# kb

id: list-of-crowdsourcing-projects-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_crowdsourcing_projects-0.md
category: reference
title: List of crowdsourcing projects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_crowdsourcing_projects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:12.164558+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-crowdsourcing-projects-20260505-0
summary:
Below is a list of projects that rely on crowdsourcing. See also open innovation. == A == Adaptive Vehicle Make was a project overseen by DARPA to crowdsource the design and manufacture of a new armored vehicle. Air Quality Eggs by WickedDevices are open-source hardware Internet of Things pollution monitors that facilitate citizen crowdsourcing of air quality readings Amara is a website that enables crowdsourced translations of videos from a variety of popular video hosting websites. The subtitles created are used to make online video content accessible to a wider audience, including the deaf and hard of hearing, and those who cannot understand the language of the source. Amazon Mechanical Turk, a platform on which crowdsourcing tasks called "HITs" (Human Intelligence Tasks") can be created and publicized and people can execute the tasks and be paid for doing so. Dubbed "Artificial Artificial Intelligence", it was named after The Turk, an 18th-century chess-playing "machine". The first crowdsourced documentary film is the non-profit The American Revolution, which went into production in 2005, and which examines the role media played in the cultural, social and political changes from 1968 to 1974 through the story of underground, free-form radio station WBCN-FM in Boston. When


id: list-of-crowdsourcing-projects-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_crowdsourcing_projects-1.md
category: reference
title: List of crowdsourcing projects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_crowdsourcing_projects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:12.164558+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-crowdsourcing-projects-20260505-0
summary:
== C == California Digital Newspaper Collection In August 2011, the California Digital Newspaper Collection implemented crowdsourced OCR text correction of its digitized historical newspapers; some published as early as 1846 (California statehood 1850). CDNC is a project of the Center for Bibliographical Studies and Research (CBSR) at the University of California, Riverside. The CDNC is supported in part by the U.S. Institute of Museum and Library Services under the provisions of the Library Services and Technology Act, administered in California by the State Librarian. Historic Cambridge Newspaper Collection. In March 2011, the Cambridge Public Library in Cambridge, Massachusetts, launched a digital collection of historic newspapers that implements crowdsourced OCR text correction. The freely accessible and keyword searchable database contains newspapers dating back to 1846 when Cambridge was established as a city. The Historic Cambridge Newspaper Collection is a project of the Cambridge Room, the Cambridge Public Library's Archives and Special Collections, and is supported by funding from the Community Preservation Act. Chicago History Museum on 14 October 2013, announced a project asking the public to furnish ideas for a future exhibition and reducing the most-often-submitted ideas to one assignment through a series of public votes. According to the American


id: list-of-crowdsourcing-projects-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_crowdsourcing_projects-2.md
category: reference
title: List of crowdsourcing projects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_crowdsourcing_projects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:12.164558+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-crowdsourcing-projects-20260505-0
summary:
== D == The 2007 DARPA Urban Challenge focused on autonomous vehicles, requiring participating teams to create an autonomous vehicle that was able to successfully navigate traffic as well as complex maneuvers including merging, passing, and parking. To successfully complete the challenge, participating vehicles needed to complete a 60-mile course in less than six hours. Dell IdeaStorm is a website launched by Dell on 16 February 2007 to allow Dell "to gauge which ideas are most important and most relevant to" the public. The Democratic National Committee launched FlipperTV in November 2007 and McCainpedia in May 2008 to crowdsource video gathered by Democratic trackers and research compiled by DNC staff in the hands of the public to do with as they chose. The Daily Minor Planet is the Catalina Sky Survey's NASA-funded citizen science project focused on finding and tracking near earth asteroids, allowing volunteers to scan through nightly archival images from the 1.5 meter survey telescope at Mount Lemmon Observatory to discover new Asteroids. DesignCrowd, a crowdsourcing marketplace for graphic design and creative services, launched in February 2008 and helped run a contest for global footwear company HI-TEC. HI-TEC "estimated that using DesignCrowd.com [and crowdsourcing] for the project saved


id: list-of-crowdsourcing-projects-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_crowdsourcing_projects-3.md
category: reference
title: List of crowdsourcing projects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_crowdsourcing_projects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:12.164558+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-crowdsourcing-projects-20260505-0
summary:
== F == Facebook has used crowdsourcing since 2008 to create different language versions of its site. The company claims this method offers the advantage of providing site versions that are more compatible with local cultures. FamilySearch Indexing is a volunteer project which aims to create searchable digital indexes for scanned images of historical documents. The documents are drawn primarily from a collection of 2.4 million microfilms made of historical documents from 110 countries and principalities. Previously, volunteers installed free software on their home computers, downloaded images from the site, typed the data they read from the image into the software, and submitted their work back to the site. A web-based indexing application was launched in 2014, and the installed version was later retired. The data is eventually made publicly and freely available at familysearch.org (the world's largest nonprofit genealogical organization) for use in genealogical research. Over one billion historical records have been transcribed to date. Folding@Home is a distributed computing project for disease research that simulates protein folding, computational drug design, and other types of molecular dynamics. The project uses the idle processing resources of thousands of personal computers owned by volunteers who have installed the software on their


id: list-of-crowdsourcing-projects-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_crowdsourcing_projects-4.md
category: reference
title: List of crowdsourcing projects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_crowdsourcing_projects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:12.164558+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-crowdsourcing-projects-20260505-0
summary:
== I == IBM collected over 37,000 ideas for potential areas for innovation from brainstorming sessions with its customers, employees and their family members in 2006. iNaturalist is a citizen science website which allows users to contribute observations of organisms with images, start data-collecting projects, and crowdsources taxonomic identification of observations. The Indian rupee sign was developed in 2010, by using crowdsourcing to select its design through an open competition among Indian residents. InfoArmy is a crowdsourcing platform for business data. Users research online for competitive intelligence information on public and private companies to create iPad and web reports. Current researchers come from a variety of backgrounds and from six continents. InnoCentive, started in 2001, crowdsources research and development for biomedical and pharmaceutical companies, among other companies in other industries. InnoCentive provides connection and relationship management services between "Seekers" and "Solvers". Seekers are the companies searching for solutions to critical challenges. Solvers are the 185,000 registered members of the InnoCentive crowd who volunteer their solutions to the Seekers. Anyone with interest and Internet access can become an InnoCentive Solver. Solvers whose solutions are selected by the Seekers are compensated for their ideas by InnoCentive, which acts as broker of the


id: list-of-crowdsourcing-projects-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_crowdsourcing_projects-5.md
category: reference
title: List of crowdsourcing projects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_crowdsourcing_projects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:12.164558+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-crowdsourcing-projects-20260505-0
summary:
== M == Mapillary is a service for sharing geotagged photos developed by Mapillary AB with the aim to represent not only streets but the whole world. All photos and data are shared using a Creative Commons license, most of the internal software is available under the MIT license and the full API is public. MateCat is a web-based computer-assisted translation (CAT) tool released as open source software under the Lesser General Public License (LGPL) from the Free Software Foundation. McMaster Postcard Project is a platform created by the William Ready Division of Archives and Research Collections at the McMaster University Library for crowdsourcing information about an archival collection of historical postcards, providing information on the card's country, province and city of origin, date, and other pertinent information in a "notes" section. Cards were previously categorized only by province, or by country for international cards. Microtask is a company that has developed a software platform for global distribution of short-duration tasks to online workers. The system supports automated quality assurance and provides service-level agreements for task quality and turnaround times. The Milky Way Project is a project that aims to identify bubbles in the Milky Way with users analyzing infrared


id: list-of-crowdsourcing-projects-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_crowdsourcing_projects-6.md
category: reference
title: List of crowdsourcing projects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_crowdsourcing_projects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:12.164558+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-crowdsourcing-projects-20260505-0
summary:
== P == Path launched a project to crowdsource translations for its mobile platform in April 2012. Pepsi launched a marketing campaign in early 2007 which allowed consumers to design the look of a Pepsi can. The winners would receive a $10,000 prize, and their artwork would be featured on 500 million Pepsi cans around the United States. PhraseApp is a translation management platform that can be used to translate digital content, software, games and apps. It offers an in-context-editor and professional human translation. The Phylo video game invites players to give in to their addictive gaming impulses while contributing to the greater good by trying to decode the code for genetic diseases. Planet Hunters is a citizen science project where users can try to find extrasolar planets identifying patterns in the brightness data of stars retrieved by the Kepler Space Mission. Prova (Swedish for "to try") launched December 2008 as a crowdsource marketplace that connects businesses with professional ad designers to create print designs, audio ads, video content, and digital designs. Ad designers from all over the world compete for ad creation projects listed on the site. == Q == Quantum Moves is a game developed under the ScienceAtHome


id: list-of-crowdsourcing-projects-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_crowdsourcing_projects-7.md
category: reference
title: List of crowdsourcing projects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_crowdsourcing_projects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:12.164558+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-crowdsourcing-projects-20260505-0
summary:
== S == SciStarter is a citizen science focused site that supports and promotes hundreds of projects that require crowdsourced help. Micro-tasks for volunteer supporters include things such as climatic observations, astronomical observations, image / video / audio capture, image tagging, audio description, data point assessment, etc. Secret London is composed mostly of Londoners who use the site to share suggestions and photos of London. Originally started as a Facebook Group in 2010 in response to a competition to win an internship at Saatchi & Saatchi, Secret London gained 150,000 members within two weeks. This early popularity prompted its founder, Tiffany Philippou, to appeal to the community to help build the group a website, which was launched 10 days later. SeeClickFix is a web tool that allows citizens to report non-emergency neighborhood issues, which are communicated to local government, as a form of community activism. It has an associated free mobile phone application. Similar to FixMyStreet. SESH (social entrepreneurship for sexual health) is a project that uses crowdsourcing to improve public health messaging, tools, and policies. The group has been recognized by the WHO-TDR as one of the leaders in social innovation for health. Individual crowdsourcing projects have created videos


id: list-of-crowdsourcing-projects-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_crowdsourcing_projects-8.md
category: reference
title: List of crowdsourcing projects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_crowdsourcing_projects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:12.164558+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-crowdsourcing-projects-20260505-0
summary:
== U == Unilever used the crowdsourcing platform IdeaBounty to find creative ideas for its next TV campaign for their snack food brand Peperami. Ushahidi (Swahili for "testimony" or "witness") is a website created in the aftermath of Kenya's disputed 2007 presidential election (see 2007–2008 Kenyan crisis) that collected eyewitness reports of violence sent in by email and text-message and placed them on a Google map. It is also the name of the open source software developed for that site, which has since been improved, released freely, and used for a number of similar projects. == W == Waze is a free turn-by-turn GPS application for mobile phones that uses crowdsourcing to provide routing and real-time traffic updates. "We Are The World 25 for Haiti (YouTube Edition)" is a massively collaborative charity song and music video produced by Canadian singer-songwriter Lisa Lavie and posted to the YouTube video sharing website to raise money for victims of the 12 January, 2010 Haiti earthquake. The video was the creation of a collaboration of 57 unsigned or independent YouTube musicians geographically distributed around the world. The Tokyo Times referred to J Rice's subsequently produced "We Pray for You" video, involving largely the same


id: the-daily-minor-planet-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Daily_Minor_Planet-0.md
category: reference
title: The Daily Minor Planet
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Daily_Minor_Planet
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:13.434144+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-daily-minor-planet-20260505-0
summary:
The Daily Minor Planet is a citizen science project run by the Zooniverse and The Catalina Sky Survey with a funding grant from NASA, to use citizen science volunteer classifications to discover asteroids with recent data from the G96 Mount Lemmon Survey 1.52 m (60 in) cassegrain reflector telescope. The main objective of the project is to search for undiscovered asteroids in order to protect the planet by locating potentially harmful Near-Earth asteroids. The main-belt asteroid 227711 Dailyminorplanet was named in honor of thousands of volunteers who have participated in this project. == List of Notable Discoveries == == See also == Backyard Worlds Active Asteroids (citizen science project) Disk Detective Galaxy Zoo Planet Hunters == References ==


id: decodoku-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decodoku-0.md
category: reference
title: Decodoku
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decodoku
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:14.610705+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: decodoku-20260505-0
summary:
Decodoku is set of online citizen science games, based on quantum error correction. The project is supported by the NCCR QSIT and the University of Basel, and allows the public to get involved with quantum error correction research. The games present the clues left in a quantum computer when errors occur, and encourage the players to work out how best to correct them. These puzzles are presented in a manner similar to typical casual puzzle games, like 2048, Threes or Sudoku, with the scientific background explained via the project website and YouTube channel. Thus far three games have been released: Decodoku, Decodoku:Puzzles and Decodoku:Colors. == References ==


id: digventures-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DigVentures-0.md
category: reference
title: DigVentures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DigVentures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:16.478394+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: digventures-20260505-0
summary:
DigVentures is a social enterprise working in archaeology, heritage participation, nature recovery, and citizen science. Founded in 2011 by Lisa Westcott Wilkins and Brendon Wilkins, it is headquartered in Barnard Castle, England. The organization is a Registered Organisation of the Chartered Institute for Archaeologists (CIfA). DigVentures became known for crowdfunding and digital methods in archaeological fieldwork, enabling public participation in professional excavations. The organization has conducted projects across the United Kingdom, Ireland, and internationally, including excavations at Flag Fen and Lindisfarne, and the citizen science initiative Deep Time which combines archaeological discovery with habitat mapping for nature recovery. == History == DigVentures Limited was incorporated on 21 November 2011. The Chartered Institute for Archaeologists states that DigVentures has been a Registered Organisation since 2013. In 2012, DigVentures organized Flag Fen Lives, described in media coverage as the world's first crowdfunded archaeological excavation. The project raised £30,000 and engaged approximately 250 members of the public from 11 countries in a three-week excavation at the Bronze Age site of Flag Fen near Peterborough. The excavation involved partnerships with institutions including the British Museum, Durham University, University of Birmingham, and English Heritage. Archaeologist Francis Pryor, who discovered the site in the 1970s, later


id: disk-detective-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_Detective-0.md
category: reference
title: Disk Detective
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_Detective
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:17.830855+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disk-detective-20260505-0
summary:
Disk Detective is the first NASA-led and funded-collaboration project with Zooniverse. It is NASA's largest crowdsourcing citizen science project aiming at engaging the general public in search of stars, which are surrounded by dust-rich circumstellar disks, where planets usually dwell and are formed. Initially launched by NASA Citizen Science Officer, Marc Kuchner, the principal investigation of the project was turned over to Steven Silverberg. == Details == Disk Detective was launched in January 2014, and was expected to continue until 2017. In April 2019 Disk Detective uploaded partly classified subjects, as Zooniverse did stop to support the old platform for projects, which was completed in May 2019. The project team began working on Disk Detective 2.0 that was then launched May 24, 2020, utilizing Zooniverse's new platform. The project invites the public to search through images captured by NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) and other sky surveys. Disk Detective 1.0 compared images from the WISE mission to the Two Micron All Sky Survey (2MASS), the Digitized Sky Survey (DSS) and the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS). Version 2.0 compares WISE images to 2MASS, Panoramic Survey Telescope and Rapid Response System (Pan-STARRS), Australia's SkyMapper telescope, and the unblurred coadds of


id: disk-detective-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_Detective-1.md
category: reference
title: Disk Detective
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_Detective
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:17.830855+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disk-detective-20260505-0
summary:
The Disk Detective project discovered the first example of a Peter Pan disk. At the 235th meeting of the American Astronomical Society the discovery of four new Peter Pan disks was presented. Three objects are high-probability members of the Columba and Carina stellar associations. The forth object has an intermediate likelihood of being part of a moving group. All four objects are young M dwarfs. The project has also discovered the first debris disk with a white dwarf companion (HD 74389) and a new kind of M dwarf disk (WISE J080822.18-644357.3) in a moving group. The project found 37 new disks (including HD 74389) and four Be stars in the first paper and 213 newly-identified disk candidates in the third paper. Together with WISE J080822.18-644357.3, the Disk Detective project found 251 new disks or disk candidates. The third paper also found HD 150972 (WISEA J164540.79-310226.6) as a likely member of the Scorpius–Centaurus moving group, 12 candidates that are co-moving binaries and 31 that are closer than 125 parsec, making them possible targets for direct imaging of exoplanets. Additionally, the project published the discovery a nearby young brown dwarf with a warm class-II type circumstellar disk, WISEA J120037.79−784508.3 (W1200−7845), located in


id: ebutterfly-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EButterfly-0.md
category: reference
title: EButterfly
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EButterfly
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:20.237770+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ebutterfly-20260505-0
summary:
eButterfly is an online database of butterfly observations that collects data on butterfly abundance, distribution and phenology across North America. Naturalists, entomologists and other citizen scientists contribute observations in checklist form and the aggregated information is available through mapping and queries tools on eButterfly. eButterfly has a vetting system where a group of regional experts review submissions to ensure that the quality of data remains high. Photos can be added to any observation and eButterfly supports life lists and photo libraries for users. Observations can be entered directly to the eButterfly website. As of September 2015, eButterfly users have contributed over 225,000 observations. == History == eButterfly was launched in 2012 by Max Larrivée and Jeremy Kerr of the University of Ottawa. The project began as an effort to track changing butterfly ranges in Canada to determine how climate change may be impacting butterfly distribution in the country. It expanded to cover the U.S. in 2013 after partnering with Kent McFarland of Vermont Center for Ecostudies and Kathleen Prudic of Oregon State University. == Participation == Members of the eButterfly community enter butterfly sightings as part of regular surveys, organized butterfly counts or as incidental observations. There are checklists for


id: eterna-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EteRNA-0.md
category: reference
title: EteRNA
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EteRNA
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:21.856117+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eterna-20260505-0
summary:
Eterna is a browser-based "game with a purpose", developed by scientists at Carnegie Mellon University and Stanford University, that engages users to solve puzzles related to the folding of RNA molecules. The project is supported by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Stanford University, and the National Institutes of Health. Prior funders include the National Science Foundation. Similar to Foldit—created by some of the same researchers that developed Eterna—the puzzles take advantage of human problem-solving capabilities to solve puzzles that are computationally laborious for current computer models. The researchers hope to capitalize on "crowdsourcing" and the collective intelligence of Eterna players to answer fundamental questions about RNA folding mechanics. The top voted designs are synthesized in a Stanford biochemistry lab to evaluate the folding patterns of the RNA molecules to compare directly with the computer predictions, ultimately improving the computer models. Ultimately, Eterna researchers hope to determine a "complete and repeatable set of rules" to allow the synthesis of RNAs that consistently fold in expected shapes. Eterna project leaders hope that determining these basic principles may facilitate the design of RNA-based nanomachines and switches. Eterna creators have been pleasantly surprised by the solutions of Eterna players, particularly those of non-researchers


id: eterna-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EteRNA-1.md
category: reference
title: EteRNA
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EteRNA
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:21.856117+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eterna-20260505-0
summary:
=== Direct player contribution === By August 2011, approximately 26,000 players had contributed RNA sequence designs and over 306 designs have been synthesized for in vitro testing. Eterna citizen scientists discovered a discrepancy in SHAPE and DMS chemical probing when reading strings of 7+ adenosine, and subsequently published their findings in Biochemistry in 2020. It is the first paper written exclusively by citizen scientists to be published in a peer-reviewed journal. In a 2023 paper, Eterna players design ribosomal RNA mutations for functional improvements (OpenRibosome Challenge). The players receive feedback from in vitro testing and in vivo (living E. coli) after each round to further tweak their designs. In a 2024 paper, Eterna players improved a research team's design of a minimized E. coli peptidyl transferase center (PTC). The improved version folds into a PTC-like structure without needing ribosomal proteins and interacts with small molecule analogs of tRNAs. The PTC is believed to be the most ancient part of the ribosome derived from the primordial RNA world and this work is a step closer to seeing the ancient version might have worked. === Algorithmic improvements based on human plays === In January 2014, the results from Eterna have been published


id: european-citizen-science-association-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Citizen_Science_Association-0.md
category: reference
title: European Citizen Science Association
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Citizen_Science_Association
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:22.988275+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: european-citizen-science-association-20260505-0
summary:
The European Citizen Science Association (ECSA) is a membership based networking organization for practitioners and researchers of citizen science in Europe. ECSA was founded in 2014 in Germany and is registered as a charitable and member-based professional organization. == History == ECSA was launched in 2013. ECSA has a board of directors, elected by its members, and a collection of professional working groups that establish standards, identify best practices, help to focus research and technology, and explore the ethics of citizen science. In addition, it has an advisory board and a steering committee, which support the executive board. == Activities == It has held general assemblies each year since 2014, at which ECSA members and working groups present their initiatives and discuss how the organization’s vision can be further developed. The first biannual international ECSA conference was held in Berlin in May 2016. ECSA has initiated several strategic capacity-building programmes at the European and national scale, which have led to the development of outputs such as the Socientize Green and White Papers on Citizen Science in Europe and the Green paper Citizen Science Strategy 2020 for Germany. The European White Paper provided the basis for several actions and policies related


id: eyewire-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eyewire-0.md
category: reference
title: Eyewire
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eyewire
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:24.211831+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eyewire-20260505-0
summary:
Eyewire is a citizen science game from Sebastian Seung's Lab at Princeton University. It is a human-based computation game that uses players to map retinal neurons. Eyewire launched on December 10, 2012. The game utilizes data generated by the Max Planck Institute for Medical Research. As of March 2025, Eyewire has had around 350,000 players and resulted in the tracing of 6,000 neurons. Eyewire gameplay is used for neuroscience research by enabling the reconstruction of morphological neuron data, which helps researchers model information-processing circuits. It is also used to generate a training dataset to further improve the artificial intelligence that assists the player through the gameplay. A later project spawned from Eyewire is the Flywire project, which used a similar but more selective citizen science system for its tracing and annotation. Flywire builds on Eyewire and used AIs trained on the dataset produced by Eyewire players. Flywire would go on to complete and publish the first connectome of an adult fruit fly, a structure with about 140,000 neurons. A sequel project to Eyewire, Eyewire II, was announced on March 31, 2025. It is of a similar scale to Flywire, intending to trace over 100,000 new neurons. Eyewire II is open


id: four-thieves-vinegar-collective-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Thieves_Vinegar_Collective-0.md
category: reference
title: Four Thieves Vinegar Collective
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Thieves_Vinegar_Collective
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:29.711928+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: four-thieves-vinegar-collective-20260505-0
summary:
The Four Thieves Vinegar Collective is an anarchist biohacking group founded in 2015 by Michael Laufer. They have published instructions for the "EpiPencil", an epinephrine autoinjector, and the "Apothecary MicroLab", a do-it-yourself (DIY) device intended to make a variety of medications, most notably pyrimethamine (Daraprim). The medical community has criticized them for causing potential harm to patients with the DIY instructions, but Laufer claims to defend people's right to attempt their medical treatment. == Members == Four Thieves' membership is generally composed of technically trained people, but does not include medical professionals. == Views == Laufer has compared his work to that of Women on Waves, a group that provides abortion medication to women in areas where abortion is illegal. His motivation in founding the group is to provide medication to people when it is too expensive for them to afford, illegal to acquire, or unavailable due to it treating an orphan disease. He believes that providing lifesaving medication to those who need it justifies violating the intellectual property rights of pharmaceutical companies, and supports cognitive liberty. == History == Laufer, trained in mathematics, formed the group in 2008 during a graduate school trip to El Salvador. While visiting a


id: frogwatch-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FrogWatch-0.md
category: reference
title: FrogWatch
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FrogWatch
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:30.975238+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: frogwatch-20260505-0
summary:
A FrogWatch is any of several citizen science programs in which laypeople monitor amphibians. In a FrogWatch, people make recordings of frogs and other animals that live near them and send the recordings to databases for scientists and other people to hear and study. Not all FrogWatch programs are run by the same people. The Akron Zoo runs FrogWatch USA, Nature Canada runs FrogWatch Canada, the India Biodiversity Portal runs the FrogWatch in India, and other organizations run FrogWatches in other countries. The National Geographic Society developed the program that FrogWatch USA volunteers use to add information and that FrogWatch uses to study it. Volunteers record temperature with thermometers and listen for sounds made by specific types of frogs and toads. FrogWatch USA volunteers record frog habitats for three and a half minutes, starting one half-hour (30 minutes) after the sun goes down. In 2006, the National Wildlife Federation assessed the utility of FrogWatch USA for the U.S. Geological Survey and published its findings. It recommended continued funding based on "scientific value alone," though it also acknowledged its value as an educational tool and its ability to render research more cost-efficient. Scientists have used FrogWatch to study the way frogs


id: fungal-diversity-survey-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungal_Diversity_Survey-0.md
category: reference
title: Fungal Diversity Survey
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungal_Diversity_Survey
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:32.292649+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fungal-diversity-survey-20260505-0
summary:
Fungal Diversity Survey, or FunDiS, is a nonprofit citizen science organization formerly known as North American Mycoflora Project, Inc. FunDiS aims to document the diversity and distribution of fungi across North America “in order to increase awareness of their critical role in the health of ecosystems and allow us to better protect them in a world of rapid climate change and habitat loss.” The project encourages amateurs, working with professionals, to contribute observations to online databases vetted by experts, and to collect and document fungi for DNA barcoding. Fungal Diversity Survey, Inc. is a Charitable 501(c)(3) organization registered in Indiana, USA. == History == FunDiS grew out of an academic initiative to create a modern, comprehensive funga for North America. In 2012, some 70 academic mycologists and scientific-oriented mushroom collectors met at Yale University and called the initiative the North American Mycoflora Project. In 2017 at a meeting in Athens, Georgia, the project was reframed as a citizen science initiative and subsequently a nonprofit organization, North American Mycoflora Project, Inc. (NAMP) was launched in December 2017. In August 2020 the organization changed its name to Fungal Diversity Survey to reflect the fact that “fungi are their own kingdom - as


id: galaxy-zoo-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxy_Zoo-0.md
category: reference
title: Galaxy Zoo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxy_Zoo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:33.464511+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: galaxy-zoo-20260505-0
summary:
Galaxy Zoo is a crowdsourced astronomy project which invites people to assist in the morphological classification of large numbers of galaxies. It is an example of citizen science as it enlists the help of members of the public to help in scientific research. There have been 15 versions as of July 2017. Galaxy Zoo is part of the Zooniverse, a group of citizen science projects. An outcome of the project is to better determine the different aspects of objects and to separate them into classifications. == Origins == A key factor leading to the creation of the project was the problem of what has been referred to as data deluge, where research produces vast sets of information to the extent that research teams are not able to analyse and process much of it. Kevin Schawinski, previously an astrophysicist at Oxford University and co-founder of Galaxy Zoo, described the problem that led to Galaxy Zoo's creation when he was set the task of classifying the morphology of more than 900,000 galaxies by eye that had been imaged by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey at the Apache Point Observatory in New Mexico, USA. "I classified 50,000 galaxies myself in a week, it


id: galaxy-zoo-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxy_Zoo-1.md
category: reference
title: Galaxy Zoo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxy_Zoo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:33.464511+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: galaxy-zoo-20260505-0
summary:
== Volunteers == Galaxy Zoo recruited volunteers to help with the largest galaxy census ever carried out. Opening the project to the general public saved the professional astronomers the task of studying all the galaxies themselves, resulting in classification of a large number of galaxies undertaken in a shorter time than what smaller research teams would be able to do, classifying 900,000 galaxies in months rather than years if done by smaller research teams. Computer programs had been unable to reliably classify galaxies: several groups had attempted to develop image-analysis programs. Kevin Schawinski stated: "The human brain is actually much better than a computer at these pattern recognition tasks." However, volunteers astonished the project's organizers by classifying the entire catalog years ahead of schedule. An online forum was later set up two weeks after the initial start, partially due to a large volume of emails being sent around, to the point that it was troublesome for those receiving them to process and respond to them. This led volunteers to point out anomalies that on closer inspection have turned out to be new astronomical objects such as 'Hanny's Voorwerp' and 'the Green Pea galaxies'. "I'm incredibly impressed by what they've managed


id: galaxy-zoo-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxy_Zoo-2.md
category: reference
title: Galaxy Zoo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxy_Zoo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:33.464511+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: galaxy-zoo-20260505-0
summary:
=== Galaxy Zoo 2 === This consisted of some 250,000 of the brightest galaxies from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. Galaxy Zoo 2 allowed for a much more detailed classification, by shape and by the intensity or dimness of the galactic core, and with a special section for oddities like mergers or ring galaxies. The sample also contained fewer optical oddities. The project which collected classifications from February 2009 - April 2010 and closed with some 60 million classifications. === Galaxy Zoo mergers === This studied the role of interacting galaxies. Interacting galaxies are galaxies that exhibit a gravitational influence on one another. This influence is exhibited over the course of millions or even billions of years as two or more galaxies pass nearby one another. The near passage of two massive structures can cause the galaxies to be distorted and possibly merge. The Galaxy Zoo Mergers aimed to provide a set of tools that allowed users to randomly sample various sets of simulation parameters in rapid succession by showing 8 simulation outputs at a time. This started in November 2009 and was retired in June 2012. === Galaxy Zoo supernovae === Galaxy Zoo used images partner from the Palomar


id: galaxy-zoo-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxy_Zoo-3.md
category: reference
title: Galaxy Zoo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxy_Zoo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:33.464511+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: galaxy-zoo-20260505-0
summary:
=== Related === In June 2019, citizen scientists through Galaxy Zoo reported that the usual Hubble classification, particularly concerning spiral galaxies, may not be supported, and may need updating. == Rotation of galaxies == One of the original aims for Galaxy Zoo was to explore which way galaxies rotated. Cosmologist Kate Land stated: "Some people have argued that galaxies are rotating all in agreement with each other, not randomly as we'd expect. We want people to classify the galaxies according to which way they're rotating and I'll be able to go and see if there's anything bizarre going on. If there are any patterns that we're not expecting, it could really turn up some surprises." In Galaxy Zoo 1, volunteers were asked to judge from the SDSS images whether the galaxies were elliptical or spiral and, if spiral, whether they were rotating in a clockwise (Z-wise) or anti-clockwise (S-wise) direction. The rotation, also called the chirality, of galaxies has been examined in several Galaxy Zoo related papers. Among the results a psychological bias was demonstrated. Galaxy Zoo scientists wanted to determine whether spiral galaxies were evenly distributed, or whether an intrinsic property of the universe caused them to rotate one


id: galaxy-zoo-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxy_Zoo-4.md
category: reference
title: Galaxy Zoo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxy_Zoo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:33.464511+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: galaxy-zoo-20260505-0
summary:
The properties of Galactic Dust have been examined in several Galaxy Zoo papers. The interstellar medium of spiral galaxies is filled by gas and small solid particles called dust grains. Despite constituting only a minor fraction of the galactic mass (between 0.1% and 0.01% for the Milky Way), dust grains have a major role in shaping the appearance of a galaxy. Because of their dimension (typically smaller than a few tenths of a micron), they are very effective in absorbing and scattering the radiation emitted by stars in the ultraviolet, optical and near-infrared. Although the interstellar regions are more devoid of matter than any vacuum artificially created on earth, there is matter in space. These regions have very low densities and consist mainly of gas (99%) and dust. In total, approximately 15% of the visible matter in the Milky Way is composed of interstellar gas and dust. The study of dust in galaxies is interesting for many reasons. For example, the dimming effects of dust need to be corrected for to estimate the total mass of a galaxy from measurements of its light. Standard candles used to measure the expansion history of the Universe also need to be corrected for


id: gems-of-the-galaxy-zoos-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gems_of_the_Galaxy_Zoos-0.md
category: reference
title: Gems of the Galaxy Zoos
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gems_of_the_Galaxy_Zoos
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:34.735361+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gems-of-the-galaxy-zoos-20260505-0
summary:
Gems of the Galaxy Zoos (Zoogems) was a gap-filler project which used the Hubble Space Telescope to take images of unusual objects found by volunteers classifying data from both Galaxy Zoo (GZ) and Radio Galaxy Zoo (RGZ). Between the HSTs' main observations, there is a short time that objects within that field of view can be imaged using gaps which last approximately 12 - 25 mins. The Zoogems project sought to use those small observation gaps to image 300 candidates taken from the two Zoos in order to better study and comprehend them. Starting observations in May 2018, HST Proposal 15445 had by the end of September 2023 imaged 193 of the 300 candidates with many of them having near 11 minute exposures. == Background == GZ is an ongoing crowdsourced astronomy project which invites people to assist in the morphological classification of a large number of galaxies. Initially, many of the objects that were imaged had been posted on the GZ Forum and Talk pages from Summer 2007 through various versions until 2017. The project Radio Galaxy Zoo started in December 2013, seeking to locate supermassive black holes. The science team wanted to identify black hole/jet pairs and associate


id: gems-of-the-galaxy-zoos-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gems_of_the_Galaxy_Zoos-1.md
category: reference
title: Gems of the Galaxy Zoos
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gems_of_the_Galaxy_Zoos
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:34.735361+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gems-of-the-galaxy-zoos-20260505-0
summary:
In October 2023, the magazine Sky and Telescope featured an article entitled "Unearthing galactic gems". In it, the science journalist Madison Goldberg summarises the project and talks to Tom Brown from the Space Telescope Science Institute about the process of gap-fillers. Spare Hubble time had been used before with the 45 minute "snapshot programs" but some unscheduled time remained. Brown said: "It just seemed like a waste to be throwing that time on the floor. Just a handful of minutes here and there, but still, it adds up." And so, the gap-filler project started using those small gaps in the timetable to take 11 minute exposures. Bill Keel, project lead scientist, explained that unusual galaxies can help us understand the universe today. He described the ZooGems category of 'overlapping galaxy pairs'. He said: "What’s unusual there is not the galaxies themselves, but the fact that one sits neatly behind the other in telescopic images." Samantha Brunker, a scientist studying Green Pea galaxies, said that the variety of unusual targets included in ZooGems is special. "If you’re going to paint a whole picture, you can’t leave out the weird things." == Various objects == NGC 1175, nicknamed the 'Peanut galaxy' is


id: genetic-genealogy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_genealogy-0.md
category: reference
title: Genetic genealogy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_genealogy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:35.876877+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetic-genealogy-20260505-0
summary:
Genetic genealogy is the use of genealogical DNA tests, i.e., DNA profiling and DNA testing, in combination with traditional genealogical methods, to infer genetic relationships between individuals. This application of genetics came to be used by family historians in the 21st century, as DNA tests became affordable. The tests have been promoted by amateur groups, such as surname study groups or regional genealogical groups, as well as research projects such as the Genographic Project. As of 2019, about 30 million people had been tested. As the field developed, the aims of practitioners broadened, with many seeking knowledge of their ancestry beyond the recent centuries, for which traditional pedigrees can be constructed. == History == The investigation of surnames in genetics can be said to go back to George Darwin, a son of Charles Darwin and Charles' first cousin Emma Darwin. In 1875, George Darwin used surnames to estimate the frequency of first-cousin marriages and calculated the expected incidence of marriage between people of the same surname (isonymy). He arrived at a figure of 1.5% for cousin-marriage in the population of London, higher (3%-3.5%) among the upper classes and lower (2.25%) among the general rural population. === Surname studies === A


id: genetic-genealogy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_genealogy-1.md
category: reference
title: Genetic genealogy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_genealogy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:35.876877+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetic-genealogy-20260505-0
summary:
Genetic genealogy has enabled groups of people to trace their ancestry even though they are not able to use conventional genealogical techniques. This may be because they do not know one or both of their birth parents or because conventional genealogical records have been lost, destroyed or never existed. These groups include adoptees, foundlings, Holocaust survivors, GI babies, child migrants, descendants of children from orphan trains and people with slave ancestry. The earliest test takers were customers most often those who started with a Y-chromosome test to determine their father's paternal ancestry. These men often took part in surname projects. The first phase of the Genographic Project brought new participants into genetic genealogy. Those who tested were as likely to be interested in direct maternal heritage as their paternal. The number of those taking mtDNA tests increased. The introduction of autosomal SNP tests based on microarray chip technology changed the demographics. Women were as likely as men to test themselves. === Citizen science and ISOGG === Members of the genetic genealogy community have been credited with making useful contributions to knowledge in the field, an example of citizen science. One of the earliest interest groups to emerge was the International


id: genetic-genealogy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_genealogy-2.md
category: reference
title: Genetic genealogy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_genealogy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:35.876877+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetic-genealogy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Pedigree family trees === Pedigree family trees have traditionally been prepared from recollections of individuals about their parents and grandparents. These family trees may be extended if recollections of earlier generations were preserved through oral tradition or written documents. Some genealogists regard oral tradition as myths unless confirmed with written documentation like birth certificates, marriage certificates, census reports, headstones, or notes in family bibles. Few written records are kept by illiterate populations, and many documents have been destroyed by warfare or natural disasters. DNA comparison may offer an alternative means of confirming family relationships of biological parents, but may be confused by adoption or when a mother conceals the identity of the father of her child. While mitochondrial and Y-chromosome DNA matching offer the most definitive confirmation of ancestral relationships, the information from a tested individual is relevant to a decreasing fraction of their ancestors from earlier generations. Potential ambiguity must be considered when seeking confirmation from comparison of autosomal DNA. The first source of ambiguity arises from the underlying similarity of every individual's DNA sequence. Many short gene segments will be identical by coincidental recombination (Identical by State: IBS) rather than inheritance from a single ancestor (Identical by


id: genographic-project-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genographic_Project-0.md
category: reference
title: Genographic Project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genographic_Project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:38.075080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genographic-project-20260505-0
summary:
The Genographic Project, launched on 13 April 2005 by the National Geographic Society and IBM, was a genetic anthropological study that aimed to map historical human migrations patterns by collecting and analyzing DNA samples. The final phase of the project was Geno 2.0 Next Generation. Upon retirement of the site, 1,006,543 participants in over 140 countries had joined the project. == Project history == === Beginnings === In 2005, project director Spencer Wells created and then led the Genographic Project, which was a privately funded, not-for-profit collaboration among the National Geographic Society, IBM, and the Waitt Foundation. Field researchers at eleven regional centers around the world began by collecting DNA samples from indigenous populations. In the fall of 2012, the Genographic Project announced the completion of a new genotyping array, dedicated to genetic anthropology, called GenoChip. GenoChip was specifically designed for anthropological testing and included SNPs from autosomal DNA, X-chromosome DNA, Y-chromosome DNA, and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). The design of the new chip was a collaborative effort among Wells of National Geographic, Eran Elhaik of Johns Hopkins, Family Tree DNA, and Illumina. The autosomal admixture analysis developed by Wells and Elhaik classified individuals by assessing their proportions of genomic ancestry


id: genographic-project-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genographic_Project-1.md
category: reference
title: Genographic Project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genographic_Project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:38.075080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genographic-project-20260505-0
summary:
In April 2005, shortly after the announcement of the project, the Indigenous Peoples Council on Biocolonialism (IPCB) noted its connections to controversial issues (such as concern among some tribes that the results of genetic human migration studies might indicate that Native Americans are not indigenous to North America). The IPCB recommended against indigenous people participating. The founder of IPCB, Debra Harry, offered a rationale for why Indigenous people were discouraged to participate in the Genographic Project. According to Harry, a Northern Paiute Native American and Associate Professor in Indigenous Studies at Nevada University, the Genographic Project resulted in a human genetic testing practice that appeared to mask an ulterior motive rather than mere scientific research. Particularly, the great concern about the possible political interest behind the Genographic Project, motivated the IPCB to preemptively alert the global indigenous community on the "not so altruistic motivations" of the project. Additionally, IPCB argued that the Genographic project not only provided no direct benefit to Indigenous peoples, but instead raised considerable risks. Such risks, raised by Harry in an interview released in December 2005, were used to advocate against the indigenous participation in the project. Another argument, made by IPCB founder Debra Harry, was


id: globe-at-night-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globe_at_Night-0.md
category: reference
title: Globe at Night
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globe_at_Night
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:39.272371+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: globe-at-night-20260505-0
summary:
Globe at Night is an international scientific research program that crowdsources measurements of light pollution in the night sky. At set time periods within each year, the project asks people to count the number of stars that they can see from their location and report it to the project's website. The coordinating researchers compile this information to produce a public, freely available map of global light pollution. By September 2011, almost 70,000 measurements had been made. The use of data collected by the public makes the program an example of citizen science. Globe at Night began as a NASA educational program in the US organized by the NOAO, and was expanded internationally during the 2009 International Year of Astronomy; it is an offshoot of the GLOBE Program, which focuses on school-based science education. == Scientific rationale == Light pollution, the introduction of artificial light into formerly dark ecosystems, has numerous adverse ecological effects. Exposure to artificial light can prove fatal for some organisms (e.g. moths that fly into a burning flame), can interrupt a life cycle phase for others (e.g. glowworms are unable to attract mates), and can reduce the possibilities for finding food (because of increased risk of predation).


id: great-cocky-count-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Cocky_Count-0.md
category: reference
title: Great Cocky Count
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Cocky_Count
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:40.447703+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: great-cocky-count-20260505-0
summary:
The Great Cocky Count is an annual census designed to provide accurate data about the number and distribution of black cockatoos. It is the largest single survey of black cockatoos in Western Australia. The count is a citizen science survey and is conducted at sunset one night in autumn, usually in early April. It was first held in 2010 and has been conducted each year since apart from 2020 (cancelled due to COVID-19). Over 700 registered volunteers participated each year at hundreds of locations between Geraldton and Esperance, Western Australia. The 2019 count had over 700 volunteers surveying over 400 sites, with the endangered Carnaby's black cockatoo being the main focus of the count but the critically endangered Baudin's black cockatoo and vulnerable forest red-tailed black cockatoo also being counted. In 2016 a total of 426 roost sites were surveyed by approximately 700 volunteers. The results included: 16,392 white-tailed black cockatoos recorded at 100 occupied roosts. 1,907 forest red-tailed black cockatoos recorded at 66 occupied roosts 4,897 Carnaby's black cockatoos were found at a single roost site It was estimated that 27% of the black cockatoos that inhabit the south west of Western Australia were counted in a single night.


id: hamsci-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HamSCI-0.md
category: reference
title: HamSCI
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HamSCI
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:41.619069+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hamsci-20260505-0
summary:
The Amateur Radio Science Citizen Investigation (HamSCI) is an initiative to connect amateur radio operators with scientific researchers, and to use amateur radio as a citizen science tool to collect scientific data, particularly in geospace science. HamSCI holds annual workshops each year. Most HamSCI projects focus on the ionosphere. The central initiative of HamSCI is the Personal Space Weather Station, a project to conduct distributed sensing of space weather by developing modular hardware similar to traditional weather stations. == References ==


id: hanny-s-voorwerp-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanny's_Voorwerp-0.md
category: reference
title: Hanny's Voorwerp
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanny's_Voorwerp
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:46.836435+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hanny-s-voorwerp-20260505-0
summary:
Hanny's Voorwerp (Dutch for Hanny's object) is an instance of an astronomical phenomenon called a quasar ionization echo. It was discovered in 2007 by Dutch schoolteacher Hanny van Arkel while she was participating as a volunteer in the Galaxy Zoo project, part of the Zooniverse group of citizen science websites. Photographically, it appears as a bright blob close to spiral galaxy IC 2497 in the constellation Leo Minor. == Description == Hanny's Voorwerp (HsV) is about the size of a small galaxy and has a central hole over 16,000 light years across. In an image taken with the Hubble Space Telescope, HsV is colored green, a standard false color that is used to represent the presence of several luminous emission lines of glowing oxygen. HsV has been shown to be at the same distance from Earth as the adjacent galaxy IC 2497, which is about 650 million light-years away. Star birth is occurring in the region of HsV that faces IC 2497. Radio observations indicate that this is due to an outflow of gas from IC 2497's core which is interacting with a small region of HsV to collapse and form stars. The youngest of these stars are several million


id: herpmapper-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HerpMapper-0.md
category: reference
title: HerpMapper
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HerpMapper
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:47.975310+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: herpmapper-20260505-0
summary:
HerpMapper is a cooperative citizen science project designed to gather and share information about reptile and amphibian (herp) observations across the planet. Contributors create records of their herp observations online or via its mobile application. Data are available to HerpMapper Partners – groups who use your recorded observations for research, conservation, and preservation purposes. In addition, the HerpMapper mobile application is used by multiple other herpetological atlas projects, and the Minnesota Nongame Wildlife Program. HerpMapper's primary goal is to share data with professional conservation and research organizations to better conserve herpetofauna around the world. Because of this, HerpMapper does not share point-location information publicly because of over-collection and poaching concerns. This sets HerpMapper apart from many other citizen-science projects. == History == HerpMapper.org was officially launched in September 2013. It is currently a volunteer-run organization of professional herpetologists, IT specialists, and field herpers with decades of experience. HerpMapper is a registered 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization. == Organizational structure == The HerpMapper Advisory Team includes nonprofit organization staff, state agency biologists, university faculty, IT professionals, and field herpers. == Data Access == Data are made freely available to professional conservation and research organizations. Data are made available via real-time online access or


id: inaturalist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INaturalist-0.md
category: reference
title: INaturalist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INaturalist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:49.208201+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: inaturalist-20260505-0
summary:
iNaturalist is an American 501(c)(3) nonprofit social network of naturalists, citizen scientists, and biologists built on the concept of mapping and sharing observations of biodiversity across the globe. iNaturalist may be accessed via its website or from its mobile applications. iNaturalist includes an automated species identification tool, and users further assist each other in identifying organisms from photographs and sound recordings. As of 5 August 2025, iNaturalist users had contributed nearly 300 million observations of plants, animals, fungi, and other organisms worldwide, and 400,000 users were active in the previous 30 days. iNaturalist serves as an important resource of open data for biodiversity research, conservation, and education, describing itself as "an online social network of people sharing biodiversity information to help each other learn about nature." It is the primary application for crowd-sourced biodiversity data in places such as Mexico, southern Africa, and Australia, and the project has been called "a standard-bearer for natural history mobile applications." Most of iNaturalist's software is open source. It has contributed to over 4,000 research papers and is widely used by scientists, land managers, and conservationists worldwide. The platform has also been active in the discovery of new species and rediscovery of species previously


id: inaturalist-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INaturalist-1.md
category: reference
title: INaturalist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INaturalist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:49.208201+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: inaturalist-20260505-0
summary:
=== Automated species identification === In addition to observations being identified by others in the community, iNaturalist includes an automated species identification tool, first released in 2017. Images can be identified via a computer vision model which has been trained on the large database of the observations on iNaturalist. Multiple species suggestions are typically provided with the suggestion that the software guesses to be most likely is at the top of the list. A broader taxon such as a genus or family is commonly provided if the model is unsure of the species. It is trained once or twice a year, and the threshold for species included in the training set has changed over time. It can be difficult for the model to guess correctly if the species in question is infrequently observed or hard to identify from images alone, or if the image submitted has poor lighting, is blurry, or contains multiple subjects. In February 2023, iNaturalist released v2.1 of its computer vision model, which was trained on a new source model which performed significantly better than the previous models trained using a different source model. In April 2025 iNaturalist released an updated app for iOS, changing the original


id: inaturalist-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INaturalist-2.md
category: reference
title: INaturalist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INaturalist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:49.208201+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: inaturalist-20260505-0
summary:
In 2015, data from iNaturalist was used to show that the Hopkin's rose nudibranch (Ceratodoris rosacea) is moving northward. Photos uploaded to iNaturalist in 2022 were used to confirm that the New Zealand hermit crab (Pagurus traversi) had been sighted in Tasmania and Victoria, Australia. In February 2024, photos posted on iNaturalist were used to report on the use of artificial shells (primarily plastic caps) by hermit crabs In April 2024, iNaturalist data was used to show that the range of Himalayan giant honey bees (Apis laboriosa) had expanded southward to Thailand for the first time. iNaturalist data has also been used to investigate phenology, the study of how life changes with the seasons. A 2023 field study comparing iNaturalist lichen records with expert identifications in Portugal and Italy found that fewer than half of the species logged by platform users matched the specialists' determinations, and roughly 70 % of species-level identifications that appeared only on iNaturalist were wrong. The authors concluded that unchecked observations—especially of taxonomically difficult groups such as lichens—should be treated with caution when used for research, and they recommended raising the agreement threshold for "research-grade" status and providing clear imaging guidelines to volunteers. In a 2024


id: international-society-of-genetic-genealogy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Society_of_Genetic_Genealogy-0.md
category: reference
title: International Society of Genetic Genealogy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Society_of_Genetic_Genealogy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:51.145742+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-society-of-genetic-genealogy-20260505-0
summary:
The International Society of Genetic Genealogy (ISOGG) is an independent non-commercial nonprofit organization of genetic genealogists run by volunteers. It was founded by a group of surname DNA project administrators in 2005 to promote DNA testing for genealogy. It advocates the use of genetics in genealogical research, provides educational resources for genealogists interested in DNA testing, and facilitates networking among genetic genealogists. As of June 2013, it comprises over 8,000 members in 70 countries. As of July 2013, regional meetings are coordinated by 20 volunteer regional coordinators located in the United States, Australia, Brazil, Canada, England, Egypt, Ireland and Russia. ISOGG hosts the ISOGG Wiki, a free online encyclopedia maintained by ISOGG members which contains a wide variety of educational resources and guidance for genetic genealogy consumers and DNA project administrators. The ISOGG Wiki contains ethical guidelines for DNA project administrators and ISOGG members perform peer reviews of DNA project websites of other members on request, following which the websites may display the ISOGG Peer Reviewed graphic. == Industry regulation and standards == In 2008 ISOGG supported the passing of the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act designed to prohibit the improper use of genetic information in health insurance and employment in


id: ispot-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISpot-0.md
category: reference
title: ISpot
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISpot
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:52.356702+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ispot-20260505-0
summary:
iSpot is a website developed and hosted by the Open University with funding from the Open Air Laboratories (OPAL) network with an online community intended to connect nature enthusiasts of all levels. Registered users upload images of wildlife observations, identify species, and discuss their findings with other members. This is intended to provide opportunities to learn more about the wildlife they have observed, and also provides a database of observations which is made available for scientific analysis. The site also provides some online identification tools. == Purpose == The natural history observational skills required for accurate species identification in the field are neglected in formal education at all levels. iSpot is intended to help solve this problem by combining learning technology with crowdsourcing to connect beginners with experts. == Communities == The communities as of 2015 include the original UK and Ireland, Southern Africa, Hong Kong, Chile (Spanish language) and Global, which covers everywhere else. These communities can link to their own taxonomic lists, or use the default Catalogue of Life list. In mid 2014 the global iSpot community exceeded 42000 registered participants. == Function == In a 2015 study it was found that over 94% of observations submitted to


id: michael-laufer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Laufer-0.md
category: reference
title: Michael Laufer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Laufer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:53.619293+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: michael-laufer-20260505-0
summary:
Michael Swan Laufer (sometimes styled as Mixæl Laufer) is the de facto leader of the open-source anarchist biohacking network, Four Thieves Vinegar Collective. Laufer is notable for creating the EpiPencil, an open source alternative to the Epipen. == Education == Laufer has a Ph.D. in mathematics and physics from the CUNY Graduate Centre. == Career == Laufer was the director of mathematics at Silicon Valley's Menlo College, and a part time teacher of mathematics at San Quentin State Prison, California. Laufer is also a Senior Research Fellow at the UNESCO Crossings Institute. In 2008 Laufer went to El Salvador where he saw hospitals that had run out of birth control medicine, he founded the Four Thieves Vinegar Collective shortly afterwards. Laufer publicly shared videos in 2016 that illustrated how to manufacture generic version of the Epi-Pen epinephrine auto-injector from components readily available to the public. Laufer is working on a DIY controlled lab reactor that he calls the Apothecary MicroLab that will allow people to manufacture their own pharmaceuticals at home. The first version is able to manufacture pyrimethamine, the same drug that in 2016 increased in price in USA from $13 to $750 in 2019. Laufer's work is both


id: lost-ladybug-project-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lost_Ladybug_Project-0.md
category: reference
title: Lost Ladybug Project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lost_Ladybug_Project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:54.789388+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lost-ladybug-project-20260505-0
summary:
The Lost Ladybug Project is a nonprofit organization in the USA focused on promoting citizen science and science education to children. Its mission is "to help children become confident and competent participants in science, identifying personally with science, so that we develop a generation of adults who are engaged in scientific discussions, policy, and thinking." == History == The Lost Ladybug Project was founded in 2000 when researchers from Cornell University worked with the 4-H Master Gardener program to survey ladybug populations across New York. With the discovery of a rare nine-spotted ladybug in 2006, the Lost Ladybug Project developed research methods and a database to log ladybug observations. Granted funding from the National Science Foundation in 2008, the Lost Ladybug Project has counted over 34,000 ladybugs since its inception and is now a nationwide project. Researchers and citizen scientists from across North America submit photographs to the Lost Ladybug Project to help track different ladybug species. == References ==


id: liz-macdonald-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liz_MacDonald-0.md
category: reference
title: Liz MacDonald
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liz_MacDonald
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:55.933639+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: liz-macdonald-20260505-0
summary:
Elizabeth MacDonald is a space physicist who works at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. She is a co-investigator on the Helium, Oxygen, Proton, and Electron Spectrometer on the NASA Radiation Belts Storm Probe mission. == Education == Elizabeth MacDonald was born in Walla Walla, Washington, to Bill and Alice MacDonald. MacDonald received a BSc in physics from the University of Washington, funded by a NASA Space Grant scholarship, in 1999. Her mentor, Ruth Skoug, encouraged her to remain in research. MacDonald completed her postgraduate studies at the University of New Hampshire, earning her PhD in physics in 2004. == Career == MacDonald specializes in plasma mass spectrometry, and has expertise in instrument development and data analysis and interpretation. After completing her PhD, MacDonald joined Los Alamos National Laboratory. At LANL she was the principal investigator for the Z-Plasma Spectrometer on the Department of Energy Space and Atmospheric Burst Reporting System geosynchronous payload. She also led the Innovative Research and Integrated Sensing team. She was principal investigator for the Advanced Miniaturized Plasma Spectrometer. She received the Los Alamos Awards Program recognition three times. Between 2009 and 2011 she led the Department of Energy funded Modular Advanced Space Environment Instrumentation. In 2012


id: karen-masters-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karen_Masters-0.md
category: reference
title: Karen Masters
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karen_Masters
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:58.317291+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: karen-masters-20260505-0
summary:
Karen Masters (born 1979) is an Astrophysicist and Full Professor of Astrophysics in Haverford College, Pennsylvania exploring galaxy formation. She is also the project scientist for the citizen science project Galaxy Zoo, and uses the classifications to study the evolution of galaxies. == Education == Masters was born in Birmingham and attended King Edward VI College, Nuneaton. She completed a BSc in Physics at the University of Oxford in 2000. She received a PhD in Astronomy from Cornell University in 2005, entitled "Galaxy flows in and around the Local Supercluster", under the supervision of Martha Haynes and Riccardo Giovanelli. == Research == In 2005 Masters moved to Harvard University to work as a postdoctoral researcher with John Huchra on a project to make the most complete map of the local Universe. Masters "unveiled the most complete 3-D map of the local universe (out to a distance of 380 million light-years) ever created" in 2011 at the 218th meeting of the American Astronomical Society. The map was created using data from the Two-Micron All-Sky Survey. She moved to the Institute of Cosmology and Gravitation at the University of Portsmouth in October 2008. She was appointed the Gruber Foundation IAU Fellow in


id: medialab-matadero-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medialab_Matadero-0.md
category: reference
title: Medialab Matadero
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medialab_Matadero
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:14:59.635116+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medialab-matadero-20260505-0
summary:
The Medialab Matadero, formerly known as Medialab Prado, is a cultural space and citizen lab in Madrid (Spain). It was created by the Madrid City Council in 2000, growing since then into a leading center for citizen innovation. It follows a participatory approach, using collective intelligence methods (developed in living labs) and fast prototyping tools such as fab labs, to use and co-create digital commons. == History == The Medialab Matadero started in 2000 as a cultural program of the Madrid City Council within the cultural center Conde Duque. In 2002, it was named "Medialab Madrid", a space focused on the research, production and dissemination of cultural works around society, science, art and digital technologies. In 2007, it was moved to the basements of the old industrial building Serrería Belga (Belgian Sawmill), and renamed "Medialab-Prado" because of its new location next to the Prado Museum and the Paseo del Prado boulevard. This industrial building was originally built in 1920s and owned by Belgian migrants, and it remained in operation until the 2000 when it was sold to the City Council. In 2010, it received an honorary award from Prix Ars Electronica. In 2013, after an extensive refurbishment effort of the


id: the-milky-way-project-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Milky_Way_Project-0.md
category: reference
title: The Milky Way Project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Milky_Way_Project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:06.013896+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-milky-way-project-20260505-0
summary:
The Milky Way Project is a Zooniverse project whose main goal is to identify stellar-wind bubbles in the Milky Way Galaxy. Users classify sets of infrared images from the Spitzer Space Telescope and the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE). Scientists believe bubbles in these images are the result of young, massive stars whose light causes shocks in interstellar gas. == Details == The Milky Way Project works with data taken from the Multiband Imaging Photometer for Spitzer Galactic Plane Survey (MIPSGAL) and Galactic Legacy Infrared Mid-Plane Survey Extraordinaire (GLIMPSE). Only a small part uses WISE data. The project looks for bubbles, which can mean the formation of stars. The project also looks for knots, star clusters, and other objects such as young stars, supernova remnants, and newly discovered galaxies. == History == The Milky Way Project started as the ninth Zooniverse project in December 2010. The phase 1 worked with the colors: 4.5 μm for blue, 8.0 μm for green and 24 μm for red. This resulted in the Data Release 1 (DR1) of the Milky Way Project in 2012 with 5,106 bubbles, which can also be found in SIMBAD. The annulus tool that was used to mark the bubbles


id: monarch-watch-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarch_Watch-0.md
category: reference
title: Monarch Watch
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarch_Watch
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:07.367508+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: monarch-watch-20260505-0
summary:
Monarch Watch is a volunteer-based citizen science organization that tracks the fall migration of the monarch butterfly. It is self-described as "a nonprofit education, conservation, and research program based at the University of Kansas that focuses on the monarch butterfly, its habitat, and its spectacular fall migration." == Organization == The informal organization is largely supported by teachers and students participating in "classroom projects, collaborative research" among other opportunities. Its founder and director is Orley R. "Chip" Taylor, a "world-renowned expert on butterflies and their migration patterns." The organization creates and distributes tags to place on monarch butterflies in order to track their migration path from Canada and the United States to south-central Mexico. The tagging method used is derived from the one that was developed by Canadian scientist, Fred Urquhart. The tagging process was adapted by Orley Taylor to minimize the damage to the butterflies. Color-coded tags are glued to a monarch butterfly's wing. Volunteers have tagged over 1.5 million monarchs in the last 26 years from Colorado to Canada. == Monarch Waystation Program == The monarch butterfly is also known as the milkweed butterfly due to its subsistence on the milkweed plant for its habitat. Largely due to


id: mosquito-alert-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquito_Alert-0.md
category: reference
title: Mosquito Alert
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquito_Alert
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:08.648538+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mosquito-alert-20260505-0
summary:
Mosquito Alert is a cooperative citizen science project, currently run as a non-profit and coordinated by four public research centers in Spain. The aim of the project is to study, monitor, and fight the spread of invasive mosquitoes transmitting global diseases such as dengue, Zika, Chikungunya or West Nile fever. The Asian tiger mosquito (Aedes albopictus) and the yellow fever mosquito (Aedes aegypti) are some of the invasive species that Mosquito Alert watches out for. The project provided the first detection of the Asian bush mosquito Aedes japonicus in Spain in 2018, providing the first report of a population of mosquitos that were located 1,300 km from their previously nearest known location in Europe. Surveillance is carried out with the Mosquito Alert app, which allows anyone with a smartphone to take a photo and report the possible discovery of one of the mosquitoes studied as well as their breeding sites. A team of expert entomologists validates the photos received and notifies the participant of the result. With ongoing work also integrating automated deep learning into the identification process. The results are published on the public map, where users can consult and download the observations recorded since the project launched in


id: mushroom-observer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mushroom_Observer-0.md
category: reference
title: Mushroom Observer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mushroom_Observer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:09.853182+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mushroom-observer-20260505-0
summary:
Mushroom Observer is a collaborative mycology website started by Nathan Wilson in 2006. Its purpose is to "record observations about mushrooms, help people identify mushrooms they aren't familiar with, and expand the community around the scientific exploration of mushrooms". The community of about 12,000 contributing users collaborates on identifying the submitted mushroom images, assigning their scientific names by means of a weighted voting process. All photographs are subject to a Creative Commons license that allows their reuse by others without the need for remuneration or special permission, subject to the terms of the license. The software is open source and hosted on GitHub. == Growth == As of 2024, the website contains about half a million user-submitted mushroom observations illustrated by more 1.6 million photographs of nearly 20,000 species of fungi. In 2010, the website contained about 53,000 user-submitted mushroom observations illustrated by 101,000 photographs; up from 7,250 observations and 12,800 photographs in 2008. == References == == External links == github.com/MushroomObserver MushroomObserver software under MIT license on GitHub


id: national-moth-week-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Moth_Week-0.md
category: reference
title: National Moth Week
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Moth_Week
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:11.016920+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-moth-week-20260505-0
summary:
National Moth Week (NMW) is a citizen science project to study and record populations of moths. The annual event is held in the last week of July. It encourages scientists and non-scientists to participate in mostly night-time surveys of moths. People may participate via organized events, or individually from their own gardens. National Moth Week has partnerships with major online biological data depositories, and participants map moth distribution to provide information on life history aspects of moths around the globe. National Moth Week was founded in the United States in 2012 by the Friends of the East Brunswick Environmental Commission, a non-profit organization in New Jersey. Since its founding, National Moth Week participation has grown to include events in all 50 U.S. states and more than 80 countries worldwide. In 2023, there were thousands of registrants across all 50 states and 117 countries. == See also == Mothing == References == == External links == Official website East Brunswick Environmental Commission


id: observation-org-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observation.org-0.md
category: reference
title: Observation.org
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observation.org
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:12.184961+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: observation-org-20260505-0
summary:
Observation.org is a worldwide platform of naturalists, citizen scientists, and biologists to collect, validate and share biodiversity observations. Observation.org may be accessed via its website or from its mobile applications like ObsIdentify or Observation. By 2026, the database has grown to include over 314 million nature observations of 145,595 species, supported by 138 million photos contributed by 584,000 users. It is published and hosted in the Netherlands under Dutch and European law by the non-profit foundation Observation International. == History == The history of Observation International began in 2003 with the launch of Waarneming.nl. Since then, it has grown steadily, reaching 50 million observations in 2017 and over 154 million observations in 2026. Subsequently, the Belgian Waarnemingen.be followed in 2008 and includes over 93 million observations as of 2026. There were 5000 daily visitors and a total of 1.5 million after 5 years. During the COVID-19 pandemic location data of observations were hidden to prevent gathering of bird watchers. == Quality assurance == Quality assurance measures on Observation.org is managed by established species experts responsible for curating the reference set of observations. Automated validation, supported by artificial intelligence, uses this reference set to aid validators in managing the extensive dataset.


id: old-weather-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Weather-0.md
category: reference
title: Old Weather
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Weather
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:13.949352+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: old-weather-20260505-0
summary:
Old Weather is an online weather data project that currently invites members of the public to assist in digitising weather observations recorded in ship log books dating from the mid-19th century onwards. It is an example of citizen science that enlists members of the public to help in scientific research. It contributes to the Atmospheric Circulation Reconstructions over the Earth initiative. Data collected by Old Weather has been used by at least five different climate reanalysis projects, including HURDAT, SODA and ECMWF. In February 2013, the project was awarded the Royal Meteorological Society IBM Award for Meteorological Innovation that Matters. == Origins == Old Weather is a Zooniverse project and is a collaboration between researchers at many institutions, including the University of Oxford, Oxford Martin School, ACRE (International Atmospheric Circulation Reconstructions over the Earth), Naval-History.Net of Penarth, Jisc which encourages UK colleges and universities in the innovative use of digital technologies, the National Maritime Museum at Maritime Greenwich, London, and the UK National Archives, Kew, London. == Importance of volunteers == In the past, computer programs have proved unable to read handwriting reliably and the task is much better performed by humans and the results transferred to a digital form.


id: old-weather-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Weather-1.md
category: reference
title: Old Weather
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Weather
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:13.949352+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: old-weather-20260505-0
summary:
== Results == Initial results of Phase I will be published after data collection is complete and conclusions can be made. Indeed, the readings are still being assessed at a very broad level. But the distribution of temperature by latitude and wind force by latitude have been plotted for 120,000 results for which three readings have been taken. Large numbers of online volunteers at Old Weather from 2010 to 2012 transcribed historical weather data and naval events from the logbooks of the 314 Royal Navy ships of the World War 1 era. 350,000 pages were transcribed and include logs from ships present at the Battle of the Falklands, at Gallipoli, Mesopotamia, East Africa, and the China Station. Nearly all of the transcriptions have been edited and published. Brief details of all the ships can be found here. The Old Weather U. S. Federal Ships project is still ongoing. As of the end of 2023, 248 ship/years had been processed, with over 7.6 million weather observations digitized. Data from up to 20 different weather elements have been recorded. Data from the project was analyzed by NOAA to reconstruct what had long been described as a hurricane that hit Sitka in Alaska


id: open-air-laboratories-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Air_Laboratories-0.md
category: reference
title: Open Air Laboratories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Air_Laboratories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:15.126837+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-air-laboratories-20260505-0
summary:
The Open Air Laboratories (OPAL) network is a UK-wide citizen science initiative that aims to get the public more involved with nature through a range of local and national projects. It aimed to make the public more interested in science through enabling them to record data for scientists across many areas of environmental science, and then see the interpretation of these records. It is a partnership organisation, led by Imperial College London, and includes leading museums, universities, environmental organisations, and Government agencies across the UK. It developed activities and resources, including seven national nature surveys, which allow people to get closer to their local environment while collecting important scientific data. It also arranges and take part in nature events and workshops around the country. Schools and other organisations took part as well as individuals. It is largely funded by the Big Lottery Fund and began in 2007, operating across England. There was an emphasis on involving disadvantaged people and communities. Community scientists were placed to facilitate the surveys. Since January 2014, it has begun expanding into Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland thanks to a further grant. == Soil and earthworm survey == The OPAL soil and earthworm survey was launched


id: open-insulin-project-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Insulin_Project-0.md
category: reference
title: Open Insulin Project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Insulin_Project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:16.356975+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-insulin-project-20260505-0
summary:
The Open Insulin Project is a community of researchers and advocates working to develop an open-source protocol for producing insulin that is affordable, has transparent pricing, and is community-owned. == History == The Open Insulin Project was started in 2015 by Anthony Di Franco, himself a type 1 diabetic. He started the project in response to the unreasonably high prices of insulin in the US. The project has been housed in Counter Culture Labs, a community laboratory and makerspace in the Bay Area. Other collaborators include ReaGent, BioCurious and BioFoundry. == Goals == The project aims to develop both the methodology and hardware to allow communities and individuals to produce medical-grade insulin for the treatment of diabetes. These methods will be low-cost in order to combat the high price of insulin in places like the US. There is also potential for small-scale distributed production that may allow for improved insulin access in places with poor availability infrastructure. Access to insulin remains so insufficient around the globe that "half of all people who need insulin lack the financial or logistical means to obtain adequate supplies". == Motivation == Researcher Frederick Banting famously refused to put his name on the patent after


id: open-source-medical-supplies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Source_Medical_Supplies-0.md
category: reference
title: Open Source Medical Supplies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Source_Medical_Supplies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:17.619471+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-source-medical-supplies-20260505-0
summary:
Open Source Medical Supplies is a not for profit organization that collates and shares open source designs to make personal protective equipment and other medical supplies needed in the COVID-19 pandemic. == Organization == Open Source Medical Supplies founded by Ja’dan Johnson and Gui Cavalcanti in March 2020 as the COVID-19 pandemic was escalating. Initial activities were coordinated through a Facebook group which grew to 52,000 members. A team of 130 people coordinate and filter the information in the group. == Activities == Open Source Medical Supplies provides a library of 195 DIY instructions on how to fabricate healthcare items including face masks. All designs are vetted by a team of thirty healthcare professionals. Open Source Medical Supplies has shipped over 15 million items of medical supplies. The group inspired the Open Source Ventilator Ireland Project. == See also == Shortages related to the COVID-19 pandemic Maker culture == References == == External links == Official website Open Source Medical Supplies Community (Facebook Group)


id: operation-moonwatch-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Moonwatch-0.md
category: reference
title: Operation Moonwatch
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Moonwatch
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:22.984256+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: operation-moonwatch-20260505-0
summary:
Operation Moonwatch (also known as Project Moonwatch and, more simply, as Moonwatch) was an amateur science program formally initiated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO) in 1956. The SAO organized Moonwatch as part of the International Geophysical Year (IGY). Its initial goal was to enlist the aid of amateur astronomers and other citizens who would help professional scientists spot the first artificial satellites. Until professionally staffed optical tracking stations came on-line in 1958, this network of amateur scientists and other interested citizens played a critical role in providing crucial information regarding the world's first satellites. == Origins of Moonwatch == Moonwatch's origins can be traced to two sources. In the United States, there was a thriving culture of amateur scientists including thousands of citizens who did astronomy for an avocation. During the Cold War, the United States also encouraged thousands of citizens to take part in the Ground Observer Corps, a nationwide program to spot Soviet bombers. Moonwatch brought together these two activities and attitudes, melding curiosity and vigilance into a thriving activity for citizens. Moonwatch, in other words, was an expression of 1950s popular culture and fixed properly within the context of the Cold War. Moonwatch was the brainchild


id: operation-moonwatch-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Moonwatch-1.md
category: reference
title: Operation Moonwatch
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Moonwatch
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:22.984256+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: operation-moonwatch-20260505-0
summary:
Sputnik 1's sudden launch was followed less than a month later with the Soviets orbiting Sputnik 2 and the dog Laika. It was Moonwatch teams, networked around the world, who provided tracking information needed by scientists in Western nations. For the opening months of the Space Age, members of Moonwatch were the only organized worldwide network that was prepared to spot and help track satellites. The information they provided was complemented by the radio tracking program called Minitrack the United States Navy operated as well as some information from amateur radio buffs. In many cases, Moonwatch teams also had the responsibility of communicating news of Sputnik and the first American satellites to the public. The public responded, in turn, with infectious enthusiasm as local radio stations aired times to spot satellites and local and national newspapers ran hundreds of articles that described the nighttime activities of Moonwatchers. Moonwatch caught the attention of those citizens interested in science or the Space Race during the late 1950s and much of the general public as well. Newspapers and popular magazines featured stories about Moonwatch regularly; dozens of articles appeared in the Los Angeles Times, The New Yorker, and the New York Times alone.


id: na-taki-osborne-jelks-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Na'Taki_Osborne_Jelks-0.md
category: reference
title: Na'Taki Osborne Jelks
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Na'Taki_Osborne_Jelks
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:24.238081+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: na-taki-osborne-jelks-20260505-0
summary:
Na'Taki Osborne Jelks is an American environmental scientist. She is an assistant professor of environmental and health sciences at Spelman College, and a visiting professor of public health at Agnes Scott College. She is known for her activism in environmental justice and urban sustainability, for which she was named a Champion of Change by the White House in 2014. == Education and career == Jelks was born in Walnut Grove, Mississippi; her family later moved to Baton Rouge, Louisiana. She received her BS from Spelman College, her master's of public health in environmental and occupational health from Emory University, and her PhD from the School of Public Health at Georgia State University. Her PhD was awarded in 2016, for a thesis titled Combined Environmental and Social Stressors in Northwest Atlanta's Proctor Creek Watershed: An Exploration of Expert Data and Local Knowledge. Jelk's doctoral advisor was Christine Stauber. Her scholarship is focused on community engagement to identify environmental stressors in urban watersheds. == Environmental justice leadership == In 2001, Jelks co-founded the Atlanta Earth Tomorrow® Program, a National Wildlife Federation program that connects urban youth to nature, civic engagement, and leadership development. She is the board chairperson for the West Atlanta


id: ou-citizen-science-soil-collection-program-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OU_Citizen_Science_Soil_Collection_Program-0.md
category: reference
title: OU Citizen Science Soil Collection Program
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OU_Citizen_Science_Soil_Collection_Program
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:25.568481+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ou-citizen-science-soil-collection-program-20260505-0
summary:
The OU Citizen Science Soil Collection Program is a University of Oklahoma crowdsourcing program collecting and examining soil samples for fungi that might contain anticancer activity. == Origins == The project started in 2010 to research fungi that could potentially help create a type of compound known as a natural product. This is done by obtaining the fungi from a soil sample collected from a volunteer who mailed it to the program. The program was created at the University of Oklahoma and works with biomedical science researchers as a part of the Natural Products Discovery Group. The goal of this program is to create a natural product with ingredients obtained from various fungi, found in soil, that will help fight against cancer. This program gained traction on social media in 2015 when a member of the site known as Reddit made a post about the program. Since then, users have been sending in their soil samples and sharing updates about the project through comments on the post. == Discoveries == The program has had one major discovery from the samples that have been submitted. The program found the natural product maximiscin. The sample came from a fungus named Tolypocladium. The


id: participatory-monitoring-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory_monitoring-0.md
category: reference
title: Participatory monitoring
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory_monitoring
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:26.931405+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: participatory-monitoring-20260505-0
summary:
Participatory monitoring (also known as collaborative monitoring, community-based monitoring, locally based monitoring, or volunteer monitoring) is the regular collection of measurements or other kinds of data (monitoring), usually of natural resources and biodiversity, undertaken by local residents of the monitored area, who rely on local natural resources and thus have more local knowledge of those resources. Those involved usually live in communities with considerable social cohesion, where they regularly cooperate on shared projects. Participatory monitoring has emerged as an alternative or addition to professional scientist-executed monitoring. Scientist-executed monitoring is often costly and hard to sustain, especially in those regions of the world where financial resources are limited. Moreover, scientist-executed monitoring can be logistically and technically difficult and is often perceived to be irrelevant by resource managers and the local communities. Involving local people and their communities in monitoring is often part of the process of sharing the management of land and resources with the local communities. It is connected to the devolution of rights and power to the locals. Aside from potentially providing high-quality information, participatory monitoring can raise local awareness and build the community and local government expertise that is needed for addressing the management of natural resources. Participatory


id: participatory-monitoring-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory_monitoring-1.md
category: reference
title: Participatory monitoring
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory_monitoring
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:26.931405+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: participatory-monitoring-20260505-0
summary:
For connecting knowledge systems: in efforts to bring Indigenous and local knowledge systems into the science–policy interface such as the Intergovernmental Platform for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. For monitoring rapidly changing environments: to inform resource management in rapidly changing environments such as the Arctic, where Indigenous and local communities have detailed knowledge of key components of their environment, such as sea-ice, snow, weather patterns, caribou and other natural resources. In Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) programs: to connect environmental performance with payment schemes such as REDD+. For reinforcing international agreements: in efforts to link international environmental agreements to decision-making in the ‘real world’. === Typology === A typology of monitoring schemes has been proposed, determined on the basis of relative contributions of local stakeholders and professional researchers. and supported by findings from statistical analysis of published schemes. The typology identified 5 categories of monitoring schemes that between them span the full spectrum of natural resource monitoring protocols: Category A. Autonomous Local Monitoring. In this category the whole monitoring process—from design, to data collection, to analysis, and finally to use of data for management decisions—is carried out autonomously by local stakeholders. There is no direct involvement of external agencies. For an


id: participatory-monitoring-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory_monitoring-2.md
category: reference
title: Participatory monitoring
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participatory_monitoring
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:26.931405+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: participatory-monitoring-20260505-0
summary:
The infrastructure for data storage and management (computer programmes, hard drives and cloud storage). Local capacity should be strong enough to access, manage and retain control of the data. Data classification: discussions in the communities can set out how different types of data can be used – for example a traffic light system can define ‘red’ data that is confidential to the community, ‘amber’ data which should be discussed prior to any use, and ‘green’ data that is approved for release. Processes for data sharing: this defines the roles and responsibilities of different people, and the processes to be followed for requests to access data, dependent on how that data is classified. Reporting: the protocol can set out how data should be reported, for example specifying the manner and frequency with which findings are reported to the local community, and ensuring that technical data is presented in a way that is compatible with external systems (e.g. government databanks or processes to respond to findings). == See also == == References == == Further reading == Gardner, T.A. 2010. Monitoring Forest Biodiversity: Improving Conservation through Ecologically Responsible Management. Earthscan, London. Johnson, N. et al. 2015. Community-Based Monitoring in a Changing Arctic:


id: pea-galaxy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pea_galaxy-0.md
category: reference
title: Pea galaxy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pea_galaxy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:28.328105+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pea-galaxy-20260505-0
summary:
A Pea galaxy, also referred to as a Pea or Green Pea, might be a type of luminous blue compact galaxy that is undergoing very high rates of star formation. Pea galaxies are so-named because of their small size and greenish appearance in the images taken by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS). "Pea" galaxies were first discovered in 2007 by the volunteer citizen scientists within the forum section of the online astronomy project Galaxy Zoo (GZ), part of the Zooniverse web portal. == Description == The Pea galaxies, also known as Green Peas (GPs), are compact oxygen-rich emission line galaxies that were discovered at redshift between z = 0.112 and 0.360. These low-mass galaxies have an upper size limit generally no bigger than 16,300 light-years (5,000 pc) across, and typically they reside in environments less than two-thirds the density of normal galaxy environments. An average GP has a redshift of z = 0.258, a mass of ~3,200 million M☉ (~3,200 million solar masses), a star formation rate of ~10 M☉/yr (~10 solar masses a year), an [O III] equivalent width of 69.4 nm and a low metallicity. They have a strong emission line at the [OIII] wavelength of 500.7


id: pea-galaxy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pea_galaxy-1.md
category: reference
title: Pea galaxy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pea_galaxy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:28.328105+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pea-galaxy-20260505-0
summary:
In November 2009, authors C. Cardamone et al. published a paper in the MNRAS titled "Galaxy Zoo Green Peas: Discovery of A Class of Compact Extremely Star-Forming Galaxies". Within this paper, 10 Galaxy Zoo volunteers are acknowledged as having made a particularly significant contribution. They are: Elisabeth Baeten, Gemma Coughlin, Dan Goldstein, Brian Legg, Mark McCallum, Christian Manteuffel, Richard Nowell, Richard Proctor, Alice Sheppard and Hanny Van Arkel. They are thanked for "giving Peas a chance". For more details see: Cardamone 2009 Physics The original 80 GPs were part of a sample from the SDSS data-release 7 (DR7), but did not include galaxies from other sources which might have been classed as GPs if they were in the SDSS sample. One example of a paper that demonstrates this is: In April 2009, J. J. Salzer et al. published a paper in the Astrophysical Journal Letters titled "A Population of Metal-Poor Galaxies with ~L* Luminosities at Intermediate Redshifts". In this paper, "new spectroscopy and metallicity estimates for a sample of 15 star-forming galaxies with redshifts in the range 0.29 – 0.42" were presented. These objects were selected using the KPNO International Spectroscopic Survey (KISS). 3 of these 15 when viewed as


id: pea-galaxy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pea_galaxy-2.md
category: reference
title: Pea galaxy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pea_galaxy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:28.328105+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pea-galaxy-20260505-0
summary:
=== 2010 - 2012 === In June 2010, authors R. Amorin et al. published a paper in ApJ Letters titled "On the oxygen and nitrogen chemical abundances and the evolution of the "green pea" galaxies". In it they explore issues concerning the metallicity of 79 GPs, disputing the original findings in Cardamone et al. They conclude, "arguing that recent interaction-induced inflow of gas, possibly coupled with a selective metal-rich gas loss drive by supernova winds may explain our findings and the known galaxy properties". For more details see: Two papers by Amorin In February 2011, authors Y. Izotov et al. published a paper in the ApJ titled "Green Pea Galaxies and Cohorts: Luminous Compact Emission-line Galaxies in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey". They find that the 80 GPs are not a rare class of galaxies on their own, but rather a subset of a class known as 'Luminous Compact Galaxies' (LCGs), of which there are 803. For more details see: Luminous Compact Galaxies In November 2011, authors Y. Izotov et al. published a paper in A&A titled 'Star-forming galaxies with hot dust emission in the SDSS discovered by the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE)'. In this paper, they find four


id: pea-galaxy-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pea_galaxy-3.md
category: reference
title: Pea galaxy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pea_galaxy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:28.328105+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pea-galaxy-20260505-0
summary:
=== 2013–2015 === In January 2013, authors S. Parnovsky et al. published a paper in A&SS titled "H alpha and UV luminosities and star formation rates in a large sample of luminous compact galaxies". In it, they present a statistical study of the star formation rates (SFR) derived from the GALEX observations in the Ultraviolet continuum and in the H alpha emission line for a sample of ~800 luminous compact galaxies (LCGs). Within the larger set of LCGs, including the GPs, SFR of up to ~110 M☉/yr (~110 solar masses a year) are found, as well as estimates of the ages of the starbursts. In April 2013, authors A. Jaskot and M. Oey published a paper in the ApJ titled "The Origin and Optical Depth of Ionizing Radiation in the "Green Pea" Galaxies". Six "extreme" GPs are studied. Using these, the authors endeavour to narrow down the list of possibilities about what is producing the radiation and the substantial amounts of high-energy photon that might be escaping from the GPs. Following on from this paper, observations on the Hubble Space Telescope, totalling 24 orbits, were taken in December 2013. The Cosmic Origins Spectrograph and the Advanced Camera for Surveys were


id: pea-galaxy-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pea_galaxy-4.md
category: reference
title: Pea galaxy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pea_galaxy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:28.328105+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pea-galaxy-20260505-0
summary:
In a presentation to the AAS Meeting #229 in January 2017, Matt Brorby and Philip Kaaret describe the observations of two GPs and their x-ray emission. Using both space telescope programs Chandra GO: 16400764 and Hubble GO: 13940, they examine Luminous Compact Galaxies, both GPs, J0842+1150 and SHOC 486. They conclude: i) These are the first x-ray observations of GPs. ii) The two GPs studied are the first test of Lx-SFR-Z planar relation and that they are consistent with this. iii) Low-metallicity galaxies exhibit enhanced x-ray emission relative to normal metallicity starforming galaxies. iv) GPs are useful for predictions of X-ray output in the early universe. In March 2017, Yang et al. published a paper in the ApJ called: "Lyα and UV Sizes of Green Pea Galaxies". The authors studied the Lyman-alpha (LyA) escape in a statistical sample of 43 GPs with HST/COS LyA spectra, taken from 6 HST programs. Their conclusions include: i) Using GPs that cover the whole ranges of dust extinction and metallicity, they find about two-thirds are strong LyA emitters. This confirms that GPs generally are "the best analogs of high-z (redshift) Lyman-alpha Emitters (LAEs) in the nearby universe." ii) The authors find many correlations regarding


id: pea-galaxy-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pea_galaxy-5.md
category: reference
title: Pea galaxy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pea_galaxy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:28.328105+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pea-galaxy-20260505-0
summary:
The JWST image used by Rhoads et al. is called SMACS 0723 and within it three galaxies that looked particularly far away were followed up using spectroscopic observations. This caught the attention of Rhoads et al. as the spectra of the three galaxies resembled GPs. Astronomer Trinh Thuan from the University of Virginia says he was amazed to see the similarity between the distant trio and GPs. Before JWST, the furthest GPs were measured at about 10 billion years after the Big Bang. Daniel Schaerer, an astronomer at the University of Geneva said that GPs can now be measured from only 700 million years after the Big Bang – "It's completely mind-boggling". As reported in Nature back in 2016, GPs are strong sources of ionizing radiation that are thought to be able to free the early universe from its 'dark ages'. Thuan said: "Now I really do think that these star-forming dwarf galaxies are the agent of reionization". A study published in the ApJ by Bhat et al. in January 2024 investigates the influence of jets on GPs and Green Beans. Using 12 subjects selected from the SDSS and Radio Sky at 20 cm survey, the team use the Large


id: pea-galaxy-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pea_galaxy-6.md
category: reference
title: Pea galaxy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pea_galaxy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:28.328105+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pea-galaxy-20260505-0
summary:
== J0925+1403 and LyC leakage == In January 2016, a letter was published in the journal Nature called: "Eight per cent leakage of Lyman continuum photons from a compact, star-forming dwarf galaxy" by authors Y.I. Izotov et al. which was a result of observations carried out using the COS aboard the HST. The abstract states: "One of the key questions in observational cosmology is the identification of the sources responsible for ionisation of the Universe after the cosmic Dark Ages". It also states: "Here we present far-ultraviolet observations of a nearby low-mass star-forming galaxy, J0925+1403, selected for its compactness and high excitation... The galaxy is 'leaking' ionising radiation, with an escape fraction of 7.8%." These levels of radiation are thought to be similar to those of the first galaxies in the universe, which emerged in a time known as reionization. These findings have led the research team to conclude that J0925 can ionise intergalactic material up to 40 times its own stellar mass. GP J0925 is thought to be similar to the most distant, and thus earliest, galaxies in the universe and has been shown to 'leak' LyC. It is about 3 billion light years away (redshift z=0.301), or approximately


id: pea-galaxy-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pea_galaxy-7.md
category: reference
title: Pea galaxy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pea_galaxy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:28.328105+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pea-galaxy-20260505-0
summary:
At the time this paper was published, only five Green Peas (GPs) had been imaged by the Hubble Space Telescope (HST). Three of these images reveal GPs to be made up of bright clumps of star formation and low surface density features indicative of recent or ongoing galaxy mergers. These three HST images were imaged as part of a study of local ultraviolet (UV-luminous) galaxies in 2005. Major mergers are frequently sites of active star-formation and to the right a graph is shown that plots specific star formation rate (SFR / Galaxy Mass) against galaxy mass. In this graph, the GPs are compared to the 3003 mergers from the Galaxy Zoo Merger Sample (GZMS). It shows that the GPs have low masses typical of dwarf galaxy and much higher star-forming rates (SFR) when compared to the GZMS. The black, dashed line shows a constant SFR of 10 M☉/yr (~10 solar masses). Most GPs have a SFR between 3 and 30 M☉/yr (between ~3 and ~30 solar masses). GPs are rare. Of the one million objects that make up GZ's image bank, only 251 GPs were found. After having to discard 148 of these 251 because of atmospheric contamination of their


id: pea-galaxy-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pea_galaxy-8.md
category: reference
title: Pea galaxy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pea_galaxy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:28.328105+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pea-galaxy-20260505-0
summary:
Color selection was by using the difference in the levels of three optical filters, in order to capture these color limits: u−r ≤ 2.5 (1), r−i ≤ −0.2 (2), r−z ≤ 0.5 (3), g−r ≥ r−i + 0.5 (4), u−r ≥ 2.5 (r−z) (5). If the diagram on the right (one of two in the paper) is looked at, the effectiveness of this color selection can be seen. The color-color diagram shows ~100 GPs (green crosses), 10,000 comparison galaxies (red points) and 9,500 comparison quasar (purple stars) at similar redshifts to the GPs. The black lines show how these figures are on the diagram. Comparing a GP to the Milky Way can be useful when trying to visualize these star-forming rates. An average GP has a mass of ~3,200 million M☉ (~3,200 million solar masses). The Milky Way (MW) is a spiral galaxy and has a mass of ~1,125,000, million M☉ (~1,125,000 million solar masses). So the MW has the mass of ~390 GPs. Research has shown that the MW converts ~2 M☉/yr (~2 solar masses per year) worth of interstellar medium into stars. An average GP converts ~10 M☉/yr (~10 solar masses) of interstellar gas into stars, which is


id: pea-galaxy-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pea_galaxy-9.md
category: reference
title: Pea galaxy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pea_galaxy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:28.328105+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pea-galaxy-20260505-0
summary:
== GTC-OSIRIS spectrophotometry == In February 2012, authors R. Amorin et al. published a paper titled "The star formation history and metal content of the "Green Peas". New detailed GTC-OSIRIS spectrophotometry of three galaxies" in which they presented the findings of observations carried out using the Gran Telescopio Canarias at the Roque de los Muchachos Observatory. They gather deep broad-band imaging and long-slit spectroscopy of 3 GPs using high-precision equipment. Their findings show that the three GPs display relatively low extinction, low oxygen abundances and high nitrogen-to-oxygen ratios. Also reported are the clear signatures of Wolf–Rayet stars, of which a population are found (between ~800 and ~1200). A combination of population and evolutionary synthesis models strongly suggest a formation history dominated by starbursts. These models show that these three GPs currently undergo a major starburst producing between ~4% and ~20% of their stellar mass. However, as these models imply, they are old galaxies having formed most of their stellar mass several billion years ago. The presence of old stars has been spectroscopically verified in one of the three galaxies by the detection of Magnesium. Surface photometry, using data from the Hubble Space Telescope archive, indicates that the three GPs possess


id: pea-galaxy-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pea_galaxy-10.md
category: reference
title: Pea galaxy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pea_galaxy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:28.328105+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pea-galaxy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Others === In 2021, Kanekar et al. reported the first detection of HI 21 cm line emission in 19 GPs using the Green Bank Telescope and Arecibo Observatory. Their results give the first estimates of atomic gas mass in Green Pea galaxies. In a study "Radio properties of green pea galaxies", authors Borkar et al. examine the radio properties of GPs using the Jansky Very Large Array. They observe 3 GPs to build their radio spectral energy distributions to verify the presence of AGN. Using new and archival data from both GPs and Blueberry galaxies, they assess the detectability of these sources, comparing radio luminosities with expectations from theoretical and empirical relations. They find that the majority of the sampled dwarf galaxies are highly underluminous and that their radio luminosity is significantly lower than empirical expectations. == See also == Blue compact dwarf galaxy – Small galaxy composed of up to several billion stars Dwarf galaxy – Small galaxy composed of up to several billion stars Galaxy formation and evolution – Subfield of cosmology Green bean galaxy – Very rare astronomical objects that are thought to be quasar ionization echos Haro 11 – Galaxy in the constellation Sculptor –


id: phylo-video-game-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylo_(video_game)-0.md
category: reference
title: Phylo (video game)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylo_(video_game)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:29.878115+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: phylo-video-game-20260505-0
summary:
Phylo is an experimental video game about multiple sequence alignment optimisation. Developed by the McGill Centre for Bioinformatics, it was originally released as a free Flash game in November 2010. Designed as a game with a purpose, players solve pattern-matching puzzles that represent nucleotide sequences of different phylogenetic taxa to optimize alignments over a computer algorithm. By aligning together each nucleotide sequence, represented as differently coloured blocks, players attempt to create the highest point value score for each set of sequences by matching as many colours as possible and minimizing gaps. The nucleotide sequences generated by Phylo are obtained from actual sequence data from the UCSC Genome Browser. High-scoring player alignments are collected as data and sent back to the McGill Centre for Bioinformatics to be further evaluated with a stronger scoring algorithm. Those player alignments that score higher than the current computer-generated score will be re-introduced into the global alignment as an optimization. == Background == The goal of multiple sequence alignments in phylogenetics is to determine the most likely nucleotide sequence of each species by comparing the sequences of children species with those of a most recent common ancestor. Producing such an optimal multiple sequence alignment is usually


id: pl-ntnet-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pl@ntNet-0.md
category: reference
title: Pl@ntNet
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pl@ntNet
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:31.124746+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pl-ntnet-20260505-0
summary:
Pl@ntNet is a citizen science project for automatic plant identification through photographs and based on machine learning. Users take a photograph, and the system can identify it as one of more than 77,000 plant species. Pl@ntNet has processed more than a billion photographs from users. == History == This project launched in 2009 has been developed by scientists (computer engineers and botanists) from a consortium gathering French research institutes (Institut de recherche pour le développement (IRD), Centre de coopération internationale en recherche agronomique pour le développement (CIRAD), Institut national de la recherche agronomique (INRA), Institut national de recherche en informatique et en automatique (INRIA) and the network Tela Botanica, with the support of Agropolis Fondation ). Starting in 2022, the Pl@ntNet system received many improvements as a result of research projects "MAMBO" and "GUARDEN" funded by Horizon Europe. Improvements included a standardised taxonomic list of species (using POWO), and an improved computer vision algorithm (using a vision transformer). == Platforms == An app for smartphones (and a web version) was launched in 2013, which allows to identify thousands of plant species from photographs taken by the user. It is available in several languages. As of 2019 it had been downloaded


id: planet-hunters-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet_Hunters-0.md
category: reference
title: Planet Hunters
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet_Hunters
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:32.386008+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: planet-hunters-20260505-0
summary:
Planet Hunters is a citizen science project to find exoplanets using human eyes. It does this by having users analyze data from the NASA Kepler space telescope and the NASA Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite. It was launched by a team led by Debra Fischer at Yale University, as part of the Zooniverse project. == History == === Planet Hunters and Planet Hunters 2.0 === The project was launched on December 16, 2010, after the first Data Release of Kepler data as the Planet Hunters Project. 300,000 volunteers participated in the project and the project team published 8 scientific papers. On December 14, 2014, the project was re-launched as Planet Hunters 2.0, with an improved website and considering that the volunteers will look at K2 data. As of November 2018 Planet Hunters had identified 50% of the known planets with an orbital period larger than two years. === Non-Planet Hunters project: Exoplanet Explorers === In 2017 the project Exoplanet Explorers was launched. It was another planet hunting project at Zooniverse and discovered the system K2-138 and the exoplanet K2-288Bb. This project was launched during the television program Stargazing Live and the discovery of the K2-138 system was announced during the program.


id: pressurenet-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PressureNET-0.md
category: reference
title: PressureNET
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PressureNET
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:33.734743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pressurenet-20260505-0
summary:
PressureNET was a crowd-sourced reporting network for barometric pressure data. It worked by having many users install it on cell phones having air pressure sensors (barometers) and GPS sensors. Once the location was known from the GPS data, it was able to send messages back to the server with the air pressure for that location on Earth. With enough users running the application it was possible to create useful, global pressure data. It used open source software running on Android phones, to collect data from locations around the world. The data was available on a public website. With the announcement in September 2014 that the first apple device with a barometer (iPhone 6) was to be released, work started on an edition of the app for that platform The Sunshine app beta testing began to get some publicity in 2015. The Android App website still exists, and the app source code is still available on GitHub; however, as of January 2016 there is no support for the Android app, and the iOS app is not free open source software as the PressureNet app was. PressureNet was acquired by Sunshine in early 2016. == See also == OpenSignals WeatherSignal Weather Underground


id: public-lab-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_Lab-0.md
category: reference
title: Public Lab
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_Lab
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:34.838572+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: public-lab-20260505-0
summary:
The Public Laboratory for Open Technology and Science (Public Lab) is a non-profit organization that facilitates collaborative, open source environmental research in a model known as Community Science. It supports communities facing environmental justice issues in a do it yourself approach to environmental monitoring and advocacy. Public Lab grew out of a grassroots effort to take aerial photographs of the BP Oil Spill in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010. Since then, they have launched a range of projects, including an open source spectrometer, multi-spectral camera, and low-cost microscope. == Balloon Mapping == The aerial photography technique Public Lab is best known for involves lifting cameras above an area using tethered helium-filled weather balloons. == Open source environmental monitoring == Public Lab's community develops open source hardware, software, and other open methodologies to democratize environmental monitoring. Recognizing that cost, complexity, and lack of access can prevent communities from playing an active role in documenting environmental problems, the community publishes plans and guides for Do It Yourself monitoring projects that can be made at home. == References ==


id: quantum-moves-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_Moves-0.md
category: reference
title: Quantum Moves
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_Moves
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:40.522693+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: quantum-moves-20260505-0
summary:
Quantum Moves is an online citizen science simulation video game where players move quantum atoms. The game is part of the ScienceAtHome umbrella project, developed by AU Ideas Center for Community Driven Research (CODER). CODER aims to merge theoretical and experimental quantum research with online community efforts to explore the potential for online citizen science in this otherwise highly specialized field. The objective of the game is to complete challenges that are simulations of logical operations in a quantum computer. The team behind the game are building a scalable quantum computer with a processor consisting of 300 atoms. Logical operations are performed by moving the atoms with optical tweezers. Moving atoms in a controlled way is a difficult task because the atom becomes excited and the atomic wave function delocalises. Approaching the presumed quantum speed limit is a huge challenge for quantum algorithms and the task that Quantum Moves players are asked to tackle. == Gameplay == In Quantum Moves, the atomic wave function is represented as a sloshy liquid in an energy potential well created by the optical tweezers. Players control the depth and the horizontal location of the well, simulating the path on the optical tweezers. The wave


id: questagame-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Questagame-0.md
category: reference
title: Questagame
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Questagame
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:41.659044+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: questagame-20260505-0
summary:
QuestaGame, launched in 2014 in Canberra, Australia, is a mobile app game for photographing and identifying fauna, flora, and fungi. Sightings are verified by experts and gain points for players. The game leverages citizen science to help document species occurrences, adding data to databases such as Atlas of Living Australia. Ranger Vision is a classroom version. QuestaGame has been reported as driving citizen science by mapping biodiversity, discovering new species, and averting biosecurity risks. == Gameplay == To play the game, players submit sightings and/or identify the sightings of other players. The game defines sightings as documentation of a wild (not captive or domesticated) living organism. Players earn gold and increase their species collections, which are recorded on a leaderboard. Players can use gold to purchase better "equipment" and "supplies." The level of equipment rating determines the speed and detail that sightings are identified by other players, while supplies allow players to join and create quests. Players can join clans and compete with others in quests and challenges. Many clans join to form tribes. === Species identification model === The founder of QuestaGame, Andrew Robinson, advocates for "collective intelligence," where the expertise of humans is used for species identification, rather


id: rad-home-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAD@home-0.md
category: reference
title: RAD@home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAD@home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:42.756494+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rad-home-20260505-0
summary:
RAD@home is a citizen science research collaboratory in India and the first such collaboration in Indian astronomy. It focuses on training university science students to make radio astronomy discoveries using the GMRT, which is a SKA pathfinder radio telescope, and other telescopes operating in multiple bands of the electromagnetic spectrum. It was designed to help students and the public to understand multi-wavelength images of galaxies, taken primarily from radio surveys such as NVSS (1400 MHz) with the VLA and TGSS (150 MHz) with the GMRT. In 2022, the Collaboratory, led by its founder Ananda Hota, discovered a unique AGN where the radio jet appeared to hit a neighbouring galaxy and bounced back forming a mushroom-shaped radio bubble. Initial hints of this rare process had been seen in the archival data, but confirmation was not achieved until targeted observation with the GMRT telescope at 325 MHz, or 90 cm, band. In October 2025, the Collaboratory discovered the farthest and the most powerful odd radio circle (ORC), named RAD J131346.9+500320; it was also the first ORC to be discovered through citizen science. The ORC was spotted by trained citizen scientists analysing the 144 MHz radio images of the sky obtained by the


id: radio-galaxy-zoo-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Galaxy_Zoo-0.md
category: reference
title: Radio Galaxy Zoo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Galaxy_Zoo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:44.023207+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: radio-galaxy-zoo-20260505-0
summary:
Radio Galaxy Zoo (RGZ) is an internet crowdsourced citizen science project that seeks to locate supermassive black holes in distant galaxies. It is hosted by the web portal Zooniverse. The scientific team want to identify black hole/jet pairs and associate them with the host galaxies. Using a large number of classifications provided by citizen scientists they hope to build a more complete picture of black holes at various stages and their origin. It was initiated in 2010 by Ray Norris in collaboration with the Zooniverse team, and was driven by the need to cross-identify the millions of extragalactic radio sources that will be discovered by the forthcoming Evolutionary Map of the Universe survey. RGZ is now led by scientists Julie Banfield and Ivy Wong. RGZ started operations on 17 December 2013, and ceased collecting new classifications on 1 May 2019. == RGZ data sources == The project's scientific team are drawn mostly from Australia, with support from Zooniverse developers and other institutions. They use data taken by the Faint Images of the Radio Sky at Twenty-Centimeters (FIRST) survey which was observed at the Very Large Array between 1993 and 2011. Also used was data from the Australia Telescope Large Area


id: radio-galaxy-zoo-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Galaxy_Zoo-1.md
category: reference
title: Radio Galaxy Zoo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Galaxy_Zoo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:44.023207+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: radio-galaxy-zoo-20260505-0
summary:
ii) Radio Galaxy Zoo: discovery of a poor cluster through a giant wide-angle tail radio galaxy. (May 2016) The abstract begins: "We have discovered a previously unreported poor cluster of galaxies (RGZ-CL J0823.2+0333) through an unusual giant wide-angle tail radio galaxy found in the Radio Galaxy Zoo project." It continues to explain that the analysis of 2MASX J08231289+0333016's surrounding environment indicates that it is within a poor cluster. Radio morphology suggests that, firstly, "the host galaxy is moving at a significant velocity with respect to an ambient medium like that of at least a poor cluster" and secondly that "the source may have had two ignition events of the active galactic nucleus with 10^7yrs in between." These suggestions reinforce the idea that there is an association between RGZ J082312.9+033301 and the newly discovered poor cluster. On The Conversation website in an article "How citizen scientists discovered a giant cluster of galaxies", Ray Norris writes about the above study. He explains that two Russian citizen scientists (CSs), Ivan Terentev and Tim Matorny, were participating in RGZ when they noticed something odd with one of the radio sources. It became clear that the radio source the two CSs had found "was just


id: radio-galaxy-zoo-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Galaxy_Zoo-2.md
category: reference
title: Radio Galaxy Zoo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Galaxy_Zoo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:44.023207+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: radio-galaxy-zoo-20260505-0
summary:
In November 2017, a team led by Omar Contigiani published a paper in Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society studying the mutual alignment of radio sources. Using data drawn from the Faint Images of the Radio Sky at Twenty Centimeters (FIRST) and TIFR GMRT Sky Survey (TGSS), they investigate the most powerful radio sources, namely the largest elliptical galaxies emitting plasma-filled jets. The abstract begins: "We study the mutual alignment of radio sources within two surveys, FIRST and TGSS. This is done by producing two position angle catalogues containing the preferential directions of respectively 30059 and 11674 extended sources distributed over more than 7000 and 17000 square degrees." The FIRST sample sources were identified by participants in RGZ, while the TGSS sample was the result of an automated process. Marginal evidence of local alignment is found in the FIRST sample, which has a 2% probability of being by chance. This supports other recent research by scientists using the Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope. The abstract ends: "The TGSS sample is found to be too sparsely populated to manifest a similar signal." Results suggest that there is a relative alignment present at cosmological distances. v) Radio Galaxy Zoo: Compact and extended


id: reef-life-survey-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reef_Life_Survey-0.md
category: reference
title: Reef Life Survey
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reef_Life_Survey
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:45.334362+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: reef-life-survey-20260505-0
summary:
Reef Life Survey is a marine life monitoring programme based in Hobart, Tasmania. It is international in scope, but predominantly Australian, as a large proportion of the volunteers are Australian. Most of the surveys are done by volunteer recreational divers, collecting biodiversity data for marine conservation. The database is available to marine ecology researchers, and is used by several marine protected area managements in Australia, New Zealand, American Samoa and the eastern Pacific. == Function == Reef Life Survey provides data to improve biodiversity conservation and the sustainable management of marine resources. They collect and curate biodiversity information at spatial and temporal scales beyond those possible by most scientific dive teams which have to work with limited resources, by using volunteer recreational divers trained in the RLS survey procedures. The University of Tasmania houses and manages the RLS database, and the data is freely available to the public for non-profit purposes through public outputs, including their website. == History == Reef Life Survey was started by researchers at the University of Tasmania and initially funded by the Commonwealth Environment Research Facilities (CERF) Program. This program is the core activity of the Reef Life Survey Foundation Incorporated – a not for


id: safecast-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safecast-0.md
category: reference
title: Safecast
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safecast
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:46.598403+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: safecast-20260505-0
summary:
Safecast is an international volunteer-driven nonprofit organization focused on citizen science and environmental monitoring. Founded in 2011 in the aftermath of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, it is best known for collecting and publishing open radiation data and for developing community-based environmental sensing projects. Safecast publishes its measurements as open data under a CC0 public-domain dedication and makes them available through a public API and interactive map. Its data and methods have been discussed in both scientific and social-scientific literature as an example of post-disaster citizen sensing and open environmental data production. == History == Safecast was initiated on 12 March 2011, one day after the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami and the beginning of the Fukushima nuclear accident. It was founded by Sean Bonner, Joi Ito, and Pieter Franken in response to the lack of accessible, granular, and trusted public radiation information after the disaster. Initially centered on post-Fukushima radiation monitoring in Japan, the project developed a volunteer-based model for gathering, uploading, and openly sharing geolocated environmental measurements. Over time it expanded into broader environmental sensing, including air-quality monitoring. == Data and methodology == Safecast's principal activity has been the collection and publication of ionizing radiation measurements, especially ambient


id: scienceathome-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ScienceAtHome-0.md
category: reference
title: ScienceAtHome
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ScienceAtHome
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:47.781256+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scienceathome-20260505-0
summary:
ScienceAtHome is a team of scientists, game developers, designers and visual artists based at Aarhus University, Denmark. ScienceAtHome does research on quantum physics, citizen science and gamification. ScienceAtHome also develops games that contribute to scientific research, and studies how humans interpret information to achieve results superior to some algorithmic approaches. Most ScienceAtHome games are casual games and require no formal scientific training. Over 150,000 people have contributed to ScienceAtHome citizen science projects by playing games. Research games are also part of a much larger movement of creating serious games that go beyond mere entertainment. The premise behind such games is that humans are better than computers at performing certain tasks, because of their intuition and superior visual processing. Video games are now being used to channel these abilities to solve problems in quantum physics. == History == The idea of computer players solving quantum problems came to Jacob Sherson's mind while he was doing research at Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, in the group of Prof. Immanuel Bloch. The first form of ScienceAtHome was announced in 2012 based on the idea that computer game players could solve quantum problems. It was then called CODER – "Pilot Center for Community-driven Research: Game


id: scistarter-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SciStarter-0.md
category: reference
title: SciStarter
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SciStarter
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:48.928782+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scistarter-20260505-0
summary:
SciStarter recruits, trains, and equips people for citizen science research projects in need of their help. It was founded by Darlene Cavalier and is a research affiliate of Arizona State University's School for the Future of Innovation in Society. SciStarter is a collection of smart web tools and an event-based organization that connects people to more than 1,200 registered and vetted citizen science projects, events, and tools. New tools, developed by SciStarter with support from the National Science Foundation, enable citizen scientists to find, join, and track their contributions across projects and platforms. The organization's primary goal is to break down barriers preventing non-scientists from fully engaging in scientific research. == Approach, Activities, & Results == The organization received a grant from the Simons Foundation to create open, customizable, plug-and-play software tools for ease of use, including application programming interface (API) documentation. Once projects are reviewed and shared on the site, anyone living within the prescribed geographic area of a study with internet access to the site can input live data. Information about SciStarter projects are also shared on the organization's partner sites, who export or import records with the SciStarter database. SciStarter's partner organizations include CitSci.org, the Atlas of


id: sea-hero-quest-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_Hero_Quest-0.md
category: reference
title: Sea Hero Quest
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_Hero_Quest
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:50.238769+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sea-hero-quest-20260505-0
summary:
Sea Hero Quest is a mobile game which contributes to research on dementia. It was designed by independent British game company Glitchers in 2016 in association with Alzheimer's Research UK, University College London and the University of East Anglia and with funding from Deutsche Telekom. The idea for the game came from neuroscientist Michael Hornberger of the University of East Anglia who collaborated with Hugo Spiers of University College London, Antoine Coutrot of CNRS and a group of six other neuroscientists. The game was designed to help researchers to understand the mental process of 3D navigation, which is one of the first skills lost in dementia. It was hoped that a large number of people would play the game, thus contributing much more data than could easily be obtained in a laboratory experiment. In August 2017, a virtual reality edition of the game was released. == Gameplay == The plot of the game involves a sea journey taken by a son in a quest to recover the memories his father has lost to dementia. There are three sections: navigation, shooting flares to test orientation, and chasing creatures. Each has been "carefully crafted to be as fun and exciting as it


id: seakeys-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SeaKeys-0.md
category: reference
title: SeaKeys
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SeaKeys
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:51.593402+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: seakeys-20260505-0
summary:
SeaKeys is a large collaborative marine biodiversity project funded through the Foundational Biodiversity Information Program in South Africa. The purpose of the project is to collect and distribute genetic, species and ecosystem information relating to marine biodiversity in southern Africa, which may be used to support informed decision-making about the marine environment. == Purpose == The aim of the project is to collect and make available genetic, species and ecosystem information about Southern African marine biodiversity. This information is expected to be useful to support conservation planning to inform decisions regarding exploitation of marine resources. === DNA barcoding === There is a known deficit in marine and coastal biodiversity databases for most taxa in South Africa. SeaKeys is part of an effort to change this. A part of the project is to use DNA barcoding of common, invasive, commercially important, rare and endangered marine species to aid estimating species diversity and distributions. The barcodes are accessible through the Barcode of Life Database == History == The project public launch was held at the Iziko South Africa Museum on 18 March 2014. == Management == The SeaKeys project is managed though the South African National Biodiversity Institute marine programme under Dr


id: setilive-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETILive-0.md
category: reference
title: SETILive
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETILive
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:57.012500+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: setilive-20260505-0
summary:
SETILive was an online project of Zooniverse that utilized live participants to analyze radio telescope data in real time to recognize patterns to find extraterrestrial intelligences (ETI's). The project ceased live operations on 12 October 2014, but still allows archival analysis. == Project == The project was launched in February 2012 as part of Jill Tarter's 2009 TED Prize Wish. SETILive uses data provided by the Allen Telescope Array and presents it visually so that the public can collectively search for radio signals. The project focuses on radio frequencies that automated detection systems ignore due to the prevalence of man-made noise. Jill Tarter hopes that human analysts will be able to detect low signal-to-noise transmissions which confuse computers. The telescope scans the zone between a known star and a known planet where liquid water is possible. This is called the habitable zone. The website displays one to three different scans of an area of space. Its energy is measured and put into a waterfall display. Users must identify the areas of high energy—signals—by making two points through which a line is drawn. Users classify signals as: broken, continuous, or parallel. Users then must classify the signal as: erratic, wide, or


id: sharkbook-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharkbook-0.md
category: reference
title: Sharkbook
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharkbook
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:58.373189+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sharkbook-20260505-0
summary:
Sharkbook is a global database for identifying and tracking sharks, particularly whale sharks, using uploaded photos and videos.In addition to identifying and tracking sharks, the site allows people to "adopt a shark" and get updates on specific animals. == Creation == Sharkbook is the result of collaboration between Simon J Pierce of the Marine Megafauna Foundation and Jason Holmberg of Wild Me. The software is Open Source and is now being used by other biology projects. == Identification of individual sharks == Whale sharks have unique spot patterning on their sides, similar to a human fingerprint, which allows for individual identification. Scuba divers around the world can photograph sharks and upload their identification photographs to the Sharkbook website, supporting global research and conservation efforts. Additionally, the software automatically searches social media sites like YouTube and Instagram to look for images of whale sharks and adds them to the database. Sharkbook software uses special pattern-matching software to identify the unique spots on each shark. This software and algorithms were originally adapted from NASA star tracking software used on the Hubble Space Telescope. This software uses a scale-invariant feature transform (SIFT) algorithm, which can cope with complications presented by highly variable spot


id: smithsonian-transcription-center-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smithsonian_Transcription_Center-0.md
category: reference
title: Smithsonian Transcription Center
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smithsonian_Transcription_Center
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:15:59.701248+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: smithsonian-transcription-center-20260505-0
summary:
The Smithsonian Transcription Center is a crowdsourcing transcription project that aims to assist with the preservation and digitization of handwritten material in the Smithsonian Institution. The Transcription Center cites five reasons why transcription matters: discovery, humanities research, scientific research, education, and readability. Collections available for transcription include such documents as scientist field notebooks, artist diaries, astronomy logbooks, botany and bumblebee specimens and certified currency proofs. The Smithsonian Transcription Center began in June 2013 and spent approximately a year in a beta test phase. On 12 August 2014 the Transcription Center website was launched to the public. As well as transcribing, volunteers review the submitted work before it is sent for approval. The final transcription is then checked by Smithsonian staff and once accepted, both the original images of the work and the transcription are kept on line. The Transcriptions Center has an open call for anyone wanting to join in on transcribing documents for their many projects. Researches, educators, history buffs, amateur social scientists, and citizens are welcome to volunteer to transcribe for any of the many projects. The Transcription Center hopes that it will engage the public by making the Smithsonian Institution collections accessible. == References == == External


id: society-for-amateur-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Amateur_Scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: Society for Amateur Scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Amateur_Scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:00.884577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: society-for-amateur-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
The Society for Amateur Scientists (SAS) was a non-profit 501(c)(3) organization dedicated to "helping ordinary people do extraordinary science". It was the first organization ever created for the generalists of citizen science. Rather than supporting a narrow interest, such as amateur astronomy or archeology, SAS supported amateur research into all fields of science and in so doing, it helped to launch the modern citizen science movement. == History == The Society for Amateur Scientists was the brainchild of Shawn Carlson, Ph.D., a physicist from the University of California, Berkeley's Center for Particle Astrophysics. Inspired by the example of his grandfather, a gifted amateur scientist named George Donald Graham, Carlson founded SAS in San Diego, California on January 1, 1994. Members of the founding Board of Trustees included Nobel Prize winner Glenn Seaborg and Guggenheim Fellowship winner Paul MacCready. Dr. Carlson led the organization for 16 years until he closed it to pursue other interests in science education. In 1995, Scientific American magazine tapped Carlson, due to his leadership in the citizen scientist community, to write their long running column The Amateur Scientist. During the six years that Carlson wrote this column, SAS grew to a reported 2,000 members. In 1999,


id: stardust-home-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stardust@home-0.md
category: reference
title: Stardust@home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stardust@home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:02.106416+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stardust-home-20260505-0
summary:
Stardust@home is a citizen science project that encourages volunteers to search images for tiny interstellar dust impacts. The project began providing data for analysis on August 1, 2006. From February to May 2000 and from August to December 2002, the Stardust spacecraft exposed its "Stardust Interstellar Dust Collector" (SIDC), a set of aerogel blocks about 0.1 m2 (1 ft2) in total size, to interstellar dust. The collector media consist of 130 blocks of 1 and 3 cm thick silica-based aerogel mounted in aluminum cells. In order to spot impacts of interstellar dust, just over 700,000 individual fields of the aerogel will have to be visually inspected using large magnification. Each field, which is composed of 40 images, will thus be termed a "focus movie". Stardust@home will try to achieve this by distributing the work among volunteers. Unlike distributed computing projects, it does not try to harness the processing power of many computers. It uses them only to distribute and present the tasks to humans. This approach is similar to the earlier Clickworkers project to find Martian craters. Participants must pass a test to qualify to register to participate. After registering and passing the test, participants have access to the web-based


id: steve-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STEVE-0.md
category: reference
title: STEVE
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STEVE
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:03.466087+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: steve-20260505-0
summary:
STEVE is an atmospheric optical phenomenon that appears as a purple and green light ribbon in the night sky, named in late 2016 by aurora watchers from Alberta, Canada. The backronym later adopted for the phenomenon is the Strong Thermal Emission Velocity Enhancement. According to analysis of satellite data from the European Space Agency's Swarm mission, the phenomenon is caused by a 25 km (16 mi) wide ribbon of hot plasma at an altitude of 450 km (280 mi), with a temperature of 3,000 °C (3,270 K; 5,430 °F) and flowing at a speed of 6 km/s (3.7 mi/s) (compared to 10 m/s (33 ft/s) outside the ribbon). The phenomenon is not rare, but had not been investigated and described scientifically prior to that time. == Discovery and naming == The STEVE phenomenon has been observed by auroral photographers for decades. Some evidence suggests that STEVE observations may have been recorded as early as 1705. Notations resembling the phenomenon exist in some observations from 1911 to the 1950s by Carl Størmer. The first accurate determination of the nature of the phenomenon was not made, however, until after members of a Facebook group, Alberta Aurora Chasers, named it, attributed it to


id: steve-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STEVE-1.md
category: reference
title: STEVE
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STEVE
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:03.466087+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: steve-20260505-0
summary:
=== 2019 === "How Did We Miss This? An Upper Atmospheric Discovery Named STEVE" "First Observations From the TREx Spectrograph: The Optical Spectrum of STEVE and the Picket Fence Phenomena" "Color Ratios of Subauroral (STEVE) Arcs" "A new dataset of STEVE phenomenon related observations spanning multiple solar cycles" "Subauroral Green STEVE Arcs: Evidence for Low-Energy Excitation" "Magnetospheric Signatures of STEVE: Implications for the Magnetospheric Energy Source and Interhemispheric Conjugacy" "High-Latitude Ionospheric Electrodynamics Characterizing Energy and Momentum Deposition during STEVE Events Reported by Citizen Scientists" "Steve: The Optical Signature of Intense Subauroral Ion Drifts" "Optical Spectra and Emission Altitudes of Double-Layer STEVE: A Case Study" "The Vertical Distribution of the Optical Emissions of a Steve and Picket Fence Event" "Identifying STEVE's Magnetospheric Driver Using Conjugate Observations in the Magnetosphere and on the Ground" "STEVE and the Picket Fence: Evidence of Feedback-Unstable Magnetosphere-Ionosphere Interaction" "Possible Evidence of STEVE in Dynamics Explorer-2 Data" === 2020 === "Early Ground-Based Work by Auroral Pioneer Carl Størmer on the High-Altitude Detached Subauroral Arcs Now Known as "STEVE"" "Early Evidence of Isolated Auroral Structures in the 100 km Height Regime Observed at Subauroral Latitudes by the Aurora Pioneer Carl Størmer" "Early Ground-Based Work by Auroral Pioneer Carl


id: tabby-s-star-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabby's_Star-0.md
category: reference
title: Tabby's Star
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabby's_Star
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:04.645795+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tabby-s-star-20260505-0
summary:
Tabby's Star (designated as KIC 8462852 in the Kepler Input Catalog, and also known by the names Boyajian's Star and WTF(Where'sTheFlux?) Star) is a binary star in the constellation Cygnus approximately 1,470 light-years (450 parsecs) from Earth. The system is composed of an F-type main-sequence star and a red dwarf companion. Unusual light fluctuations of Tabby's Star, including up to a 22% dimming in brightness, were discovered by citizen scientists as part of the Planet Hunters project. The discovery was made from data collected by the Kepler space telescope, which observed changes in the brightness of distant stars to detect exoplanets. Several hypotheses have been proposed to explain the star's large irregular changes in brightness, but as of 2024, none of them fully explain all aspects of the resulting light curve. It has been suggested that it is an extraterrestrial megastructure, but evidence tends to discount this suggestion. In September 2019, astronomers reported that the observed dimmings of Tabby's Star may have been produced by fragments resulting from the disruption of an orphaned exomoon. Tabby's Star is not the only star that has large irregular dimmings; other such stars include young stellar objects called YSO dippers, which have different dimming


id: tabby-s-star-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabby's_Star-1.md
category: reference
title: Tabby's Star
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabby's_Star
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:04.645795+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tabby-s-star-20260505-0
summary:
On 20 May 2017, Boyajian and her colleagues reported, via The Astronomer's Telegram, on an ongoing dimming event (named "Elsie") which possibly began on 14 May 2017. It was detected by the Las Cumbres Observatory Global Telescope Network, specifically by its telescope in Maui (LCO Maui). This was verified by the Fairborn Observatory (part of the N2K Consortium) in Southern Arizona (and later by LCO Canary Islands). Further optical and infrared spectroscopy and photometry were urgently requested, given the short duration of these events, which may be measured in days or weeks. Observations from multiple observers globally were coordinated, including polarimetry. Furthermore, the independent SETI projects Breakthrough Listen and Near-InfraRed Optical SETI (NIROSETI), both at Lick Observatory, continue to monitor the star. By the end of the three-day dimming event, a dozen observatories had taken spectra, with some astronomers having dropped their own projects to provide telescope time and resources. More generally the astronomical community was described as having gone "mildly bananas" over the opportunity to collect data in real-time on the unique star. The 2% dip event was named "Elsie" (a homophone of "LC", in reference to Las Cumbres and light curve). Initial spectra with FRODOSpec at the two-meter


id: tabby-s-star-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabby's_Star-2.md
category: reference
title: Tabby's Star
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabby's_Star
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:04.645795+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tabby-s-star-20260505-0
summary:
== Luminosity == Observations of the luminosity of the star by the Kepler space telescope show small, frequent, non-periodic dips in brightness, along with two large recorded dips in brightness two years apart. The amplitude of the changes in the star's brightness, and the aperiodicity of the changes, mean that this star is of particular interest for astronomers. The star's changes in brightness are consistent with many small masses orbiting the star in "tight formation". The first major dip, on 5 March 2011, reduced the star's brightness by up to 15%, and the next 726 days later (on 28 February 2013) by up to 22%. (A third dimming, around 8%, occurred 48 days later.) In comparison, a planet the size of Jupiter would only obscure a star of this size by 1%, indicating that whatever is blocking light during the star's major dips is not a planet, but rather something covering up to half the width of the star. Due to the failure of two of Kepler's reaction wheels, the star's predicted 750-day dip around February 2015 was not recorded. The light dips do not exhibit an obvious pattern. In addition to the day-long dimmings, a study of a century's


id: tabby-s-star-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabby's_Star-3.md
category: reference
title: Tabby's Star
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabby's_Star
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:04.645795+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tabby-s-star-20260505-0
summary:
One proposed explanation for the reduction in light is that it is due to a cloud of disintegrating comets orbiting the star elliptically. This scenario would assume that a planetary system around Tabby's Star has something similar to the Oort cloud and that gravity from a nearby star caused comets from said cloud to fall closer into the system, thereby obstructing the spectra of Tabby's Star. Evidence supporting this hypothesis includes an M-type red dwarf within 132 billion kilometers (885 AU) of Tabby's Star. The notion that disturbed comets from such a cloud could exist in high enough numbers to obscure 22% of the star's observed luminosity has been doubted. The smooth shallow ingress and sharp egress of some dimming events, as well as some symmetric triple dips, are difficult to explain with the comet scenario. Instead, a few asteroid-like bodies embedded in a dust cloud may better explain the star's light curve. Submillimetre-wavelength observations searching for farther-out cold dust in an asteroid belt akin to the Sun's Kuiper Belt suggest that a distant "catastrophic" planetary disruption explanation is unlikely; the possibility of a disrupted asteroid belt scattering comets into the inner system is still to be determined. === Younger


id: tabby-s-star-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabby's_Star-4.md
category: reference
title: Tabby's Star
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabby's_Star
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:04.645795+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tabby-s-star-20260505-0
summary:
=== Intrinsic luminosity variations === The reddening observed during the deep dimming events of Tabby's Star is consistent with cooling of its photosphere. It does not require obscuration by dust. Such cooling could be produced by a decreased efficiency of heat transport caused e.g. by decreased effectiveness of convection due to the star's strong differential rotation, or by changes in its modes of heat transport if it is near the transition between radiative and convective heat transport. The "missing" heat flux is stored as a small increase of internal and potential energy. The possible location of this early F star near the boundary between radiative and convective transport seems to be supported by the finding that the star's observed brightness variations appear to fit the "avalanche statistics" known to occur in a system close to a phase-transition. "Avalanche statistics" with a self-similar or power-law spectrum are a universal property of complex dynamical systems operating close to a phase transition or bifurcation point between two different types of dynamical behavior. Such close-to-critical systems are often observed to exhibit behavior that is intermediate between "order" and "chaos". Three other stars in the Kepler Input Catalog likewise exhibit similar "avalanche statistics" in their


id: tela-botanica-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tela_Botanica-0.md
category: reference
title: Tela Botanica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tela_Botanica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:05.859469+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tela-botanica-20260505-0
summary:
Tela Botanica is a collaborative network of francophone botanists (about 47 000 enrolled in 110 countries at the beginning of 2020). It served as a model for the network of entomologists Tela Insecta, which is developing in partnership with Tela Botanica. == Context == The Tela Botanica network was created with the aim of supporting the renewal of botany in the French-speaking world, in the context of the protection of the planet's resources and the need for their sustainable exploitation. == History == The Tela Botanica network was created in December 1999 and is managed by a French association: Association Tela Botanica. Its founding members include three legal entities (the Société botanique de France, the botanical review La Garance voyageuse and the association ACEMAV) and the initiator of the project is Daniel Mathieu. The headquarters of the association is located at the Institute of Botany of Montpellier (Montpellier 2 University). In four years, the network doubled its number of registrants, whereas it took seven years to reach the ten thousandth registrant. The 20,000th member joined the association on April 22, 2013. By 2014, the network has approximately 24,000 registered members and approximately 13,000 pages of the site are accessed daily.


id: tracking-the-wild-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tracking_the_Wild-0.md
category: reference
title: Tracking the Wild
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tracking_the_Wild
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:07.198360+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tracking-the-wild-20260505-0
summary:
Tracking the Wild is a social media platform built specifically for wildlife. The platform has a two-pronged approach. On the one hand, it is a social media tool to share wildlife sightings and provide a host of reserve specific information. On the other hand, the platform embraces crowdsourcing and citizen science to generate valuable wildlife sightings data for conservation research. == History == Development of Tracking the Wild started in Cape Town in early 2012 by husband and wife team John White and Natalie White. The company officially launched in February 2014 with their website and Android app followed by the launch of their iPhone app in September 2014. In April 2017 John & Natalie starting working on a new platform, Birda, a social network designed specifically for the global birding community. == Participation == The Tracking the Wild platform is based on the crowdsourcing of valuable wildlife sightings by citizen science. Tracking the Wild users submit their wildlife sightings in the form of images and/or video together with a sighting's date and time, GPS location and species name. This open data is then incorporated into an online database and shared with wildlife researchers at the University of Cape Town's


id: ubiome-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UBiome-0.md
category: reference
title: UBiome
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UBiome
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:08.508662+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ubiome-20260505-0
summary:
uBiome, Inc. was an American biotechnology company based in San Francisco that developed technology to sequence the human microbiome. Founded in 2012, the company filed for bankruptcy in 2019 following an FBI raid in an investigation over possible insurance fraud involving the US health insurance program Medicare. In 2021, the Securities and Exchange Commission charged two of the cofounders (Jessica Richman and Zachary Apte) with defrauding investors. The couple were also charged with federal crimes including conspiracy to commit fraud and money laundering. Since 2021, the FBI has considered the founders to be fugitives. == History == === Founding === The company was founded by Jessica Richman, Zachary Apte, and Will Ludington who were scientists in the California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences. In November 2012, uBiome generated $350,000 through a crowdfunding campaign. The founders received mentoring and funding from Y Combinator and further funding from Andreessen Horowitz and 8VC. Jessica Richman was also found to have lied about her age to get on tech lists such as Forbes 30 under 30. She was in her forties at the time. === Insurance fraud investigation and liquidation === In April 2019, FBI agents raided the uBiome office in an investigation over possible


id: vigie-crat-re-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vigie-Cratère-0.md
category: reference
title: Vigie-Cratère
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vigie-Cratère
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:15.106915+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vigie-crat-re-20260505-0
summary:
Vigie-Cratère is a citizen science project from France in which laypeople help scientists find craters on the surface of the Earth left by meteorites by viewing satellite photographs. Vigie-Cratère is part of a larger program called Vigie-Ciel. France's National Museum of Natural History, CNRS, University of Paris Saclay, Institut de recherche pour le développement, Paris Observatory, Grenoble Alpes University, Universcience, the Pythéas Institute, and the Natural History Museum Vienna pay for Vigie-Cratère. == References == == External links == Official website


id: visionature-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visionature-0.md
category: reference
title: Visionature
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visionature
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:16.284148+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: visionature-20260505-0
summary:
Visionature is a citizen science program initiated by the Ligue pour la protection des oiseaux (LPO) in 2007. It is now managed by around fifty French associations under the Faune-France umbrella and coordinated by the Ligue pour la protection des oiseaux. Its goal is to qualitatively and quantitatively expand knowledge about numerous species found in metropolitan France, track their evolution, and support conservation efforts. The program allows participating amateur naturalists to record observations of various taxa through the Faune-France web portal. This nature platform contains over fifty million data points, with birds making up the majority. Used in about a dozen European countries, the Visionature system centralizes nearly 300 million data points collected through various means including the mobile app NaturaList. == References == "Visionature : la science participative au service des oiseaux". lpo.fr. 2 March 2011. Retrieved 31 December 2023. == External links == Faune-France web portal


id: wikiaves-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WikiAves-0.md
category: reference
title: WikiAves
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WikiAves
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:17.562511+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wikiaves-20260505-0
summary:
WikiAves is a free Brazilian site of bird watchers and aims to support, publicize and promote the activity of bird watching, through photographic and sound records, species identification and communication between observers. On the site are registered photos and sounds of bird species that occur in Brazil. The site was founded on December 16, 2008, and developed by Reinaldo Guedes. As of December 2018, there were over 2.4 million photos and 150,000 sound recordings of 1,880 different species, contributed by 30,000 users. Users contribute images and sound files, along with tentative identifications, and the community helps confirm the species photographed. According to Fatbirder's Birding Website, WikiAves ranks first in online popularity of bird watching sites. According to the Commented List of birds of Brazil by the Brazilian Ornithological Registries Committee, 1919 bird species have been identified in Brazil. So 98.3% of bird species scientifically registered in Brazil have a WikiAves record. == References == Luigi, Ceccaroni; Jaume, Piera (October 25, 2016). Analyzing the Role of Citizen Science in Modern Research (in English). [S.l.]: IGI Global. ISBN 9781522509639


id: world-water-monitoring-day-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Water_Monitoring_Day-0.md
category: reference
title: World Water Monitoring Day
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Water_Monitoring_Day
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:18.672730+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-water-monitoring-day-20260505-0
summary:
World Water Monitoring Day was an international day established in 2003 by America's Clean Water Foundation (ACWF) as a global educational outreach program. The program, subsequently named the "World Water Monitoring Challenge" and "EarthEcho Water Challenge," aims to build public awareness and involvement in protecting water resources around the world by empowering citizens to carry out basic monitoring of their local water bodies. Roberta (Robbi) Savage, ACWF's president and CEO created WWMD, and Edward Moyer was the first WWMD Coordinator. A simple test kit enables everyone, children and adults, to sample local water bodies for a set of water quality parameters including temperature, acidity (pH), clarity (turbidity) and dissolved oxygen (DO). Information on purchasing low-cost test kits is available from the current sponsoring organization, EarthEcho International, and the results of monitoring events are then shared with participating communities around the globe on the sponsor's website. World Water Monitoring Day was originally celebrated annually on September 18. This date was initially chosen to be a month later (October 18) to recognize the anniversary of the US Clean Water Act, which was enacted by Congress in 1972 to restore and protect the country's water resources. In 2007, the date was changed to


id: xeno-canto-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xeno-canto-0.md
category: reference
title: Xeno-canto
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xeno-canto
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:19.904482+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: xeno-canto-20260505-0
summary:
xeno-canto is a citizen science project and repository in which volunteers record, upload and annotate recordings of birds, orthoptera, bats, frogs and land mammals. Since it began in 2005, it has collected over 1,000,000 sound recordings from more than 12,900 species worldwide, and has become one of the biggest open collections of wildlife sounds in the world. All the recordings are published under one of the Creative Commons licenses, including some with open licences. Each recording on the website is accompanied by a spectrogram and location data on a map displaying geographical variation. Data from xeno-canto has been re-used in many (a few thousand) scientific papers. It has also been the source of data for an annual challenge on automatic birdsong recognition ("BirdCLEF") since 2014, conducted as part of the Conference and Labs of the Evaluation Forum. The website is supported by a number of academic and birdwatching institutions worldwide, with its primary support being in the Netherlands. == History == xeno-canto, which translates to "strange sound", is a sounds-only project seeking to highlight sounds of birds, rather than images or videos. xeno-canto was launched on May 30, 2005, by Bob Planqué, a mathematical biologist at VU University Amsterdam, and


id: zooniverse-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zooniverse-0.md
category: reference
title: Zooniverse
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zooniverse
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:21.065704+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: zooniverse-20260505-0
summary:
Zooniverse is a global platform for people-powered research, also known as participatory science or citizen science. It is a collaboration between Chicago’s Adler Planetarium, the University of Oxford, and the University of Minnesota. It is home to some of the Internet's largest, most popular and most successful citizen science projects. == Background == The organization grew from the original Galaxy Zoo project and now hosts dozens of projects which allow volunteers to participate in crowdsourced scientific research. It has headquarters at Oxford University and the Adler Planetarium. Unlike many early internet-based citizen science projects (such as SETI@home) which used spare computer processing power to analyse data, known as volunteer computing, Zooniverse projects require the active participation of human volunteers to complete research tasks. Projects have been drawn from disciplines including astronomy, ecology, cell biology, humanities, and climate science. As of 14 February 2014, the Zooniverse community consisted of more than 1 million registered volunteers. By March 2025, the number had risen to over 2.7 million. The volunteers are often collectively referred to as "Zooites". The data collected from the various projects has led to the publication of more than 450 peer-reviewed research publications. A daily news website called 'The Daily


id: alan-alda-center-for-communicating-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Alda_Center_for_Communicating_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Alan Alda Center for Communicating Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Alda_Center_for_Communicating_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:23.882024+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alan-alda-center-for-communicating-science-20260505-0
summary:
The Alan Alda Center for Communicating Science is a cross-disciplinary organization founded in 2009 within Stony Brook University's School of Communication and Journalism, in Stony Brook, New York. Its current director is Laura Lindenfeld. Its goal is to help scientists learn to communicate more effectively with the public, including policymakers, students, funders and the media. It was inspired by Alan Alda, the actor, writer and science advocate, in whose honor it was renamed in 2013, and is supported by Brookhaven National Laboratory and Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. == Programs == All Alda Center programs are based on the Alda Method, a form of communication training that blends improvisational theater exercises and message-design strategies. The Method helps scientists and researchers connect more directly with listeners and respond more spontaneously to their needs. By 2020 there had been 15,000 attendees at these improv workshops. In 2012, Alda and the Center issued the "Flame Challenge", asking scientists to come up with the best explanation for a flame for an intended audience of 11-year-olds. == References == == External links == Official website


id: associa-o-brasileira-de-editores-cient-ficos-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associação_Brasileira_de_Editores_Científicos-0.md
category: reference
title: Associação Brasileira de Editores Científicos
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associação_Brasileira_de_Editores_Científicos
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:25.096255+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: associa-o-brasileira-de-editores-cient-ficos-20260505-0
summary:
The Associação Brasileira de Editores Científicos (ABEC Brasil), is a Brazilian nonprofit organization founded in 1985, and dedicated to the advancement of publication of scientific journals. ABEC Brasil is headquartered in Botucatu, São Paulo (state), Brazil and its president is Sigmar de Mello Rode. == History == ABEC Brasil was founded on October 11, 1985, during the Second Meeting of Scientific Journal Editors, at ICB/USP. Its first President was Francisco Alberto de Moura Duarte. == Activities == ABEC Brasil is interested in developing and improving the publication of scientific journals, and stimulates this through regularly publishing material of scientific editorial interest, promoting of conferences, seminars and courses, and maintaining contact with institutions and related societies in Brazil and abroad. == See also == SciELO Latin American and Caribbean Health Sciences Literature National Council for Scientific and Technological Development == References == == External links == Official website


id: bristol-dinosaur-project-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol_Dinosaur_Project-0.md
category: reference
title: Bristol Dinosaur Project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol_Dinosaur_Project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:26.253857+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bristol-dinosaur-project-20260505-0
summary:
The Bristol Dinosaur Project is a public engagement and educational initiative run by the University of Bristol. It began in 2000, and since then the Bristol Dinosaur Project team has visited hundreds of schools and spoken to tens of thousands of children, as well as appearing at science fairs in Bristol and elsewhere. == Background == The Bristol dinosaur, Thecodontosaurus antiquus, was found in 1834, and named in 1836, and did not achieve much recognition locally, either at the time of discovery, in the 1830s, nor later, when it was restudied, in the 1870s, 1900s, or 1990s. After the re-examination of specimens collected in the 1830s, still located in Bristol City Museum and Art Gallery, and the collection of additional specimens from Tytherington quarry, in the 1970s, local paleontologists and geologists realised the potential to use the newly reinvigorated research programme as a means to include the public, especially local children, in the excitement of scientific discovery. == Funding == Initially, the Bristol Dinosaur Project was funded by the University of Bristol using widening participation funds. These were funds intended to reach out to local schools that did not have a reputation for sending many children to university. By sending


id: bugscope-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bugscope-0.md
category: reference
title: Bugscope
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bugscope
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:31.407157+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bugscope-20260505-0
summary:
Bugscope is a web-based science outreach program that connects K-12 classrooms with microscopists at the Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology at UIUC to explore insects under a high-powered scanning electron microscope (SEM). Launched in 1998, Bugscope allows students to observe microscopic details of insects and other organisms, sparking curiosity and fostering scientific discovery. The program has reached students globally, offering live, interactive sessions that align with educational standards. == Award == The Science Prize for Online Resources in Education (SPORE) from AAAS was awarded to Bugscope for its impact on science education in 2011. == References ==


id: committee-on-the-public-understanding-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_on_the_Public_Understanding_of_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Committee on the Public Understanding of Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_on_the_Public_Understanding_of_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:32.776957+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: committee-on-the-public-understanding-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The Committee on the Public Understanding of Science or Copus was founded in 1985 by the British Association for the Advancement of Science (BAAS), the Royal Institution and the Royal Society. Copus came about as a result of the 'Bodmer Report' by the eminent geneticist Walter Bodmer. The aim of Copus was to interpret scientific advances and make them more accessible to non-scientists. It played a part in developing the public understanding of science it establishing standards for communicating science and technology The Copus Grant Schemes was set up in 1987 and the last round of grants was for 2003/4. The scheme was funded by the Office of Science and Technology and the Royal Society. 25 grants worth a total of over £750,000 were awarded in 2003/2004. In 2000 The new Copus Council was formed to be a more inclusive partnership for science communication in the UK. In 2002 following a report commissioned by the Office of Science and Technology the Copus Council was discontinued. == References ==


id: czexpats-in-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czexpats_in_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Czexpats in Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czexpats_in_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:33.919023+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: czexpats-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
Czexpats in Science is an organization founded in 2018 with the aim of connecting Czech scientists who are currently working overseas and those who have come back to the Czech Republic after gaining experience abroad. == Objectives and activity == The initiative's core mission is to foster connections among Czech scientists overseas, facilitate information sharing, and aid the return of Czech scientists to their homeland. The organization's activities encompass both online and offline aspects. Online activities are primarily centred around the Map of Scientists project, which highlights the workplaces of 290 Czech scientists across 37 countries worldwide (as of March 2020). Additionally, the organization produces blogs detailing individual researchers' experiences abroad and short articles aimed at popularizing the achievements of Czech scientists overseas. Offline activities include the annual pre-Christmas gathering of scientists in the Czech Republic, local meetings of Czech researchers in various countries, and the organization of workshops aimed at supporting Czech students' international journeys. == Support and cooperation == The association is supported from various sources, including the Experientia Foundation, the Neuron Foundation for the Support of Science, as well as contributions from private companies and crowdfunding via darujme.cz. Collaboratively, the association partners with several Czech universities, the


id: doitpoms-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DoITPoMS-0.md
category: reference
title: DoITPoMS
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DoITPoMS
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:35.149156+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: doitpoms-20260505-0
summary:
Dissemination of IT for the Promotion of Materials Science (DoITPoMS) is a web-based educational software resource designed to facilitate the teaching and learning of Materials science, at the tertiary level for free. == History == The DoITPoMS project originated in the early 1990s, incorporating customized online sources into the curriculum of the Materials Science courses in the Natural Sciences Tripos of the University Cambridge. The initiative became formalized in 2000, with the start of a project supported by the UK national Fund for the Development of Teaching and Learning (FDTL). This was led by the Department of Materials Science and Metallurgy at the University of Cambridge with five partner institutions, including the University of Leeds, London Metropolitan University, the University of Manchester, Oxford Brookes University, and the University of Sheffield. This period of cooperation lasted for about 10 years. The FDTL project was aimed at building on expertise concerning the use of Information Technology (IT) to enhance the student learning experience and to disseminate these techniques within the Materials Education community in the UK and globally. This was done by creating an archive of background information, such as video clips, micrographs, simulations, etc, and libraries of teaching and learning packages


id: easiness-effect-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easiness_effect-0.md
category: reference
title: Easiness effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easiness_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:36.324111+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: easiness-effect-20260505-0
summary:
The easiness effect is the claim that as a result of science popularization laypeople develop an overconfident scientific understanding. This results in science-related decision-making that reflects a misunderstanding of popular science rather than the judgment of professional scientists. == Context == Rainer Bromme and Susan Goldman, writing in the Educational Psychologist describe the context, stating: "Challenges to understanding science include determining the relevance of information, the tentativeness of scientific truth, distinguishing between scientific and nonscientific issues, and determining what is true and what is false." Scotty Hendricks, a contributing writer to BigThink.com, notes that popular science writers might have to start considering the effect that their work has on the general public. == Evidence == Scharrer and her co-authors studied the claimed effect by inviting laypeople to read popular science articles or articles with more scientific detail, publishing their results in Public Understanding of Science. The subjects were then interviewed to judge their scientific opinions and confidence in those opinions, in relation to the material that they had read. Scharrer's team inferred that there was a statistically significant effect of scientific overconfidence and willingness to override expert opinion. In some of their experiments, Scharrer's team attempted to counteract the easiness


id: ec1-science-and-technology-center-in-d-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EC1_Science_and_Technology_Center_in_Łódź-0.md
category: reference
title: EC1 Science and Technology Center in Łódź
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EC1_Science_and_Technology_Center_in_Łódź
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:37.598912+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ec1-science-and-technology-center-in-d-20260505-0
summary:
EC1 Science and Technology Centre is a science centre located in the former Heat Power Station in Łódź, Poland. Primarily Łódź Power Station (Polish: Elektrownia Łódzka) was a first city power station producing electricity for citizens. Operational since 1907, expanded in 1929, worked till 2000 and regarded as a historical monument due to its architectural values. Revitalised since 2010 and adapted for cultural and educational purposes. The exhibition was opened on 7 January 2018 and it is a part of the EC1 Łódź - City of Culture complex. The institution is co-run by the City of Łódź and the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage. The name EC1 is an acronym referring to the later, but also to the historical name of the facility, i.e. the Heat and Power Station No. 1 in Łódź (Polish: Elektrociepłownia nr 1 w Łodzi). The science centre is addressed to a wide audience to popularising science, technology and allow visitors to perform experiments including: acoustics, electromagnetism, magnetism, fluid mechanics, optics, thermal conductivity, radioactivity. == Exhibition == The exhibition area is over 18 000 m2 and the total cost of equipment was PLN 45.5 million (about €10.4M), of which nearly PLN 18.4 million (about €4.2M)


id: festival-of-nature-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Festival_of_Nature-0.md
category: reference
title: Festival of Nature
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Festival_of_Nature
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:38.753807+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: festival-of-nature-20260505-0
summary:
The Festival of Nature is an annual science festival in the UK which describes itself as the UK's largest free celebration of the natural world. The festival takes place in June across Bristol, and Bath. Featuring events, including lectures, tours and film screenings on subjects of science, natural history and the environment. The festival, run by Natural History Consortium, has taken place across the region since 2003. Historically, the festival has held events at, We The Curious, Bristol Museum & Art Gallery, Bristol Zoo, the University of Bristol and the University of the West of England, though there are many other events across the cities, such as at Blaise Castle Estate and Leigh Woods National Nature Reserve. Notable past speakers include broadcasters David Attenborough and David Bellamy, geneticist Steve Jones and primatologist Jane Goodall. The Natural History Consortium also organises 'Communicate', a conference of scientists, environmentalists, broadcasters and journalists, who meet to discuss the issue of communicating conservation issues to the public, as well at the UK's BioBlitz network. == References == == External links == Festival of Nature


id: hype-in-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hype_in_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Hype in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hype_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:41.203579+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hype-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
In science communication and academic publishing, hype in science is the exaggeration and sensationalism of scientific discoveries when submitting discoveries to scientific journals and when publicizing results in the news media. Hype in science has been seen to come as a result of scientists working in an increasingly competitive field where the discoveries published by an individual have large ramifications on that individual’s income and career path. In order to make their work stand out, many scientists will exaggerate their findings and embezzle their writing with affirmative terms. Many studies have been completed that show how the frequency of terms that may be used to affirm or exaggerate findings has increased in recent decades as academia and the competitiveness of science journals increases as well. Scientific journals engage in hype in science as well as the scientists. Journals are more likely to publish articles which use more exciting and positive language. These articles are what get the non-scientific general public interested, and therefore are contenders for press releases and articles in mainstream news outlets. == Sources of hype == Hype in science occurs at every level of scientific publication. The objectives at each level are mostly the same, but the


id: i-m-a-scientist-get-me-out-of-here-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I'm_a_Scientist,_Get_me_out_of_here!-0.md
category: reference
title: I'm a Scientist, Get me out of here!
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I'm_a_Scientist,_Get_me_out_of_here!
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:42.434408+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: i-m-a-scientist-get-me-out-of-here-20260505-0
summary:
I'm a Scientist, Get me out of here! is an online science enrichment activity that runs throughout term-time in the UK. School students interact with scientists in text-based live chats in themed 'Zones'. At the end of the event the school students vote for their favourite scientist and the winner is awarded prize money to support further science communication. == Background == Pilots for I'm a Scientist, Get me out of here began in 2008, and were well received by school students and teachers. It was founded by Shane McCracken of Gallomanor Communications. The activity is divided into several zones, which focus on either general science or a specific industry. The funding for each zone is provided by an associated learned society, organisation or industry. Prior to 2020, the competition format was similar to The X Factor, and school students vote for the winner based on answers they receive to their questions submitted online and in live, text-based chats with the scientists. During the COVID-19 pandemic, I’m a Scientist became an 'on demand' activity with Zones lasting longer, and scientists staying until the end of each Zone. Participating scientists are given an opportunity to develop their communication skills whilst school


id: iflscience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IFLScience-0.md
category: reference
title: IFLScience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IFLScience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:47.809956+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: iflscience-20260505-0
summary:
IFLScience (formerly I Fucking Love Science) is a popular-science media website and brand that publishes news and educational content on topics including physics, biology, astronomy, health, and the environment. Originally a Facebook page started by Elise Andrew in 2012, it subsequently developed into a professional news website with full time salaried staff. == History == IFLScience began as a Facebook page called "I Fucking Love Science", created by Elise Andrew in March 2012. Though she had not intended it to grow beyond "posting to a few dozen of [her] friends", the page rapidly gained attention for its informal tone and shareable science facts. After the first day, the page had over 1,000 likes and passed 1 million likes in September 2012. Andrew stated that this work ultimately led LabX Media Group, a Canadian science-media publisher, to hire her as a social media content manager that same year. The next year, the website iflscience.com was launched to expand beyond social-media posts into longer-form articles and digital editorial content. By January 2015, the page's Facebook had risen to 19.5 million likes. In May 2020, Andrew renamed the company from "I Fucking Love Science" to "IFLScience", citing the swear word's incompatibility with Facebook's


id: insect-fear-film-festival-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival-0.md
category: reference
title: Insect Fear Film Festival
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:49.070271+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: insect-fear-film-festival-20260505-0
summary:
The Insect Fear Film Festival or IFFF is an annual free event held every spring since 1984, and is the first university-sponsored event of its kind in the U.S., typically taking place on a Saturday in February. Organized by the Entomology Graduate Students Association at University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, the festival blends education with entertainment. It showcases films, shorts, and TV episodes that highlight insect biology and celebrate the role of insects in popular culture. The purpose of the event is to dispel fears of insects by providing relative knowledge while various insect-themed monster movies are shown. Before the films begin, May Berenbaum, the festival organizer, the UI Entomology department head and professor, typically introduces each film, providing scientific context, debunking inaccuracies, and exploring why we fear insects. She also points out "biological improbabilities" and filmmaking flaws, often noting that some films are "so bad they’re actually entertaining." (However, the organisers often have to watch the films several times in order to identify a theme and select the best films. "It’s really excruciating sometimes," Berenbaum said.) The festival typically includes several animated shorts and two or three feature-length films. The evening usually starts with a family-friendly film, as parents and


id: insect-fear-film-festival-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival-1.md
category: reference
title: Insect Fear Film Festival
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:49.070271+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: insect-fear-film-festival-20260505-0
summary:
=== Insect art contest === Since 1993, the lFFF also features an Insect Art Contest for K–12 students, since 1993, inviting them to explore their creativity while learning about insects. Students (K–12) are encouraged to submit artwork that depicts insects and arthropods in any medium. The contest aims to inspire young minds to appreciate the beauty and complexity of these creatures, fostering a deeper understanding of the insect world. Winning entries are often displayed at the festival, providing an opportunity for students to showcase their work to the community. In 1990s, the contest was held with the Natural History Museum, where the winning drawings were displayed for two weeks. Due to the pandemic, the 2021 and 2022 Insect Art Contests were held online with a virtual art gallery to showcase students' artwork. In 2023, the contest returned to an in-person format. The insect-themed artwork contest is usually due by mid-February annually. Please submit your artwork to the Entomology Graduate Student Association (EGSA), UIUC, or contact the IFFF coordinators, typically the EGSA presidents, for details. === Bugscope === At the Insect Fear Film Festival (IFFF), attendees will have the opportunity to experience a $600,000 high-resolution scanning electron microscope (SEM) firsthand, gaining


id: insect-fear-film-festival-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival-2.md
category: reference
title: Insect Fear Film Festival
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:49.070271+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: insect-fear-film-festival-20260505-0
summary:
=== 39th annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2022) === The 39th IFFF, themed "Venomous," took place online via Zoom on February 26, 2022. This year's festival featured a variety of engaging and educational activities, including a special presentation by Justin Schmidt, creator of the Schmidt Sting Pain Index, which rates the pain caused by insect stings. Attendees could explore a virtual insect petting zoo, learn about venomous insects through the Bugscope, and take a virtual tour of the Illinois Natural History Survey's insect collection. The event also included fun and interactive elements such as bee ventriloquism, insect-themed crafts, and an art contest featuring insect-themed artwork created by local K-12 students. The film program consisted of a mix of animated and live short films divided into three segments: first, exaggerated comic depictions of insect stings; second, dramatic or humorous reactions to stings, including severe allergic reactions such as anaphylaxis; and third, scientific insights into the world of venomous arthropods, showcasing their various venom delivery methods and potential beneficial uses. A highlight was a live stinging demonstration to provide a first-hand look at the process of venom delivery. The festival highlighted the fascinating diversity of venomous insects, from honeybee stings used for


id: insect-fear-film-festival-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival-3.md
category: reference
title: Insect Fear Film Festival
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:49.070271+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: insect-fear-film-festival-20260505-0
summary:
=== 33rd Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2016) === The 33rd Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (IFFF) took place on Saturday, February 27, at 6 p.m. in Foellinger Auditorium, with the theme "Exploding Arthropods." The event, hosted by the Entomology Graduate Student Association, highlighted real-life explosive insects, such as bombardier beetles, which spray hot chemicals as a defense, and exploding carpenter ants, which sacrifice themselves to protect their colonies. Parasitoid wasps, whose larvae chew their way out of their hosts, also contributed to the theme. These natural "explosions" were mirrored in the festival's films, featuring mutant cockroaches and giant, lava-breathing tarantulas. The evening featured three films: Palm Rot (2015; 7.5 minutes), Bug (1975), and Lavalantula (2015). The event began with Palm Rot (2015; 7.5 minutes), a short animated film introduced by the event special guest and its creator, Ryan Gillis. Following that, Bug (1975) told the story of a scientist who unintentionally created a breed of intelligent, combustible cockroaches. The evening concluded with Lavalantula (2015), in which giant, lava-spewing tarantulas wreaked havoc in Los Angeles after a volcanic eruption. === 32nd Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2015) === The 32nd IFFF was held on February 28, 2015, at 6 p.m.


id: insect-fear-film-festival-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival-4.md
category: reference
title: Insect Fear Film Festival
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:49.070271+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: insect-fear-film-festival-20260505-0
summary:
=== 27th Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2010) === The 27th IFFF, held on February 27, 2010, centered on the theme of prehistoric insects. The event offered an intriguing look into the origins of today's insects, with highlights including fossils like Meganeura, a dragonfly-like creature with a wingspan of nearly 30 inches that lived around 300 million years ago, and trilobites—ancient arthropods that once inhabited the seas. The evening featured animated shorts The Deadly Mantis (1957), where a giant mantis is freed by nuclear testing, and Monster on the Campus (1958), in which a dragonfly's blood contamination turns a scientist into a Neanderthal. The evening also featured screenings of Black Scorpion (1957), in which volcanic activity unleashes giant scorpions in Mexico, followed by Deep Freeze (2001, also known as Ice Crawlers), which depicts the reappearance of grad-student-eating trilobites in the Antarctic. === 26th Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2009) === The 26th IFFF, themed "Centipede Cinema," took place on February 28, 2009. The event focused on myriapods (centipedes and millipedes), which, despite their many legs, are arthropods, not insects. Centipedes, known for their predatory habits, and millipedes, which feed on decaying matter, were featured for their unique characteristics. The festival


id: insect-fear-film-festival-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival-5.md
category: reference
title: Insect Fear Film Festival
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:49.070271+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: insect-fear-film-festival-20260505-0
summary:
=== 21st Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2004) === The 21st IFFF, held on February 28, 2004, focused on "genetically engineered insects." This year's theme traced the evolution of insect horror films, from radiation fears in the 1950s to insect mutations in the 1970s. With the rise of gene manipulation in the early 1980s, genetically modified insects became a new horror movie trope, reflecting public fears about the potential risks of emerging technologies. The short films included Bus of the Undead (2001)from Aqua Teen Hunger Force and Insect Inside (1998) from The Powerpuff Girls. This year showcased three featured films: The Tuxedo (2002), in which Jackie Chan stars in a story where genetically engineered water striders grow to enormous size and threaten freshwater supplies. The film inaccurately suggests water striders have queens, which they do not. Mimic (1997), suggested by movie critic Roger Ebert, follows an entomologist who creates genetically modified "Judas Breed" cockroaches to combat a deadly disease, only for the bugs to evolve into human-like creatures that prey on people in New York City's subways. Despite the absurd use of litmus paper to identify the "Judas breed" of cockroaches, the film effectively highlights the dangers of genetic experimentation


id: insect-fear-film-festival-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival-6.md
category: reference
title: Insect Fear Film Festival
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:49.070271+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: insect-fear-film-festival-20260505-0
summary:
=== 15th Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (1998) === The 15th Insect Fear Film Festival (IFFF), held in February 1998, focused on "Roaches Redux." Dr. Berenbaum, the organizer, remarked on the irony that, in 1997, Americans spent approximately $250 million on cockroach poisons, only to spend nearly the same amount watching movies about them. Short films of this year included animated Raid commercials from the 1960s, Warner Brothers' Bingo Crosbyana, episodes of Santa Bugito, and the trailer for Twilight of the Cockroaches. Feature-length highlights included War of the Coprophages (1996), an X-Files episode where Agent Mulder teams up with entomologist Dr. Bambi Berenbaum to battle possible alien cockroaches; Joe’s Apartment (1996), a comedy about a young man befriending singing, dancing cockroaches in New York, with special effects by UIUC alumnus Chris Trimble; and Men in Black (1997), featuring a cockroach-like alien. === 14th Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (1997) === The 15th IFFF, held in February 1997, embraced an "all ants, all the time!" theme and marked the first year the festival was held in Foellinger Auditorium. AN(T)imated shorts of this year included Dance of the Ants, Gay Anties, Ant Pasted, Ants in the Plants, One Less Ant, and Porky’s


id: intellectual-freedom-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_freedom-0.md
category: reference
title: Intellectual freedom
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_freedom
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:50.358602+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: intellectual-freedom-20260505-0
summary:
Intellectual freedom encompasses the freedom to hold, receive and disseminate ideas without restriction. Viewed as an integral component of a democratic society, intellectual freedom protects an individual's right to access, explore, consider, and express ideas and information as the basis for a self-governing, well-informed citizenry. Intellectual freedom comprises the bedrock for freedoms of expression, speech, and the press and relates to freedoms of information and the right to privacy. The United Nations upholds intellectual freedom as a basic human right through Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights which asserts: Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers. The institution of libraries in particular values intellectual freedom as part of their mission to provide and protect access to information and ideas. The American Library Association (ALA) defines intellectual freedom as "the right of every individual to both seek and receive information from all points of view without restriction. It provides for free access to all expressions of ideas through which any and all sides of a question, cause or movement can


id: intellectual-freedom-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_freedom-1.md
category: reference
title: Intellectual freedom
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_freedom
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:50.358602+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: intellectual-freedom-20260505-0
summary:
In the Supreme Court's upheld decision to deny citizenship to Rosika Schwimmer, a Hungarian immigrant, because she refused to pledge to take up arms to defend the United States out of her pacifist views and beliefs, Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. personally disagrees with the defendant's views but professionally upholds Schwimmer's position when he writes, Some of her answers might excite popular prejudice, but if there is any principle of the Constitution that more imperatively calls for attachment than any other it is the principle of free thought – not free thought for those who agree with us but freedom for the thought we hate. === Library Bill of Rights (1939) === The American Library Association adopts the Library Bill of Rights affirming "that all libraries are forums for information and ideas." Originally a three-point declaration to guide services in American free public libraries including statements on "growing intolerance, suppression of free speech, and censorship," today the Library Bill of Rights includes six basic policies to guide library services that affirm intellectual freedom. === Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) === Following World War II, the United Nations adopts The Universal Declaration of Human Rights as a "foundation of human


id: intellectual-freedom-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_freedom-2.md
category: reference
title: Intellectual freedom
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_freedom
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:50.358602+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: intellectual-freedom-20260505-0
summary:
=== Intellectual Freedom Committee === The Intellectual Freedom Committee (IFC) is a council committee of the American Library Association (ALA), composed of 11 ALA members who are appointed by ALA's Council to serve 2-year terms. The Intellectual Freedom Committee functions as an advisory and educational arm of the ALA's commitment to intellectual freedom. The IFC recommends policies concerning intellectual freedom and censorship, drafts guidelines for library professionals to advocate and defend intellectual freedom including The Universal Right to Free Expression and Importance of Education to Intellectual Freedom, and drafts policy statements adopted by the ALA including several interpretation statements on the Library Bill of Rights such as: Access to Electronic Information, Services, and Networks Access to Library Resources and Services Regardless of Gender or Sexual Orientation Free Access to Libraries for Minors Prisoners' Right to Read Statement on Library Use of Filtering Software The IFC drafts and submits statements to the ALA as part of the committee's charge to "recommend such steps as may be necessary to safeguard the rights of library users, libraries, and librarians, in accordance with the first amendment to the united states constitution and the Library Bill of Rights as adopted by the ALA Council [and]


id: intellectual-freedom-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_freedom-3.md
category: reference
title: Intellectual freedom
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_freedom
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:50.358602+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: intellectual-freedom-20260505-0
summary:
=== Freedom to Read Foundation === The Freedom to Read Foundation was incorporated in 1969 by members of the American Library Association. Although founded by ALA members, the FTRF is a separate organization from ALA with separate membership focused upon the legal defense of intellectual freedom for libraries, librarians, library staff, and library trustees. While the FTRF participates in intellectual freedom education efforts, the FTRF primarily aims to "support and defend librarians whose positions are jeopardized because of their resistance to abridgments of the First Amendment; and to set legal precedent for the freedom to read on behalf of all the people." In the foundation's commitment to "the principle that the solution to offensive speech is more speech, and the suppression of speech on the grounds that it gives offense to some infringes on the rights of all to a free, open and robust marketplace of ideas," the FTRF awards and distributes grants to aid intellectual freedom litigation, directly participates as a party to intellectual freedom litigation, and submits amicus curiae briefs in freedom of speech and freedom of the press cases. FTRF assistance to library staff whose jobs have been jeopardized due to their defense of intellectual freedom "attempts


id: intellectual-freedom-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_freedom-4.md
category: reference
title: Intellectual freedom
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_freedom
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:50.358602+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: intellectual-freedom-20260505-0
summary:
The Fear of the Word: Censorship and Sex. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1974. Ideas and the University Library: Essays of an Unorthodox Academic Librarian. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1977. Defending Intellectual Freedom: The Library and the Censor. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1980. To Free the Mind: Libraries, Technology, and Intellectual Freedom. Littleton, CO: Libraries Unlimited, 1983." Awarded to acknowledge authorship in the area of intellectual freedom, the IFRT considers "single articles (including review pieces), a series of thematically connected articles, books, or manuals published on the local, state or national level in English or English translation" for receipt of the Eli M. Oboler Award. === John Phillip Immroth Memorial Award === Since 1976, the ALA's Intellectual Freedom Round Table annually sponsors the John Phillip Immroth Memorial Award. Consisting of a $500 prize and a citation, the award "honors the courage, dedication, and contribution of a living individual, group, or organization who has set the finest kind of example for the defense and furtherance of the principles of intellectual freedom." Upon his death in 1979, the award was renamed for John Phillip Immroth, the founder and first Chair of the Intellectual Freedom Round Table. The Immroth award differs from other intellectual


id: intellectual-freedom-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_freedom-5.md
category: reference
title: Intellectual freedom
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_freedom
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:50.358602+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: intellectual-freedom-20260505-0
summary:
=== United States === In the aftermath of the September 11th attacks issues concerning the suspension or reduction of civil liberties in the name of national security have arisen. Legislation such as the Homeland Security Act (HSA) of 2002 and the USA PATRIOT Act (often shortened to the Patriot Act) of 2001 encroach upon intellectual freedom rights to privacy and freedom of information to enhance domestic security from potential terrorist threats and acts. The Patriot Act in particular has come under fire from numerous intellectual freedom organizations. The Electronic Privacy Information Center (EPIC) has criticized the Patriot Act as unconstitutional, especially when "the private communications of law-abiding American citizens might be intercepted incidentally," Additionally, the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) maintains that the lower standard applied to wiretaps "gives the FBI a 'blank check' to violate the communications privacy of countless innocent Americans". The American Library Association (ALA) has partnered with American libraries in opposition to a provision in Section 215 which allows the FBI to apply for an order to produce materials that assist in an investigation undertaken to protect against international terrorism or clandestine intelligence activities. The "tangible things" that can be targeted include "books, records, papers, documents, and


id: international-centre-for-integrated-mountain-development-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Centre_for_Integrated_Mountain_Development-0.md
category: reference
title: International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Centre_for_Integrated_Mountain_Development
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:51.564298+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-centre-for-integrated-mountain-development-20260505-0
summary:
The International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) is a regional intergovernmental learning and knowledge sharing centre founded in 1983, serving the eight regional member countries of the Hindu Kush Himalaya region – Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan. The HKH region is a vast area, encompassing mountain ranges stretching from the Hindu Kush range in northern Afghanistan to the Arakan range in Myanmar, with the Himalayan range as its spine, and also includes the Tibetan Plateau. ICIMOD's mission is to promote partnerships amongst the regional member countries to secure a better future for the people and environment of the region. ICIMOD is headquartered at Khumaltar in the city of Lalitpur, located in the Kathmandu valley of Nepal. At Godavari in Lalitpur, ICIMOD has a Knowledge Park which exhibits some applications of ICIMOD's theoretical and field research. In addition, ICIMOD has country offices in Afghanistan and Pakistan. ICIMOD's partner organisations include national and international scientific institutions, government agencies, donor agencies, and the private sector, both within the region and outside. == History == === Origins === In December 1974, the idea of creating an institution to promote the ecologically sound development of mountainous regions was discussed at


id: national-council-for-science-and-technology-communication-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Council_for_Science_and_Technology_Communication-0.md
category: reference
title: National Council for Science and Technology Communication
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Council_for_Science_and_Technology_Communication
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:54.032833+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-council-for-science-and-technology-communication-20260505-0
summary:
The National Council for Science and Technology Communication (NCSTC) is a scientific programme of the Government of India for the popularisation of science, dissemination of scientific knowledge and inculcation of scientific temper. Established under the Department of Science and Technology, it "is mandated to communicate Science and Technology to masses, stimulate scientific and technological temper and coordinate and orchestrate such efforts throughout the country." Following the science communication plan introduced in the Sixth Five-Year Plan of India, NCSTC was established in 1982. == Objectives == NCSTC has three major objectives: For developing a building capacity for informed decision and promote scientific thinking to the Indian communities. For the development of society using scientific knowledge and organise programmes using different media to reach every citizen. To conduct outreach activities, including training in science and technology communication, awareness programmes, dissemination of scientific knowledge, award incentives, promote scientific research, develop international co-operation, while providing special attention to women. == History == The Government of India in its Sixth Five-Year Plan in 1980 introduced an elaborate scheme for the promotion of science and technology. It constituted a Cabinet Committee on Science and Technology (CCST) on 3 March 1981. Chaired by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi,


id: natural-frequency-statistics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_frequency_(statistics)-0.md
category: reference
title: Natural frequency (statistics)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_frequency_(statistics)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:55.301238+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-frequency-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
A common question in medicine is how likely it is that someone has a disease when they get a 'positive' test result. Because some people without the disease also test positive, not everyone who tests positive has the disease. Expressing the probabilities using natural frequencies – absolute counts from a sample showing the joint probabilities (disease x test result) – makes the question easier to answer. For example, by stating that 100 out of 10,000 women have breast cancer, 90 out of 100 with breast cancer have a positive mammogram and 990 out of 9,900 without breast cancer have a positive mammogram. In contrast, people struggle when you give the same information as conditional probabilities. That is, when they are given information in a format like this: 80% of women with breast cancer test positive on a mammogram, whereas 9.6% of healthy women also get a positive test (false positive). One percent of women has breast cancer. People often neglect the base rate of people with breast cancer when given this information (base rate fallacy), leading them to overestimate how likely it is someone has the disease given a positive test result. In one study, only 6% of medical students


id: notre-dame-quarknet-center-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notre_Dame_QuarkNet_Center-0.md
category: reference
title: Notre Dame QuarkNet Center
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notre_Dame_QuarkNet_Center
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:56.689192+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: notre-dame-quarknet-center-20260505-0
summary:
The Notre Dame QuarkNet Center at the University of Notre Dame was established in 1999. QuarkNet is a nation-wide program that pairs university faculty with high school teachers and students to perform summer research related to physics, astronomy, chemistry, and biology. Along with Notre Dame, QuarkNet centers are sponsored by dozens of other universities. The Notre Dame QuarkNet Center is regarded as a flagship center for the program. The program was started by particle physicists associated with Fermilab in Illinois and CERN in Switzerland and has been sponsored by the National Science Foundation (NSF) and the United States Department of Energy (DoE). == 1997 to early 2000s == === Randal Ruchti and Patrick Mooney === In 1997, professor Randal Ruchti of the University of Notre Dame began efforts to teach particle physics to local high school students in the South Bend, Indiana community. In particular, he wanted to link students to experiments being conducted at Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory in Illinois and the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) in Switzerland. Ruchti had also been selected as a United States educator coordinator for the LHC. Ruchti engaged young people with demonstrations at the annual Science Alive event hosted by the South Bend


id: notre-dame-quarknet-center-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notre_Dame_QuarkNet_Center-1.md
category: reference
title: Notre Dame QuarkNet Center
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notre_Dame_QuarkNet_Center
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:56.689192+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: notre-dame-quarknet-center-20260505-0
summary:
=== Tom Loughran === Tom Loughran of the University of Notre Dame participated in a summer 2000 Research Experience for Teachers (RET) experience at the Notre Dame QuarkNet Center under the guidance of professor Ruchti. Loughran had obtained a Ph.D. in philosophy from Notre Dame in 1986. Loughran would go on to work in various aspects and offshoots of the Notre Dame QuarkNet Center and Fermilab such as the I2U2 education program, Michiana BioEYES, and the Notre Dame Extended Research Community (NDeRC). === Smithsonian cosmic rays === In the Summer of 2001, Randal Ruchti and Barry Baumbaugh of Notre Dame installed a cosmic ray detector in a permanent display at the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, DC. The detector was included in the "Explore the Universe" exhibit that highlighted instruments built by astronomers and scientists. Ruchti and Baumbaugh's detector was the only live functioning device in the exhibit and utilized a night vision scope to project live views of cosmic ray particle tracks on a screen. The night vision scope detected faint pulses of light generated when high energy particles pass through a bundle of special fiber optic material in the device. The building of cosmic ray detectors


id: notre-dame-quarknet-center-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notre_Dame_QuarkNet_Center-2.md
category: reference
title: Notre Dame QuarkNet Center
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notre_Dame_QuarkNet_Center
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:56.689192+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: notre-dame-quarknet-center-20260505-0
summary:
=== Siemens Competition === In 2006, junior students Mengwen Zhang (Penn High School) and Kristen Anderson (Bremen High School) were selected as finalists for the Siemens Competition for scientific research held at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). The students had presented their QuarkNet summer research project named "Performance of Scintillating and Waveshifting Fibers for Particle Detectors". The research was related to the particle accelerator at CERN. Both students were introduced to the QuarkNet program by their high school science teachers. Anderson and Zhang performed their research project under the direction of QuarkNet staff members Dan Karmgard and Mark Vigneault. Anderson obtained a bachelor's degree from MIT and now works in the aerospace industry. Zhang was the Penn High School co-valedictorian and later obtained her Ph.D. in chemical engineering from UC Santa Barbara and works as a patent engineer. === CRiL === In 2007, Marian High School junior Tony Coiro and LaLumier High School junior Caleb Phillps worked at the Notre Dame QuarkNet Center under the direction of Dan Karmgard, Jeff Chorny, Danielle McDermott, then an Arkansas high school physics teacher, research technician Mike McKenna, and physicist Barry Baumbaugh of Notre Dame. Their project was to build a table-top cosmic


id: notre-dame-quarknet-center-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notre_Dame_QuarkNet_Center-3.md
category: reference
title: Notre Dame QuarkNet Center
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notre_Dame_QuarkNet_Center
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:56.689192+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: notre-dame-quarknet-center-20260505-0
summary:
=== I2U2 === In 2008, Tom Loughran was selected as Education Program Leader for the Interactions in Understanding the Universe (I2U2) program. This NSF-funded effort had been established by Marge Bardeen of Fermilab. Within I2U2, Loughran would spearhead the continuing development of e-Labs which had been used by other QuarkNet teachers nationally. Work on e-Labs became part of the summer research performed at the Notre Dame QuarkNet Center. The e-Labs were designed as a free resource that would link data and researchers from academic settings to high school educators and students. The e-Labs drew on work in cosmic rays, observations from the Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS) experiment within the LHC, and data from the LIGO gravitational wave experiment. In 2009, Loughran sponsored a Notre Dame workshop for local teachers to showcase the new LIGO e-Lab. Physics teacher Mark Kirzeder of Marian High School stated that "It's going to be a neat application." Kirzeder would go on to become a QuarkNet teacher in 2010. He had taught mathematics at Mishawaka Marian High School since 2005 and would be appointed principal of the school in 2014. === ILC === In 2009, a group of Notre Dame faculty and local high school teachers


id: notre-dame-quarknet-center-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notre_Dame_QuarkNet_Center-4.md
category: reference
title: Notre Dame QuarkNet Center
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notre_Dame_QuarkNet_Center
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:56.689192+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: notre-dame-quarknet-center-20260505-0
summary:
=== Notre Dame DVT === In 2013, Ken Andert of LaLumiere High School attended the Live Interactive Planetarium Symposium held at Seminole State College in Sandford, Florida. Andert started work as a QuarkNet teacher in 1999 and has worked with astronomy professor Keith Davis of Notre Dame in the university's Digital Visualization Theater (DVT) at the Jordan Hall of Science. The DVT is a 136-seat, 50-foot-domed planetarium theatre. The Notre Dame QuarkNet DVT group was established in 2008. Along with Ken Andert and Keith Davis, other participants include Ed Fidler of New Buffalo High School and Notre Dame QuarkNet staff member Jeff Marchant. Andert and Davis teach summer QuarkNet students the foundations of 3D animation by using professional modeling and rendering software. Along with LaLumiere students, Andert and Davis created a 3D simulation of particle collisions from the Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS) experiment at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) in Geneva, Switzerland. The simulation was designed to be projected onto a planetarium dome and was presented at the 2013 Sanford, Florida planetarium symposium. In 2016, LaLumiere students Camille Goethals and Oliver McNeil presented a simulation of the entire ring of the Large Hadron Collider at the Notre Dame DVT. To


id: notre-dame-quarknet-center-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notre_Dame_QuarkNet_Center-5.md
category: reference
title: Notre Dame QuarkNet Center
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notre_Dame_QuarkNet_Center
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:56.689192+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: notre-dame-quarknet-center-20260505-0
summary:
In 2023, Kenneth Cecire spoke at the 38th International Cosmic Ray Conference (ICRC2023) in Nagoya, Japan. The talk detailed the building of Cosmic Watches at the Notre Dame QuarkNet Center. Invented by Spencer Axani of MIT, the Cosmic Watch is an inexpensive cosmic ray detector that can be utilized in high school and university physics classes. Before, the Notre Dame QuarkNet Center had a long-term project to build and test larger, tabletop size cosmic ray detectors for use in the classroom. In an effort provide less expensive units that could make up a class set of detectors, Notre Dame QuarkNet teacher Dan Kallenberg of Adams High School had spearheaded the construction of several Cosmic Watches during the summer of 2019. In 2020, just before the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, Cecire and Kallenberg, along with collaborator Joel Klammer, were part of an "Accel Kitchen" workshop held at the Hiroo Gakuen school in Tokyo where they performed Cosmic Watch experiments and demonstrations. In 2022, Kallenberg, with help from Senior Technician Daniel Ruggiero and summer students, built 48 Cosmic Watches that would be provided to local and national QuarkNet teachers for testing. Miki Ohtsuka, a visiting teacher from Waseda Honjo Senior High


id: pathological-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathological_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Pathological science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathological_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:57.899151+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pathological-science-20260505-0
summary:
Pathological science is an area of research where "people are tricked into false results ... by subjective effects, wishful thinking or threshold interactions." The term was coined by Irving Langmuir, Nobel Prize-winning chemist, during a 1953 colloquium at the Knolls Research Laboratory. Langmuir said a pathological science is an area of research that simply will not "go away"—long after it was given up on as "false" by the majority of scientists in the field. He called pathological science "the science of things that aren't so." In his 2002 book, Undead Science, sociology and anthropology Professor Bart Simon lists it among practices that are falsely perceived or presented to be science, "categories ... such as ... pseudoscience, amateur science, deviant or fraudulent science, bad science, junk science, pathological science, cargo cult science, and voodoo science." Examples of pathological science include the Martian canals, N-rays, and cold fusion. The theories and conclusions behind all of these examples are currently rejected or disregarded by the majority of scientists. == Definition == Pathological science, as defined by Langmuir, is a psychological process in which a scientist, originally conforming to the scientific method, unconsciously veers from that method, and begins a pathological process of wishful


id: physics-outreach-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach-0.md
category: reference
title: Physics outreach
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:59.140753+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physics-outreach-20260505-0
summary:
Physics outreach encompasses facets of science outreach and physics education, and a variety of activities by schools, research institutes, universities, clubs and institutions such as science museums aimed at broadening the audience for and awareness and understanding of physics, including through trust-building with non-expert audiences. While the general public may sometimes be the focus of such activities, physics outreach often centers on developing and providing resources and making presentations to students, educators in other disciplines, and in some cases researchers within different areas of physics. == History == Ongoing efforts to expand the understanding of physics to a wider audience have been undertaken by individuals and institutions since the early 19th century. Historic works, such as the Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, and Two New Sciences by Galileo Galilei, sought to present revolutionary knowledge in astronomy, frames of reference, and kinematics in a manner that a general audience could understand with great effect. In the mid-1800s, English physicist and chemist, Michael Faraday gave a series of nineteen lectures aimed towards young adults with the hopes of conveying scientific phenomena. His intentions were to raise awareness, inspire them and generate revenue of the Royal Institution. This series became known


id: physics-outreach-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach-1.md
category: reference
title: Physics outreach
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:59.140753+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physics-outreach-20260505-0
summary:
=== France === Cité des Sciences et de l'Industrie (Paris) is the largest French science museum, and contains permanent exhibits and hands-on experiments. Palais de la Découverte (Paris) contains permanent exhibits and interactive experiments with commentaries by lecturers. It includes a Zeiss planetarium with 15-metre dome. It was created in 1937 by the French Nobel Prize physicist Jean Baptiste Perrin. Musée des Arts et Métiers (Paris) focuses on the preservation of scientific instruments and inventions. Other science museums that are part of the Cultural Center of Science, Technology and Industry (CCSTI) exist all across France : Espace des Sciences (Rennes), La Casemate (Grenoble), the Cité de l'espace (Toulouse). === Germany === Deutsches Museum (Munich) is the world's largest science museum. One of the most popular events is the high voltage demonstration of a Faraday cage as part of their series on electric power. === Islamic Republic of Iran === Iran Science and Technology Museum (Tehran) is the largest science museum in Iran. This museum, by holding varied scientific and educational programs, provides the required situation for creation and propagation of scientific thought in the society. One of these programs is the "Physics Show". === Netherlands === NEMO (Amsterdam) is the


id: physics-outreach-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach-2.md
category: reference
title: Physics outreach
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:59.140753+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physics-outreach-20260505-0
summary:
=== Internet === MinutePhysics is a series of educational videos created by Henry Reich and disseminated through its YouTube channel. It displays a series of pedagogical short videos about various physics phenomena and theories. Physics World publication, run by the Institute of Physics, started explaining scientific concepts through its YouTube channel. Palais de la Découverte in Paris hosts online videos that display various interviews about science, including physics. Unisciel, a French online university, hosts educational videos through its YouTube channel. Veritasium is a series of educational videos created by Derek Muller and disseminated through its YouTube channel. It displays a series of pedagogical short videos about science, including physics. Saint Mary's Physics Demonstrations is an online repository for physics classroom demonstrations. It shows teachers the experiments they can do in class while also hosting videos of said experiments. Periodic Videos is a portal of educational videos explaining the characteristics of each element and supporting topics such as nuclear reactions. The project is sponsored by the University of Nottingham and hosted by Prof. Sir Martyn Poliakoff. == Prominent individuals == === Austria === Fritjof Capra is an Austrian-born American physicist, who attended the University of Vienna, where he earned his Ph.D.


id: physics-outreach-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach-3.md
category: reference
title: Physics outreach
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:16:59.140753+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physics-outreach-20260505-0
summary:
== Funding sources == American Physical Society awards grants up to $10,000 to help APS members develop new physics outreach activities. Institute for Complex Adaptive Matter (ICAM) provides grants and fellowships for physics outreach. Wellcome Trust, while mostly focused on biological sciences, the Wellcome Trust also touches on physics and encourages physics outreach. They aim to improve biology, chemistry, and physics A levels in the UK. Institute of Physics (IoP) The IoP aims to provide positive and compelling experiences of physics for public audiences through engaging and entertaining activities and events. The public engagement grant scheme is designed to give financial support of up to £1500 to individuals and organisations running physics-based events and activities in the UK and Ireland. == Awards == Kalinga Prize for the Popularization of Science is an award given by UNESCO for exceptional skill in presenting scientific ideas to lay people Klopsteg Memorial Award is presented by the American Association of Physics Teachers and given in memory of the physicist Paul E. Klopsteg Kelvin Prize is awarded by the Institute of Physics to acknowledge outstanding contributions to the public understanding of physics. The Michael Faraday Prize for communicating science to a UK audience is awarded


id: popsicule-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popsicule-0.md
category: reference
title: Popsicule
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popsicule
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:04.529121+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: popsicule-20260505-0
summary:
Popsicule (also referred to as the Popsicule) is the Science in Popular Culture and Entertainment Hub of the Australian National University. Established in 2022 by Anna-Sophie Jürgens, a Senior Lecturer in science communication, it is based within the Australian National Centre for the Public Awareness of Science. Through interdisciplinary research, teaching, and creative public engagement initiatives, the hub focuses on the cultural meanings of science, examining how popular culture shapes public discourse, understanding, and cultural ideas about science, as well as the relationship between science and society. Its activities include courses, publications, film screenings and discussions, the development of science communication formats, and collaborations with scientists, artists, and cultural practitioners. In 2025, Popsicule received the Vice-Chancellor’s Award for Programs that Enhance Learning at ANU. == History == Popsicule was established in 2022 at the Australian National University by Anna-Sophie Jürgens. It developed from Jürgens’s research on the cultural meanings of science, humour, and popular entertainment, as well as from her teaching in science communication and popular culture. From its inception, Popsicule combined research, teaching, and public engagement activities, functioning as a platform for science engagement and research collaboration, a teaching laboratory, and a space for student publications. Its work has


id: popsicule-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popsicule-1.md
category: reference
title: Popsicule
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popsicule
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:04.529121+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: popsicule-20260505-0
summary:
== Research and publications == Popsicule contributes to research on science communication and popular culture, with a focus on the cultural dimensions of how science is communicated and experienced. Its work addresses areas including humour and comic performance in science, portrayals of scientists and scientific knowledge in film and television, visual and artistic approaches to communicating science, and environmental communication and aesthetics. The hub’s research also examines the role of narrative, metaphor, and genre in shaping public perceptions of science, as well as the ways in which popular culture influences trust, authority, and engagement in science–society relations. Through interdisciplinary and collaborative approaches, Popsicule contributes to scholarship in science communication, pop culture studies and related fields through journal articles, edited volumes, and public-facing publications. === Notable publications === ==== Books ==== Judd, K.; Gaul, B.; Jürgens, A.-S. (2025). Women Scientists in American Television Comedy: Beakers, Big Bangs and Broken Hearts. Palgrave Macmillan. Hemkendreis, A.; Jürgens, A.-S. (eds.) (2024). Communicating Ice through Popular Art and Aesthetics. Palgrave Macmillan. Jürgens, A.-S.; Hildbrand, M. (eds.) (2022). Circus and the Avant-Gardes: History, Imaginary, Innovation. Routledge. Jürgens, A.-S. (ed.) (2020). Circus, Science and Technology: Dramatising Innovation. Palgrave Macmillan. ==== Selected articles and book chapters ==== Walsh,


id: popsicule-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popsicule-2.md
category: reference
title: Popsicule
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popsicule
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:04.529121+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: popsicule-20260505-0
summary:
“Cinematic Science: Film screenings that celebrate science, cinema and art”, Chemistry World (2024) “Spielberg, a tuba, and a shark named Bruce — the cultural impact of Jaws”, ABC Radio National (Big Ideas, 2024) “Clowns, horror and science fiction as a research subject”, SBS German (2025) “I didn’t even know my work was considered science communication”, Wissenschaftskommunikation.de (2023) “Science goes pop: where mad scientists meet the world”, ANU Reporter (2025) “Is Beetlejuice the comic king of parasites?”, ANU Reporter (2024) “Episode 2: Dr Anna-Sophie Jürgens/The one on Science”, Cutting Edge podcast (Australasian Humour Studies Research Network, (2024) “Dr Anna-Sophie Jürgens walks the tightrope between pop culture and science”, ANU College of Science & Medicine, Portrait (2023) == Recognition == Popsicule’s teaching model has been recognised by the Australian National University through the 2025 Vice-Chancellor’s Award for Programs that Enhance Learning. In 2024, Popsicule was shortlisted as a finalist in the Science Engagement category of the Falling Walls Global Call, placing it among 30 finalists. Between 2023 and 2024, Popsicule was selected, through a competitive application process, to participate in and present at the Silbersalz Institute’s Science & Media Programme with a collaborative project focused on interdisciplinary science–art engagement. The work of


id: program-conciencia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Program_ConCiencia-0.md
category: reference
title: Program ConCiencia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Program_ConCiencia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:05.721997+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: program-conciencia-20260505-0
summary:
The Program ConCiencia is an initiative of science communication created in 2006 by the Universidad de Santiago de Compostela and the Consorcio de Santiago. It is based on visits to Santiago de Compostela of Nobel Laureates or analogous laureates in mathematics (Fields Medal, Abel Prize) and computer science (Turing Award). Since 2008 this program organizes also the Fonseca Prize of science communication, which so far has been awarded to Stephen W. Hawking, James Lovelock, Sir David Attenborough and Sir Roger Penrose. == Participants == Heinrich Rohrer (Nobel Physics 1986) Torsten N. Wiesel (Nobel Physiology or Medicine 1981) Richard R. Ernst (Nobel Chemistry 1991) Sir Michael Atiyah (Fields Medal 1966, Abel Prize 2004) Frank Wilczek (Nobel Physics 2004) John E. Walker (Nobel Chemistry 1997) Peter Lax (Abel Prize 2005) John F. Nash (Nobel Economy 1994) Harold E. Varmus (Nobel Physiology or Medicine 1989) Frances E. Allen (Turing Award 2006) Gerardus 't Hooft (Nobel Physics 1999) K. Barry Sharpless (Nobel Chemistry 2001 and 2022) Jean-Marie Lehn (Nobel Chemistry 1987) James Watson Cronin (Nobel Physics 1980) Roger David Kornberg (Nobel Chemistry 2006) Albert Fert (Nobel Physics 2007) Sir Harold Walter Kroto (Nobel Chemistry 1996) Sir Richard J. Roberts (Nobel Physiology or Medicine 1993)


id: public-criminology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_criminology-0.md
category: reference
title: Public criminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_criminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:06.904374+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: public-criminology-20260505-0
summary:
Public criminology is an approach to criminology that disseminates criminological research beyond academia to broader audiences, such as criminal justice practitioners and the general public. Public criminology is closely tied with "public sociology", and draws on a long line of intellectuals engaging in public interventions related to crime and justice. Some forms of public criminology are conducted through methods such as classroom education, academic conferences, public lectures, "news-making criminology", government hearings, newspapers, radio and television broadcasting and press releases. Advocates of public criminology argue that the energies of criminologists should be directed towards "conducting and disseminating research on crime, law, and deviance in dialogue with affected communities." Public criminologists focus on reshaping the image of the criminal and work with communities to find answers to pressing questions. Proponents of public criminology see it as potentially narrowing "the yawning gap between public perceptions and the best available scientific evidence on issues of public concern", a problem they see as especially pertinent to matters of crime and punishment. The general response to public criminology has been positive, however several authors have voiced a number of concerns: one set of concerns focuses on the ability of public criminologists to effectively impact policy decisions;


id: public-criminology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_criminology-1.md
category: reference
title: Public criminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_criminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:06.904374+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: public-criminology-20260505-0
summary:
== Criticisms == The response to calls for public criminology has generally been positive, though several authors have expressed a number of concerns. One set of concerns has focused on the ability of public criminologists to effectively impact policy decisions. For example, Michael Tonry has pointed out there exists a broad indifference on the part of policy makers to criminological insights, while Daniel Mears illustrates a similar indifference on the part of academic criminology for policy-making issues. Likewise, British Criminologist Paul Rock has voiced concerns regarding criminologist's lack of experience in policy-making, as well as questioning the integrity of public criminology if it is to be subject to the political spectrum. He argues that "...criminology itself often plays so small a role in what is done. It might be far less important that criminologists endorse a measure than that, at the outset, the judiciary, or heads of other government departments, or chiefs of police, and then later, politicians on both sides of the Houses of Parliament do so." Finally, many public criminologists have taken issue with how little criminologists engage in news reporting. For example, Daniel Crépault acknowledges that while criminological news and research is frequently reported, it is often


id: saganet-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAGANet-0.md
category: reference
title: SAGANet
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAGANet
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:08.043300+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: saganet-20260505-0
summary:
SAGANet (Social Action for Grassroots Astrobiology Network) is a social and collaborative web platform created to connect scientists and science enthusiasts who share interests in the research and culture of astrobiology. == Background == SAGANet was founded in 2011 by Blue Marble Space Institute of Science scientists Zach Adam, Julia DeMarines, Heshan Illangkoon, Betül Kaçar, Sanjoy Som, and Sara Imari Walker. It was officially launched on April 12, 2012 (51 years after the first launch of a human into space and 31 years after the first launch of the Space Shuttle Columbia (STS-1)), and was announced publicly at the 2012 Astrobiology Science Conference. SAGANet is named after the late Carl Sagan (The acronym is used with courtesy of the Carl Sagan Foundation) and builds upon his vision of a citizenry actively engaged in learning about the cosmos. SAGANet is designed to be an immersive virtual community where members interact in an environment of shared learning. SAGANet is currently funded by Blue Marble Space. == Events == SAGANet has organized several events on the site and through various platforms that engage the general public. “Talk to an Astrobiologist” started off as a monthly event where a distinguished scientist is invited to


id: science-communication-observatory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Communication_Observatory-0.md
category: reference
title: Science Communication Observatory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Communication_Observatory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:09.472849+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-communication-observatory-20260505-0
summary:
The Science Communication Observatory (Catalan: Observatori de la Comunicació Científica, Spanish: Observatorio de la Comunicación Científica, OCC) is a Special Research Centre attached to the Department of Communication of the Pompeu Fabra University in Barcelona, Spain, set up in 1994. This centre is specialized in the study and analysis of the transmission of scientific, medical, environmental and technological knowledge to society. The journalist Vladimir de Semir, associated professor of Science Journalism at the Pompeu Fabra University, was the founder and is the current director of the centre. A multidisciplinary team of researchers coming from different backgrounds (i.e. journalists, biologists, physicians, linguists, historians, etc.) is working on various lines of research: science communication; popularization of sciences, risk and crisis communication; science communication and knowledge representation; journalism specialized in science and technology; scientific discourse analysis; health and medicine in the daily press; relationships between science journals and mass media; history of science communication; public understanding of science; gender and science in the mass media, promotion of scientific vocations, science museology, etc. == PCST Network & Academy == The Science Communication Observatory is linked to the international network on Public Communication of Science & Technology (PCST), which includes individuals from around the world


id: science-outreach-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_outreach-0.md
category: reference
title: Science outreach
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_outreach
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:12.020189+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-outreach-20260505-0
summary:
Science outreach, also called education and public outreach (EPO or E/PO) or simply public outreach, is an umbrella term for a variety of activities by research institutes, universities, and institutions such as science museums, aimed at promoting public awareness (and understanding) of science, including trust-building, and making informal contributions to science education. == Scope and history == While there have always been individual scientists interested in educating the public, science outreach has recently become more organized. For example, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) now requires all of its projects to organize suitable outreach activities. Also working to inform the public are organizations such as Communicating Astronomy to the Public and the Washington Declaration on Communicating Astronomy to the Public that organize conferences for the public on science issues and make efforts to put outreach on a more general institutional footing. Recently, an increasing number of projects have hired designated outreach scientists (part-time or full-time) that handle public relations for their project. There are also specialized outreach providers such as the Education branch of the Space Science Institute in Boulder, Colorado and the Education and Public Outreach Group at Sonoma State University which offer to organize a project's outreach


id: scienceupfirst-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ScienceUpFirst-0.md
category: reference
title: ScienceUpFirst
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ScienceUpFirst
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:14.518439+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scienceupfirst-20260505-0
summary:
ScienceUpFirst is a Canadian initiative launched to counter misinformation online, especially about COVID-19. Launched January 25, 2021, it brings together independent scientists, health care providers and science communicators. == Goals and history == The initiative is the result of conversations between Senator Stan Kutcher and Timothy Caulfield, who were discussing ways to counter misinformation about COVID-19. In April 2021, the Government of Canada announced $2.25 million in funding for two new projects to increase uptake of COVID-19 vaccines, one of which was ScienceUpFirst. The initiative received $2,590,682 in new funding through the Canadian Association of Science Centres from the Public Health Agency of Canada's Immunization Partnership Fund. The groups aims at disseminating information created by its members or selected from credible sources. Starting in March 2021, it also plans to track misinformation online and post science-based content to oppose it. In addition to recruiting athletes and celebrities, it's building a network of volunteers to increase the distribution of the selected information. The initiative will be especially active against misinformation about COVID-19 vaccination, which threatens to have an impact on vaccination rates. Caulfield commented that the amount of disinformation circulating in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic is unlike anything experienced


id: soapbox-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soapbox_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Soapbox Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soapbox_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:21.095376+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: soapbox-science-20260505-0
summary:
Soapbox Science is a public outreach platform that promotes women working in science and the research that they do. The events turns public spaces into an area for learning and debate, in the spirit of Hyde Park's Speakers' Corner. Soapbox Science encourages scientists to explain their research to members of the public using non-traditional methods (for example, there is no use of a projector or slides). Speakers typically make props at home to explain the processes behind their research. Soapbox Science launched in London in 2011, where it was led by Seirian Sumner and Nathalie Pettorelli. It aims to showcase eminent female scientists across the world. == History == Soapbox Science launched in London in 2011, led by Seirian Sumner and Nathalie Pettorelli and funded by L'Oreal UNESCO For Women in Science Scheme, Zoological Society of London and the Science & Technology Facilities Council. Soapbox Science formed a partnership with Speakezee in 2016. The first three annual events 2011-2013 ran in London, in 2014 events ran in London, Bristol, Dublin, and Swansea. In 2015 more cities joined including Exeter, Manchester, Newcastle, Belfast and Glasgow, all in the United Kingdom and Ireland. In 2016, Cambridge, Cardiff, Edinburgh, Milton Keynes, Oxford, Galway,


id: the-story-collider-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Story_Collider-0.md
category: reference
title: The Story Collider
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Story_Collider
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:22.289777+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-story-collider-20260505-0
summary:
The Story Collider is a US-based non-profit group dedicated to telling true, personal stories about science. Their mission is to empower both scientists and nonscientists alike with the skills they need to tell these stories and share them through their live shows and podcast, with the goal of exploring the human side of science. == Programs == === Live events === Every year, The Story Collider produces between 40 and 50 live storytelling shows across the United States, United Kingdom, New Zealand, and Canada featuring stories about science that are both "stand-up funny and powerfully confessional," according to The Wall Street Journal. The organization now regularly holds shows in New York, Boston, Washington, D.C., Los Angeles, St. Louis, Atlanta, Toronto, Vancouver, and Wellington, New Zealand. In addition, The Story Collider has worked with various partners to produce one-off shows in other locations. Past and current partnerships include public radio's Studio 360 with Kurt Andersen, St. Louis Public Radio, Springer Nature, Scientific American, the American Geophysical Union, the Society for the Advancement of Chicanos/Hispanics and Native Americans in Science, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the Gulf of Mexico Research Initiative, Fermilab, and universities such as Yale, Cambridge and


id: vert-dider-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vert_Dider-0.md
category: reference
title: Vert Dider
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vert_Dider
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:23.538041+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vert-dider-20260505-0
summary:
Vert Dider is a non-profit volunteer project focused around translating and dubbing scientific and educational videos for Russian-speaking audience. == History == The project was created in 2013 by Ilya Abilov, who himself was engaged in voicing the first videos. The studio is supported and developed by volunteers helping it evolve. The studio’s leading activity is translating and dubbing videos related to science. Over a thousand videos are currently available through the studio’s official public page on VK social media site. The list of translated into Russian and dubbed videos include videos from a number of educational YouTube channels, lectures, debates and documentaries. On January 19, 2016, was the day when Vert Dider started cooperating with BuzzFeed media company. In early 2017 Vert Dider started a YouTube channel for videos in English. That same year the studio joined efforts with the educational project SciOne to conduct interviews with Walter Lewin, Robert Sapolsky, Lawrence Krauss, Richard Dawkins and James Watson. The studio has been a Harry Houdini Awards media partner since the Russian analogue to James Randi’s One Million Dollar Paranormal Challenge was founded. === Lectures === In October 2015, the studio started translating Richard Feynman’s Messenger Lectures into Russian. By


id: youtube-in-education-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTube_in_education-0.md
category: reference
title: YouTube in education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTube_in_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:24.848307+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: youtube-in-education-20260505-0
summary:
YouTube in education refers to the use of the video-sharing platform YouTube for educational purposes in both formal and informal learning environments. A 2018 Pew Research Center survey found that 51% of YouTube users say the platform is very important for helping them learn new skills, representing 35% of all U.S. adults. Since YouTube's launch in 2005, educational institutions like MIT OpenCourseWare and TED have used the platform to distribute content, while independent creators have developed popular educational channels such as Khan Academy, Smarter Every Day, and Vsauce. The platform has been adopted across various educational fields, including medical education, where studies have shown both benefits and limitations in teaching clinical skills and anatomical concepts. YouTube also created YouTube EDU in 2009 as a dedicated repository for educational content from institutions and creators. == History == YouTube was founded as a video sharing platform in 2005 and is now the most visited website in the US as of 2019. Almost immediately after the site's launch, educational institutions, such as MIT OpenCourseWare and TED, were using it for the distribution of their content. Soon after, many independent creators began to experiment with science learning. Some of the most popular early educators


id: scientific-controversy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_controversy-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:26.533179+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
Sustained scientific controversy, sometimes scientific debate is any substantial disagreement among scientists. A scientific controversy may involve issues such as the interpretation of data, which ideas are most supported by evidence, and/or which ideas are most worth pursuing. Controversies between scientific and non-scientific ideas are not within the realm of science and are not true scientific controversies. A genuine scientific controversy entails an ongoing discussion within the wider scientific community. Well known examples include the debate over the existence of the atom that lasted until the turn of the 20th century, the Bohr–Einstein debates, the linguistics wars, and the debate over the causes of ADHD. == Intra-academic debate == Constructive debate within the scientific community is widely viewed as essential to the progress of science as a whole. Critique and debate leads to an environment in which ideas are rigorously and extensively cross-tested and in which mistakes which one individual might not catch are able to be justified by another, and additionally, the environment can push the development of new research programs, discovery of new evidence, and the forward movement of scientific consensus. Debate among scientists within a primarily academic setting can take one of many forms: two important forms,


id: academic-boycott-of-israel-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_boycott_of_Israel-0.md
category: reference
title: Academic boycott of Israel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_boycott_of_Israel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:27.825907+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: academic-boycott-of-israel-20260505-0
summary:
The current campaign for an academic boycott of Israel was launched in April 2004 by the Palestinian Campaign for the Academic and Cultural Boycott of Israel (PACBI) as part of the Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions (BDS) campaign. PACBI argues that Israeli academic institutions are complicit in perpetuating the Israeli occupation and therefore should be subject to boycott in order to advance BDS goals. Since then, proposals for academic boycotts of particular Israeli universities and academics have been made by academics and organizations in Palestine, the United States, the United Kingdom, and other countries. Supporters say the boycotts is intended to pressure Israel to change policies they describe are discriminatory towards the Palestinians. The campaigns for academic boycott of Israel have led to fierce debate. Opponents argue that boycott advocates apply different standards to Israel than other countries, that the boycott is counterproductive, a collective punishment of Israeli academia, a tactic to threaten the existence of the State of Israel, and also that the campaign is antisemitic. Support for academic boycotts of Israel has been more prevalent among faculty in the humanities and social sciences than in the sciences. Despite this debate, academic boycott measures have been undertaken around the world,


id: academic-boycott-of-israel-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_boycott_of_Israel-1.md
category: reference
title: Academic boycott of Israel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_boycott_of_Israel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:27.825907+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: academic-boycott-of-israel-20260505-0
summary:
=== Association of University Teachers === On 22 April 2005, the Council of Association of University Teachers (AUT) voted to boycott two Israeli universities: University of Haifa and Bar-Ilan University. The motions to AUT Council were prompted by the call for a boycott from nearly 60 Palestinian academics and others. The AUT Council voted to boycott Bar-Ilan because it runs courses at colleges in the West Bank (referring to Ariel College) and "is thus directly involved with the occupation of Palestinian territories contrary to United Nations resolutions". It boycotted Haifa because it was alleged that the university had wrongly disciplined Ilan Pappé for supporting a student who wrote about attacks on Palestinians during the founding of the state of Israel. The University denied having disciplined the lecturer. Union members claimed that staff and students [of Israeli universities] who seek to research Israel's history in full are often "victimised". The AUT's decision was immediately condemned by Jewish groups and many members of the AUT. Critics of the boycott within and outside the AUT noted that at the meeting at which the boycott motion was passed the leadership cut short the debate citing a lack of time. Specifically, the Board of Deputies


id: academic-boycott-of-israel-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_boycott_of_Israel-2.md
category: reference
title: Academic boycott of Israel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_boycott_of_Israel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:27.825907+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: academic-boycott-of-israel-20260505-0
summary:
The ironic thing, is if we had put this to delegates a couple of weeks ago, before the international pro-Israeli lobby started this massive campaign emailing delegates and trying to deny us our democratic right to discuss whatever we like, it probably wouldn't have passed. People feel bullied, and what we have seen is a hardening of attitudes. All they achieved was making the delegates determined to debate and pass the motion. Tamara Traubmann and Benjamin Joffe-Walt, reporting for The Guardian, conducted an analysis of "whether the campaigns against such boycotts are actually motivated by concerns for academic freedom, or whether they are using the universalist ideal to stifle critical discussion of Israel". They describe their findings this way: Through discussions with anti-boycott campaigners and a trace of the most common emails (not necessarily abusive) sent to the union and handed over by Natfhe, we found the vast majority of the tens of thousands of emails originated not with groups fighting for academic freedom, but with lobby groups and thinktanks that regularly work to delegitimise criticisms of Israel. === University and College Union === Since 2007, the UCU has been controversially involved in the academic boycotts of Israel and for


id: academic-boycott-of-israel-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_boycott_of_Israel-3.md
category: reference
title: Academic boycott of Israel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_boycott_of_Israel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:27.825907+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: academic-boycott-of-israel-20260505-0
summary:
=== Following Operation Cast Lead === In March 2009, shortly after the Gaza War, a call for an academic boycott in France was published on the web with over 50 signatures, including Daniel Bensaïd, Gérard Toulouse of the Académie des sciences, coauthor in 2003 of Les scientifiques et les droits de l'homme with Lydie Koch-Miramond who had also signed and defended the boycott of Israel in 2002, Mireille Fanon-Mendès-France, and Roland Lombard, President of the Collectif Interuniversitaire pour la Coopération avec les Universités Palestiniennes. They called "in the first place to impose a program of boycott, divestment, and sanctions," following the creation of the French organization BDS France. In the spring of 2009, the Association of Academics for the Respect of International Law in Palestine (AURDIP) was created by the group of academics who had initiated the 2002 call, in alliance with the Palestinian Campaign for the Academic and Cultural Boycott of Israel PACBI and with the British organization British Committee for the Universities of Palestine. AURDIP was created with two primary missions: (1) To promote the application of international law in Israel and Palestine; specifically to oppose Israeli occupation of the Palestinian territories and Israel’s settlement policy, which fly


id: academic-boycott-of-israel-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_boycott_of_Israel-4.md
category: reference
title: Academic boycott of Israel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_boycott_of_Israel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:27.825907+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: academic-boycott-of-israel-20260505-0
summary:
Others may interpret the boycott differently, but I have no problem collaborating with Israeli scholars and artists as long as we do not participate in any Israeli institution or have Israeli state monies support our collaborative work. The reason, of course, is that the academic and cultural boycott seeks to put pressure on all those cultural institutions that have failed to oppose the occupation and struggle for equal rights and the rights of the dispossessed, all those cultural institutions that think it is not their place to criticize their government for these practices, all of them that understand themselves to be above or beyond this intractable political condition. Hamid Dabashi, a professor of Iranian studies at Columbia University, is on the advisory board of the U.S. Campaign for the Academic & Cultural Boycott of Israel. Dabashi supports boycott efforts targeting both Israeli individuals and institutions: The divestment campaign that has been far more successful in Western Europe needs to be reinvigorated in North America – as must the boycotting of the Israeli cultural and academic institutions ... Naming names and denouncing individually every prominent Israeli intellectual who has publicly endorsed their elected officials' wide-eyed barbarism, and then categorically boycotting their


id: academic-boycott-of-israel-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_boycott_of_Israel-5.md
category: reference
title: Academic boycott of Israel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_boycott_of_Israel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:27.825907+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: academic-boycott-of-israel-20260505-0
summary:
Until April 2013, no American school had ever divested from or imposed an academic boycott on Israel despite strong boycott campaigns. Former President of Harvard University Larry Summers has called Israel-boycott efforts "anti-Semitic in their effect if not their intent". In 2007, nearly 300 university presidents across the United States signed a joint statement denouncing the boycott movement. In 2010, a group of 15 American university professors launched a campaign calling for an academic and cultural boycott of Israel. Many universities and prominent scholars criticized the ASA's support of the boycott. Brandeis University, Pennsylvania State University, Indiana University and Kenyon College decided to withdraw from the ASA. The American Council on Education, an umbrella organisation of 1,800 institutions, the American Association of Universities which represents 62 schools across the US and Canada, and the American Association of University Professors all condemned the boycott. Ninety-two university presidents including of Harvard, Brown, Yale, Princeton, Johns Hopkins, Cornell, Duke, Stanford, Boston, Columbia, Chicago, New York University, Dartmouth College, Wesleyan, Florida, University of Miami, Western Kentucky University, University of Connecticut and University of Washington, condemned the boycott and distanced themselves from the ASA. Harvard president Drew Gilpin Faust said, "academic boycotts subvert the academic


id: academic-boycott-of-israel-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_boycott_of_Israel-6.md
category: reference
title: Academic boycott of Israel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_boycott_of_Israel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:27.825907+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: academic-boycott-of-israel-20260505-0
summary:
== Ireland == In April 2013 the Teachers' Union of Ireland (TUI) passed a motion calling for an academic boycott of Israel. Following a referendum among NUI Galway students in March 2014, the NUI Galway Students' Union officially began supporting the campaign of Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions against Israel. In December 2022 the Union of Students in Ireland unanimously passed a motion to support BDS and "denounce the apartheid that Israel is committing in Palestine". The motion also called on the European Students Union (ESU) "to re-evaluate the membership of Israel and support any Palestinian efforts to engage with ESU". Trinity College Dublin cut ties with Israeli institutions in 2025. == South Africa == === Campaign to boycott Ben-Gurion University === On 5 September 2010, a nationwide academic petition was initiated by academics supporting a termination of a partnership agreement between the University of Johannesburg (UJ) and Ben-Gurion University (BGU); a long-standing partnership dating back to apartheid era relations between the two institutions. Well-known academics such as Professors Breyten Breytenbach, John Dugard, Mahmood Mamdani, Antjie Krog and Achille Mbembe are signatories to the academic petition, which is also backed by Vice-Chancellors from four universities in South Africa. Amid widespread public


id: academic-boycott-of-israel-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_boycott_of_Israel-7.md
category: reference
title: Academic boycott of Israel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_boycott_of_Israel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:27.825907+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: academic-boycott-of-israel-20260505-0
summary:
== Criticism == A prominent Palestinian academic, former president of Al-Quds University, Sari Nusseibeh, has argued against academic boycotts of Israel, telling Associated Press "If we are to look at Israeli society, it is within the academic community that we've had the most progressive pro-peace views and views that have come out in favor of seeing us as equals.... If you want to punish any sector, this is the last one to approach." He acknowledges, however, that his view is a minority one among Palestinian academics. A study focusing on the impact of academic boycotts on academic freedom and discourse, based on interviews during the Gaza war that began in 2023, found that Israeli academics faced overt and covert discrimination, obstacles to collaboration, and potential long-term career challenges. Participants in the study stressed the need to keep science separate from politics and preserve cross-border collaboration as essential for advancing research and addressing global challenges. Cary Nelson argues that while boycott resolutions are unlikely to affect Israeli policy, they risk politicizing and damaging the reputation of the humanities, undermining open debate, and shaping public opinion in ways that may harm academia itself. The Nobel laureate Venki Ramakrishnan told the Guardian that


id: alphachip-controversy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AlphaChip_(controversy)-0.md
category: reference
title: AlphaChip (controversy)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AlphaChip_(controversy)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:29.075305+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alphachip-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
The AlphaChip controversy refers to a series of public, scholarly, and legal disputes surrounding a 2021 Nature paper by Google-affiliated researchers. The paper describes an approach to macro placement, a stage of chip floorplanning, based on reinforcement learning (RL), a machine learning method in which a system iteratively improves its decisions by optimizing performance-based reward signals. The primary technical question is whether the new techniques are better than existing (non-AI) techniques. Both internal Google studies and external attempts to replicate the algorithm have failed to show the claimed benefits. No head-to-head comparison is available because the data used in the paper is proprietary, and Google has not released any results from running its algorithm on public benchmarks. This has resulted in considerable skepticism over the paper's claims. In addition, the inability of others (both inside and outside of Google) to replicate the claimed results have sparked concerns about the paper’s methodology, reproducibility, and scientific integrity. The lead researchers of the Nature paper were affiliated with Google Brain, which became part of Google DeepMind, and later spun off into the company Ricursive. == Motivation for research: Macro placement in chip layout == Chip design for modern integrated circuits is a complex,


id: alphachip-controversy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AlphaChip_(controversy)-1.md
category: reference
title: AlphaChip (controversy)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AlphaChip_(controversy)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:29.075305+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alphachip-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Internal dispute at Google and legal proceedings === In 2022, Satrajit Chatterjee, a Google engineer involved in reviewing the AlphaChip work, raised concerns internally and drafted an alternative analysis, (Stronger Baselines) arguing that established methods outperformed the RL approach under fair comparison. In March 2022, Google declined to publish this analysis and terminated Chatterjee's employment. Chatterjee filed a wrongful dismissal lawsuit, alleging that representations related to the AlphaChip research involved fraud and scientific misconduct. According to court documents, Chatterjee's study was conducted "in the context of a large potential Google Cloud deal". He noted that it "would have been unethical to imply that we had revolutionary technology when our tests showed otherwise" and claimed Google was deliberately withholding material information. Furthermore, the committee that reviewed his paper and disapproved its publication was allegedly chaired by subordinates of Jeff Dean, a senior co-author of the Nature paper. Google’s subsequent motion to dismiss was denied, holding that Chatterjee had plausibly alleged retaliation for refusing to engage in conduct he believed would violate state or federal law. === External controversy === The external questions can be summarized in four main points: (a) Are the claims supported by the evidence provided? (b) Did


id: alphachip-controversy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AlphaChip_(controversy)-2.md
category: reference
title: AlphaChip (controversy)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AlphaChip_(controversy)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:29.075305+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alphachip-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
== Nature editorial actions == In April 2022, the peer review file for the Nature article was included as a supplementary information file. In September 2023, Nature added an editor's note to "A graph placement methodology for fast chip design" stating that the paper's performance claims had been called into question and that the editors were investigating the concerns. On 21 September 2023, Andrew B. Kahng's accompanying News & Views article was retracted; the retraction notice said that new information about the methods used in the Google paper had become available after publication and had changed the author’s assessment, and it also said that Nature was conducting an independent investigation of the paper’s performance claims. By late September 2024, the editor's note was removed without explanation, but Nature published an addendum to the original paper (dated 26 September 2024). The addendum introduced the name AlphaChip for the proposed RL technique and described methodological details that critics had previously identified as missing, including the use of initial ( x , y ) {\displaystyle (x,y)} locations. The addendum addressed some methodological details but still lacked the full training and evaluation inputs needed for independent replication. == Author responses and ensuing debate ==


id: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy-0.md
category: reference
title: Ancient Egyptian race controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:30.372855+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
The question of the race of the people of ancient Egypt was raised historically as a product of the early racial concepts of the 18th and 19th centuries, and was linked to models of racial hierarchy primarily based on craniometry and anthropometry. A variety of views circulated about the racial identity of the Egyptians and the source of their culture. Some scholars argued that ancient Egyptian culture was influenced by other Afroasiatic-speaking populations in North Africa, the Horn of Africa, or West Asia, while others pointed to influences from various Nubian groups or populations in Europe. In more recent times, some writers continued to challenge the mainstream view, some focusing on questioning the race of specific notable individuals, such as the pharaoh represented in the Great Sphinx of Giza, the native Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamun, the Egyptian queen Tiye, and the Greek Ptolemaic queen Cleopatra VII. Mainstream Western scholars reject the notion that Egypt was a "white" or "black" civilization; they maintain that applying modern notions of black or white races to ancient Egypt is anachronistic. In addition, scholars reject the notion—implicit in a black or white Egypt hypothesis—that ancient Egypt was racially homogeneous; instead, skin colour varied between the peoples


id: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy-1.md
category: reference
title: Ancient Egyptian race controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:30.372855+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
In 1839, Jean-François Champollion suggested that: "In the Copts of Egypt, we do not find any of the characteristic features of the ancient Egyptian population. The Copts are the result of crossbreeding with all the nations that successfully dominated Egypt. It is wrong to seek in them the principal features of the old race." This memoir was made in the context of the first tribes that would have inhabited Egypt, his opinion was noted after his return from Nubia. In 1839, Champollion's and Volney's claims were disputed by Jacques Joseph Champollion-Figeac, who blamed a misunderstanding of the ancients for spreading a false impression of a "Negro" Egypt, stating "the two physical traits of black skin and woolly hair are not enough to stamp a race as negro" and "the opinion that the ancient population of Egypt belonged to the Negro African race, is an error long accepted as the truth. ... Volney's conclusion as to the Negro origin of the ancient Egyptian civilization is evidently forced and inadmissible." Gaston Maspero, a 19th-century French Egyptologist, stated that "by the almost unanimous testimony of ancient Greek historians, they (Ancient Egyptians) belonged to the African race, which settled in Ethiopia." Heinrich Karl Brusch,


id: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy-2.md
category: reference
title: Ancient Egyptian race controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:30.372855+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
In 2025, members of the UNESCO International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of New Volumes IX, X and IX of General History of Africa reviewed the 1974 Symposium with the availability of new sources of data. This volume featured 60 scholars from 28 countries across every continent, with the International Scientific Committee consisting of 16 member specialists appointed by the UNESCO Director-General, Audrey Azoulay. These committee members included Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch, Paul Lovejoy, Tayeb Chenntouf, Anshan Li, Hilary Beckles and Vanicléia Silva Santos. The international publication featured multidisciplinary views across several chapter sections on the population formation of Egypt. UNESCO International Scientific Committee Chair and archaeologist, Augustin Holl, stated that Egypt was situated in an intersection between Africa and Eurasia but affirmed "Egypt is African" with a fluctuating distribution of African and Eurasian populations depending on historical circumstances. Coordinating reviewer, historian and archaeologist Doulaye Konate stated the volume featured a general review of the archaeology of sub-Saharan Africa and “one of the strengths of the work is an emphasis on the African roots of the Egyptian civilization”. He later stated the Volume II of General History of Africa had integrated the Pharaonic civilization into a ‘Negro-African bosom’. In a chapter review


id: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy-3.md
category: reference
title: Ancient Egyptian race controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:30.372855+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
Egyptian historian and archaeological inspector at the Ministry of Antiquities, H. A. A. Ibrahim, examined the megalithic complex of Nabta Playa, Upper Egypt to understand the cultural and population influences of the Holocene on pre-dynastic Egypt. She cited an anthropological study confirming the appearance of a Sub-Saharan high status child in a ceremonial centre and concluded that the megalithic structures had close resemblance to comparable structures in the Sahelian and Sub-Saharan regions of Africa. In another chapter on the population genetics of pharaonic Egypt, geneticist Jean Phillipe Gourdine adduced correlative sources of linguistic, anthropological, paleontological and genetic evidence which demonstrated African affinities with specific Neolithic and predynastic remains at the Naqada, Badari and Adaima sites in Upper Egypt. He referenced a number of studies performed by Eric Crubézy, this included genetic analysis on the modern Upper Egyptian population in Adaima which identified genetic markers common across Africa, with 71% of the Adaima samples carrying E1b1 haplogroup and 3% carrying the L0f mitochondrial haplogroup. This was supported by an anthropological study by Cruzeby in the pre-dynastic cemetery at Adaima (3700 BCE) which found the notable presence of dental markers, characteristic of Khoisan people, (25%) among several children’s teeth." Gourdine also stated


id: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy-4.md
category: reference
title: Ancient Egyptian race controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:30.372855+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Views from Egyptologists and African historians === Frank J. Yurco outlined in a 1989 article that "In short, ancient Egypt, like modern Egypt, consisted of a very heterogeneous population". He also wrote in 1990: "When you talk about Egypt, it's just not right to talk about black or white .... To take the terminology here in the United States and graft it onto Africa is anthropologically inaccurate". Yurco added that "We are applying a racial divisiveness to Egypt that they would never have accepted, They would have considered this argument absurd, and that is something we could really learn from." Yurco wrote in 1996 that "the peoples of Egypt, the Sudan, and much of North-East Africa are generally regarded as a Nilotic continuity, with widely ranging physical features (complexions light to dark, various hair and craniofacial types)". British Africanist, Basil Davidson, summarised in 1990, that "It follows that the Ancient Egyptians were Africans even if immigrants also trickled in from Asia and southern Europe. Where the ancient Egyptians were black or as brown in skin colour as other Africans may remain an issue of emotive dispute; probably they were both". Gamal Mokthar, editor of the UNESCO General History of


id: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy-5.md
category: reference
title: Ancient Egyptian race controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:30.372855+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
Robert Morkot wrote in 2005: The ancient Egyptians were not 'white' in any European sense, nor were they 'Caucasian'... we can say that the earliest population of ancient Egypt included African people from the upper Nile, African people from the regions of the Sahara and modern Libya, and smaller numbers of people who had come from south-western Asia and perhaps the Arabian peninsula. Felix Chami wrote in 2006 that Egyptian iconography had shown "that their physical type, like most of the people of the African communities, was both black and brown." Fekri Hassan wrote in 2021 in regards to the origins of Egypt that "the original African populations of the Nile Valley, who showed a local gradual change in physical traits from south to north due to distance, hosted peoples who drifted from southwest Asia". William Stiebling and Susan Helft wrote in 2023 on the historical debate concerning the race and ethnicity of the ancient Egyptians in light of recent evidence. They argued that the physical appearances would have varied along a continuum from the Delta to the Nile’s source regions in the south. The authors specified that “some ancient Egyptians looked more Middle Eastern and others looked more Sudanese


id: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy-6.md
category: reference
title: Ancient Egyptian race controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:30.372855+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
== Scholarly views on bias == Various scholars have highlighted the role of colonial racism in shaping the attitudes of early Egyptologists, and criticised the continued over-representation of North American and European perspectives in the field. Diop in his work, The African Origin of Civilization argued that the prevailing views in Egyptology were driven by biased scholarship and colonial attitudes. Similarly, Bruce Trigger wrote that early modern scholarship on the Nile Valley populations had been "marred by a confusion of race, language, and culture and by an accompanying racism". Criticism has also been levelled at modern anthropological studies of Nile valley populations. This has related to interpretations of biological Africans. These past approaches have been viewed to subscribe to a narrow craniometric paradigm which classifies certain African populations as “True Negroes”, whilst categorising Egyptians, Nubians, Somalians as non-Africans despite having a shared biocultural evolutionary climate. Smith wrote in 2018 that a common practice among Egyptologists was to "divorce Egypt from its proper northeast African context, instead framing it as fundamentally part of a Near Eastern or "Mediterranean" economic, social and political sphere, hardly African at all or at best a crossroad between the Near East, the eastern Mediterranean and Africa,


id: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy-7.md
category: reference
title: Ancient Egyptian race controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:30.372855+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
== Present-day controversies == Today the issues regarding the race of the ancient Egyptians are "troubled waters which most people who write about ancient Egypt from within the mainstream of scholarship avoid." The debate, therefore, takes place mainly in the public sphere and tends to focus on a small number of specific issues. === Greco-Roman accounts of Ancient Egypt === A range of scholars have cited the classical observations of prominent Greeks and Romans as forms of primary evidence to denote the physical appearance of the early Egyptians. Some historical accounts have drawn close physical and cultural resemblances between Egyptians and Ethiopians whereas others have associated them more closely with northern Indians. In the fifth century BCE, Greek historian, Herodotus, described the Egyptians as having “melanchrones skin and wooly hair and secondly, and more reliably for the reason that alone among mankind the Egyptians and the Ethiopians have practiced circumcision since time immemorial.” Herodotus also wrote that the Ammonians of Siwa Oasis are "colonists from Egypt and Aethiopia and speak a language compounded of the tongues of both countries". In the first century BCE, Greek historian Diodorus Siculus, in his work Bibliotheca Historica, reported that the Ethiopians claimed that Egypt


id: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy-8.md
category: reference
title: Ancient Egyptian race controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:30.372855+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
Older literature maintained that the label "God's Land", when interpreted as "Holy Land" or "Land of the gods/ancestors", meant that the ancient Egyptians viewed the Land of Punt as their ancestral homeland. Flinders Petrie believed that the Dynastic Race came from or through Punt and that "Pan, or Punt, was a district at the south end of the Red Sea, which probably embraced both the African and Arabian shores." Moreover, E. A. Wallis Budge stated that "Egyptian tradition of the Dynastic Period held that the aboriginal home of the Egyptians was Punt...". James Breasted in 1906 argued that the term Ta netjer was not only applied to Punt, located southeast of Egypt, but also to regions of Asia east and northeast of Egypt, such as Lebanon, which was the source of wood for temples. Modern scholars have noted that the term was applied to the Land of Punt, the exact location had historically been a subject of scholarly debate with a spectrum of views associating Puntland with regions extending from Ethiopia to southern Arabia. Recent consensus has now located the region in modern northeast Africa due to the prevalence of indigenous goods and animals which are reflected in Egyptian reliefs


id: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy-9.md
category: reference
title: Ancient Egyptian race controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:30.372855+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
Although modern technology can reconstruct Tutankhamun's facial structure with a high degree of accuracy, based on CT data from his mummy, determining his skin tone and eye color is impossible. The clay model was therefore given a coloring, which, according to the artist, was based on an "average shade of modern Egyptians". Terry Garcia, National Geographic's executive vice president for mission programs, said, in response to some of those protesting against the Tutankhamun reconstruction: The big variable is skin tone. North Africans, we know today, had a range of skin tones, from light to dark. In this case, we selected a medium skin tone, and we say, quite up front, 'This is midrange.' We will never know for sure what his exact skin tone was or the color of his eyes with 100% certainty.... Maybe in the future, people will come to a different conclusion. When pressed on the issue by American activists in September 2007, the Secretary General of the Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities, Zahi Hawass stated "Tutankhamun was not black." In a November 2007 publication of Ancient Egypt magazine, Hawass asserted that none of the facial reconstructions resemble Tut and that, in his opinion, the most accurate


id: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy-10.md
category: reference
title: Ancient Egyptian race controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:30.372855+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
The race and skin color of Cleopatra VII, the last active Hellenistic ruler of the Macedonian Greek Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt, established in 323 BC, has also caused some debate, although generally not in scholarly sources. For example, the article "Was Cleopatra Black?" was published in Ebony magazine in 2012, and an article about Afrocentrism from the St. Louis Post-Dispatch mentions the question, too. Mary Lefkowitz, Professor Emerita of Classical Studies at Wellesley College, traces the main origins of the black Cleopatra claim to the 1946 book by J. A. Rogers called World's Great Men of Color, although noting that the idea of Cleopatra as black goes back to at least the 19th century. The black Cleopatra claim was further revived in an essay by afrocentrist John Henrik Clarke, chair of African history at Hunter College, entitled "African Warrior Queens." Lefkowitz refutes Rogers' and Clarke's hypotheses, on various scholarly grounds. Scholars identify Cleopatra as essentially of Greek ancestry with some Persian and Sogdian Iranian ancestry, based on the fact that her Macedonian Greek family (the Ptolemaic dynasty) had intermingled with the Seleucid aristocracy of the time. Michael Grant states that Cleopatra probably had not a drop of Egyptian blood and


id: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy-11.md
category: reference
title: Ancient Egyptian race controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:30.372855+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
The identity of the model for the Great Sphinx of Giza is unknown. Most experts believe that the face of the Sphinx represents the likeness of the Pharaoh Khafra, although a few Egyptologists and interested amateurs have proposed different hypotheses. An early description of the Sphinx, "typically negro in all its features", is recorded in the travel notes of a French scholar, Volney, who visited Egypt between 1783 and 1785 along with French novelist Gustave Flaubert. A similar description was given in the "well-known book" by Vivant Denon, where he described the sphinx as "the character is African; but the mouth, the lips of which are thick." Following Volney, Denon, and other early writers, numerous Afrocentric scholars, such as Du Bois, Diop and Asante have characterized the face of the Sphinx as Black, or "Negroid". American geologist Robert M. Schoch has written that the "Sphinx has a distinctive African, Nubian, or Negroid aspect which is lacking in the face of Khafre", but he was described by others such as Ronald H. Fritze and Mark Lehner of being a "pseudoscientific writer". David S. Anderson writes in Lost City, Found Pyramid: Understanding Alternative Archaeologies and Pseudoscientific Practices that Van Sertima's claim that


id: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy-12.md
category: reference
title: Ancient Egyptian race controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:30.372855+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
Ancient Egyptian tombs and temples contained thousands of paintings, sculptures, and written works, which reveal a great deal about the people of that time. However, their depictions of themselves in their surviving art and artifacts are rendered in sometimes symbolic, rather than realistic, pigments. As a result, ancient Egyptian artifacts provide sometimes conflicting and inconclusive evidence of the ethnicity of the people who lived in Egypt during dynastic times. In their own art, "Egyptians are often represented in a color that is officially called dark red", according to Diop. Arguing against other theories, Diop quotes Champollion-Figeac, who states, "one distinguishes on Egyptian monuments several species of blacks, differing...with respect to complexion, which makes Negroes black or copper-colored." Regarding an expedition by King Sesostris, Cherubini states the following concerning captured southern Africans, "except for the panther skin about their loins, are distinguished by their color, some entirely black, others dark brown. University of Chicago scholars assert that Nubians are generally depicted with black paint, but the skin pigment used in Egyptian paintings to refer to Nubians can range "from dark red to brown to black". This can be observed in paintings from the tomb of the Egyptian Huy, as well as


id: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy-13.md
category: reference
title: Ancient Egyptian race controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:30.372855+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
Manu Ampim, a professor at Merritt College specializing in African and African American history and culture, claims in the book Modern Fraud: The Forged Ancient Egyptian Statues of Ra-Hotep and Nofret, that many ancient Egyptian statues and artworks are modern frauds that have been created specifically to hide the "fact" that the ancient Egyptians were black, while authentic artworks that demonstrate black characteristics are systematically defaced or even "modified". Ampim repeatedly makes the accusation that the Egyptian authorities are systematically destroying evidence that "proves" that the ancient Egyptians were black, under the guise of renovating and conserving the applicable temples and structures. He further accuses "European" scholars of wittingly participating in and abetting this process. Ampim has a specific concern about a wall painting depicting in a scene from the Book of Gates identified as the 4th Division, 5th Hour. an Egyptian funerary text the in the Tomb of Ramesses III (KV11). The Book of Gates is a funerary text appears in a number of New Kingdom tombs, and they were usually provided for the guidance of the soul of the deceased. The Egyptians did not assign a name to this text; it was later termed 'Livre des Portes' (Book


id: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy-14.md
category: reference
title: Ancient Egyptian race controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:30.372855+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
==== Fayyum mummy portraits ==== The Roman era Fayum mummy portraits attached to coffins containing the latest dated mummies discovered in the Faiyum Oasis represent a population of both native Egyptians and those with mixed Greek heritage. The dental morphology of the mummies align more with the indigenous North African population than Greek or other later colonial European settlers. ==== Black queen controversy ==== The late British Africanist Basil Davidson stated "Whether the Ancient Egyptians were as black or as brown in skin color as other Africans may remain an issue of emotive dispute; probably, they were both. Their own artistic conventions painted them as pink, but pictures on their tombs show they often married queens shown as entirely black being from the south." Ahmose-Nefertari is an example. In most depictions of Ahmose-Nefertari, she is pictured with black skin, while in some instances her skin is blue or red. In 1939 Flinders Petrie said "an invasion from the south...established a black queen as the divine ancestress of the XVIIIth dynasty" He also said "a possibility of the black being symbolic has been suggested" and "Nefertari must have married a Libyan, as she was the mother of Amenhetep I, who was


id: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy-15.md
category: reference
title: Ancient Egyptian race controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:30.372855+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
The Black Egyptian hypothesis is the hypothesis that ancient Egypt was a "Black", homogeneous civilization. At a UNESCO symposium in 1974 there was consensus that Ancient Egypt was indigenous to Africa. However, Diop's hypothesis that Ancient Egypt was a "Black" civilization was met with "numerous objections" in 1974 which revealed "a disagreement which remained profound even though it was not voiced explicitly. In respect of certain sequences, the criticisms arose out of the line of argument put forward." The majority of the objections "raised were of methodological nature" which ranged from the need for reliable statistical data to further research projects in several fields such as archaeology and physical anthropology before final conclusions on the peopling of Egypt could be made. There was also "total disagreement" from the majority of scholars in the 1974 conference on the hypothesis that Ancient Egypt had been a homogenous population until Persian times with several scholars favouring the hypothesis of a mixed population. Subsequent reviewers of the 1974 symposium debate and the UNESCO publication have presented a range of views on the outcome of the debate. Larissa Nordholt argued that Diop's chapter was politically motivated, having been published only due to being in line


id: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy-16.md
category: reference
title: Ancient Egyptian race controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:30.372855+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Asiatic race theory === This theory was the most dominant view from the Early Middle Ages (c. 500 AD) until the early 19th century. The descendants of Ham were traditionally considered to be the darkest-skinned branch of humanity, either because of their geographic allotment to Africa or because of the Curse of Ham. Thus, Diop cited Gaston Maspero "Moreover, the Bible states that Mesraim, son of Ham, brother of Chus (Kush) ... and of Canaan, came from Mesopotamia to settle with his children on the banks of the Nile." By the 20th century, the Asiatic race theory and its various offshoots were abandoned but were superseded by two related theories: the Eurocentric Hamitic hypothesis, asserting that a Caucasian racial group moved into North and East Africa from early prehistory subsequently bringing with them all advanced agriculture, technology and civilization, and the Dynastic race theory, proposing that Mesopotamian invaders were responsible for the dynastic civilization of Egypt (c. 3000 BC). In sharp contrast to the Asiatic race theory, neither of these theories proposes that Caucasians were the indigenous inhabitants of Egypt. At the UNESCO "Symposium on the Peopling of Ancient Egypt and the Deciphering of the Meroitic Script" in Cairo


id: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-17
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy-17.md
category: reference
title: Ancient Egyptian race controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:30.372855+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
The Dynastic race theory, which has been rejected by modern scholarship, is the hypothesis that a Mesopotamian force had invaded Egypt in predynastic times, imposed itself on the indigenous Badarian people, and become their rulers. The Mesopotamian-founded state or states were supposed to have conquered both Upper and Lower Egypt and founded the First Dynasty of Egypt. The theory was proposed in the early 20th century by Flinders Petrie, who deduced that skeletal remains found at pre-dynastic sites at Naqada (Upper Egypt) indicated the presence of two different races, with one race differentiated physically by a noticeably larger skeletal structure and cranial capacity. Petrie also noted new architectural styles—the distinctly Mesopotamian "niched-façade" architecture—pottery styles, cylinder seals and a few artworks, as well as numerous predynastic rock and tomb paintings depicting Mesopotamian style boats, symbols, and figures. Based on plentiful cultural evidence, Petrie concluded that the invading ruling elite was responsible for the seemingly sudden rise of Egyptian civilization. In the 1950s, the dynastic race theory was widely accepted. While there is clear evidence the Naqada II culture borrowed abundantly from Mesopotamia, the Naqada II period had a large degree of continuity with the Naqada I period, and the changes which


id: brouwer-hilbert-controversy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brouwer–Hilbert_controversy-0.md
category: reference
title: Brouwer–Hilbert controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brouwer–Hilbert_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:31.712335+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: brouwer-hilbert-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
The Brouwer–Hilbert controversy (German: Grundlagenstreit, lit. 'foundational debate') was a debate in twentieth-century mathematics over fundamental questions about the consistency of axioms and the role of semantics and syntax in mathematics. L. E. J. Brouwer, a proponent of the constructivist school of intuitionism, opposed David Hilbert, a proponent of formalism. Much of the controversy took place while both were involved with Mathematische Annalen, the leading mathematical journal of the time, with Hilbert as editor-in-chief and Brouwer as a member of its editorial board. In 1928, Hilbert had Brouwer removed from the editorial board of Mathematische Annalen. == Background == The controversy started with Hilbert's axiomatization of geometry in the late 1890s. In his biography of Kurt Gödel, John W. Dawson, Jr observed that "partisans of three principal philosophical positions took part in the debate" – these three being the logicists (Gottlob Frege and Bertrand Russell), the formalists (David Hilbert and his colleagues), and the constructivists (Henri Poincaré and Hermann Weyl); within this constructivist school was the radical self-named "intuitionist" L. E. J. Brouwer. === History of Intuitionism === Brouwer founded the mathematical philosophy of intuitionism as a challenge to the prevailing formalism of David Hilbert and his colleagues, Paul Bernays,


id: brouwer-hilbert-controversy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brouwer–Hilbert_controversy-1.md
category: reference
title: Brouwer–Hilbert controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brouwer–Hilbert_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:31.712335+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: brouwer-hilbert-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
=== The law of excluded middle extended to the infinite === Cantor (1897) extended the intuitive notion of "the infinite" – one foot placed after the other in a never-ending march toward the horizon – to the notion of "a completed infinite" – the arrival "all the way, way out there" in one fell swoop, and he symbolized this notion with a single sign ℵ0 (aleph-null). Hilbert's adoption of the notion wholesale was "thoughtless", Brouwer alleged. Brouwer in his (1927a) "Intuitionistic reflections on formalism" states: "SECOND INSIGHT The rejection of the thoughtless use of the logical principle of the excluded middle, as well as the recognition, first, of the fact that the investigation of the question why the principle mentioned is justified and to what extent it is valid constitutes an essential object of research in the foundations of mathematics, and, second, of the fact that in intuitive (contentual) mathematics this principle is valid only for finite systems. THIRD INSIGHT. The identification of the principle of excluded middle with the principle of the solvability of every mathematical problem." This Third Insight is referring to Hilbert's second problem and Hilbert's ongoing attempt to axiomatize all of arithmetic, and with this system,


id: brouwer-hilbert-controversy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brouwer–Hilbert_controversy-2.md
category: reference
title: Brouwer–Hilbert controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brouwer–Hilbert_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:31.712335+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: brouwer-hilbert-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Objections related to the law of the excluded middle and induction === In van Heijenoort's commentary preceding Weyl's (1927) "Comments on Hilbert's second lecture on the foundations of mathematics" Poincaré points out to Hilbert (1905) that there are two types of "induction" (1) the intuitive animal-logic foot-following-foot version that gives us a sense that there's always another footstep after the last footstep, and (2) the formal version – e.g. Peano's version: a string of symbols. Poincaré, Weyl, and Brouwer claimed that Hilbert tacitly, and unjustifiably, adopted formal induction as one of his premises. Poincaré (1905) asserted that, by doing this, Hilbert's reasoning became circular. Weyl's (1927) agreement and Brouwer's polemics ultimately forced Hilbert and his disciples Herbrand, Bernays, and Ackermann to reexamine their notion of "induction" – to eschew the assumption of a "totality of all the objects x of an infinite collection" and (intuitionistically) assume that the general argument proceeds one x after another, ad infinitum (van Heijenoort p. 481, footnote a). This is in fact the so-called "induction schema" used in the notion of "recursion" that was still in development at this time (van Heijenoort p. 493). This schema was acceptable to the intuitionists because it had


id: brouwer-hilbert-controversy-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brouwer–Hilbert_controversy-3.md
category: reference
title: Brouwer–Hilbert controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brouwer–Hilbert_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:31.712335+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: brouwer-hilbert-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
He does not appear to use this in the formalist's sense, but there is some contention around this point. Gödel specifies this symbol string in his I.3., i.e., the formalized inductive axiom appears as shown above – yet even this string can be "numeralized" using Gödel's method. On the other hand, he doesn't appear to use this axiom. Rather, his recursion steps through integers assigned to variable k (cf his (2) on page 602). His skeleton-proof of Theorem V, however, "use(s) induction on the degree of φ," and uses "the induction hypothesis." Without a full proof of this, the "induction hypothesis" could be assumed to be the intuitive version, not the symbolic axiom. His recursion simply steps up the degree of the functions, an intuitive act, ad infinitum. Gödel's proofs being intuitionistically satisfactory and infinitary are not incompatible truths, as long as the law of the excluded middle over the completed infinite isn't invoked anywhere in the proofs. Despite the last-half-twentieth century's continued abstraction of mathematics, the issue has not entirely gone away. A hard look at the premises of Turing's 1936–1937 work led Robin Gandy (1980) to propose his "principles for mechanisms" that have speed of light as a


id: brouwer-hilbert-controversy-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brouwer–Hilbert_controversy-4.md
category: reference
title: Brouwer–Hilbert controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brouwer–Hilbert_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:31.712335+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: brouwer-hilbert-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
== Bibliography == W.S. Anglin 1994, Mathematics: A Concise History and Philosophy, Springer–Verlag, New York. ISBN 0-387-94280-7. Herbert Breger, 2000. "Tacit Knowledge and Mathematical Progress", appearing in E. Groshoz and H. Breger (eds.) 2000, The Growth of Mathematical Knowledge, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht Netherlands, ISBN 0-7923-6151-2, pages 221–230. Martin Davis, 1965. The Undecidable: Basic Papers on Undecidable Propositions, Unsolvable Problems, and Computable Functions, Raven Press, New York, no ISBN. This includes: Emil Post, 1936. "Finite Combinatory Process. Formulation I", with commentary (pages 288ff) Emil Post, 1941 unpublished until 1965. "Absolutely Unsolvable Problems and Relatively Undecidable Propositions: Account of an Anticipation", with commentary, (pages 338ff) van Dalen, Dirk (1990). "The war of the frogs and the mice, or the crisis of the Mathematische annalen". The Mathematical Intelligencer. 12 (4): 17–31. doi:10.1007/BF03024028. S2CID 123400249. On the battle for editorial control of the journal Mathematische Annalen between Hilbert and Brouwer, stemming in part from their foundational differences. Martin Davis, 2000. The Engines of Logic, W. W. Norton, London, ISBN 0-393-32229-7 pbk. Cf. Chapter Five: "Hilbert to the Rescue" wherein Davis discusses Brouwer and his relationship with Hilbert and Weyl with brief biographical information of Brouwer. John W. Dawson, Jr, 1997. Logical Dilemmas: The


id: carbonaceous-sulfur-hydride-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonaceous_sulfur_hydride-0.md
category: reference
title: Carbonaceous sulfur hydride
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonaceous_sulfur_hydride
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:32.954945+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carbonaceous-sulfur-hydride-20260505-0
summary:
Carbonaceous sulfur hydride (CSH) is a potential superconductor that was announced in October 2020 by the lab of Ranga Dias at the University of Rochester, in a Nature paper that was later retracted. It was reported to have a superconducting transition temperature of 15 °C (59 °F) at a pressure of 267 gigapascals (GPa), which would have made it the highest-temperature superconductor discovered. The paper faced criticism due to its non-standard data analysis calling into question its conclusions, and in September 2022 it was retracted by Nature. In July 2023 a second paper by the authors was retracted from Physical Review Letters due to suspected data fabrication, and in September 2023 a third paper by the authors about N-doped lutetium hydride was retracted from Nature. CSH is an uncharacterized ternary polyhydride compound of carbon, sulfur and hydrogen with a chemical formula that is thought to be CH8S. Measurements under extreme pressure are difficult, and in particular the elements are too light for an X-ray determination of crystal structure (X-ray crystallography). == Background == Prior to 1911, all known electrical conductors exhibited electrical resistance, due to collisions of the charge carrier with atoms in the material. Researchers discovered that in certain


id: criticism-of-nonstandard-analysis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_nonstandard_analysis-0.md
category: reference
title: Criticism of nonstandard analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_nonstandard_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:38.400334+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criticism-of-nonstandard-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
Nonstandard analysis and its offshoot, nonstandard calculus, have been criticized by several authors, notably Errett Bishop, Paul Halmos, and Alain Connes. These criticisms are analyzed below. == Introduction == The evaluation of nonstandard analysis in the literature has varied greatly. Paul Halmos described it as a technical special development in mathematical logic. Terence Tao summed up the advantage of the hyperreal framework by noting that it allows one to rigorously manipulate things such as "the set of all small numbers", or to rigorously say things like "η1 is smaller than anything that involves η0", while greatly reducing epsilon management issues by automatically concealing many of the quantifiers in one's argument. The nature of the criticisms is not directly related to the logical status of the results proved using nonstandard analysis. In terms of conventional mathematical foundations in classical logic, such results are quite acceptable although usually strongly dependent on choice. Abraham Robinson's nonstandard analysis does not need any axioms beyond Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory (ZFC) (as shown explicitly by Wilhelmus Luxemburg's ultrapower construction of the hyperreals), while its variant by Edward Nelson, known as internal set theory, is similarly a conservative extension of ZFC. It provides an assurance that the newness


id: criticism-of-nonstandard-analysis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_nonstandard_analysis-1.md
category: reference
title: Criticism of nonstandard analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_nonstandard_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:38.400334+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criticism-of-nonstandard-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
=== Bishop's review === Bishop reviewed the book Elementary Calculus: An Infinitesimal Approach by Howard Jerome Keisler, which presented elementary calculus using the methods of nonstandard analysis. Bishop was chosen by his advisor Paul Halmos to review the book. The review appeared in the Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society in 1977. This article is referred to by David O. Tall (Tall 2001) while discussing the use of nonstandard analysis in education. Tall wrote: the use of the axiom of choice in the non-standard approach however, draws extreme criticism from those such as Bishop (1977) who insisted on explicit construction of concepts in the intuitionist tradition. Bishop's review supplied several quotations from Keisler's book, such as: In 1960, Robinson solved a three-hundred-year-old problem by giving a precise treatment of infinitesimals. Robinson's achievement will probably rank as one of the major mathematical advances of the twentieth century. and In discussing the real line we remarked that we have no way of knowing what a line in physical space is really like. It might be like the hyperreal line, the real line, or neither. However, in applications of the calculus, it is helpful to imagine a line in physical space as a


id: criticism-of-nonstandard-analysis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_nonstandard_analysis-2.md
category: reference
title: Criticism of nonstandard analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_nonstandard_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:38.400334+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criticism-of-nonstandard-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
"The answer given by non-standard analysis, namely a nonstandard real, is equally disappointing: every non-standard real canonically determines a (Lebesgue) non-measurable subset of the interval [0, 1], so that it is impossible (Stern, 1985) to exhibit a single [nonstandard real number]. The formalism that we propose will give a substantial and computable answer to this question." In his 1995 article "Noncommutative geometry and reality" Connes develops a calculus of infinitesimals based on operators in Hilbert space. He proceeds to "explain why the formalism of nonstandard analysis is inadequate" for his purposes. Connes points out the following three aspects of Robinson's hyperreals: (1) a nonstandard hyperreal "cannot be exhibited" (the reason given being its relation to nonmeasurable sets); (2) "the practical use of such a notion is limited to computations in which the final result is independent of the exact value of the above infinitesimal. This is the way nonstandard analysis and ultraproducts are used [...]". (3) the hyperreals are commutative. Katz & Katz analyze Connes' criticisms of nonstandard analysis, and challenge the specific claims (1) and (2). With regard to (1), Connes' own infinitesimals similarly rely on non-constructive foundational material, such as the existence of a Dixmier trace. With regard


id: criticism-of-nonstandard-analysis-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_nonstandard_analysis-3.md
category: reference
title: Criticism of nonstandard analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_nonstandard_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:38.400334+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criticism-of-nonstandard-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
== References == Albeverio, S.; Guido, D.; Ponosov, A.; Scarlatti, S. (1996). "Singular traces and compact operators". J. Funct. Anal. 137 (2): 281–302. doi:10.1006/jfan.1996.0047. S2CID 55846784. Artigue, Michèle (1994), Analysis, Advanced Mathematical Thinking (ed. David O. Tall), Springer-Verlag, p. 172, ISBN 0-7923-2812-4 Bishop, Errett (1975), "The crisis in contemporary mathematics", Historia Math., 2 (4): 507–517, doi:10.1016/0315-0860(75)90113-5 Bishop, Errett (1977), "Review: H. Jerome Keisler, Elementary calculus", Bull. Amer. Math. Soc., 83: 205–208, doi:10.1090/s0002-9904-1977-14264-x Bishop, E. (1983). "Schizophrenia in contemporary mathematics". Written at San Diego, Calif.. Errett Bishop: reflections on him and his research. Contemp. Math. Vol. 39. Providence, RI: Amer. Math. Soc. (published 1985). pp. 1–32. Bos, Henk J. M. (1974), "Differentials, higher-order differentials and the derivative in the Leibnizian calculus", Archive for History of Exact Sciences, 14: 1–90, doi:10.1007/BF00327456, S2CID 120779114 Chihara, C. (2007). "The Burgess–Rosen critique of nominalistic reconstructions". Philos. Math. 15 (1): 54–78. doi:10.1093/philmat/nkl023. Connes, A. (1997). "Brisure de symétrie spontanée et géométrie du point de vue spectral" (PDF). Journal of Geometry and Physics. 23 (3–4): 206–234. Bibcode:1997JGP....23..206C. doi:10.1016/s0393-0440(97)80001-0. Connes, A. (1995). "Noncommutative geometry and reality" (PDF). J. Math. Phys. 36 (11): 6194–6231. Bibcode:1995JMP....36.6194C. doi:10.1063/1.531241. Dauben, J. (1988). "Abraham Robinson and Nonstandard Analysis: History, Philosophy, and Foundations of


id: definition-of-life-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definition_of_life-0.md
category: reference
title: Definition of life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definition_of_life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:39.577696+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: definition-of-life-20260505-0
summary:
The precise definition of life is a contested aspect of it, and several proposals have been advanced. Biology defines and studies life as we know it, but abiogenesis and astrobiology seek wider and more encompassing definitions. Abiogenesis is the process by which life develops from inorganic materials, so a definition aims to establish the frontier between inorganic matter and the earliest lifeforms. Astrobiology seeks extraterrestrial life, which may differ from life on Earth. == Common features == Life does not have a simple definition, because life on Earth has a huge diversity, ranging from microscopic microorganisms to massive plants and trees, and in all sorts of habitats. A common way to define life is by using a number of characteristics that should be common to all life forms. However, those characteristics are not universal, and there are exceptions and possible false positives with all of them. The main ones include: Order: The elements that make up life are not randomly distributed. There is a biological organisation at all levels of life, from the microscopic cell to a full organism and even to the groups of several organisms. However, order is a necessary but not sufficient condition for life, as other


id: definition-of-life-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definition_of_life-1.md
category: reference
title: Definition of life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definition_of_life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:39.577696+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: definition-of-life-20260505-0
summary:
A problem with defining life by a number of characteristics is that it can provide false positives. Long and detailed lists leave potential lifeforms out, and small lists may include things that were not intended to be considered alive. For example, Crystals can grow and tend towards equilibrium, similar to homeostasis, but are not alive. Robert Saphiro and Gerald Feinberg proposed that life is the activity of a biosphere, defining biosphere as "a highly ordered system of matter and energy characterized by complex cycles that maintain or gradually increase the order of the system through the exchange of energy with the environment"; a definition that may be too broad. There are four possible ways to organize a definition. The first one is that there are a number of features and all of them must apply for something to be alive; if something has only some features but not others, then it is not. This is the method used by divulgation outlets. The second is that there is a single necessary and sufficient condition that can define the presence or absence of life. The third is that there are several necessary and sufficient conditions that define life; this is the one


id: definition-of-life-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definition_of_life-2.md
category: reference
title: Definition of life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definition_of_life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:39.577696+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: definition-of-life-20260505-0
summary:
=== Mechanism to vitalism === Aristotelianism was questioned in the 1630s by René Descartes in Treatise on Man, which described living beings as automata, built on muscles, bones, and organs instead of cogs and pistons. Shortly afterwards Isaac Newton postulated the three laws of motion, and final causation was no longer considered valid. However, as the knowledge about plants and animals grew, it soon became clear that their working was fundamentally different to that of artificial machines. Scientists proposed vitalism to explain that a "vital force" made living organisms work. In the 18th century, Immanuel Kant said that living organisms are built with a design, but as nature lacks a designer, it could only mean that living beings are naturally teleological and incapable of being explained purely by a framework of forces like Newton's laws of motion. === Emergentism === In 1828, Friedrich Wöhler synthesised urea, plainly a chemical of life, launching the discipline of organic chemistry. This supported the view that life was built out of chemical reactions. This philosophical viewpoint, later called emergentism, rejected vitalism. It proposed instead that living matter is composed by the same basic physical stuff as non-living matter, and is subject to the laws


id: a-diary-in-the-strict-sense-of-the-term-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Diary_in_the_Strict_Sense_of_the_Term-0.md
category: reference
title: A Diary in the Strict Sense of the Term
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Diary_in_the_Strict_Sense_of_the_Term
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:40.872017+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: a-diary-in-the-strict-sense-of-the-term-20260505-0
summary:
A Diary in the Strict Sense of the Term is a collection of the private diaries of the prominent anthropologist Bronisław Malinowski during his fieldwork in New Guinea and the Trobriand Islands between 1914–1915 and 1917–1918. The collection is composed of two diaries, written in Polish. Published posthumously by his widow Valetta Swann in 1967, the diaries, which repeatedly touch upon intensely personal matters such as sexual desires, as well as his private prejudices against his interlocutors, have remained extremely controversial. The introduction of the book was written by his pupil Raymond Firth. == History and significance == When the diaries were published in 1967, Clifford Geertz called them "gross" and "tiresome", and wrote that they portrayed Malinowski as "a crabbed, self-preoccupied, hypochondriacal narcissist, whose fellow-feeling for the people he lived with was limited in the extreme." Two decades later, however, he praised the collection as a "backstage masterpiece of anthropology, our The Double Helix". Michael W. Young noted that the diaries, "scandalously frank" with regards to topic such as the author's sexual desires and encounters, "debunked the romantic myth that he enjoyed relaxed and friendly rapport with his subjects and it fueled a moral crisis of the discipline in


id: einstein-bergson-debate-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein–Bergson_debate-0.md
category: reference
title: Einstein–Bergson debate
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein–Bergson_debate
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:42.156437+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: einstein-bergson-debate-20260505-0
summary:
On April 6, 1922, the physicist Albert Einstein and the philosopher Henri Bergson met at the Société française de philosophie and discussed the implications of the theory of relativity on the nature of time. This debate, with the broader discussion it set off, has had wide-ranging implications for Western cosmology and for the prestige of the humanities as compared to science. In 1934, Paul Valéry wrote that the meeting between these two thinkers was the "grande affaire" of the twentieth century. == Context == === Bergson === Henri Bergson was widely viewed as an epoch-defining thinker. For William James, Bergson's Creative Evolution was a work as important for Western philosophy as those of George Berkeley or Immanuel Kant; Jean Wahl concurs, placing Bergson alongside Plato, René Descartes and Kant as one of "the four great philosophers." A cult of personality developed around Bergson following the 1907 publication of Creative Evolution: students would make "mystical pilgrimages" to his summer home in Switzerland; he was referred to as "an enchanter" and "the greatest thinker in the world." His biographer Emily Herring refers to him as being in the early twentieth century "the most famous philosopher in the world." Bergson had a deep


id: einstein-bergson-debate-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein–Bergson_debate-1.md
category: reference
title: Einstein–Bergson debate
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein–Bergson_debate
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:42.156437+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: einstein-bergson-debate-20260505-0
summary:
Einstein's theory of relativity and his contributions to quantum theory had made him a household name in the scientific community, and by 1919 he even became a public celebrity after the solar eclipse of May 29, 1919, which helped substantiate Einstein's theory of general relativity, with the New York Times proclaiming: “Revolution in Science/New Theory of the Universe/Newtonian Ideas Overthrown.” The new doctrine was widely regarded as necessitating a total overhaul of current understandings of space and time. Einstein's fame had proliferated through his own efforts as well: he had published popular versions of both his treatises, and his Four Lectures on Relativity (delivered in 1921 at Princeton University) had intensified public interest even further. Einstein was invited to France by Paul Langevin, on behalf of the Collège de France, to help “to restore relations between German and French scholars” after World War I, a conflict whose mechanization had enlisted scientists in the service of bloodshed to a previously unprecedented degree. Einstein had opposed the war. On his arrival at the Gare du Nord, Einstein was greeted by crowds of "photographers, reporters, filmmakers, officials and diplomats," and had to slip out a side door to escape the attention. The debate


id: einstein-bergson-debate-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein–Bergson_debate-2.md
category: reference
title: Einstein–Bergson debate
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein–Bergson_debate
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:42.156437+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: einstein-bergson-debate-20260505-0
summary:
=== Duration and Simultaneity === Later in 1922, Bergson published Duration and Simultaneity, which was explicitly a "confrontation" with Einstein's theory of relativity. It sought to enlist the facts Einstein drew upon in his theories in service of Bergson's vitalist philosophy. He argued that special relativity is rooted in quantifiable clock-time, and that it fails to capture the true essence of time as duration. Distinguishing between "real" time that can be directly experienced and "imaginary" time (i.e. time dilation and relativity of simultaneity) derived form the relativistic formulas, he specifically takes aim at the twin paradox first proposed by Paul Langevin, and calls for the biological aging process to be distinguished from measurable time. In Langevin's example, a traveler makes a round-trip in a rocket for 200 years as measured on Earth, while he himself only experienced 2 years during the flight (see History of the twin paradox). Bergson erroneously rejected this conclusion by claiming that both twins (Peter on Earth and Paul in the rocket) are interchangeable and therefore must be of same age at reunion: p.74: We must now repeat for Paul everything we said about Peter: Since motion is reciprocal, the two people are interchangeable. If, earlier,


id: paul-fillunger-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Fillunger-0.md
category: reference
title: Paul Fillunger
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Fillunger
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:43.387269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: paul-fillunger-20260505-0
summary:
Paul Fillunger (June 25, 1883 in Vienna – March 7, 1937 in Vienna) was an Austrian geotechnical engineer. Raised in a family of engineers, he studied at the Technische Hochschule in Vienna and took a position in the state-owned railway company in 1906. In 1908 he completed a PhD and then went to teach mathematics, machine industry and then mechanics at the University of Vienna. Fillunger pioneered the study of saturated ground and was made famous by an article published in 1913. He discovered the difference in behaviors of the effective and general stresses in samples of ground, opening the way for further research. He is considered to be a pioneer of the theory of liquid-saturated porous solids. Fillunger's theories put him in heated conflict with Karl von Terzaghi, who is often referred to as "father of soil mechanics", whom Fillunger was accused of slandering. The university blamed Fillunger, who then committed suicide by opening the gas jets in the bathroom with his wife. == References == Reint Boer, The Engineer And The Scandal: A Piece Of Science History, Springer, 2005 Paul Fillunger, "Erdbaumechanik?", Vienna, 1936


id: food-irradiation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_irradiation-0.md
category: reference
title: Food irradiation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_irradiation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:44.577399+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: food-irradiation-20260505-0
summary:
Food irradiation (sometimes called radurization in American English, and radurisation in British English) is the process of exposing food and food packaging to ionizing radiation, such as from gamma rays, x-rays, or electron beams. Food irradiation improves food safety and extends product shelf life (preservation) by effectively destroying organisms responsible for spoilage and foodborne illness, inhibits sprouting or ripening, and is a means of controlling insects and invasive pests. In the United States, consumer perception of foods treated with irradiation is more negative than those processed by other means. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the World Health Organization (WHO), the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) have performed studies that confirm irradiation to be safe. In order for a food to be irradiated in the U.S., the FDA will still require that the specific food be thoroughly tested for irradiation safety. Food irradiation is permitted in over 60 countries, and about 500,000 metric tons of food are processed annually worldwide. The regulations for how food is to be irradiated, as well as the foods allowed to be irradiated, vary greatly from country to country. In Austria, Germany, and many other countries


id: food-irradiation-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_irradiation-1.md
category: reference
title: Food irradiation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_irradiation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:44.577399+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: food-irradiation-20260505-0
summary:
=== Dosimetry === The radiation absorbed dose is the amount energy absorbed per unit weight of the target material. Dose is used because, when the same substance is given the same dose, similar changes are observed in the target material(Gy or J/kg). Dosimeters are used to measure dose, and are small components that, when exposed to ionizing radiation, change measurable physical attributes to a degree that can be correlated to the dose received. Measuring dose (dosimetry) involves exposing one or more dosimeters along with the target material. For purposes of legislation doses are divided into low (up to 1 kGy), medium (1 kGy to 10 kGy), and high-dose applications (above 10 kGy). High-dose applications are above those currently permitted in the US for commercial food items by the FDA and other regulators around the world, though these doses are approved for non commercial applications, such as sterilizing frozen meat for NASA astronauts (doses of 44 kGy) and food for hospital patients. The ratio of the maximum dose permitted at the outer edge (Dmax) to the minimum limit to achieve processing conditions (Dmin) determines the uniformity of dose distribution. This ratio determines how uniform the irradiation process is. == Chemical changes


id: food-irradiation-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_irradiation-2.md
category: reference
title: Food irradiation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_irradiation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:44.577399+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: food-irradiation-20260505-0
summary:
Gamma irradiation is widely used due to its high penetration depth and dose uniformity, allowing for large-scale applications with high throughput. Additionally, gamma irradiation is significantly less expensive than using an X-ray source. In most designs, the radioisotope, contained in stainless steel pencils, is stored in a water-filled storage pool which absorbs the radiation energy when not in use. For treatment, the source is lifted out of the storage tank, and product contained in totes is passed around the pencils to achieve required processing. Treatment costs vary as a function of dose and facility usage. A pallet or tote is typically exposed for several minutes to hours depending on dose. Low-dose applications such as disinfestation of fruit range between US$0.01/lb and US$0.08/lb while higher-dose applications can cost as much as US$0.20/lb. ==== Electron beam ==== Treatment of electron beams is created as a result of high energy electrons in an accelerator that generates electrons accelerated to 99% the speed of light. This system uses electrical energy and can be powered on and off. The high power correlates with a higher throughput and lower unit cost, but electron beams have low dose uniformity and a penetration depth of centimeters. Therefore, electron


id: food-irradiation-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_irradiation-3.md
category: reference
title: Food irradiation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_irradiation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:44.577399+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: food-irradiation-20260505-0
summary:
== Standards and regulations == The Codex Alimentarius represents the global standard for irradiation of food, in particular under the WTO-agreement. Regardless of treatment source, all processing facilities must adhere to safety standards set by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Codex Code of Practice for the Radiation Processing of Food, Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). More specifically, ISO 14470 and ISO 9001 provide in-depth information regarding safety in irradiation facilities. All commercial irradiation facilities contain safety systems which are designed to prevent exposure of personnel to radiation. The radiation source is constantly shielded by water, concrete, or metal. Irradiation facilities are designed with overlapping layers of protection, interlocks, and safeguards to prevent accidental radiation exposure. Meltdowns are unlikely to occur due to low heat production from sources used. === Labeling === The provisions of the Codex Alimentarius are that any "first generation" product must be labeled "irradiated" as any product derived directly from an irradiated raw material; for ingredients the provision is that even the last molecule of an irradiated ingredient must be listed with the ingredients even in cases where the unirradiated ingredient does not appear on the label. The RADURA-logo is


id: food-irradiation-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_irradiation-4.md
category: reference
title: Food irradiation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_irradiation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:44.577399+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: food-irradiation-20260505-0
summary:
==== European Union ==== European law stipulates that all member countries must allow the sale of irradiated dried aromatic herbs, spices and vegetable seasonings. However, these Directives allow Member States to maintain previous clearances food categories the EC's Scientific Committee on Food (SCF) had previously approved (the approval body is now the European Food Safety Authority). Presently, Belgium, Czech Republic, France, Italy, Netherlands, and Poland allow the sale of many different types of irradiated foods. Before individual items in an approved class can be added to the approved list, studies into the toxicology of each of such food and for each of the proposed dose ranges are requested. It also states that irradiation shall not be used "as a substitute for hygiene or health practices or good manufacturing or agricultural practice". These Directives only control food irradiation for food retail and their conditions and controls are not applicable to the irradiation of food for patients requiring sterile diets. In 2021 the most common food items irradiated were frog legs at 65.1%, poultry 20.6% and dried aromatic herbs, spices and vegetables seasoning. Due to the European Single Market, any food, even if irradiated, must be allowed to be marketed in any


id: food-irradiation-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_irradiation-5.md
category: reference
title: Food irradiation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_irradiation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:44.577399+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: food-irradiation-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == World Health Organization publications: Safety and nutritional adequacy of irradiated food, WHO, Geneva, 1994 High-dose irradiation: Wholesomeness of food irradiated with doses above 10 kGy, WHO, Geneva, 1999, Technical Report Series No. 890 Facts about Food Irradiation, A series of Fact Sheets from the International Consultative Group on Food Irradiation (ICGFI), 1999, IAEA, Vienna, Austria at the Wayback Machine (archived 2006-03-16) Diehl, J.F., Safety of irradiated foods, Marcel Dekker, N.Y., 1995 (2. ed.) Satin, M., Food irradiation, Technomic, Lancaster, 1996 (2. ed.) Urbain, W.M., Food irradiation, Academic Press, Orlando, 1986 Molins, R. (ed.), Food irradiation – Principles and applications, Wiley Interscience, N.Y., 2001 Sommers, C.H. and Fan, X. (eds.), Food Irradiation Research and Technology, Blackwell Publishing, Ames, IA, 2006 The Food That Would Last Forever : Understanding the Dangers of Food Irradiation, by Gary Gibbs, Garden City Park, N.Y. : Avery Pub. Group, c1993 anon., Food Irradiation: Available Research Indicates That Benefits Outweigh Risks, RCED-00-217, August 24, 2000, Government Accountability Office, United States General Accounting Office, Resources, Community, and Economic Development Division, Washington, D.C. 20548 "Food Irradiation" Farkas, József; Mohácsi-Farkas, Csilla (March 2011). "History and future of food irradiation". Trends in Food Science & Technology. 22


id: generation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation-0.md
category: reference
title: Generation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:45.779516+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: generation-20260505-0
summary:
A generation is all of the individuals born and living at about the same time, regarded collectively. It also is "the average period, generally considered to be about 20–30 years, during which children are born and grow up, become adults, and begin to have children." In kinship, generation is a structural term, designating the parent–child relationship. In biology, generation also means biogenesis, reproduction, and procreation. Generation is also a synonym for birth/age cohort in demographics, marketing, and social science, where it means "people within a delineated population who experience the same significant events within a given period of time." The term generation in this sense, also known as social generations, is widely used in popular culture and is a basis of sociological analysis. Serious analysis of generations began in the nineteenth century, emerging from an increasing awareness of the possibility of permanent social change and the idea of youthful rebellion against the established social order. Some analysts believe that a generation is one of the fundamental social categories in a society; others consider generation less important than class, gender, race, and education. == Etymology == The word generate comes from the Latin generāre, meaning "to beget". The word generation as


id: generation-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation-1.md
category: reference
title: Generation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:45.779516+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: generation-20260505-0
summary:
=== Generational theory === The sociologist Karl Mannheim was a seminal figure in the study of generations. He elaborated a theory of generations in his 1923 essay The Problem of Generations. He suggested that there had been a division into two primary schools of study of generations until that time. Firstly, positivists such as Comte measured social change in designated life spans. Mannheim argued that this reduced history to "a chronological table". The other school, the "romantic-historical" was represented by Dilthey and Martin Heidegger. This school focused on the individual qualitative experience at the expense of social context. Mannheim emphasised that the rapidity of social change in youth was crucial to the formation of generations, and that not every generation would come to see itself as distinct. In periods of rapid social change a generation would be much more likely to develop a cohesive character. He also believed that a number of distinct sub-generations could exist. According to Gilleard and Higgs, Mannheim identified three commonalities that a generation shares: Shared temporal location: generational site or birth cohort Shared historical location: generation as actuality or exposure to a common era Shared sociocultural location: generational consciousness or entelechy Mannheim elaborated on the


id: generation-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation-2.md
category: reference
title: Generation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:45.779516+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: generation-20260505-0
summary:
Generational analysis has a long and distinguished place in social science, and we cast our lot with those scholars who believe it is not only possible, but often highly illuminating, to search for the unique and distinctive characteristics of any given age group of Americans. But we also know this is not an exact science. We are mindful that there are as many differences in attitudes, values, behaviors, and lifestyles within a generation as there are between generations. But we believe this reality does not diminish the value of generational analysis; it merely adds to its richness and complexity. Another element of generational theory is recognizing how youth experience their generation, and how that changes based on where they reside in the world. "Analyzing young people's experiences in place contributes to a deeper understanding of the processes of individualization, inequality, and of generation." Being able to take a closer looks at youth cultures and subcultures in different times and places adds an extra element to understanding the everyday lives of youth. This allows a better understanding of youth and the role generation and place play in their development. It is not where the birth cohort boundaries are drawn that is


id: generation-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation-3.md
category: reference
title: Generation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:45.779516+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: generation-20260505-0
summary:
The Lost Generation, also known as the "Generation of 1914" in Europe, is a term originating from Gertrude Stein to describe those who fought in World War I. The Lost Generation is defined as the cohort born from 1883 to 1900 who came of age during World War I and the Roaring Twenties. The Greatest Generation, also known in American usage as the "G.I. Generation", includes the veterans who fought in World War II. They were born from 1901 to 1927; older G.I.s (or the Interbellum Generation) came of age during the Roaring Twenties, while younger G.I.s came of age during the Great Depression and World War II. Journalist Tom Brokaw wrote about American members of this cohort in his book The Greatest Generation, which popularized the term. The Silent Generation, also known as the "Lucky Few", is the cohort who came of age in the post–World War II era. They were born from 1928 to 1945. In the U.S., this group includes most of those who may have fought in the Korean War and many of those who may have fought during the Vietnam War. Baby boomers (often shortened to Boomers) are the people born following World War II


id: generation-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation-4.md
category: reference
title: Generation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:45.779516+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: generation-20260505-0
summary:
=== Other areas === In Armenia, people born after the country's independence from the Soviet Union in 1991 are known as the "Independence generation". In the Czech Republic and Slovakia, the generation of people born in Czechoslovakia during the baby boom which started in the early 1970s, during the period of "normalization" are called "Husák's children". The generation was named after the President and long-term Communist leader of Czechoslovakia, Gustáv Husák. This was due to his political program to boost the growth of population. In the People's Republic of China, the "Post-80s" (Chinese: 八零后世代 or 八零后) (born-after-1980 generation) are those who were born in the 1980s in urban areas of mainland China. Growing up in modern China, the Post-80s has been characterised by its optimism for the future, newfound excitement for consumerism and entrepreneurship and acceptance of its historic role in transforming modern China into an economic power. There is also the similarly named "Post-90s" (Chinese: 九零后), those born after 1990. A broader generational classification would be the "one-child generation" born between the introduction of the one-child policy in 1979 and its softening into a "two-child policy" in 2015. The lack of siblings has had profound psychological effects on this


id: generation-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation-5.md
category: reference
title: Generation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:45.779516+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: generation-20260505-0
summary:
In Taiwan, the term Strawberry generation refers to Taiwanese people born after 1981 who "bruise easily" like strawberries—meaning they can not withstand social pressure or work hard like their parents' generation; the term refers to people who are insubordinate, spoiled, selfish, arrogant, and sluggish in work. In the Philippines, the Filipinos who are in Millennials is also known as Batang 90's. In Ukraine, the political scientists Olga Onuch and Henry E. Hale identified people born from about 1975 to 1985 as the "Independence Generation" in their book The Zelensky Effect. This generation were children when Ukraine gained independence in 1991—old enough to recall and understand, but too young to participate—and "came of age politically in an independent Ukraine". Onuch and Hale argue that this generation has played a vital role in the formation of civic national identity in Ukraine.


id: generation-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation-6.md
category: reference
title: Generation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:45.779516+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: generation-20260505-0
summary:
=== Other terminology === The term generation is sometimes applied to a cultural movement, or more narrowly defined group than an entire demographic (such as cuspers between generations). Some examples include: The Stolen Generations, refers to children of Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islander descent, who were forcibly removed from their families by Australian federal and state government agencies and church missions, under Acts of their respective parliaments between approximately 1869 and 1969. The Beat Generation, refers to a popular American cultural movement widely cited by social scholars as having laid the foundation of the pro-active American counterculture of the 1960s. It consisted of Americans born between the two world wars who came of age in the rise of the automobile era, and the surrounding accessibility they brought to the culturally diverse, yet geographically broad and separated nation. Generation Jones is a term coined by Jonathan Pontell to describe the cohort of people born between 1954 and 1965. The term is used primarily in English-speaking countries. Pontell defined Generation Jones as referring to the second half of the post–World War II baby boom. The term also includes first-wave Generation X. MTV Generation, a term referring to the adolescents and young


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-0.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:47.717639+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
Consumers, farmers, biotechnology companies, governmental regulators, non-governmental organizations, and scientists have been involved in controversies around foods and other goods derived from genetically modified crops instead of conventional crops, and other uses of genetic engineering in food production. The key areas of controversy related to genetically modified food (GM food or GMO food) are whether such food should be labeled, the role of government regulators, the objectivity of scientific research and publication, the effect of genetically modified crops on health and the environment, the effect on pesticide resistance, the impact of such crops for farmers, and the role of the crops in feeding the world population. In addition, products derived from GMO organisms play a role in the production of ethanol fuels and pharmaceuticals. Specific concerns include mixing of genetically modified and non-genetically modified products in the food supply, effects of GMOs on the environment, the rigor of the regulatory process, and consolidation of control of the food supply in companies that make and sell GMOs. Advocacy groups such as the Center for Food Safety, Organic Consumers Association, Union of Concerned Scientists, and Greenpeace say risks have not been adequately identified and managed, and they have questioned the objectivity of


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-1.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:47.717639+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
=== Reviews and polls === An EMBO Reports article in 2003 reported that the Public Perceptions of Agricultural Biotechnologies in Europe project (PABE) found the public neither accepting nor rejecting GMOs. Instead, PABE found that public had "key questions" about GMOs: "Why do we need GMOs? Who benefits from their use? Who decided that they should be developed and how? Why were we not better informed about their use in our food, before their arrival on the market? Why are we not given an effective choice about whether or not to buy these products? Have potential long-term and irreversible consequences been seriously evaluated, and by whom? Do regulatory authorities have sufficient powers to effectively regulate large companies? Who wishes to develop these products? Can controls imposed by regulatory authorities be applied effectively? Who will be accountable in cases of unforeseen harm?" PABE also found that the public's scientific knowledge does not control public opinion, since scientific facts do not answer these questions. PABE also found that the public does not demand "zero risk" in GM food discussions and is "perfectly aware that their lives are full of risks that need to be counterbalanced against each other and against the potential


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-2.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:47.717639+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
In May 2012, a group called "Take the Flour Back" led by Gerald Miles protested plans by a group from Rothamsted Experimental Station, based in Harpenden, Hertfordshire, England, to conduct an experimental trial wheat genetically modified to repel aphids. The researchers, led by John Pickett, wrote a letter to the group in early May 2012, asking them to call off their protest, aimed for 27 May 2012. Group member Lucy Harrap said that the group was concerned about spread of the crops into nature, and cited examples of outcomes in the United States and Canada. Rothamsted Research and Sense about Science ran question and answer sessions about such a potential. The March Against Monsanto is an international grassroots movement and protest against Monsanto corporation, a producer of genetically modified organism (GMOs) and Roundup, a glyphosate-based herbicide. The movement was founded by Tami Canal in response to the failure of California Proposition 37, a ballot initiative which would have required labeling food products made from GMOs. Advocates support mandatory labeling laws for food made from GMOs . The initial march took place on May 25, 2013. The number of protesters who took part is uncertain; figures of "hundreds of thousands" and


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-3.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:47.717639+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
There are various conspiracy theories related to the production and sale of genetically modified crops and genetically modified food that have been identified by some commentators such as Michael Shermer. Generally, these conspiracy theories posit that GMOs are being knowingly and maliciously introduced into the food supply either as a means to unduly enrich agribusinesses or as a means to poison or pacify the population. A work seeking to explore risk perception over GMOs in Turkey identified a belief among the conservative political and religious figures who were opposed to GMOs that GMOs were "a conspiracy by Jewish Multinational Companies and Israel for world domination." Additionally, a Latvian study showed that a segment of the population believed that GMOs were part of a greater conspiracy theory to poison the population of the country. == Lawsuits == === Foundation on Economic Trends v. Heckler === In 1983, environmental groups and protesters delayed the field tests of the genetically modified ice-minus strain of P. syringae with legal challenges. === Alliance for Bio-Integrity v. Shalala === In this case, the plaintiff argued both for mandatory labeling on the basis of consumer demand, and that GMO foods should undergo the same testing requirements as


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-4.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:47.717639+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
=== Reviews === A 2011 analysis by Diels et al., reviewed 94 peer-reviewed studies pertaining to GMO safety to assess whether conflicts of interest correlated with outcomes that cast GMOs in a favorable light. They found that financial conflict of interest was not associated with study outcome (p = 0.631) while author affiliation to industry (i.e., a professional conflict of interest) was strongly associated with study outcome (p < 0.001). Of the 94 studies that were analyzed, 52% did not declare funding. 10% of the studies were categorized as "undetermined" with regard to professional conflict of interest. Of the 43 studies with financial or professional conflicts of interest, 28 studies were compositional studies. According to Marc Brazeau, an association between professional conflict of interest and positive study outcomes can be skewed because companies typically contract with independent researchers to perform follow-up studies only after in-house research uncovers favorable results. In-house research that uncovers negative or unfavorable results for a novel GMO is generally not further pursued. A 2013 review, of 1,783 papers on genetically modified crops and food published between 2002 and 2012 found no plausible evidence of dangers from the use of then marketed GM crops. In a 2014


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-5.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:47.717639+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
Regulators check that GM foods are "substantially equivalent" to their conventional counterparts, to detect any negative unintended consequences. New protein(s) that differ from conventional food proteins or anomalies that arise in the substantial equivalence comparison require further toxicological analysis. In 1999, Andrew Chesson of the Rowett Research Institute warned that substantial equivalence testing "could be flawed in some cases" and that current safety tests could allow harmful substances to enter the human food supply. The same year Millstone, Brunner and Mayer argued that the standard was a pseudo-scientific product of politics and lobbying that was created to reassure consumers and aid biotechnology companies to reduce the time and cost of safety testing. They suggested that GM foods have extensive biological, toxicological and immunological tests and that substantial equivalence should be abandoned. This commentary was criticized for misrepresenting history, for distorting existing data and poor logic. Kuiper claimed that it oversimplified safety assessments and that equivalence testing involves more than chemical tests, possibly including toxicity testing. Keler and Lappe supported Congressional legislation to replace the substantial equivalence standard with safety studies. In a 2016 review, Domingo criticized the use of the "substantial equivalence" concept as a measure of the safety of


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-6.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:47.717639+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
=== Allergenicity === A well-known risk of genetic modification is the introduction of an allergen. Allergen testing is routine for products intended for food, and passing those tests is part of the regulatory requirements. Organizations such as the European Green Party and Greenpeace emphasize this risk. The use of genes from known allergenic sources is discouraged in the research and development of GM foods. A 2005 review of the results from allergen testing stated that "no biotech proteins in foods have been documented to cause allergic reactions". Regulatory authorities require that new modified foods be tested for allergenicity before they are marketed. The Codex Alimentarius recommends a weight-of-evidence safety approach for assessing the allergenic potential of genetically modified crops, including the history of exposure and safety of the source of the inserted gene, the structure of the protein, its stability to pepsin digestion, and the degree of exposure in the gastrointestinal tract as a function of the abundance of the recombinant protein in the food. In the assessment of the allergenic safety of genetically modified organisms, bioinformatics is used to analyze whether newly expressed proteins show similarity to known human allergens. This process is based on comparing the amino acid


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-7.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:47.717639+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
=== Horizontal gene transfer === Horizontal gene transfer is the movement of genes from one organism to another in a manner other than reproduction. The risk of horizontal gene transfer between GMO plants and animals is very low and in most cases is expected to be lower than background rates. Two studies on the possible effects of feeding animals with genetically modified food found no residues of recombinant DNA or novel proteins in any organ or tissue samples. Studies found DNA from the M13 virus, Green fluorescent protein and RuBisCO genes in the blood and tissue of animals, and in 2012, a paper suggested that a specific microRNA from rice could be found at very low quantities in human and animal serum. Other studies however, found no or negligible transfer of plant microRNAs into the blood of humans or any of three model organisms. Another concern is that the antibiotic resistance gene commonly used as a genetic marker in transgenic crops could be transferred to harmful bacteria, creating resistant superbugs. A 2004 study involving human volunteers examined whether the transgene from modified soy would transfer to bacteria that live in the human gut. As of 2012 it was the only


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-8.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:47.717639+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
=== Animal feeding studies === Reviews of animal feeding studies mostly found no effects. A 2014 review found that the performance of animals fed GM feed was similar to that of animals fed "isogenic non-GE crop lines". A 2012 review of 12 long-term studies and 12 multigenerational studies conducted by public research laboratories concluded that none had discovered any safety problems linked to consumption of GM food. A 2009 review by Magaña-Gómez found that although most studies concluded that modified foods do not differ in nutrition or cause toxic effects in animals, some did report adverse changes at a cellular level caused by specific modified foods. The review concluded that "More scientific effort and investigation is needed to ensure that consumption of GM foods is not likely to provoke any form of health problem". Dona and Arvanitoyannis' 2009 review concluded that "results of most studies with GM foods indicate that they may cause some common toxic effects such as hepatic, pancreatic, renal, or reproductive effects and may alter the hematological, biochemical, and immunologic parameters". Reactions to this review in 2009 and 2010 noted that Dona and Arvanitoyannis had concentrated on articles with an anti-modification bias that were refuted in peer-reviewed


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-9.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:47.717639+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
=== Human studies === While some groups and individuals have called for more human testing of GM food, multiple obstacles complicate such studies. The General Accounting Office (in a review of FDA procedures requested by Congress) and a working group of the Food and Agriculture and World Health organizations both said that long-term human studies of the effect of GM food are not feasible. The reasons included lack of a plausible hypothesis to test, lack of knowledge about the potential long-term effects of conventional foods, variability in the ways humans react to foods and that epidemiological studies were unlikely to differentiate modified from conventional foods, which come with their own suite of unhealthy characteristics. Additionally, ethical concerns guide human subject research. These mandate that each tested intervention must have a potential benefit for the human subjects, such as treatment for a disease or nutritional benefit (ruling out, e.g., human toxicity testing). Kimber claimed that the "ethical and technical constraints of conducting human trials, and the necessity of doing so, is a subject that requires considerable attention." Food with nutritional benefits may escape this objection. For example, GM rice has been tested for nutritional benefits, namely, increased levels of Vitamin A.


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-10.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:47.717639+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
In 2007, 2009, and 2011, Gilles-Éric Séralini published re-analysis studies that used data from Monsanto rat-feeding experiments for three modified maize varieties (insect-resistant MON 863 and MON 810 and glyphosate-resistant NK603). He concluded that the data showed liver, kidney and heart damage. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) then concluded that the differences were all within the normal range. EFSA also stated that Séralini's statistics were faulty. EFSA's conclusions were supported by FSANZ, a panel of expert toxicologists, and the French High Council of Biotechnologies Scientific Committee (HCB). In 2012, Séralini's lab published a paper that considered the long-term effects of feeding rats various levels of GM glyphosate-resistant maize, conventional glyphosate-treated maize, and a mixture of the two strains. The paper concluded that rats fed the modified maize had severe health problems, including liver and kidney damage and large tumors. The study provoked widespread criticism. Séralini held a press conference just before the paper was released in which he announced the release of a book and a movie. He allowed reporters to have access to the paper before his press conference only if they signed a confidentiality agreement under which they could not report other scientists' responses to the paper.


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-11.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:47.717639+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
== Environment == Genetically modified crops are planted in fields much like regular crops. There they interact directly with organisms that feed on the crops and indirectly with other organisms in the food chain. The pollen from the plants is distributed in the environment like that of any other crop. This distribution has led to concerns over the effects of GM crops on the environment. Potential effects include gene flow/genetic pollution, pesticide resistance and greenhouse gas emissions. === Non-target organisms === A major use of GM crops is in insect control through the expression of the cry (crystal delta-endotoxins) and Vip (vegetative insecticidal proteins) genes from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). Such toxins could affect other insects in addition to targeted pests such as the European corn borer. Bt proteins have been used as organic sprays for insect control in France since 1938 and the US since 1958, with no reported ill effects. Cry proteins selectively target Lepidopterans (moths and butterflies). As a toxic mechanism, cry proteins bind to specific receptors on the membranes of mid-gut (epithelial) cells, resulting in their rupture. Any organism that lacks the appropriate receptors in its gut is unaffected by the cry protein, and therefore is not


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-12.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:47.717639+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
=== Gene flow === Genes from a GMO may pass to another organism just like an endogenous gene. The process is known as outcrossing and can occur in any new open-pollinated crop variety. As late as the 1990s this was thought to be unlikely and rare, and if it were to occur, easily eradicated. It was thought that this would add no additional environmental costs or risks - no effects were expected other than those already caused by pesticide applications. Introduced traits potentially can cross into neighboring plants of the same or closely related species through three different types of gene flow: crop-to-crop, crop-to-weedy, and crop-to-wild. In crop-to-crop, genetic information from a genetically modified crop is transferred to a non-genetically modified crop. Crop-to-weedy transfer refers to the transfer of genetically modified material to a weed, and crop-to-wild indicates transfer from a genetically modified crop to a wild, undomesticated plant and/or crop. There are concerns that the spread of genes from modified organisms to unmodified relatives could produce species of weeds resistant to herbicides that could contaminate nearby non-genetically modified crops, or could disrupt the ecosystem, This is primarily a concern if the transgenic organism has a significant survival capacity and


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-13.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:17:47.717639+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
The US has no legislation governing the relationship among mixtures of farms that grow organic, conventional, and GM crops. The country relies on a "complex but relaxed" combination of three federal agencies (FDA, EPA, and USDA/APHIS) and states' common law tort systems to manage coexistence. The Secretary of Agriculture convened an Advisory Committee on Biotechnology and 21st Century Agriculture (AC21) to study coexistence and make recommendations about the issue. The members of AC21 included representatives of the biotechnology industry, the organic food industry, farming communities, the seed industry, food manufacturers, State governments, consumer and community development groups, the medical profession, and academic researchers. AC21 recommended that a study assess the potential for economic losses to US organic farmers; that any serious losses lead to a crop insurance program, an education program to ensure that organic farmers put appropriate contracts in place and that neighboring GMO farmers take appropriate containment measures. Overall the report supported a diverse agriculture system supporting diverse farming systems. The EU implemented regulations specifically governing co-existence and traceability. Traceability has become commonplace in the food and feed supply chains of most countries, but GMO traceability is more challenging given strict legal thresholds for unwanted mixing. Since 2001,


