨oi, oin/ouin, ien, ion⟩. When rules that govern the French orthography are not observed, they are read as separate letters, or using an approximating phonology of a foreign language for loan words, and there are many exceptions. In addition, most final consonants are mute (including those consonants that are part of feminine, plural, and conjugation endings). ⟨ÿ⟩ and ⟨ü⟩ are only used in certain geographical names and proper names plus their derivatives, or, in the case of ⟨ü⟩ with diaeresis, newly proposed reforms, e.g. capharnaüm 'shambles' is derived from the proper name Capharnaüm. ⟨æ⟩ occurs only in Latin or Greek loanwords. ↑ Fula has ⟨x⟩ as part of the alphabet in all countries except Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, and Sierra Leone (used only in loanwords in these countries). ⟨ɠ⟩, which is used only in loanwords (but still part of the alphabet), is used in Guinea only. Fula also uses


id: list-of-latin-script-alphabets-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Latin-script_alphabets-3.md
category: reference
title: List of Latin-script alphabets
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Latin-script_alphabets
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:01.086550+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-latin-script-alphabets-20260505-0
summary:
Y is used only in certain dialects and not in the standard language. F and H are only used in loanwords. ↑↑↑↑ A nearby language, Pite Sami, uses Lule Sami orthography but also includes the letters ⟨đ⟩ and ⟨ŧ⟩, which are not in Lule Sami. ↑↑↑↑ Lithuanian also has the digraphs: ⟨ch, dz, dž, ie, uo⟩. However, these are not considered separate letters of the alphabet. F, H, and the digraph CH are only used in loanwords. Demanding publications such as dictionaries, maps, schoolbooks etc. need additional diacritical marks to differentiate homographs. Using grave accent on A, E, I, O, U, acute accent on all vowels, and tilde accent on all vowels and on L, M, N and R. Small E and I (also with ogonek) must retain the dot when additional accent mark is added to the character; the use of ì and í (with missing dot) is considered unacceptable. ↑↑↑↑ In Livonian, the letters Ö, Ȫ, Y, Ȳ were used by the older generation, but the younger generation merged these sounds; Around the late 1990s, these letters were removed from the alphabet. ↑↑↑↑ Maltese also has the digraphs: ⟨ie, għ⟩. ↑ Māori only uses ⟨g⟩ in ⟨ng⟩ digraph.


id: list-of-latin-script-alphabets-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Latin-script_alphabets-4.md
category: reference
title: List of Latin-script alphabets
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Latin-script_alphabets
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:01.086550+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-latin-script-alphabets-20260505-0
summary:
⟨i⟩ or ⟨u⟩] and, when both are closed, generally over the first". In this context, the use of ⟨ï⟩ is rare, but part of the normative orthography. ↑ Swedish uses ⟨é⟩ in well integrated loan words like idé and armé, although ⟨é⟩ is considered a modified ⟨e⟩, while ⟨å⟩, ⟨ä⟩, ⟨ö⟩ are letters. ⟨á⟩ and ⟨à⟩ are rarely used words. ⟨w⟩ and ⟨z⟩ are used in some integrated words like webb and zon. ⟨q⟩, ⟨ü⟩, ⟨è⟩, and ⟨ë⟩ are used for names only, but exist in Swedish names. For foreign names ⟨ó⟩, ⟨ç⟩, ⟨ñ⟩ and more are sometimes used, but usually not. Swedish has many digraphs and some trigraphs. ⟨ch, dj, lj, rl, rn, rs, sj, sk, si, ti, sch, skj, stj⟩ and others are usually pronounced as one sound. ↑↑↑↑ Tswana also has the digraphs: ⟨kg, kh, ng, ph, th, tl, tlh, ts, tsh, tš, tšh⟩. The letters ⟨c⟩, ⟨q⟩, and ⟨x⟩ only appear in onomatopoeic and loanwords. The letters ⟨v⟩ and ⟨z⟩ only appear in loanwords. ↑↑↑↑ Turkmen had a slightly different alphabet in 1993–1995 (which used some rare letters) ⟨ý⟩ was written as ⟨ÿ⟩ (capital ⟨¥⟩), ⟨ň⟩ as ⟨ñ⟩, ⟨ş⟩ as ⟨¢⟩ (capital ⟨$⟩), and ⟨ž⟩ as


id: leipzig-jakarta-list-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leipzig–Jakarta_list-0.md
category: reference
title: Leipzig–Jakarta list
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leipzig–Jakarta_list
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:02.231607+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: leipzig-jakarta-list-20260505-0
summary:
The Leipzig–Jakarta list of 100 words is used by linguists to test the degree of chronological separation of languages by comparing words that are resistant to borrowing. The Leipzig–Jakarta list became available in 2009. The word list is named after the cities of Leipzig, Germany, and Jakarta, Indonesia, the places where the list was conceived and created. In the 1950s, the linguist Morris Swadesh published a list of 200 words called the Swadesh list, allegedly the 200 lexical concepts found in all languages that were least likely to be borrowed from other languages. Swadesh later whittled his list down to 100 items. The Swadesh list, however, was based mainly on intuition, according to Martin Haspelmath and Uri Tadmor. In origin, the words in the Swadesh lists were chosen for their universal, culturally independent availability in as many languages as possible, regardless of their "stability". Nevertheless, the stability of the resulting list of "universal" vocabulary under language change and the potential use of this fact for purposes of glottochronology have been analyzed by numerous authors, including Marisa Lohr 1999, 2000. The Swadesh list was put together by Morris Swadesh on the basis of his intuition. Similar more recent lists, such as


id: list-of-language-reforms-of-english-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_language_reforms_of_English-0.md
category: reference
title: List of language reforms of English
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_language_reforms_of_English
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:03.341301+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-language-reforms-of-english-20260505-0
summary:
For centuries, many people have called for language reforms of English, which vary in approach from the radical (completely overhauling existing conventions) to the conservative (preserving most while removing irregularities). Phonetic alphabets limited to English do not belong here. See Category:Phonetic alphabets. == Spelling reforms == Spelling reforms are attempts to regularize English spelling either by reducing the number of irregularities or by making it completely phonemic. This may be done using the existing basic English alphabet more uniformly (basic), by adding diacritics (diacriticized), by adding new letters (extended), by removing letters in the script or writing (squeezed), by removing letters and replacing it by new ones (altered) or by replacing it entirely (replaced). Such proposals include: == Subsets == Subsets are reforms that use a restricted wordlist and grammar. English subsets include: Attempto Controlled English Aviation English Basic English ClearTalk Common Logic Controlled English E-Prime Gellish Formal English Globish Learning English Logical English ModeLang Newspeak (fictional) Plain English Processable English (PENG) Seaspeak SBVR Structured English Simplified Technical English Specialized English == Vocabulary reforms == Vocabulary reforms seek to reform English by changing or restricting its words without changing its grammar. Anglish: the use of native (Germanic) words only, and


id: list-of-linguists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of linguists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:04.693680+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-linguists-20260505-0
summary:
A linguist in the academic sense is a person who studies natural language (an academic discipline known as linguistics). Ambiguously, the word is sometimes also used to refer to a polyglot (one who knows several languages), a translator/interpreter (especially in the military), or a grammarian (a scholar of grammar), but these uses of the word are distinct (and one does not have to be multilingual in order to be an academic linguist). The following is a list of notable academic linguists. In the list, the description is presented as: surname, given name (country, year of birth–year of death), main achievement == A == Abbott, Barbara (United States, 1943–), pragmatics, semantics Abel, Carl (Germany, 1837–1906), comparative lexicography Abdul Haq, Maulvi (India, 1870–1961), Urdu language Abrams, Lise (United States), psycholinguistics Abramson, Arthur S. (United States, 1925–2017), phonetics Adamou, Evangelia (France), language contact Adams, Douglas Q. (United States), English language, comparative linguistics, Tocharian language Adler, George J. (Germany/United States, 1821–1868), lexicography, German language, English language Aijmer, Karin (Sweden, 1939–), pragmatics, semantics Aikhenvald, Alexandra Yurievna (Russia, 1957–), syntax, typology, Amazonian languages, Papuan languages, Hebrew language, Russian language Aitken, Adam Jack (UK, 1921–1998), lexicography Ajduković, Jovan (Serbia, 1968–), Slavic languages, sociolinguistics, contact linguistics, Russian language,


id: list-of-linguists-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists-1.md
category: reference
title: List of linguists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:04.693680+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-linguists-20260505-0
summary:
== C == Caland, Willem (Netherlands, 1859–1932), historical linguistics, Sanskrit Campbell, Lyle (United States, 1942–), Native American languages, historical linguistics Canger, Una (Denmark, 1938–), Mesoamerican languages Canonge, Elliott D. (United States, 1921–1971), Comanche, Inuit Capell, Arthur (Australia, 1902–1986), Australian languages, Austronesian languages, Papuan languages Cardona, George (United States, 1936–), Indo-European studies Carnap, Rudolf (Germany, 1891–1970), syntax, constructed languages Carnie, Andrew (Canada, 1969–), syntax Caro Baroja, Julio (1914–1995), Basque language Caro, Miguel A. (Colombia, 1843–1909), Spanish language, Colombian Spanish Carpenter, William Henry (United States, 1853–1936), Icelandic language Cart, Théophile (France, 1855–1931), Esperanto Carter, Hazel (UK, 1928–2016), Bantu languages Catford, J. C. (UK, 1917–2009), phonetics Chadwick, John (UK, 1920–1998), Linear B Chafik, Mohamed (Morocco, 1926–), writer and specialist in the Berber or Amazigh languages, dialects, and literature Chafe, Wallace (United States, 1927–2019), cognitive linguistics, semantics Chao Yuen Ren (China, 1892–1982), Chinese language Chakrabarti, Byomkes (India, 1923–1981), Santali language, Bengali language, comparative linguistics Champollion, Jean-François (France, 1790–1832), Egyptian hieroglyphs Chambers, Jack (Canada, 1938–), sociolinguistics Chatterji, Suniti Kumar (India, 1890–1977), Bengali language Chelliah, Shobhana, Tibeto-Burman languages Chierchia, Gennaro (Italy, 1953–), semantics, pragmatics Choijinzhab (PR China, 1931–2022), Mongolian language Chomsky, Noam (United States, 1928–), syntax, universal grammar Choueiri, Lina (Lebanon), syntax, Lebanese Arabic Chyet, Michael


id: list-of-linguists-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists-2.md
category: reference
title: List of linguists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:04.693680+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-linguists-20260505-0
summary:
== F == Fairuzabadi (Iran, 1329–1414), lexicography, Arabic grammar Farhady, Hossein (Iran, born 1947), Iranian applied linguist Fassi Fehri, Abdelkader (Morocco, 1947–), Arabic syntax Fierz-David, Linda (Germany, 1891–1955), philology Fillmore, Charles J. (United States, 1929–2014), syntax, lexical semantics, cognitive linguistics, lexicography Firbas, Jan (Czech Republic, 1921–2000), English language, functional linguistics Firth, John Rupert (UK, 1890–1960), phonetics, phonology, prosody Fischer-Jørgensen, Eli (Denmark 1911–2010), phonetics, phonology, Danish language Fishman, Joshua (United States, 1926–2015), sociology of language Fiske, Willard (United States, 1831–1904), Northern European languages, Icelandic language Fodor, Janet Dean (United States, 1942–2023), psycholinguistics, semantics, syntax Fodor, Jerry Alan (United States, 1935–2017), psycholinguistics, language of thought Foley, William A. (Australia, 1949–), Papuan languages, Austronesian languages Ford, Jeremiah Denis Mathias (United States, 1873–1958), Spanish language Fowler, Carol A. (United States), phonetics, phonology François, Alexandre (France), Austronesian languages, historical linguistics, language contact Freiman, Aleksandr Arnoldovich (Poland/Russia, 1879–1968), Iranian languages French, David Heath (United States, 1918–1994), Native American languages Friedrich, Johannes (Germany, 1893–1972), Hittite language Fromkin, Victoria (United States, 1923–2000), theoretical linguistics, constructed languages Fujitani Nariakira (Japan, 1738–1779), Japanese language == G == Galloway, Brent D. (United States, 1944–2014), Amerindian languages, Halkomelem language Gamkrelidze, Thomas V. (Georgia, 1929–2021), Indo-European studies, Georgian language Gans, Eric (United States,


id: list-of-linguists-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists-3.md
category: reference
title: List of linguists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:04.693680+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-linguists-20260505-0
summary:
== H == Haarmann, Harald (Germany, 1946–), evolutionary linguistics, language contact Haas, Mary Rosamund (United States, 1910–1996), Native American languages, Thai language, historical linguistics Haase, Martin (Germany, 1962–), Romance languages Hagberg, Carl August (Sweden, 1810–1864), Scandinavian languages Hajič, Jan (Czech Republic), computational linguistics Hajičová, Eva (Czech Republic, 1935–), corpus linguistics Hale, Kenneth Locke (United States, 1934–2001), syntax, phonology Hall, Kira (United States, 1962–), sociocultural linguistics Hall, Robert A., Jr. (United States, 1911–1997), Romance languages, Pidgins and Creoles Halle, Morris (Latvia/United States, 1923–2018), phonology, morphology Halliday, Michael Alexander Kirkwood (UK/Australia, 1925–2018), systemic functional grammar, ecolinguistics, applied linguistics Hammarström, Harald (Sweden, 1977–), computational linguistics, historical linguistics, linguistic typology Hammond, Michael (United States, 1957–), phonology, computational linguistics, syntax Hamp, Eric P. (United States, 1920–2019), Indo-European languages, Native American languages Hanzeli, Victor (United States, 1925–1991), Romance languages Haq, Mehr Abdul (Pakistan, 1915–1995), Saraiki language Harder, Peter (Denmark, 1950–), English language, functional linguistics Harkavy, Alexander (Belarus/United States, 1863–1939), Yiddish language, lexicography Harley, Heidi B. (United States, 1969–), distributed morphology, syntax Harrington, John Peabody (United States, 1884–1961), Native American languages, phonetics Alice C. Harris (United States, 1947-), Kartvelian languages, historical linguistics Harris, Roy (UK, 1931–2015), semiology, integrationism Harris, Zellig Sabbetai (Ukraine/United States, 1909–1992), structural linguistics, discourse


id: list-of-linguists-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists-4.md
category: reference
title: List of linguists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:04.693680+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-linguists-20260505-0
summary:
== K == Kaplan, Ronald M. (United States, 1946—), computational linguistics Karadžić, Vuk Stefanović (Serbia, 1787—1864), Serbian language, lexicography Kari, James (United States), Native American languages Kasravi, Ahmad (Iran, 1890—1946), ancient languages, Iranian languages Katz, Jerrold J. (United States, 1932—2002), semantics, generative grammar Kaufman, Terrence (United States, 1937—2022), historical linguistics, contact linguistics, Mesoamerican languages Kay, Martin (UK, United States, 1935–2021), computational linguistics Kay, Paul (United States, 1934—), construction grammar Kayne, Richard S. (United States, 1944—), syntax, transformational grammar Kazama Kiyozō (Japan, 1928–), Japanese language Keating, Patricia (United States, 1952—), phonetics Kellogg, Samuel H. (United States, 1839–1899), Hindi language Kenyon, John Samuel (United States, 1874—1959), English language, lexicography, phonology Keyser, Samuel Jay (United States, 1935–), phonology, English language Kiesling, Scott Fabius (United States), sociolinguistics Kindaichi Haruhiko (Japan, 1913–2004), Japanese language Kindaichi Kyōsuke (Japan, 1882–1971), Ainu language Kinkade, M. Dale (United States, 1933—2004), Salishan languages Kiparsky, Paul (Finland/United States, 1941–), phonology, morphology Kirby, Simon (UK), computational linguistics, evolutionary linguistics Klima, Edward (United States, 1931—2008), sign language Klinkenberg, Jean-Marie (Belgium, 1944–), rhetorics, semiotics, stylistics Kloekhorst, Alwin (Netherlands, 1978–), Anatolian languages Knechtges, David R. (United States, 1942–), East Asian languages, Chinese language Knorozov, Yuri Valentinovich (Russia, 1922—1999), Maya hieroglyphics, writing systems Kober, Alice (UK/United


id: list-of-linguists-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists-5.md
category: reference
title: List of linguists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:04.693680+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-linguists-20260505-0
summary:
== M == MacWhinney, Brian (United States, 1945–), language acquisition, second-language acquisition, corpus linguistics Maddieson, Ian (United States, 1942–), phonetics Fray Francisco Maldonado (1571– c. 1640), Guatemalan Franciscan linguist and historian Manzini, Rita (Italy), generative syntax, Romance languages Malkiel, Yakov (United States, 1914–1998), etymology, philology Manaster Ramer, Alexis (United States/Poland, 1956–), phonology, syntax, poetics, etymology Marantz, Alec (United States, 1959–), distributed morphology March, Francis Andrew (United States, 1825–1911), comparative linguistics, lexicography, Old English language, English language Margolis, Max Leopold (Lithuania/United States, 1866–1932), Semitic languages Marr, Nikolay Yakovlevich (Georgia/Russia, 1865–1934), historical linguistics, comparative linguistics, origin of language Martin, James (Sydney, Australia, 1950–), genre Martin, Samuel Elmo (United States, 1924–2009), Korean language, Japanese language Martinet, André (France, 1908–1999), structuralism, historical linguistics, constructed languages Martinet, Jeanne (France, 1920–2018), semiotics, constructed languages Massam, Diane (Canada), syntax, Austronesian languages Matasović, Ranko (Croatia, 1968–), historical linguistics, Celtic languages Mathesius, Vilém (Czech Republic, 1882– 1945), phonology, syntax, English language, Czech language Matisoff, James A. (United States, 1937–), Tibeto-Burman languages, phonology Matthews, Peter Hugoe (UK, 1934–2023), morphology, syntax Matthews, Stephen (UK/PR China), typology, syntax, semantics, Cantonese language Mattingly, Ignatius G. (United States, 1927–2004), phonetics, speech synthesis, speech perception Matveyev, Aleksandr (Russia, 1926–2010), onomastics, etymology McArthur, Tom (UK, 1938–2020),


id: list-of-linguists-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists-6.md
category: reference
title: List of linguists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:04.693680+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-linguists-20260505-0
summary:
== P == Pāṇini (India, ca. 520–460 BC), Sanskrit, morphology, descriptive linguistics, generative linguistics Frank R. Palmer (England, 1922–2019), semantics, English language, Ethiopian languages Partee, Barbara Hall (United States, 1940–), semantics Paul, Hermann Otto Theodor (Germany, 1846–1921), lexicography, German language Pawley, Andrew Kenneth (Australia/New Zealand, 1941–2026), Austronesian languages, Papuan languages, lexicography, phraseology Peacock, Dmitri Rudolf (Britain, 1842–1892), Kartvelian languages Pedersen, Holger (Denmark, 1867–1953), Celtic languages, historical linguistics, Nostratic languages Pedersen, Johannes (Denmark, 1883–1977), Hebrew language Pei, Mario Andrew (Italy/United States, 1901–1978), Italian language, Indo-European languages Pesetsky, David Michael (United States, 1957–), transformational grammar Keith Malcolm Petyt (UK, 1941–), sociolinguistics Phillipson, Robert (UK/Denmark, 1942–), language policy Pierrehumbert, Janet (United States, 1954–), phonetics, phonology Piller, Ingrid (Australia, 1967–), applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, intercultural communication Pinault, Georges-Jean (France, 1955–), Tokharian, Indo-European linguistics Pike, Kenneth Lee (United States, 1912–2000), English language, constructed languages, tagmemics Pilch, Herbert (Germany, 1927–2018), Old English, Celtic languages, phonetics Pimsleur, Paul (United States, 1927–1976), language acquisition, French language, phonetics Pinker, Steven (Canada/United States, 1954–), language acquisition, syntax, semantics Piron, Claude (Switzerland, 1931–2008), Esperanto, psycholinguistics Polinsky, Maria (United States), syntax, Austronesian languages Pollard, Carl Jesse (United States, 1947–), syntax, semantics Pollock, Jean-Yves (France, 1946–), syntax Poplack, Shana (United States), sociolinguistics Poppe, Nicholas


id: list-of-linguists-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists-7.md
category: reference
title: List of linguists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:04.693680+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-linguists-20260505-0
summary:
== S == Sacks, Harvey (United States, 1935–1975), conversation analysis Sadock, Jerrold (United States), syntax, morphology, pragmatics, Greenlandic language, Yiddish language Sag, Ivan (United States, 1949–2013), syntax, construction grammar Sagart, Laurent (France, 1951–), Chinese linguistics and Austronesian languages Sakaguchi, Alicja (Poland/Germany, 1954–), interlinguistics, Esperanto Shakirova, Liya (Soviet Union/Russia, 1921–2015), Russian language Salo, David (United States, 1969–), constructed languages, Tocharian languages, Elvish languages Sampson, Geoffrey (UK, 1944–), philosophy of language Sánchez Carrión, José María (Spain, 1952–), Basque language, sociolinguistics, historical linguistics Sanders, Ted (Netherlands, 1963–), Coherence in text, discourse Sankoff, Gillian (Canada, 1943–), sociolinguistics Sankrityayan, Rahul (India, 1893–1963), Tibetan language, Hindi language Sapir, Edward (Germany/United States, 1884–1939), Native American languages, constructed languages, semantics Sarkar, Prabhat Ranjan (India, 1921–1990), Transliteration, Science of Letters Saunders, Irene (United States/PR China), lexicography, Chinese language de Saussure, Ferdinand (Switzerland/France, 1857–1913), semantics, Indo-European studies, structural linguistics Saxon, Leslie (Canada), First Nations languages Sayce, Archibald Henry (UK, 1846–1933), Akkadian language Schegloff, Emanuel (United States, 1937–), conversation analysis Schleicher, August (Germany, 1821–1868), Indo-European studies, language development, historical linguistics Schmidt, Johannes (Germany, 1843–1901), historical linguistics, Indo-European studies Schmidt, Richard (United States, 1941–2017), second-language acquisition Schmidt, Wilhelm (Germany/Austria/Switzerland, 1868–1954), Mon–Khmer languages Searle, John Rogers (United States, 1932–), philosophy of language, pragmatics


id: list-of-linguists-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists-8.md
category: reference
title: List of linguists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:04.693680+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-linguists-20260505-0
summary:
== W == Wackernagel, Jacob (Switzerland, 1853–1938), Indo-European studies, Sanskrit Wang Li (PR China, 1900–1986), Chinese language Watanabe Shōichi (Japan, 1930–2017), Japanese language Watkins, Calvert (United States, 1933–2013), comparative linguistics, Indo-European languages Weeks, Raymond (United States, 1863–1954), phonetics, French language Weinreich, Max (Latvia/United States, 1893– 1969), Yiddish language Weinreich, Uriel (Poland/United States, 1926–1967), sociolinguistics, dialectology, semantics, Yiddish language Wells, John Christopher (UK, 1939–), phonetics, Esperanto Westermann, Diedrich Hermann (Germany, 1875–1956), languages of Africa, typology Westphal, Ernst Oswald Johannes (South Africa/UK, 1919–1990), Bantu languages, Khoisan languages Whalen, Douglas H. (United States), phonology, endangered languages Wheeler, Benjamin Ide (United States, 1854–1927), historical linguistics, comparative linguistics, Greek language White, Lydia (UK/Canada, 1946–), second-language acquisition Whitney, William Dwight (United States, 1827–1894), lexicography, Sanskrit, English language Wilks, Yorick (UK, 1939–2023), artificial intelligence, computational linguistics, natural language processing, semantics Whorf, Benjamin Lee (United States, 1897–1941), Native American languages, Maya script, linguistic relativity Wichmann, Søren (Denmark, 1964–), Mesoamerican languages, Mixe–Zoque languages, Mayan languages, Maya script Widdowson, Henry G. (UK, 1935–), English language, discourse analysis Wierzbicka, Anna (Poland/Australia, 1938–), semantics, pragmatics Wiese, Richard (Germany, 1953–), phonology, morphology, neurolinguistics Williams, Nicholas Jonathan Anselm (UK/Ireland, 1942–), Cornish language, Irish language, Manx language, phonology Williams, Samuel Wells (United States/China, 1812–1884), Chinese


id: lists-of-countries-and-territories-by-official-language-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_countries_and_territories_by_official_language-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of countries and territories by official language
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_countries_and_territories_by_official_language
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:05.950216+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-countries-and-territories-by-official-language-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of lists of countries and territories by official language. List of countries and territories where Afrikaans or Dutch are official languages List of countries and territories where Arabic is an official language List of countries and territories where Chinese is an official language List of countries and territories where English is an official language List of countries and territories where French is an official language List of countries and territories where German is an official language List of countries and territories where Persian is an official language List of countries and territories where Romanian is an official language List of countries and territories where Russian is an official language List of countries and territories where Spanish is an official language List of countries and territories where Tamil is an official language == Other official languages == === Greek === === Hindustani === === Italian === === Malay === === Portuguese === === Turkish === == See also == List of official languages by country and territory De facto == References ==


id: list-of-multilingual-countries-and-regions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions-0.md
category: reference
title: List of multilingual countries and regions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:07.199573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-multilingual-countries-and-regions-20260505-0
summary:
This is an incomplete list of areas with either multilingualism at the community level or at the personal level. There is a distinction between social and personal bilingualism. Many countries, such as Belarus, Belgium, Canada, Finland, India, Ireland, South Africa and Switzerland, which are officially multilingual, may have many monolinguals in their population (Canada exemplifies this situation, as it is a country in which western provinces are predominantly anglophone while the province of Quebec, along with the bilingual New Brunswick, emphasize French prominence in the eastern side). Officially monolingual countries, on the other hand, such as France, can have sizable multilingual populations. Some countries have official languages but also have regional and local official languages, notably Brazil, China, Indonesia, Mexico, Philippines, Russia, Spain and Taiwan. == Africa == === Central Africa === Cameroon: French and English (both official), as well as Cameroonian Pidgin. Many ethnic and tribal languages including Basaa, Duala, Manenguba, Bikya, Bung, Fula, Kanuri, Ngumba, Yeni, Bamum, Bafia, Bakweri language and many others. Some also have fluency in the German, Portuguese and Spanish languages. Central African Republic: French & Sango (both official) and 50 other African languages. Chad: French and Arabic (both official) + more than 100 African


id: list-of-multilingual-countries-and-regions-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions-1.md
category: reference
title: List of multilingual countries and regions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:07.199573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-multilingual-countries-and-regions-20260505-0
summary:
=== West Africa === Benin: French (official) and many indigenous languages including Fon, Yoruba & Songhay (specifically Dendi). Burkina Faso: French (official), Moore and Jula (regional languages) and indigenous Sudanic languages. Cape Verde: Portuguese and Cape Verdean Creole. Côte d'Ivoire: French (official), Baule, Jula, and 60 other indigenous languages. Gambia: English (official), Mandinka, Wolof, Fula and others. Ghana: English (official), Akan, Dagaare/Wale, Dagbane, Dangme, Ewe, Ga, Gonja, Kasem, Nzema and 70 others. Guinea: French (official), Maninka, Fula and Susu. Guinea-Bissau: Portuguese (official), Kriol and indigenous languages. Liberia: English (official) and 20 African languages. Mali: French (official), Bambara (most widely spoken), Fula and Songhay (specifically Dendi). 11 languages are used as mediums of instruction in primary schools Niger: French (official) plus ten other languages recognised as national ones, including Hausa (spoken by half the population) and Songhay (specifically Zarma) Nigeria: English (official), Yoruba, Hausa and Igbo are the four languages of the parliament (each of which has over 20 million speakers) plus 529 other African languages (some of which have over a million speakers) and Pidgin. Senegal: French (official), Wolof (widely spoken), Fula (specifically Pulaar), Diola, Malinké, Sérère, Soninké (national languages) plus other African languages Sierra Leone: English (official), Krio (most


id: list-of-multilingual-countries-and-regions-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions-2.md
category: reference
title: List of multilingual countries and regions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:07.199573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-multilingual-countries-and-regions-20260505-0
summary:
=== North America === Canada is officially bilingual under the Official Languages Act and the Constitution of Canada that require the federal government to deliver services in both official languages: English and French. As well, minority language rights are guaranteed where numbers warrant. 56.9% of the population speak English as their first language while 22.9% are native speakers of French. The remaining population belong to some of Canada's many immigrant populations or to the indigenous population. See Bilingualism in Canada Alberta has a specific French policy since 2017. The Canadian province of British Columbia has a sizable population that speaks Mandarin or Cantonese, particularly in the city of Vancouver and its satellite town of Richmond. There is a provincial law on First Nations languages. The Canadian province of New Brunswick, with a large Acadian population (33% French-speaking) is officially bilingual. The Canadian province of Quebec, (7.9% English-speaking) Note: Quebec's largest city, Montreal, is a multilingual city with half the population having French as their mother tongue, and the other half having other languages (including English) as their mother tongue (see Language demographics of Quebec). A majority of Montrealers, whether they call themselves francophone, anglophone or allophone, know both French and


id: list-of-multilingual-countries-and-regions-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions-4.md
category: reference
title: List of multilingual countries and regions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:07.199573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-multilingual-countries-and-regions-20260505-0
summary:
=== South America === Argentina has several ethnic communities of European, Asian and indigenous origins (the Andean and northeast regions), who speak their own languages, but uses de facto Spanish as the official language of the country. In most of the country, there is a sizable but bilingual Italian-speaking population. Chaco Province recognises Qom, Moqoit y Wichi as official languages of the province along with Spanish Corrientes Province Guarani is recognised as the second official language Santiago del Estero Province gives official recognition to Quechua in its constitution Bolivia is officially multilingual, supporting Spanish and 36 native languages. Brazil, Portuguese (official) and upwards to 100 languages spoken mainly in the urban areas (European and Asian) and indigenous languages in the Amazon. The use of indigenous languages in primary education is enshrined in the constitution. Espírito Santo – German and East Pomeranian are recognized by constitution as part of the state's cultural heritage Rio de Janeiro – Yoruba, Bantu and Jeje (African Languages) are recognized by constitution as part of the state's cultural heritage Rio Grande do Sul – Talian (Italian dialect) and Riograndense Hünsrick (German dialect) are recognized by constitution as part of the state's cultural heritage Santa Catarina –


id: list-of-multilingual-countries-and-regions-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions-5.md
category: reference
title: List of multilingual countries and regions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:07.199573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-multilingual-countries-and-regions-20260505-0
summary:
=== East Asia === In Mainland China, Standard Mandarin (Putonghua) is the official language and is spoken in all regions. It is used for official and formal purposes, by the media, and in education as the language of instruction. However, on money notes, there are texts both in Mandarin (Han) and in Mongolian, Tibetan, Uyghur, and Zhuang. In every locality and region, local varieties of Chinese are spoken in daily life. These range from being quite similar to Putonghua, such as Tianjin dialect, to those that are mutually unintelligible with Putonghua such as Jiangsu, Zhejiang and Shanghai dialect (Wu) or Guangzhou dialect (Cantonese). In the autonomous regions, minority languages are used (such as Tibetan in Tibet or Mongolian in Inner Mongolia, Uyghur, Kazakh and others in Xinjiang). Japan: a special law provides for promotion of Ainu in Hokkaido Taiwan: A national language in Taiwan is legally defined as "a natural language used by an original people group of Taiwan and the Taiwan Sign Language". This includes Formosan languages, Hakka, Mandarin and Taiwanese. In Hong Kong, English and Chinese are official languages. All road signs are written in both languages. English is the dominant language in the judiciary and in higher


id: list-of-multilingual-countries-and-regions-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions-6.md
category: reference
title: List of multilingual countries and regions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:07.199573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-multilingual-countries-and-regions-20260505-0
summary:
Afghanistan: Pashto and Dari (Afghan Persian) are the official and most widely spoken languages in Afghanistan, with the former serving as a national language and the latter spoken as a lingua franca. Other minor languages include Uzbek and Turkmen, Balochi and Pashayi, Nuristani (Askunu, Kamkata-viri, Vasi-vari, Tregami and Kalasha-ala), Pamiri (Shughni, Munji, Ishkashimi and Wakhi), Brahui, Hindko, Kyrgyz. Bangladesh: Noidien Bengali is the official and most widely spoken language. However, there are many local languages (some of which are considered Bengali dialects, like Seletino, Nueklikos and Chetgonien) spoken in different regions of Bangladesh, as well as minority languages. Speakers of these languages are often bilingual in their local language and Standard Bangla. Additionally, the use of English is widespread in education and the judiciary in the country. In the CHT region, tribal languages like Genmanoos, Mouge/Reccen, Cucbarooco, Meru, Tensankês, Bomsche/Bomiano, Shö, Xumi, Sac, Penkaans, Lušei/Mizo, et cetera are spoken. Chetgonien and Nodien Bengali are the main dialects spoken in lower Chittagong. Chetgonien has a noticeable influence from Portuguese due to the historical presence of Portuguese traders and settlers in the area, which is much more pronounced in Chetgonien Bengali than Nodien Bengali. Chetgonien, as well as Seletino and other Bengali


id: list-of-multilingual-countries-and-regions-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions-7.md
category: reference
title: List of multilingual countries and regions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:07.199573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-multilingual-countries-and-regions-20260505-0
summary:
=== Southeast Asia === Brunei: Malay (official) and English Cambodia: Khmer is the official language, but French is spoken by a minority and sometimes used in government and education. Mandarin is spoken in business and commerce. East Timor – Tetum and Portuguese are the official languages; English and Indonesian "shall be working languages within the public administration side by side with official languages as long as it is deemed necessary" Indonesia is the largest bilingual country in the world, with approximately 200 million people speak more than one language. Indonesians speak about 746 different languages. Javanese has the most users in terms of native speakers (about 80 million). However, the sole official (or so-called "unity language") is Indonesian which has only 30 million L1 speakers (compared to Indonesia 260 million population). The role of Indonesian is important to glue together different ethnics and languages in Indonesia. Though Indonesian is considered the nation's only official language, regional governments have rights to conduct regional languages study at schools. Many people in Indonesia are bilingual at an early age. They speak a local native language with their families whereas the official Indonesian language is used to communicate with people from other regions and


id: list-of-multilingual-countries-and-regions-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions-8.md
category: reference
title: List of multilingual countries and regions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:07.199573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-multilingual-countries-and-regions-20260505-0
summary:
=== Western Asia === Bahrain: Arabic is the official language, and English is the most commonly used and studied second language, especially in education, international relations, and the media. In addition, Persian and Urdu are widely spoken. Cyprus has two official languages: Greek and Turkish. Both languages were spoken throughout the island before 1974. After 1974, and the partition of the island, Turkish became the sole official language in the Turkish-Cypriot-controlled north whereas the internationally recognized Republic of Cyprus retains both languages as official. English is also widely spoken and understood throughout the island. Armenian and Arabic are the two official minority language. In Iran, Persian is the only official language, but Azerbaijani (along with related varieties such as Qashqa'i and Kalaj) has upwards of 20 million speakers. Other minority languages include Kurdish, Turkmen, and Balochi. Assyrian is spoken by a Christian minority in the vicinity of Urmia. In the southwestern Iranian province of Khuzestan, most people speak Khuzestani Persian, Khuzestani Arabic, and Standard Persian, sometimes in addition to their own community languages such as Lur, Qashqa'i, Domari or Mandaic where applicable. None of the non-Persian languages are taught at schools. In Iraq, Arabic is the official language of the


id: list-of-multilingual-countries-and-regions-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions-9.md
category: reference
title: List of multilingual countries and regions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:07.199573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-multilingual-countries-and-regions-20260505-0
summary:
=== Central Europe === Austria has one official language: German. However, it also has Croatian and Slovenian minorities, all of whose languages are protected under federal laws. Certain functions are also guaranteed for Romany, Hungarian, Czech and Slovak in Vienna and Burgenland, under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In the Czech Republic, several municipalities of Trans-Olza area have official bilingualism (Czech and Polish). Bilingual signs are permitted if a minority constitutes at least a 10% of the population of the municipality. German is recognized as a minority language because of the previous visible German presence in Bohemia. Germany has German as its official national language. Low German is recognized as a regional language in at least five north German states. Lower Sorbian is an official minority language in Brandenburg, Upper Sorbian in Saxony, Sater Frisian in a part of Lower Saxony, and North Frisian varieties and Danish in Schleswig-Holstein. A language without its own territory, Romany (including the language of the Sinte people) is an official minority language as well. Germany is home to large numbers of people from other regions, and some of their languages, such as Turkish, Russian, and Polish, are widely used throughout the


id: list-of-multilingual-countries-and-regions-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions-10.md
category: reference
title: List of multilingual countries and regions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:07.199573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-multilingual-countries-and-regions-20260505-0
summary:
=== Northern Europe === Denmark has one official language, Danish, but in South Jutland, use of German for certain functions is provided for. In Greenland, Greenlandic is the principal language, while Danish must be thoroughly taught, and all Greenlanders are Danish-Greenlandic bilinguals. Faroe Islands has two official languages: Faroese and Danish. The other Scandinavian languages, Norwegian and Swedish, are understood by most without much difficulty. English is taught in schools, often as a third language. Finland is constitutionally bilingual and has therefore two equally national languages, Finnish and Swedish, and the minority languages Sami (Northern Sami, Inari Sami and Skolt Sami), Romani and Finnish Sign Language are recognized by the constitution. The Swedish-speaking population of Finland comprises about 5.5% of the population, mostly in Svenskfinland. Municipalities are bilingual if the Swedish or Finnish minority is at least 6–8%. Åland is monolingually Swedish by law. Sami is an official language (besides Finnish) in the municipalities of northern Finland. In Norway six municipalities of Troms and Finnmark county, Sami is used officially along Norwegian. In addition, kvensk, romani and romanes have status as minority languages. Sweden has Swedish as its official language. Finnish, Meänkieli, Romani, Sami and Yiddish are recognized as minority


id: list-of-multilingual-countries-and-regions-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions-11.md
category: reference
title: List of multilingual countries and regions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:07.199573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-multilingual-countries-and-regions-20260505-0
summary:
=== Southeastern Europe === Albania has one official language, Albanian. In some regions of southern Albania, Greek serves as co-official. Other languages such as Italian and Greek are widely spoken throughout the country, and are considered minority languages. Recognised minority languages include: Aromanian, Romanian, Serbo-Croatian, Macedonian, Bulgarian, French, Italian and Greek. The majority of Albanians are multilingual, speaking more than 3 languages, which is due to the large number of Albanian immigrants in Europe and elsewhere, as well as political and socio-cultural relations with their neighbours. As a consequence, Albanians are considered one of the most linguistically diverse peoples in Europe. During Albania's Italian occupation and the subsequent communist period, Italian television and radio were a source of education and entertainment for many Albanians; as a result, 60–70% of Albania's population has a command of Italian. Albania's Greek communities, as well as returning migrants from Greece and Greek national arrivals, continue to raise the status of Greek in the country. Albania is also part of the Francophonie, with 320,000 French speakers. In Bulgaria, the official language is Bulgarian, but significant minority languages are recognized at a local level, with commitments made in respect of use of Romanian, Czech, Croatian, German,


id: list-of-multilingual-countries-and-regions-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions-12.md
category: reference
title: List of multilingual countries and regions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:07.199573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-multilingual-countries-and-regions-20260505-0
summary:
=== Western Europe === Belgium has three official languages: Dutch (59%) in the north, French (40%) in the south and a small minority speaks German (1%). Its bilingual capital, Brussels is mainly French-speaking, with Dutch speakers as a minority. These languages have the status of 'official language' only in specified language areas as defined by the constitution. In Flanders, 59% and 53% of the Flemings know French and English respectively; in Wallonia, only 19% and 17% know Dutch or English. In each region, Belgium's third official language, German, is notably less known than Dutch, French or English. Wallonia recognises all of its vernacular dialect groups as regional languages, Flanders does not. France has a monolingual policy for the republic to conduct government business only in French. There are, however, levels of fluency in regional languages: Alsatian, Basque (the department of Pyrénées-Atlantiques), Breton (the regional government of Brittany has adopted some policies to promote the teaching of Breton), Catalan (the department of Pyrénées-Orientales has a particular charter for supporting Catalan), Corsican (Corsican teaching in the island's schools is provided for by law), Flemish, Franco-Provençal, Lorraine Franconian and Occitan (sometimes called Provençal). The country as whole is linguistically dominated by French. Ireland,


id: list-of-multilingual-countries-and-regions-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions-13.md
category: reference
title: List of multilingual countries and regions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:07.199573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-multilingual-countries-and-regions-20260505-0
summary:
== Oceania == Australia – English is the de facto official language of Australia. Auslan is recognised by the Australian Government and is spoken by many Australian deaf people. Australian Aboriginal languages, of which there are approximately 290–363, have recognition – though only a few are popularly spoken by Australian Indigenous people, including: Wiradjuri, Pitjantjatjara, Kalaw Lagaw Ya, Ngaanyatjarra, Warlpiri and Australian Kriol. Some government departments and agencies provide translations of documents in multiple languages for non-English speakers. Fiji – Fijian, English and Fiji Hindi (All official) Tongan and Tuvaluan are also spoken. Kiribati – Gilbertese and English (official); Gilbertese is the majority language, English language is the prevailing language for constitutional text Marshall Islands – Marshallese and English (both official) Micronesia – English (official) but each state has its own regional language: Chuukese (Chuuk), Kosraean (Kosrae), Pohnpeian (Pohnpei), and Yapese (Yap). In addition other language such as Pingelapese, Ngatikese, Satawalese, Puluwatese, Mortlockese, Mokilese, Ulithian, Woleaian, Nukuoro, and Kapingamarangi are recognized. Nauru – Nauruan is the official language. English is also spoken along with it. New Caledonia, a special collectivity of France – French and Kanak languages (primarily Drehu, Nengone, Paicî, Ajië and Xârâcùù) New Zealand – a small percentage


id: index-of-phonetics-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_phonetics_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of phonetics articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_phonetics_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:09.282005+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-phonetics-articles-20260505-0
summary:
== A == Acoustic phonetics Active articulator Affricate Airstream mechanism Alexander John Ellis Alexander Melville Bell Alfred C. Gimson Allophone Alveolar approximant (ɹ) Alveolar click (ǃ) Alveolar consonant Alveolar ejective (tʼ) Alveolar ejective affricate (tsʼ) Alveolar ejective fricative (sʼ) Alveolar flap (ɾ) Alveolar lateral approximant (l, l̥) Alveolar lateral ejective affricate (tɬʼ) Alveolar lateral ejective fricative (ɬʼ) Alveolar lateral flap (ɺ) Alveolar nasal (n) Alveolar ridge Alveolar trill (r, r̥) Alveolo-palatal consonant Alveolo-palatal ejective fricative (ɕʼ) Apical consonant Approximant consonant Articulatory phonetics Aspirated consonant (◌ʰ) Auditory phonetics == B == Back vowel Basis of articulation Bernd J. Kröger Bilabial click (ʘ) Bilabial consonant Bilabial ejective (pʼ) Bilabial flap (ⱱ̟) Bilabial nasal (m) Bilabial trill (ʙ) Breathy voice Bidental consonant == C == Cardinal vowel Central vowel Checked vowel Click consonant Close back rounded vowel (u) Close back unrounded vowel (ɯ) Close central rounded vowel (ʉ) Close central unrounded vowel (ɨ) Close front rounded vowel (y) Close front unrounded vowel (i) Close vowel Close-mid back rounded vowel (o) Close-mid back unrounded vowel (ɤ) Close-mid central rounded vowel (ɵ) Close-mid central unrounded vowel (ɘ) Close-mid front rounded vowel (ø) Close-mid front unrounded vowel (e) Close-mid vowel Co-articulated consonant Coarticulation Comparison of ASCII


id: list-of-polyglots-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyglots-0.md
category: reference
title: List of polyglots
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyglots
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:10.749388+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-polyglots-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of notable people with a knowledge of six or more languages. == Deceased == === Antiquity and Middle Ages === Mithridates VI (135–63 BC), King of Pontus. According to Pliny the Elder, Mithridates could speak the languages of all of the twenty-two nations that he ruled. Cleopatra (69–30 BC), Queen of Egypt. According to Plutarch, Cleopatra spoke many languages in addition to her native language, Greek, including Latin, Egyptian, Ethiopian, Trogodyte, and the languages of the Hebraioi, Arabes, Syrians, Medes, and Parthians. Al-Farabi (870–950), Islamic philosopher. He was reputed to know seventy languages. Frederick II (1194–1250), King of Sicily and Holy Roman Emperor. He knew Sicilian, French, Latin, Greek, German, and Arabic. === Modern age, pre-18th century === Mehmed II (1432–1481), Sultan of the Ottoman Empire. In addition to his native language, Turkish, he learnt Arabic, Hebrew, Persian, Latin, and Greek. Elizabeth I (1533–1603), Queen of England and Ireland. She is thought to have known English, Welsh, French, Spanish, Italian, Latin, Greek, and some German. Athanasius Kircher (1602–1680), German Jesuit scholar. He was said to know twelve languages. John Milton (1608–1674), English poet. He knew English, Italian, Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, and to a lesser extent


id: list-of-polyglots-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyglots-1.md
category: reference
title: List of polyglots
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyglots
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:10.749388+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-polyglots-20260505-0
summary:
=== 19th century === William Rowan Hamilton (1805–1865), Irish mathematician. Encouraged by his uncle, he learnt many languages while still young, including Latin, Greek, Hindustani, Bengali, Marathi, Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, Hebrew, Aramaic, Syriac, and Malay. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807–1882), American poet. He knew Latin, Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and German. He also had some knowledge of Dutch, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic, and Finnish. Jan Prosper Witkiewicz (1808–1839), Polish-Lithuanian explorer and diplomat. He spoke Polish, Russian, English, German, French, Persian, Pashto, Kazakh, and Chagatai Turkish. Solomon Caesar Malan (1812–1894), British clergyman. He was conversant with around eighty languages, including German, Spanish, Italian, Latin, Sanskrit, Hebrew, Arabic, Chinese, and Tibetan. Otto von Bismarck (1815–1898), Prussian statesman. In addition to his native language, German, he spoke English and French, and to a lesser extent Italian, Russian, Polish, and Plattdeutsch. He also had some knowledge of Latin. Herschell Filipowski (1816–1872), Lithuanian-born British actuary and editor. He was conversant with Polish, Russian, German, English, French, Spanish, Latin, Hebrew, Arabic, and Chinese. Karl Marx (1818–1883), German political theorist. He spoke German, English, and French, and could read Greek, Latin, Italian, Spanish, Romanian, and Russian. C. V. Runganada Sastri (1819–1881), Indian civil servant. The Dictionary of Indian Biography


id: list-of-polyglots-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyglots-2.md
category: reference
title: List of polyglots
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyglots
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:10.749388+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-polyglots-20260505-0
summary:
=== 20th century === ==== 1900s ==== Sukarno (1901–1970), Indonesian politician. He spoke Javanese, Sundanese, Balinese, Indonesian, Dutch, German, English, French, Arabic, and Japanese. Dora Bloch (1902–1976), Israeli hostage. She spoke Hebrew, Arabic, Russian, German, English, and Italian. Steven Runciman (1903–2000), British historian. He began learning French, Latin, Greek, and Russian at a young age, and later learnt Bulgarian, Old Church Slavonic, Armenian, and some Turkish. He may also have had some knowledge of Arabic and a number of other languages. John von Neumann (1903–1957), Hungarian mathematician. He spoke Hungarian, English, German, and French, and also knew Latin and Greek. Syed Mujtaba Ali (1904–1974), Bangladeshi writer. He knew Bengali, Urdu, Hindi, Gujarati, Marathi, Sanskrit, Persian, Pashto, English, German, French, Italian, and Arabic. Pent Nurmekund (1906–1996), Estonian linguist. He could read over eighty languages and could speak a great many of them. H. S. David (1907–1981) Sri Lankan priest. He reportedly knew thirty-three languages: Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Tulu, Kui, Brahui, Sinhalese, Hindi, Vedic, Sanskrit, Prakrit, Pali, Avestan, English, Dutch, German, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Latin, Greek, Lithuanian, Russian, Malay, Arabic, Hebrew, Assyrian, and Sumerian. Muhammad Hamidullah (1908–2002), stateless scholar. He knew ten languages and published works in


id: list-of-polyglots-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyglots-3.md
category: reference
title: List of polyglots
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyglots
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:10.749388+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-polyglots-20260505-0
summary:
==== 1930s ==== Barry Farber (1930–2020), American radio host. When inducted into the army, he qualified for work in fourteen languages. He had some knowledge of twenty-five languages in total. George Fernandes (1930–2019), Indian politician. In addition to his mother tongue, Konkani, he spoke Marathi, Hindi, Urdu, English, Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada, and Tulu. He also knew Latin. P. B. Sreenivas (1930–2013), Indian singer. He spoke eight languages, including Kannada, Urdu, and English. Abdul Rahman Ghassemlou (1930–1989), Iranian politician. He spoke Kurdish, Persian, English, German, French, Russian, Czech, Slovak, Turkish, Azerbaijani, and Arabic. Jon Elia (1931–2002), Pakistani poet. He knew Urdu, Sanskrit, Persian, English, Arabic, and Hebrew. Corazon Aquino (1933–2009), former president of the Philippines. She spoke Kapampangan, Tagalog, English, Spanish, French, and Japanese. Kenneth L. Hale (1934–2001), American linguist. He spoke over fifty languages, including Spanish, Portuguese, French, Dutch, Irish, Polish, Basque, Turkish, Hebrew, Chinese, Japanese, Navajo, Jemez, Hopi, Oʼodham, Wômpanâak, Ulwa, Miskitu, Warlpiri, and Lardil. Jeong Su-il (1934–2025), Chinese-born North Korean spy. He spoke Korean, Chinese, Japanese, Tagalog, Malay, Arabic, Persian, Russian, French, Spanish, German, and English. William Fulco (1936–2021), American Jesuit priest and scholar. He knew nine languages, including Latin, Greek, German, Aramaic, and Hebrew. Pope Francis (1936–2025),


id: list-of-polyglots-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyglots-4.md
category: reference
title: List of polyglots
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyglots
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:10.749388+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-polyglots-20260505-0
summary:
=== Europe === John C. Wells (1939–), British phonetician. He studied Latin and Ancient Greek at university, and speaks English, German, Welsh, French, Spanish, Italian, Modern Greek, and Esperanto with varying degrees of fluency. He also has some knowledge of Polish, Russian, Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, and Japanese. Werner Herzog (1942–), German filmmaker. In addition to his native Bavarian, he knows German, English, Ancient Greek, Modern Greek, Latin, Spanish, French, and some Italian. Queen Silvia of Sweden (1943–), spouse of King Carl XVI Gustaf. The daughter of a German father and a Brazilian mother, she speaks German and Portuguese natively. She also knows Spanish, French, English, and Swedish, and has some knowledge of Swedish sign language. André Rieu (1949–), Dutch violinist and conductor. He speaks Dutch, English, German, French, Spanish, and Italian. Arsène Wenger (1949–), French football manager. He speaks French, German, English, Spanish, and Italian, and has some knowledge of Japanese. Noel Malcolm (1956–), British historian. He speaks most Western and Eastern European languages. Ranga Yogeshwar (1959–), Luxembourgish physicist and science journalist. He speaks Luxembourgish, German, English, French, Hindi, Tamil, Kannada, and Malayalam. Johan Vandewalle (1960–), Belgian linguist. In 1987, at the age of twenty-six, he won the Polyglot of


id: list-of-polyglots-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyglots-5.md
category: reference
title: List of polyglots
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyglots
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:10.749388+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-polyglots-20260505-0
summary:
=== North America === Powell Janulus (1939–), Canadian court interpreter. According to the 1986 Guinness Book of World Records, he "has worked with 41 languages in the Provincial Court of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada." Stephen Krashen (1941–), American linguist. He knows English, German, Yiddish, Spanish, French, Hebrew, and Amharic. Steve Kaufmann (1945–), Canadian businessman. He has some understanding of twenty languages, although his ability to speak and write these languages varies to a considerable degree. Some of the languages he has studied are French, Spanish, Portuguese, German, Swedish, Russian, Japanese, Mandarin, and Cantonese. Pope Leo XIV (1955–), leader of the Catholic Church. He speaks English, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and French, and can read Latin and German. Viggo Mortensen (1958–), Danish-American actor. He grew up bilingual in English and Spanish, and later learnt Danish, Italian, and French. He also has some knowledge of Arabic. Julie Payette (1963–), former governor general of Canada. She speaks French and English natively, and can converse in Spanish, Italian, Russian, and German. Alexander Argüelles (1964–), American linguist. He speaks most of the Germanic and Romance languages (in particular, German, Dutch, Swedish, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian), as well as Russian, Korean, and Arabic, and he has


id: list-of-russian-language-topics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Russian_language_topics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Russian language topics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Russian_language_topics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:15.976545+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-russian-language-topics-20260505-0
summary:
The list of Russian language topics stores articles on grammar and other language-related topics that discuss (or should discuss) peculiarities of the Russian language (as well as of other languages) or provide examples from Russian language for these topics. The list complements the Category:Russian language and does not overlap with it. The "—" marks articles where the information about Russian language is inadequate or missing. == Categories == Category:Cyrillic alphabets Category:Cyrillic letters Category:Cyrillization Category:Language comparison Category:Russian language == Articles == Adposition Assimilation (linguistics) (also reasonably covered in Russian phonology) Barbarism (linguistics) Capitalization Clitic Code-switching Compound (linguistics) Consonant mutation Continuous and progressive aspects Copula Cyrillic script Diacritic Diminutive Double negative Expressive loan False cognate Filler (linguistics) — Foreign language influences in English — Four-letter word Frequentative Gemination Gender-neutrality in languages with grammatical gender Gobbledygook Grammatical aspect Grammatical cases: Accusative case Dative case Genitive case Instrumental case Locative case Nominative case Prepositional case Vocative case Grammatical mood Hypothetical mood Hypocorism Iotation Khalyava Language game — Letter Zyu List of ethnic slurs List of offensive terms per nationality List of Russian federal subject name etymologies Malapropism#Examples in Russian language Measure word Metasyntactic variable Minimal pair Minced oath — Mondegreen Mojibake Morse code Morse


id: list-of-russian-linguists-and-philologists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Russian_linguists_and_philologists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Russian linguists and philologists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Russian_linguists_and_philologists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:17.360181+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-russian-linguists-and-philologists-20260505-0
summary:
This list of Russian linguists and philologists includes notable linguists from the Russian Federation, the Soviet Union, the Russian Empire and other predecessor states of Russia. == A == Vasily Abaev, prominent researcher of Iranian languages Solomon Adlivankin, Soviet linguist, the founder of Perm derivatology school, took part in compiling Akchim dialect dictionary Vladimir Admoni, linguist, literary critic, translator and poet, worked on the theory of grammar, historic and modern German syntax, defended Joseph Brodsky in court in 1964 Alexander Afanasyev, leading Russian folklorist, recorded and published over 600 Russian fairy tales, by far the largest folktale collection by any one man in the world == B == Ivan Baudouin de Courtenay, co-inventor of the concept of phoneme and the systematic treatment of alternations, pioneer of synchronic analysis and mathematical linguistics Victor Bayda, linguist specializing in Celtic and Germanic languages Alexander Belskiy, Soviet specialist in literary criticism, famous Anglicist, founder of philological faculty at Perm State University, founder of Foreign literature Department at PSU Otto von Böhtlingk, prominent Indologist and Sanskrit grammarian Fyodor Buslaev, philologist and folklorist, representative of the Mythological school of comparative literature Yakov Brandt, Sinologist == D == Vladimir Dal, greatest Russian language lexicographer of the 19th


id: list-of-schools-of-linguistics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_schools_of_linguistics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of schools of linguistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_schools_of_linguistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:18.588746+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-schools-of-linguistics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of schools in linguistics. Columbia School of Linguistics Copenhagen School Formal linguistics Functional linguistics Systemic functional linguistics Sydney School Kharkiv Linguistic School Leiden school Leiden University Centre for Linguistics (LUCL) London School of Linguistics Moscow School of Comparative Linguistics Prague linguistic circle Structural linguistics == References ==


id: list-of-language-self-study-programs-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_language_self-study_programs-0.md
category: reference
title: List of language self-study programs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_language_self-study_programs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:19.872679+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-language-self-study-programs-20260505-0
summary:
Self-study language acquisition programs allow learning without having a teacher present, and the courses can supplement or replace classroom instruction. Universities use self-study programs for less-commonly taught languages, where having professors is not feasible. Self-study programs are available on paper, audio files, video files, smartphone apps, computers, or any combination. This list is limited to programs that teach four or more languages. There are many others that teach one language. Alphabetical lists of languages show the courses available to learn each language, at All Language Resources, Lang1234, Martindale's Language Center, Omniglot, and Rüdiger Köppe. (UCLA Language Materials Project has ended.) For the thousands of languages not listed on those sites, for which no course exists, Global Recordings Network has recorded a standard set of Bible stories in 6,000 languages. With effort, learners can study any language by comparing their recordings to the same story in a language they know. The list of self-study programs, below, shows the number of languages taught by each program, the name of the program, and the number of different languages used for instruction. Multiple languages of instruction may be available for some but not all courses. For example, Reise Know-How uses six languages to teach


id: list-of-serbo-croatian-words-of-greek-origin-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Serbo-Croatian_words_of_Greek_origin-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Serbo-Croatian words of Greek origin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Serbo-Croatian_words_of_Greek_origin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:21.339660+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-serbo-croatian-words-of-greek-origin-20260505-0
summary:
Greek influence was widespread throughout the Balkans during the Middle Ages, influencing the languages within it, including Serbo-Croatian. Many words of Greek origin were borrowed from other languages, while most others came via contact with the Greeks. Some words are present and common in the modern vernaculars of Serbo-Croatian: hiljada (хиљада), tiganj (тигањ), patos (патос). Almost every word of the Serbian Orthodox ceremonies are of Greek origin: parastos (парастос). AG stands for Ancient Greek origin. MG stands for Modern Greek origin. C stands for Cyrillic (script). L stands for Latin (script). == See also == Arabic-Persian-Greek-Serbian Conversation Textbook == References == "Grecizmi u srpskom jeziku". ЈУЖНОСЛОВЕНСКИ филолог. Srpska akademija nauka i umetnosti: 375–403. GGKEY:00RD5D429DG.


id: list-of-serbo-croatian-words-of-turkish-origin-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Serbo-Croatian_words_of_Turkish_origin-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Serbo-Croatian words of Turkish origin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Serbo-Croatian_words_of_Turkish_origin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:22.585909+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-serbo-croatian-words-of-turkish-origin-20260505-0
summary:
Serbo-Croatian vernacular has over time borrowed and adopted a lot of words of Turkish origin. The Ottoman conquest of the Balkans began a linguistical contact between Ottoman Turkish and South Slavic languages, a period of influence since at least the late 14th up until the 20th century, when large territories of Shtokavian-speaking areas became conquered and made into provinces of the Ottoman Empire, into what was collectively known as Rumelia. As the Ottoman Turkish language itself extensively borrowed from Arabic, Persian and Central Asian Turkic languages other than itself, many words of such origins also entered Serbo-Croatian via Turkish. Numerous migrations in the war-torn Western Balkans helped spread Shtokavian and its enriched vernacular. Some Turkisms in Serbo-Croatian have entered the language through other languages, such as Italian, while some words of Greek origin have been adopted in their Turkish forms. Over the passage of time, many Turkish loanwords were completely adopted into standardized varieties of Serbo-Croatian and are no longer considered loanwords, if not for lack of true synonyms. Numerous such Turkisms (e.g. bakar, alat, sat, čarape, šećer, or boja) are often preferred to later introduced Germanisms and Latinisms (farba, kolur, tinta, pigment). This is mostly the case with the


id: list-of-summer-schools-of-linguistics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_summer_schools_of_linguistics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of summer schools of linguistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_summer_schools_of_linguistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:23.827484+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-summer-schools-of-linguistics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of summer schools of linguistics. Eastern Generative Grammar (The EGG): Romania: Brašov, Romania (2024) Serbia: Novi Sad, Serbia (2023) Czech Republic: Brno, Czech Republic (2022) Online: (2021) Poland: Wrocław, Poland (2019) Hungary: European Summer School in Generative Grammar (EGG) - Debrecen (2014) European Summer School in Logic, Language and Information (ESSLLI) Belgium: Leuven, Belgium (2024) Slovenia: Ljubljana, Slovenia (2023) Ireland: Galway, Ireland (2022) Netherlands: Utrecht, Netherlands (2021) Germany: Forensic Linguistics Short Course (FLsc) - Düsseldorf (2018–2019, 2021–2024) Germany: Summer School on Corpus Phonology - Augsburg (2008) Greece: The Crete Summer School of Linguistics (CreteLing) - Rethymno (2017, 2018, 2019, 2022, 2023, 2024) Poland: Summer Institute "Languages and Cultures in Contact / in Contrast" - Zakopane (2008) Portugal: NOVA - Lisbon Summer School and Graduate Conference in Linguistics - Lisbon Portugal: U. Minho - APL Summer School of Linguistics 2015: Experimental Methods in Syntax - Braga United Kingdom: International Summer School in Forensic Linguistic Analysis - Birmingham (2000–2010) United States: Summer Institute of Linguistics - University of North Dakota (every summer) United States: Linguistics Society of America Summer Institutes, held in odd-numbered years, including: Empirical Foundations for Theories of Language - Stanford (2007) Linguistic Structure and Language


id: swadesh-list-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swadesh_list-0.md
category: reference
title: Swadesh list
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swadesh_list
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:25.180092+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: swadesh-list-20260505-0
summary:
A Swadesh list () is a compilation of tentatively universal concepts for the purposes of lexicostatistics. That is, a Swadesh list is a list of forms and concepts which all languages, without exception, have terms for, such as star, hand, water, kill, sleep, and so forth. The number of such terms is small – a few hundred at most, or possibly less than a hundred. The inclusion or exclusion of many terms is subject to debate among linguists; thus, there are several different lists, and some authors may refer to "Swadesh lists." The Swadesh list is named after linguist Morris Swadesh. Translations of a Swadesh list into a set of languages allow for researchers to quantify the interrelatedness of those languages. Swadesh lists are used in lexicostatistics (the quantitative assessment of the genealogical relatedness of languages) and glottochronology (the dating of language divergence). For instance, the terms on a Swadesh list can be compared between two languages (since both languages will have them) to see if they are related and how closely, thus giving useful information that can be further applied to comparison of the languages. (Actual lexicostatistics is quite complicated, and usually sets of languages are compared.) == Versions


id: swadesh-list-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swadesh_list-1.md
category: reference
title: Swadesh list
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swadesh_list
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:25.180092+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: swadesh-list-20260505-0
summary:
Holman et al. (2008) found that in identifying the relationships between Chinese dialects the Swadesh–Yakhontov list was less accurate than the original Swadesh-100 list. Further they found that a different (40-word) list (also known as the ASJP list) was just as accurate as the Swadesh-100 list. However, they calculated the relative stability of the words by comparing retentions between languages in established language families. They found no statistically significant difference in the correlations in the families of the Old versus the New World. The ranked Swadesh-100 list, with Swadesh numbers and relative stability, is as follows (Holman et al., Appendix. Asterisked words appear on the 40-word list): === Sign languages === In studying the sign languages of Vietnam and Thailand, linguist James Woodward noted that the traditional Swadesh list applied to spoken languages was unsuited for sign languages. The Swadesh list results in overestimation of the relationships between sign languages, due to indexical signs such as pronouns and parts of the body. The modified list is as follows, in mostly alphabetical order: == See also == Other lists A General Service List of English Words — roughly 2,000 of the most common English words Dolgopolsky list — the 15 words


id: list-of-syntactic-phenomena-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_syntactic_phenomena-0.md
category: reference
title: List of syntactic phenomena
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_syntactic_phenomena
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:26.508678+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-syntactic-phenomena-20260505-0
summary:
A list of phenomena in syntax. Anaphora Agreement Answer ellipsis Antecedent-contained deletion Binding Case Clitics Control Coreference Differential Object Marking Discontinuity Do-support Dummy pronouns Ellipsis Ergative verb Exceptional case-marking Existential clauses Expletives Extraposition Gapping Heavy NP shift Inverse copula sentences Movement paradoxes Negative inversion Non-configurational language Parasitic gaps Pied-piping Pro-drop Pseudogapping Raising (linguistics) Reciprocal (grammar) Reflexive pronouns Reflexive verbs Right node raising Scrambling Shifting Sluicing Small clause Stripping Subject-auxiliary inversion Subject-verb inversion Topicalization Tough movement Unaccusative verbs V2 word order Verb phrase ellipsis Wh-movement


id: list-of-text-corpora-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_text_corpora-0.md
category: reference
title: List of text corpora
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_text_corpora
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:27.684351+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-text-corpora-20260505-0
summary:
Text corpora (singular: text corpus) are large and structured sets of texts, which have been systematically collected. Text corpora are used by both AI developers to train large language models and corpus linguists and within other branches of linguistics for statistical analysis, hypothesis testing, finding patterns of language use, investigating language change and variation, and teaching language proficiency. == English language == American National Corpus Bank of English BookCorpus British National Corpus Bergen Corpus of London Teenage Language (COLT) Brown Corpus, forming part of the "Brown Family" of corpora, together with LOB, Frown and F-LOB COCA: see below at English-Corpora.org COHA: see below at English-Corpora.org Corpus Resource Database (CoRD), more than 80 English language corpora. Coruña Corpus, a corpus of late Modern English scientific writing covering the period 1700–1900, developed by the Muste research group at the University of A Coruña DBLP Discovery Dataset (D3), a corpus of computer science publications with sentient metadata. English-Corpora.org, which contains (among others): iWeb, the Intelligent Web-based Corpus: 14 billion words, 6 countries, 2017 COCA, the Corpus of Contemporary American English: 1.0 billion words, American, 1990-2019 COHA, the Corpus of Historical American English: 475 million words, American, 1820-2019 NOW, News on the Web: 23.2


id: list-of-text-corpora-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_text_corpora-1.md
category: reference
title: List of text corpora
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_text_corpora
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:27.684351+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-text-corpora-20260505-0
summary:
== Parallel corpora of diverse languages == Chinese/English Political Interpreting Corpus (CEPIC) consists of transcripts of speeches delivered by top political figures from Hong Kong, Beijing, Washington DC and London, as well as their translated/interpreted texts. Developed by Jun Pan and HKBU Library. Europarl Corpus - proceedings of the European Parliament from 1996 to 2012 EUR-Lex corpus - collection of all official languages of the European Union, created from the EUR-Lex database OPUS: Open source Parallel Corpus in many many languages Tatoeba A parallel corpus which contains over 8.9 million sentences in multiple languages; 107 languages have more than 1,000 sentences each; a further 81 languages have from 100 to 1,000 sentences each. NTU-Multilingual Corpus in 7 languages (ara, eng, ind, jpn, kor, mcn, vie) (legacy repo) SeedLing corpus - A Seed Corpus for the Human Language Project with 1000+ languages from various sources. GRALIS parallel texts for various Slavic languages, compiled by the institute for Slavic languages at Graz University (Branko Tošović et al.) The ACTRES Parallel Corpus (P-ACTRES 2.0) is a bidirectional English-Spanish corpus consisting of original texts in one language and their translation into the other. P-ACTRES 2.0 contains over 6 million words considering both directions together.


id: list-of-radicals-in-unicode-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_radicals_in_Unicode-0.md
category: reference
title: List of radicals in Unicode
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_radicals_in_Unicode
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:28.926560+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-radicals-in-unicode-20260505-0
summary:
The List of Unicode radicals comprises those Unicode characters that represent radical components of CJK characters, Tangut characters or Yi syllables. These are used primarily for indexing characters in dictionaries. There are two CJK radicals blocks: the "Kangxi Radicals" block that includes the 214 standard radicals used in the Kangxi Dictionary; and the "CJK Radicals Supplement" block that includes 115 radical components used in other modern dictionaries, including simplified Chinese and Japanese radicals forms. There is one "Tangut Components" block that includes 768 radicals and components that are used to index Tangut characters in dictionaries of the Tangut script or to describe the structure of Tangut characters. There is one "Yi Radicals" block that includes 55 radicals used to index Yi characters in dictionaries of the standardized Yi script used for writing the Nuosu language in Southern Sichuan and Northern Yunnan. Sets of radicals for other sinoform scripts, such as Jurchen, have also been proposed for encoding in Unicode. == Unicode tables == == See also == Section headers of a Chinese dictionary List of Shuowen Jiezi radicals, a system of 540 components used by Xu Shen (d. ~147AD) in his Shuowen Jiezi List of Kangxi radicals, a system of


id: table-of-vowels-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_vowels-0.md
category: reference
title: Table of vowels
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_vowels
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:30.290922+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: table-of-vowels-20260505-0
summary:
This table lists the vowel letters of the International Phonetic Alphabet. == See also == List of consonants Index of phonetics articles == References ==


id: list-of-words-having-different-meanings-in-american-and-british-english-a-l-20260505-0
category: reference
title: List of words having different meanings in American and British English (A–L)
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:31.390086+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-words-having-different-meanings-in-american-and-british-english-a-l-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_words_having_different_meanings_in_American_and_British_English_(A–L)-0.md

summary:
This is the List of words having different meanings in British and American English: A–L. For the second portion of the list, see List of words having different meanings in American and British English: M–Z. Asterisked (*) meanings, though found chiefly in the specified region, also have some currency in the other region; other definitions may be viewed by the other as Briticisms or Americanisms respectively. Additional usage notes are provided where useful. == A == == B == == C == == D == == E == == F == == G == == H == == I == == J == == K == == L == == See also == List of words having different meanings in British and American English: M–Z List of American words not widely used in the United Kingdom List of British words not widely used in the United States == References == == Further reading == Note: the below are general references on this topic. Individual entries have not yet been audited against the references below and readers looking for verifiable information should consult the works below unless individual entries in the article's table are properly sourced. Bickerton, Anthea (1985). American-English, English-American

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_words_having_different_meanings_in_American_and_British_English_(A–L)


id: lists-of-mathematics-topics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_mathematics_topics-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of mathematics topics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_mathematics_topics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:33.059777+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-mathematics-topics-20260505-0
summary:
Lists of mathematics topics cover a variety of topics related to mathematics. Some of these lists link to hundreds of articles; some link to only a few. The template below includes links to alphabetical lists of all mathematical articles. This article brings together the same content organized in a manner better suited for browsing. Lists cover aspects of basic and advanced mathematics, methodology, mathematical statements, integrals, general concepts, mathematical objects, and reference tables. They also cover equations named after people, societies, mathematicians, journals, and meta-lists. The purpose of this list is not similar to that of the Mathematics Subject Classification formulated by the American Mathematical Society. Many mathematics journals ask authors of research papers and expository articles to list subject codes from the Mathematics Subject Classification in their papers. The subject codes so listed are used by the two major reviewing databases, Mathematical Reviews and Zentralblatt MATH. This list has some items that would not fit in such a classification, such as list of exponential topics and list of factorial and binomial topics, which may surprise the reader with the diversity of their coverage. == Basic mathematics == This branch is typically taught in secondary education or in the first


id: lists-of-mathematics-topics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_mathematics_topics-1.md
category: reference
title: Lists of mathematics topics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_mathematics_topics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:33.059777+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-mathematics-topics-20260505-0
summary:
A differential equation is an equation involving an unknown function and its derivatives. In a dynamical system, a fixed rule describes the time dependence of a point in a geometrical space. The mathematical models used to describe the swinging of a clock pendulum, the flow of water in a pipe, or the number of fish each spring in a lake are examples of dynamical systems. List of dynamical systems and differential equations topics List of nonlinear partial differential equations List of partial differential equation topics ==== Mathematical physics ==== Mathematical physics is concerned with "the application of mathematics to problems in physics and the development of mathematical methods suitable for such applications and for the formulation of physical theories".1 List of mathematical topics in classical mechanics List of mathematical topics in quantum theory List of mathematical topics in relativity List of string theory topics Index of wave articles ==== Theory of computation ==== The fields of mathematics and computing intersect both in computer science, the study of algorithms and data structures, and in scientific computing, the study of algorithmic methods for solving problems in mathematics, science, and engineering. List of algorithm general topics List of computability and complexity topics Lists


id: lists-of-mathematics-topics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_mathematics_topics-2.md
category: reference
title: Lists of mathematics topics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_mathematics_topics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:33.059777+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-mathematics-topics-20260505-0
summary:
List of things named after Niels Henrik Abel List of things named after George Airy List of things named after Jean d'Alembert List of things named after Archimedes List of things named after Vladimir Arnold List of things named after Emil Artin List of things named after Stefan Banach List of things named after Thomas Bayes List of things named after members of the Bernoulli family List of things named after Jakob Bernoulli List of things named after Friedrich Bessel List of things named after Élie Cartan List of things named after Augustin-Louis Cauchy List of things named after Arthur Cayley List of things named after Pafnuty Chebyshev List of things named after John Horton Conway List of things named after Richard Dedekind List of things named after Pierre Deligne List of things named after Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet List of things named after Albert Einstein List of things named after Euclid List of things named after Leonhard Euler List of things named after Paul Erdős List of things named after Pierre de Fermat List of things named after Fibonacci List of things named after Joseph Fourier List of things named after Erik Fredholm List of things named after Ferdinand


id: list-of-mathematical-abbreviations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mathematical_abbreviations-0.md
category: reference
title: List of mathematical abbreviations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mathematical_abbreviations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:34.336401+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mathematical-abbreviations-20260505-0
summary:
This following list features abbreviated names of mathematical functions, function-like operators and other mathematical terminology. This list is limited to abbreviations of two or more letters (excluding number sets). The capitalization of some of these abbreviations is not standardized – different authors might use different capitalizations. == A == A – adele ring or algebraic numbers. a.a.s. – asymptotically almost surely. AC – Axiom of Choice, or set of absolutely continuous functions. a.c. – absolutely continuous. acrd – inverse chord function. ad – adjoint representation (or adjoint action) of a Lie group. adj – adjugate of a matrix. a.e. – almost everywhere. AFSOC - Assume for the sake of contradiction Ai – Airy function. AL – Action limit. Alt – alternating group (Alt(n) is also written as An.) A.M. – arithmetic mean. AP – arithmetic progression. arccos – inverse cosine function. arccosec – inverse cosecant function. (Also written as arccsc.) arccot – inverse cotangent function. arccsc – inverse cosecant function. (Also written as arccosec.) arcexsec – inverse exsecant function. arcosech – inverse hyperbolic cosecant function. (Also written as arcsch.) arcosh – inverse hyperbolic cosine function. arcoth – inverse hyperbolic cotangent function. arcsch – inverse hyperbolic cosecant function. (Also written as


id: list-of-mathematical-abbreviations-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mathematical_abbreviations-1.md
category: reference
title: List of mathematical abbreviations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mathematical_abbreviations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:34.336401+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mathematical-abbreviations-20260505-0
summary:
== H == H – quaternion numbers. hacover – hacoversine function. (Also written as hacovers, hcv.) hacovercos – hacovercosine function. (Also written as hcc.) hacovers – hacoversine function. (Also written as hacover, hcv.) hav – haversine function. (Also written as sem.) havercos – havercosine function. (Also written as hvc.) h.c. – Hermitian conjugate, often used as part of + h.c. (Also written as H.c.) hcc – hacovercosine function. (Also written as hacovercos.) hcv – hacoversine function. (Also written as hacover, hacovers.) hcf – highest common factor of two numbers. (Also written as gcd.) H.M. – harmonic mean. HOL – higher-order logic. Hom – Hom functor. hom – hom-class. hot – higher order term. HOTPO – half or triple plus one. hvc – havercosine function. (Also written as havercos.) hyp – hypograph of a function. == I == iff – if and only if. IH – induction hypothesis. iid – independent and identically distributed random variables. Im – imaginary part of a complex number. (Also written as ℑ {\displaystyle \Im } .) im – image. inf – infimum of a set. (Also written as glb.) int – interior. I.o. – Infinitely often. == K == ker – kernel. == L ==


id: list-of-mathematical-abbreviations-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mathematical_abbreviations-2.md
category: reference
title: List of mathematical abbreviations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mathematical_abbreviations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:34.336401+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mathematical-abbreviations-20260505-0
summary:
== U == undef – a function or expression is undefined. usc – upper semi-continuity. == V == V – volume. var – variance of a random variable. vcs – vercosine function. (Also written as vercos.) ver – versine function. (Also written as vers, siv.) vercos – vercosine function. (Also written as vcs.) vers – versine function. (Also written as ver, siv.) == W == W^5 – which was what we wanted. Synonym of Q.E.D. walog – without any loss of generality. wff – well-formed formula. whp – with high probability. wlog – without loss of generality. WMA – we may assume. WO – well-ordered set. WOP – well-ordered principle. w.p. – with probability. wp1 – with probability 1. wrt – with respect to or with regard to. WTP – want to prove. WTS – want to show. == X == XOR – exclusive or in logic. == Z == Z – integer numbers. ZF – Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms of set theory. ZFC – Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms (with the Axiom of Choice) of set theory. == See also == List of letters used in mathematics, science, and engineering ISO 31-11 Language of mathematics List of mathematical jargon Mathematical notation Notation in probability


id: list-of-abstract-algebra-topics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_abstract_algebra_topics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of abstract algebra topics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_abstract_algebra_topics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:35.563780+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-abstract-algebra-topics-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics, more specifically algebra, abstract algebra or modern algebra is the study of algebraic structures, which are sets with specific operations acting on their elements. Algebraic structures include groups, rings, fields, modules, vector spaces, lattices, and algebras over a field. The term abstract algebra was coined in the early 20th century to distinguish it from older parts of algebra, and more specifically from elementary algebra, the use of variables to represent numbers in computation and reasoning. The abstract perspective on algebra has become so fundamental to advanced mathematics that it is simply called "algebra", while the term "abstract algebra" is seldom used except in pedagogy. == Basic language == Algebraic structures are defined primarily as sets with operations. Algebraic structure Subobjects: subgroup, subring, subalgebra, submodule etc. Binary operation Closure of an operation Associative property Distributive property Commutative property Unary operator Additive inverse, multiplicative inverse, inverse element Identity element Cancellation property Finitary operation Arity Structure preserving maps called homomorphisms are vital in the study of algebraic objects. Homomorphisms Kernels and cokernels Image and coimage Epimorphisms and monomorphisms Isomorphisms Isomorphism theorems There are several basic ways to combine algebraic objects of the same type to produce a third object of the


id: list-of-abstract-algebra-topics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_abstract_algebra_topics-1.md
category: reference
title: List of abstract algebra topics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_abstract_algebra_topics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:35.563780+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-abstract-algebra-topics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Concepts and theorems === Composition series Length of a module Structure theorem for finitely generated modules over a principal ideal domain Homological dimension Projective dimension Injective dimension Flat dimension Global dimension Weak global dimension Cohomological dimension Krull dimension Regular sequence (algebra), depth (algebra) Fitting lemma Schur's lemma Nakayama's lemma Krull–Schmidt theorem Steinitz exchange lemma Jordan–Hölder theorem Artin–Rees lemma Schanuel's lemma Morita equivalence Progenerator == Representation theory == Representation theory (& outline) Algebra representation Group representation Lie algebra representation Maschke's theorem Schur's lemma Equivariant map Frobenius reciprocity Induced representation Restricted representation Affine representation Projective representation Modular representation theory Quiver (mathematics) Representation theory of Hopf algebras == Non-associative systems == === General === Associative property, Associator Heap (mathematics) Magma (algebra) Loop (algebra), Quasigroup Nonassociative ring, Non-associative algebra Universal enveloping algebra Lie algebra (see also list of Lie group topics and list of representation theory topics) Jordan algebra Alternative algebra Power associativity Flexible algebra === Examples === Cayley–Dickson construction Octonions Sedenions Trigintaduonions Hyperbolic quaternions Virasoro algebra == Generalities == Algebraic structure Universal algebra Variety (universal algebra) Congruence relation Free object Generating set (universal algebra) Clone (algebra) Kernel of a function Kernel (algebra) Isomorphism class Isomorphism theorem Fundamental theorem on homomorphisms Universal property


id: index-of-accounting-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_accounting_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of accounting articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_accounting_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:36.783155+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-accounting-articles-20260505-0
summary:
This page is an index of accounting topics. == A == Accounting ethics - Accounting information system - Accounting research - Activity-Based Costing - Assets == B == Balance sheet - Big Four auditors - Bond - Bookkeeping - Book value == C == Cash-basis accounting - Cash-basis versus accrual-basis accounting - Cash flow statement - Certified General Accountant - Certified Management Accountants - Certified Public Accountant - Chartered accountant - Chart of accounts - Common stock - Comprehensive income - Construction accounting - Convention of conservatism - Convention of disclosure - Cost accounting - Cost of capital - Cost of goods sold - Creative accounting - Credit - Credit note - Current asset - Current liability == D == Debitcapital reserve - Debit note - Debt - Deficit (disambiguation) - Depreciation - Diluted earnings per share - Dividend - Double-entry bookkeeping system - Dual aspect == E == E-accounting - EBIT - EBITDA - Earnings per share - Engagement Letter - Entity concept - Environmental accounting - Expense - Equity - Equivalent Annual Cost == F == Financial Accounting Standards Board - Financial accountancy - Financial audit - Financial reports - Financial statements - Fixed assets - Fixed assets


id: outline-of-algebra-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_algebra-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of algebra
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_algebra
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:38.054609+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-algebra-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to algebra: Algebra is a branch of mathematics that deals with abstract systems, known as algebraic structures, and the manipulation of expressions within those systems. It is a generalization of arithmetic that introduces variables and algebraic operations other than the standard arithmetic operations, such as addition and multiplication. Elementary algebra is the main form of algebra taught in schools. It examines mathematical statements using variables for unspecified values and seeks to determine for which values the statements are true. To do so, it uses different methods of transforming equations to isolate variables. Linear algebra is a closely related field that investigates linear equations and combinations of them called systems of linear equations. It provides methods to find the values that solve all equations in the system at the same time, and to study the set of these solutions. == Branches == Pre-algebra Elementary algebra Boolean algebra Abstract algebra Linear algebra Universal algebra == Algebraic equations == An algebraic equation is an equation involving only algebraic expressions in the unknowns. These are further classified by degree. Linear equation – algebraic equation of degree one. Polynomial equation – equation in


id: list-of-algebraic-constructions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algebraic_constructions-0.md
category: reference
title: List of algebraic constructions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algebraic_constructions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:40.458341+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-algebraic-constructions-20260505-0
summary:
An algebraic construction is a method by which an algebraic entity is defined or derived from another. Instances include: Cayley–Dickson construction Proj construction Grothendieck group Gelfand–Naimark–Segal construction Ultraproduct ADHM construction Burnside ring Simplicial set Fox derivative Mapping cone (homological algebra) Prym variety Todd class Adjunction (field theory) Vaughan Jones construction Strähle construction Coset construction Plus construction Algebraic K-theory Gelfand–Naimark–Segal construction Stanley–Reisner ring construction Quotient ring construction Ward's twistor construction Hilbert symbol Hilbert's arithmetic of ends Colombeau's construction Vector bundle Integral monoid ring construction Integral group ring construction Category of Eilenberg–Moore algebras Kleisli category Adjunction (field theory) Lindenbaum–Tarski algebra construction Freudenthal magic square Stone–Čech compactification


id: list-of-algebraic-geometry-topics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algebraic_geometry_topics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of algebraic geometry topics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algebraic_geometry_topics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:41.639499+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-algebraic-geometry-topics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of algebraic geometry topics, by Wikipedia page. == Classical topics in projective geometry == Affine space Projective space Projective line, cross-ratio Projective plane Line at infinity Complex projective plane Complex projective space Plane at infinity, hyperplane at infinity Projective frame Projective transformation Fundamental theorem of projective geometry Duality (projective geometry) Real projective plane Real projective space Segre embedding of a product of projective spaces Rational normal curve == Algebraic curves == Conics, Pascal's theorem, Brianchon's theorem Twisted cubic Elliptic curve, cubic curve Elliptic function, Jacobi's elliptic functions, Weierstrass's elliptic functions Elliptic integral Complex multiplication Weil pairing Hyperelliptic curve Klein quartic Modular curve Modular equation Modular function Modular group Supersingular primes Fermat curve Bézout's theorem Brill–Noether theory Genus (mathematics) Riemann surface Riemann–Hurwitz formula Riemann–Roch theorem Abelian integral Differential of the first kind Jacobian variety Generalized Jacobian Moduli of algebraic curves Hurwitz's theorem on automorphisms of a curve Clifford's theorem on special divisors Gonality of an algebraic curve Weil reciprocity law Algebraic geometry codes == Algebraic surfaces == Enriques–Kodaira classification List of algebraic surfaces Ruled surface Cubic surface Veronese surface Del Pezzo surface Rational surface Enriques surface K3 surface Hodge index theorem Elliptic surface Surface of general type


id: list-of-algebraic-number-theory-topics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algebraic_number_theory_topics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of algebraic number theory topics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algebraic_number_theory_topics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:42.947013+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-algebraic-number-theory-topics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of algebraic number theory topics. == Basic topics == These topics are basic to the field, either as prototypical examples, or as basic objects of study. Algebraic number field Gaussian integer, Gaussian rational Quadratic field Cyclotomic field Cubic field Biquadratic field Quadratic reciprocity Ideal class group Dirichlet's unit theorem Discriminant of an algebraic number field Ramification (mathematics) Root of unity Gaussian period == Important problems == Fermat's Last Theorem Class number problem for imaginary quadratic fields Stark–Heegner theorem Heegner number Langlands program == General aspects == Different ideal Dedekind domain Splitting of prime ideals in Galois extensions Decomposition group Inertia group Frobenius automorphism Chebotarev's density theorem Totally real field Local field p-adic number p-adic analysis Adele ring Idele group Idele class group Adelic algebraic group Global field Hasse principle Hasse–Minkowski theorem Galois module Galois cohomology Brauer group == Class field theory == Class field theory Abelian extension Kronecker–Weber theorem Hilbert class field Takagi existence theorem Hasse norm theorem Artin reciprocity Local class field theory == Iwasawa theory == Iwasawa theory Herbrand–Ribet theorem Vandiver's conjecture Stickelberger's theorem Euler system p-adic L-function == Arithmetic geometry == Arithmetic geometry Complex multiplication Abelian variety of CM-type Chowla–Selberg formula Hasse–Weil zeta


id: outline-of-algebraic-structures-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_algebraic_structures-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of algebraic structures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_algebraic_structures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:44.195968+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-algebraic-structures-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics, many types of algebraic structures are studied. Abstract algebra is primarily the study of specific algebraic structures and their properties. Algebraic structures may be viewed in different ways, however the common starting point of algebra texts is that an algebraic object incorporates one or more sets with one or more binary operations or unary operations satisfying a collection of axioms. Another branch of mathematics known as universal algebra studies algebraic structures in general. From the universal algebra viewpoint, most structures can be divided into varieties and quasivarieties depending on the axioms used. Some axiomatic formal systems that are neither varieties nor quasivarieties, called nonvarieties, are sometimes included among the algebraic structures by tradition. Concrete examples of each structure will be found in the articles listed. Algebraic structures are so numerous today that this article will inevitably be incomplete. In addition to this, there are sometimes multiple names for the same structure, and sometimes one name will be defined by disagreeing axioms by different authors. Most structures appearing on this page will be common ones which most authors agree on. Other web lists of algebraic structures, organized more or less alphabetically, include Jipsen and PlanetMath Archived 2007-11-13 at the


id: outline-of-algebraic-structures-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_algebraic_structures-1.md
category: reference
title: Outline of algebraic structures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_algebraic_structures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:44.195968+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-algebraic-structures-20260505-0
summary:
Semiring: a ringoid such that S is a monoid under each operation. Addition is typically assumed to be commutative and associative, and the monoid product is assumed to distribute over the addition on both sides, and the additive identity 0 is an absorbing element in the sense that 0 x = 0 for all x. Near-ring: a semiring whose additive monoid is a (not necessarily abelian) group. Ring: a semiring whose additive monoid is an abelian group. Commutative ring: a ring in which the multiplication operation is commutative. Division ring: a nontrivial ring in which division by nonzero elements is defined. Integral domain: A nontrivial commutative ring in which the product of any two nonzero elements is nonzero. Field: a commutative division ring (i.e. a commutative ring which contains a multiplicative inverse for every nonzero element). Nonassociative rings: These are like rings, but the multiplication operation need not be associative. Lie ring: a ringoid whose additive monoid is an abelian group, but whose multiplicative operation satisfies the Jacobi identity rather than associativity. Jordan ring: a commutative nonassociative ring that respects the Jordan identity Boolean ring: a commutative ring with idempotent multiplication operation. Kleene algebras: a semiring with idempotent addition and


id: outline-of-algebraic-structures-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_algebraic_structures-2.md
category: reference
title: Outline of algebraic structures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_algebraic_structures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:44.195968+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-algebraic-structures-20260505-0
summary:
Algebra over a ring (also R-algebra): a module over a commutative ring R, which also carries a multiplication operation that is compatible with the module structure. This includes distributivity over addition and linearity with respect to multiplication by elements of R. Algebra over a field: This is a ring which is also a vector space over a field. Multiplication is usually assumed to be associative. The theory is especially well developed. Associative algebra: an algebra over a ring such that the multiplication is associative. Nonassociative algebra: a module over a commutative ring, equipped with a ring multiplication operation that is not necessarily associative. Often associativity is replaced with a different identity, such as alternation, the Jacobi identity, or the Jordan identity. Lie algebra: a special type of nonassociative algebra whose product satisfies the Jacobi identity. Jordan algebra: a special type of nonassociative algebra whose product satisfies the Jordan identity. Coalgebra: a vector space with a "comultiplication" defined dually to that of associative algebras. Lie coalgebra: a vector space with a "comultiplication" defined dually to that of Lie algebras. Graded algebra: a graded vector space with an algebra structure compatible with the grading. The idea is that if the grades of


id: list-of-complex-and-algebraic-surfaces-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_complex_and_algebraic_surfaces-0.md
category: reference
title: List of complex and algebraic surfaces
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_complex_and_algebraic_surfaces
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:45.547440+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-complex-and-algebraic-surfaces-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of named algebraic surfaces, compact complex surfaces, and families thereof, sorted according to their Kodaira dimension following Enriques–Kodaira classification. == Kodaira dimension −∞ == === Rational surfaces === Projective plane ==== Quadric surfaces ==== Cone (geometry) Cylinder Ellipsoid Hyperboloid Paraboloid Sphere Spheroid ==== Rational cubic surfaces ==== Cayley nodal cubic surface, a certain cubic surface with 4 nodes Cayley's ruled cubic surface Clebsch surface or Klein icosahedral surface Fermat cubic Monkey saddle Parabolic conoid Plücker's conoid Whitney umbrella ==== Rational quartic surfaces ==== Châtelet surfaces Dupin cyclides, inversions of a cylinder, torus, or double cone in a sphere Gabriel's horn Right circular conoid Roman surface or Steiner surface, a realization of the real projective plane in real affine space Tori, surfaces of revolution generated by a circle about a coplanar axis ==== Other rational surfaces in space ==== Boy's surface, a sextic realization of the real projective plane in real affine space Enneper surface, a nonic minimal surface Henneberg surface, a minimal surface of degree 15 Bour's minimal surface, a surface of degree 16 Richmond surfaces, a family of minimal surfaces of variable degree ==== Other families of rational surfaces ==== Coble surfaces Del Pezzo surfaces,


id: list-of-algebras-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algebras-0.md
category: reference
title: List of algebras
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algebras
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:46.737962+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-algebras-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of possibly nonassociative algebras. An algebra is a module, wherein you can also multiply two module elements. (The multiplication in the module is compatible with multiplication-by-scalars from the base ring). *-algebra Affine Lie algebra Akivis algebra Algebra for a monad Albert algebra Alternative algebra AW*-algebra Azumaya algebra Banach algebra Birman–Wenzl algebra Boolean algebra Borcherds algebra Brauer algebra C*-algebra Central simple algebra Clifford algebra Cluster algebra Dendriform algebra Differential graded algebra Differential graded Lie algebra Exterior algebra F-algebra Filtered algebra Flexible algebra Freudenthal algebra Functional-theoretic algebra Factorization algebra Genetic algebra Geometric algebra Gerstenhaber algebra Graded algebra Griess algebra Group algebra Group algebra of a locally compact group Hall algebra Hecke algebra of a locally compact group Heyting algebra Hopf algebra Hurwitz algebra Hypercomplex algebra Incidence algebra Iwahori–Hecke algebra Jordan algebra Kac–Moody algebra Kleene algebra Leibniz algebra Lie algebra Lie superalgebra Malcev algebra Matrix algebra Non-associative algebra Octonion algebra Pre-Lie algebra Poisson algebra Process algebra Quadratic algebra Quadric geometric algebra Quaternion algebra Rees algebra Relation algebra Relational algebra Rota–Baxter algebra Schur algebra Semisimple algebra Separable algebra Shuffle algebra Sigma-algebra Simple algebra Structurable algebra Supercommutative algebra Symmetric algebra Tensor algebra Universal enveloping algebra Vertex operator algebra von Neumann algebra


id: list-of-algorithm-general-topics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithm_general_topics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of algorithm general topics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithm_general_topics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:47.939703+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-algorithm-general-topics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of algorithm general topics. Analysis of algorithms Ant colony algorithm Approximation algorithm Best and worst cases Big O notation Combinatorial search Competitive analysis Computability theory Computational complexity theory Embarrassingly parallel problem Emergent algorithm Evolutionary algorithm Fast Fourier transform Genetic algorithm Graph exploration algorithm Heuristic Hill climbing Implementation Las Vegas algorithm Lock-free and wait-free algorithms Monte Carlo algorithm Numerical analysis Online algorithm Polynomial time approximation scheme Problem size Pseudorandom number generator Quantum algorithm Random-restart hill climbing Randomized algorithm Running time Sorting algorithm Search algorithm Stable algorithm (disambiguation) Super-recursive algorithm Tree search algorithm == See also == List of algorithms for specific algorithms List of computability and complexity topics for more abstract theory List of complexity classes, complexity class List of data structures.


id: list-of-algorithms-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms-0.md
category: reference
title: List of algorithms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:49.096714+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-algorithms-20260505-0
summary:
An algorithm is a fundamental set of rules or defined procedures that are typically designed and used to be a simpler way to solve a specific problem or a broad set of problems. Simply speaking, algorithms define different processes, sets of rules and regulations, or methodologies that are to be followed through in calculations, data processing, data mining, pattern recognition, automated reasoning or other problem-solving operations. With the increasing automation of services, more and more decisions are being made by algorithms. Some general examples are risk assessments, anticipatory policing, and pattern recognition technology. The following is a list of well-known algorithms. == Automated planning == == Combinatorial algorithms == === General combinatorial algorithms === Brent's algorithm: finds a cycle in function value iterations using only two iterators Floyd's cycle-finding algorithm: finds a cycle in function value iterations Gale–Shapley algorithm: solves the stable matching problem Pseudorandom number generators (uniformly distributed—see also List of pseudorandom number generators for other PRNGs with varying degrees of convergence and varying statistical quality): ACORN generator Blum Blum Shub Lagged Fibonacci generator Linear congruential generator Mersenne Twister === Graph algorithms === Blossom algorithm: algorithm for constructing maximum-cardinality matching on graphs. Coloring algorithm: algorithms for graph (vertex or


id: list-of-algorithms-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms-1.md
category: reference
title: List of algorithms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:49.096714+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-algorithms-20260505-0
summary:
==== Approximate sequence matching ==== Bitap algorithm: fuzzy algorithm that determines if strings are approximately equal. Phonetic algorithms Daitch–Mokotoff Soundex: a Soundex refinement which allows matching of Slavic and Germanic surnames Double Metaphone: an improvement on Metaphone Match rating approach: a phonetic algorithm developed by Western Airlines Metaphone: an algorithm for indexing words by their sound, when pronounced in English NYSIIS: phonetic algorithm, improves on Soundex Soundex: a phonetic algorithm for indexing names by sound, as pronounced in English String metrics: computes a similarity or dissimilarity (distance) score between two pairs of text strings Damerau–Levenshtein distance: computes a distance measure between two strings, improves on Levenshtein distance Dice's coefficient (also known as the Dice coefficient): a similarity measure related to the Jaccard index Hamming distance: sum number of positions which are different Jaro–Winkler distance: is a measure of similarity between two strings Levenshtein edit distance: computes a metric for the amount of difference between two sequences Trigram search: search for text when the exact syntax or spelling of the target object is not precisely known ==== Selection algorithms ==== Introselect Quickselect ==== Sequence search ==== Linear search: locates an item in an unsorted sequence Selection algorithm: finds the kth largest


id: list-of-algorithms-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms-2.md
category: reference
title: List of algorithms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:49.096714+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-algorithms-20260505-0
summary:
Chien search: a recursive algorithm for determining roots of polynomials defined over a finite field Schreier–Sims algorithm: computing a base and strong generating set (BSGS) of a permutation group Todd–Coxeter algorithm: Procedure for generating cosets. === Computer algebra === Buchberger's algorithm: finds a Gröbner basis Cantor–Zassenhaus algorithm: factor polynomials over finite fields Faugère F4 algorithm: finds a Gröbner basis (also mentions the F5 algorithm) Gosper's algorithm: find sums of hypergeometric terms that are themselves hypergeometric terms Knuth–Bendix completion algorithm: for rewriting rule systems Multivariate division algorithm: for polynomials in several indeterminates Pollard's kangaroo algorithm (also known as Pollard's lambda algorithm): an algorithm for solving the discrete logarithm problem Polynomial long division: an algorithm for dividing a polynomial by another polynomial of the same or lower degree Risch algorithm: an algorithm for the calculus operation of indefinite integration (i.e. finding antiderivatives) === Geometry === Closest pair problem: find the pair of points (from a set of points) with the smallest distance between them Collision detection algorithms: check for the collision or intersection of two given solids Cone algorithm: identify surface points Convex hull algorithms: determining the convex hull of a set of points Chan's algorithm Gift wrapping algorithm or Jarvis march


id: list-of-algorithms-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms-3.md
category: reference
title: List of algorithms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:49.096714+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-algorithms-20260505-0
summary:
Computation of π: Bailey–Borwein–Plouffe formula: (BBP formula) a spigot algorithm for the computation of the nth binary digit of π Borwein's algorithm: an algorithm to calculate the value of 1/π Chudnovsky algorithm: a fast method for calculating the digits of π Gauss–Legendre algorithm: computes the digits of pi Division algorithms: for computing quotient and/or remainder of two numbers Goldschmidt division Long division Newton–Raphson division: uses Newton's method to find the reciprocal of D, and multiply that reciprocal by N to find the final quotient Q. Non-restoring division Restoring division SRT division Exponentiation: Addition-chain exponentiation: exponentiation by positive integer powers that requires a minimal number of multiplications Exponentiating by squaring: an algorithm used for the fast computation of large integer powers of a number Hyperbolic and Trigonometric Functions: BKM algorithm: computes elementary functions using a table of logarithms CORDIC: computes hyperbolic and trigonometric functions using a table of arctangents Montgomery reduction: an algorithm that allows modular arithmetic to be performed efficiently when the modulus is large Multiplication algorithms: fast multiplication of two numbers Booth's multiplication algorithm: a multiplication algorithm that multiplies two signed binary numbers in two's complement notation Fürer's algorithm: an integer multiplication algorithm for very large numbers possessing a


id: list-of-algorithms-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms-4.md
category: reference
title: List of algorithms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:49.096714+00:00
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parent: list-of-algorithms-20260505-0
summary:
=== Optimization algorithms === Hybrid Algorithms Alpha–beta pruning: search to reduce number of nodes in minimax algorithm A hybrid BFGS-Like method (see more https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cam.2024.115857) Branch and bound Bruss algorithm: see odds algorithm Chain matrix multiplication Combinatorial optimization: optimization problems where the set of feasible solutions is discrete Greedy randomized adaptive search procedure (GRASP): successive constructions of a greedy randomized solution and subsequent iterative improvements of it through a local search Hungarian method: a combinatorial optimization algorithm which solves the assignment problem in polynomial time Conjugate gradient methods (see more https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2022.101923) Constraint satisfaction AC-3 algorithm general algorithms for the constraint satisfaction Chaff algorithm: an algorithm for solving instances of the Boolean satisfiability problem Davis–Putnam algorithm: check the validity of a first-order logic formula Difference map algorithm general algorithms for the constraint satisfaction Davis–Putnam–Logemann–Loveland algorithm (DPLL): an algorithm for deciding the satisfiability of propositional logic formula in conjunctive normal form, i.e. for solving the CNF-SAT problem Exact cover problem Min conflicts algorithm general algorithms for the constraint satisfaction Algorithm X: a nondeterministic algorithm Dancing Links: an efficient implementation of Algorithm X Cross-entropy method: a general Monte Carlo approach to combinatorial and continuous multi-extremal optimization and importance sampling Differential evolution Dynamic Programming: problems


id: list-of-algorithms-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms-5.md
category: reference
title: List of algorithms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:49.096714+00:00
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parent: list-of-algorithms-20260505-0
summary:
Algorithms for calculating variance: avoiding instability and numerical overflow Approximate counting algorithm: allows counting large number of events in a small register Bayesian statistics Nested sampling algorithm: a computational approach to the problem of comparing models in Bayesian statistics Clustering algorithms Average-linkage clustering: a simple agglomerative clustering algorithm Canopy clustering algorithm: an unsupervised pre-clustering algorithm related to the K-means algorithm Chinese whispers Complete-linkage clustering: a simple agglomerative clustering algorithm DBSCAN: a density based clustering algorithm Expectation-maximization algorithm Fuzzy clustering: a class of clustering algorithms where each point has a degree of belonging to clusters FLAME clustering (Fuzzy clustering by Local Approximation of MEmberships): define clusters in the dense parts of a dataset and perform cluster assignment solely based on the neighborhood relationships among objects Fuzzy c-means k-means clustering: cluster objects based on attributes into partitions k-means++: a variation of this, using modified random seeds k-medoids: similar to k-means, but chooses datapoints or medoids as centers KHOPCA clustering algorithm: a local clustering algorithm, which produces hierarchical multi-hop clusters in static and mobile environments. Linde–Buzo–Gray algorithm: a vector quantization algorithm to derive a good codebook Lloyd's algorithm (Voronoi iteration or relaxation): group data points into a given number of categories, a popular


id: list-of-algorithms-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms-6.md
category: reference
title: List of algorithms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:49.096714+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-algorithms-20260505-0
summary:
Asymmetric (public key) encryption: ElGamal Elliptic curve cryptography MAE1 NTRUEncrypt RSA Digital signatures (asymmetric authentication): DSA, and its variants: ECDSA and Deterministic ECDSA EdDSA (Ed25519) RSA Cryptographic hash functions (see also the section on message authentication codes): BLAKE MD5 – Note that there is now a method of generating collisions for MD5 RIPEMD-160 SHA-1 – Note that there is now a method of generating collisions for SHA-1 SHA-2 (SHA-224, SHA-256, SHA-384, SHA-512) SHA-3 (SHA3-224, SHA3-256, SHA3-384, SHA3-512, SHAKE128, SHAKE256) Tiger (TTH), usually used in Tiger tree hashes WHIRLPOOL Cryptographically secure pseudo-random number generators Blum Blum Shub – based on the hardness of factorization Fortuna, intended as an improvement on Yarrow algorithm Linear-feedback shift register (note: many LFSR-based algorithms are weak or have been broken) Yarrow algorithm Key exchange Diffie–Hellman key exchange Elliptic-curve Diffie–Hellman (ECDH) Key derivation functions, often used for password hashing and key stretching Argon2 bcrypt PBKDF2 scrypt Message authentication codes (symmetric authentication algorithms, which take a key as a parameter): HMAC: keyed-hash message authentication Poly1305 SipHash Secret sharing, secret splitting, key splitting, M of N algorithms Blakey's scheme Shamir's secret sharing Symmetric (secret key) encryption: Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), winner of NIST competition, also known as Rijndael Blowfish


id: list-of-algorithms-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms-7.md
category: reference
title: List of algorithms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:49.096714+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-algorithms-20260505-0
summary:
Hopcroft's algorithm, Moore's algorithm, and Brzozowski's algorithm: algorithms for minimizing the number of states in a deterministic finite automaton Powerset construction: algorithm to convert nondeterministic automaton to deterministic automaton. Tarski–Kuratowski algorithm: a non-deterministic algorithm which provides an upper bound for the complexity of formulas in the arithmetical hierarchy and analytical hierarchy == Information theory and signal processing == === Coding theory === ==== Error detection and correction ==== BCH Codes Berlekamp–Massey algorithm Peterson–Gorenstein–Zierler algorithm Reed–Solomon error correction BCJR algorithm: decoding of error correcting codes defined on trellises (principally convolutional codes) Forward error correction Gray code Hamming codes Hamming(7,4): a Hamming code that encodes 4 bits of data into 7 bits by adding 3 parity bits Hamming distance: sum number of positions which are different Hamming weight (population count): find the number of 1 bits in a binary word Redundancy checks Adler-32 Cyclic redundancy check Damm algorithm Fletcher's checksum Longitudinal redundancy check (LRC) Luhn algorithm: a method of validating identification numbers Luhn mod N algorithm: extension of Luhn to non-numeric characters Parity: simple/fast error detection technique Verhoeff algorithm ==== Lossless compression algorithms ==== Burrows–Wheeler transform: preprocessing useful for improving lossless compression Context tree weighting Delta encoding: aid to compression of data


id: list-of-algorithms-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms-8.md
category: reference
title: List of algorithms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:49.096714+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-algorithms-20260505-0
summary:
Cache algorithms CHS conversion: converting between disk addressing systems Double dabble: convert binary numbers to BCD Hash function: convert a large, possibly variable-sized amount of data into a small datum, usually a single integer that may serve as an index into an array Fowler–Noll–Vo hash function: fast with low collision rate Pearson hashing: computes 8-bit value only, optimized for 8-bit computers Zobrist hashing: used in the implementation of transposition tables Unicode collation algorithm Xor swap algorithm: swaps the values of two variables without using a buffer == Database algorithms == Algorithms for Recovery and Isolation Exploiting Semantics (ARIES): transaction recovery Join algorithms Block nested loop Hash join Nested loop join Sort-Merge Join The Chase == Distributed systems algorithms == Clock synchronization Berkeley algorithm Cristian's algorithm Intersection algorithm Marzullo's algorithm Consensus (computer science): agreeing on a single value or history among unreliable processors Chandra–Toueg consensus algorithm Paxos algorithm Raft (computer science) Detection of Process Termination Dijkstra-Scholten algorithm Huang's algorithm Lamport ordering: a partial ordering of events based on the happened-before relation Leader election: a method for dynamically selecting a coordinator Bully algorithm Mutual exclusion Lamport's Distributed Mutual Exclusion Algorithm Naimi-Trehel's log(n) Algorithm Maekawa's Algorithm Raymond's Algorithm Ricart–Agrawala Algorithm Snapshot algorithm: record


id: list-of-aperiodic-sets-of-tiles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_aperiodic_sets_of_tiles-0.md
category: reference
title: List of aperiodic sets of tiles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_aperiodic_sets_of_tiles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:50.348730+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-aperiodic-sets-of-tiles-20260505-0
summary:
In geometry, a tiling is a partition of the plane (or any other geometric setting) into closed sets (called tiles), without gaps or overlaps (other than the boundaries of the tiles). A tiling is considered periodic if there exist translations in two independent directions which map the tiling onto itself. Such a tiling is composed of a single fundamental unit or primitive cell which repeats endlessly and regularly in two independent directions. An example of such a tiling is shown in the adjacent diagram (see the image description for more information). A tiling that cannot be constructed from a single primitive cell is called nonperiodic. If a given set of tiles allows only nonperiodic tilings, then this set of tiles is called aperiodic. The tilings obtained from an aperiodic set of tiles are often called aperiodic tilings, though strictly speaking it is the tiles themselves that are aperiodic. (The tiling itself is said to be "nonperiodic".) The first table explains the abbreviations used in the second table. The second table contains all known aperiodic sets of tiles and gives some additional basic information about each set. This list of tiles is still incomplete. == Explanations == == List == ==


id: outline-of-arithmetic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_arithmetic-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of arithmetic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_arithmetic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:51.611767+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-arithmetic-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to arithmetic: Arithmetic is an elementary branch of mathematics that deals with numerical operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. In a wider sense, it also includes exponentiation, extraction of roots, and taking logarithms, and the use of such operations to perform more complicated calculations. Arithmetic is fundamental for both pure mathematics and its practical application to science and daily life. In pure mathematics, arithmetic is defined formally for various types of numbers, such as integers, fractions of integers (rational numbers), and real numbers. In practical application, arithmetic is usually approximate, operating on decimal or binary numbers, with rounding. == Essence of arithmetic == Elementary arithmetic Decimal arithmetic Decimal point Numeral Place value == History of arithmetic == == Arithmetic operations and related concepts == Order of operations Addition Summation – Answer after adding a sequence of numbers Additive inverse Subtraction – Taking away numbers Multiplication – Repeated addition Multiple – Product of multiplication Least common multiple Multiplicative inverse Division – Repeated subtraction Modulo – The remainder of division Quotient – Result of division Quotition and partition – How many parts are there, and what is the size


id: list-of-mathematical-artists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mathematical_artists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of mathematical artists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mathematical_artists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:52.917714+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mathematical-artists-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of artists who actively explored mathematics in their artworks. Art forms practised by these artists include painting, sculpture, architecture, textiles and origami. Some artists such as Piero della Francesca and Luca Pacioli went so far as to write books on mathematics in art. Della Francesca wrote books on solid geometry and the emerging field of perspective, including De Prospectiva Pingendi (On Perspective for Painting), Trattato d’Abaco (Abacus Treatise), and De corporibus regularibus (Regular Solids), while Pacioli wrote De divina proportione (On Divine Proportion), with illustrations by Leonardo da Vinci, at the end of the fifteenth century. Merely making accepted use of some aspect of mathematics such as perspective does not qualify an artist for admission to this list. The term "fine art" is used conventionally to cover the output of artists who produce a combination of paintings, drawings and sculptures. == List == == References == == External links == Saint Louis University: List of mathematical artists, by field


id: list-of-axioms-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_axioms-0.md
category: reference
title: List of axioms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_axioms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:54.221468+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-axioms-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of axioms as that term is understood in mathematics. In epistemology, the word axiom is understood differently; see axiom and self-evidence. Individual axioms are almost always part of a larger axiomatic system. == ZF (the Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms without the axiom of choice) == Together with the axiom of choice (see below), these are the de facto standard axioms for contemporary mathematics or set theory. They can be easily adapted to analogous theories, such as mereology. Axiom of extensionality Axiom of empty set Axiom of pairing Axiom of union Axiom of infinity Axiom schema of replacement Axiom of power set Axiom of regularity Axiom schema of specification See also Zermelo set theory. == Axiom of choice == With the Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms above, this makes up the system ZFC in which most mathematics is potentially formalisable. === Equivalents of AC === Hausdorff maximality theorem Well-ordering theorem Zorn's lemma === Stronger than AC === Axiom of global choice === Weaker than AC === Axiom of countable choice Axiom of dependent choice Boolean prime ideal theorem Axiom of uniformization === Alternates incompatible with AC === Axiom of real determinacy == Other axioms of mathematical logic == Von Neumann–Bernays–Gödel axioms Continuum


id: list-of-banach-spaces-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Banach_spaces-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Banach spaces
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Banach_spaces
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:55.569651+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-banach-spaces-20260505-0
summary:
In the mathematical field of functional analysis, Banach spaces are among the most important objects of study. In other areas of mathematical analysis, most spaces which arise in practice turn out to be Banach spaces as well. == Classical Banach spaces == According to Diestel (1984, Chapter VII), the classical Banach spaces are those defined by Dunford & Schwartz (1958), which is the source for the following table. Glossary of symbols for the table below: F {\displaystyle \mathbb {F} } denotes the field of real numbers R {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} } or complex numbers C . {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} .} K {\displaystyle K} is a compact Hausdorff space. p , q ∈ R {\displaystyle p,q\in \mathbb {R} } are real numbers with 1 < p , q < ∞ {\displaystyle 1<p,q<\infty } that are Hölder conjugates, meaning that they satisfy 1 q + 1 p = 1 {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{q}}+{\frac {1}{p}}=1} and thus also q = p p − 1 . {\displaystyle q={\frac {p}{p-1}}.} Σ {\displaystyle \Sigma } is a σ {\displaystyle \sigma } -algebra of sets. Ξ {\displaystyle \Xi } is an algebra of sets (for spaces only requiring finite additivity, such as the ba space). μ {\displaystyle \mu


id: list-of-works-by-nikolay-bogolyubov-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_by_Nikolay_Bogolyubov-0.md
category: reference
title: List of works by Nikolay Bogolyubov
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_by_Nikolay_Bogolyubov
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:56.878536+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-works-by-nikolay-bogolyubov-20260505-0
summary:
List of some published works of Nikolay Bogolyubov in chronological order: == 1924 == N. N. Bogolyubov (1924). On the behavior of solutions of linear differential equations at infinity (Russian: О поведении решений линейных дифференциальных уравнений на бесконечности). == 1934 == N. M. Krylov and N. N. Bogolyubov (1934). On various formal expansions of non-linear mechanics (in Ukrainian). Kiev: Izdat. Zagal'noukr. Akad. Nauk. == 1937 == N. N. Bogoliubov and N. M. Krylov (1937). "La theorie generalie de la mesure dans son application a l'etude de systemes dynamiques de la mecanique non-lineaire" (in French). Ann. Math. II 38: 65–113. Zbl. 16.86. == 1945 == Боголюбов Н. Н. (1945). О некоторых статистических методах в математической физике (in Russian). Киев: Изд-во АН УССР. N. N. Bogoliubov (1945). On Some Statistical Methods in Mathematical Physics (in Russian). Kyiv: Izdatelstvo AN USSR. == 1946 == N. N. Bogoliubov (1946). "Kinetic Equations" (in Russian). Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Physics 16 (8): 691–702. N. N. Bogoliubov (1946). "Kinetic Equations" (in English). Journal of Physics 10 (3): 265–274. == 1947 == N. N. Bogoliubov, K. P. Gurov (1947). "Kinetic Equations in Quantum Mechanics" (in Russian). Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Physics 17 (7): 614–628. N. N.


id: list-of-boolean-algebra-topics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Boolean_algebra_topics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Boolean algebra topics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Boolean_algebra_topics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:58.151075+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-boolean-algebra-topics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of topics around Boolean algebra and propositional logic. == Articles with a wide scope and introductions == Algebra of sets Boolean algebra (structure) Boolean algebra Field of sets Logical connective Propositional calculus == Boolean functions and connectives == Ampheck Analysis of Boolean functions Balanced Boolean function Bent function Boolean algebras canonically defined Boolean function Boolean matrix Boolean-valued function Conditioned disjunction Evasive Boolean function Exclusive or Functional completeness Logical biconditional Logical conjunction Logical disjunction Logical equality Logical implication Logical negation Logical NOR Majority function Material conditional Minimal axioms for Boolean algebra Peirce arrow Read-once function Sheffer stroke Sole sufficient operator Symmetric Boolean function Symmetric difference Zhegalkin polynomial == Examples of Boolean algebras == Boolean domain Complete Boolean algebra Interior algebra Two-element Boolean algebra == Extensions of Boolean algebras == Derivative algebra (abstract algebra) Free Boolean algebra Monadic Boolean algebra == Generalizations of Boolean algebras == De Morgan algebra First-order logic Heyting algebra Lindenbaum–Tarski algebra Skew Boolean algebra == Syntax == Algebraic normal form Boolean conjunctive query Canonical form (Boolean algebra) Conjunctive normal form Disjunctive normal form Formal system == Technical applications == And-inverter graph Logic gate Boolean analysis == Theorems and specific laws == Boolean prime ideal


id: list-of-calculus-topics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_calculus_topics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of calculus topics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_calculus_topics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:59.314130+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-calculus-topics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of calculus topics. == Limits == Limit (mathematics) Limit of a function One-sided limit Limit of a sequence Indeterminate form Orders of approximation (ε, δ)-definition of limit Continuous function == Differential calculus == Derivative Notation Newton's notation for differentiation Leibniz's notation for differentiation Simplest rules Derivative of a constant Sum rule in differentiation Constant factor rule in differentiation Linearity of differentiation Power rule Chain rule Local linearization Product rule Quotient rule Inverse functions and differentiation Implicit differentiation Stationary point Maxima and minima First derivative test Second derivative test Extreme value theorem Differential equation Differential operator Newton's method Taylor's theorem L'Hôpital's rule General Leibniz rule Mean value theorem Logarithmic derivative Differential (calculus) Related rates Regiomontanus' angle maximization problem Rolle's theorem == Integral calculus == Antiderivative/Indefinite integral Simplest rules Sum rule in integration Constant factor rule in integration Linearity of integration Arbitrary constant of integration Cavalieri's quadrature formula Fundamental theorem of calculus Integration by parts Inverse chain rule method Integration by substitution Tangent half-angle substitution Differentiation under the integral sign Trigonometric substitution Partial fractions in integration Quadratic integral Proof that 22/7 exceeds π Trapezium rule Integral of the secant function Integral of secant cubed Arclength Solid of revolution


id: outline-of-calculus-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_calculus-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of calculus
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_calculus
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:00.609028+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-calculus-20260505-0
summary:
Calculus is a branch of mathematics focused on limits, functions, derivatives, integrals, and infinite series. This subject constitutes a major part of contemporary mathematics education. Calculus has widespread applications in science, economics, and engineering and can solve many problems for which algebra alone is insufficient. == Branches of calculus == Differential calculus Integral calculus Multivariable calculus Fractional calculus Differential Geometry == History of calculus == History of calculus Important publications in calculus == General calculus concepts == Continuous function Derivative Fundamental theorem of calculus Integral Limit Non-standard analysis Partial derivative Infinite Series == Calculus scholars == Sir Isaac Newton Gottfried Leibniz Leonhard Euler == Calculus lists == List of calculus topics == See also == Glossary of calculus Table of mathematical symbols == References == == External links == Weisstein, Eric W. "Calculus". MathWorld. Topics on Calculus at PlanetMath. Calculus Made Easy (1914) by Silvanus P. Thompson Full text in PDF Calculus.org: The Calculus page at University of California, Davis – contains resources and links to other sites COW: Calculus on the Web Archived 2007-10-14 at the Wayback Machine at Temple University - contains resources ranging from pre-calculus and associated algebra Online Integrator (WebMathematica) from Wolfram Research The Role of


id: outline-of-category-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_category_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of category theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_category_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:01.794317+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-category-theory-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and guide to category theory: Category theory is a general theory of mathematical structures and their relations. It was introduced by Samuel Eilenberg and Saunders Mac Lane in the mid-20th century in their foundational work on algebraic topology. Category theory can be used in most areas of mathematics. In particular, many constructions of new mathematical objects from previous ones that appear similarly in several contexts are conveniently expressed and unified in terms of categories. Examples include quotient spaces, direct products, completion, and duality. Many areas of computer science also rely on category theory, such as functional programming and semantics. == Essence of category theory == Category Functor Natural transformation == Branches of category theory == Homological algebra Diagram chasing Topos theory Enriched category theory Higher category theory Categorical logic Applied category theory == Specific categories == Category of sets Concrete category Category of small categories Category of vector spaces Category of graded vector spaces Category of chain complexes Category of finite dimensional Hilbert spaces Category of sets and relations Category of topological spaces Category of metric spaces Category of preordered sets Category of groups Category of abelian groups Category of rings


id: list-of-chaotic-maps-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chaotic_maps-0.md
category: reference
title: List of chaotic maps
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chaotic_maps
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:03.039151+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chaotic-maps-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics, a chaotic map is a map (an evolution function) that exhibits some sort of chaotic behavior. Maps may be parameterized by a discrete-time or a continuous-time parameter. Discrete maps usually take the form of iterated functions. Chaotic maps often occur in the study of dynamical systems. Chaotic maps and iterated functions often generate fractals. Some fractals are studied as objects themselves, as sets rather than in terms of the maps that generate them. This is often because there are several different iterative procedures that generate the same fractal. See also Universality (dynamical systems). == List of chaotic maps == == List of fractals == Cantor set de Rham curve Gravity set, or Mitchell-Green gravity set Julia set - derived from complex quadratic map Koch snowflake - special case of de Rham curve Lyapunov fractal Mandelbrot set - derived from complex quadratic map Menger sponge Newton fractal Nova fractal - derived from Newton fractal Quaternionic fractal - three dimensional complex quadratic map Sierpinski carpet Sierpinski triangle == References ==


id: list-of-mathematical-topics-in-classical-mechanics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mathematical_topics_in_classical_mechanics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of mathematical topics in classical mechanics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mathematical_topics_in_classical_mechanics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:04.549140+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mathematical-topics-in-classical-mechanics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of mathematical topics in classical mechanics, by Wikipedia page. See also list of variational topics, correspondence principle. == Newtonian physics == Newton's laws of motion Inertia, Kinematics, rigid body Momentum, kinetic energy Parallelogram of force Circular motion Rotational speed Angular speed Angular momentum torque angular acceleration moment of inertia parallel axes rule perpendicular axes rule stretch rule centripetal force, centrifugal force, Reactive centrifugal force Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector Euler's disk elastic potential energy Mechanical equilibrium D'Alembert's principle Degrees of freedom (physics and chemistry) Frame of reference Inertial frame of reference Galilean transformation Principle of relativity == Conservation laws == Conservation of momentum Conservation of linear momentum Conservation of angular momentum Conservation of energy Potential energy Conservative force Conservation of mass == Law of universal gravitation == Projectile motion Kepler's laws of planetary motion Escape velocity Potential well Weightlessness Lagrangian point N-body problem Kolmogorov–Arnold–Moser theorem Virial theorem Gravitational binding energy Speed of gravity Newtonian limit Hill sphere Roche lobe Roche limit == Hamiltonian mechanics == Phase space Symplectic manifold Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian) Poisson bracket Poisson algebra Poisson manifold Antibracket algebra Hamiltonian constraint Moment map Contact geometry Analysis of flows Nambu mechanics == Lagrangian mechanics == Action (physics) Lagrangian Euler–Lagrange


id: list-of-cohomology-theories-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cohomology_theories-0.md
category: reference
title: List of cohomology theories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cohomology_theories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:25.127193+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cohomology-theories-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of some of the ordinary and generalized (or extraordinary) homology and cohomology theories in algebraic topology that are defined on the categories of CW complexes or spectra. For other sorts of homology theories see the links at the end of this article. == Notation == S = π = S 0 {\displaystyle S=\pi =S^{0}} is the sphere spectrum. S n {\displaystyle S^{n}} is the spectrum of the n {\displaystyle n} -dimensional sphere S n Y = S n ∧ Y {\displaystyle S^{n}Y=S^{n}\land Y} is the n {\displaystyle n} th suspension of a spectrum Y {\displaystyle Y} . [ X , Y ] {\displaystyle [X,Y]} is the abelian group of morphisms from the spectrum X {\displaystyle X} to the spectrum Y {\displaystyle Y} , given (roughly) as homotopy classes of maps. [ X , Y ] n = [ S n X , Y ] {\displaystyle [X,Y]_{n}=[S^{n}X,Y]} [ X , Y ] ∗ {\displaystyle [X,Y]_{*}} is the graded abelian group given as the sum of the groups [ X , Y ] n {\displaystyle [X,Y]_{n}} . π n ( X ) = [ S n , X ] = [ S , X ] n {\displaystyle \pi


id: list-of-cohomology-theories-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cohomology_theories-1.md
category: reference
title: List of cohomology theories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cohomology_theories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:25.127193+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cohomology-theories-20260505-0
summary:
=== K theory with coefficients === Spectrum: KG G is some abelian group; for example the localization Z(p) at the prime p. Other K-theories can also be given coefficients. === Self conjugate K-theory === Spectrum: KSC Coefficient ring: to be written... The coefficient groups π i {\displaystyle \pi _{i}} (KSC) have period 4 in i, given by the sequence Z, Z2, 0, Z, repeated. Introduced by Donald W. Anderson in his unpublished 1964 University of California, Berkeley Ph.D. dissertation, "A new cohomology theory". === Connective K-theories === Spectrum: ku for connective K-theory, ko for connective real K-theory. Coefficient ring: For ku, the coefficient ring is the ring of polynomials over Z on a single class v1 in dimension 2. For ko, the coefficient ring is the quotient of a polynomial ring on three generators, η in dimension 1, x4 in dimension 4, and v14 in dimension 8, the periodicity generator, modulo the relations that 2η = 0, x42 = 4v14, η3 = 0, and ηx = 0. Roughly speaking, this is K-theory with the negative dimensional parts killed off. === KR-theory === This is a cohomology theory defined for spaces with involution, from which many of the other K-theories can


id: list-of-combinatorial-computational-geometry-topics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_combinatorial_computational_geometry_topics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of combinatorial computational geometry topics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_combinatorial_computational_geometry_topics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:26.374691+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-combinatorial-computational-geometry-topics-20260505-0
summary:
List of combinatorial computational geometry topics enumerates the topics of computational geometry that states problems in terms of geometric objects as discrete entities and hence the methods of their solution are mostly theories and algorithms of combinatorial character. See List of numerical computational geometry topics for another flavor of computational geometry that deals with geometric objects as continuous entities and applies methods and algorithms of nature characteristic to numerical analysis. == Construction/representation == Boolean operations on polygons Convex hull Hyperplane arrangement Polygon decomposition Polygon triangulation Minimal convex decomposition Minimal convex cover problem (NP-hard) Minimal rectangular decomposition Tessellation problems Shape dissection problems Straight skeleton Stabbing line problem Triangulation Delaunay triangulation Point-set triangulation Polygon triangulation Voronoi diagram == Extremal shapes == Minimum bounding box (Smallest enclosing box, Smallest bounding box) 2-D case: Smallest bounding rectangle (Smallest enclosing rectangle) There are two common variants of this problem. In many areas of computer graphics, the bounding box (often abbreviated to bbox) is understood to be the smallest box delimited by sides parallel to coordinate axes which encloses the objects in question. In other applications, such as packaging, the problem is to find the smallest box the object (or objects) may fit in ("packaged"). Here


id: index-of-combinatorics-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_combinatorics_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of combinatorics articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_combinatorics_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:27.553086+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-combinatorics-articles-20260505-0
summary:
== A == Abstract simplicial complex Addition chain Scholz conjecture Algebraic combinatorics Alternating sign matrix Almost disjoint sets Antichain Arrangement of hyperplanes Assignment problem Quadratic assignment problem Audioactive decay == B == Barcode Matrix code QR Code Universal Product Code Bell polynomials Bertrand's ballot theorem Binary matrix Binomial theorem Block design Balanced incomplete block design(BIBD) Symmetric balanced incomplete block design (SBIBD) Partially balanced incomplete block designs (PBIBDs) Block walking Boolean satisfiability problem 2-satisfiability 3-satisfiability Bracelet (combinatorics) Bruck–Chowla–Ryser theorem == C == Catalan number Cellular automaton Collatz conjecture Combination Combinatorial design Combinatorial number system Combinatorial optimization Combinatorial search Constraint satisfaction problem Conway's Game of Life Cycles and fixed points Cyclic order Cyclic permutation Cyclotomic identity == D == Data integrity Alternating bit protocol Checksum Cyclic redundancy check Luhn formula Error detection Error-detecting code Error-detecting system Message digest Redundancy check Summation check De Bruijn sequence Deadlock Delannoy number Dining philosophers problem Mutual exclusion Rendezvous problem Derangement Dickson's lemma Dinitz conjecture Discrete optimization Dobinski's formula == E == Eight queens puzzle Entropy coding Enumeration Algebraic enumeration Combinatorial enumeration Burnside's lemma Erdős–Ko–Rado theorem Euler number == F == Faà di Bruno's formula Factorial number system Family of sets Faulhaber's formula Fifteen puzzle Finite geometry


id: outline-of-combinatorics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_combinatorics-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of combinatorics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_combinatorics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:28.713632+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-combinatorics-20260505-0
summary:
Combinatorics is a branch of mathematics concerning the study of finite or countable discrete structures. == Essence of combinatorics == Matroid Greedoid Ramsey theory Van der Waerden's theorem Hales–Jewett theorem Umbral calculus, binomial type polynomial sequences Combinatorial species == Branches of combinatorics == Algebraic combinatorics Analytic combinatorics Arithmetic combinatorics Combinatorics on words Combinatorial design theory Enumerative combinatorics Extremal combinatorics Geometric combinatorics Graph theory Infinitary combinatorics Matroid theory Order theory Partition theory Probabilistic combinatorics Topological combinatorics === Multi-disciplinary fields that include combinatorics === Coding theory Combinatorial optimization Combinatorics and dynamical systems Combinatorics and physics Discrete geometry Finite geometry Phylogenetics == History of combinatorics == History of combinatorics == General combinatorial principles and methods == Combinatorial principles Trial and error, brute-force search, bogosort, British Museum algorithm Pigeonhole principle Method of distinguished element Mathematical induction Recurrence relation, telescoping series Generating functions as an application of formal power series Cyclic sieving Schrödinger method Exponential generating function Stanley's reciprocity theorem Binomial coefficients and their properties Combinatorial proof Double counting (proof technique) Bijective proof Inclusion–exclusion principle Möbius inversion formula Parity, even and odd permutations Combinatorial Nullstellensatz Incidence algebra Greedy algorithm Divide and conquer algorithm Akra–Bazzi method Dynamic programming Branch and bound Birthday attack, birthday paradox Floyd's


id: list-of-commutative-algebra-topics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_commutative_algebra_topics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of commutative algebra topics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_commutative_algebra_topics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:29.965551+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-commutative-algebra-topics-20260505-0
summary:
Commutative algebra, first known as ideal theory, is the branch of algebra that studies commutative rings, their ideals, and modules over such rings. Both algebraic geometry and algebraic number theory build on commutative algebra. Prominent examples of commutative rings include polynomial rings; rings of algebraic integers, including the ordinary integers Z {\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} } ; and p-adic integers. Commutative algebra is the main technical tool of algebraic geometry, and many results and concepts of commutative algebra are strongly related with geometrical concepts. == Research fields == Combinatorial commutative algebra Invariant theory === Active research areas === Serre's multiplicity conjectures Homological conjectures == Basic notions == Commutative ring Module (mathematics) Ring ideal, maximal ideal, prime ideal Ring homomorphism Ring monomorphism Ring epimorphism Ring isomorphism Zero divisor Chinese remainder theorem == Classes of rings == Field (mathematics) Algebraic number field Polynomial ring Integral domain Boolean algebra (structure) Principal ideal domain Euclidean domain Unique factorization domain Dedekind domain Nilpotent elements and reduced rings Dual numbers Tensor product of fields Tensor product of R-algebras == Constructions with commutative rings == Quotient ring Field of fractions Product of rings Annihilator (ring theory) Integral closure == Localization and completion == Completion (ring theory) Formal power


id: comparison-of-vector-algebra-and-geometric-algebra-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_vector_algebra_and_geometric_algebra-0.md
category: reference
title: Comparison of vector algebra and geometric algebra
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_vector_algebra_and_geometric_algebra
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:31.235748+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: comparison-of-vector-algebra-and-geometric-algebra-20260505-0
summary:
Geometric algebra is an extension of vector algebra, providing additional algebraic structures on vector spaces, with geometric interpretations. Vector algebra uses all dimensions and signatures, as does geometric algebra, notably 3+1 spacetime as well as 2 dimensions. == Basic concepts and operations == Geometric algebra (GA) is an extension or completion of vector algebra (VA). The reader is herein assumed to be familiar with the basic concepts and operations of VA and this article will mainly concern itself with operations in G 3 {\displaystyle {\mathcal {G}}_{3}} the GA of 3D space (nor is this article intended to be mathematically rigorous). In GA, vectors are not normally written boldface as the meaning is usually clear from the context. The fundamental difference is that GA provides a new product of vectors called the "geometric product". Elements of GA are graded multivectors: scalars are grade 0, usual vectors are grade 1, bivectors are grade 2 and the highest grade (3 in the 3D case) is traditionally called the pseudoscalar and designated I {\displaystyle I} . The ungeneralized 3D vector form of the geometric product is: a b = a ⋅ b + a ∧ b {\displaystyle ab=a\cdot b+a\wedge b} that is the sum


id: comparison-of-vector-algebra-and-geometric-algebra-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_vector_algebra_and_geometric_algebra-1.md
category: reference
title: Comparison of vector algebra and geometric algebra
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_vector_algebra_and_geometric_algebra
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:31.235748+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: comparison-of-vector-algebra-and-geometric-algebra-20260505-0
summary:
The pseudovector/bivector subalgebra of the geometric algebra of Euclidean 3-dimensional space form a 3-dimensional vector space themselves. Let the standard unit pseudovectors/bivectors of the subalgebra be i = e 2 e 3 {\displaystyle \mathbf {i} =\mathbf {e_{2}} \mathbf {e_{3}} } , j = e 1 e 3 {\displaystyle \mathbf {j} =\mathbf {e_{1}} \mathbf {e_{3}} } , and k = e 1 e 2 {\displaystyle \mathbf {k} =\mathbf {e_{1}} \mathbf {e_{2}} } , and the anti-commutative commutator product be defined as A × B = 1 2 ( A B − B A ) {\displaystyle A\times B={\tfrac {1}{2}}(AB-BA)} , where A B {\displaystyle AB} is the geometric product. The commutator product is distributive over addition and linear, as the geometric product is distributive over addition and linear. From the definition of the commutator product, i {\displaystyle \mathbf {i} } , j {\displaystyle \mathbf {j} } and k {\displaystyle \mathbf {k} } satisfy the following equalities: i × j = 1 2 ( i j − j i ) = 1 2 ( ( e 2 e 3 e 1 e 3 − e 1 e 3 e 2 e 3 ) = 1 2 ( − e 2 e 3 e


id: comparison-of-vector-algebra-and-geometric-algebra-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_vector_algebra_and_geometric_algebra-2.md
category: reference
title: Comparison of vector algebra and geometric algebra
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_vector_algebra_and_geometric_algebra
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:31.235748+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: comparison-of-vector-algebra-and-geometric-algebra-20260505-0
summary:
A × B = ( A 1 i + A 2 j + A 3 k ) × ( B 1 i + B 2 j + B 3 k ) = A 1 B 1 i × i + A 1 B 2 i × j + A 1 B 3 i × k + A 2 B 1 j × i + A 2 B 2 j × j + A 2 B 3 j × k + A 3 B 1 k × i + A 3 B 2 k × j + A 3 B 3 k × k = A 1 B 2 k − A 1 B 3 j − A 2 B 1 k + A 2 B 3 i + A 3 B 1 j − A 3 B 2 i = ( A 2 B 3 − A 3 B 2 ) i + ( A 3 B 1 − A 1 B 3 ) j + ( A 1 B 2 − A 2 B 1 ) k {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mathbf {A} \times \mathbf {B} &=(A_{1}\mathbf {i} +A_{2}\mathbf {j} +A_{3}\mathbf {k} )\times (B_{1}\mathbf {i} +B_{2}\mathbf {j} +B_{3}\mathbf {k} )\\&=A_{1}B_{1}\mathbf {i} \times


id: comparison-of-vector-algebra-and-geometric-algebra-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_vector_algebra_and_geometric_algebra-3.md
category: reference
title: Comparison of vector algebra and geometric algebra
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_vector_algebra_and_geometric_algebra
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:31.235748+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: comparison-of-vector-algebra-and-geometric-algebra-20260505-0
summary:
This is a useful theoretic result. For numerical problems row reduction with pivots and other methods are more stable and efficient. When the wedge product is coupled with the Clifford product and put into a natural geometric context, the fact that the determinants are used in the expression of R N {\displaystyle {\mathbb {R} }^{N}} parallelogram area and parallelepiped volumes (and higher-dimensional generalizations thereof) also comes as a nice side-effect. As is also shown below, results such as Cramer's rule also follow directly from the wedge product's selection of non-identical elements. The result is then simple enough that it could be derived easily if required instead of having to remember or look up a rule. Two variables example [ a b ] [ x y ] = a x + b y = c . {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}a&b\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}x\\y\end{bmatrix}}=ax+by=c.} Pre- and post-multiplying by a {\displaystyle a} and b {\displaystyle b} , ( a x + b y ) ∧ b = ( a ∧ b ) x = c ∧ b {\displaystyle (ax+by)\wedge b=(a\wedge b)x=c\wedge b} a ∧ ( a x + b y ) = ( a ∧ b ) y = a ∧ c {\displaystyle a\wedge (ax+by)=(a\wedge b)y=a\wedge c} Provided


id: comparison-of-vector-algebra-and-geometric-algebra-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_vector_algebra_and_geometric_algebra-4.md
category: reference
title: Comparison of vector algebra and geometric algebra
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_vector_algebra_and_geometric_algebra
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:31.235748+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: comparison-of-vector-algebra-and-geometric-algebra-20260505-0
summary:
v − u ^ ( u ^ ⋅ v ) = 1 ‖ u ‖ 2 ( ‖ u ‖ 2 v − u ( u ⋅ v ) ) {\displaystyle v-{\hat {u}}({\hat {u}}\cdot v)={\frac {1}{{\Vert u\Vert }^{2}}}({\Vert u\Vert }^{2}v-u(u\cdot v))} The rejection can be expressed as a single geometric algebraic product in a few different ways u u 2 ( u v − u ⋅ v ) = 1 u ( u ∧ v ) = u ^ ( u ^ ∧ v ) = ( v ∧ u ^ ) u ^ {\displaystyle {\frac {u}{{u}^{2}}}(uv-u\cdot v)={\frac {1}{u}}(u\wedge v)={\hat {u}}({\hat {u}}\wedge v)=(v\wedge {\hat {u}}){\hat {u}}} The similarity in form between the projection and the rejection is notable. The sum of these recovers the original vector v = u ^ ( u ^ ⋅ v ) + u ^ ( u ^ ∧ v ) {\displaystyle v={\hat {u}}({\hat {u}}\cdot v)+{\hat {u}}({\hat {u}}\wedge v)} Here the projection is in its customary vector form. An alternate formulation is possible that puts the projection in a form that differs from the usual vector formulation v = 1 u ( u ⋅ v ) + 1 u ( u ∧ v ) = (


id: comparison-of-vector-algebra-and-geometric-algebra-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_vector_algebra_and_geometric_algebra-5.md
category: reference
title: Comparison of vector algebra and geometric algebra
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_vector_algebra_and_geometric_algebra
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:31.235748+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: comparison-of-vector-algebra-and-geometric-algebra-20260505-0
summary:
Notice the similarities between this planar rejection result and the vector rejection result. To calculate the component of a vector outside of a plane we take the volume spanned by three vectors (trivector) and "divide out" the plane. Independent of any use of the geometric product it can be shown that this rejection in terms of the standard basis is x = 1 ( A u , v ) 2 ∑ i < j < k | w i w j w k u i u j u k v i v j v k | | u i u j u k v i v j v k e i e j e k | {\displaystyle x={\frac {1}{(A_{u,v})^{2}}}\sum _{i<j<k}{\begin{vmatrix}w_{i}&w_{j}&w_{k}\\u_{i}&u_{j}&u_{k}\\v_{i}&v_{j}&v_{k}\\\end{vmatrix}}{\begin{vmatrix}u_{i}&u_{j}&u_{k}\\v_{i}&v_{j}&v_{k}\\{e}_{i}&{e}_{j}&{e}_{k}\\\end{vmatrix}}} where ( A u , v ) 2 = ∑ i < j | u i u j v i v j | = − ( u ∧ v ) 2 {\displaystyle (A_{u,v})^{2}=\sum _{i<j}{\begin{vmatrix}u_{i}&u_{j}\\v_{i}&v_{j}\end{vmatrix}}=-(u\wedge v)^{2}} is the squared area of the parallelogram formed by u {\displaystyle u} , and v {\displaystyle v} . The (squared) magnitude of x {\displaystyle x} is ‖ x ‖ 2 = x ⋅ w = 1 ( A u , v ) 2 ∑ i


id: comparison-of-vector-algebra-and-geometric-algebra-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_vector_algebra_and_geometric_algebra-6.md
category: reference
title: Comparison of vector algebra and geometric algebra
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_vector_algebra_and_geometric_algebra
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:31.235748+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: comparison-of-vector-algebra-and-geometric-algebra-20260505-0
summary:
A 2 = − ( u ∧ v ) 2 = ∑ i < j | u i u j v i v j | 2 . {\displaystyle A^{2}=-(\mathbf {u} \wedge \mathbf {v} )^{2}=\sum _{i<j}{\begin{vmatrix}u_{i}&u_{j}\\v_{i}&v_{j}\end{vmatrix}}^{2}.} Note that this squared bivector is a geometric multiplication; this computation can alternatively be stated as the Gram determinant of the two vectors. === Angle between two vectors === ( sin ⁡ θ ) 2 = ‖ u × v ‖ 2 ‖ u ‖ 2 ‖ v ‖ 2 {\displaystyle ({\sin \theta })^{2}={\frac {{\Vert \mathbf {u} \times \mathbf {v} \Vert }^{2}}{{\Vert \mathbf {u} \Vert }^{2}{\Vert \mathbf {v} \Vert }^{2}}}} ( sin ⁡ θ ) 2 = − ( u ∧ v ) 2 u 2 v 2 {\displaystyle ({\sin \theta })^{2}=-{\frac {(\mathbf {u} \wedge \mathbf {v} )^{2}}{{\mathbf {u} }^{2}{\mathbf {v} }^{2}}}} === Volume of the parallelopiped formed by three vectors === In vector algebra, the volume of a parallelopiped is given by the square root of the squared norm of the scalar triple product: V 2 = ‖ ( u × v ) ⋅ w ‖ 2 = | u 1 u 2 u 3 v 1 v 2 v 3 w 1 w


id: comparison-of-vector-algebra-and-geometric-algebra-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_vector_algebra_and_geometric_algebra-7.md
category: reference
title: Comparison of vector algebra and geometric algebra
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_vector_algebra_and_geometric_algebra
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:31.235748+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: comparison-of-vector-algebra-and-geometric-algebra-20260505-0
summary:
d d t ( r ‖ r ‖ ) = 1 ‖ r ‖ 3 ( r × d r d t ) × r = ( r ^ × 1 ‖ r ‖ d r d t ) × r ^ {\displaystyle {\frac {d}{dt}}\left({\frac {\mathbf {r} }{\Vert \mathbf {r} \Vert }}\right)={\frac {1}{{\Vert \mathbf {r} \Vert }^{3}}}\left(\mathbf {r} \times {\frac {d\mathbf {r} }{dt}}\right)\times \mathbf {r} =\left({\hat {\mathbf {r} }}\times {\frac {1}{\Vert \mathbf {r} \Vert }}{\frac {d\mathbf {r} }{dt}}\right)\times {\hat {\mathbf {r} }}} The equivalent geometric product generalization is d d t ( r ‖ r ‖ ) = 1 ‖ r ‖ 3 r ( r ∧ d r d t ) = 1 r ( r ^ ∧ d r d t ) {\displaystyle {\frac {d}{dt}}\left({\frac {\mathbf {r} }{\Vert \mathbf {r} \Vert }}\right)={\frac {1}{{\Vert \mathbf {r} \Vert }^{3}}}\mathbf {r} \left(\mathbf {r} \wedge {\frac {d\mathbf {r} }{dt}}\right)={\frac {1}{\mathbf {r} }}\left({\hat {\mathbf {r} }}\wedge {\frac {d\mathbf {r} }{dt}}\right)} Thus this derivative is the component of 1 ‖ r ‖ d r d t {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{\Vert \mathbf {r} \Vert }}{\frac {d\mathbf {r} }{dt}}} in the direction perpendicular to r {\displaystyle \mathbf {r} } . In other words, this is 1 ‖


id: list-of-mathematics-competitions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mathematics_competitions-0.md
category: reference
title: List of mathematics competitions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mathematics_competitions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:32.568377+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mathematics-competitions-20260505-0
summary:
Mathematics competitions or mathematical olympiads are competitive events where participants complete a math test. These tests may require multiple choice or numeric answers, or a detailed written solution or proof. == International mathematics competitions == World Mathematics Invitational — for all grade levels K-12, Taiwanese based international mathematics competition, with English and Chinese as the official languages of the papers. Championnat International de Jeux Mathématiques et Logiques — for all ages, mainly for French-speaking countries, but participation is not limited by language. China Girls Mathematical Olympiad (CGMO) — held annually for teams of girls representing different regions within China and a few other countries. European Girls' Mathematical Olympiad (EGMO) — since April 2012 Integration Bee — competition in integral calculus held in various institutions of higher learning in the United States and some other countries International Mathematical Modeling Challenge — team contest for high school students International Mathematical Olympiad (IMO) — the oldest international Olympiad, occurring annually since 1959. International Mathematics Competition for University Students (IMC) — international competition for undergraduate students. Mathematical Contest in Modeling (MCM) — team contest for undergraduates Mathematical Kangaroo — worldwide competition. Mental Calculation World Cup — contest for the best mental calculators Primary Mathematics


id: list-of-complex-analysis-topics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_complex_analysis_topics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of complex analysis topics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_complex_analysis_topics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:33.858629+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-complex-analysis-topics-20260505-0
summary:
Complex analysis, traditionally known as the theory of functions of a complex variable, is the branch of mathematics that investigates functions of complex numbers. It is useful in many branches of mathematics, including number theory and applied mathematics; as well as in physics, including hydrodynamics, thermodynamics, and electrical engineering. See also: glossary of real and complex analysis. == Overview == Complex numbers Complex plane Complex functions Complex derivative Holomorphic functions Harmonic functions Elementary functions Polynomial functions Exponential functions Trigonometric functions Hyperbolic functions Logarithmic functions Inverse trigonometric functions Inverse hyperbolic functions Residue theory Isometries in the complex plane == Related fields == Number theory Hydrodynamics Thermodynamics Electrical engineering == Local theory == Holomorphic function Antiholomorphic function Cauchy–Riemann equations Conformal mapping Conformal welding Power series Radius of convergence Laurent series Meromorphic function Entire function Pole (complex analysis) Zero (complex analysis) Residue (complex analysis) Isolated singularity Removable singularity Essential singularity Branch point Principal branch Weierstrass–Casorati theorem Landau's constants Holomorphic functions are analytic Schwarzian derivative Analytic capacity Disk algebra Univalent function == Growth and distribution of values == Ahlfors theory Bieberbach conjecture Borel–Carathéodory theorem Corona theorem Hadamard three-circle theorem Hardy space Hardy's theorem Maximum modulus principle Nevanlinna theory Paley–Wiener theorem Phragmén-Lindelöf principle Progressive function


id: list-of-complexity-classes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_complexity_classes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of complexity classes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_complexity_classes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:35.107427+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-complexity-classes-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of complexity classes in computational complexity theory. For other computational and complexity subjects, see list of computability and complexity topics. Many of these classes have a 'co' partner which consists of the complements of all languages in the original class. For example, if a language L is in NP then the complement of L is in co-NP. (This does not mean that the complement of NP is co-NP—there are languages which are known to be in both, and other languages which are known to be in neither.) "The hardest problems" of a class refer to problems which belong to the class such that every other problem of that class can be reduced to it. == References == == External links == Complexity Zoo - list of over 500 complexity classes and their properties


id: list-of-computability-and-complexity-topics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computability_and_complexity_topics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of computability and complexity topics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computability_and_complexity_topics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:36.334916+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-computability-and-complexity-topics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of computability and complexity topics, by Wikipedia page. Computability theory is the part of the theory of computation that deals with what can be computed, in principle. Computational complexity theory deals with how hard computations are, in quantitative terms, both with upper bounds (algorithms whose complexity in the worst cases, as use of computing resources, can be estimated), and from below (proofs that no procedure to carry out some task can be very fast). == Calculation == Lookup table Mathematical table Multiplication table Generating trigonometric tables History of computers Multiplication algorithm Peasant multiplication Division by two Exponentiating by squaring Addition chain Scholz conjecture Presburger arithmetic == Computability theory: models of computation == Arithmetic circuits Algorithm Procedure, recursion Finite-state automaton Mealy machine Minsky register machine Moore machine State diagram State transition system Deterministic finite automaton Nondeterministic finite automaton Generalized nondeterministic finite automaton Regular language Pumping lemma Myhill–Nerode theorem Regular expression Regular grammar Prefix grammar Tree automaton Pushdown automaton Context-free grammar Büchi automaton Chomsky hierarchy Context-sensitive language, context-sensitive grammar Recursively enumerable language Register machine Stack machine Petri net Post machine Rewriting Markov algorithm Term rewriting String rewriting system L-system Knuth–Bendix completion algorithm Star height Star height problem Generalized


id: computational-complexity-of-mathematical-operations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_complexity_of_mathematical_operations-0.md
category: reference
title: Computational complexity of mathematical operations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_complexity_of_mathematical_operations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:37.584907+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: computational-complexity-of-mathematical-operations-20260505-0
summary:
The following tables list the computational complexity of various algorithms for common mathematical operations. Here, complexity refers to the time complexity of performing computations on a multitape Turing machine. See big O notation for an explanation of the notation used. Note: Due to the variety of multiplication algorithms, M ( n ) {\displaystyle M(n)} below stands in for the complexity of the chosen multiplication algorithm. == Arithmetic functions == This table lists the complexity of mathematical operations on integers. On stronger computational models, specifically a pointer machine and consequently also a unit-cost random-access machine it is possible to multiply two n-bit numbers in time O(n). == Algebraic functions == Here we consider operations over polynomials and n denotes their degree; for the coefficients we use a unit-cost model, ignoring the number of bits in a number. In practice this means that we assume them to be machine integers. For this section M ( n ) {\displaystyle M(n)} indicates the time needed for multiplying two polynomials of degree at most n {\displaystyle n} . == Special functions == Many of the methods in this section are given in Borwein & Borwein. === Elementary functions === The elementary functions are constructed by


id: list-of-computer-algebra-systems-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_algebra_systems-0.md
category: reference
title: List of computer algebra systems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_algebra_systems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:38.747454+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-computer-algebra-systems-20260505-0
summary:
The following tables provide a comparison of computer algebra systems (CAS). A CAS is a package comprising a set of algorithms for performing symbolic manipulations on algebraic objects, a language to implement them, and an environment in which to use the language. A CAS may include a user interface and graphics capability, and to be effective may require a large library of algorithms, efficient data structures, and a fast kernel. == General == These computer algebra systems are sometimes combined with "front end" programs that provide a better user interface, such as the general-purpose GNU TeXmacs. === Functionality === Below is a summary of significantly developed symbolic functionality in each of the systems. ^ via SymPy ^ via qepcad optional package Those which do not "edit equations" may have a GUI, plotting, ASCII graphic formulae and math font printing. The ability to generate plaintext files is also a sought-after feature because it allows a work to be understood by people who do not have a computer algebra system installed. === Operating system support === The software can run under their respective operating systems natively without emulation. Some systems must be compiled first using an appropriate compiler for the source language


id: list-of-computer-graphics-and-descriptive-geometry-topics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_graphics_and_descriptive_geometry_topics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of computer graphics and descriptive geometry topics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_graphics_and_descriptive_geometry_topics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:40.076467+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-computer-graphics-and-descriptive-geometry-topics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of computer graphics and descriptive geometry topics, by article name. == !-9 == 2D computer graphics 2D geometric model 3D computer graphics 3D modeling 3D projection 3D rendering == A == A-buffer Algorithmic art Aliasing Alpha compositing Alpha mapping Alpha to coverage Ambient occlusion Anamorphosis Anisotropic filtering Anti-aliasing Asymptotic decider Augmented reality Axis-aligned bounding box Axonometric projection == B == B-spline Back-face culling Barycentric coordinate system Beam tracing Bézier curve Bézier surface Bicubic interpolation Bidirectional reflectance distribution function Bidirectional scattering distribution function Bidirectional texture function Bilateral filter Bilinear interpolation Bin (computational geometry) Binary space partitioning Bit blit Bit plane Bitmap Bitmap textures Blend modes Blinn–Phong reflection model Bloom (shader effect) Bounding interval hierarchy Bounding sphere Bounding volume Bounding volume hierarchy Bresenham's line algorithm Bump mapping == C == Calligraphic projection Cel shading Channel (digital image) Checkerboard rendering Circular thresholding Clip coordinates Clipmap Clipping (computer graphics) Clipping path Collision detection Color depth Color gradient Color space Colour banding Color bleeding (computer graphics) Color cycling Composite Bézier curve Compositing Computational geometry Compute kernel Computer animation Computer art Computer graphics Computer graphics (computer science) Computer graphics lighting Computer-generated imagery Cone tracing Constructive solid geometry Control point (mathematics) Convex hull


id: list-of-conjectures-by-paul-erd-s-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_conjectures_by_Paul_Erdős-0.md
category: reference
title: List of conjectures by Paul Erdős
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_conjectures_by_Paul_Erdős
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:41.334180+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-conjectures-by-paul-erd-s-20260505-0
summary:
The prolific mathematician Paul Erdős and his various collaborators made many famous mathematical conjectures, over a wide field of subjects, and in many cases Erdős offered monetary rewards for solving them. The unsolved problems are commonly known as Erdős problems. == Unsolved == The Erdős–Gyárfás conjecture on cycles with lengths equal to a power of two in graphs with minimum degree 3. The Erdős–Hajnal conjecture that in a family of graphs defined by an excluded induced subgraph, every graph has either a large clique or a large independent set. The Erdős–Mollin–Walsh conjecture on consecutive triples of powerful numbers. The Erdős–Selfridge conjecture that a covering system with distinct moduli contains at least one even modulus. The Erdős–Straus conjecture on the Diophantine equation 4/n = 1/x + 1/y + 1/z. The Erdős conjecture on arithmetic progressions in sequences with divergent sums of reciprocals. The Erdős–Szekeres conjecture on the number of points needed to ensure that a point set contains a large convex polygon. The Erdős–Turán conjecture on additive bases of natural numbers. A conjecture on quickly growing integer sequences with rational reciprocal series. A conjecture with Norman Oler on circle packing in an equilateral triangle with a number of circles one less


id: list-of-conjectures-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_conjectures-0.md
category: reference
title: List of conjectures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_conjectures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:42.537850+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-conjectures-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of notable mathematical conjectures. == Open problems == The following conjectures remain open. The (incomplete) column "cites" lists the number of results for a Google Scholar search for the term, in double quotes as of September 2022. == Conjectures now proved (theorems) == The conjecture terminology may persist: theorems often enough may still be referred to as conjectures, using the anachronistic names. Deligne's conjecture on 1-motives == Disproved (no longer conjectures) == The conjectures in following list were not necessarily generally accepted as true before being disproved. Aharoni-Korman conjecture also known as the fishbone conjecture Atiyah conjecture (not a conjecture to start with) Borsuk's conjecture Chinese hypothesis (not a conjecture to start with) Doomsday conjecture Euler's sum of powers conjecture Ganea conjecture Generalized Smith conjecture Hauptvermutung Hedetniemi's conjecture, counterexample announced 2019 Hirsch conjecture (disproved 2010) Kaplansky unit conjecture Intersection graph conjecture Kelvin's conjecture Kouchnirenko's conjecture Mertens conjecture Pólya conjecture, 1919 (1958) Ragsdale conjecture Schoenflies conjecture (disproved 1910) Tait's conjecture Von Neumann conjecture Weyl–Berry conjecture Williamson conjecture == Refutations of conventional wisdom == In contemporary mathematics, ideas are supposedly not accepted absent rigorous proof. Historically, some statements that were generally accepted were then shown to be false.


id: list-of-continuity-related-mathematical-topics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_continuity-related_mathematical_topics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of continuity-related mathematical topics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_continuity-related_mathematical_topics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:43.792858+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-continuity-related-mathematical-topics-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics, the terms continuity, continuous, and continuum are used in a variety of related ways. == Continuity of functions and measures == Continuous function Absolutely continuous function Absolute continuity of a measure with respect to another measure Continuous probability distribution: Sometimes this term is used to mean a probability distribution whose cumulative distribution function (c.d.f.) is (simply) continuous. Sometimes it has a less inclusive meaning: a distribution whose c.d.f. is absolutely continuous with respect to Lebesgue measure. This less inclusive sense is equivalent to the condition that every set whose Lebesgue measure is 0 has probability 0. Geometric continuity Parametric continuity Smoothness == Continuum == Continuum (set theory), the real line or the corresponding cardinal number Linear continuum, any ordered set that shares certain properties of the real line Continuum (topology), a nonempty compact connected metric space (sometimes a Hausdorff space) Continuum hypothesis, a conjecture of Georg Cantor that there is no cardinal number between that of countably infinite sets and the cardinality of the set of all real numbers. The latter cardinality is equal to the cardinality of the set of all subsets of a countably infinite set. Cardinality of the continuum, a cardinal number that represents the


id: list-of-convexity-topics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_convexity_topics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of convexity topics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_convexity_topics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:45.110385+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-convexity-topics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of convexity topics, by Wikipedia page. Alpha blending - the process of combining a translucent foreground color with a background color, thereby producing a new blended color. This is a convex combination of two colors allowing for transparency effects in computer graphics. Barycentric coordinates - a coordinate system in which the location of a point of a simplex (a triangle, tetrahedron, etc.) is specified as the center of mass, or barycenter, of masses placed at its vertices. The coordinates are non-negative for points in the convex hull. Borsuk's conjecture - a conjecture about the number of pieces required to cover a body with a larger diameter. Solved by Hadwiger for the case of smooth convex bodies. Bond convexity - a measure of the non-linear relationship between price and yield duration of a bond to changes in interest rates, the second derivative of the price of the bond with respect to interest rates. A basic form of convexity in finance. Carathéodory's theorem (convex hull) - If a point x of Rd lies in the convex hull of a set P, there is a subset of P with d+1 or fewer points such that x lies in its


id: list-of-coordinate-charts-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_coordinate_charts-0.md
category: reference
title: List of coordinate charts
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_coordinate_charts
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:46.208272+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-coordinate-charts-20260505-0
summary:
This article contains a non-exhaustive list of coordinate charts for Riemannian manifolds and pseudo-Riemannian manifolds. Coordinate charts are mathematical objects of topological manifolds, and they have multiple applications in theoretical and applied mathematics. When a differentiable structure and a metric are defined, greater structure exists, and this allows the definition of constructs such as integration and geodesics. == Charts for Riemannian and pseudo-Riemannian surfaces == The following charts (with appropriate metric tensors) can be used in the stated classes of Riemannian and pseudo-Riemannian surfaces: == See also == Coordinate chart Coordinate system Metric tensor List of mathematics lists, particularly: List of multivariable calculus topics List of Fourier analysis topics List of differential geometry topics == References ==


id: list-of-common-coordinate-transformations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_coordinate_transformations-0.md
category: reference
title: List of common coordinate transformations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_coordinate_transformations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:47.536234+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-coordinate-transformations-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of some of the most commonly used coordinate transformations. == 2-dimensional == Let ( x , y ) {\displaystyle (x,y)} be the standard Cartesian coordinates, and ( r , θ ) {\displaystyle (r,\theta )} the standard polar coordinates. === To Cartesian coordinates === ==== From polar coordinates ==== x = r cos ⁡ θ y = r sin ⁡ θ ∂ ( x , y ) ∂ ( r , θ ) = [ cos ⁡ θ − r sin ⁡ θ sin ⁡ θ − r cos ⁡ θ ] Jacobian = det ∂ ( x , y ) ∂ ( r , θ ) = r {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}x&=r\cos \theta \\y&=r\sin \theta \\[5pt]{\frac {\partial (x,y)}{\partial (r,\theta )}}&={\begin{bmatrix}\cos \theta &-r\sin \theta \\\sin \theta &{\phantom {-}}r\cos \theta \end{bmatrix}}\\[5pt]{\text{Jacobian}}=\det {\frac {\partial (x,y)}{\partial (r,\theta )}}&=r\end{aligned}}} ==== From log-polar coordinates ==== x = e ρ cos ⁡ θ , y = e ρ sin ⁡ θ . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}x&=e^{\rho }\cos \theta ,\\y&=e^{\rho }\sin \theta .\end{aligned}}} By using complex numbers ( x , y ) = x + i y ′ {\displaystyle (x,y)=x+iy'} , the transformation can be written as x + i y = e ρ + i θ {\displaystyle


id: list-of-common-coordinate-transformations-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_coordinate_transformations-1.md
category: reference
title: List of common coordinate transformations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_coordinate_transformations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:47.536234+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-coordinate-transformations-20260505-0
summary:
Let (x, y, z) be the standard Cartesian coordinates, and (ρ, θ, φ) the spherical coordinates, with θ the angle measured away from the +Z axis (as illustrated). As φ has a range of 360° the same considerations as in polar (2 dimensional) coordinates apply whenever an arctangent of it is taken. θ has a range of 180°, running from 0° to 180°, and does not pose any problem when calculated from an arccosine, but beware for an arctangent. If, in the alternative definition, θ is chosen to run from −90° to +90°, in opposite direction of the earlier definition, it can be found uniquely from an arcsine, but beware of an arccotangent. In this case in all formulas below all arguments in θ should have sine and cosine exchanged, and as derivative also a plus and minus exchanged. All divisions by zero result in special cases of being directions along one of the main axes and are in practice most easily solved by observation. === To Cartesian coordinates === ==== From spherical coordinates ==== x = ρ sin ⁡ θ cos ⁡ φ y = ρ sin ⁡ θ sin ⁡ φ z = ρ cos ⁡ θ ∂


id: list-of-common-coordinate-transformations-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_coordinate_transformations-2.md
category: reference
title: List of common coordinate transformations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_coordinate_transformations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:47.536234+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-coordinate-transformations-20260505-0
summary:
∂ ( r , θ , h ) ∂ ( x , y , z ) = ( x x 2 + y 2 y x 2 + y 2 0 − y x 2 + y 2 x x 2 + y 2 0 0 0 1 ) {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial (r,\theta ,h)}{\partial (x,y,z)}}={\begin{pmatrix}{\frac {x}{\sqrt {x^{2}+y^{2}}}}&{\frac {y}{\sqrt {x^{2}+y^{2}}}}&0\\{\frac {-y}{x^{2}+y^{2}}}&{\frac {x}{x^{2}+y^{2}}}&0\\0&0&1\end{pmatrix}}} ==== From spherical coordinates ==== r = ρ sin ⁡ φ h = ρ cos ⁡ φ θ = θ ∂ ( r , h , θ ) ∂ ( ρ , φ , θ ) = ( sin ⁡ φ ρ cos ⁡ φ 0 cos ⁡ φ − ρ sin ⁡ φ 0 0 0 1 ) det ∂ ( r , h , θ ) ∂ ( ρ , φ , θ ) = − ρ {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}r&=\rho \sin \varphi \\h&=\rho \cos \varphi \\\theta &=\theta \\{\frac {\partial (r,h,\theta )}{\partial (\rho ,\varphi ,\theta )}}&={\begin{pmatrix}\sin \varphi &\rho \cos \varphi &0\\\cos \varphi &-\rho \sin \varphi &0\\0&0&1\\\end{pmatrix}}\\\det {\frac {\partial (r,h,\theta )}{\partial (\rho ,\varphi ,\theta )}}&=-\rho \end{aligned}}} === Arc-length, curvature and torsion from Cartesian coordinates === s = ∫ 0 t x ′ 2 + y ′ 2 + z ′


id: index-of-cryptography-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_cryptography_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of cryptography articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_cryptography_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:48.739443+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-cryptography-articles-20260505-0
summary:
Articles related to cryptography include: == A == A5/1 • A5/2 • ABA digital signature guidelines • ABC (stream cipher) • Abraham Sinkov • Acoustic cryptanalysis • Adaptive chosen-ciphertext attack • Adaptive chosen plaintext and chosen ciphertext attack • Advantage (cryptography) • ADFGVX cipher • Adi Shamir • Advanced Access Content System • Advanced Encryption Standard • Advanced Encryption Standard process • Adversary • AEAD block cipher modes of operation • Affine cipher • Agnes Meyer Driscoll • AKA (security) • Akelarre (cipher) • Alan Turing • Alastair Denniston • Al Bhed language • Alex Biryukov • Alfred Menezes • Algebraic Eraser • Algorithmically random sequence • Alice and Bob • All-or-nothing transform • Alphabetum Kaldeorum • Alternating step generator • American Cryptogram Association • AN/CYZ-10 • Anonymous publication • Anonymous remailer • Antoni Palluth • Anubis (cipher) • Argon2 • ARIA (cipher) • Arlington Hall • Arne Beurling • Arnold Cipher • Array controller based encryption • Arthur Scherbius • Arvid Gerhard Damm • Asiacrypt • Atbash • Attribute-based encryption • Attack model • Auguste Kerckhoffs • Authenticated encryption • Authentication • Authorization certificate • Autokey cipher • Avalanche effect == B == B-Dienst • Babington Plot • Baby-step


id: index-of-cryptography-articles-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_cryptography_articles-1.md
category: reference
title: Index of cryptography articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_cryptography_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:48.739443+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-cryptography-articles-20260505-0
summary:
== D == D'Agapeyeff cipher • Daniel J. Bernstein • Data Authentication Algorithm • Data Encryption Standard • Datagram Transport Layer Security • David Chaum • David Kahn • David Naccache • David Wagner • David Wheeler (computer scientist) • Davies attack • Davies–Meyer hash • DEAL • Decipherment • Decisional Diffie–Hellman assumption • Decorrelation theory • Decrypt • DeCSS • Defence Signals Directorate • Degree of anonymity • Delegated Path Discovery • Delegated Path Validation • Deniable encryption • Derek Taunt • Derived unique key per transaction • DES Challenges • DES supplementary material • DES-X • Deterministic encryption • DFC (cipher) • Dictionary attack • Differential cryptanalysis • Differential-linear attack • Differential power analysis • Diffie–Hellman key exchange • Diffie–Hellman problem • DigiCipher 2 • Digital Fortress • Digital rights management • Digital signature • Digital Signature Algorithm • Digital signature forgery • Digital timestamping • Digital watermarking • Dilly Knox • Dining cryptographers problem • Diplomatic bag • Direct Anonymous Attestation • Discrete logarithm • Disk encryption • Disk encryption hardware • Disk encryption software • Distance-bounding protocol • Distinguishing attack • Distributed.net • DMA attack • dm-crypt • Dmitry Sklyarov • DomainKeys • Don Coppersmith •


id: index-of-cryptography-articles-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_cryptography_articles-2.md
category: reference
title: Index of cryptography articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_cryptography_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:48.739443+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-cryptography-articles-20260505-0
summary:
== K == Kaisa Nyberg • Kalyna (cipher) • Kasiski examination • KASUMI • KCDSA • KeePass • Kerberos (protocol) • Kerckhoffs's principle • Kevin McCurley (cryptographer) • Key-agreement protocol • Key authentication • Key clustering • Key (cryptography) • Key derivation function • Key distribution center • Key escrow • Key exchange • Keyfile • Key generation • Key generator • Key management • Key-recovery attack • Key schedule • Key server (cryptographic) • Key signature (cryptography) • Keysigning • Key signing party • Key size • Key space (cryptography) • Keystream • Key stretching • Key whitening • KG-84 • KHAZAD • Khufu and Khafre • Kiss (cryptanalysis) • KL-43 • KL-51 • KL-7 • Kleptography • KN-Cipher • Knapsack problem • Known-key distinguishing attack • Known-plaintext attack • KOI-18 • KOV-14 • Kryha • Kryptos • KSD-64 • Kupyna • Kuznyechik • KW-26 • KW-37 • KY-3 • KY-58 • KY-68 • KYK-13 == L == Lacida • Ladder-DES • Lamport signature • Lars Knudsen • Lattice-based cryptography • Laurance Safford • Lawrie Brown • LCS35 • Leo Marks • Leonard Adleman • Leon Battista Alberti • Leo Rosen • Leslie Yoxall • LEVIATHAN (cipher) • LEX


id: index-of-cryptography-articles-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_cryptography_articles-3.md
category: reference
title: Index of cryptography articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_cryptography_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:48.739443+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-cryptography-articles-20260505-0
summary:
== R == Rabbit (cipher) • Rabin cryptosystem • Rabin signature • RadioGatún • Rail fence cipher • Rainbow table • Ralph Merkle • Rambutan (cryptography) • Random function • Randomness tests • Random number generator attack • Random oracle • RC2 • RC4 • RC5 • RC6 • Rebound attack • Reciprocal cipher • Red/black concept • REDOC • Red Pike (cipher) • Reflector (cipher machine) • Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000 • Reihenschieber • Rekeying (cryptography) • Related-key attack • Replay attack • Reservehandverfahren • Residual block termination • Rijndael key schedule • Rijndael S-box • Ring signature • RIPEMD • Rip van Winkle cipher • Robert Morris (cryptographer) • Rockex • Rolf Noskwith • Ron Rivest • Room 40 • Root certificate • Ross J. Anderson • Rossignols • ROT13 • Rotor machine • RSA RSA • RSA-100 • RSA-1024 • RSA-110 • RSA-120 • RSA-129 • RSA-130 • RSA-140 • RSA-150 • RSA-1536 • RSA-155 • RSA-160 • RSA-170 • RSA-180 • RSA-190 • RSA-200 • RSA-2048 • RSA-210 • RSA-220 • RSA-230 • RSA-232 • RSA-240 • RSA-250 • RSA-260 • RSA-270 • RSA-280 • RSA-290 • RSA-300 • RSA-309 • RSA-310 • RSA-320


id: list-of-curves-topics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_curves_topics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of curves topics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_curves_topics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:49.986081+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-curves-topics-20260505-0
summary:
This is an alphabetical index of articles related to curves used in mathematics. Acnode Algebraic curve Arc Asymptote Asymptotic curve Barbier's theorem Bézier curve Bézout's theorem Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture Bitangent Bitangents of a quartic Cartesian coordinate system Caustic Cesàro equation Chord (geometry) Cissoid Circumference Closed timelike curve concavity Conchoid (mathematics) Confocal Contact (mathematics) Contour line Crunode Cubic Hermite curve Curvature Curve orientation Curve fitting Curve-fitting compaction Curve of constant width Curve of pursuit Curves in differential geometry Cusp Cyclogon De Boor algorithm Differential geometry of curves Eccentricity (mathematics) Elliptic curve cryptography Envelope (mathematics) Fenchel's theorem Genus (mathematics) Geodesic Geometric genus Great-circle distance Harmonograph Hedgehog (curve) [1] Hilbert's sixteenth problem Hyperelliptic curve cryptography Inflection point Inscribed square problem intercept, y-intercept, x-intercept Intersection number Intrinsic equation Isoperimetric inequality Jordan curve Jordan curve theorem Knot Limit cycle Linking coefficient List of circle topics Loop (knot) M-curve Mannheim curve[2] Meander (mathematics) Mordell conjecture Natural representation Opisometer Orbital elements Osculating circle Osculating plane Osgood curve Parallel (curve) Parallel transport Parametric curve Bézier curve Spline (mathematics) Hermite spline Beta spline B-spline Higher-order spline NURBS Perimeter Pi Plane curve Pochhammer contour Polar coordinate system Prime geodesic Projective line Ray Regular parametric representation Reuleaux triangle Ribaucour curve[3][4]


id: differentiation-rules-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differentiation_rules-0.md
category: reference
title: Differentiation rules
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differentiation_rules
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:51.299386+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: differentiation-rules-20260505-0
summary:
This article is a summary of differentiation rules, that is, rules for computing the derivative of a function in calculus. == Elementary rules of differentiation == Unless otherwise stated, all functions are functions of real numbers ( R {\textstyle \mathbb {R} } ) that return real values, although, more generally, the formulas below apply wherever they are well defined, including the case of complex numbers ( C {\textstyle \mathbb {C} } ). === Constant term rule === For any value of c {\textstyle c} , where c ∈ R {\textstyle c\in \mathbb {R} } , if f ( x ) {\textstyle f(x)} is the constant function given by f ( x ) = c {\textstyle f(x)=c} , then d f d x = 0 {\textstyle {\frac {df}{dx}}=0} . ==== Proof ==== Let c ∈ R {\textstyle c\in \mathbb {R} } and f ( x ) = c {\textstyle f(x)=c} . By the definition of the derivative: f ′ ( x ) = lim h → 0 f ( x + h ) − f ( x ) h = lim h → 0 ( c ) − ( c ) h = lim h → 0 0 h = lim


id: differentiation-rules-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differentiation_rules-1.md
category: reference
title: Differentiation rules
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differentiation_rules
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:51.299386+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: differentiation-rules-20260505-0
summary:
h ′ ( x ) = − f ′ ( x ) ( f ( x ) ) 2 , {\displaystyle h'(x)=-{\frac {f'(x)}{(f(x))^{2}}},} wherever f {\textstyle f} is nonzero. In Leibniz's notation, this formula is written: d ( 1 f ) d x = − 1 f 2 d f d x . {\displaystyle {\frac {d\left({\frac {1}{f}}\right)}{dx}}=-{\frac {1}{f^{2}}}{\frac {df}{dx}}.} The reciprocal rule can be derived either from the quotient rule or from the combination of power rule and chain rule. === Quotient rule === If f {\textstyle f} and g {\textstyle g} are functions, then: ( f g ) ′ = f ′ g − g ′ f g 2 , {\displaystyle \left({\frac {f}{g}}\right)'={\frac {f'g-g'f}{g^{2}}},} wherever g {\textstyle g} is nonzero. This can be derived from the product rule and the reciprocal rule. === Generalized power rule === The elementary power rule generalizes considerably. The most general power rule is the functional power rule: for any functions f {\textstyle f} and g {\textstyle g} , ( f g ) ′ = ( e g ln ⁡ f ) ′ = f g ( f ′ g f + g ′ ln ⁡ f ) , {\displaystyle (f^{g})'=\left(e^{g\ln f}\right)'=f^{g}\left(f'{g \over f}+g'\ln


id: differentiation-rules-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differentiation_rules-2.md
category: reference
title: Differentiation rules
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differentiation_rules
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:51.299386+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: differentiation-rules-20260505-0
summary:
Γ ′ ( x ) = ∫ 0 ∞ t x − 1 e − t ln ⁡ t d t = Γ ( x ) ( ∑ n = 1 ∞ ( ln ⁡ ( 1 + 1 n ) − 1 x + n ) − 1 x ) = Γ ( x ) ψ ( x ) , {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\Gamma '(x)&=\int _{0}^{\infty }t^{x-1}e^{-t}\ln t\,dt\\&=\Gamma (x)\left(\sum _{n=1}^{\infty }\left(\ln \left(1+{\dfrac {1}{n}}\right)-{\dfrac {1}{x+n}}\right)-{\dfrac {1}{x}}\right)\\&=\Gamma (x)\psi (x),\end{aligned}}} with ψ ( x ) {\textstyle \psi (x)} being the digamma function, expressed by the parenthesized expression to the right of Γ ( x ) {\textstyle \Gamma (x)} in the line above. === Riemann zeta function === ζ ( x ) = ∑ n = 1 ∞ 1 n x {\displaystyle \zeta (x)=\sum _{n=1}^{\infty }{\frac {1}{n^{x}}}} ζ ′ ( x ) = − ∑ n = 1 ∞ ln ⁡ n n x = − ln ⁡ 2 2 x − ln ⁡ 3 3 x − ln ⁡ 4 4 x − ⋯ = − ∑ p prime p − x ln ⁡ p ( 1 − p − x ) 2 ∏ q prime , q ≠ p 1 1 − q


id: list-of-derivatives-and-integrals-in-alternative-calculi-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_derivatives_and_integrals_in_alternative_calculi-0.md
category: reference
title: List of derivatives and integrals in alternative calculi
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_derivatives_and_integrals_in_alternative_calculi
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:52.505671+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-derivatives-and-integrals-in-alternative-calculi-20260505-0
summary:
There are many alternatives to the classical calculus of Newton and Leibniz; for example, each of the infinitely many non-Newtonian calculi. Occasionally an alternative calculus is more suited than the classical calculus for expressing a given scientific or mathematical idea. The table below is intended to assist people working with the alternative calculus called the "geometric calculus" (or its discrete analog). == Table == In the following table; ψ ( x ) = Γ ′ ( x ) Γ ( x ) {\displaystyle \psi (x)={\frac {\Gamma '(x)}{\Gamma (x)}}} is the digamma function, K ⁡ ( x ) = e ζ ′ ( − 1 , x ) − ζ ′ ( − 1 ) = e z − z 2 2 + z 2 ln ⁡ ( 2 π ) − ψ ( − 2 ) ( z ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {K} (x)=e^{\zeta ^{\prime }(-1,x)-\zeta ^{\prime }(-1)}=e^{{\frac {z-z^{2}}{2}}+{\frac {z}{2}}\ln(2\pi )-\psi ^{(-2)}(z)}} is the K-function, ( ! x ) = Γ ( x + 1 , − 1 ) e {\displaystyle (!x)={\frac {\Gamma (x+1,-1)}{e}}} is subfactorial, B a ( x ) = − a ζ ( − a + 1 , x ) {\displaystyle B_{a}(x)=-a\zeta (-a+1,x)} are the generalized to real


id: list-of-differential-geometry-topics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_differential_geometry_topics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of differential geometry topics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_differential_geometry_topics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:53.815515+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-differential-geometry-topics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of differential geometry topics. See also glossary of differential and metric geometry and list of Lie group topics. == Differential geometry of curves and surfaces == === Differential geometry of curves === List of curves topics Frenet–Serret formulas Curves in differential geometry Line element Curvature Radius of curvature Osculating circle Curve Fenchel's theorem === Differential geometry of surfaces === Theorema egregium Gauss–Bonnet theorem First fundamental form Second fundamental form Gauss–Codazzi–Mainardi equations Dupin indicatrix Asymptotic curve Curvature Principal curvatures Mean curvature Gauss curvature Elliptic point Types of surfaces Minimal surface Ruled surface Conical surface Developable surface Nadirashvili surface == Foundations == === Calculus on manifolds === See also multivariable calculus, list of multivariable calculus topics Manifold Differentiable manifold Smooth manifold Banach manifold Fréchet manifold Tensor analysis Tangent vector Tangent space Tangent bundle Cotangent space Cotangent bundle Tensor Tensor bundle Vector field Tensor field Differential form Exterior derivative Lie derivative pullback (differential geometry) pushforward (differential) jet (mathematics) Contact (mathematics) jet bundle Frobenius theorem (differential topology) Integral curve === Differential topology === Diffeomorphism Large diffeomorphism Orientability characteristic class Chern class Pontrjagin class spin structure differentiable map submersion immersion Embedding Whitney embedding theorem Critical value Sard's theorem Saddle point Morse


id: outline-of-discrete-mathematics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_discrete_mathematics-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of discrete mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_discrete_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:55.045428+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-discrete-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
Discrete mathematics is the study of mathematical structures that are fundamentally discrete rather than continuous. In contrast to real numbers that have the property of varying "smoothly", the objects studied in discrete mathematics – such as integers, graphs, and statements in logic – do not vary smoothly in this way, but have distinct, separated values. Discrete mathematics, therefore, excludes topics in "continuous mathematics" such as calculus and analysis. Included below are many of the standard terms used routinely in university-level courses and in research papers. This is not, however, intended as a complete list of mathematical terms; just a selection of typical terms of art that may be encountered. Logic – Study of correct reasoning Modal logic – Type of formal logic Set theory – Branch of mathematics that studies sets Number theory – Branch of pure mathematics Combinatorics – Branch of discrete mathematics Finite mathematics – Syllabus in college and university mathematics Graph theory – Area of discrete mathematics Digital geometry – Deals with digitized models or images of objects of the 2D or 3D Euclidean space Digital topology – Properties of 2D or 3D digital images that correspond to classic topological properties Algorithmics – Sequence of operations for


id: outline-of-discrete-mathematics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_discrete_mathematics-1.md
category: reference
title: Outline of discrete mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_discrete_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:55.045428+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-discrete-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
Left-hand side and right-hand side of an equation – Mathematical nomenclaturePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Linear equation – Equation that does not involve powers or products of variables Quadratic equation – Polynomial equation of degree two Solution point – Mathematical formula expressing equalityPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Arithmetic progression – Sequence of equally spaced numbers Recurrence relation – Pattern defining an infinite sequence of numbers Finite difference – Discrete analog of a derivative Difference operator – Pattern defining an infinite sequence of numbersPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Groups – Set with associative invertible operation Group isomorphism – Bijective group homomorphism Subgroups – Subset of a group that forms a group itselfPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Fermat's little theorem – A prime p divides a^p–a for any integer a Cryptography – Practice and study of secure communication techniques Faulhaber's formula – Expression for sums of powers === Mathematical relations === Binary relation – Relationship between elements of two sets Heterogeneous relation – Relationship between elements of two setsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Reflexive relation – Binary relation that relates every element to itself Reflexive property of equality – Basic notion of


id: divisibility-rule-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divisibility_rule-0.md
category: reference
title: Divisibility rule
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divisibility_rule
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:13:56.367542+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: divisibility-rule-20260505-0
summary:
A divisibility rule is a shorthand and useful way of determining whether a given integer is divisible by a fixed divisor without performing the division, usually by examining its digits. Although there are divisibility tests for numbers in any radix, or base, and they are all different, this article presents rules and examples only for decimal, or base 10, numbers. Martin Gardner explained and popularized these rules in his September 1962 "Mathematical Games" column in Scientific American. == Divisibility rules for numbers 1−30 == The rules given below transform a given number into a generally smaller number, while preserving divisibility by the divisor of interest. Therefore, unless otherwise noted, the resulting number should be evaluated for divisibility by the same divisor. In some cases the process can be iterated until the divisibility is obvious; for others (such as examining the last n digits) the result must be examined by other means. For divisors with multiple rules, the rules are generally ordered first for those appropriate for numbers with many digits, then those useful for numbers with fewer digits. == Step-by-step examples == === Divisibility by 2 === First, take any number (for this example it will be 376) and note


