# kb

id: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology-1.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:08.247145+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Rejected knowledge by academic psychology === In this line of analysis, Wouter J. Hanegraaff introduced the notion of rejected knowledge to describe bodies of thought and practice that once claimed rational or scientific legitimacy but were later excluded from academic discourse. The concept provides historians with a tool for understanding why movements such as mesmerism, psychical research, or vitalist biophysics—though not self-identified as “esoteric”—nonetheless display structural affinities with the esoteric field through their use of subtle-force cosmologies, analogical reasoning, and transformative techniques. === Psychologization of esotericism (historiographical models) === Scholarship has used “psychologization” to describe how esoteric repertoires were reframed in psychological idioms or channelled through therapeutic formats. Wouter J. Hanegraaff proposed a bidirectional traffic—“psychologization of religion” and “sacralization of psychology”—as a lens for modern encounters between esotericism and psychology. Complementarily, long-duration histories of dynamic psychiatry (as theorized by the historiographer of psychiatry Henri Ellenberger) trace continuities from exorcism to mesmerism, hypnosis and the emergence of clinical psychologies, providing a background against which such reframings occurred. Recent work has refined “psychologization” by distinguishing several modes (e.g., complementary, terminological, reductive, idealist) and by analysing the appeal to a distinct “magical plane” (a separate-but-connected psychic locus) that insulates ritual practice from


id: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology-2.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:08.247145+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
In the milieu of the Occult Revival of the 19th century in Western societies the Society for Psychical Research (SPR) became a key contact zone between séance cultures and emerging psychological inquiry. Its programmes covered hypnotism, dissociation, mediumship and “thought-transference” (later standardised as telepathy by Frederic W. H. Myers), with figures such as William James engaging controversy around mediums like Eusapia Palladino and critics like Hugo Münsterberg. Historians read these investigations as part of the broader traffic in which esoteric repertoires (trance techniques, oracular devices) and laboratory or literary methods cross-pollinated, even as medical framings recoded practice in secular psychological terms. Around 1900, currents grouped under modern occultism and comparative projects systematised repertoires that would become salient in psychological translation. Theosophy articulated a modern discourse on subtle bodies and diffused codified “chakra” schemes through handbooks and visual plates that circulated well beyond initiatory settings; these maps furnished a flexible idiom for inner states and “energy” later reframed in counselling and self-development. At the same time, Anthroposophy extended esoteric doctrines into education and para-clinical practice, associating imagination and development with disciplined movement and arts-based therapies (e.g., Eurythmy). Organisationally, anthroposophic centres linked doctrine, pedagogy and therapeutic experiments, creating channels by which symbolic


id: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology-3.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:08.247145+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
Institutional and editorial hubs in this period The Eranos meetings (Ascona) interfaced Jungian circles with history-of-religions scholarship, stabilising psychological readings of premodern symbol-systems (including Asian corpora) in interpretive, non-realist frames. Mid-century workshop venues such as the Esalen Institute (Big Sur) structured experiential formats—encounter, movement, guided imagination—in which symbolic and ritual devices circulated alongside clinical and educational experimentation; associations and journals consolidated Transpersonal psychology as a field. At the boundary of psychology proper, parapsychology laboratories and surveys extended the nineteenth-century psychical-research agenda (e.g., studies of telepathy/clairvoyance) into experimental and questionnaire-based programmes. === Late 20th century to present: hybrids, wellness and coaching === From the late twentieth century, repertoires previously clustered in specialist milieus migrated into wider self-help, wellness and coaching cultures. Modern transpositions of yoga supplied somatic and attentional techniques that could be framed in secular or symbolic terms, sometimes retaining subtle-body vocabularies and sometimes recoded physiologically; posture-based systems and allied practices entered therapeutic and educational niches where they functioned as vehicles for self-regulation without requiring adherence to esoteric cosmologies. In counselling and workshop circuits, oracular media such as tarot, astrology and the I Ching were repurposed as projective tools within interpretive frames, foregrounding narrative construction and reflective dialogue rather than


id: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology-4.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:08.247145+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
Founded by Roberto Assagioli, psychosynthesis articulated a developmental model integrating will, imagination and symbolic techniques (guided imagery, reflective exercises), framed for psychotherapy and education. While drawing selectively on religious and esoteric vocabularies (e.g., stages, higher/unifying self), psychosynthesis presented these as symbolic devices for integration and meaning-making rather than as doctrinal commitments, and established dedicated training and counselling contexts distinct from Jungian institutions. In workshop and clinical formats, psychosynthesis employed structured sequences (evocation of imagery, reflective processing, value clarification) that align with humanistic and transpersonal milieus in which ritualised settings and symbolic repertoires were redeployed for experiential learning. Reviews at the psychology–religion interface underline the need to separate genealogical description from empirical appraisal and to keep realist–occult claims distinct from interpretive, “as-if real” framings. === Somatic and bioenergetic psychology === Wilhelm Reich’s somatic psychotherapy, developed as vegetotherapy and later orgonomy, sought to integrate emotional release with muscular and respiratory dynamics. Although Reich presented his model as biophysics rather than spirituality, his concept of orgone—a universal life energy said to permeate both psyche and cosmos—echoed older vitalist and mesmerist cosmologies. Scholars such as Christopher Partridge and Egil Asprem interpret Reich’s system as part of the modern afterlife of esoteric vitalism, where notions


id: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology-5.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:08.247145+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Parapsychology (boundary-field interface) === Nineteenth-century psychical research evolved into twentieth-century parapsychology, which pursued experimental and survey studies of anomalous cognition (e.g., telepathy, clairvoyance) at the boundary of psychology proper. In this article parapsychology is treated as a historical interface with psychology—linked to case-genres on automatism and dissociation and intersecting selectively with transpersonal psychology debates on non-ordinary states—rather than as a psychological school; genealogical description is kept distinct from evidential claims. == Popular psychology and coaching == From the late twentieth century, repertoires associated with Western esotericism circulated widely through self-help and coaching markets. An American strand often labelled New Thought—later echoed in formulations such as the law of attraction—provided vocabularies of mental causation and affirmation that were readily repackaged as techniques for self-knowledge, motivation and optimisation. Historians read these idioms within the broader late-modern dynamics of occulture and the cultic milieu, which situate diffusion through publishing, workshops, retreats and media rather than through academic psychology. Early twentieth-century popular psychology also popularised relaxation-through-attention methods. Writers such as Annie Payson Call taught guided relaxation and posture–breath discipline for “nerves” and self-regulation in non-clinical settings, combining moral reform with bodily awareness (see relaxation techniques, guided imagery). Her work, including Power Through Repose


id: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology-6.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:08.247145+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
== Esoteric-linked mental health hospitals == In Brazil, Kardecist spiritism (a French origins branch of Spiritualism) developed durable interfaces with mental-health provision through Spiritist psychiatric hospitals that combine conventional psychiatric care with complementary Spiritist practices (e.g., “passes”, mediumistic counselling). Historical and clinical overviews document this model as emerging in the early–mid twentieth century and concentrated in Brazil; surveys describe operating structures, staffing and modalities of care across leading centres. In this article such institutions are treated as regional institutionalizations of an esoteric repertoire within modern healthcare systems; genealogical description is kept distinct from evidential claims about clinical outcomes. A different pathway of institutionalization appears in anthroposophic hospitals in Germany to Anthroposophy—where integrative frameworks include psychiatry/psychosomatics alongside arts-based and movement therapies (e.g., Eurythmy). Reviews of anthroposophic medicine situate these hospitals within an integrative multimodal system, while institutional profiles list dedicated departments (e.g., Gemeinschaftskrankenhaus Herdecke). As elsewhere in the article, institutional presence is reported separately from clinical validation, and interpretive/symbolic framings are distinguished from realist–occult claims. == Comparative techniques and devices == This section surveys devices that operate across otherwise distinct schools—symbolic tools, altered-state protocols, ritual/dramatic/artistic expression formats, body–attention practices, and sound-based procedures—and documents how they were translated into psychological frames (interpretive,


id: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology-7.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:08.247145+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
Sound-focused sessions—e.g., singing bowls and gong baths—are often framed through Pythagorean and (neo)hermetic (The Kybalion) narratives of hidden vibration and cosmic harmony (a Western esoteric lineage) while being presented with Asian aesthetics or branding (“Tibetan bowls”) in late-modern wellness markets. A parallel, secular rationale describes these formats as aids to relaxation, attentional focus and group containment. In either case, practice emphasises patterned sound, pacing and bounded ritual to scaffold meaning-making and regulation, with symbolic/interpretive efficacy foregrounded over realist claims. === Body and attention === Somatic and attentional practices—postures, movement sequences and contemplative exercises—were adopted in modern transpositions of yoga, Buddhist sati, and related repertoires, sometimes retaining Theosophical subtle body vocabularies and sometimes reframed in secular or physiological terms. Historical studies trace how posture-based systems and allied techniques entered wellness and therapeutic niches (e.g. relaxation techniques), where they could function as vehicles for self-regulation without adherence to esoteric or religious cosmologies. Earlier Western harmonial and breath-culture traditions (see Popular psychology and coaching) already framed breathing and relaxation as psychophysical techniques linking mind–body regulation and esoteric ideas of vital influx. === Energy-themed practices (subtle-body framings) === Under “energy” labels (e.g., reiki, “healing touch”, pranic variants), late-modern counselling and coaching milieus sometimes redeploy


id: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology-8.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:08.247145+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
== Bibliography == Faivre, Antoine; Needleman, Jacob, eds. (1992). Modern Esoteric Spirituality. World Spirituality: An Encyclopedic History of the Religious Quest, 21. New York: Crossroad. ISBN 978-0-8245-1145-6. Flournoy, Théodore (1900). From India to the Planet Mars: A Study of a Case of Somnambulism with Glossolalia. New York: Harper & Brothers. Hanegraaff, Wouter J. (1998). New Age Religion and Western Culture: Esotericism in the Mirror of Secular Thought. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-11035-9. Hanegraaff, Wouter J. (2012). Esotericism and the Academy: Rejected Knowledge in Western Culture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-02112-9. Leadbeater, C. W. (1927). The Chakras (PDF). Adyar: Theosophical Publishing House. Partridge, Christopher (2004). The Re-Enchantment of the West, Vol. 1: Alternative Spiritualities, Sacralization, Popular Culture and Occulture. London: T&T Clark. ISBN 978-0-567-08408-8. Campbell, Colin (1972). "The Cult, the Cultic Milieu and Secularization". A Sociological Yearbook of Religion in Britain. 5: 119–136. Rush, M. J. (2016). "The Contribution of Western Esotericism to Transpersonal Psychology". Transpersonal Psychology Review. 18 (1): 32–43. doi:10.53841/bpstran.2016.18.1.32. Singleton, Mark (2010). Yoga Body: The Origins of Modern Posture Practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-539535-8. Pittenger, David J. (1993). "Measuring the MBTI and Coming Up Short". Review of Educational Research. 63 (4): 467–488. doi:10.3102/00346543063004467. Moreira-Almeida, Alexander (2005).


id: western-esotericism-and-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:09.499471+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-science-20260505-0
summary:
The relationship between Western esotericism and science (and particularly the origins of experimental science) is a historiographical overview intersecting academic study of Western esotericism and history of science about how learned esoteric currents (e.g., natural magic, alchemy, hermeticism) interacted with natural philosophy, artisanal knowledge, and later scientific institutions from Antiquity to the twentieth century. It summarizes major debates (e.g., the “Yates thesis”), the role of printing and learned/artisanal networks, and the transformations that led from alchemy and chymistry to early modern chemistry, it also traces nineteenth–twentieth-century continuities in mesmerism, spiritualism, and psychical research. == Scope and definitions == The scope covers learned currents conventionally grouped under Western esotericism and their interactions with natural-philosophical, artisanal, and later scientific practices. In current scholarship, “Western esotericism” functions as an analytic label devised by historians of ideas rather than a stable emic category across periods. Within this remit fall astrology (including astral/astrological magic), alchemy/chymistry, hermetic and theurgic philosophies, “natural magic”, Christian Kabbalah and related Christianized appropriations, and selected nineteenth–twentieth-century continuities (e.g., mesmerism, spiritualisms, psychical research) insofar as they engaged scientific methods, publics, or institutions. Following standard usage, esotericism is treated as a family-resemblance category centered on literate, textually mediated, often elite discourses and practices,


id: western-esotericism-and-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:09.499471+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== From natural magic to infrastructures of credibility === Historians of ideas have charted the forms and fortunes of natural magic and learned magic from the Middle Ages through the seventeenth century, emphasizing ontologies of hidden properties, sympathies, and imaginal techniques, and their philosophical justifications and critics. Parallel research in the social history of science highlights infrastructures that filtered claims: manuscript and print circuits (including books of secrets), the Republic of Letters, early academies and learned societies, and the emergence of publication regimes such as the Philosophical Transactions. === Boundary-work and demarcation === Sociological approaches analyze how scientific communities drew boundaries against “occult” topics through norms of civility, replicable evidence, and credit allocation. Such “boundary-work” helps to explain why some esoteric claims were domesticated (e.g., elements of chemical practice) while others were marginalized, rebranded, or expelled. In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, studies of animal magnetism, spiritualism, and psychical research show continued negotiations at the edges of emerging disciplines, from clinics and laboratories to voluntary associations. === Long nineteenth century: disenchantment and “scientification” === Recent work situates esotericism within broader narratives of secularization and the reconfiguration of “religion” and “science.” One line of analysis tracks how scientific naturalism rearticulated


id: western-esotericism-and-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:09.499471+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Recipe literature and channels of diffusion === Technical books and compilations of “books of secrets” connected artisanal practice with learned theorizing, creating conduits that printers would later expand in the Renaissance. These manuals aggregated procedures for dyes, metallurgy, pharmacology, and image-making and helped form publics attuned to experiment, collection, and disclosure. === Scholastic uptake and debate === The influx of Arabic–Latin materials reshaped natural-philosophical vocabularies and controversies. Astronomical and medical applications of astrology, debates over hidden properties, and programmatic alchemical claims were selectively integrated into university teaching and commentary while also provoking clerical scrutiny—setting the stage for later medieval distinctions between licit “natural” explanations and illicit invocations. == Medieval Latin world (11th–15th centuries) == Between the eleventh and fifteenth centuries, the Latin West integrated translated corpora on astrology, alchemy, and learned magic into monastic, scholastic, and urban settings, while developing classifications later grouped under the “occult sciences.” Texts such as the Latin Picatrix, the Pseudo-Geber alchemical corpus, lapidaries, and image-magic handbooks circulated alongside natural-philosophical commentaries, medical compendia, and technical recipes. === Monastic collections and clerical readership === Monastic libraries and clerical readers preserved and annotated works on natural and ritual magic even as ecclesiastical norms constrained their use. Collections


id: western-esotericism-and-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:09.499471+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-science-20260505-0
summary:
Seventeenth-century practitioners reorganized late medieval and Renaissance repertoires into a mixed enterprise of alchemy and chemistry often labeled chymistry. Workshops and purpose-built laboratories standardized instruments (furnaces, crucibles, retorts, alembics) and procedures (calcination, distillation, sublimation, solution, precipitation), linking material operations to questions about analysis, composition, and medical utility. Programmatic attacks on Galenic medicine and defenses of chemical remedies by Paracelsian physicians fed a therapeutic and analytical turn that coexisted with transmutational ambitions. === Case-studies and overlapping repertoires === Studies of individual practitioners complicate linear stories of “disenchantment.” George Starkey (Eirenaeus Philalethes) developed furnace designs, protocols, and reagents that circulated widely; his collaboration and exchanges with Robert Boyle show how alchemical goals and experimental norms interpenetrated. Boyle’s experimental program drew on chymical skill and recipes while articulating new rhetorical and methodological expectations for public witnessing and replication, often highlighted in accounts of early modern experimental culture. At the mathematical end of natural philosophy, Isaac Newton pursued extensive alchemical reading and laboratory work—on metallic generation, “vegetation,” and the ignis secretus—integrating them with his broader investigations of nature. Rather than a clean break, scholarship depicts a spectrum of overlap in ends (medicine, analysis, perfection), media (glassware, heat management), and genres (notebooks, “secrets,” experimental reports)


id: western-esotericism-and-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_science-4.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:09.499471+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Egyptosophy and Egyptology === Scholars use the term Egyptosophy (Ägyptosophie) to denote the early-modern and modern Western construction of “ancient Egypt” as a reservoir of esoteric wisdom, a lineage that runs from late antique Hermeticism through Renaissance and Baroque syntheses and into nineteenth- and twentieth-century occult revivals. Within the historiography of science, this Egyptosophic imaginary is treated as a cultural precursor rather than a scientific ancestor: it sustained attention, collecting practices, and interpretive expectations (for example, Athanasius Kircher’s ambitious but largely erroneous readings), and it fed the broader current often labeled egyptomania. By contrast, Egyptology emerged in the 1820s as a distinct scholarly field grounded in philology and archaeology, following Jean-François Champollion’s phonetic decipherment of hieroglyphs (1822). In this sense, the relationship between Egyptosophy and Egyptology can be described—analogously to Astrology and Astronomy, or Alchemy and Chemistry—as a historical bifurcation: they share an object (ancient Egypt) and some early impulses, but diverge in method, evidentiary standards, and aims (soteriological and allegorical readings versus critical historicization and language-based analysis). Historians of science also interpret this shift as an instance of disciplinary boundary-making within the broader demarcation of science from non-science. == Nineteenth century: animal magnetism, spiritualisms, psychologies == Across the


id: western-esotericism-and-science-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_science-5.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:09.499471+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Works cited == Asprem, Egil (2014). The Problem of Disenchantment: Scientific Naturalism and Esoteric Discourse, 1900–1939. Leiden: Brill. Copenhaver, Brian P. (1992). Hermetica: The Greek Corpus Hermeticum and the Latin Asclepius. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Copenhaver, Brian P. (2015). Magic in Western Culture: From Antiquity to the Enlightenment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Daston, Lorraine; Park, Katharine (1998). Wonders and the Order of Nature, 1150–1750. New York: Zone Books. Dear, Peter (2001). Revolutionizing the Sciences: European Knowledge and Its Ambitions, 1500–1700. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Debus, Allen G. (1977). The Chemical Philosophy: Paracelsian Science and Medicine in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. New York: Science History Publications. Eamon, William (1994). Science and the Secrets of Nature: Books of Secrets in Medieval and Early Modern Culture. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Faivre, Antoine (1994). Access to Western Esotericism. Albany: SUNY Press. Findlen, Paula (1994). Possessing Nature: Museums, Collecting, and Scientific Culture in Early Modern Italy. Berkeley: University of California Press. Fowden, Garth (1986). The Egyptian Hermes: A Historical Approach to the Late Pagan Mind. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Gieryn, Thomas F. (1999). Cultural Boundaries of Science: Credibility on the Line. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Gieryn, Thomas F. (1983). "Boundary-Work and the


id: william-phelps-ornithological-collection-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Phelps_Ornithological_Collection-0.md
category: reference
title: William Phelps Ornithological Collection
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Phelps_Ornithological_Collection
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:10.656243+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: william-phelps-ornithological-collection-20260505-0
summary:
The William Phelps Ornithological Collection, also known as the Phelps Ornithological Museum, is a museum of natural sciences dedicated to the study, exhibition and preservation of the birds of Venezuela and the rest of Latin America. The collection is located east of Caracas and in the geographic center of Greater Caracas, in the heart of the Sabana Grande district. The William Phelps ornithological collection is the most important in Latin America and it is also the most important private collection in the world in its research area. In this private museum one will find important Phelps family study books, as well as 8000 scientific volumes in the library, more than 83,000 anatomical specimens, more than 80,000 skins, etc. For the year 1990, it was said that the William Phelps Ornithological Collection contained more than 76,300 skins and a small number of anatomical specimens, in the Gran Sabana Building of Sabana Grande. The Phelps library in 1990 already had 6,000 books, 800 journals and 5,500 reprints, mostly from natural sciences. == History == The ornithological collection was born in 1938, although it did not have its own headquarters on the Boulevard of Sabana Grande until 1949. At the beginning of 2018,


id: atmospheric-chemistry-suite-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_Chemistry_Suite-0.md
category: reference
title: Atmospheric Chemistry Suite
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_Chemistry_Suite
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:14.456406+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: atmospheric-chemistry-suite-20260505-0
summary:
The Atmospheric Chemistry Suite (ACS) is a science payload consisting of three infrared spectrometer channels aboard the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO) orbiting Mars since October 2016. The three channels are: the near-infrared channel (NIR), the mid-infrared channel (MIR), and the far infrared channel (FIR, also called TIRVIM). The ACS was proposed in 2011 by Russian Academy Section and eventually accepted by the European Space Agency (ESA) and Roscosmos as one of two Russian instruments onboard TGO. The instrument was funded by Roscosmos and Centre national d'études spatiales (CNES) of France, and has components of both Russia and France. Its development and fabrication was under Russian leadership. The functionality of all the three channels was confirmed during cruise to Mars. == Objectives == The main objective of the ACS suite is to make an inventory and map minor atmospheric species or trace gases in the atmosphere of Mars. This will allow scientists to profile the upper limits on the methane contents, and to possibly to detect sulfur dioxide (SO2), a gas of volcanic origin. == Channels == The near-infrared channel (NIR), is a compact spectrometer operating in the range of 0.7–1.7 μm with a resolving power of λ/Δλ ~ 20,000


id: bailer-hydrogeology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bailer_(hydrogeology)-0.md
category: reference
title: Bailer (hydrogeology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bailer_(hydrogeology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:15.600585+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bailer-hydrogeology-20260505-0
summary:
A bailer in hydrogeology is a hollow tube used to retrieve groundwater samples from monitoring wells. The wells are typically built out of PVC casing which is slotted to allow groundwater to flow freely through the well. Bailers are tied to a piece of rope (usually made from nylon or polypropylene) or a piece of wire (composed of Teflon or stainless steel) and lowered into the water column. Once lowered, the bailer uses a simple ball check valve to seal at the bottom in order to pull up a sample of the groundwater table. Bailers can be disposable or reusable, and they are made out of polyethylene, PVC, FEP or stainless steel. There are advantages and disadvantages to using bailers for groundwater sampling. Bailers are simple devices to use and are relatively inexpensive. Disposable bailers are usually cleaned to United States Environmental Protection Agency specifications and individually packaged to protect sample integrity. In addition, bailers can be lowered to any depth while pumps have sharp limitations on the depth of the well. The main drawback of using bailers is aeration of the water as the sample is obtained, which could release volatile organic compounds that need to be tested. Also,


id: bathometer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathometer-0.md
category: reference
title: Bathometer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathometer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:16.779394+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bathometer-20260505-0
summary:
A bathometer (also bathymeter) is an instrument for measuring water depth. It was previously used mainly in oceanographical studies, but is rarely employed nowadays. The term originates from Greek βαθύς (bathys), "deep" and μέτρον (métron), "measure". == History == The earliest idea for a bathometer is due to Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472) who sunk a hollow sphere attached to some ballast with a hook. When the ball reached the bottom it detached from the ballast and resurfaced. The depth was determined (rather inaccurately) by the time it took to surface. Jacob Perkins (1766–1849) proposed a bathometer based on the compressibility of water. In this instrument the movement of a piston compressing a body of water enclosed in its cylinder is dependent on the pressure of the water outside the cylinder, and hence its depth. The amount the piston moved can be measured when it is returned to the surface. A bathometer that did not need to be submerged was invented in 1876 by William Siemens, stimulated by the needs of the telegraph industry. Siemens' instrument was the first to come into widespread use and is so different and so much more practical than anything that had gone before that he


id: cary-14-spectrophotometer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cary_14_Spectrophotometer-0.md
category: reference
title: Cary 14 Spectrophotometer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cary_14_Spectrophotometer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:18.009956+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cary-14-spectrophotometer-20260505-0
summary:
The Cary Model 14 UV-VIS Spectrophotometer was a double beam recording spectrophotometer designed to operate over the wide spectral range of ultraviolet, visible and near infrared wavelengths (UV/Vis/NIR). This included wavelengths ranging from 185 nanometers to 870 nanometers. (The Cary Model 14B, almost identical in exterior appearance, measured wavelengths from .5 to 6.0 microns.) The Cary 14 spectrophotometer was first produced in 1954 by the Applied Physics Corporation, which later was named the Cary Instruments Corporation after co-founder Howard Cary. The instrument was a successor to the Cary 11, which was the first commercially available recording UV/Vis spectrophotometer. It was produced until 1980, and refurbished models can still be obtained. == Design and use == The double beam design of the Cary 14 provided rapid, simplified analysis by simultaneously measuring the transmittance of both the sample and the reference over the entire spectral range. The optics of the Cary 14 were a key feature. The double monochromator in particular was described and patented. The Cary 14 was one of the first instruments to incorporate high-quality gratings into its monochromators. To take readings in the ultraviolet or visible range, either a deuterium or tungsten lamp was used, with the light focussed


id: celloscope-automated-cell-counter-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celloscope_automated_cell_counter-0.md
category: reference
title: Celloscope automated cell counter
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celloscope_automated_cell_counter
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:19.188118+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: celloscope-automated-cell-counter-20260505-0
summary:
Celloscope automated cell counter was developed in the 1950s for enumeration of erythrocytes, leukocytes, and thrombocytes in blood samples. Together with the Coulter counter, the Celloscope analyzer can be considered one of the predecessors of today's automated hematology analyzers, as the principle of the electrical impedance method is still utilized in cell counters installed in clinical laboratories around the world. == History == The Celloscope was developed for the Swedish company AB Lars Ljungberg & Co under the direction of engineer Erik Öhlin at Linson Instrument AB. In an interview published in the Clinical Biochemistry in the Nordics, a membership magazine for the Nordic Association for Clinical Chemistry, Lars Ljungberg explains that he and his coworkers had been considering different solutions for counting blood cells for some time when they came across a method presented by the American Navy on how particles could be counted when allowed to pass a capillary hole through which a weak direct current was passed simultaneously. The Celloscope method exploits the feature of blood cells not being conductive and therefore make interruptions (pulses) to the current, which then can be counted. What Ljungberg and coworkers did not know was that Wallace H. Coulter in Chicago


id: colorimeter-chemistry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorimeter_(chemistry)-0.md
category: reference
title: Colorimeter (chemistry)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorimeter_(chemistry)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:23.481845+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: colorimeter-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
A colorimeter is a device used in colorimetry that measures the absorbance of particular wavelengths of light by a specific solution. It is commonly used to determine the concentration of a known solute in a given solution by the application of the Beer–Lambert law, which states that the concentration of a solute is proportional to the absorbance. == Construction == The essential parts of a colorimeter are: a light source (often an ordinary low-voltage filament lamp); an adjustable aperture; a set of colored filters; a cuvette to hold the working solution; a detector (usually a photoresistor) to measure the transmitted light; a meter to display the output from the detector. In addition, there may be: a voltage regulator, to protect the instrument from fluctuations in mains voltage; a second light path, cuvette and detector. This enables comparison between the working solution and a "blank", consisting of pure solvent, to improve accuracy. There are many commercialized colorimeters as well as open source versions with construction documentation for education and for research. === Filters === Changeable optics filters are used in the colorimeter to select the wavelength which the solute absorbs the most, in order to maximize accuracy. The usual wavelength range


id: cosmic-dust-analyzer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_Dust_Analyzer-0.md
category: reference
title: Cosmic Dust Analyzer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_Dust_Analyzer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:24.632084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cosmic-dust-analyzer-20260505-0
summary:
The Cosmic Dust Analyzer (CDA) was a large-area (0.1 m2 total sensitive area) multi-sensor dust instrument included on the Cassini spacecraft, which was launched in 1997 and orbited Saturn from 2004 to 2017. The instrument included a chemical dust analyzer (time-of-flight mass spectrometer), a highly reliable impact ionization detector, and two high rate polarized polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) detectors. Over 7 years en route to Saturn, the CDA analysed the interplanetary dust cloud, the stream of interstellar dust, and Jupiter dust streams. During 13 years in orbit around Saturn, the CDA studied the E ring, dust in the plumes of Enceladus, and dust in Saturn's environment. == Overview == The Cosmic Dust Analyzer was the seventh dust instrument from the Max Planck Institute for Nuclear Physics (MPIK), Heidelberg (Germany) following the dust detectors on the HEOS 2 satellite and dust detectors on the Galileo and Ulysses space probes and the more complex dust analyzers on the Helios spacecraft, the Giotto and VeGa spacecraft to Halley's Comet. The new dust analyzer system was developed by a team of scientists led by Eberhard Grün and engineers led by Dietmar Linkert to analyze dust in the Saturn system on board the Cassini spacecraft. This


id: deposit-gauge-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deposit_gauge-0.md
category: reference
title: Deposit gauge
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deposit_gauge
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:25.831510+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: deposit-gauge-20260505-0
summary:
A deposit gauge is a large, funnel-like scientific instrument used for capturing and measuring atmospheric particulates, notably soot, carried in air pollution and deposited back down to ground. == Design and construction == Deposit gauges are similar to rain gauges. They have a large circular funnel on top, made of a material that will not be corroded by acid rain (such as stone, in early versions, or anodized aluminium, in modern ones). This is mounted on a simple wooden or metal stand, which drains down into a collection bottle beneath. Typically the funnel has a wire-mesh screen around its perimeter to deter perching birds. They are made to a standardized design, which means the pollution collected in different places can be systematically studied and compared. The bottle is removed after a period of time (usually from a week to a month) and the contents taken away for analysis of water (such as rain, fog, and snow), insoluble matter (such as soot), and soluble matter. === Standard designs === The various standardized designs include: The standard deposit gauge, introduced in 1916 and formalized in a British Standard in 1951 The International Standard (ISO/DIS 4222.2) deposit gauge The Norwegian NILU gauge, which


id: dichroscope-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dichroscope-0.md
category: reference
title: Dichroscope
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dichroscope
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:27.051509+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dichroscope-20260505-0
summary:
A dichroscope is a pocket instrument used in the field of gemology, and can be used to test transparent gemstones (crystals). Experienced gemologists, observing the pleochroism of some gems, can successfully detect gemstones from other artificial stones using this instrument. There are two types of dichroscopes available: calcite and polarizing. Of the two, calcite gives better results and is widely used by experienced gemologists. With the polarizing type, only one pleochroic color can be seen at a time. This makes the process time-consuming and difficult, though it is the most economical way to get results. The dichroscope has been used since at least the start of the nineteenth century. == Calcite dichroscope == A calcite dichroscope shows a gem's pleochroic colors in contrast with one another, allowing the viewer to easily determine whether the stone is singly or doubly refractive (uniaxial or biaxial, respectively). Singly refractive stones do not split light that enters them, leaving light as a single beam as it exits the stone. On the contrary, doubly refractive stones may split an entering light beam into two rays (an ordinary ray and an extraordinary ray) depending on the angle, a property known as birefringence. Calcite dichroscopes are effective


id: dna-sequencer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequencer-0.md
category: reference
title: DNA sequencer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequencer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:28.229170+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dna-sequencer-20260505-0
summary:
A DNA sequencer is a scientific instrument used to automate the DNA sequencing process. Given a sample of DNA, a DNA sequencer is used to determine the order of the four bases: G (guanine), C (cytosine), A (adenine) and T (thymine). This is then reported as a text string, called a read. Some DNA sequencers can be also considered optical instruments as they analyze light signals originating from fluorochromes attached to nucleotides. The first automated DNA sequencer, invented by Lloyd M. Smith, was introduced by Applied Biosystems in 1987. It used the Sanger sequencing method, a technology which formed the basis of the "first generation" of DNA sequencers and enabled the completion of the Human Genome Project in 2001. This first generation of DNA sequencers are essentially automated electrophoresis systems that detect the migration of labelled DNA fragments. Therefore, these sequencers can also be used in the genotyping of genetic markers where only the length of a DNA fragment(s) needs to be determined (e.g. microsatellites, AFLPs). The Human Genome Project spurred the development of cheaper, high throughput and more accurate platforms known as Next Generation Sequencers (NGS) to sequence the human genome. These include the 454, SOLiD and Illumina DNA


id: dna-sequencer-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequencer-1.md
category: reference
title: DNA sequencer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequencer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:28.229170+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dna-sequencer-20260505-0
summary:
=== Roche === The 454 DNA sequencer was the first next-generation sequencer to become commercially successful. It was developed by 454 Life Sciences and purchased by Roche in 2007. 454 utilizes the detection of pyrophosphate released by the DNA polymerase reaction when adding a nucleotide to the template strain. Roche currently manufactures two systems based on their pyrosequencing technology: the GS FLX+ and the GS Junior System. The GS FLX+ System promises read lengths of approximately 1000 base pairs while the GS Junior System promises 400 base pair reads. A predecessor to GS FLX+, the 454 GS FLX Titanium system was released in 2008, achieving an output of 0.7G of data per run, with 99.9% accuracy after quality filter, and a read length of up to 700bp. In 2009, Roche launched the GS Junior, a bench top version of the 454 sequencer with read length up to 400bp, and simplified library preparation and data processing. One of the advantages of 454 systems is their running speed. Manpower can be reduced with automation of library preparation and semi-automation of emulsion PCR. A disadvantage of the 454 system is that it is prone to errors when estimating the number of bases in


id: dna-sequencer-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequencer-2.md
category: reference
title: DNA sequencer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequencer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:28.229170+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dna-sequencer-20260505-0
summary:
=== Beckman Coulter === Beckman Coulter (now Danaher) has previously manufactured chain termination and capillary electrophoresis-based DNA sequencers under the model name CEQ, including the CEQ 8000. The company now produces the GeXP Genetic Analysis System, which uses dye terminator sequencing. This method uses a thermocycler in much the same way as PCR to denature, anneal, and extend DNA fragments, amplifying the sequenced fragments. === Pacific Biosciences === Pacific Biosciences produces the PacBio RS and Sequel sequencing systems using a single molecule real time sequencing, or SMRT, method. This system can produce read lengths of multiple thousands of base pairs. Higher raw read errors are corrected using either circular consensus - where the same strand is read over and over again - or using optimized assembly strategies. Scientists have reported 99.9999% accuracy with these strategies. The Sequel system was launched in 2015 with an increased capacity and a lower price. === Oxford Nanopore === Oxford Nanopore Technologies' MinION sequencer is based on evolving nanopore sequencing technology to nucleic acid analyses. The device is four inches long and gets power from a USB port. MinION decodes DNA directly as the molecule is drawn at the rate of 450 bases/second through a


id: du-spectrophotometer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DU_spectrophotometer-0.md
category: reference
title: DU spectrophotometer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DU_spectrophotometer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:29.374364+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: du-spectrophotometer-20260505-0
summary:
The DU spectrophotometer or Beckman DU, introduced in 1941, was the first commercially viable scientific instrument for measuring the amount of ultraviolet light absorbed by a substance. This model of spectrophotometer enabled scientists to easily examine and identify a given substance based on its absorption spectrum, the pattern of light absorbed at different wavelengths. Arnold O. Beckman's National Technical Laboratories (later Beckman Instruments) developed three in-house prototype models (A, B, C) and one limited distribution model (D) before moving to full commercial production with the DU. Approximately 30,000 DU spectrophotometers were manufactured and sold between 1941 and 1976. Sometimes referred to as a UV–Vis spectrophotometer because it measured both the ultraviolet (UV) and visible spectra, the DU spectrophotometer is credited as being a truly revolutionary technology. It yielded more accurate results than previous methods for determining the chemical composition of a complex substance, and substantially reduced the time needed for an accurate analysis from weeks or hours to minutes. The Beckman DU was essential to several critical secret research projects during World War II, including the development of penicillin and synthetic rubber. == Background == Before the development of the DU spectrophotometer, analysis of a test sample to determine its


id: du-spectrophotometer-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DU_spectrophotometer-1.md
category: reference
title: DU spectrophotometer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DU_spectrophotometer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:29.374364+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: du-spectrophotometer-20260505-0
summary:
=== Model A (prototype) === The first prototype Beckman spectrophotometer, the Model A, was created at National Technologies Laboratories in 1940. It used a tungsten light source with a glass Fery prism as a monochromator. Tungsten was used for incandescent light filaments because it was strong, withstood heat, and emitted a steady light. Types of light sources differed in the range of wavelengths of light that they emitted. Tungsten lamps were useful in the visible light range but gave poor coverage in the ultraviolet range. However, they had the advantage of being readily available because they were used as automobile headlamps. An external amplifier from the Beckman pH meter and a vacuum tube photocell were used to detect wavelengths. === Model B (prototype) === It was quickly realized that a glass dispersive prism was not suitable for use in the ultraviolet spectrum. Glass absorbed electromagnetic radiation below 400 millimicrons rather than dispersing it. In the Model B, a quartz prism was substituted for the earlier glass. A tangent bar mechanism was used to adjust the monochromator. The mechanism was highly sensitive and required a skilled operator. Only two Model B prototypes were made. One was sold: in February 1941, to


id: du-spectrophotometer-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DU_spectrophotometer-2.md
category: reference
title: DU spectrophotometer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DU_spectrophotometer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:29.374364+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: du-spectrophotometer-20260505-0
summary:
When RCA could not meet Beckman's demand for experimental phototubes, National Technical Laboratories again had to design its own components in-house. They developed a pair of phototubes, sensitive to the red and blue areas of the spectrum, capable of amplifying the signals they received. With the incorporation of Beckman's UV-sensitive phototubes, the Model D became the Model DU UV–Vis spectrophotometer. Its designation as a "UV–Vis" spectrophotometer indicates its ability to measure light in both the visible and ultraviolet spectra. The DU was the first commercially viable scientific instrument for measuring the amount of ultraviolet light absorbed by a substance. As he had done with the pH meter, Beckman had replaced an array of complicated equipment with a single, easy-to-use instrument. One of the first fully integrated instruments or "black boxes" used in modern chemical laboratories, it sold for $723 in 1941. It is generally assumed that the "DU" in the name was a combination of "D" for the Model D on which it was based, and "U" for the ultraviolet spectrum. However, it has been suggested that "DU" may also reference Beckman's fraternity at the University of Illinois, Delta Upsilon, whose members were called "DU"s. A publication in the scholarly


id: du-spectrophotometer-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DU_spectrophotometer-3.md
category: reference
title: DU spectrophotometer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DU_spectrophotometer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:29.374364+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: du-spectrophotometer-20260505-0
summary:
The Beckman spectrophotometer was the first easy-to-use single instrument containing both the optical and electronic components needed for ultraviolet-absorption spectrophotometry within a single housing. The user could insert a cell tray with standard and sample cells, dial up the desired wavelength of light, confirm that the instrument was properly set by measuring the standard, and then measure the amount of absorption of the sample, reading the frequency from a simple meter. A series of readings at different wavelengths could be taken without disturbing the sample. The DU spectrophotometer's manual scanning method was extremely fast, reducing analysis times from weeks or hours to minutes. It was accurate in both the visible and ultraviolet ranges. Working in both the ultraviolet and the visible regions of the spectrum, the model DU produced accurate absorption spectra which could be obtained with relative ease and accurately replicated. The National Bureau of Standards ran tests to certify that the DU's results were accurate and repeatable and recommended its use. Other advantages included its high resolution and the minimization of stray light in the ultraviolet region. Although it was not cheap, its initial price of $723 made it available to the average laboratory. In comparison, in 1943,


id: du-spectrophotometer-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DU_spectrophotometer-4.md
category: reference
title: DU spectrophotometer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DU_spectrophotometer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:29.374364+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: du-spectrophotometer-20260505-0
summary:
=== Enzyme assays and DNA research === Gerty Cori and her husband Carl Ferdinand Cori won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1947 in recognition of their work on enzymes. They made several discoveries critical to understanding carbohydrate metabolism, including the isolation and discovery of the Cori ester, glucose 1-phosphate, and the understanding of the Cori cycle. They determined that the enzyme phosphorylase catalyzes formation of glucose 1-phosphate, which is the beginning and ending step in the conversions of glycogen into glucose and blood glucose to glycogen. Gerty Cori was also the first to show that a defect in an enzyme can be the cause of a human genetic disease. The Beckman DU spectrophotometer was used in the Cori laboratory to calculate enzyme concentrations, including phosphorylase. Another researcher who spent six months in 1947 at the Cori laboratory, "the most vibrant place in biochemistry" at that time, was Arthur Kornberg. Kornberg was already familiar with the DU spectrophotometer, which he had used at Severo Ochoa's laboratory at New York University. The "new and scarce" Beckman DU, loaned to Ochoa by the American Philosophical Society, was highly prized and in constant use. Kornberg used it to purify aconitase, an


id: dual-polarization-interferometry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual-polarization_interferometry-0.md
category: reference
title: Dual-polarization interferometry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual-polarization_interferometry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:30.582869+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dual-polarization-interferometry-20260505-0
summary:
Dual-polarization interferometry (DPI) is an analytical technique that probes molecular layers adsorbed to the surface of a waveguide using the evanescent wave of a laser beam. It is used to measure the conformational change in proteins, or other biomolecules, as they function (referred to as the conformation activity relationship). == Instrumentation == DPI focuses laser light into two waveguides. One of these functions as the "sensing" waveguide having an exposed surface while the second one functions to maintain a reference beam. A two-dimensional interference pattern is formed in the far field by combining the light passing through the two waveguides. The DPI technique rotates the polarization of the laser, to alternately excite two polarization modes of the waveguides. Measurement of the interferogram for both polarizations allows both the refractive index and the thickness of the adsorbed layer to be calculated. The polarization can be switched rapidly, allowing real-time measurements of chemical reactions taking place on a chip surface in a flow-through system. These measurements can be used to infer conformational information about the molecular interactions taking place, as the molecule size (from the layer thickness) and the fold density (from the RI) change. DPI is typically used to characterize biochemical


id: ecotron-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecotron-0.md
category: reference
title: Ecotron
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecotron
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:31.755715+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecotron-20260505-0
summary:
An Ecotron is an experimental instrument in ecology consisting of a controlled environment which makes it possible to simultaneously condition the environment of natural, simplified, or completely artificial ecosystems and measure the processes generated by living beings present in these ecosystems, in particular the flow of matter and energy. == Design == Its principle is to confine ecosystems in totally or partially waterproof enclosures which are permeable to energy flow and capable of generating a range of physical and chemical conditions applied to terrestrial or aquatic ecosystems, continental or marine. Environmental control and real-time measurements are precise enough to test hypotheses or operating models. For this purpose, the enclosures are fitted with significant equipment allowing continuous measurement of fluxes, states or biological characteristics. Other specific measurements, in situ and ex situ, on samples taken complete these online measurements. A sufficient number of independent confinement chambers is necessary to study several interacting factors in a framework of statistical inference. Depending on the case, we speak of a macrocosm when the space is large enough to study several m3 of reconstituted ecosystem over a period of time, generally measured in years (3-5 years or more for example), of microcosm for volumes measuring


id: filar-micrometer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filar_micrometer-0.md
category: reference
title: Filar micrometer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filar_micrometer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:32.890741+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: filar-micrometer-20260505-0
summary:
A filar micrometer is a specialized eyepiece used in astronomical telescopes for astrometry measurements, in microscopes for specimen measurements, and in alignment and surveying telescopes for measuring angles and distances on nearby objects. "Filar" derives from the Latin filum ("thread"). It refers to the fine threads or wires used in the device. == Construction and use == A typical filar micrometer consists of a reticle that has two fine parallel wires or threads that can be moved by the observer using a micrometer screw mechanism. The wires are placed in the focal image plane of the eyepiece so they remain sharply superimposed over the object under observation, while the micrometer motion moves the wires across the focal plane. Other designs employ a fixed reticle, against which one wire or a second reticle moves. By rotating the eyepiece assembly in the eyetube, the measurement axis can be aligned to match the orientation of the two points of observation. At one time, it was common to use spider silk as a thread. By placing one wire over one point of interest and moving the other to a second point, the distance between the two wires can be measured with the micrometer portion


id: fourier-transform-infrared-spectroscopy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier-transform_infrared_spectroscopy-0.md
category: reference
title: Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier-transform_infrared_spectroscopy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:34.037453+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fourier-transform-infrared-spectroscopy-20260505-0
summary:
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) is a technique used to obtain an infrared spectrum of absorption or emission of a solid, liquid, or gas. An FTIR spectrometer collects high-resolution spectral data over a wide spectral range. This confers a significant advantage over a dispersive spectrometer, which measures intensity over a narrow range of wavelengths at a time. The term Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy originates from the fact that a Fourier transform (a mathematical process) is required to convert the raw data into the actual spectrum. == Conceptual introduction == Absorption spectroscopy techniques (FTIR, ultraviolet-visible ("UV-vis") spectroscopy, etc.) measure how much light a sample absorbs at each wavelength. The most straightforward way to do this, the "dispersive spectroscopy" technique, is to shine a monochromatic light beam at a sample, measure how much of the light is absorbed, and repeat for each different wavelength (this is also how some UV–vis spectrometers take measurements). Fourier transform spectroscopy is a less intuitive way to obtain the same information. Rather than shining a monochromatic beam of light (a beam composed of only a single wavelength) at the sample, this technique shines a beam containing many frequencies of light at once and measures how much of


id: fourier-transform-infrared-spectroscopy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier-transform_infrared_spectroscopy-1.md
category: reference
title: Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier-transform_infrared_spectroscopy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:34.037453+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fourier-transform-infrared-spectroscopy-20260505-0
summary:
In a Michelson interferometer adapted for FTIR, light from the polychromatic infrared source, approximately a black-body radiator, is collimated and directed to a beam splitter. Ideally 50% of the light is refracted towards the fixed mirror and 50% is transmitted towards the moving mirror. Light is reflected from the two mirrors back to the beam splitter and some fraction of the original light passes into the sample compartment. There, the light is focused on the sample. On leaving the sample compartment the light is refocused on to the detector. The difference in optical path length between the two arms to the interferometer is known as the retardation or optical path difference (OPD). An interferogram is obtained by varying the OPD and recording the signal from the detector for various values of the OPD. The form of the interferogram when no sample is present depends on factors such as the variation of source intensity and splitter efficiency with wavelength. This results in a maximum at zero OPD, when there is constructive interference at all wavelengths, followed by series of "wiggles". The position of zero OPD is determined accurately by finding the point of maximum intensity in the interferogram. When a sample


id: fourier-transform-infrared-spectroscopy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier-transform_infrared_spectroscopy-2.md
category: reference
title: Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier-transform_infrared_spectroscopy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:34.037453+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fourier-transform-infrared-spectroscopy-20260505-0
summary:
The separation is the inverse of the maximum OPD. For example, a maximum OPD of 2 cm results in a separation of 0.5 cm−1. This is the spectral resolution in the sense that the value at one point is independent of the values at adjacent points. Most instruments can be operated at different resolutions by choosing different OPD's. Instruments for routine analyses typically have a best resolution of around 0.5 cm−1, while spectrometers have been built with resolutions as high as 0.001 cm−1, corresponding to a maximum OPD of 10 m. The point in the interferogram corresponding to zero path difference has to be identified, commonly by assuming it is where the maximum signal occurs. This so-called centerburst is not always symmetrical in real world spectrometers so a phase correction may have to be calculated. The interferogram signal decays as the path difference increases, the rate of decay being inversely related to the width of features in the spectrum. If the OPD is not large enough to allow the interferogram signal to decay to a negligible level there will be unwanted oscillations or sidelobes associated with the features in the resulting spectrum. To reduce these sidelobes the interferogram is usually


id: fourier-transform-infrared-spectroscopy-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier-transform_infrared_spectroscopy-3.md
category: reference
title: Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier-transform_infrared_spectroscopy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:34.037453+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fourier-transform-infrared-spectroscopy-20260505-0
summary:
=== IR sources === FTIR spectrometers are mostly used for measurements in the mid and near IR regions. For the mid-IR region, 2−25 μm (5,000–400 cm−1), the most common source is a silicon carbide (SiC) element heated to about 1,200 K (930 °C; 1,700 °F) (Globar). The output is similar to a blackbody. Shorter wavelengths of the near-IR, 1−2.5 μm (10,000–4,000 cm−1), require a higher temperature source, typically a tungsten-halogen lamp. The long wavelength output of these is limited to about 5 μm (2,000 cm−1) by the absorption of the quartz envelope. For the far-IR, especially at wavelengths beyond 50 μm (200 cm−1) a mercury discharge lamp gives higher output than a thermal source. === Detectors === Far-IR spectrometers commonly use pyroelectric detectors that respond to changes in temperature as the intensity of IR radiation falling on them varies. The sensitive elements in these detectors are either deuterated triglycine sulfate (DTGS) or lithium tantalate (LiTaO3). These detectors operate at ambient temperatures and provide adequate sensitivity for most routine applications. To achieve the best sensitivity the time for a scan is typically a few seconds. Cooled photoelectric detectors are employed for situations requiring higher sensitivity or faster response. Liquid nitrogen cooled


id: fourier-transform-infrared-spectroscopy-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier-transform_infrared_spectroscopy-4.md
category: reference
title: Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier-transform_infrared_spectroscopy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:34.037453+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fourier-transform-infrared-spectroscopy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Microscopy and imaging === An infrared microscope allows samples to be observed and spectra measured from regions as small as 5 microns across. Images can be generated by combining a microscope with linear or 2-D array detectors. The spatial resolution can approach 5 microns with tens of thousands of pixels. The images contain a spectrum for each pixel and can be viewed as maps showing the intensity at any wavelength or combination of wavelengths. This allows the distribution of different chemical species within the sample to be seen. This technique has been applied in various biological applications including the analysis of tissue sections as an alternative to conventional histopathology, examining the homogeneity of pharmaceutical tablets, and for differentiating morphologically-similar pollen grains. === Nanoscale and spectroscopy below the diffraction limit === The spatial resolution of FTIR can be further improved below the micrometer scale by integrating it into scanning near-field optical microscopy platform. The corresponding technique is called nano-FTIR and allows for performing broadband spectroscopy on materials in ultra-small quantities (single viruses and protein complexes) and with 10 to 20 nm spatial resolution. === FTIR as detector in chromatography === The speed of FTIR allows spectra to be obtained from


id: galileo-and-ulysses-dust-detectors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_and_Ulysses_Dust_Detectors-0.md
category: reference
title: Galileo and Ulysses Dust Detectors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_and_Ulysses_Dust_Detectors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:38.437042+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: galileo-and-ulysses-dust-detectors-20260505-0
summary:
The Galileo and Ulysses Dust Detectors are almost identical dust instruments on the Galileo and Ulysses missions. The instruments are large-area (0.1 m2 sensitive area) highly reliable impact ionization detectors of sub-micron and micron sized dust particles. With these instruments the interplanetary dust cloud was characterized between Venus’ and Jupiter's orbits and over the solar poles. A stream of interstellar dust passing through the planetary system was discovered. Close to and inside the Jupiter system streams nanometer sized dust particles that were emitted from volcanoes on Jupiter's moon Io and ejecta clouds around the Galilean moons were discovered and characterized. == Overview == Following the first dust instruments from the Max Planck Institute for Nuclear Physics (MPIK), Heidelberg (Germany) on the HEOS 2 satellite and the Helios spacecraft a new dust instrument was developed by a Team of Scientists and Engineers of Eberhard Grün to detect cosmic dust in the outer planetary system. This instrument had 10 times larger sensitive area (0.1 m2) and employed a multiple coincidence of impact signals in order to cope with the low fluxes of cosmic dust and the hostile environment in the outer planets magnetospheres. The Galileo and Ulysses dust detectors use impact ionization


id: harvard-collection-of-historical-scientific-instruments-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Collection_of_Historical_Scientific_Instruments-0.md
category: reference
title: Harvard Collection of Historical Scientific Instruments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Collection_of_Historical_Scientific_Instruments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:39.707733+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: harvard-collection-of-historical-scientific-instruments-20260505-0
summary:
Harvard University's Collection of Historical Scientific Instruments (CHSI), established 1948, is "one of the three largest university collections of its kind in the world". Waywiser, the online catalog of the collection, lists over 60% of the collection's 20,000 objects as of 2014. The collection was originally curated by Mr. David P Wheatland in his office to prevent obsolete equipment from being cannibalized for its component parts and materials. == Physical facilities == A selection of instruments and artifacts from the collection comprise the exhibition Time, Life, & Matter: Science in Cambridge. This permanent display can be found in the Putnam Gallery on the first floor of the Harvard Science Center, which is free and open to the public during regularly scheduled hours, Sunday through Friday. In addition, rotating collaborative exhibitions drawn in part from the collection are shown in the Special Exhibitions Gallery on the second floor, as well as the more modest Foyer Gallery on the third floor. The physical facilities in the Science Center were expanded in 2004, by replacing a one-story wing of the building with a four-story "townhouse"-style structure with offices, classrooms, and a fully-glazed internal stairway. The new wing houses the Department of the History


id: helios-dust-instrumentation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helios_Dust_Instrumentation-0.md
category: reference
title: Helios Dust Instrumentation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helios_Dust_Instrumentation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:40.867741+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: helios-dust-instrumentation-20260505-0
summary:
The Helios 1 and 2 spacecraft each carried two dust instruments to characterize the Zodiacal dust cloud inside the Earth’s orbit down to spacecraft positions 0.3 AU from the sun. The Zodiacal light instrument measured the brightness of light scattered by interplanetary dust along the line of sight. The in situ Micrometeoroid analyzer recorded impacts of meteoroids onto the sensitive detector surface and characterized their composition. The instruments delivered radial profiles of their measured data. Comet or meteoroid streams, and even interstellar dust were identified in the data. == Overview == The two Helios spacecraft were the result of a joint venture of West Germany's space agency DLR and NASA. The spacecraft were built in Germany and launched from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida. Helios 1 was launched in December 1974 onto an elliptic orbit between 1 and 0.31 au. Helios 2 followed in January 1976 and reached 0.29 au perihelion distance. The orbital periods were about 6 months. The Helios spacecraft were spinning with the spin axis perpendicular to the ecliptic plane. The Helios 1 spin axis pointed to ecliptic north whereas the Helios 2 orientation was inverted and the spin axis pointed to ecliptic south. The despun


id: helios-dust-instrumentation-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helios_Dust_Instrumentation-1.md
category: reference
title: Helios Dust Instrumentation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helios_Dust_Instrumentation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:40.867741+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: helios-dust-instrumentation-20260505-0
summary:
The South sensor was shielded by the spacecraft rim from direct sun light, whereas the ecliptic sensor was directly exposed to the intense solar radiation (up to 13 kW/m2). Therefore, the interior of the sensor was protected by a 0.3 μm thick aluminized parylene film which was attached to the first entrance grid. In order to study the effect of micrometeoroids penetrating the film, extensive dust accelerator studies with various materials were performed. It was shown that the penetration limit of the Helios film depends strongly on the density of meteoroids. Impact experiments with a lab version of the Helios micrometeoroid sensor were performed using several materials at the accelerators at the Max Planck Institute for Nuclear Physics in Heidelberg and at the Ames Research Center, ARC, in Moffet Field. The projectile materials included iron (Fe), quartz, glass, aluminium (Al), aluminium oxide (Al2O3), polystyrene, and kaolin. The mass resolution of the mass spectra of the Helios sensors was low R = M Δ M ∼ 10 {\displaystyle R={\cfrac {M}{\Delta M}}\sim 10} , i.e. only ions of atomic mass 10 Da could be separated from ions of mass 11 Da. These mass spectra served as reference for the spectra obtained in


id: holotomography-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holotomography-0.md
category: reference
title: Holotomography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holotomography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:42.064553+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: holotomography-20260505-0
summary:
Holotomography (HT) is a laser technique to measure the three-dimensional refractive index (RI) tomogram of a microscopic sample such as biological cells and tissues. Because the RI can serve as an intrinsic imaging contrast for transparent or phase objects, measurements of RI tomograms can provide label-free quantitative imaging of microscopic phase objects. In order to measure 3-D RI tomogram of samples, HT employs the principle of holographic imaging and inverse scattering. Typically, multiple 2D holographic images of a sample are measured at various illumination angles, employing the principle of interferometric imaging. Then, a 3D RI tomogram of the sample is reconstructed from these multiple 2D holographic images by inversely solving light scattering in the sample. == History == The first theoretical proposal was presented by Emil Wolf, and the first experimental demonstration was shown by Fercher et al. From 2000s, HT techniques had been extensively studied and applied to the field of biology and medicine, by several research groups including the MIT spectroscopy laboratory. Both the technical developments and applications of HT have been significantly advanced. In 2012 the first commercial HT company Nanolive was founded, later followed by Tomocube in 2014. == Principles == The principle of HT is


id: kymograph-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kymograph-0.md
category: reference
title: Kymograph
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kymograph
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:43.239711+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kymograph-20260505-0
summary:
A kymograph (from Greek κῦμα, swell or wave + γραφή, writing; also called a kymographion) is a type of two-dimensional plot that represents spatial position or signal intensity over time. In its modern usage, a kymograph is typically a space–time plot used in fields such as microscopy, cell biology, and speech science to track dynamic processes. These plots are generated by extracting intensity values along a predefined path across sequential image frames. The resulting image reduces the dimension to show time on one axis and sequential spatial information on the other. Using this technique allows for the visualization of dynamics within the image sequence, often by measuring the resulting slope of lines or streaks. This allows researchers to quantify velocity and directionality of movement, especially in applications like mitochondrial transport, vesicle trafficking, or vocal fold vibration. Although they reduce spatial information to a one-dimensional line, kymographs offer high temporal resolution and are often used alongside or in place of particle tracking techniques. == Kymograph device == A kymograph is also an analog device that draws a graphical representation of spatial position over time. The graphical representation is a graph in which the y axis shows position and the x axis


id: liulin-type-instruments-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liulin_type_instruments-0.md
category: reference
title: Liulin type instruments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liulin_type_instruments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:44.389426+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: liulin-type-instruments-20260505-0
summary:
Liulin-type is a class of spectrometry-dosimetry instruments. The instruments are specific types of semiconductor-based ionizing radiation sensors that are capable of measuring the deposited energy of the particle in silicon PIN diode and also the flux of particles. The measured data output is then a time series of spectral intensity. The data about mixed field radiation (usually the secondary cosmic rays) is then used to calculate radiation dose relevant to the specific mission e.g. for a crew or aerospace equipment. The main advantages of this type of ionizing radiation detector compared to classical setups with scintillators are a significant reduction in weight, and size together with extremely low power consumption. == History == The first Liulin device was developed in 1986–1988 time period for the scientific program of the second Bulgarian cosmonaut for the flight on MIR space station. After the MIR station deorbit similar experiments with revised versions of detectors continue on ISS. Since the beginning of 2015, open-source hardware detectors based on the same technology called SPACEDOS have been developed. Then the SPACEDOS instruments in different variants are used on board ISS parallel to Liulin dosimeters. == Principle of function == All Liulin type dosimetric instruments use one


id: mass-spectrometry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_spectrometry-0.md
category: reference
title: Mass spectrometry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_spectrometry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:45.652814+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mass-spectrometry-20260505-0
summary:
Mass spectrometry (MS) is an analytical technique that is used to measure the mass-to-charge ratio of ions. The results are presented as a mass spectrum, a plot of intensity as a function of the mass-to-charge ratio. Mass spectrometry is used in many different fields and is applied to pure samples as well as complex mixtures. A mass spectrum is a type of plot of the ion signal as a function of the mass-to-charge ratio. These spectra are used to determine the elemental or isotopic signature of a sample, the masses of particles and of molecules, and to elucidate the chemical identity or structure of molecules and other chemical compounds. In a typical MS procedure, a sample, which may be solid, liquid, or gaseous, is ionized, for example by bombarding it with a beam of electrons. This may cause some of the sample's molecules to break up into positively charged fragments or simply become positively charged without fragmenting. These ions (fragments) are then separated according to their mass-to-charge ratio, for example by accelerating them and subjecting them to an electric or magnetic field: ions of the same mass-to-charge ratio will undergo the same amount of deflection. The ions are detected by


id: mass-spectrometry-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_spectrometry-1.md
category: reference
title: Mass spectrometry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_spectrometry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:45.652814+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mass-spectrometry-20260505-0
summary:
=== Theoretical example === The following describes the operation of a spectrometer mass analyzer, which is of the sector type. (Other analyzer types are treated below.) Consider a sample of sodium chloride (table salt). In the ion source, the sample is vaporized (turned into gas) and ionized (transformed into electrically charged particles) into sodium (Na+) and chloride (Cl−) ions. Sodium atoms and ions are monoisotopic, with a mass of about 23 daltons (symbol: Da or older symbol: u). Chloride atoms and ions come in two stable isotopes with masses of approximately 35 u (at a natural abundance of about 75 percent) and approximately 37 u (at a natural abundance of about 25 percent). The analyzer part of the spectrometer contains electric and magnetic fields, which exert forces on ions traveling through these fields. The speed of a charged particle may be increased or decreased while passing through the electric field, and its direction may be altered by the magnetic field. The magnitude of the deflection of the moving ion's trajectory depends on its mass-to-charge ratio. Lighter ions are deflected by the magnetic force to a greater degree than heavier ions (based on Newton's second law of motion, F = ma).


id: mass-spectrometry-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_spectrometry-2.md
category: reference
title: Mass spectrometry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_spectrometry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:45.652814+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mass-spectrometry-20260505-0
summary:
== Mass selection == Mass analyzers separate the ions according to their mass-to-charge ratio. The following two laws govern the dynamics of charged particles in electric and magnetic fields in vacuum: F = Q ( E + v × B ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} =Q(\mathbf {E} +\mathbf {v} \times \mathbf {B} )} (Lorentz force law); F = m a {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} =m\mathbf {a} } (Newton's second law of motion in the non-relativistic case, i.e. valid only at ion velocity much lower than the speed of light). Here F is the force applied to the ion, m is the mass of the ion, a is the acceleration, Q is the ion charge, E is the electric field, and v × B is the vector cross product of the ion velocity and the magnetic field Equating the above expressions for the force applied to the ion yields: ( m / Q ) a = E + v × B . {\displaystyle (m/Q)\mathbf {a} =\mathbf {E} +\mathbf {v} \times \mathbf {B} .} This differential equation is the classic equation of motion for charged particles. Together with the particle's initial conditions, it completely determines the particle's motion in space and time in terms


id: mass-spectrometry-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_spectrometry-3.md
category: reference
title: Mass spectrometry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_spectrometry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:45.652814+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mass-spectrometry-20260505-0
summary:
The quadrupole ion trap works on the same physical principles as the quadrupole mass analyzer, but the ions are trapped and sequentially ejected. Ions are trapped in a mainly quadrupole RF field, in a space defined by a ring electrode (usually connected to the main RF potential) between two endcap electrodes (typically connected to DC or auxiliary AC potentials). The sample is ionized either internally (e.g. with an electron or laser beam), or externally, in which case the ions are often introduced through an aperture in an endcap electrode. There are many mass/charge separation and isolation methods but the most commonly used is the mass instability mode in which the RF potential is ramped so that the orbit of ions with a mass a > b are stable while ions with mass b become unstable and are ejected on the z-axis onto a detector. There are also non-destructive analysis methods. Ions may also be ejected by the resonance excitation method, whereby a supplemental oscillatory excitation voltage is applied to the endcap electrodes, and the trapping voltage amplitude and/or excitation voltage frequency is varied to bring ions into a resonance condition in order of their mass/charge ratio. ==== Cylindrical ion trap


id: mass-spectrometry-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_spectrometry-4.md
category: reference
title: Mass spectrometry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_spectrometry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:45.652814+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mass-spectrometry-20260505-0
summary:
A tandem mass spectrometer is one capable of multiple rounds of mass spectrometry, usually separated by some form of molecule fragmentation. For example, one mass analyzer can isolate one peptide from many entering a mass spectrometer. A collision cell then stabilizes the peptide ions while they collide with a gas, causing them to fragment by collision-induced dissociation (CID). A further mass analyzer then sorts the fragments produced from the peptides. Tandem MS can also be done in a single mass analyzer over time, as in a quadrupole ion trap. There are various methods for fragmenting molecules for tandem MS, including collision-induced dissociation (CID), electron capture dissociation (ECD), electron transfer dissociation (ETD), infrared multiphoton dissociation (IRMPD), blackbody infrared radiative dissociation (BIRD), electron-detachment dissociation (EDD) and surface-induced dissociation (SID). An important application using tandem mass spectrometry is in protein identification. Tandem mass spectrometry enables a variety of experimental sequences. Many commercial mass spectrometers are designed to expedite the execution of such routine sequences as selected reaction monitoring (SRM), precursor ion scanning, product ion scanning, and neutral loss scanning. In SRM, the first analyzer allows only a single mass through and the second analyzer monitors for multiple user-defined fragment ions over longer dwell-times


id: mass-spectrometry-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_spectrometry-5.md
category: reference
title: Mass spectrometry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_spectrometry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:45.652814+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mass-spectrometry-20260505-0
summary:
Ion mobility spectrometry-mass spectrometry (IMS/MS or IMMS) is a technique where ions are first separated by drift time through some neutral gas under an applied electrical potential gradient before being introduced into a mass spectrometer. Drift time is a measure of the collisional cross section relative to the charge of the ion. The duty cycle of IMS (the time over which the experiment takes place) is longer than most mass spectrometric techniques, such that the mass spectrometer can sample along the course of the IMS separation. This produces data about the IMS separation and the mass-to-charge ratio of the ions in a manner similar to LC-MS. The duty cycle of IMS is short relative to liquid chromatography or gas chromatography separations and can thus be coupled to such techniques, producing triple modalities such as LC/IMS/MS. == Data and analysis == === Data representations === Mass spectrometry produces various types of data. The most common data representation is the mass spectrum. Certain types of mass spectrometry data are best represented as a mass chromatogram. Types of chromatograms include selected ion monitoring (SIM), total ion current (TIC), and selected reaction monitoring (SRM), among many others. Other types of mass spectrometry data are


id: mass-spectrometry-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_spectrometry-6.md
category: reference
title: Mass spectrometry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_spectrometry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:45.652814+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mass-spectrometry-20260505-0
summary:
Mass spectrometry has both qualitative and quantitative uses. These include identifying unknown compounds, determining the isotopic composition of elements in a molecule, and determining the structure of a compound by observing its fragmentation. Other uses include quantifying the amount of a compound in a sample or studying the fundamentals of gas phase ion chemistry (the chemistry of ions and neutrals in a vacuum). MS is now commonly used in analytical laboratories that study physical, chemical, or biological properties of a great variety of compounds. Quantification can be relative (analyzed relative to a reference sample) or absolute (analyzed using a standard curve method). As an analytical technique it possesses distinct advantages such as: Increased sensitivity over most other analytical techniques because the analyzer, as a mass-charge filter, reduces background interference, Excellent specificity from characteristic fragmentation patterns to identify unknowns or confirm the presence of suspected compounds, Information about molecular weight, Information about the isotopic abundance of elements, Temporally resolved chemical data. A few of the disadvantages of the method is that it often fails to distinguish between optical and geometrical isomers and the positions of substituent in o-, m- and p- positions in an aromatic ring. Also, its scope is limited


id: mass-spectrometry-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_spectrometry-7.md
category: reference
title: Mass spectrometry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_spectrometry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:45.652814+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mass-spectrometry-20260505-0
summary:
Mass spectrometry is an important method for the characterization and sequencing of proteins. The two primary methods for ionization of whole proteins are electrospray ionization (ESI) and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI). In keeping with the performance and mass range of available mass spectrometers, two approaches are used for characterizing proteins. In the first, intact proteins are ionized by either of the two techniques described above, and then introduced to a mass analyzer. This approach is referred to as "top-down" strategy of protein analysis. The top-down approach however is largely limited to low-throughput single-protein studies. In the second, proteins are enzymatically digested into smaller peptides using proteases such as trypsin or pepsin, either in solution or in gel after electrophoretic separation. Other proteolytic agents are also used. The collection of peptide products are often separated by chromatography prior to introduction to the mass analyzer. When the characteristic pattern of peptides is used for the identification of the protein the method is called peptide mass fingerprinting (PMF), if the identification is performed using the sequence data determined in tandem MS analysis it is called de novo peptide sequencing. These procedures of protein analysis are also referred to as the "bottom-up" approach, and


id: mems-testing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MEMS_testing-0.md
category: reference
title: MEMS testing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MEMS_testing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:47.219773+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mems-testing-20260505-0
summary:
MEMS testing is one of the processes in the development of a MEMS device. It is a collection of testing methods such as electrical, mechanical and environment tests. == Motivation == When looking at the electronic market it becomes obvious, as there is a need for production output, high system performance, product reliability and long lifecycle, for MEMS to create trust in the eyes of customers. If those conditions would not be met customers would not invest into technologies using MEMS, which justifies the need for testing as a part of a high quality standard. Testing is also fairly important from an economical point of view. As it is said that the failure cost increase by a factor of ten for each stage before it gets discovered. Most MEMS producers check their products at two distinct stages(at the wafer level, and the packaging), as well as random sampling on every stage. If one includes this into cost calculation for a MEMS device the costs for testing amounts to 20-50% of the overall unit costs. Even when looking at producers that manufacture MEMS, and CMOS devices it is not really possible to reduce the costs by including the economy of scopes


id: microscope-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope-0.md
category: reference
title: Microscope
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:48.490463+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: microscope-20260505-0
summary:
A microscope (from Ancient Greek μικρός (mikrós) 'small' and σκοπέω (skopéō) 'to look (at); examine, inspect') is a laboratory instrument used to examine objects that are too small to be seen by the naked eye. Microscopy is the science of investigating small objects and structures using a microscope. Microscopic means being invisible to the eye unless aided by a microscope. There are many types of microscopes, and they may be grouped in different ways. One way is to describe the method an instrument uses to interact with a sample and produce images, either by sending a beam of light or electrons through a sample in its optical path, by detecting photon emissions from a sample, or by scanning across and a short distance from the surface of a sample using a probe. The most common microscope (and the first to be invented) is the optical microscope, which uses lenses to refract visible light that passed through a thinly sectioned sample to produce an observable image. Other major types of microscopes are the fluorescence microscope, electron microscope (both the transmission electron microscope and the scanning electron microscope) and various types of scanning probe microscopes. == History == Although objects resembling lenses


id: microscope-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope-1.md
category: reference
title: Microscope
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:48.490463+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: microscope-20260505-0
summary:
In the early 20th century a significant alternative to the light microscope was developed, an instrument that uses a beam of electrons rather than light to generate an image. The German physicist, Ernst Ruska, working with electrical engineer Max Knoll, developed the first prototype electron microscope in 1931, a transmission electron microscope (TEM). The transmission electron microscope works on similar principles to an optical microscope but uses electrons in the place of light and electromagnets in the place of glass lenses. Use of electrons, instead of light, allows for much higher resolution. Development of the transmission electron microscope was quickly followed in 1935 by the development of the scanning electron microscope by Max Knoll. Although TEMs were being used for research before WWII, and became popular afterwards, the SEM was not commercially available until 1965. Transmission electron microscopes became popular following the Second World War. Ernst Ruska, working at Siemens, developed the first commercial transmission electron microscope and, in the 1950s, major scientific conferences on electron microscopy started being held. In 1965, the first commercial scanning electron microscope was developed by Professor Sir Charles Oatley and his postgraduate student Gary Stewart, and marketed by the Cambridge Instrument Company as the


id: microscope-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope-2.md
category: reference
title: Microscope
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:48.490463+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: microscope-20260505-0
summary:
Microscopes can be separated into several different classes. One grouping is based on what interacts with the sample to generate the image, i.e., light or photons (optical microscopes), electrons (electron microscopes) or a probe (scanning probe microscopes). Alternatively, microscopes can be classified based on whether they analyze the sample via a scanning point (confocal optical microscopes, scanning electron microscopes and scanning probe microscopes) or analyze the sample all at once (wide field optical microscopes and transmission electron microscopes). Wide field optical microscopes and transmission electron microscopes both use the theory of lenses (optics for light microscopes and electromagnet lenses for electron microscopes) in order to magnify the image generated by the passage of a wave transmitted through the sample, or reflected by the sample. The waves used are electromagnetic (in optical microscopes) or electron beams (in electron microscopes). Resolution in these microscopes is limited by the wavelength of the radiation used to image the sample, where shorter wavelengths allow for a higher resolution. Scanning optical and electron microscopes, like the confocal microscope and scanning electron microscope, use lenses to focus a spot of light or electrons onto the sample then analyze the signals generated by the beam interacting with the


id: microscope-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope-3.md
category: reference
title: Microscope
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:48.490463+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: microscope-20260505-0
summary:
The different types of scanning probe microscopes arise from the many different types of interactions that occur when a small probe is scanned over and interacts with a specimen. These interactions or modes can be recorded or mapped as function of location on the surface to form a characterization map. The three most common types of scanning probe microscopes are atomic force microscopes (AFM), near-field scanning optical microscopes (NSOM or SNOM, scanning near-field optical microscopy), and scanning tunneling microscopes (STM). An atomic force microscope has a fine probe, usually of silicon or silicon nitride, attached to a cantilever; the probe is scanned over the surface of the sample, and the forces that cause an interaction between the probe and the surface of the sample are measured and mapped. A near-field scanning optical microscope is similar to an AFM but its probe consists of a light source in an optical fiber covered with a tip that has usually an aperture for the light to pass through. The microscope can capture either transmitted or reflected light to measure very localized optical properties of the surface, commonly of a biological specimen. Scanning tunneling microscopes have a metal tip with a single apical atom;


id: multi-component-gas-analyzer-system-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-component_gas_analyzer_system-0.md
category: reference
title: Multi-component gas analyzer system
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-component_gas_analyzer_system
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:49.715672+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: multi-component-gas-analyzer-system-20260505-0
summary:
A multi-component gas analyzer system (Multi-GAS) is an instrument package used to take real-time high-resolution measurements of volcanic gases. A Multi-GAS package includes an infrared spectrometer for CO2, two electrochemical sensors for SO2 and H2S, and pressure–temperature–humidity sensors, all in a weatherproof box. The system can be used for individual surveys or set up as permanent stations connected to radio transmitters for transmission of data from remote locations. The instrument package is portable, and its operation and data analysis are simple enough to be conducted by non-specialists. Multi-GAS instruments have been used to measure volcanic gases at Mount Etna, Stromboli, Vulcano Italy, Villarrica (volcano) Chile, Masaya Volcano Nicaragua, Mount Yasur, Miyake-jima and Mount Asama Japan, Soufrière Hills Montserrat, with permanent installations at Etna and Stromboli. The development of this instrument has helped scientists to monitor real-time changes in volcanic gas composition, allowing for more rapid hazard mitigation and an enhanced understanding of volcano processes. == System mechanics == Multi-component gas analyzer systems are used for measuring the major components of volcanic gases. CO2, SO2, H2S, and pressure-temperature-humidity sensors are typically included in a package. Other electrochemical sensors have been successfully incorporated as well, including for H2 and HCl. The instruments


id: multi-parametric-surface-plasmon-resonance-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-parametric_surface_plasmon_resonance-0.md
category: reference
title: Multi-parametric surface plasmon resonance
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-parametric_surface_plasmon_resonance
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:53.984554+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: multi-parametric-surface-plasmon-resonance-20260505-0
summary:
Multi-parametric surface plasmon resonance (MP-SPR) is based on surface plasmon resonance (SPR), an established real-time label-free method for biomolecular interaction analysis, but it uses a different optical setup, a goniometric SPR configuration. While MP-SPR provides same kinetic information as SPR (equilibrium constant, dissociation constant, association constant), it provides also structural information (refractive index, layer thickness). Hence, MP-SPR measures both surface interactions and nanolayer properties. == History == The goniometric SPR method was researched alongside focused beam SPR and Otto configurations at VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland since 1980s by Janusz Sadowski. The goniometric SPR optics was commercialized by Biofons Oy for use in point-of-care applications. Introduction of additional measurement laser wavelengths and first thin film analyses were performed in 2011 giving way to MP-SPR method. == Principle == The MP-SPR optical setup measures at multiple wavelengths simultaneously (similarly to spectroscopic SPR), but instead of measuring at a fixed angle, it rather scans across a wide range of θ angles (for instance 40 degrees). This results in measurements of full SPR curves at multiple wavelengths providing additional information about structure and dynamic conformation of the film. == Measured values == The measured full SPR curves (x-axis: angle, y-axis: reflected light


id: ozone-monitoring-instrument-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_monitoring_instrument-0.md
category: reference
title: Ozone monitoring instrument
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_monitoring_instrument
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:55.160851+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ozone-monitoring-instrument-20260505-0
summary:
The ozone monitoring instrument (OMI) is a nadir-viewing visual and ultraviolet spectrometer aboard the NASA Aura spacecraft, which is part of the satellite constellation A-Train. In this group of satellites Aura flies in formation about 15 minutes behind Aqua satellite, both of which orbit the Earth in a polar Sun-synchronous pattern, and which provides nearly global coverage in one day. Aura satellite was launched on July 15, 2004, and OMI has collected data since August 9, 2004. From a technical point of view, OMI instrument use hyperspectral imaging to observe solar-backscatter radiation to the space with an spectral range that covers the visible and ultraviolet. Its spectral capabilities were designed to achieve specific requirements of total ozone amounts retrievals in terms of accuracy and precision. Also its characteristics provide accurate radiometric and wavelength self calibration over the long-term project requirements. == OMI project == The OMI project is a cooperation between the Netherlands Agency for Aerospace Programmes (NIVR), the Finnish Meteorological Institute (FMI) and the National Aeronautics and Space Agency (NASA). The OMI project was carried out under the direction of the NIVR and financed by the Dutch Ministries of Economic Affairs, Transport and Public Works and the Ministry of


id: ozone-monitoring-instrument-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_monitoring_instrument-1.md
category: reference
title: Ozone monitoring instrument
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_monitoring_instrument
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:55.160851+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ozone-monitoring-instrument-20260505-0
summary:
== Scientific relevance == The OMI project has been monitoring the atmospheric composition and providing measurements widely used in the field of atmospheric chemistry research. The fact that it has been operational for more than a decade makes it also useful for trend monitoring. The reference describing the first 14 years of the OMI details the research data products provided by NASA, KNMI, FMI and SAO, also according to these authors, beyond the initial goals, OMI has been important due the high-resolution NO2 and SO2 measurements (OMI is the first instrument that is able to obtain daily global coverage combined with such spatial resolution), and the fact that top-down studies allowed for source attribution analyses. === Awards === The International Team of the Ozone Monitoring Instrument has received several awards for its contributions to a better understanding of the Earth system: USGS 2018 Pecora Award The Pecora award is annual to recognize individuals or teams using remote sensing in the field of Earth Science. It consider not only the scientific role but also its role informing decision makers and supporting natural or human-induced disaster responses. 2021 AMS Special Award A broad description of this award to OMI International Team is


id: particle-mass-analyser-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_mass_analyser-0.md
category: reference
title: Particle mass analyser
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_mass_analyser
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:56.448348+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: particle-mass-analyser-20260505-0
summary:
A Particle mass analyser (PMA) is an instrument for classifying aerosol particles according to their mass-to-charge ratio using opposing electrical and centrifugal forces. This allows the classifier to select particles of a specified mass-to-charge ratio independent of particle shape. It one of the three types of monodisperse aerosol classifier, the others being the differential mobility analyser (DMA, for electrical mobility size), and the aerodynamic aerosol classifier (AAC, for relaxation time, or aerodynamic diameter). The corresponding three quantities are related by the expression τ = mB, where τ is relaxation time, m is mass and B is mobility. Further work improved the technique by engineering the centrifugal force to match the electrostatic force across the whole classification region, thus increasing the throughput. == References ==


id: ph-meter-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH_meter-0.md
category: reference
title: PH meter
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH_meter
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:57.835455+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ph-meter-20260505-0
summary:
A pH meter is a scientific instrument that measures the hydrogen-ion activity in water-based solutions, indicating its acidity or alkalinity expressed as pH. The pH meter measures the difference in electrical potential between a pH electrode and a reference electrode, and so the pH meter is sometimes referred to as a "potentiometric pH meter". The difference in electrical potential relates to the acidity or pH of the solution. Testing of pH via pH meters (pH-metry) is used in many applications ranging from laboratory experimentation to quality control. == Applications == The rate and outcome of chemical reactions taking place in water often depends on the acidity of the water, and it is therefore useful to know the acidity of the water, typically measured by means of a pH meter. Knowledge of pH is useful or critical in many situations, including chemical laboratory analyses. pH meters are used for soil measurements in agriculture, water quality for municipal water supplies, swimming pools, environmental remediation; brewing of wine or beer; manufacturing, healthcare and clinical applications such as blood chemistry; and many other applications. Advances in the instrumentation and in detection have expanded the number of applications in which pH measurements can be conducted.


id: ph-meter-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH_meter-1.md
category: reference
title: PH meter
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH_meter
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:57.835455+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ph-meter-20260505-0
summary:
=== pH electrode and reference electrode design === Details of the fabrication and resulting microstructure of the glass membrane of the pH electrode are maintained as trade secrets by the manufacturers. However, certain aspects of design are published. Glass is a solid electrolyte, for which alkali-metal ions can carry current. The pH-sensitive glass membrane is generally spherical to simplify the manufacture of a uniform membrane. These membranes are up to 0.4 millimeters in thickness, thicker than original designs, so as to render the probes durable. The glass has silicate chemical functionality on its surface, which provides binding sites for alkali-metal ions and hydrogen ions from the solutions. This provides an ion-exchange capacity in the range of 10−6 to 10−8 mol/cm2. Selectivity for hydrogen ions (H+) arises from a balance of ionic charge, volume requirements versus other ions, and the coordination number of other ions. Electrode manufacturers have developed compositions that suitably balance these factors, most notably lithium glass. The silver chloride electrode is most commonly used as a reference electrode in pH meters, although some designs use the saturated calomel electrode. The silver chloride electrode is simple to manufacture and provides high reproducibility. The reference electrode usually consists of a


id: ph-meter-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH_meter-2.md
category: reference
title: PH meter
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH_meter
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:57.835455+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ph-meter-20260505-0
summary:
The concept of pH was defined in 1909 by S. P. L. Sørensen, and electrodes were used for pH measurement in the 1920s. In October 1934, Arnold Orville Beckman registered the first patent for a complete chemical instrument for the measurement of pH, U.S. Patent No. 2,058,761, for his "acidimeter", later renamed the pH meter. Beckman developed the prototype as an assistant professor of chemistry at the California Institute of Technology, when asked to devise a quick and accurate method for measuring the acidity of lemon juice for the California Fruit Growers Exchange (Sunkist). On April 8, 1935, Beckman's renamed National Technical Laboratories focused on the manufacture of scientific instruments, with the Arthur H. Thomas Company as a distributor for its pH meter. In its first full year of sales, 1936, the company sold 444 pH meters for $60,000 in sales. In years to come, the company sold millions of the units. In 2004 the Beckman pH meter was designated an ACS National Historic Chemical Landmark in recognition of its significance as the first commercially successful electronic pH meter. The Radiometer Corporation of Denmark was founded in 1935, and began marketing a pH meter for medical use around 1936, but


id: polarograph-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polarograph-0.md
category: reference
title: Polarograph
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polarograph
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:59.038684+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: polarograph-20260505-0
summary:
A Polarograph is a chemical analysis instrument used to record automatic voltage-intensity curves. The Polarograph uses an electrolytic cell consisting of an electrode or microelectrode small area, generally of the mercury drop type, which is a very fine capillary tube through which mercury flows slowly, which comes in the form of small droplets, which fall on the same surface of a much broader element, which is the other electrode . When one applies a variable voltage in this cell, the electrode's large area remains unchanged, while the microelectrode undergoes a change of potential, ( i.e. is polarized). It also has a potentiometer coupled to the motor that moves the recording paper so that a certain voltage variation corresponds to a constant length of recording paper, and a galvanometer suitable for measuring the intensity of the electric current, whose response is transmitted to the actuator that moves the needle of the recorder. The technique used is called polarography. The Czech chemist and Nobel Prize winner Jaroslav Heyrovský invented it. == References ==


id: post-office-box-electricity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post_office_box_(electricity)-0.md
category: reference
title: Post office box (electricity)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post_office_box_(electricity)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:00.168462+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: post-office-box-electricity-20260505-0
summary:
The post office box was a Wheatstone bridge–style testing device with pegs and spring arms to close electrical circuits and measure properties of the circuit under test. == Resistance measurement == The boxes were used in the United Kingdom by engineers from then General Post Office, who were responsible for UK telecommunications to trace electrical faults, i.e. to determine where a break occurred in a cable which could be several miles in length. It works on the principle of Wheatstone bridge to identify the resistance of wire connected and then by using wire resistivity and cross section calculating length of wire and thus determining where the cable had broken. Post office boxes were common pieces of scientific apparatus in the UK O-Level and A-Level schools public examination physics syllabus in the 1960s. == Construction == A typical post office box is in a wooden box with a hinged lid and a metal or bakelite panel showing circuit connections. Coils of wire are wound non-inductively, mounted in the body of the box, and have a negligible temperature coefficient. Pairs of ratio arms are each 5 10 20 ohms. Resistance arms contains a number of coils from 1 to 5000 ohms with


id: pqube-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PQube-0.md
category: reference
title: PQube
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PQube
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:01.355266+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pqube-20260505-0
summary:
PQube is a registered trademark of Power Standards Lab for an electronic measuring instrument that records power quality and electric energy on the electric power grid. == Applications == PQube instruments are widely used to gather data for academic research, and at United States Department of Energy National Laboratories and state energy regulators. U.S. federal government agencies use PQubes to detect power quality issues – for example, the Federal Aviation Administration tracks disturbances at radar control centers. Each PQube instrument is traceable to the National Institute of Standards and Technology, so often these instruments are used in international academic and research environments. PQubes are a key element in many smart grid projects, recording power disturbance and power flow data to examine efficiency and reliability effects. == Information on the Web == Approximately 50 PQubes, located in approximately 40 countries, have been designated by their owners as free public sources of information at http://map.pqube.com . The site is updated approximately every 2 minutes with worldwide power quality and energy recordings. Data from these PQubes can be used, for example, for developing and testing power quality algorithms. Available data include daily, weekly, and monthly files in GIF and Microsoft Excel CSV format.


id: probe-tip-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probe_tip-0.md
category: reference
title: Probe tip
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probe_tip
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:02.559156+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: probe-tip-20260505-0
summary:
A probe tip is an instrument used in scanning probe microscopes (SPMs) to scan the surface of a sample and make nano-scale images of surfaces and structures. The probe tip is mounted on the end of a cantilever and can be as sharp as a single atom. In microscopy, probe tip geometry (length, width, shape, aspect ratio, and tip apex radius) and the composition (material properties) of both the tip and the surface being probed directly affect resolution and imaging quality. Tip size and shape are extremely important in monitoring and detecting interactions between surfaces. SPMs can precisely measure electrostatic forces, magnetic forces, chemical bonding, Van der Waals forces, and capillary forces. SPMs can also reveal the morphology and topography of a surface. The use of probe-based tools began with the invention of scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM), collectively called scanning probe microscopy (SPM) by Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer at the IBM Zurich research laboratory in 1982. It opened a new era for probing the nano-scale world of individual atoms and molecules as well as studying surface science, due to their unprecedented capability to characterize the mechanical, chemical, magnetic, and optical functionalities of various samples


id: probe-tip-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probe_tip-1.md
category: reference
title: Probe tip
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probe_tip
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:02.559156+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: probe-tip-20260505-0
summary:
=== Non-conductive probe tip === Non-conductive nanoscale tips are widely used for AFM measurements. For non-conducting tip, surface forces acting on the tip/cantilever are responsible for deflection or attraction of tip. These attractive or repulsive forces are used for surface topology, chemical specifications, magnetic and electronic properties. The distance-dependent forces between substrate surface and tip are responsible for imaging in AFM. These interactions include van der Waals forces, capillary forces, electrostatic forces, Casimir forces, and solvation forces. One unique repulsion force is Pauli Exclusion repulsive force, which is responsible for single-atom imaging as in references and Figures 10 & 11 (contact region in Fig. 1). == Fabrication methods == Tip fabrication techniques fall into two broad classifications, mechanical and physicochemical. In the early stage of the development of probe tips, mechanical procedures were popular because of the ease of fabrication. === Mechanical methods === Reported mechanical methods in fabricating tips include cutting, grinding, and pulling.; an example would be cutting a wire at certain angles with a razor blade, wire cutter, or scissors. Another mechanical method for tip preparation is fragmentation of bulk pieces into small pointy pieces. Grinding a metal wire or rod into a sharp tip was also


id: probe-tip-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probe_tip-2.md
category: reference
title: Probe tip
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probe_tip
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:02.559156+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: probe-tip-20260505-0
summary:
==== Lamella method ==== In the double lamella method, the lower part of the metal is etched away, and the upper part of the tip is not etched further. Further etching of the upper part of the wire is prevented by covering it with a polymer coating. This method is usually limited to laboratory fabrication. The double lamella method schematic is shown in Fig. 5. === Single atom tip preparation === Transitional metals like Cu, Au and Ag adsorb single molecules linearly on their surface due to weak van der Waals forces. This linear projection of single molecules allows interactions of the terminal atoms of the tip with the atoms of the substrate, resulting in Pauli repulsion for single molecule or atom mapping studies. Gaseous deposition on the tip is carried out in an ultrahigh vacuum (5 × 10−8 mbar) chamber at a low temperature (10K). Depositions of Xe, Kr, NO, CH4 or CO on tip have been successfully prepared and used for imaging studies. However, these tips preparations rely on the attachment of single atoms or molecules on the tip and the resulting atomic structure of the tip is not known exactly. The probability of attachment of simple molecules


id: probe-tip-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probe_tip-3.md
category: reference
title: Probe tip
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probe_tip
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:02.559156+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: probe-tip-20260505-0
summary:
== Coating == The surface of silicon-based tips cannot be easily controlled because they usually carry the silanol group. The Si surface is hydrophilic and can be contaminated easily by the environment. Another disadvantage of Si tips is the wear and tear of the tip. It is important to coat the Si tip to prevent tip deterioration, and the tip coating may also enhance image quality. To coat a tip, an adhesive layer is pasted (usually chromium layer on 5 nm thick titanium) and then gold is deposited by vapor deposition (40-100 nm or less). Sometimes, the coating layer reduces the tunnelling current detection capability of probe tips. == Characterization == The most important aspect of a probe tip is imaging the surfaces efficiently at nanometre dimensions. Some concerns involving credibility of the imaging or measurement of the sample arise when the shape of the tip is not determined accurately. For example, when an unknown tip is used to measure a linewidth pattern or other high aspect ratio feature of a surface, there may remain some confusion when determining the contribution of the tip and of the sample in the acquired image. Consequently, it is important to fully and accurately


id: probe-tip-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probe_tip-4.md
category: reference
title: Probe tip
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probe_tip
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:02.559156+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: probe-tip-20260505-0
summary:
Imaging tip using microscopy is used to take image of tip with microscopy, except scanning probe microscopy (SPM) e.g. scanning tunnelling microscopy (STM), atomic force microscopy (AFM) are reported. Using known tip characterizer is when the shape of tip is deduced by taking an image of a sample of known measurement, which is known as tip characterizer. Blind method is where tip characterizer of either known or unknown measurement is used. == Applications == Probes tips have a wide variety of applications in different fields of science and technology. One of the major areas where probe tips are used is for application in SPM i.e., STM and AFM. For example, carbon nanotube tips in conjunction with AFM provides an excellent tool for surface characterization in the nanometer realm. CNT tips are also used in tapping-mode Scanning Force Microscopy (SFM), which is a technique where a tip taps a surface by a cantilever driven near resonant frequency of the cantilever. The CNT probe tips fabricated using CVD technique can be used for imaging of biological macromolecules, semiconductor and chemical structure. For example, it is possible to obtain an intermittent AFM contact image of IgM macromolecules with excellent resolution using a single


id: rheoscope-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rheoscope-0.md
category: reference
title: Rheoscope
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rheoscope
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:03.688504+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rheoscope-20260505-0
summary:
In fluid mechanics (specifically rheology), a rheoscope is an instrument for detecting or measuring the viscosity of a fluid. In the study of blood flow, a rheoscope is used to observe and measure the deformation of blood cells subject to different levels of fluid shear stress. == References == Stein, Jess, ed. (1980). The Random House college dictionary. Random House. p. 1132. ISBN 0-394-43600-8.


id: scale-of-chords-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale_of_chords-0.md
category: reference
title: Scale of chords
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale_of_chords
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:04.923985+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scale-of-chords-20260505-0
summary:
A scale of chords may be used to set or read an angle in the absence of a protractor. To draw an angle, compasses describe an arc from origin with a radius taken from the 60 mark. The required angle is copied from the scale by the compasses, and an arc of this radius drawn from the sixty mark so it intersects the first arc. The line drawn from this point to the origin will be at the target angle. == Mathematics == A chord is a line drawn between two points on the circumference of a circle. Look at the centre point of this line. For a circle of radius r, each half will be r sin ⁡ θ 2 {\displaystyle r\sin {\tfrac {\theta }{2}}} so the chord will be 2 r sin ⁡ θ 2 {\displaystyle 2r\sin {\tfrac {\theta }{2}}} . The line of chords scale represents each of these values linearly on a scale running from 0 to 60. == Availability == It appears on Gunter's scale and the Foster Serle dialing scales. The commercial company Stanley marketed a metal version (Stanley 60R Line of Chords Rule) in 2015. == See also == Ptolemy's table of chords


id: scanning-habitable-environments-with-raman-and-luminescence-for-organics-and-chemicals-20260505-0
category: reference
title: Scanning Habitable Environments with Raman and Luminescence for Organics and Chemicals
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:09.222442+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scanning-habitable-environments-with-raman-and-luminescence-for-organics-and-chemicals-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scanning_Habitable_Environments_with_Raman_and_Luminescence_for_Organics_and_Chemicals-0.md

summary:
Scanning Habitable Environments with Raman and Luminescence for Organics and Chemicals (SHERLOC) is an ultraviolet Raman spectrometer that uses fine-scale imaging and an ultraviolet (UV) laser to determine fine-scale mineralogy, and detect organic compounds designed for the Perseverance rover as part of the Mars 2020 mission. It was constructed at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory with major subsystems being delivered from Malin Space Science Systems and Los Alamos National Laboratory. SHERLOC has a calibration target with possible Mars suit materials, and it will measure how they change over time in the Martian surface environment. == Goals == According to a 2017 Universities Space Research Association (USRA) report: The goals of the SHERLOC investigation are to: Assess the habitability potential of a sample and its aqueous history. Assess the availability of key elements and energy source for life (C, H, N, O, P, S etc.). Determine if there are potential biosignatures preserved in Martian rocks and outcrops. Provide organic and mineral analysis for selective sample caching. To do this SHERLOC does the following: Detects and classifies organics and astrobiologically relevant minerals on the surface and near subsurface of Mars. Bulk organic sensitivity of 10-5 to 10-6 w/w over a 7 x 7

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scanning_Habitable_Environments_with_Raman_and_Luminescence_for_Organics_and_Chemicals


id: scintillating-bolometer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scintillating_bolometer-0.md
category: reference
title: Scintillating bolometer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scintillating_bolometer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:10.405931+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scintillating-bolometer-20260505-0
summary:
A scintillating bolometer (or luminescent bolometer) is a scientific instrument using particle physics in the search for events with low energy deposition. These events could include dark matter, low energy solar neutrinos, double beta decay or rare radioactive decay. It works by simultaneously measuring both the light pulse and heat pulse generated by a particle interaction within its internal scintillator crystal. The device was originally proposed by L. Gonzalez-Mestres and D. Perret-Gallix (LAPP, IN2P3/CNRS) In their rapporteur contribution to the Proceedings of the XXIV International Conference on High-Energy Physics, Munich, August 1988, Gonzalez-Mestres and Perret-Gallix wrote : Perhaps bolometry should in some cases be combined with other detection techniques (luminescence?) in order to produce a primary fast signal as timing strobe. If light is used as a complementary signature, particle identification can be achieved through the heat-light ratio, where nucleus recoil is expected to be less luminescent than ionizing particles. The success of such a development would open the way to unprecedented achievements in background rejection for rare event experiments. Further explanations, including a description of the detector and possible applications incorporating in particular BGO and tungstates, were given by these authors in other papers such as their contribution to


id: sensitive-high-resolution-ion-microprobe-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitive_high-resolution_ion_microprobe-0.md
category: reference
title: Sensitive high-resolution ion microprobe
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitive_high-resolution_ion_microprobe
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:11.541397+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sensitive-high-resolution-ion-microprobe-20260505-0
summary:
The sensitive high-resolution ion microprobe (also sensitive high mass-resolution ion microprobe or SHRIMP) is a large-diameter, double-focusing secondary ion mass spectrometer (SIMS) sector instrument that was produced by Australian Scientific Instruments in Canberra, Australia and now has been taken over by Chinese company Dunyi Technology Development Co. (DTDC) in Beijing. Similar to the IMS 1270-1280-1300 large-geometry ion microprobes produced by CAMECA, Gennevilliers, France and like other SIMS instruments, the SHRIMP microprobe bombards a sample under vacuum with a beam of primary ions that sputters secondary ions that are focused, filtered, and measured according to their energy and mass. The SHRIMP is primarily used for geological and geochemical applications. It can measure the isotopic and elemental abundances in minerals at a 10 to 30 μm-diameter scale and with a depth resolution of 1–5 μm. Thus, SIMS method is well-suited for the analysis of complex minerals, as often found in metamorphic terrains, some igneous rocks, and for relatively rapid analysis of statistical valid sets of detrital minerals from sedimentary rocks. The most common application of the instrument is in uranium–thorium–lead geochronology, although the SHRIMP can be used to measure some other isotope ratio measurements (e.g., δ7Li or δ11B) and trace element abundances.


id: sira-notified-body-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sira_(notified_body)-0.md
category: reference
title: Sira (notified body)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sira_(notified_body)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:12.660143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sira-notified-body-20260505-0
summary:
Sira is a UK-based notified body, specialising in ATEX, IECEX and North American product approvals. == Foundation == Sira began life as the British Scientific Instrument Research Association (BSIRA). It was founded in 1918 by a Committee of the Privy Council for the promotion of scientific and industrial research and supported by the DSIR. The first members of the association were representatives of the optical industry, but these were joined in the same year by the electrical scientific instrument, electromedical, and X-ray industries. Its first director of research was Sir Herbert Jackson (1863–1936). BSIRA's London headquarters were destroyed in the Second World War and, in 1947, the association moved to a site in South Hill, Chislehurst, a Grade II Listed former private house called 'Sitka' By the 1960s, the association had become better-known as 'Sira'. It evolved into a group of British engineering companies, based in south London, that designed test equipment and provided calibration services. == Fate == In 2006, Sira Test and Certification Ltd, Sira Defence and Security, and Sira Environmental were owned by Volveré plc. In July 2009, Volvere sold Sira Test and Certification Ltd, Sira Certification Service and Sira Environmental Ltd to CSA International. == Similar


id: spectronic-20-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectronic_20-0.md
category: reference
title: Spectronic 20
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectronic_20
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:13.785145+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: spectronic-20-20260505-0
summary:
The Spectronic 20 is a brand of single-beam spectrophotometer, designed to operate in the visible spectrum across a wavelength range of 340 nm to 950 nm, with a spectral bandpass of 20 nm. It is designed for quantitative absorption measurement at single wavelengths. Because it measures the transmittance or absorption of visible light through a solution, it is sometimes referred to as a colorimeter. The name of the instrument is a trademark of the manufacturer. Developed by Bausch & Lomb and launched in 1953, the Spectronic 20 was the first low-cost spectrophotometer. It rapidly became an industry standard due to its low cost, durability and ease of use, and has been referred to as an "iconic lab spectrophotometer". Approximately 600,000 units were sold over its nearly 60 year production run. It has been the most widely used spectrophotometer worldwide. Production was discontinued in 2011 when it was replaced by the Spectronic 200, but the Spectronic 20 is still in common use. It is sometimes referred to as the "Spec 20". == Design == The Bausch & Lomb Spectronic 20 colorimeter uses a diffraction grating monochromator combined with a system for the detection, amplification, and measurement of light wavelengths in the


id: spectronic-20-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectronic_20-1.md
category: reference
title: Spectronic 20
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectronic_20
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:13.785145+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: spectronic-20-20260505-0
summary:
== Use == Before testing a sample, the Spectronic 20 is calibrated using a blank solution, which is the pure solvent that is used in the experimental sample. It is typically water or an organic solvent. In this calibration, the transmittance is set at 100% using the calibration knob of the instrument (the amplifier control knob in the figure at right). The instrument can also optionally be calibrated with a stock solution of a sample at a concentration known to have an absorbance of 2 or else vendor supplied standards, using the light absorption knob in the diagram shown at right. After calibration, the user places a 1/2 inch test tube or cuvette containing the sample solution to be measured into the sample compartment. Calibration is repeated each time the wavelength is changed. It or a standard reference sample is generally used to periodically check for drift. To measure wavelengths above 650 nm, the bottom of the instrument is opened, and a red filter and a red-sensitive photocell is installed. The original design of the Spectronic 20 utilized an analog dial for readout of transmission from 100%T to 1%T (top scale), 0A - 2A (lower scale). Using the original instrument


id: total-ozone-mapping-spectrometer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_Ozone_Mapping_Spectrometer-0.md
category: reference
title: Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_Ozone_Mapping_Spectrometer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:14.947524+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: total-ozone-mapping-spectrometer-20260505-0
summary:
The Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) was a NASA satellite instrument, specifically a spectrometer, for measuring the ozone layer. Of the five TOMS instruments which were built, four entered successful orbit. The satellites carrying TOMS instruments were: Nimbus 7; launched October 24, 1978. Operated until 1 August 1994. Carried TOMS instrument number 1. Meteor-3-5; launched 15 August 1991. Operated until December 1994. Was the first and last Soviet satellite to carry a USA made instrument. Carried TOMS instrument number 2. ADEOS I; launched 17 August 1996. Operated until 30 June 1997. Mission was cut short by a spacecraft failure. TOMS-Earth Probe; launched on July 2, 1996. Operated until 2 December 2006. Carried TOMS instrument number 3. QuikTOMS; launched 21 September 2001. Suffered launch failure and did not enter orbit. Nimbus 7 and Meteor-3-5 provided global measurements of total column ozone on a daily basis and together provided a complete data set of daily ozone from November 1978 to December 1994. After an eighteen-month period when the program had no on-orbit capability, TOMS-Earth Probe launched on 2 July 1996, followed by ADEOS I. ADEOS I was launched on August 17, 1996, and the TOMS-instrument onboard provided data until the satellite which


id: xylotron-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XyloTron-0.md
category: reference
title: XyloTron
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XyloTron
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:16.064229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: xylotron-20260505-0
summary:
The XyloTron is an open-source, portable macroscopic wood identification system developed to support supply chain verification and the enforcement of laws against illegal logging. The device uses computer vision wood identification models to classify wood specimens based on their macroscopic anatomy and requires minimal operator training. Designed for use in laboratory and field settings, the system provides a non-destructive method to rapidly identify wood. The system's accuracy depends on the quality of the training data, the breadth and anatomical complexity of woods in the model, and the similarity of unknown samples to those included in the model. Use of the XyloTron is intended to help establish probable cause in cases of possible illegal logging, rather than for high-stakes legal enforcement or forensic confirmation. Microscopic analysis of wood specimens by a wood anatomist may still be required. == Overview == The XyloTron system was developed at the United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory in Madison, Wisconsin. Initial conceptual work began in late 2010. The XyloTron uses a laptop or desktop computer for computation and the XyloScope, which is specialized, custom-designed hardware that captures controlled imaging using a scientific-grade digital camera, lens, and lighting array. Unlike traditional wood


id: z-tube-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z-tube-0.md
category: reference
title: Z-tube
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z-tube
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:17.202821+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: z-tube-20260505-0
summary:
The Z-tube is an experimental apparatus for measuring the tensile strength of a liquid. It consists of a Z-shaped tube with open ends, filled with a liquid, and set on top of a spinning table. If the tube were straight, the liquid would immediately fly out one end or the other of the tube as it began to spin. By bending the ends of the tube back towards the center of rotation, a shift of the liquid away from center will result in the water level in one end of the tube rising and thus increasing the pressure in that end of the tube, and consequently returning the liquid to the center of the tube. By measuring the rotational speed and the distance from the center of rotation to the liquid level in the bent ends of the tube, the pressure reduction inside the tube can be calculated. Negative pressures, (i.e. less than zero absolute pressure, or in other words, tension) have been reported using water processed to remove dissolved gases. Tensile strengths up to 280 atmospheres have been reported for water in glass. == References ==


id: zeeman-slower-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeeman_slower-0.md
category: reference
title: Zeeman slower
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeeman_slower
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:18.309776+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: zeeman-slower-20260505-0
summary:
In atomic physics, a Zeeman slower is a scientific instrument that is commonly used in atomic physics to slow and cool a beam of hot atoms to speeds of several meters per second and temperatures below a kelvin. The gas-phase atoms used in atomic physics are often generated in an oven by heating a solid or liquid atomic sample to temperatures where the vapor pressure is high enough that a substantial number of atoms are in the gas phase. These atoms effuse out of a hole in the oven with average speeds on the order of hundreds of m/s and large velocity distributions (due to their high temperature). The Zeeman slower is attached close to where the hot atoms exit the oven and are used to slow them to less than 10 m/s (slowing) with a very small velocity spread (cooling). A Zeeman slower consists of a cylinder, through which an atomic beam travels, a pump laser that counterpropagates with respect to the beam's direction, and a magnetic field (commonly produced by a solenoid-like coil) that points along the cylinder's axis with a spatially varying magnitude. The pump laser, which is required to be near-resonant with atomic transition, Doppler-slows a


id: zeeman-slower-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeeman_slower-1.md
category: reference
title: Zeeman slower
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeeman_slower
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:18.309776+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: zeeman-slower-20260505-0
summary:
B ( z ) = ℏ k μ ′ v + ℏ δ μ ′ = ℏ k v i μ ′ 1 − 2 a v i 2 z + ℏ δ μ ′ , {\displaystyle B(z)={\frac {\hbar k}{\mu '}}v+{\frac {\hbar \delta }{\mu '}}={\frac {\hbar kv_{i}}{\mu '}}{\sqrt {1-{\frac {2a}{v_{i}^{2}}}z}}+{\frac {\hbar \delta }{\mu '}},} where v i {\displaystyle v_{i}} is the maximal velocity class that will be slowed; all the atoms in the velocity distribution that have velocities v < v i {\displaystyle v<v_{i}} will be slowed, and those with velocities v > v i {\displaystyle v>v_{i}} will not be slowed at all. The parameter η {\displaystyle \eta } (which determines the required laser intensity) is normally chosen to be around 0.5. If a Zeeman slower were to be operated with η ≈ 1 {\displaystyle \eta \approx 1} , then after absorbing a photon and moving to the excited state, the atom would preferentially re-emit a photon in the direction of the laser beam (due to stimulated emission), which would counteract the slowing process. == Realization == The required form of the spatially inhomogeneous magnetic field as we showed above has the form B ( z ) = B 0


id: alltrials-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AllTrials-0.md
category: reference
title: AllTrials
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AllTrials
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:24.154433+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alltrials-20260505-0
summary:
AllTrials (sometimes called All Trials or AllTrials.net) is a project advocating that clinical research adopt the principles of open research. The project summarizes itself as "All trials registered, all results reported": that is, all clinical trials should be listed in a clinical trials registry, and their results should always be shared as open data. At the center of the organisation is a petition signed by over 85,000 individuals and 599 organisations (as of August 2015): Thousands of clinical trials have not reported their results; some have not even been registered. Information on what was done and what was found in these trials could be lost forever to doctors and researchers, leading to bad treatment decisions, missed opportunities for good medicine, and trials being repeated. All trials past and present should be registered, and the full methods and the results reported. We call on governments, regulators and research bodies to implement measures to achieve this. Ben Goldacre, author of Bad Science and Bad Pharma, is a founder of the campaign and its most public spokesperson. In 2016, he participated in the launch of the OpenTrials database. AllTrials is an international initiative of Bad Science, BMJ, Centre for Evidence-based Medicine, Cochrane Collaboration,


id: alltrials-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AllTrials-1.md
category: reference
title: AllTrials
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AllTrials
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:24.154433+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alltrials-20260505-0
summary:
== Supporters == The campaign is an initiative of Sense about Science, Centre for Evidence Based Medicine, The Dartmouth Institute for Health Policy and Clinical Practice, James Lind Alliance, Cochrane Collaboration, BMJ Group, PLOS, and Bad Science. The petition statement of AllTrials has been signed by organizations including Wellcome Trust, British Library, Medical Research Council (UK), British Heart Foundation, Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care, National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, BioMed Central, National Physicians Alliance, Royal Society of Medicine, Health Research Authority, American Medical Student Association, GlaxoSmithKline, and others. As of May 2017, The AllTrials petition has been signed by 90,282 people and 721 organisations. In October 2016, AllTrials published a road map detailing steps that various types of organisations can take to get more trials registered and more results reported. 85 investors with >€3.5 trillion (£2.45trn; $3.83trn) of investments have supported AllTrials (as of July 2015), with Peter van der Werf of RobecoSAM saying: "We deem this to be a financially material factor and encourage all companies to gain credibility regarding their approach to clinical trial transparency by signing up to the AllTrials principles.". The Laura and John Arnold Foundation provided early and ongoing financial


id: c-glenn-begley-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._Glenn_Begley-0.md
category: reference
title: C. Glenn Begley
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._Glenn_Begley
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:25.259430+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: c-glenn-begley-20260505-0
summary:
C. Glenn Begley is a hematologist and oncologist who was the CEO of BioCurate, an Australia-based joint venture between the University of Melbourne and Monash University that was launched in 2016. The "C. Glenn Begley Award", created by Stanford University in 2025, was named in his honor. The award celebrates teams that uphold the highest standards of scientific integrity, fostering innovation that is both impactful and reliable. Previously, he worked at the California-based biotech company Akriveia Therapeutics as their chief scientific officer. His other previous positions include global head of hematology and oncology research at Amgen, senior vice president and chief scientific officer at TetraLogic Pharmaceuticals, and executive director of the Western Australian Institute of Medical Research. He studied medicine at the University of Melbourne. He is known for a study he co-authored in 2012 in which he found that only 6 out of 53 (11%) of landmark preclinical studies of cancer drugs could be reproduced. He was elected to the American Society for Clinical Investigation in 2000. Begley was elected Fellow of the Australian Academy of Health and Medical Sciences in 2015. == Education == Begley studied medicine at the University of Melbourne starting in 1972 and finishing in


id: berkeley-initiative-for-transparency-in-the-social-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkeley_Initiative_for_Transparency_in_the_Social_Sciences-0.md
category: reference
title: Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkeley_Initiative_for_Transparency_in_the_Social_Sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:26.397111+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: berkeley-initiative-for-transparency-in-the-social-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
The Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences, abbreviated BITSS, is an academic initiative dedicated to advancing transparency, reproducibility, and openness in social science research. It was established in 2012 by the University of California, Berkeley's Center for Effective Global Action. It has worked with the Center for Open Science to define and promote a set of best practices for social scientists to maximize transparency in their research. BITSS has also worked to promote registered reports, supporting journals like the Journal of Development Economics in taking up the review track. In 2015, BITSS began awarding the annual Leamer-Rosenthal Prizes for Open Social Science to honor outstanding achievements and emerging leaders in promoting transparency in social science. Through its Catalyst program, the initiative also supports and empowers over 150 graduate students, faculty, librarians, and early career researchers to advance open science all over the world. Their annual Research Transparency and Reproducibility Training (RT2) provides an overview of and hands-on practice with tools and practices for transparent and reproducible social science research. Their Massive Open Online Course "Transparent and Open Social Science Research,” based on a UC Berkeley course taught by Edward Miguel, is available on the FutureLearn platform. In 2019,


id: burden-of-knowledge-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burden_of_knowledge-0.md
category: reference
title: Burden of knowledge
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burden_of_knowledge
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:27.531708+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: burden-of-knowledge-20260505-0
summary:
The burden of knowledge describes the difficulty of adding to a scientific field as the amount of previous work that must be understood increases over time. This is seen across scientific disciplines. Evidence for this burden includes a trend that people are older before they receive their first patent or publish in a prestigious journal, and the need for scientific groups to be larger as scientists need to collaborate so that the team has sufficient understanding of prior work. == Scholarship == Explicit scholarship of this idea has entered the mainstream with the works of Benjamin Jones, in particular The Burden of Knowledge and the Death of the Renaissance Man, and with the works of Jan Brendel and Sascha Schweitzer The Burden of Knowledge in Mathematics. == Overview == Theory and empirical studies reflect the case that researchers and innovators are not born with the required expertise and must first undertake education. With accumulating information and discoveries, the time to digest and improve on extant knowledge takes longer. Similarly, frontiers of knowledge advance at an overall increasing rate and are shifting over time. The "burden of knowledge" refers to the difficulty of catching up with this evolving knowledge frontier. A


id: conflicts-of-interest-in-academic-publishing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflicts_of_interest_in_academic_publishing-0.md
category: reference
title: Conflicts of interest in academic publishing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflicts_of_interest_in_academic_publishing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:28.683683+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conflicts-of-interest-in-academic-publishing-20260505-0
summary:
Conflicts of interest (COIs) often arise in academic publishing. Such conflicts may cause wrongdoing and make it more likely. Ethical standards in academic publishing exist to avoid and deal with conflicts of interest, and the field continues to develop new standards. Standards vary between journals and are unevenly applied. According to the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors, "[a]uthors have a responsibility to evaluate the integrity, history, practices and reputation of the journals to which they submit manuscripts". Conflicts of interest increase the likelihood of biases arising; they can harm the quality of research and the public good (even if disclosed). Conflicts of interest can involve research sponsors, authors, journals, journal staff, publishers, and peer reviewers. == Avoidance, disclosure, and tracking == The avoidance of conflicts of interest and the changing of the structure of institutions to make them easier to avoid are frequently advocated for. Some institutional ethics policies ban academics from entering into specific types of COIs, for instance by prohibiting them from accepting gifts from companies connected with their work. Education in ethical COI management is also a tool for avoiding COI problems. Disclosure of COIs has been debated since the 1980s; there is a general consensus


id: conflicts-of-interest-in-academic-publishing-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflicts_of_interest_in_academic_publishing-1.md
category: reference
title: Conflicts of interest in academic publishing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflicts_of_interest_in_academic_publishing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:28.683683+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conflicts-of-interest-in-academic-publishing-20260505-0
summary:
==== Owners and governing bodies ==== The owner of an academic journal has ultimate power over the hiring and firing of editorial staff; editors' interests in pleasing their employers conflict with some of their other editorial interests. Journals are also more likely to accept papers by authors who work for the journals' hosting institutions. Some journals are owned by publishers. When journals print reviews of books published by their own publishers, they rarely (as of 2013) add COI disclosures. The publishers' interest in maximizing profit will often conflict with academic interests or ethical standards. In the case of closed-access publications, publishers' desire for high subscription income may conflict with an editorial desire for broader access and readership. There have been multiple mass resignations of editorial boards over such conflicts, which are often followed by the editorial board founding a new, non-profit journal to compete with their former one. Some journals are owned by academic societies and professional organisations. Leading journals can be very profitable and there is often friction about revenue between the journal and the member society that owns it. Some academic societies and professional organisations are themselves funded by membership fees and/or donations. If the owners benefit financially


id: conflicts-of-interest-in-academic-publishing-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflicts_of_interest_in_academic_publishing-2.md
category: reference
title: Conflicts of interest in academic publishing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflicts_of_interest_in_academic_publishing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:28.683683+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conflicts-of-interest-in-academic-publishing-20260505-0
summary:
=== COIs of journal staff === Personal conflicts of interest faced by journal staff are individual. If a person leaves the journal—unlike the COIs of journals as institutions—their personal COIs will go with them. As of 2015, COIs of journal staff are less commonly reported than those of authors. For instance, one 2009 World Association of Medical Editors (WAME) policy document states, "Some journals list editors' competing interests on their website but this is not a standard practice". The ICMJE, however, requires that the COIs of editors and journal staff be regularly declared and published. One 2017 Open Payments study of influential US medical journals found half of the editors received payments from industry; another study that used a different sample of editors reported two-thirds. As of 2002, systems for reporting wrongdoing by editors often do not exist. Many journals have policies limiting COIs staff can enter into; for instance, accepting gifts of travel, accommodation, or hospitality may be prohibited. As of 2016, such policies are rarely published. Most journals do not offer COI training; as of 2015, many journals report a desire for better guidance on COI policy. === COIs of peer reviewers === The ICJME recommendations require peer


id: conflicts-of-interest-in-academic-publishing-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflicts_of_interest_in_academic_publishing-3.md
category: reference
title: Conflicts of interest in academic publishing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflicts_of_interest_in_academic_publishing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:28.683683+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conflicts-of-interest-in-academic-publishing-20260505-0
summary:
The ICMJE requires that "All those designated as authors should meet all four criteria for authorship, and all who meet the four criteria should be identified as authors. Those who do not meet all four criteria should be acknowledged." Academics who have had publication ethics training and those who are aware of the ICMJE authorship criteria are more stringent in their concepts of authorship and are more likely to consider breaches of authorship as misconduct, as are more junior researchers. Awareness is low; one study found only about half of researchers had read the ICJME criteria. === COIs of study sponsors === If a study requires outside funding, this can be a major source of conflicting interests; for instance in cases where the manufacturer of a drug is funding a study into its safety and efficacy or where the sponsor hopes to use the research to defend itself in litigation. Sponsors of a study may involve themselves in the design, execution, analysis, and write-up of a study. In extreme cases, they may carry out the research and ghostwrite the article with almost no involvement from the nominal author. Movie-style credits are advocated as a way to avoid this. There are


id: design-of-experiments-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_of_experiments-0.md
category: reference
title: Design of experiments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_of_experiments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:30.097260+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: design-of-experiments-20260505-0
summary:
The design of experiments (DOE), also known as experiment design or experimental design, is the design of any task that aims to describe and explain the variation of information under conditions that are hypothesized to reflect the variation. The term is generally associated with experiments in which the design introduces conditions that directly affect the variation, but may also refer to the design of quasi-experiments, in which natural conditions that influence the variation are selected for observation. In its simplest form, an experiment aims at predicting the outcome by introducing a change of the preconditions, which is represented by one or more independent variables, also referred to as "input variables" or "predictor variables." The change in one or more independent variables is generally hypothesized to result in a change in one or more dependent variables, also referred to as "output variables" or "response variables." The experimental design may also identify control variables that must be held constant to prevent external factors from affecting the results. Experimental design involves not only the selection of suitable independent, dependent, and control variables, but planning the delivery of the experiment under statistically optimal conditions given the constraints of available resources. There are multiple approaches


id: design-of-experiments-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_of_experiments-1.md
category: reference
title: Design of experiments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_of_experiments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:30.097260+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: design-of-experiments-20260505-0
summary:
Comparison In some fields of study it is not possible to have independent measurements to a traceable metrology standard. Comparisons between treatments are much more valuable and are usually preferable, and often compared against a scientific control or traditional treatment that acts as baseline. Randomization Random assignment is the process of assigning individuals at random to groups or to different groups in an experiment, so that each individual of the population has the same chance of becoming a participant in the study. The random assignment of individuals to groups (or conditions within a group) distinguishes a rigorous, "true" experiment from an observational study or "quasi-experiment". There is an extensive body of mathematical theory that explores the consequences of making the allocation of units to treatments by means of some random mechanism (such as tables of random numbers, or the use of randomization devices such as playing cards or dice). Assigning units to treatments at random tends to mitigate confounding, which makes effects due to factors other than the treatment to appear to result from the treatment. The risks associated with random allocation (such as having a serious imbalance in a key characteristic between a treatment group and a control group)


id: design-of-experiments-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_of_experiments-2.md
category: reference
title: Design of experiments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_of_experiments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:30.097260+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: design-of-experiments-20260505-0
summary:
Let yi be the measured difference for i = 1, ..., 8. The relationship between the true weights and experimental measurements may be represented with a general linear model, with the design matrix W {\displaystyle W} having entries from { − 1 , 0 , 1 } {\displaystyle \{-1,0,1\}} : y = W θ + ϵ {\displaystyle y=W\theta +\epsilon } The first design is represented by an identity matrix while the second design is represented by an 8x8 Hadamard matrix, H {\displaystyle H} , both examples of weighing matrices. The weights are typically estimated using the method of least squares. Using a weighing matrix, this is equivalent to inverting on the measurements: θ ^ A = I − 1 y = y {\displaystyle {\hat {\theta }}_{A}=I^{-1}y=y} θ ^ B = H − 1 y {\displaystyle {\hat {\theta }}_{B}=H^{-1}y} The question of design of experiments is: which experiment is better? Investigating estimate A vs B for the first weight: Var ⁡ ( θ ^ A , 1 ) = Var ⁡ ( y 1 ) = σ 2 {\displaystyle \operatorname {Var} ({\hat {\theta }}_{A,1})=\operatorname {Var} (y_{1})=\sigma ^{2}} Var ⁡ ( θ ^ B , 1 ) = Var ⁡ ( y


id: design-of-experiments-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_of_experiments-3.md
category: reference
title: Design of experiments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_of_experiments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:30.097260+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: design-of-experiments-20260505-0
summary:
== Causal attributions == In the pure experimental design, the independent (predictor) variable is manipulated by the researcher – that is – every participant of the research is chosen randomly from the population, and each participant chosen is assigned randomly to conditions of the independent variable. Only when this is done is it possible to certify with high probability that the reason for the differences in the outcome variables are caused by the different conditions. Therefore, researchers should choose the experimental design over other design types whenever possible. However, the nature of the independent variable does not always allow for manipulation. In those cases, researchers must be aware of not certifying about causal attribution when their design doesn't allow for it. For example, in observational designs, participants are not assigned randomly to conditions, and so if there are differences found in outcome variables between conditions, it is likely that there is something other than the differences between the conditions that causes the differences in outcomes, that is – a third variable. The same goes for studies with correlational design. == Statistical control == It is best that a process be in reasonable statistical control prior to conducting designed experiments. When


id: design-of-experiments-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_of_experiments-4.md
category: reference
title: Design of experiments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_of_experiments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:30.097260+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: design-of-experiments-20260505-0
summary:
== See also == Adversarial collaboration – Method of research Bayesian experimental design – Experimental design framework Block design – Structure in combinatorial mathematics Box–Behnken design – Experimental designs for response surface methodology Central composite design – Experimental design in statistical mathematics Clinical study design – Plan for research in clinical medicine Computer experiment – Experiment used to study computer simulation Controlling for a variable – Binning data according to measured values of the variable Experimetrics (econometrics-related experiments) Factor analysis – Statistical method Fractional factorial design – Statistical experimental design approach Glossary of experimental design Grey box model – Mathematical data production model with limited structure Industrial engineering – Branch of engineering which deals with the optimization of complex processes or systems Instrument effect Law of large numbers – Averages of repeated trials converge to the expected value Manipulation checks Multifactor design of experiments software One-factor-at-a-time method – Method of designing experiments Optimal design – Experimental design that is optimal with respect to some statistical criterionPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Plackett–Burman design – Type of experimental design Probabilistic design – Discipline within engineering design Protocol (natural sciences) – Procedural method for the design and implementation of an experimentPages


id: further-research-is-needed-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Further_research_is_needed-0.md
category: reference
title: Further research is needed
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Further_research_is_needed
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:31.281573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: further-research-is-needed-20260505-0
summary:
"Further research is needed" (FRIN), "more research is needed" and other variants of similar phrases are commonly used in research papers. The cliché is so common that it has attracted research, regulation and cultural commentary. == Meaning == Some research journals have banned the phrase "more research is needed" on the grounds that it is redundant; it is almost always true and fits almost any article, and so can be taken as understood. A 2004 metareview by the Cochrane collaboration of their own systematic medical reviews found that 93% of the reviews studied made indiscriminate FRIN-like statements, reducing their ability to guide future research. The presence of FRIN had no correlation with the strength of the evidence against the medical intervention. Authors who thought a treatment was useless were just as likely to recommend researching it further. Indeed, authors may recommend "further research" when, given the existing evidence, further research would be extremely unlikely to be approved by an ethics committee. Studies finding that a treatment has no noticeable effects are sometimes greeted with statements that "more research is needed" by those convinced that the treatment is effective, but the effect has not yet been found. Since even the largest


id: steven-n-goodman-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_N._Goodman-0.md
category: reference
title: Steven N. Goodman
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_N._Goodman
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:32.428701+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: steven-n-goodman-20260505-0
summary:
Steven N. Goodman (born 1954) is an American epidemiologist and Professor of Epidemiology and Population Health and of Medicine at the Stanford School of Medicine, where he serves as Associate Dean of Clinical and Translational Research. He is co-founder and co-director of the Meta-Research Innovation Center at Stanford (METRICS), a center dedicated to studying and improving the reproducibility and efficiency of biomedical research, alongside John Ioannidis. He is also founder and director of the Stanford Program on Research Rigor and Reproducibility (SPORR). Goodman has made extensive contributions to the foundations of scientific and statistical inference within the biosciences. In 1999, he coined the term "p-value fallacy" in a pair of landmark papers arguing for the adoption of Bayesian methods in medical research. He is a sibling of journalist and Democracy Now! host Amy Goodman and journalist David Goodman. == Education and career == Goodman received his AB in Biochemistry and Applied Mathematics from Harvard College in 1976, his MD from New York University School of Medicine, and his MHS and PhD in Biostatistics from the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, completing his doctoral dissertation Evidence and Clinical Trials in 1989 under the supervision of Richard Royall. He completed


id: icmje-recommendations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICMJE_recommendations-0.md
category: reference
title: ICMJE recommendations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICMJE_recommendations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:34.831046+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: icmje-recommendations-20260505-0
summary:
The ICMJE recommendations (full title, "Recommendations for the Conduct, Reporting, Editing, and Publication of Scholarly Work in Medical Journals") are a set of guidelines produced by the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors for standardising the ethics, preparation and formatting of manuscripts submitted to biomedical journals for publication. Compliance with the ICMJE recommendations is required by most leading biomedical journals. Levels of real compliance are subject to debate. As of 9 January 2020, 5570 journals worldwide claim to follow the ICMJE recommendations. The recommendations were first issued in 1979 under the title "Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals" (abbreviated URMs and often shortened to "Uniform Requirements"). After a series of revisions, they were given their current name in 2013. == International Committee of Medical Journal Editors == The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) was originally known as the Vancouver Group, after the location of their first meeting in Vancouver, British Columbia in Canada. As of 2017 members of the ICMJE are: Annals of Internal Medicine BMJ Bulletin of the World Health Organization Deutsches Ärzteblatt Ethiopian Journal of Health Sciences Iranian Journal of Medical Sciences Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA) New England Journal of Medicine


id: john-ioannidis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ioannidis-0.md
category: reference
title: John Ioannidis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ioannidis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:39.244360+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: john-ioannidis-20260505-0
summary:
John P. A. Ioannidis ( EE-ə-NEE-diss; Greek: Ιωάννης Ιωαννίδης, pronounced [i.oˈanis i.oaˈniðis]; born 21 August 1965) is a Greek-American physician-scientist, writer, and Stanford University professor who has made contributions to evidence-based medicine, epidemiology, and clinical research. Ioannidis studies scientific research itself (meta-research) primarily in clinical medicine and the social sciences. He has served on the editorial board of over twenty scientific journals including Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA), Journal of the National Cancer Institute (JNCI), and The Lancet. Ioannidis's 2005 essay "Why Most Published Research Findings Are False" was the most-accessed article in the history of Public Library of Science (PLOS) as of 2020, with more than three million views. Ioannidis was a prominent opponent of lockdowns during the COVID-19 pandemic, and he has been accused of promoting conspiracy theories about COVID-19 policies and public health and safety measures. == Early life and education == Born in New York City in 1965, Ioannidis was raised in Athens, Greece. He was valedictorian of his class at Athens College, graduating in 1984, and won a number of awards, including the National Award of the Greek Mathematical Society. He graduated in the top rank of his class at the University of


id: john-ioannidis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ioannidis-1.md
category: reference
title: John Ioannidis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ioannidis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:39.244360+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: john-ioannidis-20260505-0
summary:
=== Meta-analysis === Ioannidis has developed and popularized several methods for meta-analysis and has made several conceptual advances in this field. These include methods for assessing heterogeneity and its uncertainty, methods for meta-analysis involving multiple treatments, methods and processes for umbrella reviews, and several approaches to identifying bias and adjusting the results of meta-analyses for bias, such as publication bias and reporting bias resulting in funnel-plot asymmetry. He has also alerted about the misuse and misinterpretation of bias tests. Along with David Chavalarias, he catalogued 235 biases across the entire publication record of biomedical research. Ioannidis has been critical of flawed, misleading and redundant meta-analyses, estimating that few meta-analyses in medicine are both bias-free and clinically useful. He has performed empirical evaluations of the concordance of results between meta-analyses and large trials and between randomized trials and non-randomized studies. === Evidence-based medicine === Ioannidis has been one of the strong proponents and earlier advocates of evidence-based medicine. However, he has alerted that, over the years, as evidence-based medicine acquired more prominence and influence, it was hijacked to serve other agendas that are often biased. In an essay written to honor his late mentor David Sackett, he stated that: Influential randomized


id: john-ioannidis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ioannidis-2.md
category: reference
title: John Ioannidis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ioannidis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:39.244360+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: john-ioannidis-20260505-0
summary:
=== Neuroscience === Along with colleagues, Ioannidis has performed empirical evaluations and meta-research assessments of large numbers of scientific studies in neuroscience and have found that lack of power is a very common problem, leading to both false-negatives (the inability to discover true signals) and false-positives (finding spurious signals). === Economics === In empirical assessments of all meta-analyses that have been conducted on economics topics, Ioannidis and colleagues have found that most of the studies in these fields are small and under-powered. Using bias detection and correction methods, they have concluded that nearly 80% of the reported effects in the empirical economics literature is exaggerated; typically by a factor of two, and with one-third inflated by a factor of four or more. == Editorial appointments == Ioannidis has served on the editorial board of a number of scientific journals, including the European Journal of Clinical Investigation (editor-in-chief, 2010–2019), BMC Medicine, International Journal of Epidemiology, Journal of the American Medical Association, Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, Journal of Infectious Diseases, International Journal of Molecular Epidemiology and Genetics, International Journal of Epidemiology, Journal of Translational Medicine, Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice, Clinical Chemistry, Physiological Reviews, Royal Society Open Science, Research Integrity and


id: john-ioannidis-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ioannidis-3.md
category: reference
title: John Ioannidis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ioannidis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:39.244360+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: john-ioannidis-20260505-0
summary:
== COVID-19 == In an editorial on STAT published March 17, 2020, Ioannidis wondered whether the global response to the COVID-19 pandemic may be a "once-in-a-century evidence fiasco" and asked for obtaining more reliable data to deal with the pandemic. He made a rough estimation that the coronavirus could cause 10,000 U.S. deaths if it infected 1% of the U.S. population, but argued that more data was needed to determine how widely the virus would spread. The virus in fact eventually became widely disseminated, and would cause more than one million deaths in the U.S. Ioannidis expressed doubt that vaccines or treatments would be developed and tested in time to affect how the pandemic would unfold. Marc Lipsitch, Director of the Center for Communicable Disease Dynamics at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, objected to Ioannidis's characterization of the global response in a reply that was published on STAT the next day after Ioannidis's. In March 2020, Ioannidis tried to organize a meeting at the White House where he and colleagues would caution President Donald Trump against "shutting down the country for [a] very long time and jeopardizing so many lives in doing this", according to a proposal


id: john-ioannidis-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ioannidis-4.md
category: reference
title: John Ioannidis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ioannidis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:39.244360+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: john-ioannidis-20260505-0
summary:
== Reception == In the 2000s and 2010s, during a period of regular publications from Ioannidis on the replication crisis in science, observers in the popular press commented that Ioannidis "may be one of the most influential scientists alive", and was "cementing his role as one of medicine's top mythbusters". In 2014, The Economist featured Ioannidis and Steven Goodman in an article on the Meta-Research Innovation Center at Stanford, and George Johnson of the New York Times wrote an article on the importance of reproducible research, profiling Ioannidis's two 2005 papers as playing a critical role in raising concern about the issue in the scientific community, as later expressed by the journal Nature. This acclaim continued into the late 2010s, with Wired mentionining Ioannidis as "arguably the replication crisis' chief inquisitor". His research on replicability reached multiple fields, including the specious statistics behind some drug subscriptions, and findings from Ioannidis that only a minority of widely cited health research studies carried out over the last decade could be replicated, with at least 1 in 6 actually being contradicted by later studies,. Elsevier featured his analogy of reproducibility in research to "taming a complex beast". He was also an early critic


id: journalology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journalology-0.md
category: reference
title: Journalology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journalology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:40.445004+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: journalology-20260505-0
summary:
Journalology, also referred to as publication science, is the scholarly study of all aspects of the academic publishing process. The field seeks to improve the quality of scholarly research by implementing evidence-based practices in academic publishing. The term "journalology" was coined by Stephen Lock, the former editor-in-chief of the BMJ. The first Peer Review Congress, held in 1989 in Chicago, Illinois, is considered a pivotal moment in the founding of journalology as a distinct field. The field of journalology has exerted a significant influence in promoting the adoption of pre-registration in scientific research, particularly in the domain of clinical trials. Clinical trial registration is now expected in most countries. Journalology researchers also work to reform the peer review process. == History == The earliest scientific journals were founded in the seventeenth century. While most early journals used peer review, peer review did not become common practice in medical journals until after World War II. The scholarly publishing process (including peer review) did not arise by scientific means and still suffers from problems with reliability (consistency and dependability), such as a lack of uniform standards and validity (well-founded, efficacious). Attempts to reform the academic publishing practice began to gain traction in


id: open-peer-review-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_peer_review-0.md
category: reference
title: Open peer review
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_peer_review
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:41.654347+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-peer-review-20260505-0
summary:
Open peer review is the various possible modifications of the traditional scholarly peer review process. The three most common modifications to which the term is applied are: Open identities: Authors and reviewers are aware of each other's identity. Open reports: Review reports are published alongside the relevant article (rather than being kept confidential). Open participation: The wider community (and not just invited reviewers) are able to contribute to the review process. These modifications are supposed to address various perceived shortcomings of the traditional scholarly peer review process, in particular its lack of transparency, lack of incentives, wastefulness, bullying and harassment. == Definitions == Open identities Open peer review may be defined as "any scholarly review mechanism providing disclosure of author and referee identities to one another at any point during the peer review or publication process". Then reviewer's identities may or may not be disclosed to the public. This is in contrast to the traditional peer review process where reviewers remain anonymous to anyone but the journal's editors. Authors' names are disclosed during the process in a single-blind organisation of reviews. In the double-blind process, authors' names and reviewers' names all remain anonymous except to the editor. Open reports Open


id: open-peer-review-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_peer_review-1.md
category: reference
title: Open peer review
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_peer_review
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:41.654347+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-peer-review-20260505-0
summary:
== History == In 1997, the open participation journal Electronic Transactions on Artificial Intelligence was launched. Articles were first "published" (meaning the day when the article is first made public), then "reviewed" (meaning a open process of public discussion), and then "refereed" (meaning the confidential pass/fail decision of whether to accept the article or not). In 1999, the open access journal Journal of Medical Internet Research was launched, which from its inception decided to publish the names of the reviewers at the bottom of each published article. Also in 1999, the British Medical Journal moved to an open peer review system, revealing reviewers' identities to the authors but not the readers, and in 2000, the medical journals in the open access BMC series published by BioMed Central, launched using open peer review. As with the BMJ, the reviewers' names are included on the peer review reports. In addition, if the article is published the reports are made available online as part of the "pre-publication history"'. Several other journals published by the BMJ Group allow optional open peer review, as does PLoS Medicine, published by the Public Library of Science. The BMJ's Rapid Responses allows ongoing debate and criticism following publication.


id: open-peer-review-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_peer_review-2.md
category: reference
title: Open peer review
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_peer_review
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:41.654347+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-peer-review-20260505-0
summary:
Publishers: BioMed Central BMJ Group Copernicus Publications European Molecular Biology Organization (EMBO) Frontiers MDPI (authors have the option to publish peer review reports, etc.) Nature Research Open Research Europe (the European Union publishing platform for Horizon Europe and Horizon 2020 projects) Journals: eLife GigaScience Nature PeerJ PLOS ReScience C Semantic Web journal by IOS Press WikiJournal SciPost Peer review at The BMJ, BioMed Central, EMBO, eLife, ReScience C, and the Semantic Web journal involves posting the entire pre-publication history of the article online, including not only signed reviews of the article, but also its previous versions and in some cases names of handling editors and author responses to the reviewers. Furthermore, the Semantic Web journal publishes reviews of all submissions, including rejected ones, on its website, while eLife plans to publish the reviews not only for published articles, but also for rejected articles. The European Geosciences Union operates public discussions where open peer review is conducted before suitable articles are accepted for publication in the journal. Sci, an open access journal which covers all research fields, adapted a post publication public peer-review (P4R) in which it promised authors immediate visibility of their manuscripts on the journal's online platform after a


id: open-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:42.817357+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-science-20260505-0
summary:
Open science (also known as open research) is the movement to make scientific research, including publications, data, physical samples, software, and models, transparent and accessible to all levels of society through collaborative networks. This encompasses practices such as publishing open research, campaigning for open access, encouraging scientists to practice open-notebook science (such as openly sharing data and code), broader dissemination and public engagement in science, and generally making it easier to publish, access, and communicate scientific knowledge. Usage of the term varies substantially across disciplines, with a notable prevalence in the STEM disciplines. The term 'open research' has gained currency as a broader alternative to 'open science,' encompassing the humanities and arts alongside traditional scientific disciplines. The primary focus connecting all disciplines is the widespread uptake of new technologies and tools, and the underlying ecology of the production, dissemination and reception of knowledge from a research-based point-of-view. The term 'open scholarship' has also been proposed to include research from the arts and humanities as well as the different roles and practices that researchers perform as educators and communicators. Open science can be seen as continuing, rather than revolutionizing, practices that began in the 17th century with the academic journal, which


id: open-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:42.817357+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-science-20260505-0
summary:
Peer review is widely acknowledged as time-consuming. Citation impact, attributed to the authors, correlates more closely with journal circulation than with article quality. Open Science–aligned publishing formats rarely conform to traditional journal structures that calculate impact factors. Hence, this school argues that there are faster impact measurement technologies that can account for a range of publication types as well as social media web coverage of a scientific contribution to arrive at a complete evaluation of how impactful the science contribution was. The gist of the argument for this school is that hidden uses like reading, bookmarking, sharing, discussing and rating are traceable activities, and these traces can and should be used to develop a newer measure of scientific impact. The umbrella jargon for this new type of impact measurements is called altmetrics, coined in a 2011 article by Priem et al., (2011). Markedly, the authors discuss evidence that altmetrics differ from traditional webometrics which are slow and unstructured. Altmetrics are proposed to rely upon a greater set of measures that account for tweets, blogs, discussions, and bookmarks. Scholars propose that altmetrics should capture the entire research lifecycle, including collaboration patterns, to produce comprehensive impact measures. However, the authors are explicit


id: open-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:42.817357+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Before journals === Before the advent of scientific journals, scientists had little to gain and much to lose by publicizing scientific discoveries. Many scientists, including Galileo, Kepler, Isaac Newton, Christiaan Huygens, and Robert Hooke, made claim to their discoveries by describing them in papers coded in anagrams or cyphers and then distributing the coded text. Their intent was to develop their discovery into something off which they could profit, then reveal their discovery to prove ownership when they were prepared to make a claim on it. The system of not publicizing discoveries caused problems because discoveries were not shared quickly and because it sometimes was difficult for the discoverer to prove priority. Newton and Gottfried Leibniz both claimed priority in discovering calculus. Newton said that he wrote about calculus in the 1660s and 1670s, but did not publish until 1693. Leibniz published "Nova Methodus pro Maximis et Minimis", a treatise on calculus, in 1684. Debates over priority are inherent in systems where science is not published openly, and this was problematic for scientists who wanted to benefit from priority. Under aristocratic patronage, scientists received funding to develop useful innovations or provide entertainment, creating pressure to satisfy patrons' desires and


id: open-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:42.817357+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Internet and the free access to scientific documents === The open science movement, as presented in activist and institutional discourses at the beginning of the 21st century, refers to different ways of opening up science, especially in the Internet age. Its first pillar is free access to scientific publications. This issue entered the political landscape when the Budapest Open Access Initiative was released February 14, 2002, following a conference organized by the Open Society Institute (now Open Society Foundations) on December 1–2, 2001. The resulting declaration calls for the use of digital tools such as open archives and open access journals, free of charge for the reader. The idea of open access to scientific publications quickly became inseparable from the question of free licenses to guarantee the right to disseminate and possibly modify shared documents, such as the Creative Commons licenses, created in 2002. In 2011, a new text from the Budapest Open Initiative explicitly refers to the relevance of the CC-BY license to guarantee free dissemination and not only free access to a scientific document. Beyond publications, the open access principle has expanded to include research data — the empirical foundation of scientific studies across disciplines, as mentioned


id: open-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science-4.md
category: reference
title: Open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:42.817357+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Open Science and Research Assessment == A central aspect of the Open Science movement is the reform of research assessment. Initiatives such as the Coalition for Advancing Research Assessment (CoARA) (launched in 2022) and the San Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment (DORA) advocate moving away from traditional quantitative metrics like the Journal Impact Factor (JIF) and the h-Index, as these often exhibit biases and neglect qualitative aspects. Instead, alternative metrics and indicators, such as altmetrics and Open Science indicators, are to be given greater consideration. Open Science indicators include metrics such as the number of open access publications, data management plans, preprints, FAIR-licensed data, and open peer review reports. These approaches aim to promote the transparency and reusability of scientific outcomes, thereby enabling a fairer and more comprehensive evaluation of scientific achievements.While Open Science aims to enhance transparency, accessibility, and collaboration, the introduction of numerous new metrics to measure openness has led to unintended consequences. These metrics often rely on quantitative indicators, which conflict with the holistic and qualitative approaches advocated by initiatives such as CoARA and DORA. The core issue is that these metrics are designed not only to measure but also to influence researchers' behavior. This can


id: open-science-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science-5.md
category: reference
title: Open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:42.817357+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Disadvantages === Arguments against open science tend to focus on the advantages of data ownership and concerns about the misuse of data, but see. Other concerns around data misuse involve privacy and safety risks that arise from ecological data on protected animal populations or sensitive data on human specimens that could potentially be re-identified and lead to hard and stigma for certain populations. Potential misuse Allowing open access can bring documented cases of misuse, and such misuse can take various forms from accidental errors to intentional forms of misuse like misrepresenting data in order to manipulate or deceive. In 2011, Dutch researchers announced their intention to publish a research paper in the journal Science describing the creation of a strain of H5N1 influenza which can be easily passed between ferrets, the mammals which most closely mimic the human response to the flu. The announcement triggered a controversy in both political and scientific circles about the ethical implications of publishing scientific data which could be used to create biological weapons. These events are examples of how science data could potentially be misused. It has been argued that constraining the dissemination of dual-use knowledge can in certain cases be justified because,


id: open-science-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science-6.md
category: reference
title: Open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:42.817357+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Open-science projects === Different projects conduct, advocate, develop tools for, or fund open science. The Allen Institute for Brain Science conducts numerous open science projects while the Center for Open Science has projects to conduct, advocate, and create tools for open science. Other workgroups have been created in different fields, such as the Decision Analysis in R for Technologies in Health (DARTH) workgroup], which is a multi-institutional, multi-university collaborative effort by researchers who have a common goal to develop transparent and open-source solutions to decision analysis in health. Organizations have extremely diverse sizes and structures. The Open Knowledge Foundation (OKF) is a global organization sharing large data catalogs, running face to face conferences, and supporting open source software projects. In contrast, Blue Obelisk is an informal group of chemists and associated cheminformatics projects. The tableau of organizations is dynamic with some organizations becoming defunct, e.g., Science Commons, and new organizations trying to grow, e.g., the Self-Journal of Science. Common organizing forces include the knowledge domain, type of service provided, and even geography, e.g., OCSDNet's concentration on the developing world. The Allen Brain Atlas maps gene expression in human and mouse brains; the Encyclopedia of Life documents all the terrestrial


id: open-science-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science-7.md
category: reference
title: Open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:42.817357+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-science-20260505-0
summary:
F1000Research provides open publishing and open peer review for the life sciences. The Open Library of Humanities is a non-profit open access publisher for the humanities and social sciences. The Journals Library of the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) publishes all relevant documents and data from the onset of research projects, updating them alongside the progress of the study. Journal support for open-science does not conflict with preprint servers: figshare archives and shares images, readings, and other data; and Open Science Framework preprints, arXiv, and HAL Archives Ouvertes provide electronic preprints across many fields. === Software === A variety of computer resources support open science. These include software like the Open Science Framework from the Center for Open Science to manage project information, data archiving and team coordination; distributed computing services like Ibercivis to use unused CPU time for computationally intensive tasks; and services like Experiment.com to provide crowdsourced funding for research projects. Blockchain platforms for open science have been proposed. The first such platform is the Open Science Organization, which aims to solve urgent problems with fragmentation of the scientific ecosystem and difficulties of producing validated, quality science. Among the initiatives of Open Science Organization include


id: openneuro-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenNeuro-0.md
category: reference
title: OpenNeuro
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenNeuro
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:44.009841+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: openneuro-20260505-0
summary:
OpenNeuro (originally OpenfMRI) is an open-science neuroinformatics database storing datasets from human brain imaging research studies. The database is available online. OpenNeuro accepts datasets formatted from brain imaging research according to a community-developed standard, and uploaded datasets are made available with minimal restrictions to the public at large. The Research Resource Identifier for OpenNeuro is SCR_005031. Datasets that cannot be shared openly are not currently supported. The research group that runs OpenNeuro described the system in a Frontiers in Neuroinformatics article in 2013 and a NeuroImage article in 2015. As of 2025, the National Institutes of Health has awarded OpenNeuro over 8 million dollars in research funding, and researchers have mentioned OpenNeuro in over 200 articles in open access literature. == History == The Neuroimaging Informatics Tools and Resources Clearinghouse made available two other online neuroimaging databases, which both predated OpenNeuro. One was the fMRI Data Center (fMRIDC), which collected similar data but distributed via physical media. The fMRIDC no longer accepts data submissions. The other repository was the 1000 Functional Connectomes Project, which collected data from resting-state fMRI studies. In February 2018, the research group behind OpenfMRI renamed the database to OpenNeuro to reflect broader range of accepted data


id: preregistration-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preregistration_(science)-0.md
category: reference
title: Preregistration (science)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preregistration_(science)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:46.505705+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preregistration-science-20260505-0
summary:
Preregistration is the practice of registering the hypotheses, methods, or analyses of a scientific study before it is conducted. Clinical trial registration is similar, although it may not require the registration of a study's analysis protocol. Finally, registered reports include the peer review and in principle acceptance of a study protocol prior to data collection. Preregistration has the goal to transparently evaluate the severity of hypothesis tests, and can have a number of secondary goals (which can also be achieved without preregistering ), including (a) facilitating and documenting research plans, (b) identifying and reducing questionable research practices and researcher biases, (c) distinguishing between confirmatory and exploratory analyses, and, in the case of Registered Reports, (d) facilitating results-blind peer review, and (e) reducing publication bias. Although the idea of preregistration is old, the practice of preregistering studies has gained prominence to mitigate certain issues that contribute to the replication crisis in scientific studies. Among others, these issues include publication bias and questionable research practices, such as p-hacking and HARKing. == Types == === Standard preregistration === In the standard preregistration format, researchers prepare a research protocol document prior to conducting their research. Ideally, this document indicates the research hypotheses, sampling procedure,


id: preregistration-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preregistration_(science)-1.md
category: reference
title: Preregistration (science)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preregistration_(science)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:46.505705+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preregistration-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Creation and development === For many years, scientists and others have worried about reporting biases such that negative or null results from initiated clinical trials may be less likely to be published than positive results, thus skewing the literature and our understanding of how well interventions work. This worry has been international and written about for over 50 years. One of the proposals to address this potential bias was a comprehensive register of initiated clinical trials that would inform the public which trials had been started. Ethical issues were those that seemed to interest the public most, as trialists (including those with potential commercial gain) benefited from those who enrolled in trials, but were not required to "give back," telling the public what they had learned. Those who were particularly concerned by the double standard were systematic reviewers, those who summarize what is known from clinical trials. If the literature is skewed, then the results of a systematic review are also likely to be skewed, possibly favoring the test intervention when in fact the accumulated data do not show this, if all data were made public. ClinicalTrials.gov was originally developed largely as a result of breast cancer consumer lobbying,


id: preregistration-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preregistration_(science)-2.md
category: reference
title: Preregistration (science)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preregistration_(science)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:46.505705+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preregistration-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Benefits == Several articles have outlined the rationale for preregistration (e.g., Lakens, 2019; Nosek et al., 2018; Wagenmakers et al., 2012). The primary goal of preregistration is to improve the transparency of reported hypothesis tests, which allows readers to evaluate the extent to which decisions during the data analysis were pre-planned (maintaining statistical error control) or data-driven (increasing the Type 1 or Type 2 error rate). Meta-scientific research has revealed additional benefits. Researchers indicate preregistering a study leads to a more carefully thought through research hypothesis, experimental design, and statistical analysis. In addition, preregistration has been shown to encourage better learning of Open Science concepts and students felt that they understood their dissertation and it improved the clarity of the manuscript writing, promoted rigour and were more likely to avoid questionable research practices. In addition, it becomes a tool that supervisors can use to shape students to combat any questionable research practices. A 2024 study in the Journal of Political Economy: Microeconomics preregistration in economics journals found that preregistration reduced p-hacking and publication bias if the preregistration was accompanied by a preanalysis plan, but not if the preregistration did not specify the planned analyses. == Criticisms == === Analytical


id: preregistration-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preregistration_(science)-3.md
category: reference
title: Preregistration (science)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preregistration_(science)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:46.505705+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preregistration-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Practical Implementation === There are also concerns about the practical implementation of preregistration. Many preregistered protocols leave plenty of room for p-hacking (Bakker et al., 2020; Heirene et al., 2021; Ikeda et al., 2019; Singh et al., 2021; Van den Akker et al., 2023), and researchers rarely follow the exact research methods and analyses that they preregister (Abrams et al., 2020; Claesen et al., 2019; Heirene et al., 2021; Clayson et al., 2025; see also Boghdadly et al., 2018; Singh et al., 2021; Sun et al., 2019). In terms of credibility, pre-registered studies are only of higher quality than non-pre-registered studies if the former has a power analysis and higher sample size than the latter but other than that they do not seem to prevent p-hacking and HARKing, as both the proportion of positive results and effect sizes are similar between preregistered and non-preregistered studies (Van den Akker et al., 2023). In terms of adherence, a study of 92 EEG/ERP studies showed that only 60% of studies adhered to their preregistrations or disclosed all deviations. Notably, registered reports had the higher adherence rates (92%) than unreviewed preregistrations (60%). In general, around three-quarters of preregistered studies included at least one


id: publication-bias-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publication_bias-0.md
category: reference
title: Publication bias
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publication_bias
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:47.749261+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: publication-bias-20260505-0
summary:
In published academic research, publication bias occurs when the outcome of an experiment or research study biases the decision to publish or otherwise distribute it. Publishing only results that show a significant finding disturbs the balance of findings in favor of positive results. The study of publication bias is an important topic in metascience. Despite similar quality of execution and design, papers with statistically significant results are three times more likely to be published than those with null results. This unduly motivates researchers to manipulate their practices to ensure statistically significant results, such as by data dredging. Many factors contribute to publication bias. For instance, once a scientific finding is well established, it may become newsworthy to publish reliable papers that fail to reject the null hypothesis. Most commonly, investigators simply decline to submit results, leading to non-response bias. Investigators may also assume they made a mistake, find that the null result fails to support a known finding, lose interest in the topic, or anticipate that others will be uninterested in the null results. Attempts to find unpublished studies often prove difficult or are unsatisfactory. In an effort to combat this problem, some journals require that authors preregister their methods


id: publication-bias-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publication_bias-1.md
category: reference
title: Publication bias
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publication_bias
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:47.749261+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: publication-bias-20260505-0
summary:
Meta-analyses and systematic reviews can account for publication bias by including evidence from unpublished studies and the grey literature. The presence of publication bias can also be explored by constructing a funnel plot in which the estimate of the reported effect size is plotted against a measure of precision or sample size. The premise is that the scatter of points should reflect a funnel shape, indicating that the reporting of effect sizes is not related to their statistical significance. However, when small studies are predominately in one direction (usually the direction of larger effect sizes), asymmetry will ensue and this may be indicative of publication bias. Because an inevitable degree of subjectivity exists in the interpretation of funnel plots, several tests have been proposed for detecting funnel plot asymmetry. These are often based on linear regression including the popular Eggers regression test, and may adopt a multiplicative or additive dispersion parameter to adjust for the presence of between-study heterogeneity. Some approaches may even attempt to compensate for the (potential) presence of publication bias, which is particularly useful to explore the potential impact on meta-analysis results. In ecology and environmental biology, a study found that publication bias impacted the effect size,


id: rescience-c-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ReScience_C-0.md
category: reference
title: ReScience C
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ReScience_C
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:56.068754+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rescience-c-20260505-0
summary:
ReScience C is a scientific journal established in 2015 by Nicolas Rougier and Konrad Hinsen with the aim of publishing researchers' attempts to replicate computations made by other authors, using independently written, free and open-source software (FOSS), with an open process of peer review. The journal states that requiring the replication software to be free and open-source ensures the reproducibility of the original research. == Creation == The journal was established in 2015 by Nicolas Rougier and Konrad Hinsen in the context of the replication crisis of the early 2010s, in which concern about difficulty in replicating (different data or details of method) or reproducing (same data, same method) peer-reviewed, published research papers was widely discussed. The journal's scope is computational research, with the motivation that journals rarely require the provision of source code, and when source code is provided, it is rarely checked against the results claimed in the research article. == Policies and methods == The scope of the journal is mainly focussed on researchers' attempts to replicate computations made by other authors, using independently written, free and open-source software (FOSS). Articles are submitted using the "issues" feature of a git repository run by GitHub, together with other


id: research-question-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_question-0.md
category: reference
title: Research question
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_question
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:57.233428+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: research-question-20260505-0
summary:
A research question is "a question that a research project sets out to answer". Choosing a research question is an essential element of both quantitative and qualitative research. Investigation will require data collection and analysis, and the methodology for this will vary widely. Good research questions seek to improve knowledge on an important topic, and are usually narrow and specific. To form a research question, one must determine what type of study will be conducted such as a qualitative, quantitative, or mixed study. Additional factors, such as project funding, may not only affect the research question itself but also when and how it is formed during the research process. Literature suggests several variations on criteria selection for constructing a research question, such as the FINER or PICOT methods. == Definition == The answer to a research question will help address a research problem or question. Specifying a research question, "the central issue to be resolved by a formal dissertation, thesis, or research project," is typically one of the first steps an investigator takes when undertaking research. Considerations, such as project funding or methodological approaches may influence the research process, including when and how the research question is developed. Clearly and


id: research-question-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_question-1.md
category: reference
title: Research question
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_question
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:57.233428+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: research-question-20260505-0
summary:
In terms of priorities and related concepts, the proposed strategy of differential technological development suggests research to focus primarily on questions and tools that are thought to increase safety and mitigate issues rather than risky technologies which are instead best to delay. Concerning control strategies for gene drives, researchers have however cautioned that such may lead to a counterproductive false sense of security. Not all technological progress may be beneficial in general or in contemporary contexts (environments or systems) and various research may for example result in engineered pandemics. Many studies "ask uninteresting research questions, [and] make only marginal contributions". One study suggests that while research on climate change "is valuable, it does not tackle head-on the most urgent question: how to change society to mitigate climate change right now". In the ethical framework of effective altruism, research questions with the greatest potential benefits from investments (not necessarily of financial nature) are identified to maximize research benefits. 80,000 Hours has compiled a small list of "Research questions that could have a big social impact, organised by discipline". In public health research, "it is vital that research questions posed are important and that funded research meets a research need or a


id: research-question-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_question-2.md
category: reference
title: Research question
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_question
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:57.233428+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: research-question-20260505-0
summary:
Does _________ (name the theory) explain the relationship between _________ (independent variable) and _________ (dependent variable), controlling for the effects of _________ (control variable)? Alternatively, a script for a quantitative null hypothesis might be as follows: There is no significant difference between _________ (the control and experimental groups on the independent variable) on _________ (dependent variable). Quantitative studies also fall into two categories: Correlational studies: A correlational study is non-experimental, requiring the writer to research relationships without manipulating or randomly selecting the subjects of the research. The research question for a correlational study may look like this: What is the relationship between long-distance commuters and eating disorders? Experimental studies: An experimental study is experimental in that it requires the writer to manipulate and randomly select the subjects of the research. The research question for an experimental study may look like this: Does the consumption of fast food lead to eating disorders? === Mixed study === A mixed study integrates both qualitative and quantitative studies, so the writer's research must be directed at determining the why or how and the what, where, or when of the research topic. Therefore, the writer will need to craft a research question for each study


id: science-exchange-company-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Exchange_(company)-0.md
category: reference
title: Science Exchange (company)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Exchange_(company)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:58.417168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-exchange-company-20260505-0
summary:
Science Exchange is a cloud-based software company offering an R&D marketplace to buy and sell scientific services. The marketplace gives life sciences companies access to the outsourced research they need and the platform fully automates R&D outsourcing from source to pay. Commercial contract research organizations (CROs) and academic core facilities can sell their products and services directly through the marketplace. Science Exchange's enterprise clients include top pharma and emerging biotechnology companies, including Merck, Amgen, Gilead Sciences, Astellas Pharma, AbbVie, and Regeneron Pharmaceuticals. Science Exchange was founded in 2011 by Elizabeth Iorns, Ryan Abbott, and Dan Knox, taking part in the startup accelerator program Y Combinator in the summer of 2011. == History == In 2011, as an assistant professor at the University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Iorns came up with the idea for Science Exchange after needing to conduct immunology experiments, but having difficulty finding potential collaborators or providers to work with. Iorns formed Science Exchange with Knox and Abbott, and the company applied for a place in the Y Combinator startup accelerator program. The company was accepted into the Summer 2011 batch of Y Combinator and launched the first version of its website in August 2011. In


id: science-of-science-policy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_of_science_policy-0.md
category: reference
title: Science of science policy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_of_science_policy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:59.501630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-of-science-policy-20260505-0
summary:
Science of science policy (SoSP) is an emerging interdisciplinary research area that seeks to develop theoretical and empirical models of the scientific enterprise. This scientific basis can be used to help government, and society in general, make better R&D management decisions by establishing a scientifically rigorous, quantitative basis from which policy makers and researchers may assess the impacts of the nation's scientific and engineering enterprise, improve their understanding of its dynamics, and assess the likely outcomes. Examples of research in the science of science policy include models to understand the production of science, qualitative, quantitative and computational methods to estimate the impact of science, and processes for choosing from alternative science portfolios. == Federal effort == The federal government of the United States has long been a supporter of SoSP. In 2006, in response to Office of Science and Technology Policy Director John H. Marburger's challenge for a new "science of science policy", the National Science and Technology Council's Subcommittee on Social, Behavioral and Economic Sciences (SBE) established an Interagency Task Group on Science of Science Policy (ITG) to serve as part of the internal deliberative process of the Subcommittee. In 2008, the SoSP ITG developed and published "The Science


id: scientometrics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientometrics-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientometrics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientometrics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:03.468548+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientometrics-20260505-0
summary:
Scientometrics is a subfield of informetrics that studies science through mathematical and quantitative methods, analyzing both scientific output and the dynamics of research. Major research issues in scientometrics include the measurement of the impact of research papers and academic journals, the understanding of scientific citations, and the use of such measurements in policy and management contexts. In practice, there is a substantial overlap between scientometrics and other scientific fields, including information systems, information science, the science of science policy, the sociology of science, and metascience. Critics have argued that overreliance on scientometrics has created a system of perverse incentives, producing a publish or perish environment that leads to low-quality research. == Historical development == Modern scientometrics is mostly based on the work of Derek J. de Solla Price and Eugene Garfield. The latter created the Science Citation Index and founded the Institute for Scientific Information which is heavily used for scientometric analysis. A dedicated academic journal, Scientometrics, was established in 1978. The industrialization of science increased the number of publications and research outcomes and the rise of computers allowed effective analysis of this data. While the sociology of science focused on the behavior of scientists, scientometrics focused on the analysis


id: scientometrics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientometrics-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientometrics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientometrics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:03.468548+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientometrics-20260505-0
summary:
An acknowledgment index (British acknowledgement index) is a method for indexing and analyzing acknowledgments in the scientific literature and, thus, quantifies the impact of acknowledgments. Typically, a scholarly article has a section in which the authors acknowledge entities such as funding, technical staff, colleagues, etc. that have contributed materials or knowledge or have influenced or inspired their work. Like a citation index, it measures influences on scientific work, but in a different sense; it measures institutional and economic influences as well as informal influences of individual people, ideas, and artifacts. Unlike the impact factor, it does not produce a single overall metric, but analyzes the components separately. However, the total number of acknowledgments to an acknowledged entity can be measured and so can the number of citations to the papers in which the acknowledgment appears. The ratio of this total number of citations to the total number of papers in which the acknowledge entity appears can be construed as the impact of that acknowledged entity. == Altmetrics == In scholarly and scientific publishing, altmetrics are nontraditional bibliometrics proposed as an alternative or complement to more traditional citation impact metrics, such as impact factor and h-index. The term altmetrics was proposed


id: statcheck-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statcheck-0.md
category: reference
title: Statcheck
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statcheck
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:04.692667+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: statcheck-20260505-0
summary:
Statcheck is an R package designed to detect statistical errors in peer-reviewed psychology articles by searching papers for statistical results, redoing the calculations described in each paper, and comparing the two values to see if they match. It takes advantage of the fact that psychological research papers tend to report their results in accordance with the guidelines published by the American Psychological Association (APA). This leads to several disadvantages: it can only detect results reported completely and in exact accordance with the APA's guidelines, and it cannot detect statistics that are only included in tables in the paper. Another limitation is that Statcheck cannot deal with statistical corrections to test statistics, like Greenhouse–Geisser or Bonferroni corrections, which actually make tests more conservative. Some journals have begun piloting Statcheck as part of their peer review process. Statcheck is free software published under the GNU GPL v3. == Validity == In 2017, Statcheck's developers published a preprint paper concluding that the program accurately identified statistical errors over 95% of the time. This validity study comprised more than 1,000 hand-checked tests among which 5.00% turned out to be inconsistent. The study found that Statcheck recognized 60% of all statistical tests. A reanalysis of


id: yuasa-phenomenon-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuasa_Phenomenon-0.md
category: reference
title: Yuasa Phenomenon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuasa_Phenomenon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:07.343246+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: yuasa-phenomenon-20260505-0
summary:
The Yuasa Phenomenon, named after Japanese physicist and science historian Mitsutomo Yuasa (sometimes referred to as Mintomo Yuasa), suggests that, in the modern era, the world center of scientific activity (defined as producing more than 25% of the world's scientific achievements) moves from one country to another about every 80–100 years. == Analysis == Analyzed data indicate that the "modern world science centre has shifted from Italy (1504–1610) to the United Kingdom (1660–1750), to France (1760– 1840), to Germany (1875–1920), and to the United States (1920 to the present)." This phenomenon and its study methodology are an emerging scientometrics study area. Indicators point to China's rise as a world center of scientific activity. This phenomenon is also described by other names, including "the Bernal—Yuasa phenomenon". Shigeo Minowa links Yuasa's finding to Joseph Ben-David's movements of Centers of Learning. Ben-David's Centers of Learning migration observations are discussed in various works. == See also == Historic recurrence History of science == References ==


id: scientific-method-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific method
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:12.352300+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-method-20260505-0
summary:
The scientific method is an empirical method for acquiring knowledge through careful observation, rigorous skepticism, hypothesis testing, and experimental validation. Developed from ancient and medieval practices, it acknowledges that cognitive assumptions can distort the interpretation of the observation. The scientific method has characterized science since at least the 17th century. Scientific inquiry includes creating a testable hypothesis through inductive reasoning, testing it through experiments and statistical analysis, and adjusting or discarding the hypothesis based on the results. Although procedures vary across fields, the underlying process is often similar. In more detail: the scientific method involves making conjectures (hypothetical explanations), predicting the logical consequences of hypothesis, then carrying out experiments or empirical observations based on those predictions. A hypothesis is a conjecture based on knowledge obtained while seeking answers to the question. Hypotheses can be very specific or broad but must be falsifiable, implying that it is possible to identify a possible outcome of an experiment or observation that conflicts with predictions deduced from the hypothesis; otherwise, the hypothesis cannot be meaningfully tested. While the scientific method is often presented as a fixed sequence of steps, it actually represents a set of general principles. Not all steps take place in every


id: scientific-method-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientific method
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:12.352300+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-method-20260505-0
summary:
The scientific method is the process by which science is carried out. As in other areas of inquiry, science (through the scientific method) can build on previous knowledge, and unify understanding of its studied topics over time. Historically, the development of the scientific method was critical to the Scientific Revolution. The overall process involves making conjectures (hypotheses), predicting their logical consequences, then carrying out experiments based on those predictions to determine whether the original conjecture was correct. However, there are difficulties in a formulaic statement of method. The scientific method represents general principles rather than a fixed sequence, not all steps occur in every inquiry, nor always in the same order. It requires intelligence, imagination, and creativity rather than rigid adherence to procedure. ==== Factors of scientific inquiry ==== There are different ways of outlining the basic method used for scientific inquiry. The scientific community and philosophers of science generally agree on the following classification of method components. These methodological elements and organization of procedures tend to be more characteristic of experimental sciences than social sciences. Nonetheless, the cycle of formulating hypotheses, testing and analyzing the results, and formulating new hypotheses, will resemble the cycle described below.The scientific method is


id: scientific-method-20260505-2
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I am not accustomed to saying anything with certainty after only one or two observations. ==== Definition ==== The scientific definition of a term sometimes differs substantially from its natural language usage. For example, mass and weight overlap in meaning in common discourse, but have distinct meanings in mechanics. Scientific quantities are often characterized by their units of measure which can later be described in terms of conventional physical units when communicating the work. New theories are sometimes developed after realizing certain terms have not previously been sufficiently clearly defined. For example, Albert Einstein's first paper on relativity begins by defining simultaneity and the means for determining length. These ideas were skipped over by Isaac Newton with, "I do not define time, space, place and motion, as being well known to all." Einstein's paper then demonstrates that they (viz., absolute time and length independent of motion) were approximations. Francis Crick cautions us that when characterizing a subject, however, it can be premature to define something when it remains ill-understood. In Crick's study of consciousness, he actually found it easier to study awareness in the visual system, rather than to study free will, for example. His cautionary example was the gene;


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Watson and Crick showed an initial (and incorrect) proposal for the structure of DNA to a team from King's College London – Rosalind Franklin, Maurice Wilkins, and Raymond Gosling. Franklin immediately spotted the flaws which concerned the water content. Later Watson saw Franklin's photo 51, a detailed X-ray diffraction image, which showed an X-shape and was able to confirm the structure was helical. Once predictions are made, they can be sought by experiments. If the test results contradict the predictions, the hypotheses which entailed them are called into question and become less tenable. Sometimes the experiments are conducted incorrectly or are not very well designed when compared to a crucial experiment. If the experimental results confirm the predictions, then the hypotheses are considered more likely to be correct, but might still be wrong and continue to be subject to further testing. The experimental control is a technique for dealing with observational error. This technique uses the contrast between multiple samples, or observations, or populations, under differing conditions, to see what varies or what remains the same. We vary the conditions for the acts of measurement, to help isolate what has changed. Mill's canons can then help us figure out what


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Science is a social enterprise, and scientific work tends to be accepted by the scientific community when it has been confirmed. Crucially, experimental and theoretical results must be reproduced by others within the scientific community. Researchers have given their lives for this vision; Georg Wilhelm Richmann was killed by ball lightning (1753) when attempting to replicate the 1752 kite-flying experiment of Benjamin Franklin. If an experiment cannot be repeated to produce the same results, this implies that the original results might have been in error. As a result, it is common for a single experiment to be performed multiple times, especially when there are uncontrolled variables or other indications of experimental error. For significant or surprising results, other scientists may also attempt to replicate the results for themselves, especially if those results would be important to their own work. Replication has become a contentious issue in social and biomedical science where treatments are administered to groups of individuals. Typically an experimental group gets the treatment, such as a drug, and the control group gets a placebo. John Ioannidis in 2005 pointed out that the method being used has led to many findings that cannot be replicated. Peer review—anonymous expert evaluation


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=== Empiricism, rationalism, and more pragmatic views === Scientific endeavour can be characterised as the pursuit of truths about the natural world or as the elimination of doubt about the same. The former is the direct construction of explanations from empirical data and logic, the latter the reduction of potential explanations. It was established above how the interpretation of empirical data is theory-laden, so neither approach is trivial. The ubiquitous element in the scientific method is empiricism, which holds that knowledge is created by a process involving observation; scientific theories generalize observations. This is in opposition to stringent forms of rationalism, which holds that knowledge is created by the human intellect; later clarified by Popper to be built on prior theory. The scientific method embodies the position that reason alone cannot solve a particular scientific problem; it unequivocally refutes claims that revelation, political or religious dogma, appeals to tradition, commonly held beliefs, common sense, or currently held theories pose the only possible means of demonstrating truth. In 1877, C. S. Peirce characterized inquiry in general not as the pursuit of truth per se but as the struggle to move from irritating, inhibitory doubts born of surprises, disagreements, and the like,


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An example for how inductive and deductive reasoning works can be found in the history of gravitational theory. It took thousands of years of measurements, from the Chaldean, Indian, Persian, Greek, Arabic, and European astronomers, to fully record the motion of planet Earth. Kepler(and others) were then able to build their early theories by generalizing the collected data inductively, and Newton was able to unify prior theory and measurements into the consequences of his laws of motion in 1727. Another common example of inductive reasoning is the observation of a counterexample to current theory inducing the need for new ideas. Le Verrier in 1859 pointed out problems with the perihelion of Mercury that showed Newton's theory to be at least incomplete. The observed difference of Mercury's precession between Newtonian theory and observation was one of the things that occurred to Einstein as a possible early test of his theory of relativity. His relativistic calculations matched observation much more closely than Newtonian theory did. Though, today's Standard Model of physics suggests that we still do not know at least some of the concepts surrounding Einstein's theory, it holds to this day and is being built on deductively. A theory being assumed


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=== Hypothetico-deductive method === The hypothetico-deductive model, or hypothesis-testing method, or "traditional" scientific method is, as the name implies, based on the formation of hypotheses and their testing via deductive reasoning. A hypothesis stating implications, often called predictions, that are falsifiable via experiment is of central importance here, as not the hypothesis but its implications are what is tested. Basically, scientists will look at the hypothetical consequences a (potential) theory holds and prove or disprove those instead of the theory itself. If an experimental test of those hypothetical consequences shows them to be false, it follows logically that the part of the theory that implied them was false also. If they show as true however, it does not prove the theory definitively. The logic of this testing is what affords this method of inquiry to be reasoned deductively. The formulated hypothesis is assumed to be 'true', and from that 'true' statement implications are inferred. If the following tests show the implications to be false, it follows that the hypothesis was false also. If test show the implications to be true, new insights will be gained. It is important to be aware that a positive test here will at best strongly


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== Scientific inquiry == Scientific inquiry generally aims to obtain knowledge in the form of testable explanations that scientists can use to predict the results of future experiments. This allows scientists to gain a better understanding of the topic under study, and later to use that understanding to intervene in its causal mechanisms (such as to cure disease). The better an explanation is at making predictions, the more useful it frequently can be, and the more likely it will continue to explain a body of evidence better than its alternatives. The most successful explanations – those that explain and make accurate predictions in a wide range of circumstances – are often called scientific theories. Most experimental results do not produce large changes in human understanding; improvements in theoretical scientific understanding typically result from a gradual process of development over time, sometimes across different domains of science. Scientific models vary in the extent to which they have been experimentally tested and for how long, and in their acceptance in the scientific community. In general, explanations become accepted over time as evidence accumulates on a given topic, and the explanation in question proves more powerful than its alternatives at explaining the evidence.


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We are to admit no more causes of natural things than such as are both true and sufficient to explain their appearances. The concept of parsimony should not be held to imply complete frugality in the pursuit of scientific truth. The general process starts at the opposite end of there being a vast number of potential explanations and general disorder. An example can be seen in Paul Krugman's process, who makes explicit to "dare to be silly". He writes that in his work on new theories of international trade he reviewed prior work with an open frame of mind and broadened his initial viewpoint even in unlikely directions. Once he had a sufficient body of ideas, he would try to simplify and thus find what worked among what did not. Specific to Krugman here was to "question the question". He recognised that prior work had applied erroneous models to already present evidence, commenting that "intelligent commentary was ignored". Thus touching on the need to bridge the common bias against other circles of thought. ==== Elegance ==== Occam's razor might fall under the heading of "simple elegance", but it is arguable that parsimony and elegance pull in different directions. Introducing additional


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Scientific pluralism is a position within the philosophy of science that rejects various proposed unities of scientific method and subject matter. Scientific pluralists hold that science is not unified in one or more of the following ways: the metaphysics of its subject matter, the epistemology of scientific knowledge, or the research methods and models that should be used. Some pluralists believe that pluralism is necessary due to the nature of science. Others say that since scientific disciplines already vary in practice, there is no reason to believe this variation is wrong until a specific unification is empirically proven. Finally, some hold that pluralism should be allowed for normative reasons, even if unity were possible in theory. === Unificationism === Unificationism, in science, was a central tenet of logical positivism. Different logical positivists construed this doctrine in several different ways, e.g. as a reductionist thesis, that the objects investigated by the special sciences reduce to the objects of a common, putatively more basic domain of science, usually thought to be physics; as the thesis that all theories and results of the various sciences can or ought to be expressed in a common language or "universal slang"; or as the thesis that


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title: Scientific method
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==== Thought collectives ==== A perhaps accessible lead into what is claimed is Fleck's thought, echoed in Kuhn's concept of normal science. According to Fleck, scientists' work is based on a thought-style, that cannot be rationally reconstructed. It gets instilled through the experience of learning, and science is then advanced based on a tradition of shared assumptions held by what he called thought collectives. Fleck also claims this phenomenon to be largely invisible to members of the group. Comparably, following the field research in an academic scientific laboratory by Latour and Woolgar, Karin Knorr Cetina has conducted a comparative study of two scientific fields (namely high energy physics and molecular biology) to conclude that the epistemic practices and reasonings within both scientific communities are different enough to introduce the concept of "epistemic cultures", in contradiction with the idea that a so-called "scientific method" is unique and a unifying concept. ==== Situated cognition and relativism ==== On the idea of Fleck's thought collectives sociologists built the concept of situated cognition: that the perspective of the researcher fundamentally affects their work; and, too, more radical views. Norwood Russell Hanson, alongside Thomas Kuhn and Paul Feyerabend, extensively explored the theory-laden nature of observation


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=== Science of complex systems === Science applied to complex systems can involve elements such as transdisciplinarity, systems theory, control theory, and scientific modelling. In general, the scientific method may be difficult to apply stringently to diverse, interconnected systems and large data sets. In particular, practices used within Big data, such as predictive analytics, may be considered to be at odds with the scientific method, as some of the data may have been stripped of the parameters which might be material in alternative hypotheses for an explanation; thus the stripped data would only serve to support the null hypothesis in the predictive analytics application. Fleck (1979), pp. 38–50 notes "a scientific discovery remains incomplete without considerations of the social practices that condition it". == Relationship with mathematics == Science is the process of gathering, comparing, and evaluating proposed models against observables. A model can be a simulation, mathematical or chemical formula, or set of proposed steps. Science is like mathematics in that researchers in both disciplines try to distinguish what is known from what is unknown at each stage of discovery. Models, in both science and mathematics, need to be internally consistent and also ought to be falsifiable (capable of


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title: History of scientific method
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The history of scientific method considers changes in the methodology of scientific inquiry, as distinct from the history of science itself. The development of rules for scientific reasoning has not been straightforward; scientific method has been the subject of intense and recurring debate throughout the history of science, and eminent natural philosophers and scientists have argued for the primacy of one or another approach to establishing scientific knowledge. Rationalist explanations of nature, including atomism, appeared both in ancient Greece in the thought of Leucippus and Democritus, and in ancient India, in the Nyaya, Vaisheshika and Buddhist schools, while Charvaka materialism rejected inference as a source of knowledge in favour of an empiricism that was always subject to doubt. Aristotle pioneered scientific method in ancient Greece alongside his empirical biology and his work on logic, rejecting a purely deductive framework in favour of generalisations made from observations of nature. Some of the most important debates in the history of scientific method center on: rationalism, especially as advocated by René Descartes; inductivism, which rose to particular prominence with Isaac Newton and his followers; and hypothetico-deductivism, which came to the fore in the early 19th century. In the late 19th and early 20th


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=== Aristotle === Aristotle's inductive-deductive method used inductions from observations to infer general principles, deductions from those principles to check against further observations, and more cycles of induction and deduction to continue the advance of knowledge. The Organon (Greek: Ὄργανον, meaning "instrument, tool, organ") is the standard collection of Aristotle's six works on logic. The name Organon was given by Aristotle's followers, the Peripatetics. The order of the works is not chronological (the chronology is now difficult to determine) but was deliberately chosen by Theophrastus to constitute a well-structured system. Indeed, parts of them seem to be a scheme of a lecture on logic. The arrangement of the works was made by Andronicus of Rhodes around 40 BCE. The Organon comprises the following six works: The Categories (Greek: Κατηγορίαι, Latin: Categoriae) introduces Aristotle's 10-fold classification of that which exists: substance, quantity, quality, relation, place, time, situation, condition, action, and passion. On Interpretation (Greek: Περὶ Ἑρμηνείας, Latin: De Interpretatione) introduces Aristotle's conception of proposition and judgment, and the various relations between affirmative, negative, universal, and particular propositions. Aristotle discusses the square of opposition or square of Apuleius in Chapter 7 and its appendix Chapter 8. Chapter 9 deals with the problem


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=== Epicurus === In his work Kαvώv ('canon', a straight edge or ruler, thus any type of measure or standard, referred to as 'canonic'), Epicurus laid out his first rule for inquiry in physics: 'that the first concepts be seen, and that they not require demonstration '. His second rule for inquiry was that prior to an investigation, we are to have self-evident concepts, so that we might infer [ἔχωμεν οἷς σημειωσόμεθα] both what is expected [τò προσμένον], and also what is non-apparent [τò ἄδηλον]. Epicurus applies his method of inference (the use of observations as signs, Asmis' summary, p. 333: the method of using the phenomena as signs (σημεῖα) of what is unobserved) immediately to the atomic theory of Democritus. In Aristotle's Prior Analytics, Aristotle himself employs the use of signs. But Epicurus presented his 'canonic' as rival to Aristotle's logic. See: Lucretius (c. 99 BCE – c. 55 BCE) De rerum natura (On the nature of things) a didactic poem explaining Epicurus' philosophy and physics. == Emergence of inductive experimental method == During the Middle Ages issues of what is now termed science began to be addressed. There was greater emphasis on combining theory with practice in the


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title: History of scientific method
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=== Al-Biruni === The Persian scientist Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī introduced early scientific methods for several different fields of inquiry during the 1020s and 1030s. For example, in his treatise on mineralogy, Kitab al-Jawahir (Book of Precious Stones), al-Biruni is "the most exact of experimental scientists", while in the introduction to his study of India, he declares that "to execute our project, it has not been possible to follow the geometric method" and thus became one of the pioneers of comparative sociology in insisting on field experience and information. He also developed an early experimental method for mechanics. Al-Biruni's methods resembled the modern scientific method, particularly in his emphasis on repeated experimentation. Biruni was concerned with how to conceptualize and prevent both systematic errors and observational biases, such as "errors caused by the use of small instruments and errors made by human observers." He argued that if instruments produce errors because of their imperfections or idiosyncratic qualities, then multiple observations must be taken, analyzed qualitatively, and on this basis, arrive at a "common-sense single value for the constant sought", whether an arithmetic mean or a "reliable estimate." In his scientific method, "universals came out of practical, experimental work" and "theories are


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=== Renaissance humanism and medicine === Aristotle's ideas became a framework for critical debate beginning with absorption of the Aristotelian texts into the university curriculum in the first half of the 13th century. Contributing to this was the success of medieval theologians in reconciling Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology. Within the sciences, medieval philosophers were not afraid of disagreeing with Aristotle on many specific issues, although their disagreements were stated within the language of Aristotelian philosophy. All medieval natural philosophers were Aristotelians, but "Aristotelianism" had become a somewhat broad and flexible concept. With the end of Middle Ages, the Renaissance rejection of medieval traditions coupled with an extreme reverence for classical sources led to a recovery of other ancient philosophical traditions, especially the teachings of Plato. By the 17th century, those who clung dogmatically to Aristotle's teachings were faced with several competing approaches to nature. The discovery of the Americas at the close of the 15th century showed the scholars of Europe that new discoveries could be found outside of the authoritative works of Aristotle, Pliny, Galen, and other ancient writers. Galen of Pergamon (129 – c. 200 AD) had studied with four schools in antiquity — Platonists, Aristotelians, Stoics,


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title: History of scientific method
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The first modern science, in which practitioners were prepared to revise or reject long-held beliefs in the light of new evidence, was astronomy, and Tycho Brahe was the first modern astronomer. See Sextant, right. Note the explicit reduction of geometrical diagrams to practice (real objects with actual lengths and angles). In 1572, Tycho noticed a completely new star that was brighter than any star or planet. Astonished by the existence of a star that ought not to have been there and gaining the patronage of King Frederick II of Denmark, Tycho built the Uraniborg observatory at enormous cost. Over a period of fifteen years (1576–1591), Tycho and upwards of thirty assistants charted the positions of stars, planets, and other celestial bodies at Uraniborg with unprecedented accuracy. In 1600, Tycho hired Johannes Kepler to assist him in analyzing and publishing his observations. Kepler later used Tycho's observations of the motion of Mars to deduce the laws of planetary motion, which were later explained in terms of Newton's law of universal gravitation. Besides Tycho's specific role in advancing astronomical knowledge, Tycho's single-minded pursuit of ever-more-accurate measurement was enormously influential in creating a modern scientific culture in which theory and evidence were understood


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title: History of scientific method
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In 1619, René Descartes began writing his first major treatise on proper scientific and philosophical thinking, the unfinished Rules for the Direction of the Mind. His aim was to create a complete science that he hoped would overthrow the Aristotelian system and establish himself as the sole architect of a new system of guiding principles for scientific research. This work was continued and clarified in his 1637 treatise, Discourse on Method, and in his 1641 Meditations. Descartes describes the intriguing and disciplined thought experiments he used to arrive at the idea we instantly associate with him: I think therefore I am. From this foundational thought, Descartes finds proof of the existence of a God who, possessing all possible perfections, will not deceive him provided he resolves "[...] never to accept anything for true which I did not clearly know to be such; that is to say, carefully to avoid precipitancy and prejudice, and to comprise nothing more in my judgment than what was presented to my mind so clearly and distinctly as to exclude all ground of methodic doubt." This rule allowed Descartes to progress beyond his own thoughts and judge that there exist extended bodies outside of his own


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title: History of scientific method
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Both Bacon and Descartes wanted to provide a firm foundation for scientific thought that avoided the deceptions of the mind and senses. Bacon envisaged that foundation as essentially empirical, whereas Descartes provides a metaphysical foundation for knowledge. If there were any doubts about the direction in which scientific method would develop, they were set to rest by the success of Isaac Newton. Implicitly rejecting Descartes' emphasis on rationalism in favor of Bacon's empirical approach, he outlines his four "rules of reasoning" in the Principia, We are to admit no more causes of natural things than such as are both true and sufficient to explain their appearances. Therefore to the same natural effects we must, as far as possible, assign the same causes. The qualities of bodies, which admit neither intension nor remission of degrees, and which are found to belong to all bodies within the reach of our experiments, are to be esteemed the universal qualities of all bodies whatsoever. In experimental philosophy we are to look upon propositions collected by general induction from phænomena as accurately or very nearly true, notwithstanding any contrary hypotheses that may be imagined, until such time as other phænomena occur, by which they may


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title: History of scientific method
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"In order to achieve completeness in our knowledge of nature, we must start from two extremes, from experience and from the intellect itself. ... The former method must conclude with natural laws, which it has abstracted from experience, while the latter must begin with principles, and gradually, as it develops more and more, it becomes ever more detailed. Of course, I speak here about the method as manifested in the process of the human intellect itself, not as found in textbooks, where the laws of nature which have been abstracted from the consequent experiences are placed first because they are required to explain the experiences. When the empiricist in his regression towards general laws of nature meets the metaphysician in his progression, science will reach its perfection." Ørsted's "First Introduction to General Physics" (1811) exemplified the steps of observation, hypothesis, deduction and experiment. In 1805, based on his researches on electromagnetism Ørsted came to believe that electricity is propagated by undulatory action (i.e., fluctuation). By 1820, he felt confident enough in his beliefs that he resolved to demonstrate them in a public lecture, and in fact observed a small magnetic effect from a galvanic circuit (i.e., voltaic circuit), without rehearsal;


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_scientific_method-9.md
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title: History of scientific method
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parent: history-of-scientific-method-20260505-0
summary:
In the late 19th century, Charles Sanders Peirce proposed a schema that would turn out to have considerable influence in the further development of scientific method generally. Peirce's work quickly accelerated the progress on several fronts. Firstly, speaking in broader context in "How to Make Our Ideas Clear" (1878), Peirce outlined an objectively verifiable method to test the truth of putative knowledge on a way that goes beyond mere foundational alternatives, focusing upon both Deduction and Induction. He thus placed induction and deduction in a complementary rather than competitive context (the latter of which had been the primary trend at least since David Hume a century before). Secondly, and of more direct importance to scientific method, Peirce put forth the basic schema for hypothesis-testing that continues to prevail today. Extracting the theory of inquiry from its raw materials in classical logic, he refined it in parallel with the early development of symbolic logic to address the then-current problems in scientific reasoning. Peirce examined and articulated the three fundamental modes of reasoning that play a role in scientific inquiry today, the processes that are currently known as abductive, deductive, and inductive inference. Thirdly, he played a major role in the progress


id: history-of-scientific-method-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_scientific_method-10.md
category: reference
title: History of scientific method
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_scientific_method
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:13.548596+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-scientific-method-20260505-0
summary:
Investigation, or the art of inquiring into the nature of causes and their operation, is a leading characteristic of reason [...] Investigation implies three things – Observation, Hypothesis, and Experiment [...] The first step in the process, it will be perceived, is to observe... In 1885, the words "Scientific method" appear together with a description of the method in Francis Ellingwood Abbot's 'Scientific Theism', Now all the established truths which are formulated in the multifarious propositions of science have been won by the use of Scientific Method. This method consists in essentially three distinct steps (1) observation and experiment, (2) hypothesis, (3) verification by fresh observation and experiment. The Eleventh Edition of Encyclopædia Britannica did not include an article on scientific method; the Thirteenth Edition listed scientific management, but not method. By the Fifteenth Edition, a 1-inch article in the Micropædia of Britannica was part of the 1975 printing, while a fuller treatment (extending across multiple articles, and accessible mostly via the index volumes of Britannica) was available in later printings. == Current issues == In the past few centuries, some statistical methods have been developed, for reasoning in the face of uncertainty, as an outgrowth of methods for eliminating


id: allocation-concealment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allocation_concealment-0.md
category: reference
title: Allocation concealment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allocation_concealment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:14.710932+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: allocation-concealment-20260505-0
summary:
In a randomized experiment, allocation concealment hides the sorting of trial participants into treatment groups so that this knowledge cannot be exploited. Adequate allocation concealment serves to prevent study participants from influencing treatment allocations for subjects. Studies with poor allocation concealment (or none at all) are prone to selection bias. Some standard methods of ensuring allocation concealment include sequentially numbered, opaque, sealed envelopes (SNOSE); sequentially numbered containers; pharmacy controlled randomization; and central randomization. CONSORT guidelines recommend that allocation concealment methods be included in a study's protocol, and that the allocation concealment methods be reported in detail in their publication; however, a 2005 study determined that most clinical trials have unclear allocation concealment in their protocols, in their publications, or both. A 2008 study of 146 meta-analyses concluded that the results of randomized controlled trials with inadequate or unclear allocation concealment tended to be biased toward beneficial effects only if the trials' outcomes were subjective as opposed to objective. Allocation concealment is different from blinding. An allocation concealment method prevents influence on the randomization process, while blinding conceals the outcome of the randomization. However, allocation concealment may also be called "randomization blinding". == Impact == Without the use of allocation concealment,


id: alphachip-controversy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AlphaChip_(controversy)-0.md
category: reference
title: AlphaChip (controversy)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AlphaChip_(controversy)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:15.897368+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alphachip-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
The AlphaChip controversy refers to a series of public, scholarly, and legal disputes surrounding a 2021 Nature paper by Google-affiliated researchers. The paper describes an approach to macro placement, a stage of chip floorplanning, based on reinforcement learning (RL), a machine learning method in which a system iteratively improves its decisions by optimizing performance-based reward signals. The primary technical question is whether the new techniques are better than existing (non-AI) techniques. Both internal Google studies and external attempts to replicate the algorithm have failed to show the claimed benefits. No head-to-head comparison is available because the data used in the paper is proprietary, and Google has not released any results from running its algorithm on public benchmarks. This has resulted in considerable skepticism over the paper's claims. In addition, the inability of others (both inside and outside of Google) to replicate the claimed results have sparked concerns about the paper’s methodology, reproducibility, and scientific integrity. The lead researchers of the Nature paper were affiliated with Google Brain, which became part of Google DeepMind, and later spun off into the company Ricursive. == Motivation for research: Macro placement in chip layout == Chip design for modern integrated circuits is a complex,


id: alphachip-controversy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AlphaChip_(controversy)-1.md
category: reference
title: AlphaChip (controversy)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AlphaChip_(controversy)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:15.897368+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alphachip-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Internal dispute at Google and legal proceedings === In 2022, Satrajit Chatterjee, a Google engineer involved in reviewing the AlphaChip work, raised concerns internally and drafted an alternative analysis, (Stronger Baselines) arguing that established methods outperformed the RL approach under fair comparison. In March 2022, Google declined to publish this analysis and terminated Chatterjee's employment. Chatterjee filed a wrongful dismissal lawsuit, alleging that representations related to the AlphaChip research involved fraud and scientific misconduct. According to court documents, Chatterjee's study was conducted "in the context of a large potential Google Cloud deal". He noted that it "would have been unethical to imply that we had revolutionary technology when our tests showed otherwise" and claimed Google was deliberately withholding material information. Furthermore, the committee that reviewed his paper and disapproved its publication was allegedly chaired by subordinates of Jeff Dean, a senior co-author of the Nature paper. Google’s subsequent motion to dismiss was denied, holding that Chatterjee had plausibly alleged retaliation for refusing to engage in conduct he believed would violate state or federal law. === External controversy === The external questions can be summarized in four main points: (a) Are the claims supported by the evidence provided? (b) Did


id: alphachip-controversy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AlphaChip_(controversy)-2.md
category: reference
title: AlphaChip (controversy)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AlphaChip_(controversy)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:15.897368+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alphachip-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
== Nature editorial actions == In April 2022, the peer review file for the Nature article was included as a supplementary information file. In September 2023, Nature added an editor's note to "A graph placement methodology for fast chip design" stating that the paper's performance claims had been called into question and that the editors were investigating the concerns. On 21 September 2023, Andrew B. Kahng's accompanying News & Views article was retracted; the retraction notice said that new information about the methods used in the Google paper had become available after publication and had changed the author’s assessment, and it also said that Nature was conducting an independent investigation of the paper’s performance claims. By late September 2024, the editor's note was removed without explanation, but Nature published an addendum to the original paper (dated 26 September 2024). The addendum introduced the name AlphaChip for the proposed RL technique and described methodological details that critics had previously identified as missing, including the use of initial ( x , y ) {\displaystyle (x,y)} locations. The addendum addressed some methodological details but still lacked the full training and evaluation inputs needed for independent replication. == Author responses and ensuing debate ==


id: analysis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis-0.md
category: reference
title: Analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:17.109998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: analysis-20260505-0
summary:
Analysis (pl.: analyses) is the process of breaking a complex topic or substance into smaller parts in order to gain a better understanding of it. The technique has been applied in the study of mathematics and logic since before Aristotle, though analysis as a formal concept is a relatively recent development. The word comes from the Ancient Greek ἀνάλυσις (analysis, "a breaking-up" or "an untying" from ana- "up, throughout" and lysis "a loosening"). From it also comes the word's plural, analyses. As a formal concept, the method has variously been ascribed to René Descartes (Discourse on the Method), and Galileo Galilei. It has also been ascribed to Isaac Newton, in the form of a practical method of physical discovery (which he did not name). The converse of analysis is synthesis: putting the pieces back together again in a new or different whole. == Academic analysis == Academic analysis is a systematic, methodological approach to inquiry used across scholarly disciplines to deconstruct complex ideas, texts, data, or systems. Its primary aim is to foster a deeper, evidence-based understanding, challenge assumptions, and contribute to a body of knowledge through critical examination and rigorous argumentation. This form of analysis is foundational to higher


id: analysis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis-1.md
category: reference
title: Analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:17.109998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: analysis-20260505-0
summary:
=== Music === Musical analysis – a process attempting to answer the question "How does this music work?" Musical Analysis is a study of how the composers use the notes together to compose music. Those studying music will find differences with each composer's musical analysis, which differs depending on the culture and history of music studied. An analysis of music is meant to simplify the music for you. Schenkerian analysis Schenkerian analysis is a collection of music analysis that focuses on the production of the graphic representation. This includes both analytical procedure as well as the notational style. Simply put, it analyzes tonal music which includes all chords and tones within a composition. === Philosophy === Philosophical analysis – a general term for the techniques used by philosophers Philosophical analysis refers to the clarification and composition of words put together and the entailed meaning behind them. Philosophical analysis dives deeper into the meaning of words and seeks to clarify that meaning by contrasting the various definitions. It is the study of reality, justification of claims, and the analysis of various concepts. Branches of philosophy include logic, justification, metaphysics, values and ethics. If questions can be answered empirically, meaning it can


id: analysis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis-2.md
category: reference
title: Analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:17.109998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: analysis-20260505-0
summary:
The synthetic proof proceeds by shewing that the proposed new truth involves certain admitted truths. An analytic proof begins by an assumption, upon which a synthetic reasoning is founded. The Greeks distinguished theoretic from problematic analysis. A theoretic analysis is of the following kind. To prove that A is B, assume first that A is B. If so, then, since B is C and C is D and D is E, therefore A is E. If this be known a falsity, A is not B. But if this be a known truth and all the intermediate propositions be convertible, then the reverse process, A is E, E is D, D is C, C is B, therefore A is B, constitutes a synthetic proof of the original theorem. Problematic analysis is applied in all cases where it is proposed to construct a figure which is assumed to satisfy a given condition. The problem is then converted into some theorem which is involved in the condition and which is proved synthetically, and the steps of this synthetic proof taken backwards are a synthetic solution of the problem. === Psychotherapy === Psychoanalysis – seeks to elucidate connections among unconscious components of patients' mental


id: anomalistic-psychology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anomalistic_psychology-0.md
category: reference
title: Anomalistic psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anomalistic_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:18.342081+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anomalistic-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
In psychology, anomalistic psychology is the study of human behaviour and experience connected with what is often called the paranormal, with few assumptions made about the validity of the reported phenomena. == Early history == According to anomalistic psychology, paranormal phenomena have naturalistic explanations resulting from psychological and physical factors which have given the false impression of paranormal activity to some people. There were many early publications that gave rational explanations for alleged paranormal experiences. The physician John Ferriar wrote An Essay Towards a Theory of Apparitions in 1813 in which he argued that sightings of ghosts were the result of optical illusions. Later, the French physician Alexandre Jacques François Brière de Boismont published On Hallucinations: Or, the Rational History of Apparitions, Dreams, Ecstasy, Magnetism, and Somnambulism in 1845 in which he claimed sightings of ghosts were the result of hallucinations. William Benjamin Carpenter, in his book Mesmerism, Spiritualism, Etc: Historically and Scientifically Considered (1877), wrote that Spiritualist practices could be explained by fraud, delusion, hypnotism and suggestion. The British psychiatrist Henry Maudsley, in Natural Causes and Supernatural Seemings (1886), wrote that so-called supernatural experiences could be explained in terms of disorders of the mind and were simply "malobservations and


id: anomalistic-psychology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anomalistic_psychology-1.md
category: reference
title: Anomalistic psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anomalistic_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:18.342081+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anomalistic-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Mediumship === Research and empirical evidence from psychology for over a hundred years has revealed that where there is not fraud, mediumship and Spiritualistic practices can be explained by psychological factors. Trance mediumship, which is claimed by the Spiritualists to be caused by discarnate spirits speaking through the medium, has been proven in some cases to be the emergence of alternate personalities from the medium's subconscious mind. The medium may obtain information about their clients, called sitters, by secretly eavesdropping on sitter's conversations or searching telephone directories, the internet and newspapers before the sittings. Mediums are known for employing a technique called cold reading which involves obtaining information from the sitter's behavior, clothing, posture, and jewellery. In a series of fake seance experiments (Wiseman et al. 2003), an actor suggested to paranormal believers and disbelievers that a table was levitating when, in fact, it remained stationary. After the seance, approximately one third of the participants incorrectly reported that the table had moved. The results showed a greater percentage of believers reporting that the table had moved. In another experiment the believers had also reported that a handbell had moved when it had remained stationary and expressed their belief that


id: anomalistic-psychology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anomalistic_psychology-2.md
category: reference
title: Anomalistic psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anomalistic_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:18.342081+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anomalistic-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
The difference between anomalistic psychology and parapsychology is in terms of the aims of what each discipline is about. Parapsychologists typically are actually searching for evidence to prove the reality of paranormal forces, to prove they really do exist. So the starting assumption is that paranormal things do happen, whereas anomalistic psychologists tend to start from the position that paranormal forces probably don't exist and that therefore we should be looking for other kinds of explanations, in particular the psychological explanations for those experiences that people typically label as paranormal. Anomalistic psychology has been reported to be on the rise. It is now offered as an option on many psychology degree programmes and is also an option on the A2 psychology syllabus in the UK. == See also == Australian Sheep-Goat Scale Psychology of paranormal belief == References == == Further reading == Gustav Jahoda. (1974). The Psychology of Superstition. Jason Aronson, Inc. Publisher. ISBN 978-0876681855 David Marks. (2000). The Psychology of the Psychic. Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-1573927987 Andrew Neher. (2011). Paranormal and Transcendental Experience: A Psychological Examination. Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0486261676 John Schumaker. (1990). Wings of Illusion: The Origin, Nature and Future of Paranormal Belief. Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-0879756246


id: blinded-experiment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blinded_experiment-0.md
category: reference
title: Blinded experiment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blinded_experiment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:19.674962+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: blinded-experiment-20260505-0
summary:
In a blind or blinded experiment, information that could influence participants or investigators is withheld until the experiment is completed. Blinding is used to reduce or eliminate potential sources of bias, such as participants’ expectations, the observer-expectancy effect, observer bias, confirmation bias, and other cognitive or procedural influences. Blinding can be applied to different participants in an experiment, including study subjects, researchers, technicians, data analysts, and outcome assessors. When multiple groups are blinded simultaneously (for example, both participants and researchers), the design is referred to as a double-blind study. In some cases, blinding is desirable but impractical or unethical. For example, it is not possible to blind a participant receiving a physical therapy intervention, or a surgeon performing an operative procedure. Well-designed clinical protocols therefore aim to maximize the effectiveness of blinding within ethical and practical constraints. During the course of an experiment, a participant becomes unblinded if they deduce or otherwise obtain information that has been masked to them. For example, a patient who experiences a side effect may correctly guess their treatment, becoming unblinded. Unblinding is common in blinded experiments, particularly in pharmacological trials. In particular, trials on pain medication and antidepressants are poorly blinded. Unblinding that occurs


id: blinded-experiment-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blinded_experiment-1.md
category: reference
title: Blinded experiment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blinded_experiment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:19.674962+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: blinded-experiment-20260505-0
summary:
== Unblinding == "Unblinding" occurs in a blinded experiment when information is revealed to someone to whom it has been masked. In clinical studies, unblinding may occur unintentionally when a patient deduces their treatment group. Unblinding that occurs before the conclusion of an experiment is a source of bias. Some degree of premature unblinding is common in blinded experiments. When a blind is imperfect, its success is judged on a spectrum with no blind (or complete failure of blinding) on one end, perfect blinding on the other, and poor or good blinding between. Thus, the common view of studies as blinded or unblinded exemplifies a false dichotomy. The success of blinding is assessed by asking study participants about information that has been masked from them (e.g., whether the participant received the drug or placebo?). In a perfectly blinded experiment, the responses should be consistent with no knowledge of the masked information. However, if unblinding has occurred, the responses will indicate the degree of unblinding. Since unblinding cannot be measured directly, but must be inferred from participants' responses, its measured value will depend on the nature of the questions asked. As a result, it is not possible to objectively measure unblinding.


id: blinded-experiment-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blinded_experiment-2.md
category: reference
title: Blinded experiment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blinded_experiment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:19.674962+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: blinded-experiment-20260505-0
summary:
==== Acupuncture ==== While the possibility of blinded trials on acupuncture is controversial, a 2003 review of 47 randomized controlled trials found no fewer than four methods of blinding patients to acupuncture treatment: 1) superficial needling of true acupuncture points, 2) use of acupuncture points which are not indicated for the condition being treated, 3) insertion of needles outside of true acupuncture points, and 4) the use of placebo needles which are designed not to penetrate the skin. The authors concluded that there was "no clear association between the type of sham intervention used and the results of the trials." A 2018 study on acupuncture, which used needles that did not penetrate the skin as a sham treatment, found that 68% of patients and 83% of acupuncturists correctly identified their group allocation. The authors concluded that blinding had failed, but that more advanced placebos may someday enable well-blinded studies in acupuncture. === In physics === It is standard practice in physics to perform blinded data analysis. Once the data analysis is complete, one may unblind the data. A prior agreement to publish the data regardless of the results of the study may be made to prevent publication bias. === In


id: blind-taste-test-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blind_taste_test-0.md
category: reference
title: Blind taste test
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blind_taste_test
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:20.867720+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: blind-taste-test-20260505-0
summary:
In marketing, a blind taste test is often used as a tool for companies to compare their brand to another brand. For example, the Pepsi Challenge is a famous taste test that has been run by Pepsi since 1975. Additionally, taste tests are sometimes used as a tool by companies to develop their brand or new products. Blind taste tests are ideal for goods such as food or wine (see blind wine tasting) that are consumed directly. Researchers use blind taste tests to obtain information about customers' perceptions and preferences on the goods. Blind taste test can be used to: Track views on a product over time assess changes or improvements made to a product gauge reactions to a new product == Overview == Blind taste tests require a "blind testing" meaning the people taking the blind taste test are unaware of the identity of the brand being tested, or if done at home this can be as simple as a blindfold over the person taking the test. This means that any bias, preconceived ideas about a particular brand or food, is eliminated. The people taking the test will also be unaware of any changes done to the product. In


id: case-study-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_study-0.md
category: reference
title: Case study
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_study
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:21.974201+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: case-study-20260505-0
summary:
A case study is an in-depth, detailed examination of a particular case (or cases) within a real-world context. For example, case studies in medicine may focus on an individual patient or ailment; case studies in business might cover a particular firm's strategy or a broader market; similarly, case studies in politics can range from a narrow happening over time like the operations of a specific political campaign, to an enormous undertaking like world war, or more often the policy analysis of real-world problems affecting multiple stakeholders. Generally, a case study can highlight nearly any individual, group, organization, event, belief system, or action. A case study does not necessarily have to be one observation (N=1), but may include many observations (one or multiple individuals and entities across multiple time periods, all within the same case study). Research projects involving numerous cases are frequently called cross-case research, whereas a study of a single case is called within-case research. Case study research has been extensively practiced in both the social and natural sciences. == Definition == There are multiple definitions of case studies, which may emphasize the number of observations (a small N), the method (qualitative), the thickness of the research (a comprehensive


id: case-study-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_study-1.md
category: reference
title: Case study
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_study
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:21.974201+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: case-study-20260505-0
summary:
Typical cases are cases that exemplify a stable cross-case relationship. These cases are representative of the larger population of cases, and the purpose of the study is to look within the case rather than compare it with other cases. Diverse cases are cases that have variations on the relevant X and Y variables. Due to the range of variation on the relevant variables, these cases are representative of the full population of cases. Extreme cases are cases that have an extreme value on the X or Y variable relative to other cases. Deviant cases are cases that defy existing theories and common sense. They not only have extreme values on X or Y (like extreme cases) but defy existing knowledge about causal relations. Influential cases are cases that are central to a model or theory (for example, Nazi Germany in theories of fascism and the far-right). Most similar cases are cases that are similar on all the independent variables, except the one of interest to the researcher. Most different cases are cases that are different on all the independent variables, except the one of interest to the researcher. For theoretical discovery, Jason Seawright recommends using deviant cases or extreme cases


id: case-study-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_study-2.md
category: reference
title: Case study
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_study
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:21.974201+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: case-study-20260505-0
summary:
== Limitations == Designing Social Inquiry (also called "KKV"), an influential 1994 book written by Gary King, Robert Keohane, and Sidney Verba, primarily applies lessons from regression-oriented analysis to qualitative research, arguing that the same logics of causal inference can be used in both types of research. The authors' recommendation is to increase the number of observations (a recommendation that Barbara Geddes also makes in Paradigms and Sand Castles), because few observations make it harder to estimate multiple causal effects, as well as increase the risk that there is measurement error, and that an event in a single case was caused by random error or unobservable factors. KKV sees process-tracing and qualitative research as being "unable to yield strong causal inference" because qualitative scholars would struggle with determining which of many intervening variables truly links the independent variable with a dependent variable. The primary problem is that qualitative research lacks a sufficient number of observations to properly estimate the effects of an independent variable. They write that the number of observations could be increased through various means, but that would simultaneously lead to another problem: that the number of variables would increase and thus reduce degrees of freedom. Christopher H.


id: causality-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causality-0.md
category: reference
title: Causality
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causality
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:23.266430+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: causality-20260505-0
summary:
Causality is an influence by which one event, process, state, or subject (i.e., a cause) contributes to the production of another event, process, state, or object (i.e., an effect) where the cause is at least partly responsible for the effect, and the effect is at least partly dependent on the cause. The cause of something may also be described as the reason behind the event or process. In general, a process can have multiple causes, which are also said to be causal factors for it, and all lie in its past. An effect can in turn be a cause of, or causal factor for, many other effects, which all lie in its future. Thus, the distinction between cause and effect either follows from or else provides the distinction between past and future. While the former viewpoint is more prevalent in physics, some writers have held that causality is metaphysically prior to notions of time and space. Causality is an abstraction that indicates how the world progresses. As such, it is a basic concept, and one might expect it to be more apt as an explanation of other concepts of progression than as something to be explained by yet more fundamental


id: causality-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causality-1.md
category: reference
title: Causality
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causality
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:23.266430+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: causality-20260505-0
summary:
==== Geometrical significance ==== Causality has the properties of antecedence and contiguity. These are topological, and are ingredients for space-time geometry. As developed by Alfred Robb, these properties allow the derivation of the notions of time and space. Max Jammer writes "the Einstein postulate ... opens the way to a straightforward construction of the causal topology ... of Minkowski space." Causal efficacy propagates no faster than light. Thus, the notion of causality is metaphysically prior to the notions of time and space. In practical terms, this is because use of the relation of causality is necessary for the interpretation of empirical experiments. Interpretation of experiments is needed to establish the physical and geometrical notions of time and space. ==== Volition ==== The deterministic world-view holds that the history of the universe can be exhaustively represented as a progression of events following one after the other as cause and effect. Incompatibilism holds that determinism is incompatible with free will, so if determinism is true, "free will" does not exist. Compatibilism, on the other hand, holds that determinism is compatible with, or even necessary for, free will. === Necessary and sufficient causes === Causes may sometimes be distinguished into two types: necessary


id: causality-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causality-2.md
category: reference
title: Causality
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causality
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:23.266430+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: causality-20260505-0
summary:
If A were a triangle, then A would have three sides. If switch S were thrown, then bulb B would light. In the first case, it would be incorrect to say that A's being a triangle caused it to have three sides, since the relationship between triangularity and three-sidedness is that of definition. The property of having three sides actually determines A's state as a triangle. Nonetheless, even when interpreted counterfactually, the first statement is true. An early version of Aristotle's "four cause" theory is described as recognizing "essential cause". In this version of the theory, that the closed polygon has three sides is said to be the "essential cause" of its being a triangle. This use of the word 'cause' is of course now far obsolete. Nevertheless, it is within the scope of ordinary language to say that it is essential to a triangle that it has three sides. A full grasp of the concept of conditionals is important to understanding the literature on causality. In everyday language, loose conditional statements are often enough made, and need to be interpreted carefully. === Questionable cause === Fallacies of questionable cause, also known as causal fallacies, non-causa pro causa (Latin for


id: causality-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causality-3.md
category: reference
title: Causality
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causality
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:23.266430+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: causality-20260505-0
summary:
Interpreting causation as a deterministic relation means that if A causes B, then A must always be followed by B. In this sense, war does not cause deaths, nor does smoking cause cancer or emphysema. As a result, many turn to a notion of probabilistic causation. Informally, A ("The person is a smoker") probabilistically causes B ("The person has now or will have cancer at some time in the future"), if the information that A occurred increases the likelihood of B's occurrence. Formally, P{B|A}≥ P{B} where P{B|A} is the conditional probability that B will occur given the information that A occurred, and P{B} is the probability that B will occur having no knowledge whether A did or did not occur. This intuitive condition is not adequate as a definition for probabilistic causation because of its being too general and thus not meeting our intuitive notion of cause and effect. For example, if A denotes the event "The person is a smoker," B denotes the event "The person now has or will have cancer at some time in the future" and C denotes the event "The person now has or will have emphysema some time in the future," then the following


id: causality-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causality-4.md
category: reference
title: Causality
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causality
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:23.266430+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: causality-20260505-0
summary:
Type 1 and type 2 represent the same statistical dependencies (i.e., X {\displaystyle X} and Z {\displaystyle Z} are independent given Y {\displaystyle Y} ) and are, therefore, indistinguishable within purely cross-sectional data. Type 3, however, can be uniquely identified, since X {\displaystyle X} and Z {\displaystyle Z} are marginally independent and all other pairs are dependent. Thus, while the skeletons (the graphs stripped of arrows) of these three triplets are identical, the directionality of the arrows is partially identifiable. The same distinction applies when X {\displaystyle X} and Z {\displaystyle Z} have common ancestors, except that one must first condition on those ancestors. Algorithms have been developed to systematically determine the skeleton of the underlying graph and, then, orient all arrows whose directionality is dictated by the conditional independencies observed. Alternative methods of structure learning search through the many possible causal structures among the variables, and remove ones which are strongly incompatible with the observed correlations. In general this leaves a set of possible causal relations, which should then be tested by analyzing time series data or, preferably, designing appropriately controlled experiments. In contrast with Bayesian Networks, path analysis (and its generalization, structural equation modeling), serve better to estimate


id: causality-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causality-5.md
category: reference
title: Causality
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causality
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:23.266430+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: causality-20260505-0
summary:
=== Science === For the scientific investigation of efficient causality, the cause and effect are each best conceived of as temporally transient processes. Within the conceptual frame of the scientific method, an investigator sets up several distinct and contrasting temporally transient material processes that have the structure of experiments, and records candidate material responses, normally intending to determine causality in the physical world. For instance, one may want to know whether a high intake of carrots causes humans to develop the bubonic plague. The quantity of carrot intake is a process that is varied from occasion to occasion. The occurrence or non-occurrence of subsequent bubonic plague is recorded. To establish causality, the experiment must fulfill certain criteria, only one example of which is mentioned here. For example, instances of the hypothesized cause must be set up to occur at a time when the hypothesized effect is relatively unlikely in the absence of the hypothesized cause; such unlikelihood is to be established by empirical evidence. A mere observation of a correlation is not nearly adequate to establish causality. In nearly all cases, establishment of causality relies on repetition of experiments and probabilistic reasoning. Hardly ever is causality established more firmly than


id: causality-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causality-6.md
category: reference
title: Causality
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causality
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:23.266430+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: causality-20260505-0
summary:
Psychologists take an empirical approach to causality, investigating how people and non-human animals detect or infer causation from sensory information, prior experience and innate knowledge. Attribution: Attribution theory is the theory concerning how people explain individual occurrences of causation. Attribution can be external (assigning causality to an outside agent or force—claiming that some outside thing motivated the event) or internal (assigning causality to factors within the person—taking personal responsibility or accountability for one's actions and claiming that the person was directly responsible for the event). Taking causation one step further, the type of attribution a person provides influences their future behavior. The intention behind the cause or the effect can be covered by the subject of action. See also accident; blame; intent; and responsibility. Causal powers Whereas David Hume argued that causes are inferred from non-causal observations, Immanuel Kant claimed that people have innate assumptions about causes. Within psychology, Patricia Cheng attempted to reconcile the Humean and Kantian views. According to her power PC theory, people filter observations of events through an intuition that causes have the power to generate (or prevent) their effects, thereby inferring specific cause-effect relations. Causation and salience Our view of causation depends on what we


id: causality-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causality-7.md
category: reference
title: Causality
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causality
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:23.266430+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: causality-20260505-0
summary:
is postulated, in which y i {\displaystyle y_{i}} is the ith observation of the dependent variable (hypothesized to be the caused variable), x j , i {\displaystyle x_{j,i}} for j=1,...,k is the ith observation on the jth independent variable (hypothesized to be a causative variable), and e i {\displaystyle e_{i}} is the error term for the ith observation (containing the combined effects of all other causative variables, which must be uncorrelated with the included independent variables). If there is reason to believe that none of the x j {\displaystyle x_{j}} s is caused by y, then estimates of the coefficients a j {\displaystyle a_{j}} are obtained. If the null hypothesis that a j = 0 {\displaystyle a_{j}=0} is rejected, then the alternative hypothesis that a j ≠ 0 {\displaystyle a_{j}\neq 0} and equivalently that x j {\displaystyle x_{j}} causes y cannot be rejected. On the other hand, if the null hypothesis that a j = 0 {\displaystyle a_{j}=0} cannot be rejected, then equivalently the hypothesis of no causal effect of x j {\displaystyle x_{j}} on y cannot be rejected. Here the notion of causality is one of contributory causality as discussed above: If the true value a j ≠ 0


id: causality-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causality-8.md
category: reference
title: Causality
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causality
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:23.266430+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: causality-20260505-0
summary:
==== History ==== In the discussion of history, events are sometimes considered as if in some way being agents that can then bring about other historical events. Thus, the combination of poor harvests, the hardships of the peasants, high taxes, lack of representation of the people, and kingly ineptitude are among the causes of the French Revolution. This is a somewhat Platonic and Hegelian view that reifies causes as ontological entities. In Aristotelian terminology, this use approximates to the case of the efficient cause. Some philosophers of history such as Arthur Danto have claimed that "explanations in history and elsewhere" describe "not simply an event—something that happens—but a change". Like many practicing historians, they treat causes as intersecting actions and sets of actions which bring about "larger changes", in Danto's words: to decide "what are the elements which persist through a change" is "rather simple" when treating an individual's "shift in attitude", but "it is considerably more complex and metaphysically challenging when we are interested in such a change as, say, the break-up of feudalism or the emergence of nationalism". Much of the historical debate about causes has focused on the relationship between communicative and other actions, between singular and


id: causality-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causality-9.md
category: reference
title: Causality
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causality
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:23.266430+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: causality-20260505-0
summary:
Karma is the causality principle focusing on 1) causes, 2) actions, 3) effects, where it is the mind's phenomena that guide the actions that the actor performs. Buddhism trains the actor's actions for continued and uncontrived virtuous outcomes aimed at reducing suffering. This follows the Subject–verb–object structure. The general or universal definition of pratityasamutpada (or "dependent origination" or "dependent arising" or "interdependent co-arising") is that everything arises in dependence upon multiple causes and conditions; nothing exists as a singular, independent entity. A traditional example in Buddhist texts is of three sticks standing upright and leaning against each other and supporting each other. If one stick is taken away, the other two will fall to the ground. Causality in the Chittamatrin Buddhist school approach, Asanga's (c. 400 CE) mind-only Buddhist school, asserts that objects cause consciousness in the mind's image. Because causes precede effects, which must be different entities, then subject and object are different. For this school, there are no objects which are entities external to a perceiving consciousness. The Chittamatrin and the Yogachara Svatantrika schools accept that there are no objects external to the observer's causality. This largely follows the Nikayas approach. The Vaibhashika (c. 500 CE) is an


id: causality-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causality-10.md
category: reference
title: Causality
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causality
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:23.266430+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: causality-20260505-0
summary:
Material cause, the material whence a thing has come or that which persists while it changes, as for example, one's mother or the bronze of a statue (see also substance theory). Formal cause, whereby a thing's dynamic form or static shape determines the thing's properties and function, as a human differs from a statue of a human or as a statue differs from a lump of bronze. Efficient cause, which imparts the first relevant movement, as a human lifts a rock or raises a statue. This is the main topic of the present article. Final cause, the criterion of completion, or the end; it may refer to an action or to an inanimate process. Examples: Socrates takes a walk after dinner for the sake of his health; earth falls to the lowest level because that is its nature. Of Aristotle's four kinds or explanatory modes, only one, the 'efficient cause' is a cause as defined in the leading paragraph of this present article. The other three explanatory modes might be rendered material composition, structure and dynamics, and, again, criterion of completion. The word that Aristotle used was αἰτία. For the present purpose, that Greek word would be better translated as


id: causality-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causality-11.md
category: reference
title: Causality
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causality
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:23.266430+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: causality-20260505-0
summary:
==== Middle Ages ==== In line with Aristotelian cosmology, Thomas Aquinas posed a hierarchy prioritizing Aristotle's four causes: "final > efficient > material > formal". Aquinas sought to identify the first efficient cause—now simply first cause—as everyone would agree, said Aquinas, to call it God. Later in the Middle Ages, many scholars conceded that the first cause was God, but explained that many earthly events occur within God's design or plan, and thereby scholars sought freedom to investigate the numerous secondary causes. ==== After the Middle Ages ==== For Aristotelian philosophy before Aquinas, the word cause had a broad meaning. It meant 'answer to a why question' or 'explanation', and Aristotelian scholars recognized four kinds of such answers. With the end of the Middle Ages, in many philosophical usages, the meaning of the word 'cause' narrowed. It often lost that broad meaning, and was restricted to just one of the four kinds. For authors such as Niccolò Machiavelli, in the field of political thinking, and Francis Bacon, concerning science more generally, Aristotle's moving cause was the focus of their interest. A widely used modern definition of causality in this newly narrowed sense was assumed by David Hume. He undertook an


id: clinical-study-design-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_study_design-0.md
category: reference
title: Clinical study design
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_study_design
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:27.642273+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: clinical-study-design-20260505-0
summary:
Clinical study design is the formulation of clinical trials and other experiments, as well as observational studies, in medical research involving human beings and involving clinical aspects, including epidemiology . It is the design of experiments as applied to these fields. The goal of a clinical study is to assess the safety, efficacy, and / or the mechanism of action of an investigational medicinal product (IMP) or procedure, or new drug or device that is in development, but potentially not yet approved by a health authority (e.g. Food and Drug Administration). It can also be to investigate a drug, device or procedure that has already been approved but is still in need of further investigation, typically with respect to long-term effects or cost-effectiveness. Some of the considerations here are shared under the more general topic of design of experiments but there can be others, in particular related to patient confidentiality and medical ethics. == Outline of types of designs for clinical studies == === Treatment studies === Randomized controlled trial Blind trial Non-blind trial Adaptive clinical trial Platform Trials Nonrandomized trial (quasi-experiment) Interrupted time series design (measures on a sample or a series of samples from the same population are


id: consilience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consilience-0.md
category: reference
title: Consilience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consilience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:28.899393+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: consilience-20260505-0
summary:
In science and history, consilience (also convergence of evidence or concordance of evidence) is the principle that evidence from independent, unrelated sources can "converge" on strong conclusions. That is, when multiple sources of evidence are in agreement, the conclusion can be very strong even when none of the individual sources of evidence is significantly so on its own. Most established scientific knowledge is supported by a convergence of evidence: if not, the evidence is comparatively weak, and there will probably not be a strong scientific consensus. The principle is based on unity of knowledge; measuring the same result by several different methods should lead to the same answer. For example, it should not matter whether one measures distances within the Giza pyramid complex by laser rangefinding, by satellite imaging, or with a metre-stick – in all three cases, the answer should be approximately the same. For the same reason, different dating methods in geochronology should concur, a result in chemistry should not contradict a result in geology, etc. The word consilience was originally coined as the phrase "consilience of inductions" by William Whewell (consilience refers to a "jumping together" of knowledge). The word comes from Latin com- "together" and -siliens


id: consilience-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consilience-1.md
category: reference
title: Consilience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consilience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:28.899393+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: consilience-20260505-0
summary:
== Deviations == Consilience does not forbid deviations: in fact, since not all experiments are perfect, some deviations from established knowledge are expected. However, when the convergence is strong enough, then new evidence inconsistent with the previous conclusion is not usually enough to outweigh that convergence. Without an equally strong convergence on the new result, the weight of evidence will still favor the established result. This means that the new evidence is most likely to be wrong. Science denialism (for example, AIDS denialism) is often based on a misunderstanding of this property of consilience. A denier may promote small gaps not yet accounted for by the consilient evidence, or small amounts of evidence contradicting a conclusion without accounting for the pre-existing strength resulting from consilience. More generally, to insist that all evidence converge precisely with no deviations would be naïve falsificationism, equivalent to considering a single contrary result to falsify a theory when another explanation, such as equipment malfunction or misinterpretation of results, is much more likely. == In history == Historical evidence also converges in an analogous way. For example: if five ancient historians, none of whom knew each other, all claim that Julius Caesar seized power in Rome


id: construct-philosophy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construct_(philosophy)-0.md
category: reference
title: Construct (philosophy)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construct_(philosophy)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:30.059307+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: construct-philosophy-20260505-0
summary:
In philosophy, a construct is an object which is ideal, that is, an object of the mind or of thought, meaning that its existence may be said to depend upon a subject's mind. This contrasts with any possibly mind-independent objects, the existence of which purportedly does not depend on the existence of a conscious observing subject. Thus, the distinction between these two terms may be compared to that between phenomenon and noumenon in other philosophical contexts and to many of the typical definitions of the terms realism and idealism also. In the correspondence theory of truth, ideas, such as constructs, are to be judged and checked according to how well they correspond with their referents, often conceived as part of a mind-independent reality. == Overview == As mind-dependent objects, concepts that are typically viewed as constructs include the abstract objects designated by such symbols as 3 or 4, or words such as liberty or cold as they are seen as a result of induction or abstraction that can be later applied to observable objects or compared to other constructs. Therefore, scientific hypotheses and theories (e.g. evolutionary theory, gravitational theory), as well as classifications (for example, in biological taxonomy), are also


id: consumer-demand-tests-animals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer_demand_tests_(animals)-0.md
category: reference
title: Consumer demand tests (animals)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer_demand_tests_(animals)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:31.295110+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: consumer-demand-tests-animals-20260505-0
summary:
Consumer demand tests for animals are studies designed to measure the relative strength of an animal's motivation to obtain resources such as different food items. Such demand tests quantify the strength of motivation animals have for resources whilst avoiding anthropomorphism and anthropocentrism. The test results are analogous to human patterns of purchasing resources with a limited income. For humans, the cost of resources is usually measured in money; in animal studies the cost is usually represented by energy required, time taken or a risk of injury. Costs of resources can be imposed on animals by an operant task (e.g. lever-pressing), a natural aversion (e.g. crossing water), or a homeostatic challenge (e.g. increased body temperature). Humans usually decrease the amount of an item purchased (or consumed) as the cost of that item increases. Similarly, animals tend to consume less of an item as the cost of that item increases (e.g. more lever presses required). Using consumer demand tests one can empirically determine the strength of motivation animals have for a definite need (e.g. food, water) and also for resources we humans might perceive as a luxury or unnecessary but animals might not (e.g. sand for dustbathing or additional space for caged


id: cross-impact-analysis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross_impact_analysis-0.md
category: reference
title: Cross impact analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross_impact_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:32.477101+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cross-impact-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
Cross-impact analysis is a methodology developed by Theodore J. Gordon and Olaf Helmer in 1966 to help determine how relationships between events would impact resulting events and reduce uncertainty in the future. The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) became interested in the methodology in the late 1960s and early 1970s as an analytic technique for predicting how different factors and variables would impact future decisions. In the mid-1970s, futurists began to use the methodology in larger numbers as a means to predict the probability of specific events and determine how related events impacted one another. By 2006, cross-impact analysis matured into a number of related methodologies with uses for businesses and communities as well as futurists and intelligence analysts. == Development == The basic principles of cross-impact analysis date back to the late 1960s, but the original processes were relatively simple and were based on a game design. Eventually, advanced techniques, methodologies, and programs were developed to apply the principles of cross-impact analysis, and the basic method is now applied in futures think tanks, business settings, and the intelligence community. Theodore J. Gordon writes that cross-impact analysis was the result of a question: "can forecasting be based on perceptions about how


id: cross-impact-analysis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross_impact_analysis-1.md
category: reference
title: Cross impact analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross_impact_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:32.477101+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cross-impact-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
==== Relationship to Delphi technique ==== The accuracy of the math and specific events requires special expertise in the events or topic of discussion. In order to get the insight needed to get events and calculations, analysts typically contact a large number of experts and ask their opinions on events or probabilities in person as groups or through surveys. These groupings often resemble the Delphi Technique, which is an analytic technique that gathers a group of experts on a subject together and asks their opinion on a scenario or prediction. Usually, analysts consider the average prediction or scenario as the most likely to occur. The two are so closely related, that analysts often use the two techniques in combination or as part of a larger methodology. ==== Strengths ==== The futurist forecasting style of cross-impact analysis carries a few key strengths. Its use of groups of experts ensures a number of opinions worth considering when calculating probabilities of events. The level of mathematics in calculating probabilities ensures that the results are as accurate as a researcher can make them. In addition, when used on consort with other analytic techniques, this type of cross-impact analysis can give greater quantitative results to


id: data-analysis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis-0.md
category: reference
title: Data analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:33.748083+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: data-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
Data analysis is the process of inspecting, cleansing, transforming, and modeling data with the goal of discovering useful information, informing conclusions, and supporting decision-making. Data analysis has multiple facets and approaches, encompassing diverse techniques under a variety of names, and is used in different business, science, and social science domains. In today's business world, data analysis plays an important role in making decisions more scientific and helping businesses operate more effectively. It is widely used in fields such as business analytics, healthcare, and artificial intelligence to extract meaningful insights from data. Data mining is a particular data analysis technique that focuses on statistical modeling and knowledge discovery for predictive rather than purely descriptive purposes, while business intelligence covers data analysis that relies heavily on aggregation, focusing mainly on business information. In statistical applications, data analysis can be divided into descriptive statistics, exploratory data analysis (EDA), and confirmatory data analysis (CDA). EDA focuses on discovering new features in the data, while CDA focuses on confirming or falsifying existing hypotheses. Predictive analytics focuses on the application of statistical models for predictive forecasting or classification, while text analytics applies statistical, linguistic, and structural techniques to extract and classify information from textual sources, a


id: data-analysis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis-1.md
category: reference
title: Data analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:33.748083+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: data-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
Mathematical formulas or mathematical models (supported by algorithms) may be applied to the data in order to identify relationships among the variables; for example, checking for correlation and by determining whether or not there is the presence of causality. In general terms, models may be developed to evaluate a specific variable based on other variable(s) contained within the dataset, with some residual error depending on the implemented model's accuracy (e.g., Data = Model + Error). Inferential statistics utilizes techniques that measure the relationships between particular variables. For example, regression analysis may be used to model whether a change in advertising (independent variable X), provides an explanation for the variation in sales (dependent variable Y), i.e. is Y a function of X? This can be described as (Y = aX + b + error), where the model is designed such that (a) and (b) minimize the error when the model predicts Y for a given range of values of X. === Data product === A data product is a computer application that takes data inputs and generates outputs, feeding them back into the environment. It may be based on a model or algorithm. For instance, an application that analyzes data about


id: data-analysis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis-2.md
category: reference
title: Data analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:33.748083+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: data-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
McKinsey and Company named a technique for breaking down a quantitative problem into its component parts called the MECE principle. MECE means "Mutually Exclusive and Collectively Exhaustive". Each layer can be broken down into its components; each of the sub-components must be mutually exclusive of each other and collectively add up to the layer above them. For example, profit by definition can be broken down into total revenue and total cost. Analysts may use robust statistical measurements to solve certain analytical problems. Hypothesis testing is used when a particular hypothesis about the true state of affairs is made by the analyst and data is gathered to determine whether that hypothesis is true or false. For example, the hypothesis might be that "Unemployment has no effect on inflation", which relates to an economics concept called the Phillips Curve. Hypothesis testing involves considering the likelihood of Type I and type II errors, which relate to whether the data supports accepting or rejecting the hypothesis. Regression analysis may be used when the analyst is trying to determine the extent to which independent variable X affects dependent variable Y (e.g., "To what extent do changes in the unemployment rate (X) affect the inflation rate


id: data-analysis-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis-3.md
category: reference
title: Data analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:33.748083+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: data-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
=== Initial data analysis === The most important distinction between the initial data analysis phase and the main analysis phase is that during initial data analysis one refrains from any analysis that is aimed at answering the original research question. The initial data analysis phase is guided by the following four questions: ==== Quality of data ==== The quality of the data should be checked as early as possible. Data quality can be assessed in several ways, using different types of analysis: frequency counts, descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation, median), normality (skewness, kurtosis, frequency histograms), normal imputation is needed. Analysis of extreme observations: outlying observations in the data are analyzed to see if they seem to disturb the distribution. Comparison and correction of differences in coding schemes: variables are compared with coding schemes of variables external to the data set, and possibly corrected if coding schemes are not comparable. Test for common-method variance. The choice of analyses to assess the data quality during the initial data analysis phase depends on the analyses that will be conducted in the main analysis phase. ==== Quality of measurements ==== The quality of the measurement instruments should only be checked during the initial data


id: data-analysis-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis-4.md
category: reference
title: Data analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:33.748083+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: data-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
==== Exploratory and confirmatory approaches ==== In the main analysis phase, either an exploratory or confirmatory approach can be adopted. Usually the approach is decided before data is collected. In an exploratory analysis no clear hypothesis is stated before analysing the data, and the data is searched for models that describe the data well. In a confirmatory analysis, clear hypotheses about the data are tested. Exploratory data analysis should be interpreted carefully. When testing multiple models at once there is a high chance on finding at least one of them to be significant, but this can be due to a type 1 error. It is important to always adjust the significance level when testing multiple models with, for example, a Bonferroni correction. Also, one should not follow up an exploratory analysis with a confirmatory analysis in the same dataset. An exploratory analysis is used to find ideas for a theory, but not to test that theory as well. When a model is found exploratory in a dataset, then following up that analysis with a confirmatory analysis in the same dataset could simply mean that the results of the confirmatory analysis are due to the same type 1 error that resulted


id: data-sharing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_sharing-0.md
category: reference
title: Data sharing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_sharing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:35.006801+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: data-sharing-20260505-0
summary:
Data sharing denotes the dissemination of research datasets to enable access and use by other investigators. Policies governing this practice are increasingly instituted by funding agencies, academic institutions, and scholarly journals, reflecting the consensus that transparency and openness constitute foundational principles of the scientific method. A number of funding agencies and science journals require authors of peer-reviewed papers to share any supplemental information (raw data, statistical methods or source code) necessary to understand, develop or reproduce published research. A great deal of scientific research is not subject to data sharing requirements, and many of these policies have liberal exceptions. In the absence of any binding requirement, data sharing is at the discretion of the scientists themselves. In addition, in certain situations governments and institutions prohibit or severely limit data sharing to protect proprietary interests, national security, and subject/patient/victim confidentiality. Data sharing may also be restricted to protect institutions and scientists from use of data for political purposes. Data and methods may be requested from an author years after publication. In order to encourage data sharing and prevent the loss or corruption of data, a number of funding agencies and journals established policies on data archiving. Access to publicly archived data


id: data-sharing-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_sharing-1.md
category: reference
title: Data sharing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_sharing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:35.006801+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: data-sharing-20260505-0
summary:
The idea is: An article about computational science in a scientific publication is not the scholarship itself, it is merely advertising of the scholarship. The actual scholarship is the complete software development environment and the complete set of instructions which generated the figures. The Data Observation Network for Earth (DataONE) and Data Conservancy are projects supported by the National Science Foundation to encourage and facilitate data sharing among research scientists and better support meta-analysis. In environmental sciences, the research community is recognizing that major scientific advances involving integration of knowledge in and across fields will require that researchers overcome not only the technological barriers to data sharing but also the historically entrenched institutional and sociological barriers. Dr. Richard J. Hodes, director of the National Institute on Aging has stated, "the old model in which researchers jealously guarded their data is no longer applicable". The Alliance for Taxpayer Access is a group of organizations that support open access to government sponsored research. The group has expressed a "Statement of Principles" explaining why they believe open access is important. They also list a number of international public access policies. This is no more so than in timely communication of essential information to


id: deductive-nomological-model-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model-0.md
category: reference
title: Deductive-nomological model
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:36.187998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: deductive-nomological-model-20260505-0
summary:
The deductive-nomological model (DN model) of scientific explanation, also known as Hempel's model, the Hempel–Oppenheim model, the Popper–Hempel model, or the covering law model, is a formal view of scientifically answering questions asking, "Why...?". The DN model poses scientific explanation as a deductive structure, one where truth of its premises entails truth of its conclusion, hinged on accurate prediction or postdiction of the phenomenon to be explained. Because of problems concerning humans' ability to define, discover, and know causality, this was omitted in initial formulations of the DN model. Causality was thought to be incidentally approximated by realistic selection of premises that derive the phenomenon of interest from observed starting conditions plus general laws. Still, the DN model formally permitted causally irrelevant factors. Also, derivability from observations and laws sometimes yielded absurd answers. When logical empiricism fell out of favor in the 1960s, the DN model was widely seen as a flawed or greatly incomplete model of scientific explanation. Nonetheless, it remained an idealized version of scientific explanation, and one that was rather accurate when applied to modern physics. In the early 1980s, a revision to the DN model emphasized maximal specificity for relevance of the conditions and axioms stated.


id: deductive-nomological-model-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model-1.md
category: reference
title: Deductive-nomological model
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:36.187998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: deductive-nomological-model-20260505-0
summary:
== Growth == Whereas Comtean positivism posed science as description, logical positivism emerged in the late 1920s and posed science as explanation, perhaps to better unify empirical sciences by covering not only fundamental science—that is, fundamental physics—but special sciences, too, such as biology, psychology, economics, and anthropology. After defeat of National Socialism with World War II's close in 1945, logical positivism shifted to a milder variant, logical empiricism. All variants of the movement, which lasted until 1965, are neopositivism, sharing the quest of verificationism. Neopositivists led emergence of the philosophy subdiscipline philosophy of science, researching such questions and aspects of scientific theory and knowledge. Scientific realism takes scientific theory's statements at face value, thus accorded either falsity or truth—probable or approximate or actual. Neopositivists held scientific antirealism as instrumentalism, holding scientific theory as simply a device to predict observations and their course, while statements on nature's unobservable aspects are elliptical at or metaphorical of its observable aspects, rather. DN model received its most detailed, influential statement by Carl G Hempel, first in his 1942 article "The function of general laws in history", and more explicitly with Paul Oppenheim in their 1948 article "Studies in the logic of explanation". Leading logical


id: deductive-nomological-model-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model-2.md
category: reference
title: Deductive-nomological model
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:36.187998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: deductive-nomological-model-20260505-0
summary:
== Weaknesses == By DN model, if one asks, "Why is that shadow 20 feet long?", another can answer, "Because that flagpole is 15 feet tall, the Sun is at x angle, and laws of electromagnetism". Yet by problem of symmetry, if one instead asked, "Why is that flagpole 15 feet tall?", another could answer, "Because that shadow is 20 feet long, the Sun is at x angle, and laws of electromagnetism", likewise a deduction from observed conditions and scientific laws, but an answer clearly incorrect. By the problem of irrelevance, if one asks, "Why did that man not get pregnant?", one could in part answer, among the explanans, "Because he took birth control pills"—if he factually took them, and the law of their preventing pregnancy—as covering law model poses no restriction to bar that observation from the explanans. Many philosophers have concluded that causality is integral to scientific explanation. DN model offers a necessary condition of a causal explanation—successful prediction—but not sufficient conditions of causal explanation, as a universal regularity can include spurious relations or simple correlations, for instance Z always following Y, but not Z because of Y, instead Y and then Z as an effect of X.


id: deductive-nomological-model-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model-3.md
category: reference
title: Deductive-nomological model
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:36.187998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: deductive-nomological-model-20260505-0
summary:
== Covering action == Through lawlike explanation, fundamental physics—often perceived as fundamental science—has proceeded through intertheory relation and theory reduction, thereby resolving experimental paradoxes to great historical success, resembling covering law model. In early 20th century, Ernst Mach as well as Wilhelm Ostwald had resisted Ludwig Boltzmann's reduction of thermodynamics—and thereby Boyle's law—to statistical mechanics partly because it rested on kinetic theory of gas, hinging on atomic/molecular theory of matter. Mach as well as Ostwald viewed matter as a variant of energy, and molecules as mathematical illusions, as even Boltzmann thought possible. In 1905, via statistical mechanics, Albert Einstein predicted the phenomenon Brownian motion—unexplained since reported in 1827 by botanist Robert Brown. Soon, most physicists accepted that atoms and molecules were unobservable yet real. Also in 1905, Einstein explained the electromagnetic field's energy as distributed in particles, doubted until this helped resolve atomic theory in the 1910s and 1920s. Meanwhile, all known physical phenomena were gravitational or electromagnetic, whose two theories misaligned. Yet belief in aether as the source of all physical phenomena was virtually unanimous. At experimental paradoxes, physicists modified the aether's hypothetical properties. Finding the luminiferous aether a useless hypothesis, Einstein in 1905 a priori unified all inertial


id: deductive-nomological-model-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model-4.md
category: reference
title: Deductive-nomological model
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:36.187998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: deductive-nomological-model-20260505-0
summary:
== Sources == Avent, Ryan, "The Q&A: Brian Greene—life after the Higgs", The Economist blog: Babbage, 19 Jul 2012. Ayala, Francisco J & Theodosius G Dobzhansky, eds, Studies in the Philosophy of Biology: Reduction and Related Problems (Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1974). Bechtel, William, Discovering Cell Mechanisms: The Creation of Modern Cell Biology (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006). Bechtel, William, Philosophy of Science: An Overview for Cognitive Science (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1988). Bem, Sacha & Huib L de Jong, Theoretical Issues in Psychology: An Introduction, 2nd edn (London: Sage Publications, 2006). Ben-Menahem, Yemima, Conventionalism: From Poincaré to Quine (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006). Blackmore, J T & R Itagaki, S Tanaka, eds, Ernst Mach's Vienna 1895–1930: Or Phenomenalism as Philosophy of Science (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2001). Boffetta, Paolo, "Causation in the presence of weak associations", Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 2010 Dec; 50(s1):13–16. Bolotin, David, An Approach to Aristotle's Physics: With Particular Attention to the Role of His Manner of Writing (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998). Bourdeau, Michel, "Auguste Comte", in Edward N Zalta, ed, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Winter 2013 edn. Braibant, Sylvie & Giorgio


id: deductive-nomological-model-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model-5.md
category: reference
title: Deductive-nomological model
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:36.187998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: deductive-nomological-model-20260505-0
summary:
Rowlands, Peter, Oliver Lodge and the Liverpool Physical Society (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1990). Sarkar, Sahotra & Jessica Pfeifer, eds, The Philosophy of Science: An Encyclopedia, Volume 1: A–M (New York: Routledge, 2006). Schwarz, John H (1998). "Recent developments in superstring theory". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 95 (6): 2750–7. Bibcode:1998PNAS...95.2750S. doi:10.1073/pnas.95.6.2750. PMC 19640. PMID 9501161. Schweber, Silvan S, QED and the Men who Made it: Dyson, Feynman, Schwinger, and Tomonaga (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994). Schliesser, Eric, "Hume's Newtonianism and anti-Newtonianism", in Edward N Zalta, ed, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Winter 2008 edn. Spohn, Wolfgang, The Laws of Belief: Ranking Theory and Its Philosophical Applications (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012). Suppe, Frederick, ed, The Structure of Scientific Theories, 2nd edn (Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 1977). Tavel, Morton, Contemporary Physics and the Limits of Knowledge (Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2002). Torretti, Roberto, The Philosophy of Physics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999). Vongehr, Sascha, "Higgs discovery rehabilitating despised Einstein Ether", Science 2.0: Alpha Meme website, 13 Dec 2011. Vongehr, Sascha, "Supporting abstract relational space-time as fundamental without doctrinism against emergence, arXiv (History and Philosophy of Physics):0912.3069, 2 Oct


id: discovery-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Discovery science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:37.488236+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: discovery-science-20260505-0
summary:
Discovery science (also known as discovery-based science) is a scientific methodology which aims to find new patterns, correlations, and form hypotheses through the analysis of large-scale experimental data. The term “discovery science” encompasses various fields of study, including basic, translational, and computational science and research. Discovery-based methodologies are commonly contrasted with traditional scientific practice, the latter involving hypothesis formation before experimental data is closely examined. Discovery science involves the process of inductive reasoning or using observations to make generalisations, and can be applied to a range of science-related fields, e.g., medicine, proteomics, hydrology, psychology, and psychiatry. == Overview == === Purpose === Discovery science places an emphasis on 'basic' discovery, which can fundamentally change the status quo. For example, in the early years of water resources research, the use of discovery science was demonstrated by seeking to elucidate phenomena that were, until that point, unexplained. It did not matter how unusual these ideas may have been perceived to be. In this sense, discovery science is based on the attitude that "we must not allow our concepts of the earth, in so far as they transcend the reach of observation, to root themselves so deeply and so firmly in our minds


id: discovery-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Discovery science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:37.488236+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: discovery-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Proteomics === Another example of discovery science is proteomics, a technology-driven and technology limited discovery science. Technologies for proteomic analysis provide information that is useful in discovery science. Proteome analysis as a discovery science is applicable in biotechnology, e.g., it assists in 1) the discovery of biochemical pathways which can identify targets for therapies, 2) developing new processes for manufacturing biological materials, 3) monitoring manufacturing processes for the purpose of quality control, and 4) developing diagnostic tests and efficacious treatment strategies for clinical diseases. In the context of proteomics, current life-science research remains technology-limited, however, recent available tools have assisted in evolving such research from being hypothesis-driven to discovery-driven. === Hydrology === Field hydrology has experienced a decline in progress due to a change from discovery-based field work to the gathering of data for modal parameterisation. In field hydrology, models are not any more useful than an understanding of how systems work, and discovery science allows for this understanding. Several important examples of field-based inquiry and discovery have taken place in field hydrology. These include: identifying spatial patterns of soil moisture and how they relate to topography; interrogating such data through the use of geostatistics; and discovering the importance


id: discovery-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Discovery science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:37.488236+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: discovery-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Methodology == Discovery-based methodologies are often viewed in contrast to traditional scientific practice, where hypotheses are formed before close examination of experimental data. However, from a philosophical perspective where all or most of the observable "low-hanging fruit" has already been plucked, examining the phenomenological world more closely than the senses alone (even augmented senses, e.g. via microscopes, telescopes, bifocals etc.) opens a new source of knowledge for hypothesis formation. This process is also known as inductive reasoning or the use of specific observations to make generalisations. Discovery science is usually a complex process, and consequently does not follow a simple linear cause and effect pattern. This means that outcomes are uncertain, and it is expected to have disappointing results as a fundamental part of discovery science. In particular, this may apply to medicine for the critically ill, where disease syndromes may be complex and multi-factorial. In psychiatry, studying complex relationships between brain and behaviour requires a large-scale science. This calls for a need to conceptually switch from hypothesis-driven studies to hypothesis-generating research which is discovery-based. Normally, discovery-based approaches for research are initially hypothesis-free, however, hypothesis testing can be elevated to a new level that effectively supports traditional hypothesis-driven studies.


id: evidence-based-practice-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_practice-0.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based practice
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_practice
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:38.733240+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-practice-20260505-0
summary:
Evidence-based practice (EBP) is the idea that occupational practices ought to be based on scientific evidence. The movement towards evidence-based practices attempts to encourage and, in some instances, require professionals and other decision-makers to pay more attention to evidence to inform their decision-making. The goal of evidence-based practice is to eliminate unsound or outdated practices in favor of more-effective ones by shifting the basis for decision making from tradition, intuition, and unsystematic experience to firmly grounded scientific research. The proposal has been controversial, with some arguing that results may not specialize to individuals as well as traditional practices. Evidence-based practices have been gaining ground since the introduction of evidence-based medicine and have spread to the allied health professions, education, management, law, public policy, architecture, and other fields. In light of studies showing problems in scientific research (such as the replication crisis), there is also a movement to apply evidence-based practices in scientific research itself. Research into the evidence-based practice of science is called metascience. An individual or organisation is justified in claiming that a specific practice is evidence-based if, and only if, three conditions are met. First, the individual or organisation possesses comparative evidence about the effects of the specific


id: evidence-based-practice-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_practice-1.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based practice
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_practice
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:38.733240+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-practice-20260505-0
summary:
Evaluating scientific research is extremely complex. The process can be greatly simplified with the use of a heuristic that ranks the relative strengths of results obtained from scientific research, which is called a hierarchy of evidence. The design of the study and the endpoints measured (such as survival or quality of life) affect the strength of the evidence. Typically, systematic reviews and meta-analysis rank at the top of the hierarchy while randomized controlled trials rank above observational studies, and expert opinion and case reports rank at the bottom. There is broad agreement on the relative strength of the different types of studies, but there is no single, universally-accepted hierarchy of evidence. More than 80 different hierarchies have been proposed for assessing medical evidence. == Applications == === Medicine === Evidence-based medicine is an approach to medical practice intended to optimize decision-making by emphasizing the use of evidence from well-designed and well-conducted research. Although all medicine based on science has some degree of empirical support, evidence-based medicine goes further, classifying evidence by its epistemologic strength and requiring that only the strongest types (coming from meta-analyses, systematic reviews, and randomized controlled trials) can yield strong recommendations; weaker types (such as from case-control


id: evidence-based-practice-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_practice-2.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based practice
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_practice
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:38.733240+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-practice-20260505-0
summary:
==== Reviews of existing research on education ==== The following websites offer free analysis and information on education research: The Best Evidence Encyclopedia is a free website created by the Johns Hopkins University School of Education's Center for Data-Driven Reform in Education (established in 2004) and is funded by the Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. It gives educators and researchers reviews about the strength of the evidence supporting a variety of English programs available for students in grades K–12. The reviews cover programs in areas such as Mathematics, Reading, Writing, Science, Comprehensive school reform, and Early childhood Education; and include such topics as the effectiveness of technology and struggling readers. The Education Endowment Foundation was established in 2011 by The Sutton Trust, as a lead charity in partnership with Impetus Trust, together being the government-designated What Works Centre for UK Education. Evidence for the Every Student Succeeds Act began in 2017 and is produced by the Center for Research and Reform in Education at Johns Hopkins University School of Education. It offers free up-to-date information on current PK-12 programs in reading, writing, math, science, and others that meet the standards of the Every Student Succeeds Act (the


id: experimenter-s-regress-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimenter's_regress-0.md
category: reference
title: Experimenter's regress
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimenter's_regress
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:43.003414+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: experimenter-s-regress-20260505-0
summary:
In science, experimenter's regress refers to a loop of dependence between theory and evidence. In order to judge whether a new piece of evidence is correct we rely on theory-based predictions, and to judge the value of competing theories we rely on existing evidence. Cognitive bias affects experiments, and experiments determine which theory is valid. This issue is particularly important in new fields of science where there is no consensus regarding the values of various competing theories, and where the extent of experimental errors is not well known. If experimenter's regress acts a positive feedback system, it can be a source of pathological science. An experimenter's strong belief in a new theory produces confirmation bias, and any biased evidence they obtain then strengthens their belief in that particular theory. Neither individual researchers nor entire scientific communities are immune to this effect: see N-rays and polywater. Experimenter's regress is a typical relativistic phenomenon in the Empirical Programme of Relativism (EPOR). EPOR is very much concerned with a focus on social interactions, by looking at particular (local) cases and controversial issues in the context in which they happen. In EPOR, all scientific knowledge is perceived to be socially constructed and is thus


id: experimentum-crucis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimentum_crucis-0.md
category: reference
title: Experimentum crucis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimentum_crucis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:44.257402+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: experimentum-crucis-20260505-0
summary:
In science, an experimentum crucis (English: crucial experiment or critical experiment) is an experiment capable of decisively determining whether or not a particular hypothesis or theory is superior to all others whose acceptance is currently widespread in the scientific community. In particular, such an experiment—if true—must typically be able to produce a result that rules out all other hypotheses or theories, thereby demonstrating that under the conditions of the experiment (i.e., under the same external circumstances and for the same "input variables" within the experiment), those hypotheses and theories are proven false but the experimenter's hypothesis is not ruled out. An opposite view, rejecting the decisive value of the experimentum crucis in choosing one hypothesis or theory over its rivals, is the Duhem–Quine thesis. == History == Francis Bacon in his Novum Organum first described the concept of a situation in which one theory but not others would hold true, using the name instantia crucis ("crucial instance"). The phrase experimentum crucis, denoting the deliberate creation of such a situation for the purpose of testing the rival theories, was later coined by Robert Hooke and then famously used by Isaac Newton and Robert Boyle. The production of such an experiment is


id: expert-elicitation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expert_elicitation-0.md
category: reference
title: Expert elicitation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expert_elicitation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:45.403756+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expert-elicitation-20260505-0
summary:
In science, engineering, and research, expert elicitation is the synthesis of opinions of authorities of a subject where there is uncertainty due to insufficient data or when such data is unattainable because of physical constraints or lack of resources. Expert elicitation is essentially a scientific consensus methodology. It is often used in the study of rare events. Expert elicitation allows for parametrization, an "educated guess", for the respective topic under study. Expert elicitation generally helps quantify uncertainty. Expert elicitation tends to be multidisciplinary as well as interdisciplinary, with practically universal applicability, and is used in a broad range of fields. Prominent recent expert elicitation applications include climate change, modeling seismic hazard and damage, association of tornado damage to wind speed in developing the Enhanced Fujita scale, risk analysis for nuclear waste storage. In performing expert elicitation certain factors need to be taken into consideration. The topic must be one for which there are people who have predictive expertise. Furthermore, the objective should be to obtain an experts' carefully considered judgment based on a systematic consideration of all relevant evidence. For this reason one should take care to adopt strategies designed to help the expert being interviewed to avoid overlooking relevant


id: extended-peer-community-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_peer_community-0.md
category: reference
title: Extended peer community
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_peer_community
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:46.795989+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: extended-peer-community-20260505-0
summary:
The concept of Extended peer community belongs to the field of Sociology of science, and in particular the use of science in the solution of social, political or ecological problems. It was first introduced by in the 1990s by Silvio Funtowicz and Jerome R. Ravetz. in the context of what would become Post-normal science. An Extended peer community is intended by these authors as a space where both credentialed experts from different disciplines and lay stakeholders can discuss and deliberate. == Content == An Extended peer community is intended by its creators as an arrangement at the science policy interface that helps to expand and assess both the knowledge-base and the value-base of policy-making'. Post-normal science's extended peer community argues for two kind of extensions: first, more than one discipline is assumed to have a potential bearing on the issue being debated, thereby providing different lenses to consider the problem. Second the community is extended to lay actors, taken to be all those with stakes, or an interest, in the given issue. The lay members of the community thus constituted may also take upon themselves active 'research' tasks; this has happened e.g. in the so-called 'popular epidemiology', when the official


id: free-parameter-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_parameter-0.md
category: reference
title: Free parameter
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_parameter
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:48.050899+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: free-parameter-20260505-0
summary:
A free parameter is a variable in a mathematical model which cannot be predicted precisely or constrained by the model and must be estimated experimentally or theoretically. A mathematical model, theory, or conjecture is more likely to be right and less likely to be the product of wishful thinking if it relies on few free parameters and is consistent with large amounts of data. == See also == Decision variables Exogenous variables Overfitting Random variables State variables == References ==


id: gold-effect-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold_effect-0.md
category: reference
title: Gold effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:50.630882+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gold-effect-20260505-0
summary:
The Gold effect is the phenomenon in which a scientific idea, particularly in medicine, is developed to the status of an accepted position within a professional body or association by the social process itself of scientific conferences, committees, and consensus building, despite not being supported by conclusive evidence. The Gold effect is used to analyze errors in public health policy and practice, such as the widespread use of cholesterol screening in the prevention of cardiovascular disease. The effect was described by Thomas Gold in 1979. The effect was reviewed by Petr Skrabanek and James McCormick in their book Follies and Fallacies in Medicine. In their book, Skrabanek and McCormick describe the Gold effect as: "At the beginning a few people arrive at a state of near belief in some idea. A meeting is held to discuss the pros and cons of the idea. More people favouring the idea than those disinterested will be present. A representative committee will be nominated to prepare a collective volume to propagate and foster interest in the idea. The totality of resulting articles based on the idea will appear to show an increasing consensus. A specialized journal will be launched. Only orthodox or near orthodox


id: graphism-thesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphism_thesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Graphism thesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphism_thesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:51.818042+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: graphism-thesis-20260505-0
summary:
In the sociology of science and science and technology studies (STS), the graphism thesis is a proposition advanced by Bruno Latour that visual inscriptions—especially graphs, diagrams, and other visual representations—are central to the practice and authority of science. First articulated in Latour's 1990 essay "Visualization and Cognition: Drawing Things Together", the thesis holds that the power of scientific disciplines is closely linked to their capacity to produce, circulate, and combine visual representations of data. The thesis has been empirically tested by a number of researchers, who have found strong correlations between the level of graph use in scientific publications and the perceived "hardness" of scientific disciplines. == Background == The graphism thesis emerged from Latour's broader theory of inscriptions in scientific practice, developed across several works including Laboratory Life (1979, with Steve Woolgar) and Science in Action (1987). In these works, Latour defined an inscription device as any apparatus or configuration that transforms a material substance into a visual display usable within a scientific text, such as a diagram, chart, photograph, map, equation, or table. Central to this framework is the concept of immutable mobiles (a key term in actor–network theory)—objects that can be transported across distances while retaining their


id: harking-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HARKing-0.md
category: reference
title: HARKing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HARKing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:53.082867+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: harking-20260505-0
summary:
HARKing (hypothesizing after the results are known) is an acronym coined by social psychologist Norbert Kerr that refers to the questionable research practice of "presenting a post hoc hypothesis in the introduction of a research report as if it were an a priori hypothesis". Hence, a key characteristic of HARKing is that post hoc hypothesizing is falsely portrayed as a priori hypothesizing. HARKing may occur when a researcher tests an a priori hypothesis but then omits that hypothesis from their research report after they find out the results of their test. Post hoc analysis or post hoc theorizing then may lead to a post hoc hypothesis. == Types == Several types of HARKing have been distinguished, including: THARKing Transparently hypothesizing after the results are known, rather than the secretive, undisclosed, HARKing that was first proposed by Kerr. In this case, researchers openly declare that they developed their hypotheses after they observed their research results. CHARKing (or Pure HARKing) CHARKing or "pure HARKing" refers to the practice of constructing new hypotheses after the results are known and presenting them as a priori hypotheses. CHARKing is often regarded as the prototypical form of HARKing. RHARKing RHARKing refers to retrieving old hypotheses from


id: heterophenomenology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterophenomenology-0.md
category: reference
title: Heterophenomenology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterophenomenology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:54.411209+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: heterophenomenology-20260505-0
summary:
In the thought of the philosopher Daniel Dennett, heterophenomenology ("phenomenology of another, not oneself") is an explicitly third-person, scientific approach to the study of consciousness and other mental phenomena. It consists of applying the scientific method with an anthropological bent, combining the subject's self-reports with all other available evidence to determine their mental state. The goal is to discover how subjects see the world themselves, without taking the accuracy of the subject's view for granted. == Overview == Heterophenomenology is put forth as the alternative to traditional Cartesian phenomenology, which Dennett calls "lone-wolf autophenomenology" to emphasize the fact that traditional phenomenology accepts the subject's self-reports as being authoritative. In contrast, heterophenomenology considers the subjects authoritative only about how things seem to them. It does not dismiss the Cartesian first-person perspective, but rather brackets it so that it can be intersubjectively verified by empirical means, allowing it to be submitted as scientific evidence. The method requires a researcher to listen to the subjects and take what they say seriously, but to also look at everything else available to them, including the subject's bodily responses and environment, evidence provided by relevant neurological or psychological studies, the researcher's memories of their own experiences,


id: hypothesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:59.063329+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
A hypothesis (pl.: hypotheses) is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. A scientific hypothesis must be based on observations and make a testable and reproducible prediction about reality, in a process beginning with an educated guess. If a hypothesis is repeatedly independently demonstrated by experiment to be true, it becomes a scientific theory. In colloquial usage, the words hypothesis and theory are often used interchangeably, but this is incorrect in the context of science. A working hypothesis is a provisionally-accepted hypothesis used for the purpose of pursuing further progress in research. Working hypotheses are frequently discarded, and often proposed with knowledge (and warning) that they are incomplete and thus false, with the intent of moving research in at least somewhat the right direction, especially when scientists are stuck on an issue and brainstorming ideas. In formal logic, a hypothesis is the antecedent in a proposition. For example, in the proposition "If P, then Q", statement P denotes the hypothesis (or antecedent) of the consequent Q. Hypothesis P is the assumption in a (possibly counterfactual) "what if" question. The adjective "hypothetical" (having the nature of a hypothesis or being assumed to exist as an immediate consequence of a hypothesis), can refer


id: hypothesis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothesis-1.md
category: reference
title: Hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:59.063329+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
A working hypothesis is a hypothesis that is provisionally accepted as a basis for further research in the hope that a tenable theory will be produced, even if the hypothesis ultimately fails. Like all hypotheses, a working hypothesis is constructed as a statement of expectations, which can be linked to the exploratory research purpose in empirical investigation. Working hypotheses are often used as a conceptual framework in qualitative research. The provisional nature of working hypotheses makes them useful as an organizing device in applied research. Here they act like a useful guide to address problems that are still in a formative phase. In recent years, philosophers of science have tried to integrate the various approaches to evaluating hypotheses, and the scientific method in general, to form a more complete system that integrates the individual concerns of each approach. Notably, Imre Lakatos and Paul Feyerabend, Karl Popper's colleague and student, respectively, have produced novel attempts at such a synthesis. == Hypotheses, concepts and measurement == Concepts in Hempel's deductive-nomological model play a key role in the development and testing of hypotheses. Most formal hypotheses connect concepts by specifying the expected relationships between propositions. When a set of hypotheses are grouped together,


id: hypothetico-deductive-model-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_model-0.md
category: reference
title: Hypothetico-deductive model
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_model
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:16:01.566434+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hypothetico-deductive-model-20260505-0
summary:
The hypothetico-deductive model or method is a proposed description of the scientific method. According to it, scientific inquiry proceeds by formulating a hypothesis in a form that can be falsifiable, using a test on observable data where the outcome is not yet known. A test outcome that could have and does run contrary to predictions of the hypothesis is taken as a falsification of the hypothesis. A test outcome that could have, but does not run contrary to the hypothesis corroborates the theory. It is then proposed to compare the explanatory value of competing hypotheses by testing how stringently they are corroborated by their predictions. == Example == One example of an algorithmic statement of the hypothetico-deductive method is as follows: One possible sequence in this model would be 1, 2, 3, 4. If the outcome of 4 holds, and 3 is not yet disproven, you may continue with 3, 4, 1, and so forth; but if the outcome of 4 shows 3 to be false, you will have to go back to 2 and try to invent a new 2, deduce a new 3, look for 4, and so forth. Note that this method can never absolutely verify (prove


id: interdisciplinary-peer-review-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interdisciplinary_peer_review-0.md
category: reference
title: Interdisciplinary peer review
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interdisciplinary_peer_review
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:16:02.783097+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: interdisciplinary-peer-review-20260505-0
summary:
Interdisciplinary Peer Review (IPR) is a peer review process with an additional focus outside of the area of the author's subject of expertise. Disciplines such as telecommunications, political science, engineering, and medicine require specific subject matter expertise, however, they still cross multiple disciplines and may require review from many alternate functional areas to achieve maximum perspective to prevent duplication or improper publication. Reviews of this nature may also cross cultures, race, and other demographics to gain perspective. == Reduplication and Interdisciplinarity == In Peer Commentary on Peer Review: A case study in scientific quality control, Stevan R. Harnard (p. 15) begins to touch on the concept by addressing how well the review process works and what factors prevent re-duplication. Julie Klein, a professor of interdisciplinary studies at Wayne State University, defined interdisciplinarity as "new divisions of intellectual labor, collaborative research, team teaching, hybrid fields, comparative studies, increased borrowing across disciplines, and a variety of unified, holistic perspectives that have created pressures upon traditional divisions of knowledge". Klein has also described how interdisciplinarity is used to "find answers to complex questions, address broad issues, explore disciplinary and professional relations, to solve problems beyond the scope of any one discipline, and to


id: inverse-square-law-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse-square_law-0.md
category: reference
title: Inverse-square law
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse-square_law
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:16:05.088152+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: inverse-square-law-20260505-0
summary:
In physical science, an inverse-square law is any scientific law stating that the observed "intensity" of a specified physical quantity (being nothing more than the value of the physical quantity) is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source of that physical quantity. The fundamental cause for this can be understood as geometric dilution corresponding to point-source radiation into three-dimensional space. Radar energy expands during both the signal transmission and the reflected return, so the inverse square for both paths means that the radar will receive energy according to the inverse fourth power of the range. To prevent dilution of energy while propagating a signal, certain methods can be used such as a waveguide, which acts like a canal does for water, or how a gun barrel restricts hot gas expansion to one dimension in order to prevent loss of energy transfer to a bullet. == Formula == In mathematical notation the inverse square law can be expressed as an intensity (I) varying as a function of distance (d) from some centre. The intensity is proportional (see ∝) to the reciprocal of the square of the distance thus: intensity ∝ 1 distance 2 {\displaystyle {\text{intensity}}\ \propto \


id: inverse-square-law-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse-square_law-1.md
category: reference
title: Inverse-square law
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse-square_law
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:16:05.088152+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: inverse-square-law-20260505-0
summary:
=== Light and other electromagnetic radiation === The intensity (or illuminance or irradiance) of light or other linear waves radiating from a point source (energy per unit of area perpendicular to the source) is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source, so an object (of the same size) twice as far away receives only one-quarter the energy (in the same time period). More generally, the irradiance, i.e., the intensity (or power per unit area in the direction of propagation), of a spherical wavefront varies inversely with the square of the distance from the source (assuming there are no losses caused by absorption or scattering). For example, the intensity of radiation from the Sun is 9126 watts per square meter at the distance of Mercury (0.387 AU) but only 1367 watts per square meter at the distance of Earth (1 AU)—an approximate threefold increase in distance results in an approximate ninefold decrease in intensity of radiation. For non-isotropic radiators such as parabolic antennas, headlights, and lasers, the effective origin is located far behind the beam aperture. If you are close to the origin, you don't have to go far to double the radius, so the signal drops


id: inverse-square-law-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse-square_law-2.md
category: reference
title: Inverse-square law
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse-square_law
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:16:05.088152+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: inverse-square-law-20260505-0
summary:
== Non-Euclidean implications == The inverse-square law, fundamental in Euclidean spaces, also applies to non-Euclidean geometries, including hyperbolic space. The curvature present in these spaces alters physical laws, influencing a variety of fields such as cosmology, general relativity, and string theory. John D. Barrow, in his 2020 paper "Non-Euclidean Newtonian Cosmology," expands on the behavior of force (F) and potential (Φ) within hyperbolic 3-space (H3). He explains that F and Φ obey the relationships F ∝ 1 / R² sinh²(r/R) and Φ ∝ coth(r/R), where R represents the curvature radius and r represents the distance from the focal point. The concept of spatial dimensionality, first proposed by Immanuel Kant, remains a topic of debate concerning the inverse-square law. Dimitria Electra Gatzia and Rex D. Ramsier, in their 2021 paper, contend that the inverse-square law is more closely related to force distribution symmetry than to the dimensionality of space. In the context of non-Euclidean geometries and general relativity, deviations from the inverse-square law do not arise from the law itself but rather from the assumption that the force between two bodies is instantaneous, which contradicts special relativity. General relativity reinterprets gravity as the curvature of spacetime, leading particles to move along


id: isotope-dilution-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotope_dilution-0.md
category: reference
title: Isotope dilution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotope_dilution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:16:06.226635+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: isotope-dilution-20260505-0
summary:
Isotope dilution analysis is a method of determining the quantity of chemical substances. In its most simple conception, the method of isotope dilution comprises the addition of known amounts of isotopically enriched substance to the analyzed sample. Mixing of the isotopic standard with the sample effectively "dilutes" the isotopic enrichment of the standard and this forms the basis for the isotope dilution method. Isotope dilution is classified as a method of internal standardisation, because the standard (isotopically enriched form of analyte) is added directly to the sample. In addition, unlike traditional analytical methods which rely on signal intensity, isotope dilution employs signal ratios. Owing to both of these advantages, the method of isotope dilution is regarded among chemistry measurement methods of the highest metrological standing. Isotopes are variants of a particular chemical element which differ in neutron number. All isotopes of a given element have the same number of protons in each atom. The term isotope is formed from the Greek roots isos (ἴσος "equal") and topos (τόπος "place"), meaning "the same place"; thus, the meaning behind the name is that different isotopes of a single element occupy the same position on the periodic table. == Early history == Analytical


id: isotope-dilution-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotope_dilution-1.md
category: reference
title: Isotope dilution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotope_dilution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:16:06.226635+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: isotope-dilution-20260505-0
summary:
n A = n B R B − R A B R A B − R A × 1 + R A 1 + R B {\displaystyle n_{\mathrm {A} }=n_{\mathrm {B} }{\frac {R_{\mathrm {B} }-R_{\mathrm {AB} }}{R_{\mathrm {AB} }-R_{\mathrm {A} }}}\times {\frac {1+R_{\mathrm {A} }}{1+R_{\mathrm {B} }}}} In a typical gas chromatography analysis, isotopic dilution can decrease the uncertainty of the measurement results from 5% to 1%. It can also be used in mass spectrometry (commonly referred to as isotopic dilution mass spectrometry or IDMS), in which the isotopic ratio can be determined with precision typically better than 0.25%. === Optimum composition of the blend === In a simplified manner, the uncertainty of the measurement results is largely determined from the measurement of RAB: u ( n A ) 2 ∝ ( ∂ n A ∂ R A B ) 2 u ( R A B ) 2 = n A 2 ( R A − R B ) 2 ( R A − R A B ) 2 ( R A B − R B ) 2 u ( R A B ) 2 {\displaystyle u(n_{\mathrm {A} })^{2}\propto \left({\frac {\partial {n_{\mathrm {A} }}}{\partial R_{\mathrm {AB} }}}\right)^{2}u(R_{\mathrm {AB} })^{2}=n_{\mathrm {A}


id: jadad-scale-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jadad_scale-0.md
category: reference
title: Jadad scale
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jadad_scale
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:16:07.379722+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jadad-scale-20260505-0
summary:
The Jadad scale, sometimes known as Jadad scoring or the Oxford quality scoring system, is a procedure to assess the methodological quality of a clinical trial by objective criteria. It is named after Canadian-Colombian physician Alex Jadad who in 1996 described a system for allocating such trials a score of between zero (very poor) and five (rigorous). It is the most widely used such assessment in the world, and as of May 2024, its seminal paper has been cited in over 25,000 scientific works. == Description == The Jadad scale independently assesses the methodological quality of a clinical trial judging the effectiveness of blinding. Alejandro "Alex" Jadad Bechara, a Colombian physician who worked as a Research Fellow at the Oxford Pain Relief Unit, Nuffield Department of Anaesthetics at the University of Oxford described the allocating trials a score of between zero (very poor) and five (rigorous) in an appendix to a 1996 paper. In a 2007 book, Jadad described the randomised controlled trial as "one of the simplest, most powerful and revolutionary forms of research". == Background == Clinical trials are conducted for the purpose of collecting data on the efficacy of medical treatments. The treatment might be, for example,


id: leiden-manifesto-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leiden_Manifesto-0.md
category: reference
title: Leiden Manifesto
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leiden_Manifesto
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:16:08.570820+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: leiden-manifesto-20260505-0
summary:
The Leiden Manifesto for research metrics (LM) is a list of "ten principles to guide research evaluation", published as a comment in Nature on 22 April 2015. It was formulated by public policy professor Diana Hicks, scientometrics professor Paul Wouters, and their colleagues at the 19th International Conference on Science and Technology Indicators, held between 3–5 September 2014 in Leiden, The Netherlands. The Leiden Manifesto was proposed as a guide to combat misuse of bibliometrics when evaluating scientific research literature. Examples of commonly used bibliometrics for science, or scientometrics, are the h-index, impact factor, other indicators such as Altmetrics. According to the Manifesto's authors, these metrics often pervasively misguide evaluations of scientific material. == Motivation == Motivations for codification of the Leiden Manifesto arose from a growing worry that "impact-factor obsession" was leading to inadequate judgement of scientific material that should be worthy of fair evaluation. Lead author Diana Hicks hoped that publishing the list in Nature would spread its ideas, already commonplace in the scientometrics sphere, to the broader scientific community. === DORA and other predecessors === The scientific community has long been interested in reforming assessment of the impact of scientific and academic research. The 2013 San Francisco


id: leiden-manifesto-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leiden_Manifesto-1.md
category: reference
title: Leiden Manifesto
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leiden_Manifesto
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:16:08.570820+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: leiden-manifesto-20260505-0
summary:
=== Public endorsement === LIBER, a collaboration of European research libraries, issued a substantial review of the Leiden Manifesto in 2017, concluding that it was a "solid foundation" on which academic libraries could base their assessment of metrics. Elsevier, a global leader in research publishing and information analytics, announced on 14 July 2020 that it would use the Leiden Manifesto to guide its development of improved research evaluation. Elsevier stated that the principles of the manifesto were already close in nature to their 2019 CiteScore metrics, which was in summary "improved calculation methodology" for "a more robust, fair and faster indicator of research impact". Loughborough University's LIS-Bibliometrics committee chose to base their own principles on the Leiden Manifesto, instead of the DORA, because the manifesto takes a "broader approach to the responsible use of all bibliometrics across a range of disciplines and settings", according to their policy manager Elizabeth Gadd. Stephen Curry, chair of the DORA steering committee, commented on this statement by emphasizing that DORA was aiming to extend its "disciplinary and geographical reach". === Further applications === David Moher and his co-authors referenced the Leiden Manifesto in a perspective for Issues in Science and Technology, writing that academic


id: level-of-measurement-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Level_of_measurement-0.md
category: reference
title: Level of measurement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Level_of_measurement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:16:09.819612+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: level-of-measurement-20260505-0
summary:
Level of measurement or scale of measure is a classification that describes the nature of information within the values assigned to variables. Psychologist Stanley Smith Stevens developed the best-known classification with four levels, or scales, of measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio. This framework of distinguishing levels of measurement originated in psychology and has since had a complex history, being adopted and extended in some disciplines and by some scholars, and criticized or rejected by others. Other classifications include those by Mosteller and Tukey, and by Chrisman. Stevens proposed his typology in a 1946 Science article titled "On the theory of scales of measurement". In that article, Stevens claimed that all measurement in science was conducted using four different types of scales that he called "nominal", "ordinal", "interval", and "ratio", unifying both "qualitative" (which are described by his "nominal" type) and "quantitative" (to a different degree, all the rest of his scales). The concept of scale types later received the mathematical rigour that it lacked at its inception with the work of mathematical psychologists Theodore Alper (1985, 1987), Louis Narens (1981a, b), and R. Duncan Luce (1986, 1987, 2001). As Luce (1997, p. 395) wrote: S. S. Stevens (1946, 1951,


