# kb

id: open-energy-system-models-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_energy_system_models-3.md
category: reference
title: Open energy system models
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_energy_system_models
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:30.157219+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-energy-system-models-20260505-0
summary:
EMMA is the European Electricity Market Model. It is a techno-economic model covering the integrated Northwestern European power system. EMMA is being developed by the energy economics consultancy Neon Neue Energieökonomik, Berlin, Germany. The source code and datasets can be downloaded from the project website. A manual is available. EMMA is written in GAMS and uses the CPLEX commercial solver. EMMA models electricity dispatch and investment, minimizing the total cost with respect to investment, generation, and trades between market areas. In economic terms, EMMA classifies as a partial equilibrium model of the wholesale electricity market with a focus on the supply-side. EMMA identifies short-term or long-term optima (or equilibria) and estimates the corresponding capacity mix, hourly prices, dispatch, and cross-border trading. Technically, EMMA is a pure linear program (no integer variables) with about two million non-zero variables. As of 2016, the model covers Belgium, France, Germany, the Netherlands, and Poland and supports conventional generation, renewable generation, and cogeneration. EMMA has been used to study the economic effects of the increasing penetration of variable renewable energy (VRE), specifically solar power and wind power, in the Northwestern European power system. A 2013 study finds that increasing VRE shares will depress prices and,


id: open-energy-system-models-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_energy_system_models-4.md
category: reference
title: Open energy system models
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_energy_system_models
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:30.157219+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-energy-system-models-20260505-0
summary:
NEMO, the National Electricity Market Optimiser, is a chronological dispatch model for testing and optimizing different portfolios of conventional and renewable electricity generation technologies. It applies solely to the Australian National Electricity Market (NEM), which, despite its name, is limited to east and south Australia. NEMO has been in development at the Centre for Energy and Environmental Markets (CEEM), University of New South Wales (UNSW), Sydney, Australia since 2011. The project maintains a small website and runs an email list. NEMO is written in Python. NEMO itself is described in two publications. The data sources are also noted. Optimizations are carried out using a single-objective evaluation function, with penalties. The solution space of generator capacities is searched using the CMA-ES (covariance matrix adaptation evolution strategy) algorithm. The timestep is arbitrary but one hour is normally employed. NEMO has been used to explore generation options for the year 2030 under a variety of renewable energy (RE) and abated fossil fuel technology scenarios. A 2012 study investigates the feasibility of a fully renewable system using concentrated solar power (CSP) with thermal storage, windfarms, photovoltaics, existing hydroelectricity, and biofuelled gas turbines. A number of potential systems, which also meet NEM reliability criteria, are


id: open-energy-system-models-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_energy_system_models-5.md
category: reference
title: Open energy system models
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_energy_system_models
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:30.157219+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-energy-system-models-20260505-0
summary:
pandapower is a power system analysis and optimization program being jointly developed by the Energy Management and Power System Operation research group, University of Kassel and the Department for Distribution System Operation, Fraunhofer Institute for Energy Economics and Energy System Technology (IEE), both of Kassel, Germany. The codebase is hosted on GitHub and is also available as a package. The project maintains a website, an emailing list, and online documentation. pandapower is written in Python. It uses the pandas library for data manipulation and analysis and the PYPOWER library to solve for power flow. Unlike some open source power system tools, pandapower does not depend on proprietary platforms like MATLAB. pandapower supports the automated analysis and optimization of distribution and transmission networks. This allows a large of number of scenarios to be explored, based on different future grid configurations and technologies. pandapower offers a collection of power system elements, including: lines, 2-winding transformers, 3-winding transformers, and ward-equivalents. It also contains a switch model that allows the modeling of ideal bus-bus switches as well as bus-line/bus-trafo switches. The software supports topological searching. The network itself can be plotted, with or without geographical information, using the matplotlib and plotly libraries. A 2016


id: open-energy-system-models-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_energy_system_models-6.md
category: reference
title: Open energy system models
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_energy_system_models
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:30.157219+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-energy-system-models-20260505-0
summary:
renpass is an acronym for Renewable Energy Pathways Simulation System. renpass is a simulation electricity model with high regional and temporal resolution, designed to capture existing systems and future systems with up to 100% renewable generation. The software is being developed by the Centre for Sustainable Energy Systems (CSES or ZNES), University of Flensburg, Germany. The project runs a website, from where the codebase can be download. renpass is written in R and links to a MySQL database. A PDF manual is available. renpass is also described in a PhD thesis. As of 2015, renpass is being extended as renpassG!S, based on oemof. renpass is an electricity dispatch model which minimizes system costs for each time step (optimization) within the limits of a given infrastructure (simulation). Time steps are optionally 15 minutes or one hour. The method assumes perfect foresight. renpass supports the electricity systems found in Austria, Belgium, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, France, Finland, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Sweden, and Switzerland. The optimization problem for each time step is to minimize the electricity supply cost using the existing power plant fleet for all regions. After this regional dispatch, the exchange between the regions is


id: open-energy-system-models-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_energy_system_models-7.md
category: reference
title: Open energy system models
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_energy_system_models
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:30.157219+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-energy-system-models-20260505-0
summary:
SWITCH is a loose acronym for solar, wind, conventional and hydroelectric generation, and transmission. SWITCH is an optimal planning model for power systems with large shares of renewable energy. SWITCH is being developed by the Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa, Hawaii, USA. The project runs a small website and hosts its codebase and datasets on GitHub. SWITCH is written in Pyomo, an optimization components library programmed in Python. It can use either the open source GLPK solver or the commercial CPLEX solver. SWITCH is a power system model, focused on renewables integration. It can identify which generator and transmission projects to build in order to satisfy electricity demand at the lowest cost over a several-year period while also reducing CO2 emissions. SWITCH utilizes multi-stage stochastic linear optimization with the objective of minimizing the present value of the cost of power plants, transmission capacity, fuel usage, and an arbitrary per-tonne CO2 charge (to represent either a carbon tax or a certificate price), over the course of a multi-year investment period. It has two major sets of decision variables. First, at the start of each investment period, SWITCH selects how much generation capacity to build in each of


id: open-energy-system-models-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_energy_system_models-8.md
category: reference
title: Open energy system models
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_energy_system_models
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:30.157219+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-energy-system-models-20260505-0
summary:
AnyMOD.jl is a framework for planning macro‑energy systems at a high level of spatio-temporal detail. The framework covers the expansion and operation of short-term and seasonal storage, fossil and renewable generation, transmission infrastructure, and sector coupling technologies. It can be used to plan long‑term pathways under perfect foresight. AnyMOD.jl is implemented in Julia and relies on the JuMP library for optimization and DataFrames.jl for data management. Models are formulated as linear optimization problems and can be solved with open-source libraries like HiGHS or commercial solvers like CPLEX. To increase accessibility and enable version-controlled development, specific models are fully defined using CSV files. Compared to similar tools, AnyMOD.jl puts an emphasis on innovative methods to achieve high detail and capture intermittent renewables, while maintaining a comprehensive scope in terms of regions and sectors. These methods include varying the spatio-temporal resolution by energy carrier within the same model and a scaling algorithm to improve the properties of the underlying optimization problem. Methods from stochastic programming are now being implemented to better address the uncertainties associated with renewable generation. As of 2022, most studies deploying the tool have focused on the German energy system in a European context, for instance investigating the trade‑offs


id: open-energy-system-models-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_energy_system_models-9.md
category: reference
title: Open energy system models
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_energy_system_models
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:30.157219+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-energy-system-models-20260505-0
summary:
Calliope is an energy system modeling framework, with a focus on flexibility, high spatial and temporal resolution, and the ability to execute different runs using the same base-case dataset. The project is being developed at the Department of Environmental Systems Science, ETH Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland. The project maintains a website, hosts the codebase at GitHub, operates an issues tracker, and runs two email lists. Calliope is written in Python and uses the Pyomo library. It can link to the open source GLPK solver and the commercial CPLEX solver. PDF documentation is available. And a two‑page software review is available. A Calliope model consists of a collection of structured text files, in YAML and CSV formats, that define the technologies, locations, and resource potentials. Calliope takes these files, constructs a pure linear optimization (no integer variables) problem, solves it, and reports the results in the form of pandas data structures for analysis. The framework contains five abstract base technologies – supply, demand, conversion, storage, transmission – from which new concrete technologies can be derived. The design of Calliope enforces the clear separation of framework (code) and model (data). A 2015 study uses Calliope to compare the future roles of nuclear power


id: open-energy-system-models-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_energy_system_models-10.md
category: reference
title: Open energy system models
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_energy_system_models
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:30.157219+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-energy-system-models-20260505-0
summary:
EnergyPATHWAYS is a bottom-up energy sector model used to explore the near-term implications of long-term deep decarbonization. The lead developer is energy and climate protection consultancy, Evolved Energy Research, San Francisco, USA. The code is hosted on GitHub. EnergyPATHWAYS is written in Python and links to the open source Cbc solver. Alternatively, the GLPK, or CPLEX solvers can be employed. EnergyPATHWAYS utilizes the PostgreSQL object-relational database management system (ORDBMS) to manage its data. EnergyPATHWAYS is a comprehensive accounting framework used to construct economy-wide energy infrastructure scenarios. While portions of the model do use linear programming techniques, for instance, for electricity dispatch, the EnergyPATHWAYS model is not fundamentally an optimization model and embeds few decision dynamics. EnergyPATHWAYS offers detailed energy, cost, and emissions accounting for the energy flows from primary supply to final demand. The energy system representation is flexible, allowing for differing levels of detail and the nesting of cities, states, and countries. The model uses hourly least-cost electricity dispatch and supports power-to-gas, short-duration energy storage, long-duration energy storage, and demand response. Scenarios typically run to 2050. A predecessor of the EnergyPATHWAYS software, named simply PATHWAYS, has been used to construct policy models. The California PATHWAYS model was used to


id: open-energy-system-models-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_energy_system_models-11.md
category: reference
title: Open energy system models
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_energy_system_models
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:30.157219+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-energy-system-models-20260505-0
summary:
GENeSYS‑MOD couples the demand sectors covering electricity, buildings, industry, and transport and finds the cost-optimal investment into conventional and renewable energy generation, storage, and infrastructure. The research focus is on long-term system development and pathway analysis. The model was first used to analyze decarbonization scenarios at the global level, broken down into ten regions. However, the framework is highly flexible, allowing for calculations at various levels of detail, from individual households to global aggregations, depending on the desired research question and availability of input data. A 2019 study examined the low‑carbon transition of the European energy system and specifically the problem of stranded assets under a range of scenarios. It found that up to €200 billion in fossil-fueled capacities could be stranded by 2035 unless stronger policy signals are able to address short‑term planning biases. Another 2019 study evaluates China's energy system transformation, highlighting the need to reduce coal consumption by 60% by 2050 to meet global climate targets. Renewable energies, and in particular photovoltaics and onshore wind, emerge as cost-effective solutions, but overcoming local resistance and increasing stakeholder engagement remain crucial for success. A 2021 study investigates the European Green Deal goal of achieving 100% greenhouse gas reductions by


id: open-energy-system-models-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_energy_system_models-12.md
category: reference
title: Open energy system models
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_energy_system_models
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:30.157219+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-energy-system-models-20260505-0
summary:
A key paper describing OSeMOSYS is available. A 2011 study uses OSeMOSYS to investigate the role of household investment decisions. A 2012 study extends OSeMOSYS to capture the salient features of a smart grid. The paper explains how to model variability in generation, flexible demand, and grid storage and how these impact on the stability of the grid. OSeMOSYS has been applied to village systems. A 2015 paper compares the merits of stand-alone, mini-grid, and grid electrification for rural areas in Timor-Leste under differing levels of access. In a 2016 study, OSeMOSYS is modified to take into account realistic consumer behavior. Another 2016 study uses OSeMOSYS to build a local multi-regional energy system model of the Lombardy region in Italy. One of the aims of the exercise was to encourage citizens to participate in the energy planning process. Preliminary results indicate that this was successful and that open modeling is needed to properly include both the technological dynamics and the non-technological issues. A 2017 paper covering Alberta, Canada factors in the risk of overrunning specified emissions targets because of technological uncertainty. Among other results, the paper finds that solar and wind technologies are built out seven and five years earlier


id: open-energy-system-models-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_energy_system_models-13.md
category: reference
title: Open energy system models
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_energy_system_models
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:30.157219+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-energy-system-models-20260505-0
summary:
The basic functionality of PyPSA is described in a 2018 paper. PyPSA bridges traditional steady-state power flow analysis software and full multi-period energy system models. It can be invoked using either non-linear power flow equations for system simulation or linearized approximations to enable the joint optimization of operations and investment across multiple periods. Generator ramping and multi-period up and down-times can be specified, DSM is supported, but demand remains price inelastic. A 2018 study examines potential synergies between sector coupling and transmission reinforcement in a future European energy system constrained to reduce carbon emissions by 95%. The PyPSA-Eur-Sec-30 model captures the demand-side management potential of battery electric vehicles (BEV) as well as the role that power-to-gas, long-term thermal energy storage, and related technologies can play. Results indicate that BEVs can smooth the daily variations in solar power while the remaining technologies smooth the synoptic and seasonal variations in both demand and renewable supply. Substantial buildout of the electricity grid is required for a least-cost configuration. More generally, such a system is both feasible and affordable. The underlying datasets are available from Zenodo. As of January 2018, PyPSA is used by more than a dozen research institutes and companies worldwide. Some


id: open-energy-system-models-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_energy_system_models-14.md
category: reference
title: Open energy system models
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_energy_system_models
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:30.157219+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-energy-system-models-20260505-0
summary:
In practical terms, the framework allows for modeling competition between technologies that can serve the same purpose, such as power generation, while also providing insights into when and where a specific technology is required. Additionally, it can be applied to transportation problems, where the optimal exchange of a commodity between at least two distinct regions needs to be determined. Furthermore, it addresses storage problems, where the optimal balance between production and consumption at different points in time is calculated. REMix offers several key features that make it a robust tool for energy system modeling. It is designed to handle large-scale models with high spatial and technological resolutions, making it suitable for complex analyses. The framework also incorporates path optimization, allowing for multi-year analyses and strategic planning over extended periods. Ongoing work deals with very large instances involving path optimization using the parallel solver PIPS-IPM++. A notable feature is its custom accounting capability, provided through the indicator module, which enables flexible definitions of what contributes to the objective functions. Additionally, REMix supports flexible modeling, offering multiple approaches to integrate and model technologies, allowing users to tailor the framework to their specific needs. Finally, it supports multi-criteria optimization, where, beyond cost minimization,


id: open-energy-system-models-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_energy_system_models-15.md
category: reference
title: Open energy system models
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_energy_system_models
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:30.157219+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-energy-system-models-20260505-0
summary:
The GAMS language requires a proprietary environment and its significant cost effectively limits participation to those who can access an institutional copy. == Programming components == Programming components, in this context, are coherent blocks of code or compiled libraries that can be relatively easily imported or linked to by higher‑level modeling frameworks in order to obtain some well‑defined functionality. === Technology modules === A number of technical component models are now also open source. While these component models do not constitute systems models aimed at public policy development (the focus of this page), they nonetheless warrant a mention. Technology modules can be linked or otherwise adapted into these broader initiatives. Sandia photovoltaic array performance model pvlib photovoltaics facility library hplib heat pump facility library windpowerlib wind turbine library hydropowerlib hydroelectricity library === Auction models === A number of electricity auction models have been written in GAMS, AMPL, MathProg, and other languages. These include: the EPOC nodal pricing model Australian National Electricity Market examples using MathProg can be found at b:GLPK/Electricity markets === Open solvers === Many projects rely on a pure linear or mixed integer solver to perform classical optimization, constraint satisfaction, or some mix of the two. While there


id: open-notebook-science-challenge-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Notebook_Science_Challenge-0.md
category: reference
title: Open Notebook Science Challenge
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Notebook_Science_Challenge
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:31.605154+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-notebook-science-challenge-20260505-0
summary:
The Open Notebook Science Challenge is a crowdsourcing research project which collects measurements of the non-aqueous solubility of organic compounds and publishes these as open data; findings are reported in an open notebook science manner. Although anyone may contribute research data, the competition is only open to post-secondary students in the US and UK. The challenge in turn forms part of the UsefulChem project, an ongoing open notebook science effort to synthesize and screen potential new anti-malarial drugs. Data from the Solubility Challenge will be used to build predictive computational models of solubility for use in optimising syntheses. The challenge began on September 28, 2008 and, as of February 2014, involves researchers and their students from at least 4 different institutions and has resulted in the acquisition of over 7672 solubility measurements. == Prizes == To encourage participation, each month an award is given to the student who does, in the opinion of the judges, the best work. In order to participate, students have to be a US or UK resident. The award is a US$500 cash prize. The first three winners also received a year's subscription to the journal Nature. The awards are sponsored by Submeta and Nature. ==


id: open-peer-review-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_peer_review-0.md
category: reference
title: Open peer review
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_peer_review
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:36.870107+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-peer-review-20260505-0
summary:
Open peer review is the various possible modifications of the traditional scholarly peer review process. The three most common modifications to which the term is applied are: Open identities: Authors and reviewers are aware of each other's identity. Open reports: Review reports are published alongside the relevant article (rather than being kept confidential). Open participation: The wider community (and not just invited reviewers) are able to contribute to the review process. These modifications are supposed to address various perceived shortcomings of the traditional scholarly peer review process, in particular its lack of transparency, lack of incentives, wastefulness, bullying and harassment. == Definitions == Open identities Open peer review may be defined as "any scholarly review mechanism providing disclosure of author and referee identities to one another at any point during the peer review or publication process". Then reviewer's identities may or may not be disclosed to the public. This is in contrast to the traditional peer review process where reviewers remain anonymous to anyone but the journal's editors. Authors' names are disclosed during the process in a single-blind organisation of reviews. In the double-blind process, authors' names and reviewers' names all remain anonymous except to the editor. Open reports Open


id: open-peer-review-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_peer_review-1.md
category: reference
title: Open peer review
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_peer_review
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:36.870107+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-peer-review-20260505-0
summary:
== History == In 1997, the open participation journal Electronic Transactions on Artificial Intelligence was launched. Articles were first "published" (meaning the day when the article is first made public), then "reviewed" (meaning a open process of public discussion), and then "refereed" (meaning the confidential pass/fail decision of whether to accept the article or not). In 1999, the open access journal Journal of Medical Internet Research was launched, which from its inception decided to publish the names of the reviewers at the bottom of each published article. Also in 1999, the British Medical Journal moved to an open peer review system, revealing reviewers' identities to the authors but not the readers, and in 2000, the medical journals in the open access BMC series published by BioMed Central, launched using open peer review. As with the BMJ, the reviewers' names are included on the peer review reports. In addition, if the article is published the reports are made available online as part of the "pre-publication history"'. Several other journals published by the BMJ Group allow optional open peer review, as does PLoS Medicine, published by the Public Library of Science. The BMJ's Rapid Responses allows ongoing debate and criticism following publication.


id: open-peer-review-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_peer_review-2.md
category: reference
title: Open peer review
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_peer_review
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:36.870107+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-peer-review-20260505-0
summary:
Publishers: BioMed Central BMJ Group Copernicus Publications European Molecular Biology Organization (EMBO) Frontiers MDPI (authors have the option to publish peer review reports, etc.) Nature Research Open Research Europe (the European Union publishing platform for Horizon Europe and Horizon 2020 projects) Journals: eLife GigaScience Nature PeerJ PLOS ReScience C Semantic Web journal by IOS Press WikiJournal SciPost Peer review at The BMJ, BioMed Central, EMBO, eLife, ReScience C, and the Semantic Web journal involves posting the entire pre-publication history of the article online, including not only signed reviews of the article, but also its previous versions and in some cases names of handling editors and author responses to the reviewers. Furthermore, the Semantic Web journal publishes reviews of all submissions, including rejected ones, on its website, while eLife plans to publish the reviews not only for published articles, but also for rejected articles. The European Geosciences Union operates public discussions where open peer review is conducted before suitable articles are accepted for publication in the journal. Sci, an open access journal which covers all research fields, adapted a post publication public peer-review (P4R) in which it promised authors immediate visibility of their manuscripts on the journal's online platform after a


id: open-research-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_research-0.md
category: reference
title: Open research
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_research
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:38.077952+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-research-20260505-0
summary:
Open research is research that is openly accessible by others. Those who publish research in this way are often concerned with making research more transparent, more collaborative, more wide-reaching, and more efficient. Open research aims to make both research methods and the resulting data freely available, often via the internet, in order to support reproducibility and, potentially, massively distributed research collaboration. In this regard, it is related to both open source software and citizen science. Especially for research that is scientific in nature, open research may be referred to as open science. However, the term can also implicate research done in fields as varied as the social sciences, the humanities, mathematics, engineering and medicine. == Types of open projects == Important distinctions exist between different types of open projects. Projects that provide open data but don't offer open collaboration are referred to as "open access" rather than open research. Providing open data is a necessary but not sufficient condition for open research, because although the data may be used by anyone, there is no requirement for subsequent research to take place openly. For example, though there have been many calls for more open collaborative research in drug discovery and the


id: open-science-award-for-open-source-research-software-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Science_Award_for_Open_Source_Research_Software-0.md
category: reference
title: Open Science Award for Open Source Research Software
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Science_Award_for_Open_Source_Research_Software
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:39.274982+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-science-award-for-open-source-research-software-20260505-0
summary:
The Open Science Award for Open Source Research Software (French: Prix science ouverte du logiciel libre de la recherche) is a French scientific award given since 2022. The prize is part of the second National Plan for open science and rewards projects, teams and young researchers engaged in exemplary practices of management, dissemination and reuse of research data. It is awarded by the French Ministry of Higher Education and Research and Space. The prize has four categories: The "Scientific and Technical" (Scientifique et technique) category rewards software that stands out for its scientific quality, methodological rigour and technical excellence. The "Community" (Communauté) category highlights projects that have successfully built and nurtured an active community of users and contributors. The "Documentation" category recognises software that offers exemplary documentation facilitating use, adoption and contribution to the project. The "Jury's Favourite" (Coup de cœur du jury) category rewards an exemplary project combining several of these dimensions. In each category, the jury awards a main prize as well as a "rising star" (espoir) award for promising projects, typically started less than five years ago. == Winners == == Notes and references == == See also == Open science Open Science Award for Research Data


id: open-science-infrastructure-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Science_Infrastructure-0.md
category: reference
title: Open Science Infrastructure
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Science_Infrastructure
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:40.430585+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-science-infrastructure-20260505-0
summary:
Open Science Infrastructure (or open scholarly infrastructure) is information infrastructure that supports the open sharing of scientific productions such as publications, datasets, metadata or code. In November 2021 the Unesco recommendation on Open Science describes it as "shared research infrastructures that are needed to support open science and serve the needs of different communities". Open science infrastructures are a form of scientific infrastructure (also called cyberinfrastructure, e-Science or e-infrastructure) that support the production of open knowledge. Beyond the management of common resources, they are frequently structured as community-led initiatives with a set collective norms and governance regulations, which makes them also a form of knowledge commons. The definition of open science infrastructures usually exclude privately owned scientific infrastructures run by leading commercial publishers. Conversely it may include actors not always characterized as scientific infrastructures that play a critical role in the ecosystem of open science, such as publishing platforms in open access (open scholarly communication service). Computing infrastructures and online services have played a key role in the production and diffusion of scientific knowledge since the 1960s. While these early scientific infrastructure were initially envisioned as community initiatives, they could not be openly used due to the lack of interconnectivity


id: open-science-infrastructure-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Science_Infrastructure-1.md
category: reference
title: Open Science Infrastructure
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Science_Infrastructure
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:40.430585+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-science-infrastructure-20260505-0
summary:
=== Openness and the commons === Open science infrastructures are open, which differentiate them with other scientific and knowledge infrastructure and, more specifically, with subscription-based commercial infrastructures. Openness is both a core value and a directing principle that affect the aims, the governance and the management of the infrastructure. Open science infrastructure face similar issues met by other open institutions such as open data repositories or large scale collaborative project such as Wikipedia: "When we study contemporary knowledge infrastructures we find values of openness often embedded there, but translating the values of openness into the design of infrastructures and the practices of infrastructuring is a complex and contingent process". The conceptual definition of open science infrastructures has been largely influenced by the analysis of Elinor Ostrom on the commons and more specifically on the knowledge commons. In accordance with Ostrom, Cameron Neylon understates that open infrastructures are not only characterized by the management of a pool of common resources but also by the elaboration of common governance and norms. The economic theory of the commons make it possible to expand beyond the scope of limited scope of scholar associations toward large scale community-led initiatives: "Ostrom's work (…) provides a template


id: open-science-infrastructure-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Science_Infrastructure-2.md
category: reference
title: Open Science Infrastructure
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Science_Infrastructure
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:40.430585+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-science-infrastructure-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific projects have been among the earliest use case for digital infrastructure. The theorization of scientific knowledge infrastructure even predates the development of computing technologies. The knowledge network envisioned by Paul Otlet or Vannevar Bush already incorporated numerous features of online scientific infrastructures. After the Second World War, the United States faced a "periodical crisis": existing journals could not keep up with the rapidly increasing scientific output. The issue became politically relevant after the successful launch of Sputnik: "The Sputnik crisis turned the librarians' problem of bibliographic control into a national information crisis." The emerging computing technologies were immediately considered as a potential solution to make a larger amount of scientific output readable and searchable. Access to foreign language publication was also a key issue that was expected to be solved by machine translation: in the 1950s, a significant amount of scientific publications were not available in English, especially the one coming from the Soviet bloc. Influent members of the National Science Foundation like Joshua Ledeberg advocated for the creation of a "centralized information system", SCITEL that would at first coexist with printed journals and gradually replace them altogether on account of its efficiency. In the plan laid out by


id: open-science-infrastructure-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Science_Infrastructure-3.md
category: reference
title: Open Science Infrastructure
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Science_Infrastructure
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:40.430585+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-science-infrastructure-20260505-0
summary:
=== The Web Revolution (1990–1995) === The World Wide Web was originally framed as an open scientific infrastructure. The project was inspired by ENQUIRE, an information management software commissioned to Tim Berners-Lee by the CERN for the specific needs of high energy physics. The structure of ENQUIRE was closer to an internal web of data: it connected "nodes" that "could refer to a person, a software module, etc. and that could be interlined with various relations such as made, include, describes and so forth". While it "facilitated some random linkage between information" Enquire was not able to "facilitate the collaboration that was desired for in the international high-energy physics research community". Like any significant computing scientific infrastructure before the 1990s, the development of ENQUIRE was ultimately impeded by the lack of interoperability and the complexity of managing network communications: "although Enquire provided a way to link documents and databases, and hypertext provided a common format in which to display them, there was still the problem of getting different computers with different operating systems to communicate with each other". Sharing of data and data documentation was a major focus in the initial communication of the World Wide Web when the project


id: open-science-infrastructure-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Science_Infrastructure-4.md
category: reference
title: Open Science Infrastructure
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Science_Infrastructure
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:40.430585+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-science-infrastructure-20260505-0
summary:
The development of the World-Wide Web had rendered numerous pre-existing scientific infrastructure obsolete. It also lifted numerous restrictions and obstacles to online contribution and network management that made it possible to attempt more ambitious project. By the end of the 1990s, the creation of public scientific computing infrastructure became a major policy issue. The first wave of web-based scientific projects in the 1990s and the early 2000s revealed critical issues of sustainability. As funding was allocated on a specific time period, critical databases, online tools or publishing platforms could hardly be maintained; and project managers were faced with a valley of death "between grant funding and ongoing operational funding". Several competing terms appeared to fill this need. In the United States, the cyber-infrastructure was used in a scientific context by a US National Science Foundation (NSF) blue-ribbon committee in 2003: "The newer term cyberinfrastructure refers to infrastructure based upon distributed computer, information and communication technology. If infrastructure is required for an industrial economy, then we could say that cyberinfrastructure is required for a knowledge economy." E-infrastructure or e-science were used in a similar meaning in the United Kingdom and European countries. Thanks to "sizable investments", major national and international infrastructures


id: open-science-infrastructure-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Science_Infrastructure-5.md
category: reference
title: Open Science Infrastructure
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Science_Infrastructure
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:40.430585+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-science-infrastructure-20260505-0
summary:
=== Toward open science infrastructures (2015-…) === The consolidation and expansion of commercial scientific infrastructure had entailed renewed calls to secure "community-controlled infrastructure". The acquisition of the open repositories Digital Commons and SSRN by Elsevier has highlighted the lack of reliability of critical scientific infrastructure for open science. The SPARC report on European Infrastructures underlines that "a number of important infrastructures at risk and as a consequence, the products and services that comprise open infrastructure are increasingly being tempted by buyout offers from large commercial enterprises. This threat affects both not-for-profit open infrastructure as well as closed, and is evidenced by the buyout in recent years of commonly relied on tools and platforms such as SSRN, bepress, Mendeley, and Github." In contrast with the consolidation of privately owned infrastructure, the open science movement "has tended to overlook the importance of social structures and systemic constraints in the design of new forms of knowledge infrastructures". It remained mostly focused to the content of scientific research, with little integration of technical tools and few large community initiatives. "Common pool of resources is not governed or managed by the current scholarly commons initiative. There is no dedicated hard infrastructure and though there may


id: open-science-infrastructure-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Science_Infrastructure-6.md
category: reference
title: Open Science Infrastructure
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Science_Infrastructure
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:40.430585+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-science-infrastructure-20260505-0
summary:
=== Type and roles === Open Access repositories are the most frequent form of Open Science Infrastructure with 5,791 repositories in existence in December 2021 according to OpenDOAR Yet, there is a significant diversification of the roles and the activities of open science infrastructure, at least among the largest infrastructures. In the survey of European infrastructure conducted by SPARC Europe, 95% of the respondents mention that they provide services in at least three different stages of research production out of six (Creation, Evaluation, Publishing, Hosting, Discovering and Archiving). Aggregation, hosting and indexing are especially central activities, common to most Open Science Infrastructures regardless of their focus. Specialization does happen at a higher level. A network analysis identifies "two main clusters of activities": Publishing-focused infrastructures which are associated with the "publishing and hosting traditional text formats". Among them, "paper submission (41 out of 70) and review (30) were the most commonly reported activities". Creation-focused infrastructures which deal preferably with the "processing and storing research outputs, particularly data". Theses actors provide specific services in the field of "data gathering (47 out of 71), and data analysis (40)". Besides, "computation and machine learning (18) and Experimentation (15) were roughly half as common". ===


id: open-science-infrastructure-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Science_Infrastructure-7.md
category: reference
title: Open Science Infrastructure
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Science_Infrastructure
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:40.430585+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-science-infrastructure-20260505-0
summary:
=== Economics === Many Open Science Infrastructure run "at a relatively low cost" as small infrastructures are an important part of the open science ecosystem. In 2020, 21 out of 53 surveyed European infrastructures "report spending less than €50,000". Consequently, more than 75% of surveyed European infrastructures are run by small teams of 5 FTEs or less. The size of the infrastructure and the extent of its funding is far from always proportional to the critical service it offers: "some of the most heavily used services make ends meet with a tiny core team of two to five people." Volunteer contributions are significant as well with is both "a strength and weakness to an OSI's sustainability". The landscape of open science infrastructures is therefore rather close to the ideals of a "decentralised network of small projects" envisioned by theoricians of the scholarly commons. A very large majority of open science infrastructure are non-commercial and collaborations or financial support from the private sector remain very limited. Overall, European infrastructures were financially sustainable in 2020 which contrasts with the situation ten years prior: in 2010, European infrastructures had much less visibility: they usually lacked "a long-term perspective" and struggled "with securing the


id: open-science-monitor-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science_monitor-0.md
category: reference
title: Open science monitor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science_monitor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:41.653595+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-science-monitor-20260505-0
summary:
An open science monitor or open access monitor is a scientific framework that aims to assess the spread of open practices in a scientific context. Open science monitors or dashboards are built at different scales: from institutional to national or international. They require an accurate assessment of the total scientific output and a further breakdown between open and closed content. They rely on a variety of data sources and methodologies to achieve this end. Consequently, open science monitors have also become relevant tools for bibliometric analysis. While initially conceived to track publications in academic journals, open science monitor have diversify their scopes and indicators. A recent trend has been to map other major outputs of open science research such as datasets, software or clinical trials. == Definition == Open science monitor are a scientific infrastructure that provide a "good knowledge of the state" of scientific outputs and their "open access rate". They are also a policy tool that aims to better assess the discrepancy between actual practices and long-term objectives: they "can inform future strategies at institutional and national levels, provides guidance for policy development and review, helps to assess the effects of funding mechanisms and is crucial to negotiate


id: open-science-monitor-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science_monitor-1.md
category: reference
title: Open science monitor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science_monitor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:41.653595+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-science-monitor-20260505-0
summary:
The first open science monitors were created in the 2000s and the early 2010s. They were usually conceived as a natural outgrowth of new national and international policy in favor of open access and open science. The Berlin Declaration from 2003 especially introduced the concept of a global "transition of scientific publishing toward an open access system" which require "information on publication output and on subscription and publication fees." Additionally the diversification of open science publishing into various publication venues (journals, repositories, overlay journals...) and formats (articles, conferences, datasets...) created unprecedented challenges. One of the earliest form of open science monitor was the Dutch project NARCIS ("National Academic Research and Collaborations Information System") that started operating in December 2005. NARCIS is primarily a national scientific portal that aims to integrate "all kinds of types of information from scientific institutes in the Netherlands." Yet it also has a special focus on "academic OAI repositories" and publishes global statistics on the rate of open restricted and embargoed scientific works since 2000. By 2013, Finland pioneered the influential Jyväskylä Model through its national portal JUULI. First experimented at the Open Science Centre of the University of Jyväskyl this approach aims "to centralize all


id: open-science-monitor-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science_monitor-2.md
category: reference
title: Open science monitor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science_monitor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:41.653595+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-science-monitor-20260505-0
summary:
=== Local infrastructures and repositories === Local infrastructures include Current Research Information Systems directly managed by scientific institutions and universities that "help manage, understand, and evaluate research activities". At the institutional level they can bring the most extensive coverage of scientific output, especially taking into account locally published journals that would not necessarily be indexed in global scientific infrastructures. Due to their direct connections with scientific communities, local infrastructures can incentivize researchers to "enter their publications into those systems" and implement a more various range of indicators than what is commonly available in international databases. Local infrastructures are managed in a decentralized way, with varying levels of coverage and information depending on the institutions. In some cases, local repository are "fed solely by the large commercial databases" and will not have any added value. The integration of diverse local sources of data into a common and standardized schemes is a major challenge for open science monitors. The preexistence of ambitious funding policy considerably ease this process, as institutions will be already encouraged to adopt specific norms and metadata requirements. While local infrastructures are generally thoughts as providers of data for an open science monitor, the relationship can go both way.


id: open-science-monitor-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science_monitor-3.md
category: reference
title: Open science monitor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science_monitor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:41.653595+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-science-monitor-20260505-0
summary:
=== Tracking open science adoption === The French Open Science Monitor was conceived from the start to capture "open access dynamic". This has significant implication in terms of design and data flow as the "OA status of a publication evolves over time" due to embargo policies as well retrospective opening of past content. Despite significant differences in regards to methodologies or to data source, Pierre Mounier underlined in 2022 that "we observe the same dynamic" in the open access monitors of "three different European countries": the French, German and Dutch monitor all convege to show that slightly more than 60% of research is published in open access. === Economic analysis === Open science monitors aim to facilitate the estimation of scientific publishing costs. Without any aggregation of publication data, "information on expenditure for open access publication fees and especially for non-open access publication fees is often not available centrally" The monitor can also contribute to better assess the economic impact of open science across the entire academic ecosystem. While it is generally assumed that the conversion to open access publishing should not be costlier than the existing system, there can still be significant variations, especially with an APC-based model: institutions


id: open-scientific-data-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_scientific_data-0.md
category: reference
title: Open scientific data
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_scientific_data
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:42.862927+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-scientific-data-20260505-0
summary:
Open scientific data or open research data is a type of open data focused on publishing observations and results of scientific activities available for anyone to analyze and reuse. A major purpose of the drive for open data is to allow the verification of scientific claims, by allowing others to look at the reproducibility of results, and to allow data from many sources to be integrated to give new knowledge. The modern concept of scientific data emerged in the second half of the 20th century, with the development of large knowledge infrastructure to compute scientific information and observation. The sharing and distribution of data has been early identified as an important stake but was impeded by the technical limitations of the infrastructure and the lack of common standards for data communication. The World Wide Web was immediately conceived as a universal protocol for the sharing of scientific data, especially coming from high-energy physics. == Definition == === Scientific data === The concept of open scientific data has developed in parallel with the concept of scientific data. Scientific data was not formally defined until the late 20th century. Before the generalization of computational analysis, data has been mostly an informal terms,


id: open-scientific-data-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_scientific_data-1.md
category: reference
title: Open scientific data
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_scientific_data
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:42.862927+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-scientific-data-20260505-0
summary:
The emergence of scientific data is associated with a semantic shift in the way core scientific concepts like data, information and knowledge are commonly understood. Following the development of computing technologies, data and information are increasingly described as "things": "Like computation, data always have a material aspect. Data are things. They are not just numbers but also numerals, with dimensionality, weight, and texture". After the Second World War large scientific projects have increasingly relied on knowledge infrastructure to collect, process and analyze important amount of data. Punch-cards system were first used experimentally on climate data in the 1920s and were applied on a large scale in the following decade: "In one of the first Depression-era government make-work projects, Civil Works Administration workers punched some 2 million ship log observations for the period 1880–1933." By 1960, the meteorological data collections of the US National Weather Records Center has expanded to 400 millions cards and had a global reach. The physically of scientific data was by then fully apparent and threatened the stability of entire buildings: "By 1966 the cards occupied so much space that the Center began to fill its main entrance hall with card storage cabinets (figure 5.4). Officials became


id: open-scientific-data-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_scientific_data-2.md
category: reference
title: Open scientific data
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_scientific_data
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:42.862927+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-scientific-data-20260505-0
summary:
=== Sharing scientific data on the web (1990-1995) === The World Wide Web was originally conceived as an infrastructure for open scientific data. Sharing of data and data documentation was a major focus in the initial communication of the World Wide Web when the project was first unveiled in August 1991 : "The WWW project was started to allow high energy physicists to share data, news, and documentation. We are very interested in spreading the web to other areas, and having gateway servers for other data". The project stemmed from a close knowledge infrastructure, ENQUIRE. It was an information management software commissioned to Tim Berners-Lee by the CERN for the specific needs of high energy physics. The structure of ENQUIRE was closer to an internal web of data: it connected "nodes" that "could refer to a person, a software module, etc. and that could be interlined with various relations such as made, include, describes and so forth". While it "facilitated some random linkage between information" Enquire was not able to "facilitate the collaboration that was desired for in the international high-energy physics research community". Like any significant computing scientific infrastructure before the 1990s, the development of ENQUIRE was ultimately impeded


id: open-scientific-data-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_scientific_data-3.md
category: reference
title: Open scientific data
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_scientific_data
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:42.862927+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-scientific-data-20260505-0
summary:
=== Policy implementations (2010-…) === After 2010, national and supra-national institutions took a more interventionist stance. New policies have been implemented not only to ensure and incentivize the opening of scientific data, usually in continuation to existing open data program. In Europe, the "European Union Commissioner for Research, Science, and Innovation, Carlos Moedas made open research data one of the EU's priorities in 2015." First published in 2016, the FAIR Guiding Principles have become an influential framework for opening scientific data. The principles have been originally designed two years earlier during a policy ad research workshop at Lorentz, Jointly Designing a Data FAIRport. During the deliberations of the workshop, "the notion emerged that, through the definition of, and widespread support for, a minimal set of community-agreed guiding principles and practice" The principles do not attempt to define scientific data, which remains a relatively plastic concept, but strive to describe "what constitutes 'good data management'". They cover four foundational principles, "that serve to guide data producer": Findability, Accessibility, Interoperability, and Reusability. and also aim to provide a step toward machine-actionability by expliciting the underlying semantics of data. As it fully acknowledge the complexity of data management, the principles do not claim


id: open-scientific-data-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_scientific_data-4.md
category: reference
title: Open scientific data
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_scientific_data
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:42.862927+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-scientific-data-20260505-0
summary:
=== Citation and indexation === The first digital databases of the 1950s and the 1960s have immediately raised issues of citability and bibliographic descriptions. The mutability of computer memory was especially challenging: in contrast with printed publications, digital data could not be expected to remain stable on the long run. In 1965, Ralph Bisco underlined that this uncertainty affected all the associated documents like code notebooks, which may become increasingly out of date. Data management have to find a middle ground between continuous enhancements and some form of generic stability: "the concept of a fluid, changeable, continually improving data archive means that study cleaning and other processing must be carried to such a point that changes will not significantly affect prior analyses" Structured bibliographic metadata for database has been a debated topic since the 1960s. In 1977, the American Standard for Bibliographic Reference adopted a definition of "data file" with a strong focus on the materiability and the mutability of the dataset: neither dates nor authors were indicated but the medium or "Packaging Method" had to be specified. Two years later, Sue Dodd introduced an alternative convention, that brought the citation of data closer to the standard of references of


id: open-scientific-data-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_scientific_data-5.md
category: reference
title: Open scientific data
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_scientific_data
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:42.862927+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-scientific-data-20260505-0
summary:
Research reproducibility: lack of reproducibility is frequently attributed to deficiencies in research transparency and data analysis process. Consequently, as "a rationale for sharing research data, [research reproducibility] is powerful yet problematic". Reproducibility only applies to "certain kinds of research", mostly in regards to experimental sciences. Public accessibility: this rationale that "products of public funding should be available to the public" is "found in arguments for open government". While directly inspired by similar arguments made in favor of open access to publications, its range is more limited as scientific open data "has direct benefits to far fewer people, and those benefits vary by stakeholder" Research valorization: open scientific data may bring a substantial value to the private sector. This argument is especially used to support "the need for more repositories that can accept and curate research data, for better tools and services to exploit data, and for other investments in knowledge infrastructure". Increased research and innovation: open scientific data may significantly enhanced the quality of private and public research. This argument aims for "investing in knowledge infrastructure to sustain research data, curated to high standards of professional practices" Yet collaboration between the different actors and stakeholders of the data lifecycle is


id: open-scientific-data-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_scientific_data-6.md
category: reference
title: Open scientific data
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_scientific_data
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:42.862927+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-scientific-data-20260505-0
summary:
== Legal status == The opening of scientific data has raised a variety of legal issues in regards to ownership rights, copyrights, privacy and ethics. While it is commonly considered that researchers "own the data they collect in the course of their research", this "view is incorrect": the creation of dataset involves potentially the rights of numerous additional actors such as institutions (research agencies, funders, public bodies), associated data producers, personal data on private citizens. The legal situation of digital data has been consequently described as a "bundle of rights" due to the fact that the "legal category of "property" (...) is not a suitable model for dealing with the complexity of data governance problems" === Copyright === Copyright has been the primary focus of the legal literature of open scientific data until the 2010s. The legality of data sharing was early on identified a crucial issue. In contrast with the sharing of scientific publication, the main impediment was not copyright but uncertainty: "the concept of 'data' [was] a new concept, created in the computer age, while copyright law emerged at the time of printed publications." In theory, copyright and author rights provisions do not apply to simple collections of


id: open-scientific-data-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_scientific_data-7.md
category: reference
title: Open scientific data
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_scientific_data
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:42.862927+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-scientific-data-20260505-0
summary:
=== Ownership === Copyright issues with scientific datasets have been further complicated by uncertainties regarding ownership. Research is largely a collaborative activity that involves a wide range of contributions. Initiatives like CRediT (Contributor Roles Taxonomy) have identified 14 different roles, of which 4 are explicitly related to data management (Formal Analysis, Investigation, Data curation and Visualization). In the United States, ownership of research data is usually "determined by the employer of the researcher", with the principal investigator acting as the caretaker of the data rather than the owner. Until the development of research open data, US institutions have been usually more reluctant to waive copyrights on data than on publications, as they are considered strategic assets. In the European Union, there is no largely agreed framework on the ownership of data. The additional rights of external stakeholders has also been raised, especially in the context of medical research. Since the 1970s, patients have claimed some form of ownership of the data produced in the context of clinical trials, notably with important controversies concerning 'whether research subjects and patients actually own their own tissue or DNA." === Privacy === Numerous scientific projects rely on data collection of persons, notably in medical


id: open-scientific-data-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_scientific_data-8.md
category: reference
title: Open scientific data
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_scientific_data
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:42.862927+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-scientific-data-20260505-0
summary:
=== Integration to the research workflow === In contrast with the broad incitations for data sharing included in the early policies in favor of open scientific data, the complexity and the underlying costs and requirements of scientific data management are increasingly acknowledged: "Data sharing is difficult to do and to justify by the return on investment." Open data is not simply a supplementary task but has to be envisioned throughout the entire research process as it "requires changes in methods and practices of research." The opening of research data creates a new settlement of costs and benefits. Public data sharing introduces a new communication setting that primarily contrasts with private data exchange with research collaborators or partners. The collection, the purpose, and the limitation of data have to be explicit as it is impossible to rely on pre-existing informal knowledge: "the documentation and representations are the only means of communicating between data creator and user." Lack of proper documentation means that the burden of recontextualization falls on the potential users and may render the dataset useless. Publication requires further verification regarding the ownership of the data and the potential legal liability if the data is misused. This clarification phase becomes


id: open-scientific-data-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_scientific_data-9.md
category: reference
title: Open scientific data
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_scientific_data
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:42.862927+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-scientific-data-20260505-0
summary:
Research data management can be laid out in a data management plan or DMP. Data management plans were incepted in 1966 for the specific needs of aeronautic and engineering research, which already faced increasingly complex data frictions. These first examples were focused on material issues associated with the access, transfer, and storage of the data: "Until the early 2000s, DMPs were utilised in this manner: in limited fields, for projects of great technical complexity, and for limited mid-study data collection and processing purposes" After 2000, the implementation of extensive research infrastructure and the development of open science changed the scope and the purpose of data management plans. Policy-makers, rather than scientists, have been instrumental in this development: "The first publications to provide general advice and guidance to researchers around the creation of DMPs were published from 2009 following the publications from JISC and the OECD (…) DMP use, we infer, has been imposed onto the research community through external forces" Empirical studies of data practices in research have "highlighted the need for organizations to offer more formal training and assistance in data management to scientists" In a 2017-2018 international survey of 1372 scientist, most requests for help and formalization were


id: open-scientific-data-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_scientific_data-10.md
category: reference
title: Open scientific data
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_scientific_data
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:42.862927+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-scientific-data-20260505-0
summary:
The Unesco recommendation of Open Science approved in November 2021 defines open science infrastructures as "shared research infrastructures that are needed to support open science and serve the needs of different communities" Open science infrastructures have been recognized as a major factor in the implementation and the development of data sharing policies. Leading infrastructures for open scientific data include data repositories, data analysis platforms, indexes, digitized libraries, or digitized archives. Infrastructures ensure that individual researchers and institutions do not entirely support the costs of publishing, maintaining, and indexing datasets. They are also critical stakeholders in the definition and adoption of open data standards, especially regarding licensing or documentation. By the end of the 1990s, the creation of public scientific computing infrastructure became a major policy issue: "The lack of infrastructure to support release and reuse was acknowledged in some of the earliest policy reports on data sharing." The first wave of web-based scientific projects in the 1990s and the early 2000s revealed critical issues of sustainability. As funding was allocated on a specific period, critical databases, online tools or publishing platforms could hardly be maintained. Project managers were faced with a valley of death "between grant funding and ongoing operational


id: open-source-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_source-0.md
category: reference
title: Open source
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_source
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:44.361173+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-source-20260505-0
summary:
Open source is software that is made freely available for possible modification and redistribution, also in form of source code. The licensing conditions include permission to use and view the source code, design documents, or content of the product. The open source model is a decentralized software development model that encourages open collaboration. A main principle of open source software development is peer production, with products such as source code, blueprints, and documentation freely available to the public. The open source movement in software began as a response to the limitations of proprietary code. The model is used for projects such as in open source eCommerce, open source appropriate technology, and open source drug discovery. Open source promotes universal access via an open-source or free license to a product's design or blueprint, and universal redistribution of that design or blueprint. Before the phrase open source became widely adopted, developers and producers used a variety of other terms, such as free software, shareware, and public domain software. The term Open source was introduced in 1998 and gained hold with the rise of the Internet. The open-source software movement arose to clarify copyright, licensing, domain, and consumer issues. Generally, open source refers


id: open-source-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_source-1.md
category: reference
title: Open source
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_source
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:44.361173+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-source-20260505-0
summary:
Some economists agree that open-source is an information good or "knowledge good" with original work involving a significant amount of time, money, and effort. The cost of reproducing the work is low enough that additional users may be added at zero or near zero cost – this is referred to as the marginal cost of a product. Copyright creates a monopoly so that the price charged to consumers can be significantly higher than the marginal cost of production. This allows the author to recoup the cost of making the original work. Copyright thus creates access costs for consumers who value the work more than the marginal cost but less than the initial production cost. Access costs also pose problems for authors who wish to create a derivative work—such as a copy of a software program modified to fix a bug or add a feature, or a remix of a song—but are unable or unwilling to pay the copyright holder for the right to do so. Open source eliminates some of the access costs of consumers and creators of derivative works by reducing the restrictions of copyright. Basic economic theory predicts that lower costs would lead to higher consumption and also


id: open-source-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_source-2.md
category: reference
title: Open source
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_source
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:44.361173+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-source-20260505-0
summary:
The open-source model is a decentralized software development model that encourages open collaboration, meaning "any system of innovation or production that relies on goal-oriented yet loosely coordinated participants who interact to create a product (or service) of economic value, which they make available to contributors and noncontributors alike." A main principle of open-source software development is peer production, with products such as source code, blueprints, and documentation freely available to the public. The open-source movement in software began as a response to the limitations of proprietary code. The model is used for projects such as in open-source appropriate technology, and open-source drug discovery. The open-source model for software development inspired the use of the term to refer to other forms of open collaboration, such as in Internet forums, mailing lists and online communities. Open collaboration is also thought to be the operating principle underlining a gamut of diverse ventures, including TEDx and Wikipedia. Open collaboration is the principle underlying peer production, mass collaboration, and wikinomics. It was observed initially in open-source software, but can also be found in many other instances, such as in Internet forums, mailing lists, Internet communities, and many instances of open content, such as Creative Commons.


id: open-source-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_source-3.md
category: reference
title: Open source
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_source
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:44.361173+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-source-20260505-0
summary:
Linux (that much of world's server parks are running) MediaWiki (that Wikipedia is based upon) Many more: List of free and open-source software packages List of formerly proprietary software The Google Summer of Code, often abbreviated to GSoC, is an international annual program in which Google awards stipends to contributors who successfully complete a free and open-source software coding project during the summer. GSoC is a large scale project with 202 participating organizations in 2021. There are similar smaller scale projects such as the Talawa Project run by the Palisadoes Foundation (a non profit based in California, originally to promote the use of information technology in Jamaica, but now also supporting underprivileged communities in the US) === Electronics === Open-source hardware is hardware which initial specification, usually in a software format, is published and made available to the public, enabling anyone to copy, modify and redistribute the hardware and source code without paying royalties or fees. Open-source hardware evolves through community cooperation. These communities are composed of individual hardware/software developers, hobbyists, as well as very large companies. Examples of open-source hardware initiatives are: Openmoko: a family of open-source mobile phones, including the hardware specification and the operating system. OpenRISC: an


id: open-source-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_source-4.md
category: reference
title: Open source
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_source
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:44.361173+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-source-20260505-0
summary:
Open-source principles can be applied to technical areas such as digital communication protocols and data storage formats. Open-design – which involves applying open-source methodologies to the design of artifacts and systems in the physical world. It is very nascent but has huge potential. Open-source appropriate technology (OSAT) refers to technologies that are designed in the same fashion as free and open-source software. These technologies must be "appropriate technology" (AT) – meaning technology that is designed with special consideration to the environmental, ethical, cultural, social, political, and economic aspects of the community it is intended for. An example of this application is the use of open-source 3D printers like the RepRap to manufacture appropriate technology. Teaching – which involves applying the concepts of open source to instruction using a shared web space as a platform to improve upon learning, organizational, and management challenges. An example of an Open-source courseware is the Java Education & Development Initiative (JEDI). Other examples include Khan Academy and wikiversity. At the university level, the use of open-source-appropriate technology classroom projects has been shown to be successful in forging the connection between science/engineering and social benefit: This approach has the potential to use university students' access to


id: open-source-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_source-5.md
category: reference
title: Open source
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_source
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:44.361173+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-source-20260505-0
summary:
== Agriculture, economy, manufacturing and production == Open-source appropriate technology (OSAT), is designed for environmental, ethical, cultural, social, political, economic, and community aspects Open-design movement, development of physical products, machines and systems via publicly shared design information, including free and open-source software and open-source hardware, among many others: Open Architecture Network, improving global living conditions through innovative sustainable design OpenCores, a community developing digital electronic open-source hardware Open Design Alliance, develops Teigha, a software development platform to create engineering applications including CAD software Open Hardware and Design Alliance (OHANDA), sharing open hardware and designs via free online services Open Source Ecology (OSE), a network of farmers, engineers, architects and supporters striving to manufacture the Global Village Construction Set (GVCS) OpenStructures (OSP), a modular construction model where everyone designs on the basis of one shared geometrical OS grid Open manufacturing or "Open Production" or "Design Global, Manufacture Local", a new socioeconomic production model to openly and collaboratively produce and distribute physical objects Open-source architecture (OSArc), emerging procedures in imagination and formation of virtual and real spaces within an inclusive universal infrastructure Open-source cola, cola soft drinks made to open-sourced recipes Open-source hardware, or open hardware, computer hardware, such as microprocessors, that


id: open-source-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_source-6.md
category: reference
title: Open source
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_source
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:44.361173+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-source-20260505-0
summary:
== Society == The rise of open-source culture in the 20th century resulted from a growing tension between creative practices that involve require access to content that is often copyrighted, and restrictive intellectual property laws and policies governing access to copyrighted content. The two main ways in which intellectual property laws became more restrictive in the 20th century were extensions to the term of copyright (particularly in the United States) and penalties, such as those articulated in the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA), placed on attempts to circumvent anti-piracy technologies. Although artistic appropriation is often permitted under fair-use doctrines, the complexity and ambiguity of these doctrines create an atmosphere of uncertainty among cultural practitioners. Also, the protective actions of copyright owners create what some call a "chilling effect" among cultural practitioners. The idea of an "open-source" culture runs parallel to "Free Culture", but is substantively different. Free culture is a term derived from the free software movement, and in contrast to that vision of culture, proponents of open-source culture (OSC) maintain that some intellectual property law needs to exist to protect cultural producers. Yet they propose a more nuanced position than corporations have traditionally sought. Instead of seeing intellectual property


id: open-source-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_source-7.md
category: reference
title: Open source
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_source
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:44.361173+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-source-20260505-0
summary:
=== Media === Open-source journalism formerly referred to the standard journalistic techniques of news gathering and fact checking, reflecting open-source intelligence, a similar term used in military intelligence circles. Now, open-source journalism commonly refers to forms of innovative publishing of online journalism, rather than the sourcing of news stories by a professional journalist. In the 25 December 2006 issue of TIME magazine this is referred to as user created content and listed alongside more traditional open-source projects such as OpenSolaris and Linux. Weblogs, or blogs, are another significant platform for open-source culture. Blogs consist of periodic, reverse chronologically ordered posts, using a technology that makes webpages easily updatable with no understanding of design, code, or file transfer required. While corporations, political campaigns and other formal institutions have begun using these tools to distribute information, many blogs are used by individuals for personal expression, political organizing, and socializing. Some, such as LiveJournal or WordPress, use open-source software that is open to the public and can be modified by users to fit their own tastes. Whether the code is open or not, this format represents a nimble tool for people to borrow and re-present culture; whereas traditional websites made the illegal reproduction


id: open-source-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_source-8.md
category: reference
title: Open source
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_source
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:44.361173+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-source-20260505-0
summary:
Within the academic community, there is discussion about expanding what could be called the "intellectual commons" (analogous to the Creative Commons). Proponents of this view have hailed the Connexions Project at Rice University, OpenCourseWare project at MIT, Eugene Thacker's article on "open-source DNA", the "Open Source Cultural Database", Salman Khan's Khan Academy and Wikipedia as examples of applying open source outside the realm of computer software. Open-source curricula are instructional resources whose digital source can be freely used, distributed and modified. Another strand to the academic community is in the area of research. Many funded research projects produce software as part of their work. Due to the benefits of sharing software openly in scientific endeavours, there is an increasing interest in making the outputs of research projects available under an open-source license. In the UK the Joint Information Systems Committee (JISC) has developed a policy on open-source software. JISC also funds a development service called OSS Watch which acts as an advisory service for higher and further education institutions wishing to use, contribute to and develop open-source software. On 30 March 2010, President Barack Obama signed the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act, which included $2 billion over four years


id: open-source-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_source-9.md
category: reference
title: Open source
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_source
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:44.361173+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-source-20260505-0
summary:
=== Ideologically-related movements === The open-access movement is a movement that is similar in ideology to the open source movement. Members of this movement maintain that academic material should be readily available to provide help with "future research, assist in teaching and aid in academic purposes." The open-access movement aims to eliminate subscription fees and licensing restrictions of academic materials. The free-culture movement is a movement that seeks to achieve a culture that engages in collective freedom via freedom of expression, free public access to knowledge and information, full demonstration of creativity and innovation in various arenas, and promotion of citizen liberties. Creative Commons is an organization that "develops, supports, and stewards legal and technical infrastructure that maximizes digital creativity, sharing, and innovation." It encourages the use of protected properties online for research, education, and creative purposes in pursuit of a universal access. Creative Commons provides an infrastructure through a set of copyright licenses and tools that creates a better balance within the realm of "all rights reserved" properties. The Creative Commons license offers a slightly more lenient alternative to "all rights reserved" copyrights for those who do not wish to exclude the use of their material. The Zeitgeist Movement


id: open-source-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_source-10.md
category: reference
title: Open source
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_source
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:44.361173+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-source-20260505-0
summary:
=== Literature on legal and economic aspects === Abramson, Bruce (2005). Digital Phoenix; Why the Information Economy Collapsed and How it Will Rise Again. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-51196-4. Benkler, Y. (December 2002). "Coase's Penguin, or, Linux and The Nature of the Firm" (PDF). Yale Law Journal. 112 (3): 369–446. arXiv:cs/0109077. doi:10.2307/1562247. hdl:10535/2974. ISSN 0044-0094. JSTOR 1562247. S2CID 16684329. Berry, D.M.; Moss, G. (2008). "Libre Culture: Meditations on Free Culture" (PDF). Canada: Pygmalion Books. Bitzer, J.; Schröder, P.J.H. (2005). "The Impact of Entry and Competition by Open Source Software on Innovation Activity" (PDF). Industrial Organization. EconWPA. v. Engelhardt, S. (2008). "The Economic Properties of Software" (PDF). Jena Economic Research Papers. 2: 2008–045. v. Engelhardt, S. (2008): "Intellectual Property Rights and Ex-Post Transaction Costs: the Case of Open and Closed Source Software", Jena Economic Research Papers 2008-047. (PDF) v. Engelhardt, S.; Swaminathan, S. (2008). "Open Source Software, Closed Source Software or Both: Impacts on Industry Growth and the Role of Intellectual Property Rights" (PDF). Discussion Papers of Diw Berlin. European Commission. (2006). Economic impact of open source software on innovation and the competitiveness of the Information and Communication Technologies sector in the EU. Brussels. v. Hippel, E.; v. Krogh, G. (2003). "Open


id: open-synthetic-biology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_synthetic_biology-0.md
category: reference
title: Open synthetic biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_synthetic_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:45.513393+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-synthetic-biology-20260505-0
summary:
Open synthetic biology is the idea that scientific knowledge and data should be openly accessible through common rights licensing to enable the rapid development of safe, effective and commercially viable synthetic biology applications. == Concepts == Its foundational concepts are open science and the Bermuda Principles. Open science is the idea that scientific research should be openly shared to enable massive collaboration (e.g., the Polymath Project). The Bermuda Principles is a private accord declaring that all DNA sequence data should be released in publicly accessible databases within 24 hours after generation. Open synthetic biology is a theoretical framework supporting a global ecosystem of responsible and capable research scientists working collaboratively on synthetic biology application development projects to reduce cost, time, and risks of developing new synthetic biology applications (including open synthetic biology therapeutics) from the inception of primary science to applications reaching market readiness and commercial viability. Its general principle is that participating research scientists agree to share research, data, findings and results with the open synthetic biology community and the public generally. The Open SynBio community will set standards and expectations of the participants and their "science to market" process and the community will work collaboratively with downstream stakeholders


id: open-notebook-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-notebook_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Open-notebook science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-notebook_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:46.721658+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-notebook-science-20260505-0
summary:
Open-notebook science is the practice of making the entire primary record of a research project publicly available online as it is recorded. This involves placing the personal, or laboratory, notebook of the researcher online along with all raw and processed data, and any associated material, as this material is generated. The approach may be summed up by the slogan 'no insider information'. It is the logical extreme of transparent approaches to research and explicitly includes the making available of failed, less significant, and otherwise unpublished experiments; so called 'dark data'. The practice of open notebook science, although not the norm in the academic community, has gained significant recent attention in the research and general media as part of a general trend towards more open approaches in research practice and publishing. Open notebook science can therefore be described as part of a wider open science movement that includes the advocacy and adoption of open access publication, open data, crowdsourcing data, and citizen science. It is inspired in part by the success of open-source software and draws on many of its ideas. == History == The term "open-notebook science" was first used in 2006 in a blog post by Jean-Claude Bradley, an


id: open-notebook-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-notebook_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Open-notebook science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-notebook_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:46.721658+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-notebook-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Drawbacks == The arguments against adopting open notebook science fall mainly into three categories which have differing importance in different fields of science. The primary concern, expressed particularly by biological and medical scientists is that of 'data theft' or 'being scooped'. While the degree to which research groups steal or adapt the results of others remains a subject of debate it is certainly the case that the fear of not being first to publish drives much behavior, particularly in some fields. This is related to the focus in these fields on the published peer-reviewed paper as being the main metric of career success. The second argument advanced against open notebook science is that it constitutes prior publication, thus making it impossible to patent and difficult to publish the results in the traditional peer reviewed literature. With respect to patents, publication on the web is clearly classified as disclosure. Therefore, while there may be arguments over the value of patents, and approaches that get around this problem, it is clear that open notebook science is not appropriate for research for which patent protection is an expected and desired outcome. With respect to publication in the peer-reviewed literature the case is


id: openbci-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenBCI-0.md
category: reference
title: OpenBCI
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenBCI
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:47.934225+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: openbci-20260505-0
summary:
OpenBCI is an open-source brain–computer interface platform created by Joel Murphy and Conor Russomanno, after a successful Kickstarter campaign in late 2013. The company's headquarters is based in Brooklyn, NY. OpenBCI boards are low-cost biometric amplifiers used to measure and record electrical activity produced by the brain (EEG), muscles (EMG), and heart (EKG). The boards are compatible with standard EEG electrodes. They can be used with the open-source OpenBCI GUI software, or they can be integrated with other open-source EEG signal processing tools. OpenBCI boards have been scientifically validated in numerous research studies. == Hardware == The OpenBCI 32-bit board uses the ADS1299, an IC developed by Texas Instruments for biopotential measurements. The OpenBCI uses a microcontroller for on-board processing — the 8bit version (now deprecated) uses an Arduino-compatible ATmega328P IC, while the 32bit board uses a PIC microcontroller — and can write the EEG data to an SD card, or transmit it to software on a computer over a bluetooth link. In 2015, OpenBCI announced the Ganglion board with a 2nd Kickstarter campaign. It has 4 input channels for measuring EEG, EMG, and EKG, and is also Bluetooth enabled. Initially it was offered on Kickstarter at $99, before later


id: opencitations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenCitations-0.md
category: reference
title: OpenCitations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenCitations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:53.403939+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: opencitations-20260505-0
summary:
OpenCitations (established in 2010) is a project aiming to publish open bibliographic citation information in RDF. It produces the "OpenCitations Corpus" citation database in the process. == Datasets == OpenCitations publishes the following datasets which encompass bibliographic data, citation metadata, and in-text reference data. The datasets can be accessed via SPARQL, a REST API, as dumps on Figshare, as individual bibliographic entities, or using OSCAR (OpenCitations RDF Search Application) or Lucinda (The OpenCitations RDF Resource Browser). === OpenCitations Corpus === The OpenCitations Corpus (OCC) is an open repository of scholarly citation data. The repository is released under the CC0 public domain to ensure that the scholarly citation data is open to all. As of March 19, 2022, the OCC has ingested the references from 326,743 citing bibliographic resources and contains information about 13,964,148 citation links to 7,565,367 cited resources. === OpenCitations Indexes === The OpenCitations Indexes are collections of citations, which treat citations as first-class data objects that include citation metadata, as well as identifiers to the citing and cited works. For example, COCI is the OpenCitations Index of Crossref open DOI-to-DOI citations. A 2021 comparison with other citations tools found that COCI was the smallest in coverage, and a


id: openneuro-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenNeuro-0.md
category: reference
title: OpenNeuro
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenNeuro
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:54.647190+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: openneuro-20260505-0
summary:
OpenNeuro (originally OpenfMRI) is an open-science neuroinformatics database storing datasets from human brain imaging research studies. The database is available online. OpenNeuro accepts datasets formatted from brain imaging research according to a community-developed standard, and uploaded datasets are made available with minimal restrictions to the public at large. The Research Resource Identifier for OpenNeuro is SCR_005031. Datasets that cannot be shared openly are not currently supported. The research group that runs OpenNeuro described the system in a Frontiers in Neuroinformatics article in 2013 and a NeuroImage article in 2015. As of 2025, the National Institutes of Health has awarded OpenNeuro over 8 million dollars in research funding, and researchers have mentioned OpenNeuro in over 200 articles in open access literature. == History == The Neuroimaging Informatics Tools and Resources Clearinghouse made available two other online neuroimaging databases, which both predated OpenNeuro. One was the fMRI Data Center (fMRIDC), which collected similar data but distributed via physical media. The fMRIDC no longer accepts data submissions. The other repository was the 1000 Functional Connectomes Project, which collected data from resting-state fMRI studies. In February 2018, the research group behind OpenfMRI renamed the database to OpenNeuro to reflect broader range of accepted data


id: openworm-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenWorm-0.md
category: reference
title: OpenWorm
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenWorm
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:55.963108+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: openworm-20260505-0
summary:
OpenWorm is an international open science project for the purpose of simulating the roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans at the cellular level. Although the long-term goal is to model all 959 cells of the C. elegans, the first stage is to model the worm's locomotion by simulating the 302 neurons and 95 muscle cells. This bottom up simulation is being pursued by the OpenWorm community. As of 2014, a physics engine called Sibernetic has been built for the project and models of the neural connectome and a muscle cell have been created in NeuroML format. A 3D model of the worm anatomy can be accessed through the web via the OpenWorm browser. The OpenWorm project is also contributing to develop Geppetto, a web-based multi-algorithm, multi-scale simulation platform engineered to support the simulation of the whole organism. == Background: C. elegans == The roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans is a free-living, transparent nematode, about 1 mm in length, that lives in temperate soil environments. It is the type species of its genus. C. elegans has one of the simplest nervous systems of any organism - its hermaphrodite type possesses only 302 neurons. Furthermore, the structural connectome of these neurons is fully mapped. There are fewer


id: panton-principles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panton_Principles-0.md
category: reference
title: Panton Principles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panton_Principles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:57.291746+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: panton-principles-20260505-0
summary:
The Panton Principles are a set of principles which were written to promote open science. They were first drafted in July 2009 at the Panton Arms pub in Cambridge. == History == The principles were written by Peter Murray-Rust, Cameron Neylon, Rufus Pollock, and John Wilbanks. They were then refined by the Open Knowledge Foundation and officially launched in February 2010. == The Principles == 1. Where data or collections of data are published it is critical that they be published with a clear and explicit statement of the wishes and expectations of the publishers concerning the re-use and re-purposing of individual data elements, the whole data collection, and subsets of the collection. This statement should be precise, irrevocable, and based on an appropriate and recognized legal statement in the form of a waiver or license. When publishing data make an explicit and robust statement of your wishes. 2. Many widely recognized licenses are not intended for, and are not appropriate for, data or collections of data. A variety of waivers and licenses that are designed for and appropriate for the treatment of data are described here. Creative Commons licenses (apart from CCZero), GFDL, GPL, BSD, etc. are NOT appropriate


id: polymath-project-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymath_Project-0.md
category: reference
title: Polymath Project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymath_Project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:58.411121+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: polymath-project-20260505-0
summary:
The Polymath Project is a collaboration among mathematicians to solve important and difficult mathematical problems by coordinating many mathematicians to communicate with each other on finding the best route to the solution. The project began in January 2009 on Timothy Gowers's blog when he posted a problem and asked his readers to post partial ideas and partial progress toward a solution. This experiment resulted in a new answer to a difficult problem, and since then the Polymath Project has grown to describe a particular crowdsourcing process of using an online collaboration to solve any math problem. == Origin == In January 2009, Gowers chose to start a social experiment on his blog by choosing an important unsolved mathematical problem and issuing an invitation for other people to help solve it collaboratively in the comments section of his blog. Along with the math problem itself, Gowers asked a question which was included in the title of his blog post, "is massively collaborative mathematics possible?" This post led to his creation of the Polymath Project. == Projects for high school and college == Since its inception, it has now sponsored a "Crowdmath" project in collaboration with MIT PRIMES program and the Art


id: polymath-project-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymath_Project-1.md
category: reference
title: Polymath Project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymath_Project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:58.411121+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: polymath-project-20260505-0
summary:
== Publications == Polymath, D. H. J. (2010), "Density Hales-Jewett and Moser numbers", An irregular mind, Bolyai Soc. Math. Stud., vol. 21, János Bolyai Math. Soc., Budapest, pp. 689–753, arXiv:1002.0374, doi:10.1007/978-3-642-14444-8_22, ISBN 978-3-642-14443-1, MR 2815620, S2CID 15547977. From the Polymath1 project. Polymath, D. H. J. (2012), "A new proof of the density Hales-Jewett theorem", Annals of Mathematics, Second Series, 175 (3): 1283–1327, arXiv:0910.3926, doi:10.4007/annals.2012.175.3.6, MR 2912706, S2CID 60078. From the Polymath1 project. Tao, Terence; Croot, Ernest III; Helfgott, Harald (2012), "Deterministic methods to find primes", Mathematics of Computation, 81 (278): 1233–1246, arXiv:1009.3956, doi:10.1090/S0025-5718-2011-02542-1, MR 2869058. From the Polymath4 project. Although the journal editors required the authors to use their real names, the arXiv version uses the Polymath pseudonym. Polymath, D. H. J. (2014), "New equidistribution estimates of Zhang type", Algebra & Number Theory, 9 (8): 2067–2199, arXiv:1402.0811, Bibcode:2014arXiv1402.0811P, doi:10.2140/ant.2014.8.2067. From the Polymath8 project. Polymath, D.H.J. (2014), "Variants of the Selberg sieve, and bounded intervals containing many primes", Research in the Mathematical Sciences, 1 (12) 12, arXiv:1407.4897, Bibcode:2014arXiv1407.4897P, doi:10.1186/s40687-014-0012-7, MR 3373710, S2CID 119699189 From the Polymath8 project. Polymath, D. H. J. (2014), "The "bounded gaps between primes" Polymath project: A retrospective analysis" (PDF), Newsletter of the European Mathematical Society, 94: 13–23,


id: preprints-org-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preprints.org-0.md
category: reference
title: Preprints.org
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preprints.org
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:49:59.555487+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preprints-org-20260505-0
summary:
Preprints.org is an open-access platform of electronic preprints approved for posting after moderation. Research in various areas can be posted as preprints on Preprints.org, including manuscripts from all fields of research. Preprints was established by MDPI in 2016. As of March 2026, Preprints.org contains more than 124,000 preprints. == Abstracting and indexing == As of May 2023, preprints posted on Preprints.org appear in: Web of Science (Preprint Citation Index) Europe PMC Crossref Google Scholar PrePubMed Portico == See also == List of academic databases and search engines List of academic journals by preprint policy Open-access repository List of preprint repositories == References ==


id: pubpeer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubPeer-0.md
category: reference
title: PubPeer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubPeer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:02.187200+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pubpeer-20260505-0
summary:
PubPeer is a website that allows users to discuss and review scientific research after publication, i.e. post-publication peer review, established in 2012. The site has served as a whistleblowing platform, in that it highlighted shortcomings in several high-profile papers, in some cases leading to retractions and to accusations of scientific fraud, as noted by Retraction Watch. Contrary to most platforms, it allows anonymous post-publication commenting, a controversial feature which is the main factor for its success. Consequently, accusations of libel have been levelled at some of PubPeer's users; correspondingly the website has since 2016 told commentators to use only facts that can be publicly verified. Questions have been raised about the copyright ownership of PubPeer's often-anonymous contents. In 2021 a study found that "more than two-thirds of comments [on PubPeer] are posted to report some type of misconduct, mainly about image manipulation". Health sciences and life sciences were shown to have most comments, and most comments reporting publishing fraud and data manipulation. Social science and humanities disciplines in turn had fewer comments, but the highest percentage comments about critical reviews about theory and highlight methodological flaws. The research concluded that "while biochemists access the site to report misconduct... social scientists


id: pubref-org-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubRef.org-0.md
category: reference
title: PubRef.org
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubRef.org
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:03.374654+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pubref-org-20260505-0
summary:
PubRef.org was a short lived project that is now discontinued. The website is not accessible anymore. An old version can be accessed from the Internet Archive. They used the same name PubRef which was a service provided by PubMed for linking bibliographies, defeated by the independent service Crossref. PubRef was a composition and project management application used by researchers and students for scholarly writing and communication. PubRef uses an extended form of Markdown as a primary authoring format and converts this to JATS, the archive format used by the US National Library of Medicine. == Research asset containerization == Researchers manage scholarly writing projects within version-controlled file repositories called containers that function similarly to git repositories and docker containers to provide enhanced reproducibility, transparency and re-usability in digital science publishing. == Manuscript writing == A PubRef manuscript is a Markdown file within a container that contains extra embedded information that describes the essential front matter elements of a scholarly manuscript such as the title, short title, list of authors, author affiliations, key words. This information is captured in embedded YAML blocks within the primary manuscript called Meta. Figures, tables, equations and other special content can be similarly embedded within the


id: registry-of-research-data-repositories-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Registry_of_Research_Data_Repositories-0.md
category: reference
title: Registry of Research Data Repositories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Registry_of_Research_Data_Repositories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:04.585151+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: registry-of-research-data-repositories-20260505-0
summary:
The Registry of Research Data Repositories (re3data.org) is an open science tool that offers researchers, funding organizations, libraries, and publishers an overview of existing international repositories for research data. == Background == re3data.org is a global registry of research data repositories from all academic disciplines. It provides an overview of existing research data repositories in order to help researchers to identify a suitable repository for their data and thus comply with requirements set out in data policies. The registry went live in autumn 2012. == Content == In 2023 the registry lists over 3000 research data repositories from around the world covering all academic disciplines. They are described in detail using the re3data.org schema. The service makes all metadata in the registry available for open use under the Creative Commons deed CC0. == Features == The majority of the listed research data repositories are described in detail by a comprehensive schema, namely the re3data.org Schema for the Description of Research Data Repositories. Information icons support researchers to identify an adequate repository for the storage and reuse of their data. == Inclusion criteria == A repository is indexed when the minimum requirements for inclusion in re3data.org are met: the repository has


id: reinventing-discovery-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinventing_Discovery-0.md
category: reference
title: Reinventing Discovery
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinventing_Discovery
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:09.310809+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: reinventing-discovery-20260505-0
summary:
Reinventing Discovery: The New Era of Networked Science is a book written by Michael Nielsen and released in October 2011. It argues for the benefits of applying the philosophy of open science to research. == Summary == The following is a list of major topics in the book's chapters. Reinventing Discovery Online Tools Make Us Smarter Kasparov versus the World, The Wisdom of Crowds, various online collaborative projects Restructuring Expert Attention InnoCentive, collective intelligence, Paul Seabright's economic theory, online chat Patterns of Online Collaboration History of Linux, Open Architecture Network, Wikipedia, MathWorks' computer programming contest The Limits and the Potential of Collective Intelligence communication in small groups, particularly as studied by Stasser and Titus; praxis of science; a discussion of communication among scientists All the World's Knowledge Don R. Swanson and Literature-based discovery, predicting influenza with Google searches, Sloan Digital Sky Survey, Allen Institute for Brain Science, Ocean Observatories Initiative, Human Genome Project, Google Translate, playchess.com Tournaments Democratizing Science Galaxy Zoo, Foldit, citizen science, eBird, open access, arXiv, PLoS The Challenge of Doing Science in the Open Complexity Zoo, academic publishing, Bayh–Dole Act The Open Science Imperative Open science, academic journal publishing reform, SPIRES appendix - The problem solved by


id: research-square-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_Square-0.md
category: reference
title: Research Square
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_Square
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:10.466168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: research-square-20260505-0
summary:
Research Square is an open-access platform of electronic preprints approved for posting after moderation, but not peer review. The predecessor of Research Square was American Journal Experts. The platform, Research Square, was established in 2013 and acquired by Springer Nature in 2022. The server accepts submissions from all fields of research, such as physical, biomedical, and social sciences. As of May 2023, Research Square contains more than 223,000 preprints. Pre-prints uploaded to Research Square must have a CC-BY license. If it was uploaded elsewhere under a different license (eg. CC-BY-SA) it would violate the terms of that license. == See also == List of academic databases and search engines List of academic journals by preprint policy Open-access repository List of preprint repositories == References ==


id: research-transparency-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_transparency-0.md
category: reference
title: Research transparency
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_transparency
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:11.648451+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: research-transparency-20260505-0
summary:
Research transparency is a major aspect of scientific research. It covers a variety of scientific principles and practices: reproducibility, data and code sharing, citation standards or verifiability. The definitions and norms of research transparency significantly differ depending on the disciplines and fields of research. Due to the lack of consistent terminology, research transparency has frequently been defined negatively by addressing non-transparent usages (which are part of questionable research practices). After 2010, recurrent issues of research methodology have been increasingly acknowledged as structural crisis, that involve deep changes at all stages of the research process. Transparency has become a key value of the open science movement, which evolved from an initial focus on publishing to encompass a large diversity of research outputs. New common standards for research transparency, like the TOP Guidelines, aims to build and strengthen open research culture across disciplines and epistemic cultures. == Definitions == === Confused terminologies === There is no widespread consensus on the definition of research transparency. Differences between disciplines and epistemic cultures has largely contributed to different acceptions. The reproduction of past research has been a leading source of dissent. In an experimental setting, reproduction relies on the same set-up and apparatus, while replication


id: research-transparency-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_transparency-1.md
category: reference
title: Research transparency
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_transparency
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:11.648451+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: research-transparency-20260505-0
summary:
=== A new dimension of open science? === Transparency has been increasingly acknowledged as an important component of open science. Until the 2010s, definitions of open science have been mostly focused on technical access and enhanced participation and collaboration between academics and non-academics. In 2016, Liz Lyon identified transparency as a "third dimension" of open science, due to the fact that "the concept of transparency and the associated term 'reproducibility', have become increasingly important in the current interdisciplinary research environment." According to Kevin Elliott, the open science movement "encompasses a number of different initiatives aimed at somewhat different forms of transparency." First drafted in 2014, the TOP guidelines have significantly contributed to bring transparency on the agenda of the open science movements. They aim to promote an "open research culture" and implement "strong incentives to be more transparent". They rely on eight standards, with different levels of compliance. While the standards are modular, they also aim to articulate a consistent ethos of science as "they also complement each other, in that commitment to one standard may facilitate adoption of others.". This open science framework of transparency has been in turn coopted by leading contributors and institutions on the topic of


id: research-transparency-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_transparency-2.md
category: reference
title: Research transparency
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_transparency
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:11.648451+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: research-transparency-20260505-0
summary:
=== Preconditions of the transparency crisis (1945–2000) === The development of big science after the Second World War has created unprecedented challenges for research transparency. The generalization of statistical methods across a large number of fields, as well as the increasing breadth and complexity of research projects, entailed a series of concerns about the lack of proper documentation of the scientific process. Due to the expansion of the published research output, new quantitative methods for literature surveys have been developed under the label of meta-analysis or meta-science. These rely on the assumption that quantitative results and the details of the experimental and observational framework are sound (such as the size or the composition of the sample). In 1966, Stanley Schor and Irving Karten published one of the first generic evaluation of statistical methods in 67 leading medical journals. While few outright problematic papers were found, "in almost 73% of the reports read (those needing revision and those which should have been rejected), conclusions were drawn when the justification for these conclusions was invalid" In the 1970s and the 1980s, scientific misconducts gradually ceased to be presented as individual misconducts and became collective problems that need to be addressed by scientific


id: research-transparency-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_transparency-3.md
category: reference
title: Research transparency
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_transparency
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:11.648451+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: research-transparency-20260505-0
summary:
=== Research transparency and open science (2015–) === Since 2000, the open science movement has expanded beyond access to scientific outputs (publication, data or software) to encompass the entire process of scientific production. In 2018, Vicente-Saez and Martinez-Fuentes have attempted to map the common values shared by the standard definitions of open science in the English-speaking scientific literature indexed on Scopus and the Web of Science. Access is no longer the main dimension of open science, as it has been extended by more recent commitments toward transparency, collaborative work and social impact. Through this process, open science has been increasingly structured over a consisting set of ethical principles: "novel open science practices have developed in tandem with novel organising forms of conducting and sharing research through open repositories, open physical labs, and transdisciplinary research platforms. Together, these novel practices and organising forms are expanding the ethos of science at universities." The global scale of the open science movement and its integration in a large variety of technical tools, standards and regulations makes it possible to overcome the "classic collective action problem" embodied by research transparency: there is a structural discrepancy between the stated objective of scientific institutions and the lack


id: research-transparency-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_transparency-4.md
category: reference
title: Research transparency
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_transparency
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:11.648451+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: research-transparency-20260505-0
summary:
==== Result reproducibility ==== Goodman, Fanelli and Ioannidis define result reproducibility as "obtaining the same results from the conduct of an independent study whose procedures are as closely matched". Result reproducibility is comparable to replication in an experimental context and reproducibility in a computational context. The definition of replicability retained in the National Academies of Science, largely applies to it: "obtaining consistent results across studies aimed at answering the same scientific question, each of which has obtained its own data.". The reproducibility crisis met in experimental disciplines like psychology or medicine is mostly a crisis of "result reproducibility", since it concerns research that cannot been simply re-executed, but involve the independent recreation of the experimental design. As such it is arguably the most debated form of research transparency in the recent years. Result reproducibility is harder to achieve than other forms of research transparency. It involve a variety of issues that may include computational reproducibility, accuracy of scientific measurement and diversity of methodological approaches. There are no universal standard to determine how close are the original procedures matched and criterium may vary depending on the disciplines or, even on the field of research. Consequently, meta-analysis of reproducibility have faced significant


id: research-transparency-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_transparency-5.md
category: reference
title: Research transparency
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_transparency
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:11.648451+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: research-transparency-20260505-0
summary:
=== Sharing of research outputs === Data sharing has been early on identified as major potential solution to the reproducibility crisis and the lack of solid guidelines for statistical indicators. In 2005, John Ioannidis hypothesized that "some kind of registration or networking of data collections or investigators within fields may be more feasible than registration of each and every hypothesis-generating experiment." The sharing of research outputs is covered by three standards of the TOPs guidelines: on Data transparency (2), Analytic/code methods transparency (3) and Research materials transparency (4). All the relevant data, code and research materials are to be stored on a "trusted repository" and all analysis being already reproduced independently prior to publication. === Extended citation standards === While citation standards are commonly applied to academic reference, there is much less formalization for all the other research output, such as data, code, primary sources or qualitative assessments. In 2012, the American Political Science Association adopted new policies for open qualitative research. They covered three dimensions of transparency: data transparency (in the sense of precise bibliographic data to the original sources), analytic transparency (in regards to claims extrapolated from the cited sources) and production transparency (in reference to the editorial


id: sage-bionetworks-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sage_Bionetworks-0.md
category: reference
title: Sage Bionetworks
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sage_Bionetworks
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:12.893436+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sage-bionetworks-20260505-0
summary:
Sage Bionetworks is a nonprofit organization in Seattle that promotes open science and patient engagement in the research process. It is led by Luca Foschini. It was co-founded by Stephen Friend and Eric Schadt. == Open science == Sage Bionetworks is notable for being an early advocate of open science. The company operates a software platform for collaborative data analysis called Synapse that allows researchers to work together on data curation and computational modeling asynchronously in a manner inspired by GitHub. Synapse also serves as the software infrastructure for running computational challenges. Sage is also developing a citizen-science platform called Bridge. == Research == The bulk of Sage's scientific results emerge from cancer and neurosciences, with notable contributions to the Cancer Genome Atlas Pan-Cancer project. Another Sage initiative, The Resilience Project describes itself as a search for individuals who have genetic changes expected to cause severe illness but who remain perfectly healthy. The hope is to yield insight into factors that protect these individuals from disease. In 2019 Sage Bionetworks has joined Open-AD Drug Discovery Center, which aims to find new Alzheimer's drugs. “This project stitches together open science approaches in computational and experimental research,” Sage president Dr. Lara Mangravite


id: science-2-0-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_2.0-0.md
category: reference
title: Science 2.0
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_2.0
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:15.406926+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-2-0-20260505-0
summary:
Science 2.0 is a suggested new approach to science that uses information-sharing and collaboration made possible by network technologies. It is similar to the open research and open science movements and is inspired by Web 2.0 technologies. Science 2.0 stresses the benefits of increased collaboration between scientists. Science 2.0 uses collaborative tools like wikis, blogs and video journals to share findings, raw data and "nascent theories" online. Science 2.0 benefits from openness and sharing, regarding papers and research ideas and partial solutions. A general view is that Science 2.0 is gaining traction with websites beginning to proliferate, yet at the same time there is considerable resistance within the scientific community about aspects of the transition as well as discussion about what, exactly, the term means. There are several views that there is a "sea change" happening in the status quo of scientific publishing, and substantive change regarding how scientists share research data. There is considerable discussion in the scientific community about whether scientists should embrace the model and exactly how Science 2.0 might work, as well as several reports that many scientists are slow to embrace collaborative methods and are somewhat "inhibited and slow to adopt a lot of online


id: science-2-0-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_2.0-1.md
category: reference
title: Science 2.0
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_2.0
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:15.406926+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-2-0-20260505-0
summary:
Before the Internet, scientific publishing has been described as a "highly integrated and controlled process." Research was done in private. Next, it was submitted to scientific publications and reviewed by editors and gatekeepers and other scientists. Last, it was published. This has been the traditional pathway of scientific advancement, sometimes dubbed Science 1.0. Established journals provided a "critical service", according to one view. Publications such as Science and Nature have large editorial staffs to manage the peer-review process as well as have hired fact-checkers and screeners to look over submissions. These publications get revenue from subscriptions, including online ones, as well as advertising revenue and fees paid by authors. According to advocates of Science 2.0, however, this process of paper-submission and review was rather long. Detractors complained that the system is "hidebound, expensive and elitist", sometimes "reductionist", as well as being slow and "prohibitively costly". Only a select group of gatekeepers—those in charge of the traditional publications—limited the flow of information. Proponents of open science claimed that scientists could learn more and learn faster if there is a "friction-free collaboration over the Internet." Yet there is considerable resistance within the scientific community to a change of approach. The act of


id: science-2-0-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_2.0-2.md
category: reference
title: Science 2.0
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_2.0
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:15.406926+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-2-0-20260505-0
summary:
Public Library of Science. This project, sometimes termed PLoS, is a nonprofit open-access scientific publishing project aimed at creating a library of open access journals and other scientific literature under an open content license. By 2012, it publishes seven peer reviewed journals. It makes scientific papers immediately available online without charges for access or restrictions on passing them along, provided that the authors and sources are properly cited with the Creative Commons Attribution License. According to one report, the PLoS has gained "pretty wide acceptance" although many researchers in biomedicine still hope to be published in established journals such as Nature, Cell, and Science, according to one report. PLoS publishes 600 articles a month in 2012. arXiv, pronounced archive, is an online-accessible archive for electronic preprints of scientific papers in the fields of mathematics, physics, astronomy, computer science, quantitative biology, statistics, and quantitative finance. Galaxy Zoo is an online astronomy project which invites members of the public to assist in the morphological classification of large numbers of galaxies. It has been termed a citizen science project. The information has led to a substantial increase in scientific papers, according to one account. A website entitled Science 2.0 lets scientists share information.


id: science-commons-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Commons-0.md
category: reference
title: Science Commons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Commons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:16.566072+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-commons-20260505-0
summary:
Science Commons (SC) was a Creative Commons project for designing strategies and tools for faster, more efficient web-enabled scientific research. The organization's goals were to identify unnecessary barriers to research, craft policy guidelines and legal agreements to lower those barriers, and develop technology to make research data and materials easier to find and use. Its overarching goal was to speed the translation of data into discovery and thereby the value of research. Science Commons was located at the MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory in the Ray and Maria Stata Center at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge, Massachusetts. == History == Creative Commons launched the Science Commons project in early 2005. The project sought to achieve for science what Creative Commons had achieved for the world of culture, art and educational material: to ease unnecessary legal and technical barriers to sharing, to promote innovation, and to provide easy, high quality tools that let individuals and organizations specify the terms under which they wished to share their material. In 2009, Creative Commons terminated the Science Commons project. == Projects == === Biological Materials Transfer Project === The Biological Materials Transfer Project, a Material transfer agreement (MTA), developed and


id: studierfenster-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Studierfenster-0.md
category: reference
title: Studierfenster
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Studierfenster
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:17.856104+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: studierfenster-20260505-0
summary:
Studierfenster or StudierFenster (SF) is a free, non-commercial open science client/server-based medical imaging processing online framework. It offers capabilities, like viewing medical data (computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), etc.) in two- and three-dimensional space directly in the standard web browsers, like Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Safari, and Microsoft Edge. Other functionalities are the calculation of medical metrics (dice score and Hausdorff distance), manual slice-by-slice outlining of structures in medical images (segmentation), manual placing of (anatomical) landmarks in medical image data, viewing medical data in virtual reality, a facial reconstruction and registration of medical data for augmented reality, one click showcases for COVID-19 and veterinary scans, and a Radiomics module. Other features of Studierfenster are the automatic cranial implant design with a neural network, the inpainting of aortic dissections with a generative adversarial network, an automatic aortic landmark detection with deep learning in computed tomography angiography scans, and a GrowCut algorithm implementation for image segmentation. Studierfenster is currently hosted on a server at the Graz University of Technology in Austria, and expanded jointly with the Institute for Artificial Intelligence in Medicine (IKIM) in Essen, Germany. == History == Studierfenster was initiated within two bachelor theses during the summer bachelor


id: synapse-org-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synapse.org-0.md
category: reference
title: Synapse.org
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synapse.org
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:19.083216+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: synapse-org-20260505-0
summary:
Synapse.org is an open source platform for collaborative scientific data analysis. It can store data, code, results, and descriptions research work. It is operated by nonprofit organization Sage Bionetworks. The Synapse web portal is an online registry of research projects that allows data scientists to discover and share data, models, and analysis methods. == References ==


id: target-2035-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Target_2035-0.md
category: reference
title: Target 2035
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Target_2035
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:20.289609+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: target-2035-20260505-0
summary:
Target 2035 is a global effort or movement to discover open science, pharmacological modulator(s) for every protein in the human proteome by the year 2035. The effort is led by the Structural Genomics Consortium with the intention that this movement evolves organically. Target 2035 has been borne out of the success that chemical probes have had in elevating or de-prioritizing the therapeutic potential of protein targets. The availability of open access pharmacological tools is a largely unmet aspect of drug discovery especially for the dark proteome. The first five years will include building mechanisms (Phase 1 below) which allow researchers to find collaborators with like-minded goals towards discovering a pharmacological tool for a specific protein or protein family, and make it open access (without encumbrances due to intellectual property). One strategic goal is seeding new open science programs on components of the drug discovery pipeline with the goal to bring medicines to the bedside equitably, affordably and rapidly. Phase 1 will also build a framework that welcomes new and (re-)emerging enabling technologies in hit-finding and characterization. An update on the progress was published. Target 2035 will draw on successes from past and current publicly-funded programs including National Institutes of Health


id: jon-tennant-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jon_Tennant-0.md
category: reference
title: Jon Tennant
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jon_Tennant
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:25.671137+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jon-tennant-20260505-0
summary:
Jonathan Tennant (6 May 1988 – 9 April 2020) was an English open science activist, science communicator and vertebrate paleontologist. == Early life and paleontology == Tennant was born in 1988 in Kirby Muxloe, Leicestershire. His first 18 years were in Leicester with his parents and two sisters, Rebecca and Sarah. Jon attended Granby Primary School, Bushloe High School and then Beauchamp College. He obtained a PhD from Imperial College London in 2017, on a potential extinction event at the Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary. He also published research on atoposaurids, an extinct group of small early crocodilian relatives. As a science communicator, Jon was a regular contributor to Discover on paleontology. == Open Science movement == A key advocate, speaker and activist in the Open Science movement, he was a supporter of open access to knowledge and cultural change within the scientific community. He was an Editor for the PLOS Paleo Community, executive editor for Geoscience Communication, part of the Mozilla Open Leadership Cohort, and worked as Communications Director for ScienceOpen. With Jennifer Beamer, Jeroen Bosman, Björn Brembs, Neo Christopher Chung, Gail Clement, and others, he wrote an influential guide and strategy on open access and open research. He was a panelist


id: uses-of-open-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_open_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Uses of open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:26.910892+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: uses-of-open-science-20260505-0
summary:
The open science movement has expanded the uses of scientific output beyond specialized academic circles. Non-academic audience of journals and other scientific outputs has always been significant but was not recorded by the leading metrics of scientific reception, which favor citation data. In the late 1990s, the first open-access online publications started to attract a large number of individual visits. This transformation has renewed the theories of scientific dissemination, as direct access to publications curtailed the classic model of scientific popularization. Social impact and potential uses by lay readers have become focal points of discussion in the development of open science platforms and infrastructures. Analysis of open science uses has required the development of new methods, including log analysis, crosslinking analysis or altmetrics, as the standard bibliometric approach failed to record the non-academic reception of scientific productions. In the 2010s, several detailed studies were devoted to the reception of specific open science platforms due to the increasing availability of use data. Log analysis and surveys showed that professional academics do not make up the majority of the audience, as recurrent reader profiles include students, non-academic professionals (policy makers, industrial R&D, knowledge workers) and "private citizens" with various motivations (personal health,


id: uses-of-open-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_open_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Uses of open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:26.910892+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: uses-of-open-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Non-academic audience === Academic journals have always had a significant non-academic audience, be they students, professionals, or amateurs. In 2000, one-third of these readers had never authored a scientific publication. This rate may be higher for social science journals, which may also act as intellectual periodicals. During the second half of the 20th century, the non-academic audience may have continuously expanded in Western countries, along with the increasing prevalence of high school education: "the percentage of U.S. adults with a minimal level of understanding of the meaning of scientific study has increased from 12 percent in 1957 to 21 percent in 1999". The prevalence of non-academic audience raises additional issues on the relevance and scope of classic bibliometric measures, as they would "never appear in citation data". The infrastructures and business models put in place by leading scientific publishers do not consider non-academic uses. Following the periodical crisis of the 1980s and the inflation of subscription prices, major journals have largely become unattainable for lay readers or independent researchers not affiliated with a large research institution. Search engines and bibliographic databases developed since the 1960s and the 1970s were meant to be used by professional librarians. Leading scientific publishers


id: uses-of-open-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_open_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Uses of open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:26.910892+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: uses-of-open-science-20260505-0
summary:
I turn our attention to these alternative, public forms of research impact and reach by examining the Latin American case. In this study, impact will be assessed through evidence of the research literature being saved, discussed, forwarded, recommended, mentioned, or cited, both within and beyond the academic community (…) Reach refers, in this study, to the extent to which the research literature is viewed or downloaded by members of various audiences, beginning with the traditional academic readership and extending outward through related professions, and perhaps journalists, teachers, enthusiasts, and members of the public (…) By looking at a broad range of indicators of impact and reach, far beyond the typical measures of one article citing another, I argue, it is possible to gain a sense of the people that are using Latin American research, thereby opening the door for others to see the ways in which it has touched those individuals and communities. The unprecedented focus on the social impact of science fits with alternative models of scientific popularization. In 2009, Alesia Zuccala introduced a radiant model of open science dissemination with a variety of mediated and unmediated connections between non-academic audience and academic production: "Sometimes [research] engages the lay


id: uses-of-open-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_open_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Uses of open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:26.910892+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: uses-of-open-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Log Analysis === Academic publications have been among the earliest corpora used for log analysis. The first applied studies in the area long predate the web, as interconnected scientific infrastructures were already widely used in North America and Europe by the 1970s and 1980s. In 1983, several studies, pioneered by the Online Computer Library Center, analyzed "transaction logs" left by database users. Logs were stored on magnetic tapes at the time, and a large part of the analysis was devoted to the reformatting and standardization of the data. Standard methods of log analysis were already implemented in these early studies, such as the use of probabilistic approaches based on Markov Chains, in order to identify the more regular patterns of user behavior or the comparison with more user surveys. The use of logs and other reader metrics to measure the reception of academic work has remained marginal. Large commercial databases, like the Web of Science and Scopus, had no incentives to divulge reading statistics and mostly use them for internal purposes. Bibliometric indices based on aggregated citation counts, like the impact factor or the h-index, have been favored as the leading measures of academic impact. Beyond the restrictions imposed


id: uses-of-open-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_open_science-4.md
category: reference
title: Uses of open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:26.910892+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: uses-of-open-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Altmetrics === During the 2000s and 2010s, the web was increasingly dominated by very large social media platforms that curate and shape a significant part of the digital public sphere. The public reception of scientific literature has also largely migrated to these platforms. This evolution has prompted the development of new metrics and quantitative methods aiming to map the circulation of publications on social media: the altmetrics. The concept of alt-metrics was introduced in 2009 by Cameron Neylon and Shirly Wu as article-level metrics. In contrast with the focus of leading metrics on journals (impact factor) or, more recently, on individual researchers (h-index), the article-level metrics makes it possible to track the circulation of individual publications: "article that used to live on a shelf now lives in Mendeley, CiteULike, or Zotero – where we can see and count it" As such they are more compatible with the diversity of publication strategies that has characterized open science: preprints, reports or even non-textual outputs like dataset or software may also have associated metrics. In their original research proposition, Neylon and Wu favored the use of data from reference management software like Zotero or Mendeley. The concept of altmetrics evolved and came


id: uses-of-open-science-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_open_science-5.md
category: reference
title: Uses of open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:26.910892+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: uses-of-open-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== User practices and motivations === Studies of user practices have mostly focused on specific user profiles. Few general surveys have been undertaken. In Japan, a 2011 poll of 800 adults showed that a "majority of respondents (55%) claimed that Open Access is useful or slightly useful to them", which suggests a rather large awareness of open science in a population with a significant share of high school education. The issues facing medical patients have been especially highlighted. An important field of research on health-information-seeking behavior (HISB) emerged prior to the development of open science. In a 2003 survey, half of American Internet users had attempted to find qualified information about their health, but regularly faced access issues: "Many current Internet health users want to expand access to information-laden sites that are currently closed to non-subscribers". A qualitative research on English medical patients, subscription paywalls were cited as the main barrier to access to scientific knowledge, along with the complexity of scientific terminology. While the specific needs patients make a strong case for open science, they have also overshadowed the variety of potential uses of academic research: "open access is not just a public health matter: It has a much


id: uses-of-open-science-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_open_science-6.md
category: reference
title: Uses of open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:26.910892+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: uses-of-open-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Book & thesis === Matthews, Joseph R.; Lawrence, Gary S.; Ferguson, Douglas K. (1983). Using Online Catalogs: A Nationwide Survey: a Report of a Study Sponsored by the Council on Library Resources. Neal-Schuman. ISBN 978-0-918212-76-4. Tenopir, Carol; King, Donald W (2000). Towards electronic journals: realities for scientists, librarians, and publishers. Washington, DC: Special Libraries Association. ISBN 978-0-87111-507-2. Willinsky, John (2006). The access principle: the case for open access to research and scholarship. Digital libraries and electronic publishing. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-23242-5. Bellis, Nicola De (2009-03-09). Bibliometrics and Citation Analysis: From the Science Citation Index to Cybermetrics. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-6714-7. Montgomery, Scott L. (2013-05-06). Does Science Need a Global Language?: English and the Future of Research. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-01004-5. Hogan, A. (2014-04-09). Reasoning Techniques for the Web of Data. IOS Press. ISBN 978-1-61499-383-4. Alperin, Juan Pablo (2015). The public impact of Latin America's approach to open access (Thesis). Stanford University. Sugimoto, Cassidy R.; Larivière, Vincent (2018). Measuring Research: What Everyone Needs to Know. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-064011-8. Gillespie, Tarleton (2018). Custodians of the internet: platforms, content moderation, and the hidden decisions that shape social media. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-17313-0. ===


id: uses-of-open-science-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_open_science-7.md
category: reference
title: Uses of open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:26.910892+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: uses-of-open-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Academic articles & chapters === Miller, Jon D. (July 2004). "Public Understanding of, and Attitudes toward, Scientific Research: What We Know and What We Need to Know". Public Understanding of Science. 13 (3): 273–294. doi:10.1177/0963662504044908. ISSN 0963-6625. S2CID 144736762. van Raan, Anthony F. J. (March 2004). "Sleeping Beauties in science". Scientometrics. 59 (3): 467–472. doi:10.1023/B:SCIE.0000018543.82441.f1. ISSN 1588-2861. S2CID 189864678. Johnson, Richard K. (2006-09-13). "Will Research Sharing Keep Pace with the Internet?". The Journal of Neuroscience. 26 (37): 9349–9351. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3130-06.2006. ISSN 0270-6474. PMC 6674599. PMID 16971518. Davis, Philip M.; Price, Jason (July 2006). "eJournal interface can influence usage statistics: implications for libraries, publishers, and Project COUNTER". Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology. 57 (9): 1243–1248. arXiv:cs/0602060. doi:10.1002/asi.20405. ISSN 1532-2882. S2CID 261212798. Retrieved 2022-05-07. Duy, Joanna; Vaughan, Liwen (September 2006). "Can electronic journal usage data replace citation data as a measure of journal use? An empirical examination1" (PDF). The Journal of Academic Librarianship. 32 (5): 512–517. doi:10.1016/j.acalib.2006.05.005. ISSN 0099-1333. Warwick, Claire; Terras, Melissa; Huntington, Paul; Pappa, Nikoleta (April 2008). "If You Build It Will They Come? The LAIRAH Study: Quantifying the Use of Online Resources in the Arts and Humanities through Statistical Analysis of User Log Data".


id: uses-of-open-science-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_open_science-8.md
category: reference
title: Uses of open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:26.910892+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: uses-of-open-science-20260505-0
summary:
"Does open access to academic research help small, science-based companies?". Journal of Industry-University Collaboration. 2 (3): 95–109. doi:10.1108/JIUC-04-2020-0004. ISSN 2631-357X. Tunger, Dirk; Meier, Andreas (2020-12-07). "4.1 The Future Has Already Begun: Origin, Classification, and Applications of Altmetrics in Scholarly Communication". In Ball, Rafael (ed.). Handbook Bibliometrics. De Gruyter Saur. pp. 181–190. doi:10.1515/9783110646610-019. ISBN 978-3-11-064661-0. S2CID 235879114. Pölönen, Janne; Syrjämäki, Sami; Nygård, Antti-Jussi; Hammarfelt, Björn (October 2021). "Who are the users of national open access journals? The case of the Finnish Journal.fi platform". Learned Publishing. 34 (4): 585–592. doi:10.1002/leap.1405. ISSN 1741-4857. Hicks, Diana; Zullo, Matteo; Doshi, Ameet; Asensio, Omar I. (March 2022). "Widespread use of National Academies consensus reports by the American public". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 119 (9): –2107760119. Bibcode:2022PNAS..11907760H. doi:10.1073/pnas.2107760119. PMC 8892306. PMID 35193972. Ross-Hellauer, Tony; Reichmann, Stefan; Cole, Nicki Lisa; Fessl, Angela; Klebel, Thomas; Pontika, Nancy (2022). "Dynamics of cumulative advantage and threats to equity in open science: a scoping review". Royal Society Open Science. 9 (1) 211032. Bibcode:2022RSOS....911032R. doi:10.1098/rsos.211032. PMC 8767192. PMID 35116143. === Conference === Tolle, John E. (1983). "Transaction log analysis online catalogs". Proceedings of the 6th annual international ACM SIGIR conference on Research and development in information retrieval - SIGIR '83.


id: john-wilbanks-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wilbanks-0.md
category: reference
title: John Wilbanks
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wilbanks
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:28.195707+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: john-wilbanks-20260505-0
summary:
John Wilbanks is a Senior Fellow at the Datasphere Initiative, former Head of Data at Biogen Digital Health, former Chief Commons Officer at Sage Bionetworks, and Executive Director at Science Commons. He served as a Senior Fellow at the Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation and at FasterCures. He is known for his work on informed consent, open science and research networks. Wilbanks led a We the People petition supporting the free access of taxpayer-funded research data, which gained over 65,000 signatures. In February 2013, the White House responded, detailing a plan to freely publicize taxpayer-funded research data. Scientific American featured Wilbanks in "The Machine That Would Predict The Future" in 2011. Seed magazine named Wilbanks among their Revolutionary Minds of 2008, as a "Game Changer" and the Utne Reader named him in 2009 as one of "50 visionaries who are changing your world". He frequently campaigns for wider adoption of open access publishing in science and the increased sharing of data by scientists. == Education and career == Wilbanks grew up in Knoxville, Tennessee, US. He attended Tulane University and received a Bachelor of Arts in philosophy in 1994. He also studied modern letters at the Sorbonne in Paris. From 1994


id: florimontane-academy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florimontane_Academy-0.md
category: reference
title: Florimontane Academy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florimontane_Academy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:33.671470+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: florimontane-academy-20260505-0
summary:
The Florimontane Academy, originally established as the Florimontane Society, is a learned society founded in Annecy in 1606–1607. The society ceased to operate in 1610 and was reestablished in 1851. == History == === Foundation === During the winter of 1606–1607, the Florimontane Academy was established in Annecy, taking inspiration from the Italian academies of the 16th century. The society was founded by two prominent Savoyards: Antoine Favre, Baron of Pérouges and President of the State Council of Genevois, and François de Sales, Prince-Bishop of Geneva. The academy sought to encourage and develop activity across theological, philosophical, scientific, and literary fields. Meetings were held at the Hôtel Bagnoréa on Rue Sainte-Claire in Annecy, the residence of Antoine Favre, which Galeazzo Gegald had constructed. The first Florimontane Academy benefited from the prominence of its founders and enjoyed considerable prestige. It was one of the earliest French-speaking academies, predating the French Academy by 29 years. The society comprised 40 members and operated under the patronage of Henri I of Savoy-Nemours, Duke of Geneva. The name “Florimontane” was selected to reflect the idea that “the muses flourished among the mountains of Savoy.” In 1610, the Florimontane Academy ceased to function following the departure


id: florimontane-academy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florimontane_Academy-1.md
category: reference
title: Florimontane Academy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florimontane_Academy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:33.671470+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: florimontane-academy-20260505-0
summary:
==== Notable figures of the Academy ==== Baron and Doctor Charles-Humbert-Antoine Despine (1777–1852) Alphonse-Louis-Joseph Despine (1818–1872), lawyer and professor of law in Annecy, author of several works on regional history and literature, member of the Société des Antiquaires de France Camille Dunant (1819–1909) Venance Payot (1826–1902), guide, collector, scholar, editor, and naturalist in Chamonix Aimé Constantin (1832–1900), scholar, philologist, writer; his work led to the first dictionary of the Savoyard dialect Jean-François Gonthier (1847–1913), priest of the Diocese of Annecy and historian of Savoy, honorary president of the Salésian Academy Léon Marès (1854–1916), collector Louis Balleydier (1856–1927), professor of law, Dean of the Faculty of Law of Grenoble, father-in-law of Louis Aussedat Charles Buttin (1856–1933), scholar and collector, author of 140 works for 286 publications, mainly on ancient arms, including the Catalogue de la Collection d'armes anciennes, européennes et orientales (1933) Aimé Vaschy (1857–1899), telegraph engineer and mathematician René Payot (1894–1970), Swiss journalist Georges Chapier (1906–1975), historian of Savoy, member of the Florimontane Academy in 1973, correspondent of the Academy of Philately, and honorary president of the Lyon circle for philatelic and numismatic studies (1974) == See also == Learned society History of Savoy == Notes == == References ==


id: learned-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learned_society-0.md
category: reference
title: Learned society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learned_society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:34.914134+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: learned-society-20260505-0
summary:
A learned society ( LEHRN-id; also scholarly, intellectual, or academic society) is an organization that exists to promote an academic discipline, profession, or a group of related disciplines such as the arts and sciences. Membership may be open to all, may require possession of some qualification, or may be an honour conferred by election. Most learned societies are non-profit organizations, and many are professional associations. Their activities typically include holding regular conferences for the presentation and discussion of new research results, and publishing or sponsoring academic journals in their discipline. Some also act as professional bodies, regulating the activities of their members in the public interest or the collective interest of the membership. == History == Some of the oldest learned societies are the Académie des Jeux floraux (founded 1323), Sodalitas Litterarum Vistulana (founded 1488), Accademia della Crusca (founded 1583), Accademia dei Lincei (founded 1603), Académie Française (founded 1635), German National Academy of Sciences Leopoldina (founded 1652), Royal Society (founded 1660) and French Academy of Sciences (founded 1666). == Significance == Scholars in the sociology of science argue that learned societies are of key importance and their formation assists in the emergence and development of new disciplines or professions. In


id: list-of-scientific-bodies-explicitly-rejecting-intelligent-design-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_bodies_explicitly_rejecting_intelligent_design-0.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific bodies explicitly rejecting intelligent design
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_bodies_explicitly_rejecting_intelligent_design
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:36.121108+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-bodies-explicitly-rejecting-intelligent-design-20260505-0
summary:
This article lists those scientific organisations and other nationally or internationally recognised groups that specifically reject intelligent design as a valid alternative to evolutionary theory. == United States ==


id: list-of-scientific-bodies-explicitly-rejecting-intelligent-design-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_bodies_explicitly_rejecting_intelligent_design-1.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific bodies explicitly rejecting intelligent design
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_bodies_explicitly_rejecting_intelligent_design
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:36.121108+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-bodies-explicitly-rejecting-intelligent-design-20260505-0
summary:
=== National === The American Association for the Advancement of Science is the world's largest general scientific society. The AAAS serves some 262 affiliated societies and academies of science, serving 10 million individuals. A 2002 statement states: "[T]he lack of scientific warrant for so-called 'intelligent design theory' makes it improper to include as a part of science education." A 2006 statement on the teaching of evolution: "Some bills seek to discredit evolution by emphasizing so-called "flaws" in the theory of evolution or "disagreements" within the scientific community. Others insist that teachers have absolute freedom within their classrooms and cannot be disciplined for teaching non-scientific "alternatives" to evolution. A number of bills require that students be taught to "critically analyze" evolution or to understand "the controversy." But there is no significant controversy within the scientific community about the validity of the theory of evolution. The current controversy surrounding the teaching of evolution is not a scientific one." Q & A on Evolution and Intelligent Design: Is intelligent design a scientific alternative to contemporary evolutionary theory? No. Intelligent design proponents may use the language of science, but they do not use its methodology. They have yet to propose meaningful tests for their


id: list-of-scientific-bodies-explicitly-rejecting-intelligent-design-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_bodies_explicitly_rejecting_intelligent_design-2.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific bodies explicitly rejecting intelligent design
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_bodies_explicitly_rejecting_intelligent_design
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:36.121108+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-bodies-explicitly-rejecting-intelligent-design-20260505-0
summary:
Underlying both of these concepts, and foundational to IDC itself, is an early 19th-century British theological view, the 'argument from design.'" The NCSE also maintains lists of organizations from around the world that oppose the teaching of creationism, including intelligent design, listing 71 scientific organizations, 23 religious organizations, 43 educational organizations, and 10 civil liberties organizations. The National Science Teachers Association NSTA is a professional association of 55,000 science teachers and administrators. "We stand with the nation's leading scientific organizations and scientists, including Dr. John Marburger, the president's top science advisor, in stating that intelligent design is not science. … It is simply not fair to present pseudoscience to students in the science classroom." United States National Academy of Sciences The academy wrote a statement entitled "Science and Creationism: A View from the National Academy of Sciences, Second Edition National Academy of Sciences" which said that "Creationism, Intelligent Design, and other claims of supernatural intervention in the origin of life or of species are not science". There was also a letter from Bruce Alberts, former president, NAS: "We stand ready to help others in addressing the increasingly strident attempts to limit the teaching of evolution or to introduce non-scientific 'alternatives'


id: list-of-scientific-bodies-explicitly-rejecting-intelligent-design-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_bodies_explicitly_rejecting_intelligent_design-3.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific bodies explicitly rejecting intelligent design
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_bodies_explicitly_rejecting_intelligent_design
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:36.121108+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-bodies-explicitly-rejecting-intelligent-design-20260505-0
summary:
=== State and university === Kentucky Academy of Science states "...in the strongest and most determined ways possible deplores the decision to substitute "change over time" for "evolution" in the state teaching standards, urges that the original wording be reinstated, and decries any attempt to remove the teaching of basic evolutionary theory..." Adopted by KAS Governing Board November 6, 1999. Passed unanimously by KAS membership November 6, 1999. Unanimously approved again at its annual business meeting on November 11, 2005. The KAS also voted to endorse the October 2002 AAAS Board Resolution on Intelligent Design Theory. The Kentucky Paleontological Society Statement on Teaching Evolution states that "KPS is opposed to any attempt to teach creationism or omit mention of evolution from public school instruction. Furthermore, evolution should be called "evolution" in curriculum guidelines and other documents; euphemisms such as "change over time" are intellectually dishonest for they attempt to conceal the terminology used by scientists." Executive Committee approved this statement in 1999. The Lehigh University Department of Biological Sciences responded to faculty member and intelligent design proponent Michael Behe's claims about the scientific validity and usefulness of intelligent design, publishing an official position statement which says "It is our collective


id: mircen-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIRCEN-0.md
category: reference
title: MIRCEN
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIRCEN
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:37.630787+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mircen-20260505-0
summary:
MIRCEN (Microbial Resources Centers) is an international network of microbiology and biotechnology centres established with support from UNESCO. == See also == UNESCO World Federation for Culture Collections Culture collection Biotechnology == References ==


id: observatory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory-0.md
category: reference
title: Observatory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:38.955199+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: observatory-20260505-0
summary:
An observatory is a location used for observing terrestrial, marine, or celestial events. Astronomy, climatology/meteorology, geophysics, oceanography and volcanology are examples of disciplines for which observatories have been constructed. The term observatoire has been used in French since at least 1976 to denote any institution that compiles and presents data on a particular subject (such as public health observatory) or for a particular geographic area (European Audiovisual Observatory). == Astronomical observatories == Astronomical observatories are mainly divided into four categories according to location: space-based, airborne, ground-based, and underground-based. Historically, ground-based observatories were as simple as containing a mural instrument (for measuring the angle between stars) or Stonehenge (which has some alignments on astronomical phenomena). Astronomical observatories may be private or they may be public. === Ground-based observatories === Ground-based observatories, located on the surface of Earth, are used to make observations in the radio and visible light portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Most optical telescopes are housed within a dome or similar structure, to protect the delicate instruments from the elements. Telescope domes have a slit or other opening in the roof that can be opened during observing, and closed when the telescope is not in use. In most cases,


id: observatory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory-1.md
category: reference
title: Observatory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:38.955199+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: observatory-20260505-0
summary:
825: Al-Shammisiyyah Observatory, Baghdad, Iraq 869: Mahodayapuram Observatory, Kerala, India 1259: Maragheh Observatory, Azerbaijan, Iran 1276: Gaocheng Astronomical Observatory, China 1420: Ulugh Beg Observatory, Samarqand, Uzbekistan 1442: Beijing Ancient Observatory, China 1577: Constantinople Observatory of Taqi ad-Din, Turkey 1580: Uraniborg, Denmark (present-day Sweden) 1581: Stjärneborg, Denmark (present-day Sweden) 1633: Leiden Observatory, Netherlands 1642: Panzano Observatory, Italy 1642: Round Tower, Denmark 1667: Paris Observatory, France 1675: Royal Greenwich Observatory, England 1695: Sukharev Tower, Russia 1711: Berlin Observatory, Germany 1724: Jantar Mantar, India 1753: Stockholm Observatory, Sweden 1753: Vilnius University Observatory, Lithuania 1753: Real Instituto y Observatorio de la Armada, Spain 1759: Trieste Observatory, Italy. 1757: Macfarlane Observatory, Scotland. 1759: Turin Observatory, Italy. 1764: Brera Astronomical Observatory, Italy. 1765: Mohr Observatory, Indonesia. 1771: Lviv Observatory, Ukraine. 1774: Observatory of the Vatican, Italy. 1785: Dunsink Observatory, Ireland. 1786: Madras Observatory, India. 1789: Armagh Observatory, Northern Ireland. 1790: Royal Observatory of Madrid, Spain, 1803: National Astronomical Observatory, Bogotá, Colombia. 1811: Tartu Old Observatory, Estonia 1812: Astronomical Observatory of Capodimonte, Naples, Italy 1830/1842: Depot of Charts & Instruments/US Naval Observatory, US 1830: Yale University Observatory Atheneum, US 1834: Helsinki University Observatory, Finland 1838: Hopkins Observatory, Williams College, US 1838: Loomis Observatory, Western Reserve Academy, US


id: observatory-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory-2.md
category: reference
title: Observatory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:38.955199+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: observatory-20260505-0
summary:
A volcano observatory is an institution that conducts the monitoring of a volcano as well as research in order to understand the potential impacts of active volcanism. Among the best known are the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory and the Vesuvius Observatory. Mobile volcano observatories exist with the USGS VDAP (Volcano Disaster Assistance Program), to be deployed on demand. Each volcano observatory has a geographic area of responsibility it is assigned to whereby the observatory is tasked with spreading activity forecasts, analyzing potential volcanic activity threats and cooperating with communities in preparation for volcanic eruption. == See also == == References == == Further reading == Aubin, David; Charlotte Bigg, and H. Otto Sibum, eds. The Heavens on Earth: Observatories and Astronomy in Nineteenth-Century Science and Culture (Duke University Press; 2010) 384 pages; Topics include astronomy as military science in Sweden, the Pulkovo Observatory in the Russia of Czar Nicholas I, and physics and the astronomical community in late 19th-century America. Brunier, Serge, et al. Great Observatories of the World (2005). Dick, Steven. Sky and Ocean Joined: The U.S. Naval Observatory 1830–2000 (2003). Gressot Julien and Jeanneret Romain, « Determining the right time, or the establishment of a culture of astronomical precision


id: research-site-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_site-0.md
category: reference
title: Research site
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_site
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:41.242537+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: research-site-20260505-0
summary:
CHALLENGES of MATHEMATICS LEARNING In joining extracurricular activities == Clinical research == In clinical research a research site conducts all or part of a clinical trial. For clinical trials which recruit research participants in multiple locations, often the research will have a headquarters then multiple regional research sites to conduct the research in that region. In a network of research sites where all are recruiting study participants, sites with low recruitment benefit from coaching from sites with high recruitment. Characteristics of good clinical research sites include setting good timelines, early participant recruitment, and having a management plan for efficiency. Researchers in nursing have reported challenges accessing the facilities designated for conventional medical research. The design of a research site should have a means of detecting fraud. == Ethnographic research == Researchers who do not have a cultural tie to a research population may have difficulty doing ethnographic research with that community. == References == == External links == Basic Requirements for Starting a Research Site from American Society of Clinical Oncology


id: virtual-scientific-community-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_scientific_community-0.md
category: reference
title: Virtual scientific community
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_scientific_community
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:46.134380+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: virtual-scientific-community-20260505-0
summary:
A virtual scientific community is a group of people, often researchers and students, who share multiple resources related to the scientific field, and whose main medium of communication is the internet. Examples of such communities include the Computational Intelligence and Machine Learning Portal or the Biomedical Informatics Research Network. There are numerous scientific repositories and websites in existence that, while useful, do not meet the definition of a virtual scientific community. Examples of such are data and scientific literature repositories as well as open access journals. == Further reading == Jacek M. Zurada, Janusz Wojtusiak, Maciej A. Mazurowski, Devendra Mehta, Khalid Moidu, Steve Margolis, Toward Multidisciplinary Collaboration in the CIML Virtual Community, Proceedings of the 2008 Workshop on Building Computational Intelligence and Machine Learning Virtual Organizations, pp. 62–66 == See also == Science Community CIML community portal == External links == The Computational Intelligence and Machine Learning Virtual Community Archived 2009-10-04 at the Wayback Machine What is BIRN? == References ==


id: list-of-effects-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-0.md
category: reference
title: List of effects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:48.360559+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-effects-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of names for observable phenomena that contain the word “effect”, amplified by reference(s) to their respective fields of study. == A == Abscopal effect (cancer treatments) (immune system) (medical treatments) (radiation therapy) Accelerator effect (economics) Accordion effect (physics) (waves) Acousto-optic effect (nonlinear optics) (waves) Additive genetic effects (genetics) Aharonov–Bohm effect (quantum mechanics) Al Jazeera effect (Al Jazeera) (media issues) Alienation effect (acting techniques) (Bertolt Brecht theories and techniques) (film theory) (metafictional techniques) (theatre) Allais effect (fringe physics) Allee effect (biology) Ambiguity effect (cognitive biases) Anrep effect (cardiology) (medicine) Antenna effect (digital electronics) (electronic design automation) Anti-greenhouse effect (atmospheric dynamics) (atmospheric science) (astronomy) (planetary atmospheres) Askaryan effect (particle physics) Asymmetric blade effect (aerodynamics) Audience effect (psychology) (social psychology) Auger effect (atomic physics) (foundational quantum physics) Aureole effect (atmospheric optical phenomena) (scientific terminology) Autler–Townes effect (atomic, molecular, and optical physics) (atomic physics) (quantum optics) Autokinetic effect (vision) Avalanche effect (cryptography) Averch–Johnson effect (economics) == B == Baader-Meinhof effect / Baader-Meinhof phenomenon (psychology) Balassa–Samuelson effect (economics) Baldwin effect (evolutionary biology) (selection) Balloon-carried light effect (balloons) (culture) (entertainment) Bambi effect (hunting) (psychology stubs) Bandwagon effect (cognitive biases) (crowd psychology) (economics effects) (metaphors) (propaganda techniques) Bank effect (marine propulsion) (nautical terms)


id: list-of-effects-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-1.md
category: reference
title: List of effects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:48.360559+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-effects-20260505-0
summary:
== F == Fahraeus–Lindquist effect (blood) (fluid dynamics) (molecular and cellular biology) False consensus effect (cognitive biases) (futurology) (group processes) (psychological theories) (sustainability) Faraday effect (magnetism) (optics) Ferroelectric effect (condensed matter physics) (electrical phenomena) Fink effect (anesthesia) (diffusion) Floating body effect (electronics) (semiconductors) Floodgate effect (social phenomena) (sociology) Floor effect (statistics) Florence Nightingale effect (Florence Nightingale) (love) (psychology) Flutie effect (student sport) Flux pinning (Physics) Flynn effect (futurology) (intelligence) (psychological theories) (psychometrics) (race and intelligence controversy) Focusing effect (cognitive biases) Forbush effect (cosmic rays) (solar phenomena) Forer effect (cognitive biases) (history of astrology) (psychological theories) Founder effect (ecology) (population genetics) Fractional quantum Hall effect (physics) Franssen effect (acoustics) (sound perception) Franz–Keldysh effect (condensed matter) (electronic engineering) (electronics) (optics) (optoelectronics) Free surface effect (fluid mechanics) Front projection effect (film production) Fujiwhara effect (tropical cyclone meteorology) (vortices) Full screen effect (computer graphics) (demo effects) == G == Garshelis effect (electric and magnetic fields in matter) (magnetism) (physics) Gauche effect (stereochemistry) Gell-Mann amnesia effect (journalism) Generation effect (cognitive biases) (memory biases) (psychological theories) Geodetic effect (general relativity) Gerschenkron effect (economic development) (economic systems) (economics and finance) (econometrics) (index numbers) (national accounts)r Giant magnetoresistive effect (condensed matter physics) (electric and magnetic fields in matter)


id: list-of-effects-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-2.md
category: reference
title: List of effects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:48.360559+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-effects-20260505-0
summary:
== M == Magali effect Magneto-optic effect (electric and magnetic fields in matter) (optical phenomena) Magneto-optic Kerr effect (condensed matter physics) (electric and magnetic fields in matter) (optical phenomena) magnetocaloric effect (physical phenomena) (electric and magnetic fields in matter) (thermodynamics) Magnus effect (fluid dynamics) Malmquist effect (astronomy) Malter effect (physics) Mandela effect (psychology) (paranormal) Marangoni effect (fluid dynamics) (fluid mechanics) (physical phenomena) Marchywka effect (electrochemistry) (ultraviolet sensor production) Mark Twain effect (economics and finance) (stock market) Martha Mitchell effect (psychological theories) (psychosis) Massenerhebung effect (trees) Maternal age effect (developmental biology) Maternal effect (developmental biology) Matthew effect (education) (education) Matilda effect (Research) Matthew effect (sociology) (adages) (social phenomena) (sociology of scientific knowledge) McClintock effect (menstruation) McCollough effect (optical illusions) McGurk effect (auditory illusions) (perception) (psychological theories) Meissner effect (levitation) (magnetism) (superconductivity) Meitner–Hupfeld effect (particle physics) Mellanby effect (health) (alcohol intoxication) Memory effect (electric batteries) Mesomeric effect (chemical bonding) Microwave auditory effect (cognitive neuroscience) (espionage) (hearing) (human psychology) (less-lethal weapons) (mind control) (sound) Mid-domain effect (macroecology) (biogeography) (biodiversity) Mikheyev–Smirnov–Wolfenstein effect (particle physics) Milky seas effect (aquatic biology) (biological oceanography) (bioluminescence) Miller effect (electrical engineering) (electronics terms) Miniature effect (film and video technology) (film techniques) (scale modeling) (scientific modeling) (special effects) (visual effects)


id: list-of-effects-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-3.md
category: reference
title: List of effects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:48.360559+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-effects-20260505-0
summary:
== S == Sabattier effect (solarization) (photographic processes) (science of photography) Sachs–Wolfe effect (astronomy) (physical cosmology) Sagnac effect (optics) (relativity) Sailing Ship Effect (business) (economics) Samba effect (Brazil) (economy of Brazil) (history of Brazil) Sandbox effect (Internet technology) (search engine optimization) Scharnhorst effect (quantum field theory) Schottky effect (diodes) Schwinger effect (particle physics) (hypothetical processes) (quantum electrodynamics) Screen-door effect (display technology) (technology) Second gas effect (anesthesia) Second-system effect (software development) Seeliger effect (astronomy) (observational astronomy) Serial position effect (cognitive biases) (psychological theories) (psychologicy) Shaft effect (motorcycle) Shapiro effect (effects of gravitation) Shielding effect (atomic, molecular, and optical physics) (atomic physics) (chemistry) (quantum chemistry) Shower-curtain effect (fluid dynamics) Shubnikov–de Haas effect (science) Side effect (computer science) (computer programming) Side effect (disambiguation) Signor–Lipps effect (extinction) (fossils) (paleontology) Silk screen effect (technology) Silo effect (management) (systems theory) Simon effect (psychology) Simpson's paradox aka Yule–Simpson effect (probability) (statistics) Skin effect (electronics) Slashdot effect (denial-of-service attacks)(Internet terminology) (Slashdot) Sleeper effect (social psychology) Smith–Purcell effect (physics) (quantum optics) Snackwell effect (consumer behaviour) (psychology) Snob effect (consumer theory) (economics and finance) Snowball effect (language) (metaphors) Somogyi effect (diabetes) Sound effect (film techniques) (sound effects) (sound production) (special effects) Soap opera effect (film techniques) (television terminology) (filming) (film


id: intrinsic-and-extrinsic-properties-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrinsic_and_extrinsic_properties-0.md
category: reference
title: Intrinsic and extrinsic properties
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrinsic_and_extrinsic_properties
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:49.612401+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: intrinsic-and-extrinsic-properties-20260505-0
summary:
In science and engineering, an intrinsic property is a property of a specified subject that exists itself or within the subject. An extrinsic property is not essential or inherent to the subject that is being characterized. For example, mass is an intrinsic property of any physical object, whereas weight is an extrinsic property that depends on the strength of the gravitational field in which the object is placed. == Applications == In materials science, an intrinsic property is independent of how much of a material is present and is independent of the form of the material, e.g., one large piece or a collection of small particles. Intrinsic properties are dependent mainly on the fundamental chemical composition and structure of the material. Extrinsic properties are differentiated as being dependent on the presence of avoidable chemical contaminants or structural defects. In biology, intrinsic effects originate from inside an organism or cell, such as an autoimmune disease or intrinsic immunity. In electronics and optics, intrinsic properties of devices (or systems of devices) are generally those that are free from the influence of various types of non-essential defects. Such defects may arise as a consequence of design imperfections, manufacturing errors, or operational extremes and


id: rayleigh-scattering-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayleigh_scattering-0.md
category: reference
title: Rayleigh scattering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayleigh_scattering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:50.823381+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rayleigh-scattering-20260505-0
summary:
Rayleigh scattering ( RAY-lee) is the scattering or deflection of light, or other electromagnetic radiation, by particles with a size much smaller than the wavelength of the radiation. For light frequencies well below the resonance frequency of the scattering medium (normal dispersion regime), the amount of scattering is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength (e.g., a blue color is scattered much more than a red color as light propagates through air). The phenomenon is named after the 19th-century British physicist Lord Rayleigh (John William Strutt). Rayleigh scattering results from the electric polarizability of the particles. The oscillating electric field of a light wave acts on the charges within a particle, causing them to move at the same frequency. The particle, therefore, becomes a small radiating dipole whose radiation we see as scattered light. The particles may be individual atoms or molecules; it can occur when light travels through transparent solids and liquids, but is most prominently seen in gases. Rayleigh scattering of sunlight in Earth's atmosphere causes diffuse sky radiation. Since blue light wavelengths scatter more, the diffuse sky seen in daytime is blue. At twilight the sunlight on the horizon is missing the scattered blue light


id: rayleigh-scattering-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayleigh_scattering-1.md
category: reference
title: Rayleigh scattering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayleigh_scattering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:50.823381+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rayleigh-scattering-20260505-0
summary:
I s = I 0 π 2 α 2 ε 0 2 λ 4 R 2 1 + cos 2 ⁡ θ 2 . {\displaystyle I_{s}=I_{0}{\frac {\pi ^{2}\alpha ^{2}}{{\varepsilon _{0}}^{2}\lambda ^{4}R^{2}}}{\frac {1+\cos ^{2}\theta }{2}}.} == Effect of fluctuations == When the dielectric constant ϵ {\displaystyle \epsilon } of a certain region of volume V {\displaystyle V} is different from the average dielectric constant of the medium ϵ ¯ {\displaystyle {\bar {\epsilon }}} , then any incident light will be scattered according to the following equation I = I 0 π 2 V 2 σ ϵ 2 2 λ 4 R 2 ( 1 + cos 2 ⁡ θ ) {\displaystyle I=I_{0}{\frac {\pi ^{2}V^{2}\sigma _{\epsilon }^{2}}{2\lambda ^{4}R^{2}}}{\left(1+\cos ^{2}\theta \right)}} where σ ϵ 2 {\displaystyle \sigma _{\epsilon }^{2}} represents the variance of the fluctuation in the dielectric constant ϵ {\displaystyle \epsilon } . == Cause of the blue color of the sky == The blue color of the sky is a consequence of three factors: the blackbody spectrum of sunlight coming into the Earth's atmosphere, Rayleigh scattering of that light off oxygen and nitrogen molecules, and the response of the human visual system. The strong wavelength dependence of the Rayleigh scattering (~λ−4)


id: recovery-effect-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recovery_effect-0.md
category: reference
title: Recovery effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recovery_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:52.101449+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: recovery-effect-20260505-0
summary:
The recovery effect is a phenomenon observed in battery usage where the available energy is less than the difference between energy charged and energy consumed. == Mechanism == Intuitively, this is because the energy has been consumed from the edge of the battery and the charge has not yet diffused evenly around the battery. When power is extracted continuously voltage decreases in a smooth curve, but the recovery effect can result in the voltage partially increasing if the current is interrupted. == In non-lead-acid batteries == The KiBaM battery model describes the recovery effect for lead-acid batteries and is also a good approximation to the observed effects in Li-ion batteries. In some batteries, the gains from the recovery life can extend battery life by up to 45% by alternating discharging and inactive periods rather than constantly discharging. The size of the recovery effect depends on the battery load, recovery time and depth of discharge. Even though the recovery effect phenomenon is prominent in the lead acid battery chemistry, its existence in alkaline, Ni-MH and Li-Ion batteries is still questionable. For instance, a systematic experimental case study shows that an intermittent discharge current in case of alkaline, Ni-MH and Li-ion batteries


id: jos-miguel-camacho-gonz-lez-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/José_Miguel_Camacho_González-0.md
category: reference
title: José Miguel Camacho González
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/José_Miguel_Camacho_González
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:55.160998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jos-miguel-camacho-gonz-lez-20260505-0
summary:
José Miguel Camacho González (born 17 January 1951) is a Spanish ophthalmologist, medical director, and pioneer on intraocular lens. He was born in Cúllar, Granada. He studied at Universidad de Granada, in 1976 he got a bachelor's degree in Medicine and in 1979 he specialized on Surgery. In 1970s he worked as ophthalmologist at Bola Azul and Hospital Torrecárdenas in Almería, and he cooperated with Instituto de Oftalmología Barraquer. He opened Vista Camacho, which works with the latest and innovated ophthalmological technologies, including VisX STAR S4 IR CustomVue laser with the Wave Scan aberrometer, and the Spectralis(R) platform, which is a tomograph to make micro-thousandth eye studies. He is one of the most rated ophthalmologist in the province of Almería by Doctoralia. Manuel Camacho Sampelayo, his son, who followed his steps and also studied at Universidad de Granada and Instituto de Oftalmología Barraquer, holds the eighth place in the ranking, and his brother José Miguel holds the ninth place. In 2010 he got the 3rd Videofestival Secoir Cádiz Award alongside Jaime Campello Lluch and José Miguel Camacho Sampelayo. In March 2022 he provided free services to Ukrainian refugees in Almería due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine, and he was


id: list-of-pioneers-in-computer-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_pioneers_in_computer_science-0.md
category: reference
title: List of pioneers in computer science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_pioneers_in_computer_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:56.325384+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-pioneers-in-computer-science-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of people who made transformative breakthroughs in the creation, development and imagining of what computers could do. == Pioneers == ~ Items marked with a tilde are circa dates. == See also == Computer Pioneer Award IEEE John von Neumann Medal Grace Murray Hopper Award History of computing History of computing hardware History of computing hardware (1960s–present) History of software List of computer science awards List of computer science journals List of computer scientists List of Internet pioneers List of pioneers in computer science List of people considered father or mother of a field § Computing The Man Who Invented the Computer (2010 book) List of Russian IT developers List of Women in Technology International Hall of Fame inductees Timeline of computing Turing Award Women in computing == References == === Sources === Hamming, Richard W. (1950). "Error detecting and error correcting codes" (PDF). Bell System Technical Journal. 29 (2): 147–160. Bibcode:1950BSTJ...29..147H. doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1950.tb00463.x. hdl:10945/46756. MR 0035935. S2CID 61141773. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-05-25. Ling, San; Xing, Chaoping (2004). Coding Theory: a First Course. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-82191-9. Pless, Vera (1982). Introduction to the Theory of Error-Correcting Codes. New York: Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-08684-0.


id: birds-in-a-truck-riddle-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birds_in_a_truck_riddle-0.md
category: reference
title: Birds in a truck riddle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birds_in_a_truck_riddle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:57.867658+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: birds-in-a-truck-riddle-20260505-0
summary:
The birds in a truck riddle is a riddle that asks whether a container or a truck carrying birds changes in weight when the birds inside are flying. The television series MythBusters investigated the question in a 2007 episode, testing it both with a box of pigeons and again with a model helicopter. They concluded that the contents being in flight made no difference to the weight, and theorised that the downdraft of air from the wings or rotors pressed down against the base of the box with the same force as the resting bird or helicopter. A drone research team from Stanford University measured the forces involved in a bird's hovering and found that it created "double the lift during the downstroke [of the wings] so that the birds did not have to lift their weight during the upstroke", with the amount of lift on the upstroke being "almost none". They concluded that a truck containing a few birds would fluctuate in weight over time, but a larger flock flapping at random would cancel one another and leave the truck's weight unaffected. == References ==


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-chemistry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_chemistry-0.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:59.139871+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of unsolved problems in chemistry. Problems in chemistry are considered unsolved when an expert in the field considers it unsolved or when several experts in the field disagree about a solution to a problem. == Physical chemistry problems == Can the transition temperature of high-temperature superconductors be brought up to room temperature? How do the spin–orbit coupling, other relativistic corrections, and inter-electron effects modify the chemistry of the trans-actinides? Is it possible to create a practically useful lithium–air battery? == Organic chemistry problems == What is the origin of homochirality in biomolecules? Why are accelerated kinetics observed for some organic reactions at the water-organic interface? Do replacement reactions of aryl diazonium salts (dediazotizations) predominantly undergo SN1 or a radical mechanism? Can an electrochemical cell reliably perform organic redox reactions? Which "classic organic chemistry" reactions admit chiral catalysts? Is it possible to construct a quaternary carbon atom with arbitrary (distinguishable) substituents and stereochemistry? Can artificial enzymes replace the need for protecting groups when modifying sensitive compounds? == Inorganic chemistry problems == Are there any molecules that certainly contain a phi bond? Is there a less labor- or energy-intensive technique for titanium refinement than the Kroll process? Does


id: magmatic-water-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magmatic_water-0.md
category: reference
title: Magmatic water
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magmatic_water
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:04.106847+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: magmatic-water-20260505-0
summary:
Magmatic water, also known as juvenile water, is an aqueous phase in equilibrium with minerals that have been dissolved by magma deep within the Earth's crust and is released to the atmosphere during a volcanic eruption. It plays a key role in assessing the crystallization of igneous rocks, particularly silicates, as well as the rheology and evolution of magma chambers. Magma is composed of minerals, crystals and volatiles in varying relative natural abundance. Magmatic differentiation varies significantly based on various factors, most notably the presence of water. An abundance of volatiles within magma chambers decreases viscosity and leads to the formation of minerals bearing halogens, including chloride and hydroxide groups. In addition, the relative abundance of volatiles varies within basaltic, andesitic, and rhyolitic magma chambers, leading to some volcanoes being exceedingly more explosive than others. Magmatic water is practically insoluble in silicate melts but has demonstrated the highest solubility within rhyolitic melts. An abundance of magmatic water has been shown to lead to high-grade deformation, as a result of altering the composition of hydrogen isotope biogeochemistry (δ2H) and stable oxygen isotope ratios (δ18O) within host rocks. == Composition == Magma exists in three main forms that vary in composition. When


id: origin-of-water-on-earth-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth-0.md
category: reference
title: Origin of water on Earth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:05.225138+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: origin-of-water-on-earth-20260505-0
summary:
The origin of water on Earth is the subject of a body of research in the fields of planetary science, astronomy, and astrobiology. Earth is unique among known planets in having oceans of liquid water on its surface. Liquid water, which is necessary for all known forms of life, continues to exist on the surface of Earth because the planet is at a far enough distance (known as the habitable zone) from the Sun that it does not lose its water, but not so far that low temperatures cause all water on the planet to freeze. It was long thought that Earth's water did not originate from the planet's region of the protoplanetary disk. Instead, it was hypothesized water and other volatiles must have been delivered to Earth from the outer Solar System later in its history. Recent research, however, indicates that hydrogen inside the Earth played a role in the formation of the ocean. The two ideas are not mutually exclusive, as there is also evidence that water was delivered to Earth by impacts from icy planetesimals similar in composition to asteroids in the outer edges of the asteroid belt. == History of water on Earth == One factor


id: origin-of-water-on-earth-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth-1.md
category: reference
title: Origin of water on Earth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:05.225138+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: origin-of-water-on-earth-20260505-0
summary:
While the majority of Earth's surface is covered by oceans, those oceans make up just a small fraction of the mass of the planet. The mass of Earth's oceans is estimated to be 1.37 × 1021 kg, which is 0.023% of the total mass of Earth, 6.0 × 1024 kg. An additional 5.0 × 1020 kg of water is estimated to exist in ice, lakes, rivers, groundwater, and atmospheric water vapor. A significant amount of water is also stored in Earth's crust, mantle, and core. Unlike molecular H2O that is found on the surface, water in the interior exists primarily in hydrated minerals or as trace amounts of hydrogen bonded to oxygen atoms in anhydrous minerals. Hydrated silicates on the surface transport water into the mantle at convergent plate boundaries, where oceanic crust is subducted underneath continental crust. While it is difficult to estimate the total water content of the mantle due to limited samples, approximately three times the mass of the Earth's oceans could be stored there. Similarly, the Earth's core could contain four to five oceans' worth of hydrogen. While not considered to be one of the major sources of water on the planet, it should also be


id: origin-of-water-on-earth-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth-2.md
category: reference
title: Origin of water on Earth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:05.225138+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: origin-of-water-on-earth-20260505-0
summary:
One problem with this hypothesis is that the noble gas isotope ratios of Earth's atmosphere are different from those of its mantle, which suggests they were formed from different sources. To explain this observation, a so-called "late veneer" theory has been proposed in which water was delivered much later in Earth's history, after the Moon-forming impact. However, the current understanding of Earth's formation allows for less than 1% of Earth's material accreting after the Moon formed, implying that the material accreted later must have been very water-rich. Models of early Solar System dynamics have shown that icy asteroids could have been delivered to the inner Solar System (including Earth) during this period if Jupiter migrated closer to the Sun. Jupiter's relatively quick development, however, made it difficult for the inner solar system to receive matter from the outer solar system, limiting the accumulation of water on the terrestrial planets. This is in addition to other factors, such as the conditions for the goldilocks zone, where liquid water, and by extension life as we know it, can exist, as opposed to solid ice forming snowball planets or gaseous water vapor forming gas giants. Yet a third hypothesis, supported by evidence from


id: origin-of-water-on-earth-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth-3.md
category: reference
title: Origin of water on Earth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:05.225138+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: origin-of-water-on-earth-20260505-0
summary:
=== Comets === Comets are kilometer-sized bodies made of dust and ice that originate from the Kuiper belt (20-50 AU) and the Oort cloud (>5,000 AU), but have highly elliptical orbits which bring them into the inner solar system. Their icy composition and trajectories which bring them into the inner solar system make them a target for remote and in situ measurements of D/H ratios. It is implausible that Earth's water originated only from comets, since isotope measurements of the deuterium to hydrogen (D/H) ratio in comets Halley, Hyakutake, Hale–Bopp, 2002T7, and Tuttle, yield values approximately twice that of oceanic water. This is also supported by analysis using the comparison of isotopic ratios for both carbon and nitrogen isotopes, which attribute only a few percent of the water present on earth to comet sources, indicating a much higher reliance on incoming asteroid matter. Using the cometary D/H ratio, models predict that less than 10% of Earth's water was supplied from comets. Other, shorter period comets (<20 years) called Jupiter family comets likely originate from the Kuiper belt, but have had their orbital paths influenced by gravitational interactions with Jupiter or Neptune. 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko is one such comet that was the subject


id: scientific-school-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_school-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific school
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_school
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:06.886937+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-school-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific school (school of scientific traditions) is an established system of scientific views, as well as a scientific community adhering to these views. The formation of a scientific school occurs under the influence of a leader, whose erudition, range of interests, and working style are decisive for attracting new collaborators. Relationships within such a scientific team facilitate the exchange of information at the level of ideas (rather than final research results), which significantly increases the efficiency of creative scientific work. == History == At the stage of protoscience, the schools that existed at that time could act as independent centers or institutes. Later, scientific schools came to be understood as real informal collectives of scientists. In antiquity, schools of arts and philosophical thought arose, such as the Aristotelian Peripatetics. In the Middle Ages, the printing press created an important technical prerequisite for the emergence of schools of thought spanning several geographical centers. This facilitated the process of learning and disseminating the ideas of different schools. Each of them acquired a propaganda tool - periodically published collections, journals, bulletins, and other scientific periodicals. Its own printed organ is a significant feature of a school of scientific thought. It is reflected in


id: center-of-excellence-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_of_excellence-0.md
category: reference
title: Center of excellence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_of_excellence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:07.993586+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: center-of-excellence-20260505-0
summary:
A center of excellence (COE or CoE), also called an excellence center, is a team, a shared facility or an entity that provides leadership, best practices, research, support, or training for a focus area. Due to its broad usage and vague legal precedent, a "center of excellence", in one context, may have completely different characteristics from another. The focus area might be a technology (such as the Java software platform), a business concept (such as business process management), a skill (such as negotiation) or a broad area of study (such as women's health). A center of excellence may also be formed to revitalize stalled initiatives. The term may also refer to a network of institutions collaborating with each other to pursue excellence in a particular area. (e.g. the Rochester Area Colleges Center for Excellence in Math and Science). == Organizations == Within an organization, a center of excellence may refer to a group of people, a department or a shared facility. It may also be known as a competency center, or as a capability center, or as an excellence center. Stephen Jenner and Craig Kilford, in Management of Portfolios, mention COE as a coordinating function which ensures that change initiatives


id: center-of-excellence-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_of_excellence-1.md
category: reference
title: Center of excellence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_of_excellence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:07.993586+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: center-of-excellence-20260505-0
summary:
=== Europe === In the European defense community, the European Centre of Excellence for Countering Hybrid Threats is a response to hybrid warfare on its periphery; the COE seeks to inform, and also protect its non-NATO components, as well as its non-PESCO members. The US Department of Defense (DoD) intends to use CoEs that focus on key technologies, such as drones, and commercial satellite imagery. === United States Army === The Army maintains numerous Centers of Excellence (CoE) at major universities, training installations, and other locations: Acquisition COE - Huntsville, Alabama Aviation COE - Fort Novosel, Alabama Cyber COE - Fort Gordon, Georgia Fires COE - Fort Sill, Oklahoma Human Resource COE - Fort Knox, Kentucky Initial Military Training COE - Fort Eustis, Virginia Intelligence COE - Fort Huachuca, Arizona Maneuver COE - Fort Moore, Georgia Maneuver Support COE Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri Medical COE - Joint Base San Antonio (JBSA), Texas Mission Command COE - Fort Leavenworth, Kansas NCO Leadership COE - Fort Bliss, Texas Space and Missile Defense CoE - Peterson Space Force Base, Colorado Special Operations COE - Fort Bragg, North Carolina Sustainment COE - Fort Gregg-Adams, Virginia TRADOC oversees ten of these Centers of Excellence, each


id: chandler-scientific-school-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandler_Scientific_School-0.md
category: reference
title: Chandler Scientific School
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandler_Scientific_School
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:09.172264+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chandler-scientific-school-20260505-0
summary:
Abiel Chandler School of Science and the Arts was established in 1852 by Abiel Chandler, a Boston commission merchant and New Hampshire native. The school was as a separate undergraduate college at Dartmouth College comparable to the earlier Lawrence Scientific School (1847) at Harvard University and the later Sheffield Scientific School (1854) at Yale University. Chandler students established their own fraternities: Phi Zeta Mu (later Eta Eta chapter of Sigma Chi, now The Tabard) and Sigma Delta Pi (later Beta Theta Pi); sat in their own pews for morning services in the Old Chapel in Dartmouth Hall; and had their own sports teams. Classes took place in Chandler Hall, which stood between Parkhurst Hall and the Blunt Alumni Center. The building, built by Moor's Charity School in 1835 and designed by Ammi B. Young, was remodeled with a Mansard roof by Chandler mathematics professor Frank Asbury Sherman in 1871 and received a rear addition in 1898, designed by Charles Alonzo Rich, a Chandler graduate of 1876 and designing partner of the New York architects Lamb & Rich. Dartmouth absorbed the Chandler Scientific School in 1893 and continued as the Departments of Zoology, Botany, and Geology. The Chandler Fund continues to


id: sheffield-scientific-school-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheffield_Scientific_School-0.md
category: reference
title: Sheffield Scientific School
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheffield_Scientific_School
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:10.717906+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sheffield-scientific-school-20260505-0
summary:
Sheffield Scientific School was founded in 1847 as a school of Yale College in New Haven, Connecticut, for instruction in science and engineering. Originally named the Yale Scientific School, it was renamed in 1861 in honor of Joseph E. Sheffield, a railroad executive. The school was incorporated in 1871. The Sheffield Scientific School helped establish a model of American higher education which incorporated both the sciences and the liberal arts. Following World War I, its curriculum gradually became completely integrated with Yale College. "The Sheff" ceased to function as a separate entity in 1956. == History == After technological developments in the early nineteenth century, such as the electric telegraph, an interest was fostered in teaching applied science at universities. Harvard established the Lawrence Scientific School in 1846 and Dartmouth began the Chandler Scientific School in 1852. The stage was set at Yale for the transition in education beginning in 1846, when professorships of agricultural chemistry (John Pitkin Norton) and practical chemistry (Benjamin Silliman Jr.) were established. In 1847, the School of Applied Chemistry became part of a newly created Department of Philosophy and the Arts (later, the Yale Graduate School). Classes and labs were hosted in the Second President's


id: sheffield-scientific-school-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheffield_Scientific_School-1.md
category: reference
title: Sheffield Scientific School
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheffield_Scientific_School
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:10.717906+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sheffield-scientific-school-20260505-0
summary:
During the 1918-1919 reorganization of the educational structure of Yale University, the three years "select" course at Sheffield Scientific School was eliminated and a four-year course of study for those studying "professional science" and "engineering" was approved, while graduate courses were transferred to the Graduate School, leaving only undergraduate courses taught at Sheffield Scientific School from 1919 to 1945, coexisting with Yale College's science programs. The centennial was celebrated in 1947 with the Silliman lectures given by Ernest O. Lawrence, Linus Pauling, W. M. Stanley and George Wells Beadle. The first degree of Bachelor of Science was awarded in 1922 to the graduating class of the Sheffield Scientific School. In 1932, the School of Engineering was reestablished and Sheffield Scientific School engineering classes were transferred to the new school. In 1945, the Sheffield Scientific School resumed its original function of graduate level instruction in science. Undergraduate courses for the Bachelor of Science degree were transferred to Yale College, and undergraduate courses for a Bachelor of Science in industrial administration were transferred to the School of Engineering. This transition occurred gradually, through the influence of "aggressive, powerful alumni" (including Edwin Oviatt, editor of the Yale Alumni Weekly) who "took control out


id: artificial-gravity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_gravity-0.md
category: reference
title: Artificial gravity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_gravity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:12.372756+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: artificial-gravity-20260505-0
summary:
Artificial gravity is the creation of an inertial force that mimics the effects of a gravitational force, usually by rotation. Artificial gravity, or rotational gravity, is thus the appearance of a centrifugal force in a rotating frame of reference (the transmission of centripetal acceleration via normal force in the non-rotating frame of reference), as opposed to the force experienced in linear acceleration, which by the equivalence principle is indistinguishable from gravity. In a more general sense, "artificial gravity" may also refer to the effect of linear acceleration, e.g. by means of a rocket engine. Rotational simulated gravity has been used in simulations to help astronauts train for extreme conditions. Rotational simulated gravity has been proposed as a solution in human spaceflight to the adverse health effects caused by prolonged weightlessness. However, there are no current practical outer space applications of artificial gravity for humans due to concerns about the size and cost of a spacecraft necessary to produce a useful centripetal force comparable to the gravitational field strength on Earth (g). Scientists are concerned about the effect of such a system on the inner ear of the occupants. The concern is that using centripetal force to create artificial gravity will


id: artificial-gravity-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_gravity-1.md
category: reference
title: Artificial gravity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_gravity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:12.372756+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: artificial-gravity-20260505-0
summary:
Artificial gravity has been suggested as a solution to various health risks associated with spaceflight. In 1964, the Soviet space program believed that a human could not survive more than 14 days in space for fear that the heart and blood vessels would be unable to adapt to the weightless conditions. This fear was eventually discovered to be unfounded as spaceflights have now lasted up to 437 consecutive days, with missions aboard the International Space Station commonly lasting 6 months. However, the question of human safety in space did launch an investigation into the physical effects of prolonged exposure to weightlessness. In June 1991, the Spacelab Life Sciences 1 on the Space Shuttle flight STS-40 flight performed 18 experiments on two men and two women over nine days. In an environment without gravity, it was concluded that the response of white blood cells and muscle mass decreased. Additionally, within the first 24 hours spent in a weightless environment, blood volume decreased by 10%. Long periods of weightlessness can cause brain swelling and eyesight problems. Upon return to Earth, the effects of prolonged weightlessness continue to affect the human body as fluids pool back to the lower body, the heart rate


id: artificial-gravity-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_gravity-2.md
category: reference
title: Artificial gravity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_gravity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:12.372756+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: artificial-gravity-20260505-0
summary:
==== Issues with implementation ==== Some of the reasons that artificial gravity remains unused today in spaceflight trace back to the problems inherent in implementation. One of the realistic methods of creating artificial gravity is the centrifugal effect caused by the centripetal force of the floor of a rotating structure pushing up on the person. In that model, however, issues arise in the size of the spacecraft. As expressed by John Page and Matthew Francis, the smaller a spacecraft (the shorter the radius of rotation), the more rapid the rotation that is required. As such, to simulate gravity, it would be better to utilize a larger spacecraft that rotates slowly. The requirements on size about rotation are due to the differing forces on parts of the body at different distances from the axis of rotation. If parts of the body closer to the rotational axis experience a force that is significantly different from parts farther from the axis, then this could have adverse effects. Additionally, questions remain as to what the best way is to initially set the rotating motion in place without disturbing the stability of the whole spacecraft's orbit. At the moment, there is not a ship massive


id: artificial-gravity-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_gravity-3.md
category: reference
title: Artificial gravity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_gravity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:12.372756+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: artificial-gravity-20260505-0
summary:
Linear acceleration is another method of generating artificial gravity, by using the thrust from a spacecraft's engines to create the illusion of being under a gravitational pull. A spacecraft under constant acceleration in a straight line would have the appearance of a gravitational pull in the direction opposite to that of the acceleration, as the thrust from the engines would cause the spacecraft to "push" itself up into the objects and persons inside of the vessel, thus creating the feeling of weight. This is because of Newton's third law: the weight that one would feel standing in a linearly accelerating spacecraft would not be a true gravitational pull, but simply the reaction of oneself pushing against the craft's hull as it pushes back. Similarly, objects that would otherwise be free-floating within the spacecraft if it were not accelerating would "fall" towards the engines when it started accelerating, as a consequence of Newton's first law: the floating object would remain at rest, while the spacecraft would accelerate towards it, and appear to an observer within that the object was "falling". To emulate artificial gravity on Earth, spacecraft using linear acceleration gravity may be built similar to a skyscraper, with its engines


id: breakthrough-propulsion-physics-project-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakthrough_Propulsion_Physics_Project-0.md
category: reference
title: Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakthrough_Propulsion_Physics_Project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:13.631400+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: breakthrough-propulsion-physics-project-20260505-0
summary:
The Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Project (BPP) was a research project funded by NASA from 1996 to 2002 to study various proposals for revolutionary methods of spacecraft propulsion that would require breakthroughs in physics before they could be realized. The project ended in 2002, when the Advanced Space Transportation Program was reorganized and all speculative research (less than Technology readiness level 3) was cancelled. During its six years of operational funding, this program received a total investment of $1.2 million. The Breakthrough Propulsion Physics project addressed a selection of "incremental and affordable" research questions towards the overall goal of propellantless propulsion, hyperfast travel, and breakthrough propulsion methods. It selected and funded five external projects, two in-house tasks and one minor grant. At the end of the project, conclusions into fourteen topics, including these funded projects, were summarized by program manager Marc G. Millis. Of these, six research avenues were found to be nonviable, four were identified as opportunities for continued research, and four remain unresolved. == Non-viable approaches == One in-house experiment tested the Schlicher thruster antenna, claimed by Schlicher to generate thrust. No thrust was observed. Another experiment examined a gravity shielding mechanism claimed by Podkletnov and Nieminen. Experimental investigation


id: cryonics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryonics-0.md
category: reference
title: Cryonics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryonics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:15.099798+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cryonics-20260505-0
summary:
Cryonics (from Greek: κρύος kryos, meaning "cold") is the low-temperature freezing (usually at −196 °C or −320.8 °F or 77.1 K) and storage of human remains in the hope that resurrection may be possible in the future. Cryonics is regarded with skepticism by the mainstream scientific community. It is generally viewed as a pseudoscience, and its practice has been characterized as quackery. Cryonics procedures can begin only after the "patients" are clinically and legally dead. Procedures may begin within minutes of death, and use cryoprotectants to try to prevent ice formation during cryopreservation. It is not possible to reanimate a corpse that has undergone vitrification (ultra-rapid cooling), as this damages the brain, including its neural circuits. The first corpse to be frozen was that of James Bedford, in 1967. As of 2014, remains from about 250 bodies had been cryopreserved in the United States, and 1,500 people had made arrangements for cryopreservation of theirs. Even if the resurrection promised by cryonics were possible, economic considerations make it unlikely cryonics corporations could remain in business long enough to deliver. The "patients", being dead, cannot continue to pay for their own preservation. Early attempts at cryonic preservation were made in the 1960s


id: cryonics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryonics-1.md
category: reference
title: Cryonics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryonics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:15.099798+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cryonics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Revival === Revival would require repairing damage from lack of oxygen, cryoprotectant toxicity, thermal stress (fracturing), and freezing in tissues that do not successfully vitrify, followed by reversing the cause of death. In many cases, extensive tissue regeneration would be necessary. This revival technology remains speculative. === Legal issues === Historically, people had little control over how their bodies were treated after death, as religion held jurisdiction over the matter. Later, secular courts began to exercise jurisdiction over corpses and use discretion in carrying out deceased people's wishes. Most countries legally treat preserved bodies as deceased persons because of laws that forbid vitrifying someone who is medically alive. In France, cryonics is not considered a legal mode of body disposal; only burial, cremation, and formal body donation to science are allowed, though bodies may legally be shipped to other countries for cryonic freezing. As of 2015, British Columbia prohibits the sale of arrangements for cryonic body preservation. In Russia, cryonics falls outside both the medical industry and the funeral services industry, making it easier than in the U.S. to get hospitals and morgues to release cryonics candidates. In 2016, the English High Court ruled in favor of a mother's


id: cryonics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryonics-2.md
category: reference
title: Cryonics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryonics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:15.099798+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cryonics-20260505-0
summary:
== Reception == Cryonics is generally regarded as a fringe pseudoscience. Between 1982 and November 2018, the Society for Cryobiology rejected members who practiced cryonics, and issued a public statement saying that cryonics "is an act of speculation or hope, not science", and as such outside the scope of the Society. Russian company KrioRus is the first non-U.S. vendor of cryonics services. Yevgeny Alexandrov, chair of the Russian Academy of Sciences commission against pseudoscience, said there was "no scientific basis" for cryonics, and that the company was based on "unfounded speculation". Scientists have expressed skepticism about cryonics in media sources, and the Norwegian philosopher Ole Martin Moen has written that the topic receives a "minuscule" amount of attention in academia. While some neuroscientists contend that all the subtleties of a human mind are contained in its anatomical structure, few will comment directly on cryonics due to its speculative nature. People who intend to be frozen are often "looked at as a bunch of kooks". Cryobiologist Kenneth B. Storey said in 2004 that cryonics is impossible and will never be possible, as cryonics proponents are proposing to "overturn the laws of physics, chemistry, and molecular science". Neurobiologist Michael Hendricks has said,


id: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life-0.md
category: reference
title: Extraterrestrial life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:16.499650+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-0
summary:
Extraterrestrial life, or alien life (colloquially aliens), is life that originates from another world rather than on Earth. No extraterrestrial life has yet been scientifically or conclusively detected. Such life might range from simple forms such as prokaryotes to intelligent beings, possibly bringing forth civilizations that might be far more, or far less, advanced than humans. The Drake equation speculates about the existence of sapient life elsewhere in the universe. The science of extraterrestrial life is known as astrobiology. Speculation about inhabited worlds beyond Earth dates back to antiquity. Early Christian writers, including Augustine, discussed ideas from thinkers like Democritus and Epicurus about countless worlds in the vast universe. Pre-modern writers typically assumed extraterrestrial "worlds" were inhabited by living beings. William Vorilong, in the 15th century, acknowledged the possibility Jesus could have visited extraterrestrial worlds to redeem their inhabitants. In 1440, Nicholas of Cusa suggested Earth is a "brilliant star"; he theorized that all celestial bodies, even the Sun, could host life. Descartes wrote that there were no means to prove the stars were not inhabited by "intelligent creatures", but their existence was a matter of speculation. In comparison to the life-abundant Earth, the vast majority of intrasolar and extrasolar


id: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life-1.md
category: reference
title: Extraterrestrial life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:16.499650+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-0
summary:
Using Big Bang models for the timeline of the universe, it was too hot for life for the first 15 million years and the elements of organic life, created through stellar fusion, did not exist until at least 50 million years. The first organic compounds may have formed in the protoplanetary disk of dust grains that would eventually create rocky planets like Earth. Although Earth was in a molten state after its birth and may have burned any organics that fell on it, it would have been more receptive once it cooled down. Once the right conditions on Earth were met, life started by a chemical process known as abiogenesis. During most of its stellar evolution, stars combine hydrogen nuclei to make helium nuclei by stellar fusion, and the comparatively lighter weight of helium allows the star to release the extra energy. The process continues until the star uses all of its available fuel, with the speed of consumption being related to the size of the star. During its last stages, stars start combining helium nuclei to form carbon nuclei. The larger stars can further combine carbon nuclei to create oxygen and silicon, oxygen into neon and sulfur, and so


id: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life-2.md
category: reference
title: Extraterrestrial life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:16.499650+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-0
summary:
Life in the cosmos beyond Earth has never been observed, but it is expected. The hypothesis of ubiquitous extraterrestrial life relies on three main ideas. The first one, the size of the universe, allows for plenty of planets to have a similar habitability to Earth, and the age of the universe gives enough time for a long process analog to the history of Earth to happen there. The second is that the substances that make life, such as carbon and water, are ubiquitous in the universe. The third is that the physical laws are universal, which means that the forces that would facilitate or prevent the existence of life would be the same ones as on Earth. According to this argument, made by scientists such as Carl Sagan and Stephen Hawking, it would be improbable for life not to exist somewhere else other than Earth. This argument is embodied in the Copernican principle, which states that Earth does not occupy a unique position in the Universe, and the mediocrity principle, which states that there is nothing special about life on Earth. Other authors consider instead that life in the cosmos, or at least multicellular life, may actually be rare. The


id: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life-3.md
category: reference
title: Extraterrestrial life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:16.499650+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-0
summary:
If extraterrestrial life exists, it could range from simple microorganisms and multicellular organisms similar to animals or plants, to complex alien intelligences akin to humans. When scientists talk about extraterrestrial life, they consider all those types. Although it is possible that extraterrestrial life may have other configurations, scientists use the hierarchy of lifeforms from Earth for simplicity, as it is the only one known to exist. The first basic requirement for life is an environment with non-equilibrium thermodynamics, which means that the thermodynamic equilibrium must be broken by a source of energy. The traditional sources of energy in the cosmos are the stars, such as for life on Earth, which depends on the energy of the sun. However, there are other alternative energy sources, such as volcanoes, plate tectonics, and hydrothermal vents. There are ecosystems on Earth in deep areas of the ocean that do not receive sunlight, and take energy from black smokers instead. Magnetic fields and radioactivity have also been proposed as sources of energy, although they would be less efficient ones. Life on Earth requires water in a liquid state as a solvent in which biochemical reactions take place. It is highly unlikely that an abiogenesis process


id: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life-4.md
category: reference
title: Extraterrestrial life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:16.499650+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-0
summary:
=== Harsh environmental conditions on Earth harboring life === It is common knowledge that the conditions on other planets in the solar system, in addition to the many galaxies outside of the Milky Way galaxy, are very harsh and seem to be too extreme to harbor any life. The environmental conditions on these planets can have intense UV radiation paired with extreme temperatures, lack of water, and much more that can lead to conditions that don't seem to favor the creation or maintenance of extraterrestrial life. However, there has been much historical evidence that some of the earliest and most basic forms of life on Earth originated in some extreme environments that seem unlikely to have harbored life at least at one point in Earth's history. Fossil evidence as well as many historical theories backed up by years of research and studies have marked environments like hydrothermal vents or acidic hot springs as some of the first places that life could have originated on Earth. These environments can be considered extreme when compared to the typical ecosystems that the majority of life on Earth now inhabit, as hydrothermal vents are scorching hot due to the magma escaping from the Earth's


id: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life-5.md
category: reference
title: Extraterrestrial life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:16.499650+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-0
summary:
The Solar System has a wide variety of planets, dwarf planets, and moons, and each one is studied for its potential to host life. Each one has its own specific conditions that may benefit or harm life. So far, the only lifeforms found are those from Earth. No extraterrestrial intelligence other than humans exists or has ever existed within the Solar System. Astrobiologist Mary Voytek points out that it would be unlikely to find large ecosystems, as they would have already been detected by now. The inner Solar System is likely devoid of life. However, Venus is still of interest to astrobiologists, as it is a terrestrial planet that was likely similar to Earth in its early stages and developed in a different way. There is a greenhouse effect, the surface is the hottest in the Solar System, sulfuric acid clouds, all surface liquid water is lost, and it has a thick carbon-dioxide atmosphere with huge pressure. Comparing both helps to understand the precise differences that lead to beneficial or harmful conditions for life. And despite the conditions against life on Venus, there are suspicions that microbial life-forms may still survive in high-altitude clouds. Mars is a cold and almost


id: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life-6.md
category: reference
title: Extraterrestrial life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:16.499650+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-0
summary:
Scientists search for biosignatures within the Solar System by studying planetary surfaces and examining meteorites. Some claim to have identified evidence that microbial life has existed on Mars. In 1996, a controversial report stated that structures resembling nanobacteria were discovered in a meteorite, ALH84001, formed of rock ejected from Mars. Although all the unusual properties of the meteorite were eventually explained as the result of inorganic processes, the controversy over its discovery laid the groundwork for the development of astrobiology. An experiment on the two Viking Mars landers reported gas emissions from heated Martian soil samples that some scientists argue are consistent with the presence of living microorganisms. Lack of corroborating evidence from other experiments on the same samples suggests that a non-biological reaction is a more likely hypothesis. In February 2005 NASA scientists reported they may have found some evidence of extraterrestrial life on Mars. The two scientists, Carol Stoker and Larry Lemke of NASA's Ames Research Center, based their claim on methane signatures found in Mars's atmosphere resembling the methane production of some forms of primitive life on Earth, as well as on their own study of primitive life near the Rio Tinto river in Spain. NASA officials


id: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life-7.md
category: reference
title: Extraterrestrial life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:16.499650+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-0
summary:
Although most searches are focused on the biology of extraterrestrial life, an extraterrestrial intelligence capable enough to develop a civilization may be detectable by other means as well. Technology may generate technosignatures, effects on the native planet that may not be caused by natural causes. There are three main types of techno-signatures considered: interstellar communications, effects on the atmosphere, and planetary-sized structures such as Dyson spheres. Organizations such as the SETI Institute search the cosmos for potential forms of communication. They started with radio waves, and now search for laser pulses as well. The challenge for this search is that there are natural sources of such signals as well, such as gamma-ray bursts and supernovae, and the difference between a natural signal and an artificial one would be in its specific patterns. Astronomers intend to use artificial intelligence for this, as it can manage large amounts of data and is devoid of biases and preconceptions. Besides, even if there is an advanced extraterrestrial civilization, there is no guarantee that it is transmitting radio communications in the direction of Earth. The length of time required for a signal to travel across space means that a potential answer may arrive decades or


id: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life-8.md
category: reference
title: Extraterrestrial life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:16.499650+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-0
summary:
The modern concept of extraterrestrial life is based on assumptions that were not commonplace during the early days of astronomy. The first explanations for the celestial objects seen in the night sky were based on mythology. Scholars from Ancient Greece were the first to consider that the universe is inherently understandable and rejected explanations based on supernatural incomprehensible forces, such as the myth of the Sun being pulled across the sky in the chariot of Apollo. They had not developed the scientific method yet and based their ideas on pure thought and speculation, but they developed precursor ideas to it, such as that explanations had to be discarded if they contradict observable facts. The discussions of those Greek scholars established many of the pillars that would eventually lead to the idea of extraterrestrial life, such as Earth being round and not flat. The cosmos was first structured in a geocentric model that considered that the sun and all other celestial bodies revolve around Earth. However, they did not consider them as worlds. In Greek understanding, the world was composed by both Earth and the celestial objects with noticeable movements. Anaximander thought that the cosmos was made from apeiron, a substance


id: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life-9.md
category: reference
title: Extraterrestrial life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:16.499650+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-0
summary:
By the time of the late Middle Ages there were many known inaccuracies in the geocentric model, but it was kept in use because naked eye observations provided limited data. Nicolaus Copernicus started the Copernican Revolution by proposing that the planets revolve around the sun rather than Earth. His proposal had little acceptance at first because, as he kept the assumption that orbits were perfect circles, his model led to as many inaccuracies as the geocentric one. Tycho Brahe improved the available data with naked-eye observatories, which worked with highly complex sextants and quadrants. Tycho could not make sense of his observations, but Johannes Kepler did: orbits were not perfect circles, but ellipses. This knowledge benefited the Copernican model, which worked now almost perfectly. The invention of the telescope a short time later, perfected by Galileo Galilei, clarified the final doubts, and the paradigm shift was completed. Under this new understanding, the notion of extraterrestrial life became feasible: if Earth is but just a planet orbiting around a star, there may be planets similar to Earth elsewhere. The astronomical study of distant bodies also proved that physical laws are the same elsewhere in the universe as on Earth, with nothing


id: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life-10.md
category: reference
title: Extraterrestrial life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:16.499650+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-0
summary:
The search and study of extraterrestrial life became a science of its own, astrobiology. Also known as exobiology, this discipline is studied by the NASA, the ESA, the INAF, and others. Astrobiology studies life from Earth as well, but with a cosmic perspective. For example, abiogenesis is of interest to astrobiology, not because of the origin of life on Earth, but for the chances of a similar process taking place in other celestial bodies. Many aspects of life, from its definition to its chemistry, are analyzed as either likely to be similar in all forms of life across the cosmos or only native to Earth. Astrobiology, however, remains constrained by the current lack of extraterrestrial life-forms to study, as all life on Earth comes from the same ancestor, and it is hard to infer general characteristics from a group with a single example to analyse. The 20th century came with great technological advances, speculations about future hypothetical technologies, and an increased basic knowledge of science by the general population thanks to science divulgation through the mass media. The public interest in extraterrestrial life and the lack of discoveries by mainstream science led to the emergence of pseudosciences that provided affirmative,


id: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life-11.md
category: reference
title: Extraterrestrial life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:16.499650+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-0
summary:
The 1967 Outer Space Treaty and the 1979 Moon Agreement define rules of planetary protection against potentially hazardous extraterrestrial life. COSPAR also provides guidelines for planetary protection. A committee of the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs had in 1977 discussed for a year strategies for interacting with extraterrestrial life or intelligence. The discussion ended without any conclusions. As of 2010, the UN lacks response mechanisms for the case of an extraterrestrial contact. One of the NASA divisions is the Office of Safety and Mission Assurance (OSMA), also known as the Planetary Protection Office. A part of its mission is to "rigorously preclude backward contamination of Earth by extraterrestrial life." In 2016, the Chinese Government released a white paper detailing its space program. According to the document, one of the research objectives of the program is the search for extraterrestrial life. It is also one of the objectives of the Chinese Five-hundred-meter Aperture Spherical Telescope (FAST) program. In 2020, Dmitry Rogozin, the head of the Russian space agency, said the search for extraterrestrial life is one of the main goals of deep space research. He also acknowledged the possibility of existence of primitive life on other planets of the


id: the-future-is-wild-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Future_Is_Wild-0.md
category: reference
title: The Future Is Wild
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Future_Is_Wild
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:21.564426+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-future-is-wild-20260505-0
summary:
The Future Is Wild (also referred to by the acronym FIW) is a 2002 speculative evolution docufiction miniseries and an accompanying multimedia entertainment franchise. The Future Is Wild explores the ecosystems and wildlife of three future time periods: 5 million, 100 million, and 200 million years in the future, in the format of a nature documentary. Though the settings and animals are fictional, the series has an educational purpose, serving as an informative and entertaining way to explore concepts such as evolution and climate change. The Future Is Wild was first conceived by independent producer Joanna Adams in 1996 and developed together with various scientists, including Dougal Dixon, best known as the author of the 1981 book After Man, which also explored future wildlife. The 2002 series was an international co-production, involving the Franco-German channel Arte, the German ZDF, the Austrian ORF, the Italian MFE - MediaForEurope (via their Mediaset division), and the American Animal Planet and Discovery Channel. Wildly successful, The Future Is Wild continues to be broadcast to this day and has been shown on TV in more than 60 countries. The success of The Future Is Wild spawned a large multimedia franchise, including books, children's entertainment, exhibitions,


id: the-future-is-wild-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Future_Is_Wild-1.md
category: reference
title: The Future Is Wild
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Future_Is_Wild
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:21.564426+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-future-is-wild-20260505-0
summary:
== Development and production == The idea for The Future Is Wild was first conceived in 1996 by Joanna Adams, a British entrepreneur who has previously produced documentaries on modern and extinct animals. As an independent producer, Adams wanted to create a documentary series different from anything that had come before, and something that could not be copied by larger production companies. The series was envisioned as an entertaining, informative and inspirational way to explain planetary change and evolution, suitable for the popular market worldwide. In 1996, the concept of the series, and ideas for an accompanying multimedia franchise, was first unveiled at the Frankfurt Book Fair and the MIPTV Media Market. The Future Is Wild was influenced by Scottish geologist and paleontologist Dougal Dixon's 1981 book After Man, which imagines wildlife and ecosystems 50 million years in the future. Dixon was brought in as a consultant early on in the development of the series and designed many of the creatures featured. The series was not able to use any of Dixon's creatures from After Man, given that the rights to adapting After Man were at this time owned by DreamWorks SKG. Nevertheless, several creatures were similar to Dixon's earlier


id: the-future-is-wild-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Future_Is_Wild-2.md
category: reference
title: The Future Is Wild
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Future_Is_Wild
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:21.564426+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-future-is-wild-20260505-0
summary:
In 2007, a 3D animated children's series (targeted at children aged six to twelve) based on The Future Is Wild premiered on Discovery Kids. Consisting of 26 episodes, each 22 minutes in length, the series was also simply called The Future Is Wild, and followed the four children C.G., Ethan, Emily and Luis, and their pet Squibbon, as they travelled through time and explored the settings and animals seen in the original series. According to Joanna Adams, the animated series, just like the original series, encourages viewers to think about the future of the planet, but "this time it is devoted particularly to kids and our future science is woven into some really fun stories about a group of time travelling kids." Portions of the original The Future Is Wild team worked on the series, and it was jointly produced by the Singaporean company iVL Animation and the Canadian company Nelvana. It was the first co-produced Singaporean 3D-animated TV programme to be broadcast in the United States and Germany. === Exhibitions === The Future Is Wild has been adapted into exhibition form, both for use as a temporary exhibition or short-term events, and for long-term high-profile attractions. There have been


id: the-future-is-wild-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Future_Is_Wild-3.md
category: reference
title: The Future Is Wild
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Future_Is_Wild
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:21.564426+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-future-is-wild-20260505-0
summary:
=== Cancelled projects === Following the success of The Future Is Wild, plans were made to adapt the series into a feature film with Warner Bros., but those plans fell through after the release of the film Avatar (2009), when Warner Bros. felt that the bar for such a film had been raised too high. Joanna Adams and the team at one point also worked on developing a sequel documentary series to the original The Future Is Wild series, dubbed The Future Is Wild 2, and had raised the necessary funding, but the project collapsed when Discovery Channel announced that they would no longer be making documentaries. In 2015, the virtual reality and augmented reality developer Cornel Hillmann, and his studio, STUDIO CGARTIST, began developing The Future Is Wild for virtual reality, initially focusing on small-scale preview projects. The first completed project was a small preview programme for Google Cardboard, which met with positive response at the 2016 Frankfurt Book Fair. A The Future Is Wild virtual reality game, The Future Is Wild VR, was in development in 2016. According to Hillmann, the game was intended to be a first-person exploration game with survival elements, with players able to travel


id: hypothetical-types-of-biochemistry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry-0.md
category: reference
title: Hypothetical types of biochemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:22.917946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hypothetical-types-of-biochemistry-20260505-0
summary:
Several forms of biochemistry are agreed to be scientifically viable, but are not proven to exist at this time. The kinds of living organisms known on Earth, as of 2026, all use carbon compounds for basic structural and metabolic functions, water as a solvent, and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or ribonucleic acid (RNA) to define and control their form. If life exists on other celestial bodies (planets, moons), it may be chemically similar, though it is also possible that there are organisms with quite different chemistries – for instance, involving other classes of carbon compounds, compounds of another element, and/or another solvent in place of water. The possibility of life-forms being based on "alternative" biochemistries is the topic of an ongoing scientific discussion, informed by what is known about extraterrestrial environments and about the chemical behaviour of various elements and compounds. It is of interest in synthetic biology and is also a common subject in science fiction. The element silicon has been much discussed as a hypothetical alternative to carbon. Silicon is in the same group as carbon on the periodic table and, like carbon, it is tetravalent. Hypothetical alternatives to water include ammonia, which, like water, is a polar molecule,


id: hypothetical-types-of-biochemistry-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry-1.md
category: reference
title: Hypothetical types of biochemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:22.917946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hypothetical-types-of-biochemistry-20260505-0
summary:
The silicon atom has been much discussed as the basis for an alternative biochemical system, because silicon has many chemical similarities to carbon and is in the same group of the periodic table. Like carbon, silicon can create molecules that are sufficiently large to carry biological information. However, silicon has several drawbacks as a carbon alternative. Carbon is ten times more cosmically abundant than silicon, and its chemistry appears naturally more complex. By 1998, astronomers had identified 84 carbon-containing molecules in the interstellar medium, but only 8 containing silicon, of which half also include carbon. Even though Earth and other terrestrial planets are exceptionally silicon-rich and carbon-poor (silicon is roughly 925 times more abundant in Earth's crust than carbon), terrestrial life bases itself on carbon. This might be due to the comparatively lower diversity of functional groups observed in naturally-occurring Silicon-based polymers. Relative to carbon, silicon has a much larger atomic radius, and forms much weaker covalent bonds to atoms — except oxygen and fluorine, with which it forms very strong bonds. Almost no multiple bonds to silicon are stable, although silicon does exhibit varied coordination number. Silanes, silicon analogues to the alkanes, react rapidly with water, and long-chain silanes


id: hypothetical-types-of-biochemistry-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry-2.md
category: reference
title: Hypothetical types of biochemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:22.917946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hypothetical-types-of-biochemistry-20260505-0
summary:
== Non-water solvents == In addition to carbon compounds, all currently known terrestrial life also requires water as a solvent. This has led to discussions about whether water is the only liquid capable of filling that role. The idea that an extraterrestrial life-form might be based on a solvent other than water has been taken seriously in recent scientific literature by the biochemist Steven Benner, and by the astrobiological committee chaired by John A. Baross. Solvents discussed by the Baross committee include ammonia, sulfuric acid, formamide, hydrocarbons, and (at temperatures much lower than Earth's) liquid nitrogen, or hydrogen in the form of a supercritical fluid. Water as a solvent limits the forms biochemistry can take. For example, Steven Benner, proposes the polyelectrolyte theory of the gene that claims that for a genetic biopolymer such as DNA to function in water, it requires repeated ionic charges. If water is not required for life, these limits on genetic biopolymers are removed. Carl Sagan once described himself as both a carbon chauvinist and a water chauvinist; however, on another occasion he said that he was a carbon chauvinist but "not that much of a water chauvinist". He speculated on hydrocarbons, hydrofluoric acid, and


id: hypothetical-types-of-biochemistry-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry-3.md
category: reference
title: Hypothetical types of biochemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:22.917946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hypothetical-types-of-biochemistry-20260505-0
summary:
=== Ammonia === The ammonia molecule (NH3), like the water molecule, is abundant in the universe, being a compound of hydrogen (the simplest and most common element) with another very common element, nitrogen. The possible role of liquid ammonia as an alternative solvent for life is an idea dating back to 1954 at least, when J. B. S. Haldane raised the topic at a symposium about life's origin. Many chemical reactions can occur in an ammonia solution, and liquid ammonia has chemical similarities with water. Ammonia dissolves most organic molecules at least as well as water does, and many elemental metals. Haldane indicated that various common water-related organic compounds have ammonia-related analogues; for instance, the ammonia-related amine group (−NH2) is analogous to the water-related hydroxyl group (−OH). Ammonia, like water, can either accept or donate an H+ ion. When ammonia accepts an H+, it forms the ammonium cation (NH4+), analogous to hydronium (H3O+). When it donates an H+ ion, it forms the amide anion (NH2−), analogous to the hydroxide anion (OH−). Compared to water, however, ammonia is more inclined to accept an H+ ion, and less inclined to donate one; it is a stronger nucleophile. Ammonia added to water functions


id: hypothetical-types-of-biochemistry-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry-4.md
category: reference
title: Hypothetical types of biochemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:22.917946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hypothetical-types-of-biochemistry-20260505-0
summary:
=== Methane and other hydrocarbons === Methane (CH4) is a simple hydrocarbon: that is, a compound of two of the most common elements in the cosmos: hydrogen and carbon. It has a cosmic abundance comparable with ammonia. Hydrocarbons could act as a solvent over a wide range of temperatures but would lack polarity. Isaac Asimov, the biochemist and science fiction writer, suggested in 1981 that poly-lipids could form a substitute for proteins in a non-polar solvent such as methane. Lakes composed of a mixture of hydrocarbons, including methane and ethane, have been detected on the surface of Titan by the Cassini spacecraft. There is debate about the effectiveness of methane and other hydrocarbons as a solvent for life compared to water or ammonia. Water is a stronger solvent than the hydrocarbons, enabling easier transport of substances in a cell. However, water is also more chemically reactive and can break down large organic molecules through hydrolysis. A life-form which solvent was a hydrocarbon would not face the threat of its biomolecules being destroyed in this way. Also, the water molecule's tendency to form strong hydrogen bonds can interfere with internal hydrogen bonding in complex organic molecules. Life with a hydrocarbon solvent


id: hypothetical-types-of-biochemistry-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry-5.md
category: reference
title: Hypothetical types of biochemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:22.917946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hypothetical-types-of-biochemistry-20260505-0
summary:
=== Silicon dioxide and silicates === Silicon dioxide, also known as silica and quartz, is very abundant in the universe and has a large temperature range where it is liquid. However, its melting point is 1,600 to 1,725 °C (2,912 to 3,137 °F), so it would be impossible to make organic compounds in that temperature, because all of them would decompose. Silicates are similar to silicon dioxide and some have lower melting points than silica. Feinberg and Shapiro have suggested that molten silicate rock could serve as a liquid medium for organisms with a chemistry based on silicon, oxygen, and other elements such as aluminium. === Other solvents or cosolvents === Other solvents sometimes proposed: Supercritical fluids: supercritical carbon dioxide and supercritical hydrogen. Simple hydrogen compounds: hydrogen chloride. More complex compounds: sulfuric acid, formamide, methanol. Very-low-temperature fluids: liquid nitrogen and hydrogen. High-temperature liquids: sodium chloride. Sulfuric acid in liquid form is strongly polar. It remains liquid at higher temperatures than water, its liquid range being 10 °C to 337 °C at a pressure of 1 atm, although above 300 °C it slowly decomposes. Sulfuric acid is known to be abundant in the clouds of Venus, in the form of aerosol


id: hypothetical-types-of-biochemistry-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry-6.md
category: reference
title: Hypothetical types of biochemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:22.917946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hypothetical-types-of-biochemistry-20260505-0
summary:
== Scientists who have published on this topic == Scientists who have considered possible alternatives to carbon-water biochemistry include: J. B. S. Haldane (1892–1964), a geneticist noted for his work on abiogenesis. V. Axel Firsoff (1910–1981), British astronomer. cited in Ammonia-based Life. Isaac Asimov (1920–1992), biochemist and science fiction writer. Fred Hoyle (1915–2001), astronomer, science fiction writer, panspermia proponent. Norman Horowitz (1915–2005), Caltech geneticist who devised the first experiments done to detect life on Mars. George C. Pimentel (1922–1989), American chemist, University of California, Berkeley. Peter Sneath (1923–2011), microbiologist, author of the book Planets and Life. Gerald Feinberg (1933–1992), physicist and Robert Shapiro (1935–2011), chemist, co-authors of the book Life Beyond Earth. Carl Sagan (1934–1996), astronomer, science popularizer, and SETI proponent. Jonathan Lunine (born 1959), American planetary scientist and physicist. Robert Freitas (born 1952), specialist in nanotechnology and nanomedicine.This work is acknowledged the partial basis of the article Ammonia-based Life. John Baross (born 1940), oceanographer and astrobiologist, who chaired a committee of scientists under the United States National Research Council that published a report on life's limiting conditions in 2007. == See also == == References == == Further reading == Bains, William (2004). "Many Chemistries Could Be Used to


id: discrete-time-and-continuous-time-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_time_and_continuous_time-0.md
category: reference
title: Discrete time and continuous time
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_time_and_continuous_time
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:24.635876+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: discrete-time-and-continuous-time-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematical dynamics, discrete time and continuous time are two alternative frameworks within which variables that evolve over time are modeled. == Discrete time == Discrete time views values of variables as occurring at distinct, separate "points in time", or equivalently as being unchanged throughout each non-zero region of time ("time period")—that is, time is viewed as a discrete variable. Thus a non-time variable jumps from one value to another as time moves from one time period to the next. This view of time corresponds to a digital clock that gives a fixed reading of 10:37 for a while, and then jumps to a new fixed reading of 10:38, etc. In this framework, each variable of interest is measured once at each time period. The number of measurements between any two time periods is finite. Measurements are typically made at sequential integer values of the variable "time". A discrete signal or discrete-time signal is a time series consisting of a sequence of quantities. Unlike a continuous-time signal, a discrete-time signal is not a function of a continuous argument; however, it may have been obtained by sampling from a continuous-time signal. When a discrete-time signal is obtained by sampling a sequence


id: discrete-time-and-continuous-time-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_time_and_continuous_time-1.md
category: reference
title: Discrete time and continuous time
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_time_and_continuous_time
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:24.635876+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: discrete-time-and-continuous-time-20260505-0
summary:
== Relevant contexts == Discrete time is often employed when empirical measurements are involved, because normally it is only possible to measure variables sequentially. For example, while economic activity actually occurs continuously, there being no moment when the economy is totally in a pause, it is only possible to measure economic activity discretely. For this reason, published data on, for example, gross domestic product will show a sequence of quarterly values. When one attempts to empirically explain such variables in terms of other variables and/or their own prior values, one uses time series or regression methods in which variables are indexed with a subscript indicating the time period in which the observation occurred. For example, yt might refer to the value of income observed in unspecified time period t, y3 to the value of income observed in the third time period, etc. Moreover, when a researcher attempts to develop a theory to explain what is observed in discrete time, often the theory itself is expressed in discrete time in order to facilitate the development of a time series or regression model. On the other hand, it is often more mathematically tractable to construct theoretical models in continuous time, and often


id: return-period-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Return_period-0.md
category: reference
title: Return period
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Return_period
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:25.813539+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: return-period-20260505-0
summary:
A return period, also known as a recurrence interval or repeat interval, is an average time or an estimated average time between events such as earthquakes, floods, landslides, or river discharge flows to occur. The reciprocal value of return period is called the frequency of occurrence. It is a statistical measurement typically based on historic data over an extended period, and is used usually for risk analysis. Examples include deciding whether a project should be allowed to go forward in a zone of a certain risk or designing structures to withstand events with a certain return period. The following analysis assumes that the probability of the event occurring does not vary over time and is independent of past events. == Estimating a return period == Recurrence interval = n + 1 m {\displaystyle ={n+1 \over m}} n number of years on record; m is the rank of observed occurrences when arranged in descending order For floods, the event may be measured in terms of m3/s or height; for storm surges, in terms of the height of the surge, and similarly for other events. This is Weibull's Formula. == Return period as the reciprocal of expected frequency == The theoretical return


id: return-period-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Return_period-1.md
category: reference
title: Return period
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Return_period
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:25.813539+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: return-period-20260505-0
summary:
== Binomial == In a given period of n × τ {\displaystyle n\times \tau } for a unit time τ {\displaystyle \tau } (e.g. τ = 1 year {\displaystyle \tau =1{\text{year}}} ), the probability of a given number r of events of a return period μ {\displaystyle \mu } is given by the binomial distribution as follows. P ( X = r ) = ( n r ) μ r ( 1 − μ ) n − r . {\displaystyle P(X=r)={n \choose r}\mu ^{r}(1-\mu )^{n-r}.} This is valid only if the probability of more than one occurrence per unit time τ {\displaystyle \tau } is zero. Often that is a close approximation, in which case the probabilities yielded by this formula hold approximately. If n → ∞ , μ → 0 {\displaystyle n\rightarrow \infty ,\mu \rightarrow 0} in such a way that n μ → λ {\displaystyle n\mu \rightarrow \lambda } then n ! ( n − r ) ! r ! μ r ( 1 − μ ) n − r → e − λ λ r r ! . {\displaystyle {\frac {n!}{(n-r)!r!}}\mu ^{r}(1-\mu )^{n-r}\rightarrow e^{-\lambda }{\frac {\lambda ^{r}}{r!}}.} Take μ = 1 T = m n + 1


id: world-line-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_line-0.md
category: reference
title: World line
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_line
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:27.089519+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-line-20260505-0
summary:
The world line (or worldline) of an object is the path that an object traces in 4-dimensional spacetime. It is an important concept of modern physics, and particularly theoretical physics. The concept of a "world line" is distinguished from concepts such as an "orbit" or a "trajectory" (e.g., a planet's orbit in space or the trajectory of a car on a road) by inclusion of the dimension time, and typically encompasses a large area of spacetime wherein paths which are straight perceptually are rendered as curves in spacetime to show their (relatively) more absolute position states—to reveal the nature of special relativity or gravitational interactions. The idea of world lines was originated by physicists and was pioneered by Hermann Minkowski. The term is now used most often in the context of relativity theories (i.e., special relativity and general relativity). == Usage in physics == A world line of an object (generally approximated as a point in space, e.g., a particle or observer) is the sequence of spacetime events corresponding to the history of the object. A world line is a special type of curve in spacetime. Below an equivalent definition will be explained: A world line is either a time-like


id: world-line-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_line-1.md
category: reference
title: World line
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_line
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:27.089519+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-line-20260505-0
summary:
defining a world line, are real number functions of a real variable τ {\displaystyle \tau } and can simply be differentiated by the usual calculus. Without the existence of a metric (this is important to realize) one can imagine the difference between a point p {\displaystyle p} on the curve at the parameter value τ 0 {\displaystyle \tau _{0}} and a point on the curve a little (parameter τ 0 + Δ τ {\displaystyle \tau _{0}+\Delta \tau } ) farther away. In the limit Δ τ → 0 {\displaystyle \Delta \tau \to 0} , this difference divided by Δ τ {\displaystyle \Delta \tau } defines a vector, the tangent vector of the world line at the point p {\displaystyle p} . It is a four-dimensional vector, defined in the point p {\displaystyle p} . It is associated with the normal 3-dimensional velocity of the object (but it is not the same) and therefore termed four-velocity v → {\displaystyle {\vec {v}}} , or in components: v → = ( v 0 , v 1 , v 2 , v 3 ) = ( d x 0 d τ , d x 1 d τ , d x 2 d τ ,


id: world-line-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_line-2.md
category: reference
title: World line
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_line
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:27.089519+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-line-20260505-0
summary:
=== Simultaneous hyperplane === Since a world line w ( τ ) ∈ R 4 {\displaystyle w(\tau )\in R^{4}} determines a velocity 4-vector v = d w d τ {\displaystyle v={\frac {dw}{d\tau }}} that is time-like, the Minkowski form η ( v , x ) {\displaystyle \eta (v,x)} determines a linear function R 4 → R {\displaystyle R^{4}\rightarrow R} by x ↦ η ( v , x ) . {\displaystyle x\mapsto \eta (v,x).} Let N be the null space of this linear functional. Then N is called the simultaneous hyperplane with respect to v. The relativity of simultaneity is a statement that N depends on v. Indeed, N is the orthogonal complement of v with respect to η. When two world lines u and w are related by d u d τ = d w d τ , {\displaystyle {\frac {du}{d\tau }}={\frac {dw}{d\tau }},} then they share the same simultaneous hyperplane. This hyperplane exists mathematically, but physical relations in relativity involve the movement of information by light. For instance, the traditional electro-static force described by Coulomb's law may be pictured in a simultaneous hyperplane, but relativistic relations of charge and force involve retarded potentials. == World lines in general relativity


id: world-line-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_line-3.md
category: reference
title: World line
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_line
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:27.089519+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-line-20260505-0
summary:
He stepped up to one of the reporters. "Suppose we take you as an example. Your name is Rogers, is it not? Very well, Rogers, you are a space-time event having duration four ways. You are not quite six feet tall, you are about twenty inches wide and perhaps ten inches thick. In time, there stretches behind you more of this space-time event, reaching to perhaps nineteen-sixteen, of which we see a cross-section here at right angles to the time axis, and as thick as the present. At the far end is a baby, smelling of sour milk and drooling its breakfast on its bib. At the other end lies, perhaps, an old man someplace in the nineteen-eighties. "Imagine this space-time event that we call Rogers as a long pink worm, continuous through the years, one end in his mother's womb, and the other at the grave..." Heinlein's Methuselah's Children uses the term, as does James Blish's The Quincunx of Time (expanded from "Beep"). A visual novel named Steins;Gate, produced by 5pb., tells a story based on the shifting of world lines. Steins;Gate is a part of the "Science Adventure" series. World lines and other physical concepts like the Dirac


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-0.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:30.301743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
The contributions of women in climate change have received increasing attention in the early 21st century. Feedback from women and the issues faced by women have been described as "imperative" by the United Nations and "critical" by the Population Reference Bureau. A report by the World Health Organization concluded that incorporating gender-based analysis would "provide more effective climate change mitigation and adaptation." Many studies have documented the gender gap in science and investigated why women are not included or represented, particularly at higher levels of research. Despite significant progress, female scientists continue to endure discrimination, unequal pay, and funding inequities, according to a special report published in the journal Nature in 2013. It also states that 70 percent of men and women around the world regard science as a male endeavor. Women encounter hurdles due to their family obligations, and they are underrepresented in publications and citations. == Overview == Women have made major contributions to climate change research and policy and to broader analysis of global environmental issues. They include many women scientists as well as policy makers and activists. Women researchers have made significant contributions to major scientific assessments such as those of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-1.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:30.301743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
== Arguments for women in science and climate change == It is argued that when women are overlooked as scholars and decision makers the world fails to take advantage of its full human capacity, which is needed for issues as urgent as climate change. Women may also take more collaborative approaches, especially in negotiations, and may pay more attention to disadvantaged groups and to the natural environment. Gender has become an issue because of women's essential roles in managing resources such as water, forests and energy and as women lead fights for environmental protection. A general concern has been expressed about the need to highlight the work of women and to include more women in major committees in order to provide gender balance, social justice, and inspiration to young women to enter careers in science. This reflects more general arguments about the barriers to women's advancement and the need for women to "Lean in" to leadership positions. Another argument focuses on the effects climate change on reproductive health. It was not until recently that these issues were discovered and brought to light however, they are currently affecting many women all around the world and in turn will eventually have population


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-2.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:30.301743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
== Women working in climate change == There are a variety of ways to identify women who have made major contributions to climate change. The first is the list of authors of the high level international assessments for the UN and other organizations such as the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The second is to examine women who have been invited to join the editorial boards of climate change refereed journals. A third is to look at the membership of the global change committees of the International Council for Science (ICSU). And a fourth is to recognize women that are members of their National Academy of Sciences who work on climate change. Many of them are IPCC or other report authors, and also members of ICSU committees, members of their National Academy and other marks of accomplishment. Seven cities around the world have appointed women as Chief Heat Officers (CHOs) to take action against extreme heat due to climate change. In February 2024, the EIB Group established the Women Climate Leaders Network, bringing together 47 women leaders from the commercial sector from all 27 EU Member States, to collaborate on innovative


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-3.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:30.301743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
== The Greta Thunberg effect == Greta Thunberg has been credited with inspiring young girl to take more action on climate change, which has become known as the "Greta Thunberg effect." Thunberg is well known for her work on fighting climate change, and is seen as a role model for younger girls. These new generations of girls are being called "eco-warriors", they are taking actions for the environment in various ways. In Kazakhstan, a group of young girls named Team Coco have come together to fight the ecological problems that pollute their nation, in order to accomplish this they have created an app known as TECO which is an "augmented reality game that merges educational and entertainment tools to help players change their behavior and become more eco-conscious". More girls have been taking action against climate change by using technology, and in turn help encourage other political leaders to take action for climate change and business corporations to reduce the carbon foot print they leave behind. == Women climate researchers == Following is a comprehensive list of women researchers in the climate change field. Note that not all women researchers have their individual Wikipedia pages that showcase their work (red


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-4.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:30.301743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
Ibidun Adelekan: Associate Professor in the Department of Geography at University of Ibadan, Nigeria. Her research focuses on climate-society interactions, human dimensions of global environmental change, vulnerability and resilience of human-environment systems to climate change. She is a lead author of the IPCC AR6 and a contributing author to the IPCC AR5 - Africa Chapter. Carolina Adler: Executive Director of Mountain Research Initiative (MRI), Switzerland where she oversees the work of the MRI coordination office, promotes global change research agenda and supports regional and thematic collaborations across mountain communities worldwide. She is an Environmental Scientist and Geographer by background and has vast experience in international career, both in public and private sector. She is a lead author of the IPCC Special Report on Ocean and Cryosphere and Working Group II of IPCC AR6. Paulina Aldunce: Associate Professor of the Department of Environmental Science and Natural Resources and the Deputy Director of the Center of Disaster Risk Reduction, CITRID at University of Chile, Chile. Her research interests include the social and institutional dimension of disaster management and climate change, with a focus on adaptation, resilience, transformation, and local and community management. She is a leading author of three IPCC reports including


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-5.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:30.301743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
She is a lead author of the IPCC AR6 Working Group I: The Physical Science Basis. She completed her PhD from University of Oxford in Atmospheric, Oceanic and Planetary Physics. Noemí Chacón: Researcher at Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas (IVIC), Venezuela. She is a lead author of the IPCC AR6 report. Elizabeth Chatterjee: She is an Environmental Historian expert. She works with a focus on energy histories,specifically in India. She wrote one book called Electric Democracy about the history of India's energy- centered transformation over time and is currently working on her second book about worldwide energy and environmental crises starting from the 1970s. She is currently teaching at the University of Chicago. Lynette Cheah: Associate Professor at Singapore University of Technology and Design, Singapore. She leads the Sustainable Urban Mobility research group to reduce environmental impacts of passengers and urban freight transport. Her expertise lies in transport modeling and simulation, life cycle energy and environmental assessment of products and systems, and urban metabolism. She is a review editor of the IPCC AR6. Ying Chen: Professor at Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS) Graduate School and a Senior Research Fellow at Institute for Urban and Environmental Studies (IUE), CASS, China.


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-6.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:30.301743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
She is also a visiting lecturer at United Nations University - Institute for the Advanced Study of Sustainability. Her research focuses on sustainable development, governance, disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation. Currently, she is a fellow of the Earth System Governance Network and is a lead author of IPCC AR6. Fatima Driouech: Associate Professor and the Executive Coordinator of the Adaptation Metrics and Techniques Cluster at the Mohammed VI Polytechnic University, Morocco. Her research interests include climate variability, regional climate modeling and climate science. Previously, she was the Head of the Meteorological Research Center of the Moroccan Meteorology and the National Climate Centre. She was also Vice-Chair of Working Group I of the IPCC and she was lead author of the fifth IPCC report. For the recent IPCC AR6, she serves as a review editor. She is currently acting as co-coordinator of MedECC, the independent network of Mediterranean Experts on Climate and environmental Change. Opha Pauline Dube: Professor of Environmental Science, University of Botswana. Dube has expertise in sustainable development, community-inclusive environmental management, and climate change adaptation. She is an IPCC contributing author. Carolina Dubeux: Social Scientist and a Senior Researcher at the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro,


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-7.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:30.301743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
Jacobs is a full professor in Soil, Water and Environmental Science at the University of Arizona. From 2009 - 2013 Jacobs served as director of the U.S. National Climate Assessment and Assistant Director, Energy and Environment Division, Office of Science and Technology Policy, Executive Office of the President, USA. Jill Jager (Williams): Independent Scholar, former executive director of the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change (IHDP) (1999 until 2002) and senior researcher at the Sustainable Europe Research Institute (SERI), Austria (2004 until 2008). She studies research themes ranging from energy and climate, biodiversity, global responsibility, public and stakeholder participation, integrating policies to linkages between knowledge and action for sustainable development. Hui Ju: Based at the Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, China. Her research includes studying wheat quality, drought characteristics and impacts of climate change on evapotranspiration in the Huang-Huai-Hai plain in China. She is a lead author of the IPCC AR6. Suzana Kahn Ribeiro: Professor at COPPE, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. She researches renewable energy, climate change, urban mitigation alternatives and sustainable mobility. She is the coordinator of UFRJ Green Fund and the president of the Scientific


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-8.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:30.301743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
Diana Liverman: Professor of Geography and Development and formerly co-director of the Institute of the Environment at the University of Arizona USA and expert on the human dimensions of climate change. IPCC author. ICSU. Emma Liwenga: Senior Lecturer at the Institute of Resource Assessment, University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Her research focuses on agriculture, food and livelihood security, natural resource management and climate change adaptation. She was an author of the IPCC Special Report on Land and Climate Change and currently serves as a coordinating lead author of IPCC AR6 report. Jane Lubchenco: Professor of environmental science and marine ecology at Oregon State University. Former Administrator of NOAA and Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere (2009-2013). Her research interests include interactions between the environment and human well-being, biodiversity, climate change, and sustainable use of oceans and the planet. Nominated by President Obama in December 2008 as part of his "Science Dream Team". Amanda Lynch: Professor of Earth, Environmental and Planetary Sciences at Brown University and the founding director of the Institute at Brown for Environment and Society. She is an expert in polar climate system modelling, indigenous environmental knowledge and climate policy analysis. She is a Fellow


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-9.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:30.301743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
Her research focuses on strengthening science, policy and practice alignment/interface for optimal land use, infrastructure provision and environmental management. Soojeong Meong: Senior Research Fellow at Korea Environment Institute, Korea. She is a review editor of the IPCC AR6 report. Sarah Myhre: climate and ocean scientist with expertise in the physical, biological, and chemical consequences of abrupt climate warming. A Ph.D. holder from the University of California at Davis, and has worked as a research associate at the University of Washington's School of Oceanography. She is a Kavli Fellow with the National Academy of Science. Sasha Naidoo: Researcher at the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, South Africa. Her expertise lies in forest, wood anatomy, silviculture, wood science, climate change and environmental science. She is a lead author of the IPCC AR6 report. Sunita Narain: Director general of the India-based Centre for Science and Environment and the director of the Society for Environmental Communications and publisher of the bimonthly magazine, Down To Earth. She is an influential environmental activist with interests in democracy at different scales, climate change, and natural resource management.


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-10.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:30.301743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
Gemma Terersa Narisma: Executive Director of the Manila Observatory, Philippines and the Head of the Regional Climate Systems programme from 2017 - 2021. She was also an associate professor of the Physics Department at Ateneo de Manila University. She served as a coordinating lead author of the IPCC AR6 Working Group I. Grace Ngaruiya: Head of the Ecology and Conservation Biology Section and a Lecturer in the Department of Plant Sciences at Kenyatta University, Kenya. She is also an IPCC AR6 lead author. Her research is focused on the relationship between climate change and Africa's heritage. Isabelle Niang: Professor at the University of Chiekh Anta Diop in Dakar. An expert in coastal erosion and climate change; coordinating lead author of the chapters on "Afrique du Groupe de travail II" for IPCC, in the 4th and 5th reports. Since 2008, she has been coordinating regional project ACCC (Adaptation au Changements Climatiques et Côtiers en Afrique de l'Ouest) and is based in BREDA/UNESCO. She is also Chair of the Pan-African Regional Committee for START (PACOM) through the Pan-African START Secretariat (PASS) based at the Institute for Resource Assessment (IRA) of the University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Andrea J. Nightingale: Professor of


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-11.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:30.301743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
There is a give and take from each side that cannot be passed without consequences. She founded Doughnut Economics Action Lab which works to bring communities around the country to work within these donut rings. Maureen Raymo: Paleoclimatologist and marine geologist. Interim Director of the Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory. She is the G. Unger Vetlesen Professor of Earth & Environmental Sciences and the director of the Lamont–Doherty Core Repository. She is best known for the Uplift-Weathering Hypothesis. Katherine Richardson Christensen: Professor in Biological Oceanography at the University of Copenhagen's Sustainability Science Center. She was one of the main organizers of the scientific conference, "Climate Change: Global Risks, Challenges and Decisions," which sought to inform the 2010 United Nations Climate Change Conference. She studies carbon cycling in the upper ocean and how biological processes impact food webs. She also researches planetary boundaries. Maisa Rojas: Associate Professor at the Department of Geophysics, University of Chile, Chile. Her research interests include paleoclimate study of the evolution and dynamics of the climate system in the southern hemisphere over the last 25,000 years, regional climate modeling and climate change impacts on different sectors of society. She contributed to IPCC's work during the 5th Assessment Report as


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-12.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:30.301743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
Susan Solomon: Ellen Swallow Richards Professor of Atmospheric Chemistry & Climate Science known for her work on atmospheric chemistry and ozone and for leading the IPCC 4th assessment report on climate science. Member US National Academy of Sciences. She won the Volvo Environment and Blue Planet prizes. Anna Amelia Sörensson: Researcher at the Center for Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences (CIMA / CONICET-UBA), Argentina. Her research interests include climate change, climate modeling and variability, hydrology and precipitation. In the latest IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, she is serving as a coordinating lead author of Working Group I - Chapter 10: Linking global to regional climate change. Tannecia Stephenson: Senior Lecturer/Professor of Physics at The University of West Indies, Jamaica. Her research focuses on climate variability and seasonal prediction, climate extremes, climate change impacts and solar energy. She is a lead author of the IPCC AR6 report - Working Group I. Nicole Stevens: Ecologist and Trapnell Fellow at Environmental Change Institute, University of Oxford, UK. She is also affiliated with Stellenbosch University, South Africa. Her work examines the impact of global change on non-forested ecosystems in Africa and seeks to understand the mechanisms that shape plant distribution ranges. She is a lead author


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-13.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:30.301743+00:00
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parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
Kirsten Zickfeld: Associate Professor at Simon Fraser University, Canada, working on the effects of anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols on climate on centennial to millennial timescales. Gina Ziervogel: Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental and Geographical Science at the University of Cape Town, South Africa. Her research interests include climate change adaptation and resilience across scales, multi-level governance of urban adaptation, and social justice. She is a lead author of the IPCC AR6 report. Zinta Zommers: Mercy Corp's Head of the Zurich Flood Resilience Alliance and is a Rhodes and Commonwealth Scholar from Latvia. Her work experience includes providing support to the United Nations' Secretary-General's support team during the Paris Negotiation with the United Nations Environment and Food and Agriculture Organization, advising the United States' Government and the Government of Sierra Leone and co-editing a book on early warning systems for climate change. She is a review editor of the IPCC AR6. Zhiyan Zuo: Professor in the Department of Atmospheric and Ocean Sciences, Fudan University, China. She was formerly a researcher at the Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences. Her research focuses on land-atmosphere interaction, climate change, extreme events and asian monsoon. She currently serves as a lead


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-14.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:30.301743+00:00
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parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
== Women climate change policy makers and activists == Franny Armstrong: British documentary film director known for films including The Age of Stupid, a reflection from 2055 about climate change. She founded the carbon reduction campaign 10:10 in 2009. Gro Harlem Brundtland: Former prime minister of Norway and author of the Brundtland report on Sustainable Development who has served on countless international committees on the environment. Kotchakorn Voraakhom: Thai landscape architect, public green space campaigner, Echoing Green Climate Fellow and chief executive officer of Porous City Network. She is also the founder of the Koungkuey Design Initiative. Helen Clark: Administrator of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and the 37th Prime Minister of New Zealand (1999-2008). Clark's government implemented several major economic initiatives including the New Zealand Emissions Trading Scheme. Sheila Watt-Cloutier: Canadian Inuit activist who has focused on persistent organic pollutants and global warming, among other issues. Christiana Figueres: Costa Rican diplomat who has served in negotiations over climate change instruments since 1995. She became the Executive Secretary of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 2010. She was the founder of the Global Optimism group and was also the head of the UN climate change convention


id: beyond-bias-and-barriers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Bias_and_Barriers-0.md
category: reference
title: Beyond Bias and Barriers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Bias_and_Barriers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:31.683766+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: beyond-bias-and-barriers-20260505-0
summary:
Beyond Bias and Barriers: Fulfilling the Potential of Women in Academic Science and Engineering (ISBN 0309100429) is a major report about the status of women in science from the United States National Academy of Sciences. Published in 2006, the report closely examines the data, proposed explanations, and possible responses to the relative dearth of women in science and engineering higher education in the United States. == History == The report was written by the "Committee on Maximizing the Potential of Women in Academic Science and Engineering", a panel at the National Academy of Sciences. The committee was chaired by Donna Shalala, and included college presidents, provosts, professors, scientists, and policy analysts. Committee members included: Alice M. Agogino, Lotte Bailyn, Robert J. Birgeneau, Ana Mari Cauce, Catherine D. DeAngelis, Denice Denton (who committed suicide before the release of the report), Barbara Grosz, Jo Handeslman, Nan Keohane, Shirley Malcom, Geraldine Richmond, Alice M. Rivlin, Ruth Simmons, Elizabeth Spelke, Joan Steitz, Elaine Weyuker, and Maria T. Zuber. As is typical with NAS reports, after the Committee drafted the report, it underwent a peer review process within the NAS, in this case reviewed by another Committee of nineteen members. == Conclusions == The report


id: finkbeiner-test-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finkbeiner_test-0.md
category: reference
title: Finkbeiner test
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finkbeiner_test
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:32.907127+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: finkbeiner-test-20260505-0
summary:
The Finkbeiner test, named for the science journalist Ann Finkbeiner, is a checklist to help science journalists avoid gender bias in articles about women in science. It asks writers to avoid describing women scientists in terms of stereotypically feminine traits, such as their family arrangements. The Finkbeiner test has been linked to affirmative action, because writing can cause readers to view women in science as different from men in negative or unfair ways. The test helps avoid gender bias in science reporting similarly to various tests that focus on under-representation of marginalized groups in different career fields. == Checklist == The Finkbeiner test is a checklist proposed by freelance journalist Christie Aschwanden to help journalists avoid gender bias in media articles about women in science. To pass the test, an article about a female scientist must not mention: That she is a woman Her husband's job Her childcare arrangements How she nurtures her underlings How she was taken aback by the competitiveness in her field How she is a role model for other women How she's the "first woman to ..." == History == Aschwanden formulated the test in a 2013 article for the online magazine Double X Science. She


id: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women-0.md
category: reference
title: List of inventions and discoveries by women
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:34.164784+00:00
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parent: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-0
summary:
This page aims to list inventions and discoveries in which women played a major role. == Medicine == === Pharmaceuticals === Aciclovir Gertrude B. Elion contributed to the development of aciclovir, an antiviral drug used for the treatment of herpes simplex virus infections, chickenpox, and shingles. Artemisinin and dihydroartemisinin Tu Youyou discovered artemisinin and dihydroartemisinin, both now standard treatments for malaria. Artemisinin is isolated from the plant Artemisia annua, sweet wormwood, a herb employed in Chinese traditional medicine. Azathioprine Azathioprine is an Immunosuppressive drug used in rheumatoid arthritis, granulomatosis with polyangiitis, Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, and in kidney transplants to prevent rejection first synthesized by George H. Hitchings and Gertrude B. Elion in 1957 . AZT Flossie Wong-Staal was the first scientist to clone HIV and map its genes. Gertrude Elion made foundational contributions to the development of AZT, one of the first antiretroviral medications used in the prevention and treatment of HIV/AIDS. Chemotherapy Jane C. Wright was the first to identify methotrexate, one of the foundational chemotherapy drugs, as an effective tool against cancerous tumors. feeding tube Bessie Blount Griffin used plastic, boiling water to mold the material, a file, ice pick, hammer, and some dishes to create the


id: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women-1.md
category: reference
title: List of inventions and discoveries by women
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:34.164784+00:00
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parent: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-0
summary:
Chien-Shiung Wu was the first scientist to confirm Enrico Fermi’s theory of radioactive beta decay. She also overturned the theory of parity in physics. Radon In 1901, Harriet Brooks and Ernest Rutherford contributed to the discovery of the element radon by finding evidence that the "emanation" emitted by thorium compounds was likely to be a gas. This follows work in 1899 by Pierre and Marie Curie, who observed that the gas emitted by radium remained radioactive for a month. Kinetic energy Emilie du Châtelet (born Gabrielle Émilie Le Tonnelier de Breteuil) translated Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica from Latin to French during the 18th century. She carried out physics experiments, popularizing the work of Leibniz. She demonstrated that the kinetic energy of an object was proportional to its mass and the square of its velocity, and postulated a conservation law for the total energy of a system. Heavy elements in cosmic radiation As a graduate student, Phyllis S. Freier found evidence for the existence of elements heavier than helium in cosmic radiation. Her work was published in Physical Review in 1948 with co-authors Edward J. Lofgren, Edward P. Ney, and Frank Oppenheimer. Beta particles are electrons. Gertrude Scharff Goldhaber and her


id: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women-2.md
category: reference
title: List of inventions and discoveries by women
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:34.164784+00:00
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parent: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-0
summary:
== Chemistry == Catalysis The concept of catalysis invented by Scottish chemist Elizabeth Fulhame Kevlar A powerful para-aramid synthetic fiber, developed by Stephanie Kwolek at DuPont in 1965 Polonium and radium The discoveries of elements radium and polonium were made by Polish chemist Marie Curie through the deep study of their nature and their compounds. Rhenium Rhenium, a d-block transition metal with Atomic number 75, was first isolated by Ida Noddack and her husband. The existence of this element was predicted by Dmitri Mendeleev. Ida Noddack was nominated three times for the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Seaborgium Carol Alonso was a co-discoverer of seaborgium, a synthetic chemical element with symbol Sg and atomic number 106. Scotchgard This stain repellent and durable water repellent was co-invented by chemists Patsy Sherman and Samuel Smith while working for 3M. Langmuir–Blodgett film The technique for making Langmuir–Blodgett film, which involves immersing a substrate into a solution to deposit a monolayer of molecules onto a substrate, was co-invented by Katharine Burr Blodgett and Irving Langmuir while working for General Electric. Earlier work by Agnes Pockels influenced the development of the trough. Zeolite Y Zeolite Y, a molecular sieve used to catalyse fractional distillation in petroleum


id: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women-3.md
category: reference
title: List of inventions and discoveries by women
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:34.164784+00:00
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parent: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-0
summary:
== Household == Square-bottom paper bag In 1868, Margaret E. Knight invented a machine that folded and glued flat-bottomed brown paper bags familiar to shoppers today. She obtained 87 US patents that include lid-removing pliers, a numbering machine, a window frame and sash, and variants on rotary engines. Dishwasher Josephine Cochrane developed in 1887 the first commercially successful dishwasher, together with mechanic George Butters. Home security system Marie VanBrittan Brown, mid 1960's. Electric refrigerator Florence Parpart, 1914. Pedal bin Lillian Gilbreth invented the pedal bin in 1914 for the disposal of kitchen waste. The foot pedal enables the user to open the lid without touching it with their hands. Improved ironing board In 1892, Sarah Boone obtained a patent in the United States for improvements to the ironing board, allowing for better quality ironing for shirt sleeves. Central heating In 1919, Alice Parker invented a system of gas-powered central heating. While her particular design was never built, it was the first time an inventor had conceived of using natural gas to heat a personal home, which inspired the future central heating systems. Automatic Rotimaker In 2008, Pranoti Nagarkar-Israni invented a kitchen robot called Rotimatic, which makes rotis, tortillas, pizza crusts


id: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women-4.md
category: reference
title: List of inventions and discoveries by women
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:34.164784+00:00
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parent: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-0
summary:
== Mathematics == Daubechies wavelet Ingrid Daubechies introduced the Daubechies wavelet and contributed to the development of the CDF wavelet, important tools in image compression. You can't hear the shape of a drum. In 1966, Mark Kac asked whether the shape of a drum could be determined by the sound it makes (whether a Riemannian manifold is determined by the spectrum of its Laplace–Beltrami operator). John Milnor observed that a theorem due to Witt implied the existence of a pair of 16-dimensional tori that have the same spectrum but different shapes. However, the problem in two dimensions remained open until 1992, when Carolyn S. Gordon with coauthors Webb and Wolpert, constructed a pair of regions in the Euclidean plane that have different shapes but identical eigenvalues (see figure on right). Cauchy–Kovalevskaya theorem In mathematics, the Cauchy–Kowalevski theorem (also written as the Cauchy–Kovalevskaya theorem) is the main local existence and uniqueness theorem for analytic partial differential equations associated with Cauchy initial value problems. A special case was proven by Augustin Cauchy (1842), and the full result by Sophia Kovalevskaya (1875). Kovalevskaya top In classical mechanics, the precession of a rigid body such as a top under the influence of gravity is


id: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women-5.md
category: reference
title: List of inventions and discoveries by women
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:34.164784+00:00
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parent: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-0
summary:
That is, two moments of inertia are equal, the third is half as large, and the center of gravity is located in the plane perpendicular to the symmetry axis (parallel to the plane of the two equal points). QR algorithm In numerical linear algebra, the QR algorithm is an eigenvalue algorithm: that is, a procedure to calculate the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a matrix. The QR algorithm was developed in the late 1950s by John G. F. Francis and by Vera N. Kublanovskaya, working independently. The basic idea is to perform a QR decomposition, writing the matrix as a product of an orthogonal matrix and an upper triangular matrix, multiply the factors in the reverse order, and iterate. Navier–Stokes equations Olga Ladyzhenskaya provided the first rigorous proofs of the convergence of a finite difference method for the Navier–Stokes equations. Ladyzhenskaya was on the shortlist for potential recipients for the 1958 Fields Medal, ultimately awarded to Klaus Roth and René Thom. Braid groups are linear Ruth Lawrence's 1990 paper, "Homological representations of the Hecke algebra", in Communications in Mathematical Physics, introduced, among other things, certain novel linear representations of the braid group — known as Lawrence–Krammer representation. In papers published in


id: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women-6.md
category: reference
title: List of inventions and discoveries by women
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:34.164784+00:00
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parent: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-0
summary:
Van der Waerden credited lectures by Noether on group theory and Emil Artin on algebra, as well as a seminar conducted by Artin, Wilhelm Blaschke, Otto Schreier, and van der Waerden himself on ideals as the main references. The three isomorphism theorems, called homomorphism theorem, and two laws of isomorphism when applied to groups, appear explicitly. Lasker–Noether theorem In mathematics, the Lasker–Noether theorem states that every Noetherian ring is a Lasker ring, which means that every ideal can be decomposed as an intersection, called primary decomposition, of finitely many primary ideals (which are related to, but not quite the same as, powers of prime ideals). The theorem was first proven by Emanuel Lasker (1905) for the special case of polynomial rings and convergent power series rings, and was proven in its full generality by Emmy Noether (1921). The Lasker–Noether theorem is an extension of the fundamental theorem of arithmetic, and more generally the fundamental theorem of finitely generated abelian groups to all Noetherian rings. The Lasker–Noether theorem plays an important role in algebraic geometry, by asserting that every algebraic set may be uniquely decomposed into a finite union of irreducible components. Albert–Brauer–Hasse–Noether theorem In algebraic number theory, the Albert–Brauer–Hasse–Noether theorem


id: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women-7.md
category: reference
title: List of inventions and discoveries by women
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:34.164784+00:00
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parent: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-0
summary:
== Wireless transmission == Torpedoes Radio guidance device Austrian-American Hollywood actress Hedy Lamarr, together with musician and author George Antheil, developed a mechanism for radio guidance system for Allied torpedoes which used spread spectrum and frequency hopping technology to defeat the threat of jamming by the Axis powers. Though the US Navy did not adopt frequency-hopping until the 1960s, the principles of it are now incorporated into modern Wi-Fi, CDMA and Bluetooth technology. == Food and food appliances == Chocolate-chip cookies Invented by Ruth Graves Wakefield in 1938. Pizza saver Patented in 1985 by Carmela Vitale of Dix Hills, New York. Mint chocolate chip Invented by Marilyn Ricketts in 1973. Ice cream maker Invented by Nancy M. Johnson in 1843. Coffee filter Invented by Melitta Bentz, 1908. == Biology == DNA structure Rosalind Franklin was a British molecular biologist who was instrumental in the discovery of the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in 1951. At King's College London where she applied X-ray diffraction to the study of biological materials, she performed several X-ray radiographs of the DNA. Sex chromosomes Nettie Maria Stevens is credited with the discovery of sex chromosomes. The Cori cycle (lactic acid cycle) Gerty Cori, together with


id: muslim-women-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_women_in_science_and_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: Muslim women in science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_women_in_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:39.595524+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: muslim-women-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Since the Islamic Golden Age, Muslims, including women, have been actively participating in various sciences. Despite being involved in politics throughout Islamic history, women have experienced—and still continue to experience—gender-based discrimination in many Muslim countries because of the belief that certain discriminatory practices have a basis in Islam even though the Quran, hadiths, and sunnah advocate for the equal rights of men and women to seek knowledge. == Individuals == === Rufayda al-Aslamiyyah === Also known as the first nurse in Islamic history, Rufayda al-Aslamiyyah led a team of volunteer nurses in the battles of Badr, Uhud, Ditch, Khaybar, and other conflicts to take care of the wounded and dying. She further played a role in the development of the first mobile medical units to satisfy the requirements of the community for medical care. Through assisting her father, Saad Al-Aslamy, Rufayda learnt most of her knowledge. She became a healer after devoting her time to nursing and taking care of the ill. She used to practice her skills in her tent during the battles. Muhammad used to demand that all casualties be sent to her tent as she had high expertise in the field. The Aga Khan University named the


id: alphonse-rebi-re-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphonse_Rebière-0.md
category: reference
title: Alphonse Rebière
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphonse_Rebière
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:40.737721+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alphonse-rebi-re-20260505-0
summary:
Alphonse Michel Rebière (Tulle, 1842 – Paris, 1900) was a nineteenth-century advocate for women's scientific abilities. He wrote the book Les Femmes dans la science, published in 1894. Rebière's piece followed the encyclopedia format, listing the woman alphabetically, giving their names, dates of birth, the social conditions under which they had lived, their contributions and publications. He included "professional and amateur" scientists and those who aided in contributions in "the progress of science." Included in Rebière's book was a section of appended works filled with opinions of famous people on the question "whether or not woman is capable of scientific pursuits." His work was revolutionary in that other works with similar information were never published, and he was one of the first to include women in the field of science. == Les Femmes dans la science == Translated: Women in Science Rebière's work Les Femmes dans la science was inspired by the women's movement and renewed interest in women's scientific abilities. == Mathématiques et mathématiciens: Pensées et curiosities == According to R. C. Archibald: ... A. M. Rebière published ... a pioneer work entitled: Mathématiques et mathématiciens. Pensées et curiosities. ... The second edition (in later editions there is practically


id: safe13-study-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAFE13_study-0.md
category: reference
title: SAFE13 study
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAFE13_study
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:42.006322+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: safe13-study-20260505-0
summary:
The Survey of Academic Field Experiences study, also known as the SAFE13 study, was a survey conducted between February and May 2013 in order to characterize experiences of scientists working at field sites as they relate to sexual harassment and sexual assault. It has had a significant impact on collective responses to sexual harassment and sexual assault in Western academic science. Published in 2014 by a team of anthropologists, Kathryn B. H. Clancy, Robin G. Nelson, Julienne N. Rutherford and Katie Hinde, the SAFE13 study is the first empirical investigation into scientists' experiences of harassment during fieldwork. The researchers identify three key takeaways from their work. First, women scientists are targeted more often than men, and junior scientists are also more likely to be harassed relative to senior scientists. Second, women are more likely to be harassed by senior staff, while men are harassed by their peers. Third, the majority of field scientists do not know how to report harassment. == Methods == The study included responses from 666 field scientists (77.5% were women and 85.9% of participants identified as heterosexual). The survey was conducted in two waves. The first wave ran from February 21 to April 12, 2013, and


id: safe13-study-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAFE13_study-1.md
category: reference
title: SAFE13 study
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAFE13_study
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:42.006322+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: safe13-study-20260505-0
summary:
== SAFE2 == In 2017, the qualitative findings of SAFE13 were published. Authored by Nelson, Rutherford, Hinde and Clancy, the study focused on the experiences of 26 interviewees, who were mostly anthropologists or archaeologists (23 of 26 interviewees), women (23 of 26), and white (21 of 26). Some participants described incidents of sexual harassment in multiple fieldwork sites, so fifty-four field contexts are represented in their narratives. Twelve participants recalled working at field sites with clear anti-harassment rules (representing 18 fieldwork sites). These sites had training, explicit conversations, and senior researchers modelled proactive behaviour to redress sexual harassment. Actively enforced anti-harassment policies were associated with positive fieldwork experiences where scientists felt safe, valued and equal. These sites were categorised by the researchers as "green" contexts where best practice was enforced by senior members of the research team. As a result there were fewer negative experiences, and transgressions were acted upon by leaders. The rest of the participants described ambiguity or lack of clarity about codes of conduct. Even if they had some rules, sexual harassment still took place because were no consequences. Ambiguity led to repercussions for scientists who resisted sexual coercion, such as being alienated from colleagues and being


id: stemettes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stemettes-0.md
category: reference
title: Stemettes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stemettes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:43.198923+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stemettes-20260505-0
summary:
Stemettes is a social enterprise which encourages girls and young women aged 5–25 to pursue careers in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Maths (STEM). Stemettes runs panel events, hackathons, the Student to Stemette mentoring programme supported by Deutsche Bank, Outbox Incubator and an app, OtotheB, an online platform for girls interested in STEM and entrepreneurship. == History == Stemettes was started in 2013 by British mathematics and computing child prodigy Anne-Marie Imafidon. In 2015, Jacquelyn Guderley became co-founder of Stemettes alongside Imafidon. Stemettes has partnered with organisations including Deutsche Bank, Salesforce, Accenture, Bank of America Merrill Lynch, BP and Microsoft. The organisation is regularly called upon by the UK Government and European Commission to consult on matters related to women in STEM. == Outbox Incubator == For six weeks from July–August 2015, Stemettes ran Outbox Incubator in London. This residential business incubator for girls with STEM start-ups became known as the "X-men house for girls". In February 2016, the Outbox Incubator spin-off app, OtotheB, was officially launched. The app is an online platform for girls interested in STEM and entrepreneurship. The app has been well received by some STEM figures such as academic and campaigner Sue Black, who described the app


id: sylvia-m-stoesser-lecturer-in-chemistry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sylvia_M._Stoesser_Lecturer_in_Chemistry-0.md
category: reference
title: Sylvia M. Stoesser Lecturer in Chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sylvia_M._Stoesser_Lecturer_in_Chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:44.406650+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sylvia-m-stoesser-lecturer-in-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
The Sylvia M. Stoesser Lecture series was established in 2000 by the Department of Chemistry at the University of Illinois. It is supported by alumna Yulan Tong and by Dow AgroSciences. It is named after the first woman chemist to work at Dow, Sylvia M. Stoesser. The lectureship is given every two years to "an individual who has made outstanding contributions to the chemical community and provides new perspectives in the chemical field outside academia." == Lecturers == == References ==


id: tai-s-model-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tai's_model-0.md
category: reference
title: Tai's model
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tai's_model
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:45.697790+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tai-s-model-20260505-0
summary:
In 1994, nutrition scholar Mary M. Tai published a paper in the journal Diabetes Care entitled "A Mathematical Model for the Determination of Total Area Under Glucose Tolerance and Other Metabolic Curves". In the paper, Tai proposes "Tai's model" as a method of estimating the area under a curve by dividing the area into simple polygons and summing their totals. Apparently unbeknownst to Tai, and not noted by peer reviewers or the journal's editors, her method is in fact the trapezoidal rule, a basic method of calculus used by Babylonian astronomers before 50 BCE and later independently by English and French astronomers in the 14th century. Several scholars replied to the paper in letters to the journal, objecting to the naming of "Tai's model" and the treatment of a method "used in undergraduate calculus courses" as a novel discovery in the field of diabetes care. A letter entitled "Tai's Formula is the Trapezoidal Rule" pointed out errors in Tai's representation of the underlying mathematics (such as referring to a count of square units below the curve as the "true value" of the area, against which to measure the accuracy of Tai's model) and problems with the method's applicability to glucose


id: technofeminism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technofeminism-0.md
category: reference
title: Technofeminism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technofeminism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:47.246904+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technofeminism-20260505-0
summary:
Technofeminism is a theoretical and practical framework that explores the intersections between technology, gender, and power. Rooted in feminist thought, it critically examines how technology shapes, reinforces, or disrupts gender inequalities and seeks to envision more equitable futures through technological design and use. The term is widely attributed to Judy Wajcman, a sociologist and feminist scholar. Wajcman introduced the concept in her influential 2004 book, TechnoFeminism. Historically, technofeminism is closely linked to cyberfeminism, a concept which emerged in the early 1990s. The origins of cyber- and technofeminism are strongly attributed to the references of Donna Haraway's A Cyborg Manifesto. Since the 1990s, numerous feminist movements developed, addressing feminism and technology in various ways, and through different perspectives. Networks, ideas and concepts can overlap. Technofeminism is often examined in conjunction with intersectionality, a term coined by Kimberlé Crenshaw which analyzes the relationships among various identities, such as race, socioeconomic status, sexuality, gender, and more. == TechnoFeminism book == === Overview === TechnoFeminism is a book by academic sociologist Judy Wajcman which reframes the relationship between gender and technologies, and presents a feminist reading of the woman-machine relationship. It argues against a technocratic ideology, posing instead a thesis of society and technology


id: teen-turn-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teen_Turn-0.md
category: reference
title: Teen Turn
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teen_Turn
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:48.419928+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: teen-turn-20260505-0
summary:
Teen Turn is an Irish charity which encourages teenage girls to pursue careers in technology. == History == Teen Turn is an Irish charity which was founded in 2016 by Joanne Dolan and Niambh Scullion with the aim of promoting technology and computer skills to girls in disadvantaged areas. It was first trialed in the summer of 2016 with 20 girls from five schools, and since has expanded to 18 schools and 30 tech companies. == Activities == In particular the group aim to work with girls from communities with low uptake of university or third level education. They partner with technology and digital companies to provide work placements and mentoring. They provide two week work placements. The charity also run after school programs. Participants from this program in Limerick went on to win the BT Young Pioneer Award in 2018. In 2018, Teen Turn partnered with The Digital Hub and Gaisce to take part in the Technovation Challenge. === Awards === 2017 EU Digital Impact Organisation of the Year. == References == == External links == Official Twitter account


id: woman-in-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woman_in_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Woman in Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woman_in_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:49.683776+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: woman-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
Woman in Science is a book written by John Augustine Zahm (under the pen name H. J. Mozans) in 1913. It is an account of women who have contributed to the sciences, up to the time when it was published. == Themes == The comprehensive theme that is depicted throughout Woman in Science is that of women's equal biological capacity. It is asserted that women being less prominent than men in science is due to the lack of educational and career opportunities available rather than the biological aspects of brain size or structure. In addition, the book encompasses the many developments of science throughout history. The main objective of the author/book was for women to become more involved and gain a respected position in the scientific field, in addition to increasing educational and career opportunities for women interested in science. It was one of the first collaborations of women's contributions to the scientific community, and it "explored the barriers to women's participation in science." == Quotations == "H. J. Mozans, in his Woman in Science, gives us a most comprehensive survey of the scientific activity and attainments of women. Primarily inspired to his investigation by extensive travels in Greece and


id: women-of-outstanding-achievement-photographic-exhibition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_of_Outstanding_Achievement_Photographic_Exhibition-0.md
category: reference
title: Women of Outstanding Achievement Photographic Exhibition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_of_Outstanding_Achievement_Photographic_Exhibition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:50.871689+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-of-outstanding-achievement-photographic-exhibition-20260505-0
summary:
The Women of Outstanding Achievement Photographic Exhibition was an annual event organised by the UKRC between 2006 and 2012, when it was subsumed into the WISE Campaign awards. It comprised creative photographs of outstanding women within science, engineering and technology (SET). Between four and seven women were chosen each year to be photographed by Robert Taylor. Nominations occurred in the Autumn of each year and the recipients were announced at a ceremony in March of the following year. Many of the portraits are on permanent loan to institutions such as the University of Oxford and The Royal Society;those of Joanna Kennedy, Julia King and Wendy Hall were hung in the Royal Academy of Engineering. The portrait of Nancy Rothwell was purchased by the National Portrait Gallery. == Award Recipients == Recipients were (with job titles at the time): 2012 Maggie Philbin, BBC Journalist and CEO TeenTech Belinda Swain, Chief Airworthiness Engineer at Rolls-Royce Angela Brady, President of the Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) and founder of Women in Architecture Fiona Marshall, Founder and Chief Scientific Officer at Heptares Therapeutics Ltd 2011 Dame Ann Dowling, Head of Engineering department at the University of Cambridge Dame Athene Donald, Professor at the


id: abenics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABENICS-0.md
category: reference
title: ABENICS
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABENICS
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:59.311560+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: abenics-20260505-0
summary:
ABENICS (Active Ball Joint Mechanism With Three-DoF Based on Spherical Gear Meshings) is a ball joint system which uses a cross-spherical gear in conjunction with a monopole gear in order to be able to manipulate the spherical gear in three dimensions of freedom (pitch, roll, and yaw). Adding a second monopole gear makes the system more robust and capable of highly accurate movement with high torque. The spherical gear is essentially a pair of 2D gears which have been rotated around their axes, resulting in something resembling a golf ball. Potential uses include any situation requiring accurate, powerful control over three degrees of freedom, such as in replication human joints. The design was published in IEEE Transactions on Robotics in October 2021. The mechanism has been replicated using 3D printing by enthusiasts. == References == == External links == Kazuki Abe; Kenjiro Tadakuma; Riichiro Tadakuma (October 2021). "ABENICS: Active Ball Joint Mechanism With Three-DoF Based on Spherical Gear Meshings". IEEE Transactions on Robotics. 37 (5). Video from Tadakuma Laboratory, Yamagata University, Japan


id: aesthetics-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics_of_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Aesthetics of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:00.560746+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aesthetics-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Aesthetics of science is the study of beauty and matters of taste within the scientific endeavour. Aesthetic features like simplicity, elegance and symmetry are sources of wonder and awe for many scientists, thus motivating scientific pursuit. Conversely, theories that have been empirically successful may be judged to lack aesthetic merit, which contributes to the desire to find a new theory that subsumes the old. The topic has been addressed by several publications discussing how aesthetic values are related to scientific experiments and theories. == See also == Aesthetics Mathematical beauty == References ==


id: agbiotechnet-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AgBiotechNet-0.md
category: reference
title: AgBiotechNet
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AgBiotechNet
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:02.898304+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: agbiotechnet-20260505-0
summary:
AgBiotechNet is a searchable online database of scientific literature on topics related to agricultural biotechnology. Its target audience consists of biotechnology researchers and policymakers. Though some features on the site are available for free, others can only be accessed by paid subscribers. First launched in January 1999, AgBiotechNet is run by the Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International (also known as CABI), which founded it along with Michigan State University's Agricultural Biotechnology Support Project. == References == == External links == Official website


id: antweb-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AntWeb-0.md
category: reference
title: AntWeb
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AntWeb
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:04.258926+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: antweb-20260505-0
summary:
AntWeb is the leading online database on ants: storing specimens images and records, and natural history information, and documenting over 490,000 specimens across over 35,000 taxa of ants in its open source and community driven repository as of November 2014. It was set up by Brian L. Fisher in 2002, and cost US$30,000 to build. == References == == External links == Website


id: apec-youth-science-festival-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APEC_Youth_Science_Festival-0.md
category: reference
title: APEC Youth Science Festival
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APEC_Youth_Science_Festival
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:05.575942+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: apec-youth-science-festival-20260505-0
summary:
APEC Youth Science Festival is a science fair run by the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC). It is for 15–18-year-olds with an interest in science–technology, and seeks to break down cultural barriers for learning. It began in 1998 in Seoul. The president of the Republic of Korea proposed to host the APEC Youth Science Festival at the 2nd APEC Science and Technology Ministers' Conference on November 13, 1996. == List of festivals == == References == == External links == https://web.archive.org/web/20100917232134/http://apec.org/apec/news___media/2004_media_releases/050804_youthsciencefest.html


id: bourgeois-pseudoscience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourgeois_pseudoscience-0.md
category: reference
title: Bourgeois pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourgeois_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:06.738141+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bourgeois-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Bourgeois pseudoscience (Russian: буржуазная лженаука, burzhuaznaya lzhenauka) was a term of condemnation in the Soviet Union for certain scientific disciplines that were deemed unacceptable from an ideological point of view due to their incompatibility with Marxism–Leninism. At various times pronounced "bourgeois pseudosciences" were: Mendelian genetics, cybernetics (artificial intelligence), quantum physics, theory of relativity,, geopolitics, sociology and particular directions in comparative linguistics (the now-debunked Japhetic theory of Nikolay Yakovlevich Marr, which was also refuted by Joseph Stalin in "Marxism and Problems of Linguistics"). The term was not used by Stalin himself, who rejected the notion that all sciences must have a class nature. Stalin removed all mention of “bourgeois biology” from Trofim Lysenko’s report, The State of Biology in the Soviet Union, and in the margin next to the statement that “any science is based on class” Stalin wrote, “Ha-ha-ha!! And what about mathematics? Or Darwinism?” The term or its synonyms was used in the 1951 and 1954 editions of the Short Philosophical Dictionary: "Cybernetic is a reactionary pseudoscience originated in the United States... A form of modern mechanicism.", "Eugenics is a bourgeois pseudoscience", "Weismannism-Morganism - bourgeois pseudoscience, designed to justify capitalism". Today, most scholars agree in characterizing eugenics as rooted


id: brassboard-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brassboard-0.md
category: reference
title: Brassboard
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brassboard
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:07.997653+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: brassboard-20260505-0
summary:
A brassboard or brass board is an experimental or demonstration test model, intended for field testing outside the laboratory environment. A brassboard follows an earlier prototyping stage called a breadboard. A brassboard contains both the functionality and approximate physical configuration of the final operational product. Unlike breadboards, brassboards typically recreate geometric and dimensional constraints of the final system which are critical to its performance, as is the case in radio frequency systems. While representative of the physical layout of the production-grade product, a brassboard will not necessarily incorporate all final details, nor represent the physical size and quality level of the final deliverable product. Exact definition of a brassboard depends on the industry and has changed with time. A 1992 guide book on proposal preparation defined a brassboard or a breadboard as "a laboratory or shop working model that may or may not look like the final product or system, but that will operate in the same way as the final system". The definition of a breadboard was further narrowed to purely electronic systems, while a brassboard was treated as "a similar arrangement for hydraulic, pneumatic or mechanically interconnected components". In modern system-on-a-chip prototyping, brassboard is defined as a second


id: cambridge-science-festival-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_Science_Festival-0.md
category: reference
title: Cambridge Science Festival
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_Science_Festival
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:09.254813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cambridge-science-festival-20260505-0
summary:
The Cambridge Science Festival was a series of events typically held annually in March in Cambridge, England and was the United Kingdom's largest free science festival. In 2019 it was announced that the Cambridge Science Festival and the Cambridge Festival of Ideas would be combined into one festival. The Cambridge Festival took place for the first time in March 2021. The festival attracts more than 30,000 visitors to over 250 events. University researchers and students open their lecture halls and laboratories to the general public, and hold Talks, Exhibitions and Demonstrations, mostly free of charge. Started in 1994 by scientists of the University of Cambridge and backed by local businesses, the festival was inspired by National Science Week and is aimed making science and engineering more accessible, showcasing research performed at Cambridge University, and encouraging young people to pursue careers in engineering and science. == Gallery == == References == == External links == Official website 2016 planner


id: cameroon-academy-of-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameroon_Academy_of_Sciences-0.md
category: reference
title: Cameroon Academy of Sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameroon_Academy_of_Sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:10.425467+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cameroon-academy-of-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
The Cameroon Academy of Sciences (CAS) is a non-governmental organization that supports the progression of science and technology for the economic, social, and cultural development of Cameroon. It was established in 1990 by a group of Cameroonian scholars during a symposium on agriculture and agricultural research in Sub-Saharan Africa in Douala, Cameroon. The academy provides unbiased advice to the government and other stakeholders on issues related to science and technology. == History == The idea of creating a national academy of sciences in Cameroon was first proposed in 1972 by the Council for Higher Education and Scientific Research. In 1982, the council proposed a draft decree for the creation of the academy. However, it was not until 1990 that the academy was formed by a group of Cameroonian scholars during a symposium on agriculture and agricultural research in Sub-Saharan Africa in Douala, Cameroon. The symposium was organized by the International Foundation for Science and the Third World Academy of Sciences. The founding members of the academy, 25 scientists from various disciplines, elected Jean-Pierre Tignol as the first president of the academy. The academy was officially inaugurated on 10 February 1993 in Yaoundé, Cameroon, by then Prime Minister Simon Achidi Achu.


id: cello-scrotum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cello_scrotum-0.md
category: reference
title: Cello scrotum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cello_scrotum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:15.460812+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cello-scrotum-20260505-0
summary:
Cello scrotum is a hoax medical condition originally published as a brief case report in the British Medical Journal in 1974. As its name suggests, it was purportedly an affliction of the scrotum affecting male players of the cello. == History == The original letter was written by Elaine Murphy but signed by her husband John. The journal had printed an earlier report about 'guitar nipple', a condition said to occur when some styles of guitar playing excessively irritate the player's nipple (a form of contact dermatitis similar to jogger's nipple), which Murphy and her husband believed was likely a joke. Murphy now points out that even a cursory study of the cellist's posture would show that the 'cello scrotum' complaint would not occur. The unlikelihood of a cellist's posture contributing to scrotal injury was raised back in 1974, but seems to have been overlooked. Murphy admitted the hoax in 2009 in another letter to the BMJ after an article in the 2008 Christmas edition of the BMJ made reference to the complaint. The truth of the case report had already been questioned in the medical literature in 1991. Others have cited it, although expressing scepticism. The implications of this


id: chemrxiv-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ChemRxiv-0.md
category: reference
title: ChemRxiv
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ChemRxiv
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:17.898205+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chemrxiv-20260505-0
summary:
ChemRxiv (pronounced "chem archive"—the X represents the Greek letter chi [χ]) is an open access preprint archive for chemistry. It is operated by the American Chemical Society, Royal Society of Chemistry and German Chemical Society. The new preprint server was announced already in 2016, but was only opened online in 2017. Initially, editors of ACS journals were skeptical and only 80% of the editors allowed submissions to be uploaded to the preprint server in 2017. In 2019 the Chinese Chemical Society and the Chemical Society of Japan joined as co-owners of the preprint server. The initial reception of ChemRxiv was one of hesitation, with several major journals of the founding organizations initially unsupportive: Angewandte Chemie gave support in March 2018 and JACS only gave support in August 2018. However, ChemRxiv received more than 1,000 submissions in the first eighteen months, growing to 2,314 in 2019. Like other preprint servers, it saw a surge in COVID-19 preprints in 2020. == See also == List of preprint repositories == References == == External links == Official website


id: chief-scientist-of-south-australia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Scientist_of_South_Australia-0.md
category: reference
title: Chief Scientist of South Australia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Scientist_of_South_Australia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:19.085770+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chief-scientist-of-south-australia-20260505-0
summary:
The Chief Scientist of South Australia is an independent advisory role to the Government of South Australia, providing advice to the Premier and Cabinet on matters of science, technology, innovation and research. The Chief Scientist chairs the South Australian Science Council and recommends to the government new members for the Council. == Incumbents == == References ==


id: china-hi-tech-fair-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_Hi-Tech_Fair-0.md
category: reference
title: China Hi-Tech Fair
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_Hi-Tech_Fair
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:20.402618+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: china-hi-tech-fair-20260505-0
summary:
The Shenzhen High-Tech Fair (Chinese: 深圳高交会, 高交会), officially known as the China Hi-Tech Fair (中国国际高新技术成果交易会, CHTF), is one of the most influential technology fairs in Shenzhen, China. It is jointly organized by Chinese National and Shenzhen municipal government departments and research institutions. == Description == Since its inception in 1999, the fair has been held annually in Shenzhen, usually at the Shenzhen Convention and Exhibition Center in mid-November. The fair serves not only as a platform for technological exchange but also as an important venue for connecting innovative startups with capital. The fair covers multiple fields, including but not limited to electronic information, environmental protection, new energy, biotechnology, and advanced manufacturing. Additionally, the CHTF includes forums, technical seminars, product launches, and international cooperation exchanges, attracting numerous domestic and international enterprises, research institutions, and investors. == References ==


id: code-break-procedure-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code-break_procedure-0.md
category: reference
title: Code-break procedure
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code-break_procedure
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:21.649031+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: code-break-procedure-20260505-0
summary:
A code-break procedure is a set of rules which determine when planned unblinding should occur in a blinded experiment. FDA guidelines recommend that sponsors of blinded trials include a code-break procedure in their standard operating procedure. A code-break procedure should only allow a participant to be unblinded before the conclusion of a trial in the event of an emergency. Code-break usually refers to the unmasking of treatment allocation, but can refer to any form of unblinding. Traditionally, each patient's treatment allocation data was stored in a sealed envelopes, which was to be opened to break code. However, this system is prone to abuse. Reports of researchers opening envelopes prematurely or holding the envelopes up to lights to determine their contents has led some researchers to say that the use of sealed envelopes is no longer acceptable. As of 2016, sealed envelopes were still in use in some clinical trials. Modern clinical trials usually store this information in computer files. == See also == Sealedenvelope.com – a provider of code-break services == References ==


id: color-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Color science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:22.773568+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: color-science-20260505-0
summary:
Color science is the scientific study of color including lighting and optics; measurement of light and color; the physiology, psychophysics, and modeling of color vision; and color reproduction. It is the modern extension of traditional color theory. == Organizations == International Commission on Illumination (CIE) Illuminating Engineering Society (IES) Inter-Society Color Council (ISCC) Society for Imaging Science and Technology (IS&T) International Colour Association (AIC) Optica, formerly the Optical Society of America (OSA) The Colour Group Society of Dyers and Colourists (SDC) American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists (AATCC) Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology (ARVO) ACM SIGGRAPH Vision Sciences Society (VSS) Council for Optical Radiation Measurements (CORM) == Journals == The preeminent scholarly journal publishing research papers in color science is Color Research and Application, started in 1975 by founding editor-in-chief Fred Billmeyer, along with Gunter Wyszecki, Michael Pointer and Rolf Kuehni, as a successor to the Journal of Colour (1964–1974). Previously most color science work had been split between journals with broader or partially overlapping focus such as the Journal of the Optical Society of America (JOSA), Photographic Science and Engineering (1957–1984), and the Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists (renamed Coloration Technology in 2001).


id: community-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_of_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Community of Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_of_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:24.053257+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: community-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Community of Science was a collection of online databases, providing research information to both the public and subscribers, and services for the research community. It is owned by ProQuest. == History == Community of Science was founded in 1988 by Johns Hopkins University. The Community of Science databases were originally hosted online at http://cos.gdb.org/, on the webserver of the GDB Human Genome Database. Community of Science was also accessible via U.S. Department of Agriculture CRIS, National Science Foundation, and Department of Health and Human Services. As of 1997 the CEO and president was Huntington Williams, and the organisation was located in Baltimore, Maryland. == Databases == Community of Science Expertise Community of Science Funding Opportunities – categorised according to a standardised list of keywords Canadian editions of these databases also existed. == Services == Community of Science Funding Alert Community of Science Funding News – published biweekly == Access == The following organisations are subscribed: Association of Commonwealth Universities == See also == List of funding opportunity databases == References ==


id: compressorium-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compressorium-0.md
category: reference
title: Compressorium
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compressorium
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:25.372984+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: compressorium-20260505-0
summary:
The compressorium (plural: compressoria) is a scientific apparatus for applying pressure to a sample for examination with a microscope. Widely used by microscopists in the 19th century, they were produced by companies such as Bausch and Lomb. Many versions of compressoria were developed over the years, with one of the first attributed to the famous histologist Jan Evangelista Purkyně, see picture. Compressoria were still used in the twenty-first century for the identification of Trichinella worms in samples. == References ==


id: computational-representational-understanding-of-mind-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational-representational_understanding_of_mind-0.md
category: reference
title: Computational-representational understanding of mind
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational-representational_understanding_of_mind
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:26.576487+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: computational-representational-understanding-of-mind-20260505-0
summary:
Computational representational understanding of mind (CRUM) is a hypothesis in cognitive science which proposes that thinking is performed by computations operating on representations. This hypothesis assumes that the mind has mental representations analogous to data structures and computational procedures analogous to algorithms, such that computer programs using algorithms applied to data structures can model the mind and its processes. CRUM takes into consideration several theoretical approaches of understanding human cognition, including logic, rule, concept, analogy, image, and connectionist-based systems based on artificial neural networks. These serve as the representation aspects of CRUM theory which are then acted upon to simulate certain aspects of human cognition, such as the use of rule-based systems in neuroeconomics. There is much disagreement on this hypothesis, but CRUM has high regard among some researchers. Philosopher Paul Thagard called it "the most theoretically and experimentally successful approach to mind ever developed". == See also == Cognitive science Computational neuroscience == References == == External links == Glossary for Cognitive Science at the University of Waterloo Paul Thagard


id: conical-refiner-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conical_refiner-0.md
category: reference
title: Conical refiner
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conical_refiner
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:31.606761+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conical-refiner-20260505-0
summary:
The conical refiner is a machine used in the refining of pulp in the papermaking process. It may also be referred to as a Jordan refiner, after the American inventor Joseph Jordan who patented the device in 1858. The conical refiner is a chamber with metal bars mounted around the inside of the container. The material to be refined is pumped into the chamber at high-pressure rate in order to create an abrasive effect as the material is forced through the machine, abraided by the metal bars. At the opposite end of the chamber the resulting pulp is pumped out. == References ==


id: core-facility-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Core_facility-0.md
category: reference
title: Core facility
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Core_facility
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:32.826369+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: core-facility-20260505-0
summary:
A core facility (also known as core laboratory or simply "core", like in "flow cytometry core", occasionally technological platform) is a centralized shared research resource that provides scientific community with access to unique and highly specialized instruments, technologies, services, and experts. Cores are frequently built around a specific technology or instrumentation, but not always (for example, biostatistics cores offer services of experts skilled in the use of software packages). A database of US core facilities is maintained by the Association of Biomolecular Resource Facilities. By the late 20th century, the researchers in the life sciences were increasingly dependent on the use of expensive and complex instruments and techniques that cannot be economically replicated inside each laboratory. In many areas (for example, in translational science) access to core laboratories became essential. Once the research institutions recognized the potential cost savings of provisioning state-of-the-art instrumentation and services in a centralized way, multiple shared facilities were established, prompting discussions about the best ways to administer and finance them. The high-value and difficult-to-operate equipment typically used in a core setting in the beginning of the 21st century included NMR spectrometers, mass spectrometers, Raman spectrometers and microscopes, transmission and Auger electron microscopes, X-ray diffraction spectrometers,


id: curie-s-principle-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curie's_principle-0.md
category: reference
title: Curie's principle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curie's_principle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:33.986657+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: curie-s-principle-20260505-0
summary:
Curie's principle, or Curie's symmetry principle, is a maxim about cause and effect formulated by Pierre Curie in 1894: the symmetries of the causes are to be found in the effects. The idea was based on the ideas of Franz Ernst Neumann and Bernhard Minnigerode. Thus, it is sometimes known as the Neumann–Minnigerode–Curie principle. Later physicists have interpreted Curie's principle in the context of thermodynamics. Dynamics close to equilibrium are described by a set of transport coefficients whose symmetries must match the symmetries of the system, according to Curie's principle. == References ==


id: data-clarification-form-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_clarification_form-0.md
category: reference
title: Data clarification form
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_clarification_form
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:35.225704+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: data-clarification-form-20260505-0
summary:
A data clarification form (DCF) or data query form is a questionnaire specifically used in clinical research. The DCF is the primary data clarification tool from the trial sponsor or contract research organization (CRO) towards the investigator to clarify discrepancies and ask the investigator for clarification. The DCF is part of the data validation process in a clinical trial. == See also == == References == == Further reading == Celine Clive (2004), Handbook of SOPs for Good Clinical Practice, CRC, ISBN 0-8493-2181-6 == External links == DCF entry in Clinical Research Dictionary


id: degree-of-frost-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degree_of_frost-0.md
category: reference
title: Degree of frost
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degree_of_frost
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:36.426459+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: degree-of-frost-20260505-0
summary:
A degree of frost is a non-standard unit of measure for air temperature meaning degrees below melting point (also known as "freezing point") of water (0 degrees Celsius or 32 degrees Fahrenheit). "Degree" in this case can refer to degree Celsius or degree Fahrenheit. When based on Celsius, 0 degrees of frost is the same as 0 °C, and any other value is simply the negative of the Celsius temperature. When based on Fahrenheit, 0 degrees of frost is equal to 32 °F. Conversion formulas: T [degrees of frost] = 32 °F − T [°F] T [°F] = 32 °F − T [degrees of frost] The term "degrees of frost" was widely used in accounts of the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration in the early 20th century. The term appears frequently in Ernest Shackleton's books South and Heart of the Antarctic, Apsley Cherry-Garrard's account of his Antarctic adventures in The Worst Journey in the World (wherein he recorded 109.5 degrees [Fahrenheit] of frost, −77.5 °F or −60.8 °C), in Jack London's "To Build A Fire", as well as Admiral Richard E. Byrd's book Alone. == References ==


id: degrees-of-freedom-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degrees_of_freedom-0.md
category: reference
title: Degrees of freedom
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degrees_of_freedom
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:37.551658+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: degrees-of-freedom-20260505-0
summary:
In many scientific fields, the degrees of freedom of a system is the number of parameters of the system that may vary independently. For example, a point in the plane has two degrees of freedom for translation: its two coordinates; a non-infinitesimal object on the plane might have additional degrees of freedoms related to its orientation. In mathematics, this notion is formalized as the dimension of a manifold or an algebraic variety. When degrees of freedom is used instead of dimension, this usually means that the manifold or variety that models the system is only implicitly defined. See: Degrees of freedom (mechanics), number of independent motions that are allowed to the body or, in case of a mechanism made of several bodies, number of possible independent relative motions between the pieces of the mechanism Degrees of freedom (physics and chemistry), a term used in explaining dependence on parameters, or the dimensions of a phase space Degrees of freedom (statistics), the number of values in the final calculation of a statistic that are free to vary Degrees of freedom problem, the problem of controlling motor movement given abundant degrees of freedom == See also == Six degrees of freedom == References


id: dematerialization-products-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dematerialization_(products)-0.md
category: reference
title: Dematerialization (products)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dematerialization_(products)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:38.793920+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dematerialization-products-20260505-0
summary:
The dematerialization of a product literally means less, or better yet, no material is used to deliver the same level of functionality to the user. Sharing, borrowing and the organization of group services that facilitate and cater for communities needs could alleviate the requirement of ownership of many products. In his book In The Bubble: Designing In A Complex World, John Thakara states that "the average consumer power tool is used for ten minutes in its entire life—but it takes hundreds of times its own weight to manufacture such an object". A product service system with shared tools could simply offer access to them when needed. This shift from a reliance on products to services is the process of dematerialization. Digital music distribution systems, car clubs, bike hire schemes and laundry services all can be examples of dematerialization. == References == == External links == Dematerialization pattern from the Liberating Voices pattern language discusses problems and solutions related to dematerialization


id: distinguished-professor-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distinguished_professor-0.md
category: reference
title: Distinguished professor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distinguished_professor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:40.045046+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: distinguished-professor-20260505-0
summary:
Distinguished professor is an academic title given to some top tenured professors in American universities, schools, or departments. Some distinguished professors may have endowed chairs. Often specific to one institution, titles such as "president's professor", "university professor", "distinguished professor", "distinguished research professor", "distinguished teaching professor", "distinguished university professor", or "regents professor" are granted to a small percentage of the top tenured faculty who are regarded as particularly important in their respective fields of research. Some institutions grant more university-specific, formal titles such as M.I.T.'s "Institute Professor", Yale University's "Sterling Professor", or Duke University's "James B. Duke Professor". Some academic and/or scholarly organizations may also bestow the title "distinguished professor" in recognition of achievement over the course of an academic career. For example, the Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture annually recognizes up to five faculty members at architecture schools in the United States and Canada with the ACSA Distinguished Professor Award. == References ==


id: elicitation-technique-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elicitation_technique-0.md
category: reference
title: Elicitation technique
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elicitation_technique
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:41.304520+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: elicitation-technique-20260505-0
summary:
An elicitation technique is any of a number of data collection techniques used in anthropology, cognitive science, counseling, education, knowledge engineering, linguistics, management, philosophy, psychology, or other fields to gather knowledge or information from people. Recent work in behavioral economics has purported that elicitation techniques can be used to control subject misconceptions and mitigate errors from generally accepted experimental design practices. Elicitation, in which knowledge is sought directly from human beings, is usually distinguished from indirect methods such as gathering information from written sources. A person who interacts with human subjects in order to elicit information from them may be called an elicitor, an analyst, experimenter, or knowledge engineer, depending on the field of study. Elicitation techniques include interviews, observation of either naturally occurring behavior (including as part of participant observation) or behavior in a laboratory setting, or the analysis of assigned tasks. == List of elicitation techniques == Interviews Existing System Project Scope Brain Storming Focus Groups Exploratory Prototypes User Task Analysis Observation Surveys Questionnaire Story Board == References == Elisitasi: Proses dan Metode untuk Merancang Sistem Baru yang Efektif


id: ergonomic-glove-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergonomic_glove-0.md
category: reference
title: Ergonomic glove
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergonomic_glove
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:42.532453+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ergonomic-glove-20260505-0
summary:
An ergonomic glove, also known as a computer glove or support glove, is a stiff glove worn to try to prevent or remedy carpal tunnel syndrome by holding the wrist in a certain position while typing. == References ==


id: evidence-gap-map-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_gap_map-0.md
category: reference
title: Evidence gap map
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_gap_map
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:47.716732+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-gap-map-20260505-0
summary:
An evidence gap map (EGM) is a systematic display of the evidence for a domain which highlights the lack of evidence in particular areas. The evidence gaps typically appear as holes in a matrix of cross-referenced results. == References ==


id: experiment-website-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiment_(website)-0.md
category: reference
title: Experiment (website)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiment_(website)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:48.933373+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: experiment-website-20260505-0
summary:
Experiment, formerly called Microryza, is a US website for crowdfunding science-based research projects. Researchers can post their research projects to solicit pledges. Experiment works on the all-or-nothing funding model. The backers are only charged if the research projects reach their funding target during a set time frame. In February 2014, the site changed its name from Microryza to Experiment.com. == History == It was founded in 2012 by Denny Luan and Cindy Wu, former University of Washington students. The former name Microryza is inspired by Mycorrhizae and symbiotic fungi that lives in the roots of plants. Unlike the popular crowdfunding site Kickstarter, backers of Experiment projects do not get tangible rewards for backing. Researchers share the scientific process directly with the backers and become a part of the project.Additionally, all proposals are subject to review and approval by the site's staff, and any work involving human or animal subjects must by supported by an institutional review board. Experiment charges 11-13% in fees (8% for platform fees and 3-5% for payment processing) only if the campaign is successful. If the campaign does not reach the funding goal, no one is charged. As of Aug 7, 2015, more than 5,000 projects were


id: expert-elicitation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expert_elicitation-0.md
category: reference
title: Expert elicitation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expert_elicitation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:50.238114+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expert-elicitation-20260505-0
summary:
In science, engineering, and research, expert elicitation is the synthesis of opinions of authorities of a subject where there is uncertainty due to insufficient data or when such data is unattainable because of physical constraints or lack of resources. Expert elicitation is essentially a scientific consensus methodology. It is often used in the study of rare events. Expert elicitation allows for parametrization, an "educated guess", for the respective topic under study. Expert elicitation generally helps quantify uncertainty. Expert elicitation tends to be multidisciplinary as well as interdisciplinary, with practically universal applicability, and is used in a broad range of fields. Prominent recent expert elicitation applications include climate change, modeling seismic hazard and damage, association of tornado damage to wind speed in developing the Enhanced Fujita scale, risk analysis for nuclear waste storage. In performing expert elicitation certain factors need to be taken into consideration. The topic must be one for which there are people who have predictive expertise. Furthermore, the objective should be to obtain an experts' carefully considered judgment based on a systematic consideration of all relevant evidence. For this reason one should take care to adopt strategies designed to help the expert being interviewed to avoid overlooking relevant


id: extinction-cross-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_cross-0.md
category: reference
title: Extinction cross
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_cross
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:51.553356+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: extinction-cross-20260505-0
summary:
The extinction cross is an optical phenomenon that is seen when trying to extinguish a laser beam or non-planar white light using crossed polarizers. Ideally, crossed (90° rotated) polarizers block all light, because light that is polarized along the polarization axis of the first polarizer is perpendicular to the polarization axis of the second. When the beam is not perfectly collimated, however, a characteristic fringing pattern is produced. == See also == Polarization (waves) == Further reading == Mineralogy notes 6 See "6.3.5. Review of Uniaxial Optical Properties" Nikon MicroscopyU See Figure 1a


id: forced-convection-in-porous-media-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forced_convection_in_porous_media-0.md
category: reference
title: Forced convection in porous media
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forced_convection_in_porous_media
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:52.743751+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: forced-convection-in-porous-media-20260505-0
summary:
Forced convection is type of heat transport in which fluid motion is generated by an external source like a (pump, fan, suction device, etc.). Heat transfer through porus media is very effective and efficiently. Forced convection heat transfer in a confined porous medium has been a subject of intensive studies during the last decades because of its wide applications. The basic problem in heat convection through porous media consists of predicting the heat transfer rate between a deferentially heated, solid impermeable surface and a fluid-saturated porous medium. Beginning with constant wall temperature. In 2D steady state system ∂ u / ∂ x + ∂ v / ∂ y = 0 {\displaystyle \partial u/\partial x+\partial v/\partial y=0} According to Darcy's law u = − ( K / μ ) ∂ P / ∂ x {\displaystyle u=-(K/\mu )\partial P/\partial x} v = − ( K / μ ) ∂ P / ∂ y {\displaystyle v=-(K/\mu )\partial P/\partial y} u ∂ T / ∂ x + v ∂ T / ∂ y = α ∂ 2 ∂ x 2 T {\displaystyle u\partial T/\partial x+v\partial T/\partial y={\boldsymbol {\alpha }}{\partial ^{2} \over \partial x^{2}}T} u = {\displaystyle u=} U ∞ {\displaystyle U_{\infty }} v =


id: free-fall-machine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_fall_machine-0.md
category: reference
title: Free fall machine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_fall_machine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:53.947295+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: free-fall-machine-20260505-0
summary:
A free fall machine (FFM) is a mechanism designed to permit the development of small biological samples, such as cell cultures, with a simulated effect of micro-gravity under free fall conditions. == Description == The free fall machine (FFM) addresses some of the problems of the simple horizontal clinostat or random positioning machines (RPM). In a typical machine samples are allowed to cycle between free fall for about a metre down a column (micro-gravity simulation, near "0 g") and a "bounce" back to the top of the column that is intended to be so fast (c. 20 g for 20 ms) that it is undetected by the biological sample. The sample therefore experiences an average gravity of near 0 g. Long duration of hyper-gravity is often simulated by machines such as the large diameter centrifuge (LDC) at ESA. To simulate partial-gravity (between simulated 0 and Earth's gravity, 1, such as Mars or Moon gravitational strengths) conditions, an RPM can also be used. == See also == Clinostat Gravitropism Large Diameter Centrifuge Random Positioning Machine == References == == External links == ETH Space Biology Free Fall Machine


id: genome-news-network-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome_News_Network-0.md
category: reference
title: Genome News Network
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome_News_Network
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:55.107652+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genome-news-network-20260505-0
summary:
The Genome News Network (abbreviated GNN) is an online magazine that publishes news articles and educational resources about genomics and medicine. It was founded in 1999, with Barbara Culliton as the founding editor-in-chief. It was originally published by Celera Genomics. In 2001, the Institute for Genomic Research became the magazine's new publisher. An article published in the Lancet Oncology that year stated that the magazine "...offers news, original articles, the online reference book, What’s a genome?, and primers on sequencing and assembling the genome – all well written and illustrated". As of 2010, new issues of the magazine were published biweekly. == References == == External links == Official website


id: gikii-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GikII-0.md
category: reference
title: GikII
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GikII
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:56.238713+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gikii-20260505-0
summary:
GikII is a series of European conferences on the intersections between law, technology and popular culture. It is hosted at a different institution every year. The first conference was in 2006 and was held in Edinburgh, and was organised by Lilian Edwards and Andres Guadamuz. The conference has been held in several European universities and institutions, including University College London, University of Oxford, University of Edinburgh, University of Amsterdam, Alexander von Humboldt Institute for Internet and Society, University of Vienna and University of Sussex. Spin-off workshops are regularly held in addition to the main yearly conference in other parts of the world or as tracks in other conferences, such as at TILTing 2019 at Tilburg University and SoGikII 2009 at the University of New South Wales. The conference deals with what the organisers describe as "geek law", studying the intersection of law, regulation, popular culture and technology. The covered topics include artificial intelligence, cryptocurrencies, virtual worlds, games, tattoos, 3D printing, fan fiction, digital privacy, avatar rights, augmented reality, and robots. == Name == The Call for Papers of the first workshop gave the following explanation: Geeks are the people who contribute to this knowledge: fellow travellers on the digital omnibus,


id: gustatory-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustatory_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: Gustatory technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustatory_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:57.467269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gustatory-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Gustatory technology is the engineering discipline dealing with gustatory representation. == Description == Virtual taste refers to a taste experience generated by a digital taste simulator. Electrodes are used to simulate the taste and feel of real food in the mouth. In 2012, Dr. Nimesha Ranasinghe and a team of researchers at the National University of Singapore developed the digital lollipop, an electronic device capable of transmitting four major taste sensations (salty, sour, sweet and bitter) to the tongue. In 2016 the same team created a square with thermoelectric elements to simulate the sensation of sweetness through changes in temperature. If this system is implemented in mugs or drinking glasses, it could make low-sugar drinks taste sweeter helping people reduce sugar intake. A team from the University of Tokyo created a device that simulates the different textures of food through electricity. The device uses electrodes place on the masseter muscle (a jaw muscle used for chewing) and simulates the texture by changing this muscle frequency. For example, a higher frequency gives the food a harder texture. == References ==


id: high-altitude-research-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-altitude_research-0.md
category: reference
title: High-altitude research
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-altitude_research
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:03.817026+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: high-altitude-research-20260505-0
summary:
There are a wide range of potential applications for research at high altitude, including medical, physiological, and cosmic physics research. == High-altitude medical research == The most obvious and direct application of high-altitude research is to understand altitude illnesses such as acute mountain sickness, and the rare but rapidly fatal conditions, high-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) and high-altitude cerebral edema (HACE). Research at high altitude is also an important way to learn about sea level conditions that are caused or complicated by hypoxia such as chronic lung disease and sepsis. Patients with these conditions are very complex and usually suffer from several other diseases at the same time, so it is virtually impossible to work out which of their problems is caused by lack of oxygen. Altitude research gets round this by studying the effects of oxygen deprivation on otherwise healthy people. Travelling to high altitude is often used as a way of studying the way the body responds to a shortage of oxygen. It is difficult and prohibitively expensive to conduct some of this research at sea level. Although the shortage of air contributes to the effects on the human body, research has found that most altitude sicknesses can be


id: incompatibility-thesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incompatibility_thesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Incompatibility thesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incompatibility_thesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:04.978566+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: incompatibility-thesis-20260505-0
summary:
Incompatibility thesis is an argument in research methodology about incompatibility of quantitative research and qualitative research paradigms in the same research. This thesis is based on philosophies of post-structuralism and post-modernism (among others). Arguments from those philosophies support exclusive superiority of one orientation (usually, the qualitative one) are oppose mixing it with quantitative research (as is advocated by the proponents of mixed-method research who support the compatibility thesis). == Information == Incompatibilists maintain that problems arise not so much at the level of practice, but at the level of epistemological paradigms. In particular, they propose that quantitative and qualitative methods are incompatible on an epistemological level; therefore, the two kinds of methods are incompatible. HOWE 1998, argues that a principle implicit in the incompatibilist's argument ‘that abstract paradigms should determine research methods in a one-way fashion—is untenable’. That paradigms must demonstrate their worth in terms of how they inform, and are informed by, research methods that are successfully employed. Given such a two-way relationship between methods and paradigms, paradigms are evaluated in terms of how well they square with the demands of research practice and incompatibilism vanishes. == References == Onwuegbuzie, Anthony J.; Leech, Nancy L. (2005). "Taking the "Q"


id: infrared-science-archive-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_Science_Archive-0.md
category: reference
title: Infrared Science Archive
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_Science_Archive
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:06.233747+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: infrared-science-archive-20260505-0
summary:
The Infrared Science Archive (IRSA) is the primary archive for the infrared and submillimeter astronomical projects of NASA, the space agency of the United States. IRSA curates the science products of over 15 missions, including the Spitzer Space Telescope, the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE), the Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS), and the Two Micron All-Sky Survey (2MASS). It also serves data from infrared and submillimeter European Space Agency missions with NASA participation, including the Infrared Space Observatory (ISO), Planck, and the Herschel Space Observatory. As of 2019, IRSA provides access to more than 1 petabyte of data consisting of roughly 1 trillion astronomical measurements, which span wavelengths from 1 micron to 10 millimeters and include all-sky coverage in 24 bands. Approximately 10% of all refereed astronomical journal articles cite data sets curated by IRSA. IRSA is part of the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center (IPAC) and is located on the campus of the California Institute of Technology. It is one of NASA's Astrophysics Data Centers, along with the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center (HEASARC), the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST), and others. == References == == External links == Infrared Science Archive Infrared Processing and Analysis Center


id: infrastructure-bias-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure_bias-0.md
category: reference
title: Infrastructure bias
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure_bias
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:07.459896+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: infrastructure-bias-20260505-0
summary:
In economics and social policy, infrastructure bias is the influence of the location and availability of pre-existing infrastructure, such as roads and telecommunications facilities, on social and economic development. In science, infrastructure bias is the influence of existing social or scientific infrastructure on scientific observations. In astronomy and particle physics, where the availability of particular kinds of telescopes or particle accelerators acts as a constraint on the types of experiments that can be done, the data that can be retrieved is biased towards that which can be obtained by the equipment. Procedural bias, related to infrastructure bias, is shown by a case of irregular genetic sampling of Bolivian wild potatoes. A 2000 report of previous studies' sampling found that 60% of samples had been taken near towns or roads, where 22% would be the average, had the samples been taken at random (or from equidistant points, or at specifically varying distances from towns, representative of the average terrain density). == References ==


id: instructional-manipulation-check-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_manipulation_check-0.md
category: reference
title: Instructional manipulation check
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_manipulation_check
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:08.715364+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: instructional-manipulation-check-20260505-0
summary:
An instructional manipulation check, often abbreviated IMC, is a special kind of question inserted in a questionnaire among the regular questions, designed to check whether respondents are paying attention to the instructions. Discarding responses by participants who fail to read the instructions increases the signal-to-noise ratio and can thereby increase the statistical power of an experiment. The tool was developed by Oppenheimer et al. Eliminating random responses this way before performing statistical hypothesis testing may be considered a legitimate form of data manipulation, but should be duly mentioned in publications reporting on the outcome of the experiment in question. == Blue-dot task == Among several forms an IMC can take, a popular one is the so-called blue-dot task, suitable for on-line questionnaires. A number of larger blue circles are arranged according to a Likert scale from (say) "very rarely" to "very frequently". Participants who ignore the instructions and merely want to finish the task will just click any one of these circles. The instructions, however, ask the participants to ignore the larger circles and instead click a little blue dot at the bottom of the screen. Oppenheimer et al. report that in a large sample of undergraduate participants, approximately 7%


id: instrument-effect-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrument_effect-0.md
category: reference
title: Instrument effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrument_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:09.812579+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: instrument-effect-20260505-0
summary:
The instrument effect is an issue in experimental methodology meaning that any change during the measurement, or, the instrument, may influence the research validity. For example, in a control group design experiment, if the instruments used to measure the performance of the experiment group and the control group are different, a wrong conclusion about the experiment would be reached, the research result would be invalid. == References ==


id: international-publisher-ltd-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Publisher_Ltd.-0.md
category: reference
title: International Publisher Ltd.
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Publisher_Ltd.
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:11.012870+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-publisher-ltd-20260505-0
summary:
International Publisher Ltd. (or International Publisher LLC) is an academic paper mill company that coordinates the sale of fake authorships on research papers for publication in an academic journal. The company is headquartered in Moscow (Russia) with offices in Ukraine, Kazakhstan, and Iran, and lists its chief editor as Ksenia Badziun. Its website has existed since 2018. Buyers can preselect a number of critera for their desired article. Many papers are created specifically for the purpose of selling co-authorships, and only after a sufficient number of slots are sold, and the company recruits writers to produce at least some of these papers. Others may be otherwise legitimate articles; there is evidence that it also approaches authors published in high-quality journals to sell co-authorship slots. Slots are priced according to the prestige of the journal and the position of the slot in the list of purported collaborators. == Discovery and investigation == The company was exposed by scientific misconduct tracking website Retraction Watch in 2019. In 2022, a report on arXiv was covered by Science Magazine detailing how International Publisher Ltd. had published hundreds of academic papers across diverse academic journals, including from respected publishing companies. Some of these publishers have


