# kb

id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-physics-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics-6.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:18.131755+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-physics-20260505-0
summary:
== Plasma physics == Plasma physics and fusion power: Fusion energy may potentially provide power from an abundant resource (e.g. hydrogen) without the type of radioactive waste that fission energy currently produces. However, can ionized gases (plasma) be confined long enough and at a high enough temperature to create fusion power? What is the physical origin of H-mode? The injection problem: Fermi acceleration is thought to be the primary mechanism that accelerates astrophysical particles to high energy. However, it is unclear what mechanism causes those particles to initially have energies high enough for Fermi acceleration to work on them. Alfvénic turbulence: In the solar wind and the turbulence in solar flares, coronal mass ejections, and magnetospheric substorms are major unsolved problems in space plasma physics. Ball lightning: the exact physical nature of this mystery in atmospheric electricity. == Biophysics == Abiogenesis: can life be created from physical processes alone? Stochasticity and robustness to noise in gene expression: How do genes govern our body, withstanding different external pressures and internal stochasticity? Certain models exist for genetic processes, but we are far from understanding the whole picture, in particular in development where gene expression must be tightly regulated. Quantitative study of the


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-physics-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics-7.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:18.131755+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-physics-20260505-0
summary:
=== High-energy physics/particle physics === Existence of pentaquarks (1964–2015): In July 2015, the LHCb collaboration at CERN identified pentaquarks in the Λ0b→J/ψK−p channel, which represents the decay of the bottom lambda baryon (Λ0b) into a J/ψ meson (J/ψ), a kaon (K−) and a proton (p). The results showed that sometimes, instead of decaying directly into mesons and baryons, the Λ0b decayed via intermediate pentaquark states. The two states, named P+c(4380) and P+c(4450), had individual statistical significances of 9 σ and 12 σ, respectively, and a combined significance of 15 σ—enough to claim a formal discovery. The two pentaquark states were both observed decaying strongly to J/ψp, hence must have a valence quark content of two up quarks, a down quark, a charm quark, and an anti-charm quark (uudcc), making them charmonium-pentaquarks. Existence of quark-gluon plasma, a new phase of matter was discovered and confirmed in experiments at CERN-SPS (2000), BNL-RHIC (2005) and CERN-LHC (2010). Higgs boson and electroweak symmetry breaking (1963–2012): The mechanism responsible for breaking the electroweak gauge symmetry, giving mass to the W and Z bosons, was solved with the discovery of the Higgs boson of the Standard Model, with the expected couplings to the weak bosons. No


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-statistics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_statistics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:19.361016+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
There are many longstanding unsolved problems in mathematics for which a solution has still not yet been found. The notable unsolved problems in statistics are generally of a different flavor; according to John Tukey, "difficulties in identifying problems have delayed statistics far more than difficulties in solving problems." A list of "one or two open problems" (in fact 22 of them) was given by David Cox. == Inference and testing == How to detect and correct for systematic errors, especially in sciences where random errors are large (a situation Tukey termed uncomfortable science). The Graybill–Deal estimator is often used to estimate the common mean of two normal populations with unknown and possibly unequal variances. Though this estimator is generally unbiased, its admissibility remains to be shown. Meta-analysis: Though independent p-values can be combined using Fisher's method, techniques are still being developed to handle the case of dependent p-values. Behrens–Fisher problem: Yuri Linnik showed in 1966 that there is no uniformly most powerful test for the difference of two means when the variances are unknown and possibly unequal. That is, there is no exact test (meaning that, if the means are in fact equal, one that rejects the null hypothesis with


id: list-of-hypothetical-technologies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hypothetical_technologies-0.md
category: reference
title: List of hypothetical technologies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hypothetical_technologies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:20.536514+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-hypothetical-technologies-20260505-0
summary:
Hypothetical technologies are technologies that do not exist yet, but that could exist in the future. They are distinct from emerging technologies, which have achieved some developmental success. Emerging technologies as of 2018 include 3-D metal printing and artificial embryos. Many hypothetical technologies have been the subject of science fiction. The criteria for this list are that the technology: Must not exist yet Is credibly proposed to exist in the future (e.g. no perpetual motion machines) If the technology does not have an existing article (i.e. it is "redlinked"), a reference must be provided for it == Biology == == Engineering and manufacturing == === Computing and robotics === === Megastructures === === Nanotechnology === === Transport === == Minds and psychology == == Physics == === Nuclear energy and weaponry === === Space === == See also == == References ==


id: above-and-beyond-the-encyclopedia-of-aviation-and-space-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Above_and_Beyond:_The_Encyclopedia_of_Aviation_and_Space_Sciences-0.md
category: reference
title: Above and Beyond: The Encyclopedia of Aviation and Space Sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Above_and_Beyond:_The_Encyclopedia_of_Aviation_and_Space_Sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:22.035663+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: above-and-beyond-the-encyclopedia-of-aviation-and-space-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
Above and Beyond: The Encyclopedia of Aviation and Space Sciences was the first attempt at creating an encyclopedia of all matters related to the history, technology and aims of the aerospace industry as it existed in the late 1960s. Published in 1967 by New Horizons Publishers, Inc., of Chicago, this fourteen-volume collection was aimed primarily at teens and young adults. == References ==


id: aluminium-the-thirteenth-element-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium:_The_Thirteenth_Element-0.md
category: reference
title: Aluminium: The Thirteenth Element
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium:_The_Thirteenth_Element
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:23.208203+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aluminium-the-thirteenth-element-20260505-0
summary:
Aluminium: The Thirteenth Element (Russian: Алюминий. Тринадцатый элемент) is a Russian encyclopedia completely devoted to aluminium. The encyclopedia is published by United Company RUSAL, at the end of 2007, in both Russian and English. Four thousand copies were printed (240 pages). The encyclopedia covers various areas of aluminium application, starting from car engineering and architecture to jewellery and fashion, recounts how this metal was discovered, and describes technologies of its production, its properties and benefits for various spheres of life. The book consists of 9 chapters, with an index/glossary and name index enclosed at the end. The encyclopedia contains diversified illustrative materials stemming from Russia and from overseas photo archives, museums and private collections. == Contents == Chapter 1. The History of Aluminium Before the 19th Century. Historical background of aluminium in ancient times; archeological findings containing aluminium; first historic mentions of aluminium articles; information about 'alum' – compound substances with chemical structures containing aluminium; production technologies alum and areas of their application in the Ancient Times and Middle Ages. Chapter 2. How the Metal Was Discovered. Scientists and technologies associated with the first attempts to produce pure aluminium; the beginning of the industrial production of the metal and birth


id: american-beetles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Beetles-0.md
category: reference
title: American Beetles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Beetles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:24.383527+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-beetles-20260505-0
summary:
American Beetles is a comprehensive description of the beetles of North America north of the tropical area of Mexico. It was started by Ross H. Arnett, Jr. as an update of his classic The Beetles of the United States; along with Michael C. Thomas, he enlisted more than 60 specialists to write treatments of each family. The work outlived Arnett, and was published by CRC Press in 2001 (vol. 1) and 2002 (vol. 2). This is a highly technical book, with extensive references to the literature. The introduction includes a section on beetle anatomy that introduces all the technical terms used later. The bulk of the content consists of treatments of the 130-odd families known to occur in North America (a couple dozen are not known from North America, and are not described); the descriptive material applies worldwide, and there are brief notes about non-North American family members. A family treatment consists of a morphological description, including the larvae if known, habits and habitats, status of the classification, a key to the Nearctic genera (and sometimes species, if the family is small), and short treatments of the subtaxa. Every family gets at least one drawing of a member, and larger


id: encyclopedia-of-anthropology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Anthropology-0.md
category: reference
title: Encyclopedia of Anthropology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Anthropology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:25.512305+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: encyclopedia-of-anthropology-20260505-0
summary:
The Encyclopedia of Anthropology is an encyclopedia of anthropology edited by H. James Birx of Canisius College and SUNY Geneseo. The encyclopedia, published in 2006 by SAGE Publications, is in five volumes, and contains over 1,200 articles by more than 300 contributors. Entries include the main people, concepts, and theories, in anthropology, but also relevant topics from other disciplines, such as politics, psychology, linguistics, philosophy, and archaeology. == Sources and external links == H. James Birx [ed.] Encyclopedia of Anthropology (2006, SAGE Publications; ISBN 0-7619-3029-9) Reader's Guide — list of entries (PDF)


id: the-ants-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ants-0.md
category: reference
title: The Ants
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ants
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:26.641033+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-ants-20260505-0
summary:
The Ants is a zoology textbook by the German entomologist Bert Hölldobler and the American entomologist E. O. Wilson, first published in 1990. It won the Pulitzer Prize for General Nonfiction in 1991. == Contents == This book is primarily aimed at academics as a reference work, detailing the ants' anatomy, physiology, social organization including their caste system, altruistic behaviour, and chemical communication with pheromones, their ecology (vital for turning the soil and controlling insect pests), and natural history. An account of some of Hölldobler and Wilson's most interesting findings, popularized for the layman, can be found in their 1994 book Journey to the Ants. == Reception == The Science magazine reviewer described the book as a "mighty tome" and commented that it would "surely take its place among the greatest of all entomology books", as it was "a wonderful exploration of almost every ramification of evolutionary biology, from developmental biology to the structure of ecological communities". The illustrations are praised as lavish and extremely detailed, with monochrome drawings and 24 colour plates. All the 297 extant genera are illustrated and identifiable with the supplied keys. But "The Ants, like every great book and every ant colony, is much more


id: atlas-of-the-prehistoric-world-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlas_of_the_Prehistoric_World-0.md
category: reference
title: Atlas of the Prehistoric World
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlas_of_the_Prehistoric_World
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:27.837231+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: atlas-of-the-prehistoric-world-20260505-0
summary:
Atlas of the Prehistoric World is a book written by Douglas Palmer. It was published in 1999 by Random House, Inc. It covers the last 620 million years. == References ==


id: bibliography-of-encyclopedias-biology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_encyclopedias:_biology-0.md
category: reference
title: Bibliography of encyclopedias: biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_encyclopedias:_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:29.061385+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bibliography-of-encyclopedias-biology-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of encyclopedias as well as encyclopedic and biographical dictionaries published on the subject of biology in any language. Entries are in the English language unless specifically stated as otherwise. == General biology == Becher, Anne, Joseph Richey. American environmental leaders: From colonial times to the present. Grey House, 2008. ISBN 9781592371198. Butcher, Russell D., Stephen E. Adair, Lynn A. Greenwalt. America's national wildlife refuges: A complete guide. Roberts Rinehart Publishers in cooperation with Ducks Unlimited, 2003. ISBN 1570983798. Cullen, Katherine E. (2009). Encyclopedia of Life Science. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-7008-4. Ecological Internet, Inc. EcoEarth.info: Environment portal and search engine. Ecological Internet, Inc. [1]. Encyclopedia of Life Sciences. John Wiley & Sons. 25 May 2007. ISBN 978-0-470-06651-5. Encyclopedia of Life Sciences. Groves Dictionaries Incorporated. 1 November 2001. ISBN 978-1-56159-238-8. Friday, Adrian & Davis S. Ingram. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Life Sciences. Cambridge, 1985. Gaither, Carl C., Alma E. Cavazos-Gaither, Andrew Slocombe. Naturally speaking: A dictionary of quotations on biology, botany, nature and zoology. Institute of Physics, 2001. ISBN 0750306815. Gibson, Daniel, National Audubon Society. Audubon guide to the national wildlife refuges. Southwest: Arizona, Nevada, New Mexico, Texas. St. Martin's Griffin, 2000. ISBN 0312207778. Goudie, Andrew, David J.


id: bibliography-of-encyclopedias-biology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_encyclopedias:_biology-1.md
category: reference
title: Bibliography of encyclopedias: biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_encyclopedias:_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:29.061385+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bibliography-of-encyclopedias-biology-20260505-0
summary:
==== Animals ==== Audubon Society Encyclopedia of Animal Life. Clarkson N. Potter, 1982. Bekoff, Marc, Jane Goodall. Encyclopedia of animal behavior. Greenwood Press, 2004. ISBN 0313327459. Bruce, Jenni. The encyclopedia of animals: A complete visual guide. University of California Press, 2004. ISBN 0520244060. Burton, Maurice, Robert Burton. International wildlife encyclopedia. Marshall Cavendish, 2002. ISBN 0761472665. Encyclopedia of Animal Behavior. Facts on File, 1987. Encyclopedia of Animal Biology. Facts on File, 1987. Encyclopedia of Animal Ecology. Facts on File, 1987. Encyclopedia of Animal Evolution. Facts on File, 1987. Grzimek, Bernhard. Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. Van Nostrand, 1972–1975. Grzimek's Encyclopedia of Ethology. Van Nostrand, 1972–1977. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Wildlife. Grey Castle Press, 1991. Knobil, Ernst and Jimmy D. Neill. Encyclopedia of reproduction. Academic Press, 1998. ISBN 0122270207. Macmillan Illustrated Animal Encyclopedia. Macmillan, 1984. Marshall Cavendish International Wildlife Encyclopedia. Marshall Cavendish, 1990. Nowak, Ronald M., David W. Macdonald, Roland W. Kays. Walker's carnivores of the world. Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005. ISBN 0801880335. The Oxford Companion to Animal Behaviour. Oxford, 1987. World Nature Encyclopedia. Raintree/Steck-Vaughn, 1989. ===== Aquatic ===== Banister, Keith & Andrew Campbell. The Encyclopedia of Aquatic Life. Facts on File, 1985. Dakin, Nick. Macmillan Book of the Marine Aquarium. Macmillan,


id: bibliography-of-encyclopedias-biology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_encyclopedias:_biology-2.md
category: reference
title: Bibliography of encyclopedias: biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_encyclopedias:_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:29.061385+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bibliography-of-encyclopedias-biology-20260505-0
summary:
===== Mammals ===== Beacham, Walton, Kirk H. Beetz. Beacham's guide to international endangered species. Beacham, 1998–2001. ISBN 0933833342. Elbroch, Mark. Mammal tracks and sign: A guide to North American species. Stackpole Books, 2003. ISBN 0811726266. Folkens, Pieter A., Randall R. Reeves, National Audubon Society. Guide to marine mammals of the world. A. A. Knopf, 2002. ISBN 0375411410. Grzimek, Bernhard. Grzimek's Encyclopedia of Mammals. McGraw-Hill, 2nd ed., 1990. ISBN 0079095089. Macdonald, David. Encyclopedia of Mammals. Facts on File, 2006. ISBN 0816064946. Mammals: A Multimedia Encyclopedia. National Geographic Society/IBM, 1990. Nowak, Ronald. Walker's Mammals of the World. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991. ISBN 0801857899. Reid, Fiona, National Audubon Society. A field guide to mammals of North America, north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, 2006. ISBN 0395935962. Whitaker, John O., National Audubon Society. National Audubon Society field guide to North American mammals. Knopf, 1996. ISBN 0679446311. Wilson, Don E., Sue Ruff, American Society of Mammalogists. The Smithsonian book of North American mammals. Smithsonian Institution Press, 1999. ISBN 1560988452. ====== Canines ====== Alderton, David (September 2008). Encyclopedia of Dogs (Hardcover). Bath: Parragon Inc. p. 384. ISBN 978-1-4075-2438-2. American Kennel Club. The complete dog book: Official publication of the American Kennel Club. Ballantine Books, 2006. ISBN


id: bibliography-of-encyclopedias-biology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_encyclopedias:_biology-3.md
category: reference
title: Bibliography of encyclopedias: biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_encyclopedias:_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:29.061385+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bibliography-of-encyclopedias-biology-20260505-0
summary:
==== Plants ==== Bailey, Liberty Hyde & Ethel Zoe Bailey. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. Macmillan, 3rd ed., 1976. Barker, Joan. The encyclopedia of North American wild flowers. Parragon, 2004. ISBN 1405430354. Beckett, Kenneth A. The RHS Encyclopedia of House Plants Including Greenhouse Plants. Salem House, 1987. Brickell, Christopher. The American Horticultural Society Encyclopedia of Garden Plants. Macmillan, 1989. Brickell, Christopher, Trevor J. Cole, American Horticultural Society. American Horticultural Society encyclopedia of plants and flowers. DK Publishing, 2002. ISBN 0789489937. Burrows, George E. Toxic plants of North America. Wiley-Blackwell, 2012. ISBN 978-0-8138-2034-7, doi:10.1002/9781118413425. Dirr, Michael. Dirr's hardy trees and shrubs: An illustrated encyclopedia. Timber Press, 1997. ISBN 0881924040. Flora of North America Association. Flora of North America. Flora of North America Association. [17]. Flora of North America Editorial Committee. Flora of North America North of Mexico. Oxford University Press, 1993–2006. ISBN 0195057139. Gerard, John, Thomas Johnson. The herbal; or, General history of plants. Dover Publications, 1975. ISBN 048623147X. Graf, Alfred Byrd. Exotica Series 4 International: Pictorial Cyclopedia of Exotic Plants from Tropical and Near-Tropical Regions. Scribner's, 12th ed., 1985. Graf, Alfred Byrd. Hortica: A Color Cyclopedia of Garden Flora in All


id: bibliography-of-encyclopedias-biology-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_encyclopedias:_biology-4.md
category: reference
title: Bibliography of encyclopedias: biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_encyclopedias:_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:29.061385+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bibliography-of-encyclopedias-biology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Biochemistry === Scott, Thomas A. & Mary Brewer. Concise Encyclopedia of Biochemistry. Walter de Gruyter, 2nd ed., 1988. === Bioethics === Post, Stephen Garrard. Encyclopedia of bioethics. Third edition. Macmillan Reference USA, 2003. ISBN 0028657748. ISSN 0950-4125; DOI:10.1108/09504120510573477. (5-Volume Set; 3062 pages). Reich, Warren Thomas Encyclopedia of Bioethics. First edition. New York: Free Press, 1978. ISBN 0029261805. ISBN 978-0029261804. (4-Volume Set; 1933 pages) Reich, Warren Thomas Encyclopedia of Bioethics. Second edition. New York: Free Press, 1982. (5-Volume Set; 2950 pages) Reich, Warren Thomas Encyclopedia of Bioethics. Third edition. New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan, 1995; London: Simon and Schuster and Prentice Hall International, c1995. Rev. ed. (5-Volume Set; 2950 pages; 464 articles) ISBN 0028973550. ISBN 978-0028973555. === Food, nutrition, and agriculture === ==== Agriculture ==== American Veterinary Medical Association. AVMA: American Veterinary Medical Association. American Veterinary Medical Association, 2006-.[21]. Arntzen, Charles J. and Ellen M. Ritter. Encyclopedia of agricultural science. Academic Press, 1994. ISBN 0122266706. Bailey, Liberty Hyde. Cyclopedia of American agriculture. Macmillan, 1909. Bailey, L. H., Ethel Zoe Bailey, Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium. Hortus third: A concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United States and Canada. Macmillan, 1976. ISBN 0025054708. Bains, William. Biotechnology from A to Z.


id: bibliography-of-encyclopedias-biology-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_encyclopedias:_biology-5.md
category: reference
title: Bibliography of encyclopedias: biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_encyclopedias:_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:29.061385+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bibliography-of-encyclopedias-biology-20260505-0
summary:
===== Nutrition ===== Ensminger, Audrey H. Foods and Nutrition Encyclopedia. Pegus Press, 1983. Food for Health: A Nutrition Encyclopedia. Pegus Press, 1986. Margen, Sheldon. The Wellness Encyclopedia of Food and Nutrition: How to Buy, Store, and Prepare Every Variety of Fresh Food. Rebus, 1992. Mount Sinai School of Medicine Complete Book of Nutrition. St. Martin's Press, 1990. Tver, David F. and Percy Russell. Nutrition and Health Encyclopedia. 2nd ed., Van Nostrand, 1989. Winick, Myron. The Columbia Encyclopedia of Nutrition. Putnam, 1988. Yudin, John. Penguin Encyclopedia of Nutrition. Viking, 1985. ===== Wines, beers, and spirits ===== Alexis Lichine's New Encyclopedia of Wines and Spirits. 5th ed., Knopf, 1987. Grossman's Guide to Wines, Beers, & Spirits. 7th ed., Scribner's, 1983. Hugh Johnson's Modern Encyclopedia of Wine. 3rd ed., Simon & Schuster, 1991. Hugh Johnson's World Atlas of Wine. 3rd ed., Simon & Schuster, 1985. Robinson, Jancis. The Oxford companion to wine. Oxford University Press, 1999. ISBN 019866236X. Schoonmaker, Frank. The New Frank Schoonmaker Encyclopedia of Wine. Rev. ed., Morrow, 1988. === Health, medicine, and drugs === Adelman, George. Encyclopedia of Neuroscience. Birkhauser Boston, 1987. Fishbein, Morris. Fishbein's Illustrated Medical and Health Encyclopedia. H. S. Struttman, 1983. Who's who in medicine and healthcare.


id: bibliography-of-encyclopedias-biology-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_encyclopedias:_biology-6.md
category: reference
title: Bibliography of encyclopedias: biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_encyclopedias:_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:29.061385+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bibliography-of-encyclopedias-biology-20260505-0
summary:
==== Medicine ==== Bailey, Hamilton, W. J. Bishop, Harold Ellis. Bailey and Bishop's notable names in medicine and surgery. Lewis, 1983. ISBN 0718604660. Bendiner, Jessica, Elmer Bendiner. Biographical dictionary of medicine. Facts on File, 1990. ISBN 0816018642. Berkow, Robert. The Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy. 16th ed., Merck, 1992. Bremer, Sydney, Jeffrey H. Miller, William Broughton. Encyclopedia of genetics. Academic Press, 2002. ISBN 0122270800. Bynum, W. F., Helen Bynum. Dictionary of medical biography. Greenwood Press, 2006. ISBN 0313328773. Clayman, Charles B. The American Medical Association Encyclopedia of Medicine. Random House, 1989. Delves, Peter J., Ivan M. Roitt. Encyclopedia of immunology. Academic Press, 1998. ISBN 0122267656. Fischer, Isidor. Biographisches Lexikon der hervorragenden Ärzte der letzten 50 Jahre. 1932–33. Ganten, Detlev, Klaus Ruckpaul. Encyclopedic reference of genomics and proteomics in molecular medicine. Springer, 2005. ISBN 3540442448. Gomez, Joan. Dictionary of Symptoms. Rev. ed., Stein & Day, 1985. Griffith, H. Winter. Complete Guide to Symptoms, Illness & Surgery. 2nd ed., Price Stern Sloan, 1989. Hafner, Arthur Wayne, Fred W. Hunter, B. Michael Tarpey. Directory of deceased American physicians, 1804–1929: A genealogical guide to over 149,000 medical practitioners providing brief biographical sketches drawn from the American Medical Association's Deceased Physician Masterfile. American Medical


id: birds-of-north-america-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birds_of_North_America_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Birds of North America (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birds_of_North_America_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:40.826773+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: birds-of-north-america-book-20260505-0
summary:
Birds of North America is a comprehensive encyclopedia of bird species in the United States and Canada, with substantial articles about each species. It was first published as a series of 716 printed booklets, prepared by 863 authors, and made available as the booklets were completed from 1992 through 2003. The project was overseen by the American Ornithologists' Union in partnership with the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. In 2004, an online version of the encyclopedia, including audio and video resources, was produced and released by the Cornell Lab of Ornithology. Access is by personal or institutional subscription. == References ==


id: brehms-tierleben-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brehms_Tierleben-0.md
category: reference
title: Brehms Tierleben
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brehms_Tierleben
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:41.985437+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: brehms-tierleben-20260505-0
summary:
Brehms Tierleben (English title: Brehm's Animal Life) is a scientific reference book, first published in the 1860s by Alfred Edmund Brehm (1829–1884). It was one of the first modern popular zoological treatises. First published in German as a six volume work that was completed in 1869 it was published by the Bibliographisches Institut of Herrmann Julius Meyer with illustration directed by Robert Kretschmer. The second edition, completed in 1879 had ten volumes. It was translated into several European languages. == Publishing history == As a freelance writer, Brehm furnished popular-scientific magazines with essays and travelogues. Because of his success in doing this, in 1860 he was commissioned to write a six-volume zoological encyclopedia. Journeys to Abyssinia, Scandinavia and Siberia both interrupted and enriched the work. The first six volumes of the encyclopedia, published under the title Illustrirtes Thierleben, appeared from 1864 to 1869, published by the Bibliographisches Institut under Herrmann Julius Meyer. Illustrated under the direction of Robert Kretschmer (1818–1872), they met with wide approval from the educated bourgeoisie. As of the second edition, which consisted of ten volumes published from 1876 to 1879, the work was already titled Brehms Tierleben. The work made Brehm famous around the world and


id: the-complete-guide-to-prehistoric-life-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Complete_Guide_to_Prehistoric_Life-0.md
category: reference
title: The Complete Guide to Prehistoric Life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Complete_Guide_to_Prehistoric_Life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:43.116492+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-complete-guide-to-prehistoric-life-20260505-0
summary:
The Complete Guide to Prehistoric Life is a 2005 encyclopedia featuring 111 of the prehistoric animals from the Walking with... series, as well as an additional one (Homo floresiensis). It was published in 2005 by Firefly Books, and written by Tim Haines with Paul Chambers. It accompanies all of the main programs in the Walking with... series, including specials The Ballad of Big Al, The Giant Claw and Land of Giants but excluding Walking with Cavemen. == Contents == The book opens with an introduction by the authors reflecting on the making of the TV series. The book is then divided into three parts by era, first of which is The Rise of Life, which covers the Precambrian and the Paleozoic Era. The second part, The Age of Reptiles, covers the Mesozoic Era. The third and final part, The Age of Beasts, covers the Cenozoic Era. The book concludes with a timescale of life on earth, tree of life diagrams. == Reception == Stuart Sumida, writing in The Quarterly Review of Biology, stated that "The authors make a valiant attempt to clear locality and phylogenetic perspectives, but it is a mixed bag. They are properly up to date on the


category: reference
title: Concise Encyclopedia of Supersymmetry and Noncommutative Structures in Mathematics and Physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:44.267951+00:00
instance: kb-cron
id:
concise-encyclopedia-of-supersymmetry-and-noncommutative-structures-in-mathematics-and-physics-20260505-0

file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concise_Encyclopedia_of_Supersymmetry_and_Noncommutative_Structures_in_Mathematics_and_Physics-0.md

summary:
Concise Encyclopedia of Supersymmetry and Noncommutative Structures in Mathematics and Physics is a fundamental authoritative text in specialized areas of contemporary mathematics and physics. This is an English language reference work which consists of around 800 original articles by around 280 scientists under the guidance of 23 advisory board members. == Publication history == The first edition was published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 2004, when Kluwer was a part of Springer. A second printing with corrections was issued in 2005 by Springer Science & Business Media. == Contents == Concise Encyclopedia of Supersymmetry contains articles devoted to supergravity, M-theory, quantum gravity, quantum groups, noncommutative geometry and other topics related to supersymmetry. The articles are of the following kinds: 1) short review; 2) term/notion definition; 3) biography. The detailed Subject Index consists of 31 four-column oversized pages and is of three level, which makes easier navigation through the volume. A useful list of 116 abbreviations helps to understand special articles on supersymmetry also in other sources. The book can serve as a working instrument for professionals and PhD students. == Editions == Duplij, Steven; Siegel, Warren; Bagger, Jonathan, eds. (2005), Concise Encyclopedia of Supersymmetry: And Noncommutative Structures in Mathematics and

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concise_Encyclopedia_of_Supersymmetry_and_Noncommutative_Structures_in_Mathematics_and_Physics

parent:
concise-encyclopedia-of-supersymmetry-and-noncommutative-structures-in-mathematics-and-physics-20260505-0


id: dell-arcano-del-mare-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell'Arcano_del_Mare-0.md
category: reference
title: Dell'Arcano del Mare
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell'Arcano_del_Mare
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:46.654953+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dell-arcano-del-mare-20260505-0
summary:
Dell'Arcano del Mare by Sir Robert Dudley is a 17th-century maritime encyclopaedia, the sixth part of which comprises a maritime atlas of the entire world, which is the first such in print, the first made by an Englishman, and the first to use the Mercator projection. The work was first published in Italian at Florence in 1645 and 1646 in three folio volumes. Among other things, it is remarkable for its inclusion of a proposal for the construction of a navy in five rates (sizes) which Dudley designed and described. It was reprinted in Florence in a two volume folio edition in 1661 without the charts of the first edition. The seventh map is dedicated to Dudley's patrons, Ferdinando II de' Medici, the Grand Duke of Tuscany and the Grand Duchess of Tuscany Vittoria della Rovere. The map covers the northeast coast of South America, which Dudley had visited in 1594. The area depicted covers modern French Guiana, Guyana, and a small portion of Brazil. The map also depicts "Monoa", the area otherwise known as El Dorado. == Scope == The six-part work covered navigation, shipbuilding and astronomy, with 130 maps in two volumes (nos. 2 and 6) . Unlike


id: the-dinosauria-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dinosauria-0.md
category: reference
title: The Dinosauria
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dinosauria
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:47.839493+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-dinosauria-20260505-0
summary:
The Dinosauria is an encyclopedia on dinosaurs, edited by paleontologists David B. Weishampel, Peter Dodson, and Halszka Osmólska. It has been published in two editions by the University of California Press, with the first edition in 1990 and the second edition in 2004. The book is a single comprehensive text on dinosaurs, with the second edition revised and reorganized to reflect the substantial growth in dinosaur research over the elapsed time. == Content == The first edition of The Dinosauria includes 29 chapters organized into two sections, the first on "Dinosaur Relationships, Biology, and Distribution" and the second on "Dinosaur Taxonomy". This organization separates the book into a first section dedicated to topics that encompass Dinosauria as a whole, while the second focuses on individual taxa, organized by evolutionary group with a comprehensive description of anatomy, relationships, paleoecology, and other aspects of their biology. Each chapter is written by a paleontologist knowledgeable about the topic of group, edited and coordinated by American paleontologists David B. Weishampel and Peter Dodson, and Polish paleontologist Halszka Osmólska. Combined, 23 paleontologists from nine countries contributed to the first edition. The second edition of The Dinosauria revised and reorganized into 30 chapters organized into two


id: dinosaurs-holtz-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinosaurs_(Holtz_book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Dinosaurs (Holtz book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinosaurs_(Holtz_book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:48.989904+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dinosaurs-holtz-book-20260505-0
summary:
Dinosaurs (The Most Complete, Up-to-Date Encyclopedia for Dinosaur Lovers of All Ages) is a book by Thomas R. Holtz, Jr., with illustrations by Luis Rey. It was published in 2007 by Random House. The book received generally positive reviews upon release and garnered the nickname "The Dinosaur Bible". Holtz set up a companion website, which shares updates on new dinosaur discoveries. == References == == External links == Supplementary Information to Dinosaurs: The Most Complete, Up-to-Date Encyclopedia for Dinosaur Lovers of All Ages by Thomas R. Holtz, Jr., illustrations by Luis Rey Review in School Library Journal, November 21, 2007 Review in Science News, January 12, 2008 Listing in "Outstanding Science Trade Books for Students K–12: 2008 (Books published in 2007)" Archived 2010-08-10 at the Wayback Machine, National Science Teachers Association Parent's Choice Recommendation for Non-Fiction 2008 Archived 2009-03-09 at the Wayback Machine Listing in "Science Books for Fun and Learning — Some Recommendations from 2008" in Science magazine


id: encyclopaedia-of-the-history-of-science-technology-and-medicine-in-non-western-cultures-20260505-0
category: reference
title: Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:50.162386+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: encyclopaedia-of-the-history-of-science-technology-and-medicine-in-non-western-cultures-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopaedia_of_the_History_of_Science,_Technology,_and_Medicine_in_Non-Western_Cultures-0.md

summary:
Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures is an encyclopedia edited by Helaine Selin and published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 1997, with a second edition in 2008, and third edition in 2016. == Summary == From the Preface: The purpose of the Encyclopaedia is to bring together knowledge of many disparate fields in one place to legitimize the study of other cultures' science... The Western academic divisions of science, technology and medicine have been united in the Encyclopaedia because in ancient cultures these disciplines were connected. The first edition (1997) has 600 articles by a range of experts. The arrangement is alphabetical from "Abacus" to "Zu Chongzi". It includes an index from page 1079 to page 1117. K. V. Sarma contributed 35 articles, Greg De Young 13, Boris A. Rosenfeld 12, and Emilia Calvo and Ho Peng Yoke 11 each. Fabrizio Pregadio contributed 10 articles, Julio Samo wrote 9, and Richard Bertschinger, Radha Charan Gupta and David A. King wrote 8 each. Dozens of other contributors wrote fewer articles. In 2008 the Encyclopaedia was split into two volumes and extended to 1000 articles for a second edition. == Reviews == Toby E. Huff (1999)

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopaedia_of_the_History_of_Science,_Technology,_and_Medicine_in_Non-Western_Cultures


id: encyclopaedia-of-the-social-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopaedia_of_the_Social_Sciences-0.md
category: reference
title: Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopaedia_of_the_Social_Sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:51.306967+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: encyclopaedia-of-the-social-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
The Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences is a specialized fifteen-volume Encyclopedia first published in 1930 and last published in 1967. It was envisaged in the 1920s by scholars working in disciplines which increasingly were coming to be known as "human sciences" or "social sciences". The goal was to create a comprehensive synthesis of the study of human affairs as undertaken by practitioners of all fields involved in such study. The parameters of what would come to be known as "social science" were in many ways initially established and defined by this publication. The Encyclopaedia's founding organizations included the American Anthropological Association, the American Association of Social Workers, the American Economic Association, the American Historical Association, the American Political Science Association, the American Psychological Association, the American Sociological Society, the American Statistical Association, the Association of American Law Schools, and the National Education Association. It was edited by American economists Edwin Robert Anderson Seligman and Alvin Saunders Johnson. Seligman and Johnson solicited contributions from many of the most known and respected scholars in their fields, and established many links with European scholars in the process. The Rockefeller Foundation, Carnegie Foundation, and Russell Sage Foundation provided initial financial support, and Macmillan was


id: encyclopedia-of-conifers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Conifers-0.md
category: reference
title: Encyclopedia of Conifers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Conifers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:53.591586+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: encyclopedia-of-conifers-20260505-0
summary:
Encyclopedia of Conifers. A Comprehensive Guide to Conifer Cultivars and Species is an encyclopedia written by Aris G. Auders and Derek P. Spicer, published in 2012. The two-volume, illustrated encyclopedia is a complete reference book covering all recognised conifer cultivars and species, both hardy and tropical. The 1,500-page work features names, synonyms, and brief descriptions, as well as information about height and spread after 10 years, where known, for over 8,000 cultivars and all 615 conifer species, plus their subspecies and varieties. Apart from the descriptive text, it is illustrated with more than 5,000 photographs. == Publication history == The Encyclopedia of Conifers was written by Aris G. Auders, a conifer collector and photographer from Latvia, and Derek P. Spicer, Chairman of the British Conifer Society. The authors have been assisted by Lawrie Springate, RHS International Conifer Cultivar Registrar (2004–2009) and Victoria Matthews, RHS International Registrar. The publisher is Kingsblue Publishing Limited. == Illustration and design == Photography by the authors shows the general appearance of the plants, and in many cases detail special features. Many were photographed in summer and winter to show colour and texture changes through the seasons. == References == == External links == Official website


id: encyclopedia-of-cybernetics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Cybernetics-0.md
category: reference
title: Encyclopedia of Cybernetics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Cybernetics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:54.774293+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: encyclopedia-of-cybernetics-20260505-0
summary:
The Encyclopedia of Cybernetics (Ukrainian: Енциклопедія кібернетики) is a Ukrainian language encyclopedia of computer science first published in Kyiv in 1973, with Victor Glushkov serving as its chief editor. The encyclopedia comprises two volumes containing over 1700 articles, primarily on topics in theoretical computer science, systems science, information theory, optimization and control theory. The articles were composed by some 600 scientists from various disciplines, affiliated with 102 educational and industrial institutions located throughout the Soviet Union. In 1974 the encyclopedia was translated into Russian. == Authors == About 600 scientists and specialists in various fields of knowledge from 102 scientific and industrial institutions of the Soviet Union took part in the creation of encyclopedia. Among them are such well-known scientists as: Alexey Ivakhnenko Anatoliy Skorokhod Kateryna Yuschenko Eduard Skorokhodko == See also == International Encyclopedia of Systems and Cybernetics Ukrainian Soviet Encyclopedia Science and technology in Ukraine == Links == cyberua.info/novyny/persha-encyklopedija-kibernetyky-2t-ukr-red-vhlushkov-1973/ online (accessed 26.04.2016) (in Ukrainian) Myroslav Kratko The creation of the Ukrainian-language Encyclopedia of Cybernetics, www.istpravda.com.ua/digest/2011/02/7/22204/view_print/ online (accessed 26.04.2016) (in Ukrainian) == References ==


id: encyclopedia-of-earth-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Earth-0.md
category: reference
title: Encyclopedia of Earth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Earth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:55.948063+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: encyclopedia-of-earth-20260505-0
summary:
The Encyclopedia of Earth (EoE) is an electronic reference about the Earth, its natural environments, and their interaction with society. The Encyclopedia is described as a free, fully searchable collection of articles written by scholars, professionals, educators, and other approved experts, who collaborate and review each other's work. The articles are written in non-technical language and are intended to be useful to students, educators, scholars, and professionals, as well as to the general public. The authors, editors, and even copy editors are attributed on the articles with links to biographical pages on those individuals. The Encyclopedia of Earth is a component of the larger Earth Portal (part of the Digital Universe project), which is a constellation of subject-specific information portals that contain news services, structured metadata, a federated environmental search engine, and other information resources. The technology platform for the Encyclopedia of Earth is a modified version of MediaWiki, which is closed to all but approved users. Once an article is reviewed and approved it is published to a public site. The EoE was launched in September 2006 with about 360 articles, growing to 2,300 articles by mid-2007, and as of 30 November 2010, it had 7,678 articles. There are


id: encyclopedia-of-earth-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Earth-1.md
category: reference
title: Encyclopedia of Earth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Earth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:55.948063+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: encyclopedia-of-earth-20260505-0
summary:
== Organization and people == The Encyclopedia of Earth is being created by the Environmental Information Coalition (EIC), an open membership group of scientists, educators, and organizations. The EIC defines the roles and responsibilities for individuals and institutions involved in the Coalition, as well as the editorial guidelines for the Encyclopedia. An EIC Stewardship Committee functions as the primary working group that develops and enforces policies and guidelines for the Encyclopedia, with input from Topic Editors and Authors. The Secretariat for the EIC is the National Council for Science and the Environment (NCSE), based in Washington D.C., USA. NCSE is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization with a mission "to improve the scientific basis for environmental decisionmaking" and "specializes in programs that foster collaboration between diverse institutions, communities and individuals. We work closely with those creating and using environmental knowledge, including research, education, environmental, and business organizations, as well as governmental bodies at all levels." The Stewardship Committee comprises: Arnold Bloom, University of California at Davis Nancy Golubiewski, Auckland Council Jennifer Hammock, Smithsonian/Encyclopedia of Life Andy Jorgensen, University of Toledo Ida Kubiszewski, Australian National University Mark McGinley, Lingnan University Emily Monosson Michael Pidwirny, University of British Columbia Okanagan The International Advisory Board


id: encyclopedia-of-evolution-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Evolution-0.md
category: reference
title: Encyclopedia of Evolution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Evolution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:57.084688+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: encyclopedia-of-evolution-20260505-0
summary:
The Encyclopedia of Evolution is a print encyclopedia of evolutionary biology edited by Mark Pagel and published in 2002 by Oxford University Press. It consists of 370 original articles written by leading experts including Richard Dawkins, Stephen Jay Gould, and Jane Goodall, and was selected as one of the Outstanding Reference Sources of 2003 by American Libraries. A similar book, the Cambridge Encyclopedia of Evolution is edited by Steve Jones. == References == == External links == Oxford University Press: U.S. General Catalog LCCN record of Library of Congress


id: encyclopedia-of-flora-and-fauna-of-bangladesh-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Flora_and_Fauna_of_Bangladesh-0.md
category: reference
title: Encyclopedia of Flora and Fauna of Bangladesh
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Flora_and_Fauna_of_Bangladesh
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:58.297753+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: encyclopedia-of-flora-and-fauna-of-bangladesh-20260505-0
summary:
The Encyclopedia of Flora and Fauna is a multi-volume encyclopedia. It has been published by Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. It covers the biodiversity of Bangladesh. == Volumes == The Encyclopedia of Flora and Fauna of Bangladesh has been published in 28 volumes. Among the volumes 11 are about flora, 14 volumes about fauna, one volume is about Bangladesh and there are two index volumes. === Volumes === ==== Bangladesh profile ==== This is a 230-page encyclopedia. It covers in 20 articles about the environment of Bangladesh. It describes about the Sundarban. ==== Cyanobacteria, Bacteria and Fungi ==== This 415 page volume contains about the Prokaryotes. ==== Algae (Chlorophyta: Aphanochaetaceae- Zygnemataceae) ==== Division Chlorophyta or green algae is abundant in Bangladesh, the world's second largest delta next to the Amazon basin in Brazil . This volume describes 1,317 species collected from this land and studied by one of the most celebrated algologist of the country, National Professor A K M Nurul Islam. The species Ireksokonia formosa, endemic to lake Baikal was isolated from Bangladesh and is described in this volume. 812 pp. ==== Algae: Clorophyta – Rhodophyta ==== (Achnanthaceae – Vaucheriaceae) This volume adds an additional 800 species of algae to


id: encyclopedia-of-life-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Life-0.md
category: reference
title: Encyclopedia of Life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:59.494502+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: encyclopedia-of-life-20260505-0
summary:
The Encyclopedia of Life (EOL) is a free, online encyclopedia intended to document all of the 1.9 million living species known to science. It aggregates content to form "pages" for every known species. Content is compiled from existing trusted databases which are curated by experts and it calls on the assistance of non-experts throughout the world. It includes video, sound, images, graphics, information on characteristics, as well as text. In addition, the Encyclopedia incorporates species-related content from the Biodiversity Heritage Library, which digitizes millions of pages of printed literature from the world's major natural history libraries. The BHL digital content is indexed with the names of organisms using taxonomic indexing software developed by the Global Names project. The EOL project was initially backed by a US$50 million funding commitment, led by the MacArthur Foundation and the Sloan Foundation, who provided US$20 million and US$5 million, respectively. The additional US$25 million came from five cornerstone institutions—the Field Museum, Harvard University, the Marine Biological Laboratory, the Missouri Botanical Garden, and the Smithsonian Institution. The project was initially led by Jim Edwards and the development team by David Patterson. Today, participating institutions and individual donors continue to support EOL through financial contributions. ==


id: encyclopedia-of-life-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Life_Sciences-0.md
category: reference
title: Encyclopedia of Life Sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Life_Sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:00.604202+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: encyclopedia-of-life-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
eLS (previously known as the Encyclopedia of Life Sciences) is a reference work that covers the life sciences; it is published by Wiley-Blackwell. As of June 2012, there were more than 4,800 article topics published in eLS online. eLS is updated monthly and over 400 articles are added to eLS each year. eLS is available online and in a print edition. The online edition was launched in April 2001, with the print edition published in January 2002. Full access to eLS requires a subscription. Article abstracts, key concepts, figures and references are freely accessible. At the end of 2004, eLS was acquired by Wiley-Blackwell from the Nature Publishing Group. == References == == External links == eLS website Archived 2011-05-13 at the Wayback Machine


id: encyclopedic-dictionary-of-astronomy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedic_Dictionary_of_Astronomy-0.md
category: reference
title: Encyclopedic Dictionary of Astronomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedic_Dictionary_of_Astronomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:04.163767+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: encyclopedic-dictionary-of-astronomy-20260505-0
summary:
The Encyclopedic Dictionary of Astronomy (Ukrainian: Астрономічний енциклопедичний словник) is a Ukrainian encyclopedia of astronomy. It was published in 2003 and has around 3000 entries. == See also == List of astronomical observatories in Ukraine List of Ukrainian encyclopedias Science and technology in Ukraine == References ==


id: the-engineer-s-and-mechanic-s-encyclopaedia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Engineer's_and_Mechanic's_Encyclopaedia-0.md
category: reference
title: The Engineer's and Mechanic's Encyclopaedia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Engineer's_and_Mechanic's_Encyclopaedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:05.297125+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-engineer-s-and-mechanic-s-encyclopaedia-20260505-0
summary:
The Engineer's and Mechanic's Encyclopaedia is a book edited by Luke Hebert, a Birmingham patent agent and journalist, and published by Thomas Kelly of Paternoster Row. The first edition appeared in 1836 and 1837. The second edition appeared in 1849. It was in two octavo volumes (Vol. 1, 796 pp and vol. 2, 928 pp), illustrated with woodcuts in the text and a number of full page engravings. Many of the articles relate to specific processes and machines, and overall the encyclopaedia is not over-concerned with the theoretical aspects. Of particular value are the monograph-length accounts of the progress of rail transport and steamboats. == External links == Online copies: The Engineer's and Mechanic's Encyclopaedia. Vol. 1. 1849 – via chestofbooks.com. The Engineer's and Mechanic's Encyclopaedia. Vol. 2. 1849 – via chestofbooks.com.


id: encyclopedia-of-genetics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Genetics-0.md
category: reference
title: Encyclopedia of Genetics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Genetics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:06.451859+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: encyclopedia-of-genetics-20260505-0
summary:
The Encyclopedia of Genetics (ISBN 0-12-227080-0) is a print encyclopedia of genetics edited by Sydney Brenner and Jeffrey H. Miller. It has four volumes and 1,700 entries. == External links == Encyclopedia of Genetics on Science Direct


id: grzimek-s-animal-life-encyclopedia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grzimek's_Animal_Life_Encyclopedia-0.md
category: reference
title: Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grzimek's_Animal_Life_Encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:07.622818+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: grzimek-s-animal-life-encyclopedia-20260505-0
summary:
Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia is a large comprehensive encyclopedia of animal life. It is named after its original editor in chief, Bernhard Grzimek (pronounced [ˈɡʒɪmɛk]). Originally the encyclopedia was published as a 13-volume set in German under the name Grzimeks Tierleben (Grzimek's Animal Life) in 1967–1972; it was translated into English in 1972–75. The encyclopedia was an international collaboration by a large number of scientists including Theodor Haltenorth, Wolfgang Gewalt, Heinz-Georg Klös, Konrad Lorenz, Heinz Heck, Lutz Heck, Jean Dorst, Constantine Walter Benson, Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt, Helmut Sick, Heini Hediger, Wolfgang Makatsch, Erich Thenius, Erna Mohr, Adolf Portmann, Nagamichi Kuroda, Lester L. Short, Gerlof Fokko Mees, and Andrew John Berger. It was later extensively updated and republished in a 17-volume second edition under the supervision of Michael Hutchins in 2003. Some university libraries offer access to a digitized version of the second edition. The German edition also published three supplementary volumes: Entwicklungsgeschichte der Lebewesen (History of Life), Verhaltensforschung (Behavioural Research) and Unsere Umwelt als Lebensraum - Ökologie (Our Environment as Living Space - Ecology). == Online portal == In fall 2009, Gale Cengage released a web-based version of the encyclopedia, with access to the web site by subscription. The site allows


id: a-guide-to-the-scientific-knowledge-of-things-familiar-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Guide_to_the_Scientific_Knowledge_of_Things_Familiar-0.md
category: reference
title: A Guide to the Scientific Knowledge of Things Familiar
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Guide_to_the_Scientific_Knowledge_of_Things_Familiar
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:08.803489+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: a-guide-to-the-scientific-knowledge-of-things-familiar-20260505-0
summary:
A Guide to the Scientific Knowledge of Things Familiar, also known as The Guide to Science or Brewer's Guide to Science, is a book by Ebenezer Cobham Brewer presenting explanations for common phenomena. First published in the United Kingdom around 1840, the book is laid out in the style of a catechism and proved very popular. 47 editions were printed by 1905 in English alone and translations made into various other languages. A revised version was produced for the US market which was digitised and republished in 2005 as part of Making of America IV: the American voice, 1850–1877. Although it presented itself as an accurate science text, the book actually promotes religious ideas, including divine design. The popularity of The Guide to Science enabled Brewer to gather material for his Dictionary of Phrase and Fable which remains a classic reference work. == Content == The object of The Guide to Science was to present answers to over 2000 questions about common phenomena. There are questions dealing with man-made objects such as candles, stoves and chimneys, as well as answers seeking to explain natural phenomena such as thunder, lightning (including a mention of ball lightning), clouds, dew, and rainbows. Brewer


id: a-guide-to-the-scientific-knowledge-of-things-familiar-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Guide_to_the_Scientific_Knowledge_of_Things_Familiar-1.md
category: reference
title: A Guide to the Scientific Knowledge of Things Familiar
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Guide_to_the_Scientific_Knowledge_of_Things_Familiar
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:08.803489+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: a-guide-to-the-scientific-knowledge-of-things-familiar-20260505-0
summary:
== Reception and legacy == A review of the second edition of The Guide to Science was published by Punch magazine in 1850. The book was seen to be a "very useful little work", but in the typical Punch satirical style, the reviewer disagreed with one answer that we "feel a desire for activity in cold weather" due to "fanning combustion in the blood" by instead insisting that we feel a desire "to sit cosily over a fire in cold weather". The success of The Guide to Science convinced Brewer that his readers still accepted religious explanations rather than evolutionary theory. Following the publication of On the Origin of Species in 1859, Brewer wrote Theology in Science; or The Testimony of Science to the Wisdom and Goodness of God (published in 1860) in order to demonstrate that evolution had not destroyed theological tradition and to continue The Guide to Science's promotion of natural theology. The book's popularity also resulted in Brewer being sent "a large number of questions on all imaginary matters". These questions and their answers became the nucleus of Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, first published in 1870. This latter book has long outlived all of Brewer's


id: handbook-of-the-birds-of-the-world-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handbook_of_the_Birds_of_the_World-0.md
category: reference
title: Handbook of the Birds of the World
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handbook_of_the_Birds_of_the_World
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:09.983289+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: handbook-of-the-birds-of-the-world-20260505-0
summary:
The Handbook of the Birds of the World (HBW) is a multi-volume series produced by the Spanish publishing house Lynx Edicions in partnership with BirdLife International. It is the first handbook to cover every known living species of bird. The series was edited by Josep del Hoyo, Andrew Elliott, Jordi Sargatal and David A. Christie. All 16 volumes have been published. For the first time an animal class will have all the species illustrated and treated in detail in a single work. This has not been done before for any other group in the animal kingdom. Material in each volume is grouped first by family, with an introductory article on each family; this is followed by individual species accounts (taxonomy, subspecies and distribution, descriptive notes, habitat, food and feeding, breeding, movements, status and conservation, bibliography). In addition, all volumes except the first and second contain an essay on a particular ornithological theme. More than 200 renowned specialists and 35 illustrators (including Toni Llobet, Hilary Burn, Chris Rose and H. Douglas Pratt) from more than 40 countries have contributed to the project up to now, as well as 834 photographers from all over the world. Since the first volume appeared in


id: handbook-of-the-birds-of-the-world-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handbook_of_the_Birds_of_the_World-1.md
category: reference
title: Handbook of the Birds of the World
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handbook_of_the_Birds_of_the_World
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:09.983289+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: handbook-of-the-birds-of-the-world-20260505-0
summary:
=== Volume 12: Picathartes to Tits and Chickadees === This volume was published in October 2007. It includes an introduction to the fossil birds by Kevin J. Kayleigh. This volume covers the following groups: === Volume 13: Penduline-tits to Shrikes === This volume was published in October 2008. It includes an introductory essay on bird migration by Ian Newton. Groups covered in this volume are as follows: === Volume 14: Bush-shrikes to Old World Sparrows === This volume was published in October 2009. It includes the foreword "Birding Past, Present and Future – a Global View" by Stephen Moss. Groups covered in this volume are as follows: === Volume 15: Weavers to New World Warblers === This volume was published in October 2010. It includes a foreword on bird conservation by Stuart Butchart, Nigel Collar, Alison Stattersfield, and Leon Bennun. Groups covered in this volume are as follows: === Volume 16: Cardinals to New World Blackbirds === This volume was published in December 2011. It includes a foreword on climate change and birds by Anders Pape Møller. Groups covered in this volume are as follows: === Special Volume: New Species and Global Index === This volume was published in July


id: handbook-of-the-mammals-of-the-world-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handbook_of_the_Mammals_of_the_World-0.md
category: reference
title: Handbook of the Mammals of the World
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handbook_of_the_Mammals_of_the_World
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:11.168973+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: handbook-of-the-mammals-of-the-world-20260505-0
summary:
Handbook of the Mammals of the World (HMW) is a book series from the publisher Lynx Edicions. The nine volumes were published from 2009 to 2019. Each mammal family is assessed in a full text introduction with photographs and each species has a text account with a distribution map and illustrations on a plate. This is the second major project by Lynx Edicions since the release of the Handbook of the Birds of the World in 1992. The chief editors are Russell Mittermeier and Don E. Wilson in association with Conservation International, the Texas A&M University and the IUCN. Don E. Wilson is also editor of the reference work Mammal Species of the World. An updated two-volume set with taxonomic revisions was released in 2020 as the Illustrated Checklist of the Mammals of the World, and a condensed, single-volume version of the series was published in 2023 as All the Mammals of the World. == Published volumes == === Volume 1: Carnivores (published in May 2009) === With an introduction to the class Mammalia by Don E. Wilson The first volume is devoted to Carnivora. It covers 13 families and the details to the taxonomy, range, habitat, reproduction, behavior, and


id: handbook-of-the-mammals-of-the-world-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handbook_of_the_Mammals_of_the_World-1.md
category: reference
title: Handbook of the Mammals of the World
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handbook_of_the_Mammals_of_the_World
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:11.168973+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: handbook-of-the-mammals-of-the-world-20260505-0
summary:
Otariidae (eared seals). Seven genera and 15 species. Odobenidae (walrus). One genus and one species. Phocidae (earless seals). 13 genera and 18 species. Balaenidae (right whales). Two genera and four species. Neobalaenidae (pygmy right whale). One genus and one species. Eschrichtiidae (gray whale). One genus and one species. Balaenopteridae (rorquals). Two genera and eight species. Physeteridae (sperm whale). One genus and one species. Kogiidae (pygmy and dwarf sperm whales). One genus and two species. Ziphiidae (beaked whales). Six genera and 22 species. Platanistidae (South Asian river dolphin). One genus and one species. Iniidae (Amazon river dolphins). One genus and three species. Lipotidae (baiji). One genus and one species. Pontoporiidae (Franciscana). One genus and one species. Monodontidae (beluga and narwhal). Two genera and two species. Delphinidae (ocean dolphins). 17 genera and 36 species. Phocoenidae (porpoises). Three genera and seven species. Trichechidae (manatees). One genus and three species. Dugongidae (dugong). One genus and one species. Other details: Size: 31 × 24 cm. Pages: 614 pp. ISBN 978-84-96553-93-4 === Volume 5: Marsupials (published in June 2015) === The fifth volume is devoted to the marsupials, echidnas, platypus, and opossums. The 44 colour plates are created by Toni Llobet. It covers the details to


id: handbook-of-the-mammals-of-the-world-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handbook_of_the_Mammals_of_the_World-2.md
category: reference
title: Handbook of the Mammals of the World
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handbook_of_the_Mammals_of_the_World
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:11.168973+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: handbook-of-the-mammals-of-the-world-20260505-0
summary:
Dasypodidae (long-nosed armadillos). One genus and seven species. Chlamyphoridae (chlamyphorid armadillos). Eight genera and 13 species. Myrmecophagidae (American anteaters). Two genera and three species. Cyclopedidae (silky anteater). One genus and seven species. Megalonychidae (two-toed sloths). One genus and two species. Bradypodidae (three-toed sloths). One genus and four species. Tenrecidae (tenrecs). Eight genera and 31 species. Potamogalidae (otter shrews). Two genera and three species. Chrysochloridae (golden moles). Ten genera and 21 species. Macroscelididae (elephant shrews). Five genera and 20 species. Ptilocercidae (pen-tailed tree shrew). One genus and one species. Tupaiidae (common tree shrews). Three genera and 22 species. Cynocephalidae (colugos). Two genera and two species. Erinaceidae (hedgehogs). Ten genera and 26 species. Soricidae (shrews). 25 genera and 448 species. Talpidae (moles). 18 genera and 54 species. Solenodontidae (solenodons). Two genera and two species. Other details: Size: 31 × 24 cm. Pages: 710. ISBN 978-84-16728-08-4 === Volume 9: Bats (published in October 2019) === The ninth volume is devoted to the bats. It covers the details to the taxonomy, range, habitat, reproduction, behaviour, and conservation status of 1401 species from 21 families in the order Chiroptera. Unlike previous volumes, where all the illustrations were created by a single person in each one,


id: historia-animalium-gessner-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_animalium_(Gessner_book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Historia animalium (Gessner book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_animalium_(Gessner_book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:12.389876+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: historia-animalium-gessner-book-20260505-0
summary:
Historia animalium ("History of the Animals"), published in Zurich in 1551–1558 and 1587, is an encyclopedic "inventory of renaissance zoology" by Conrad Gessner (1516–1565). Gessner was a medical doctor and professor at the Carolinum in Zürich, the precursor of the University of Zurich. The Historia animalium, after Aristotle's work of the same name, is the first modern zoological work that attempts to describe all the animals known, and the first bibliography of natural history writings. The five volumes of natural history of animals cover more than 4,500 pages. The animals are presented in alphabetical order, marking the change from Middle Ages encyclopedias, or "mirrors" to a modern view of a consultation work. == Overview == The Historia animalium was Gessner's magnum opus, and was the most widely read of all the Renaissance natural histories. The generously illustrated work was so popular that Gessner's abridgement, Thierbuch ("Animal Book"), was published in Zurich in 1563, and in England Edward Topsell translated and condensed it as a Historie of foure-footed beastes (London: William Jaggard, 1607). Gessner's monumental work attempts to build a connection between the ancient knowledge of the animal world, its title the same as Aristotle's work on animals, and what was


id: encyclopedia-of-the-history-of-arabic-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_the_History_of_Arabic_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_the_History_of_Arabic_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:13.533209+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: encyclopedia-of-the-history-of-arabic-science-20260505-0
summary:
The Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science is a three-volume encyclopedia covering the history of Arabic contributions to science, mathematics and technology which had a marked influence on the Middle Ages in Europe. It is written by internationally recognized experts in the field and edited by Roshdi Rashed in collaboration with Régis Morelon. Volume one covers "Astronomy—Theoretical and applied". Volume two covers "Mathematics and the Physical Sciences". Volume three covers "Technology, Alchemy, and the Life Sciences". == Editions == French edition: "fr:Histoire des sciences arabes", 3 vol., Le Seuil, Paris, 1997, (ISBN 2-02-030355-8). Arabic edition: "Mawsu‘a Tarikh al-‘ulum al-‘arabiyya", 3 vol., Markaz Dirasat al-Wahda al-‘arabiyya, Beirut, 1997, (ISBN 9953-450-73-0, 978-9953-450-73-5). == Contributors == A partial list of contributors include: Volume 1 R. Morelon and George Saliba (Arabic astronomy) David A. King (astronomy in Islamic society) Edward Stewart Kennedy (mathematical geography) J. Vernet and J. Samsó (Arabic science in Andalusia) H. Grosset-Grange (Arabic nautical sciences) Volume 2 A. S. Saidan (numeration and arithmetic) Boris A. Rosenfeld and A. P. Yushkevich (geometry) J.-C. Chabrier and M. Rozhanskaya (music and statics) M.-Th. Debarnot (trigonometry, algebra) Roshdi Rashed (geometrical optics) G. Russell (physiological optics) Volume 3 Donald Routledge Hill (engineering) A. Miquel (geography)


id: international-encyclopedia-of-the-social-behavioral-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Encyclopedia_of_the_Social_&_Behavioral_Sciences-0.md
category: reference
title: International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Encyclopedia_of_the_Social_&_Behavioral_Sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:14.733439+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-encyclopedia-of-the-social-behavioral-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
The International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, originally edited by Neil J. Smelser and Paul B. Baltes, is a 26-volume work published by Elsevier. It has some 4,000 signed articles (commissioned by around 50 subject editors), and includes 150 biographical entries, 122,400 entries, and an extensive hierarchical subject index. It is also available in online editions. Reviewers described the work as "the largest corpus of knowledge about the social and behavioral sciences in existence." and "the atomic bomb of reference works." It was first published in 2001, with a 2nd edition published in 2015. The second edition is edited by James D. Wright. == Subject Classification == Contents include the following broad Subject Classification. Overarching Topics: Institutions and infrastructure, History of the social sciences and the behavioral sciences, Ethics of research and applications, Biographies, Integrative concepts and issues Methodology: Statistics, Mathematics and computer sciences, Logic of inquiry and research design. Disciplines: Anthropology, Demography, Economics, Education, History, Linguistics. Philosophy, Political science, Clinical psychology and applied psychology, Cognitive psychology and cognitive science, Developmental psychology, social psychology, personality psychology and motivational psychology, Sociology Intersecting Fields: Evolutionary sciences, Genetics, behavior and society, Behavioral neuroscience and cognitive neuroscience, Psychiatry, Health, Gender studies, Religious


id: international-encyclopedia-of-the-social-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Encyclopedia_of_the_Social_Sciences-0.md
category: reference
title: International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Encyclopedia_of_the_Social_Sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:15.926671+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-encyclopedia-of-the-social-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
The International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences was first published in 1968 and was edited by David L. Sills and Robert K. Merton. It contains seventeen volumes and thousands of entries written by scholars around the world. The 2nd edition is composed entirely of new articles. It was published in 2008 and edited by William A. Darity Jr., an American economist. The 1968 Encyclopedia was initially intended to "complement, not supplant" MacMillan's earlier, fifteen-volume Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences, which had been published from 1930 to 1967 and was edited by American economists Edwin Robert Anderson Seligman and Alvin Saunders Johnson, it effectively replaced the earlier Encyclopaedia, in practice. == Notes == == See also == List of encyclopedias by branch of knowledge Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences (1930–35) International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences (2001)


id: international-encyclopedia-of-unified-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Encyclopedia_of_Unified_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: International Encyclopedia of Unified Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Encyclopedia_of_Unified_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:17.127320+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-encyclopedia-of-unified-science-20260505-0
summary:
The International Encyclopedia of Unified Science (IEUS) was a series of publications devoted to unified science. The IEUS was conceived at the Mundaneum Institute in The Hague in the 1930s, and published in the United States beginning in 1938. It was an ambitious project that was never completed. The IEUS was an output of the Vienna Circle to address the "growing concern throughout the world for the logic, the history, and the sociology of science..." Only the first section Foundations of the Unity of Science (FUS) was published; it contains two volumes for a total of nineteen monographs published from 1938 to 1969. == International Congresses for the Unity of Science == Creation of the IEUS was facilitated by the International Congresses for the Unity of Science organized by members of the Vienna Circle. After a preliminary conference in Prague in 1934, the First International Congress for the Unity of Science was held at the Sorbonne, Paris, 16–21 September 1935. It was attended by about 170 people from over twenty different countries. With the active involvement of Kazimierz Ajdukiewicz (Poland), Susan Stebbing (England), and Federigo Enriques (Italy) the scope of the project for an IEUS was considerably expanded. The congress


id: k-rschners-deutscher-gelehrten-kalender-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kürschners_Deutscher_Gelehrten-Kalender-0.md
category: reference
title: Kürschners Deutscher Gelehrten-Kalender
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kürschners_Deutscher_Gelehrten-Kalender
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:18.294630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: k-rschners-deutscher-gelehrten-kalender-20260505-0
summary:
Kürschners Deutscher Gelehrten-Kalender (English: "Kürschner's Encyclopedia of German Scholars"), formerly subtitled Lexikon der lebenden deutschsprachigen Wissenschaftler ("Encyclopedia of Living German-Speaking Scholars"), is a German language biographical and bibliographical encyclopedia of scientists and scholars from the German-speaking part of Europe. It is published by Walter de Gruyter. The first edition appeared in 1925, edited by Gerhard Lüdtke. Prior to the 9th edition, it consisted of one volume, but with the 6th edition in 1941 and then again from the 9th in 1961 it was extended to two volumes. Since the 22nd edition in 2009, it includes four volumes. The 28th edition appeared in 2016. The encyclopedia generally only includes academics who are active researchers at universities or research institutes, and who hold the Habilitation or are full professors, or have equivalent qualifications. It evolved from Kürschners Deutscher Literatur-Kalender, a bio-bibliographical encyclopedia of German literature founded in 1879 and subsequently edited by Joseph Kürschner, for whom both works are now named. == References == == External links == ISSN 1616-8399


id: lexikon-der-gesamten-technik-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexikon_der_gesamten_Technik-0.md
category: reference
title: Lexikon der gesamten Technik
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexikon_der_gesamten_Technik
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:19.527605+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lexikon-der-gesamten-technik-20260505-0
summary:
The Lexikon der gesamten Technik ("encyclopedia of all technology") is an illustrated German-language encyclopedia of architectural, engineering and manufacturing technology, written by Otto Lueger (German engineer, 1843–1911) and first published in 1894. == Editions == 1st Edition, 7 volumes, 1894–1899 2nd Edition, 8 volumes, 1904–1910 (with two supplements in 1914 and 1920) 3rd Edition, 6 volumes, 1926–1929 (with a separate index volume) 4th Edition, 17 volumes, 1960–1972 == External links == http://www.zeno.org/Lueger-1904, 10 volumes, digitized by Zeno.org and announced as public domain ("Lizenz: Gemeinfrei")


id: mcgraw-hill-encyclopedia-of-science-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McGraw-Hill_Encyclopedia_of_Science_&_Technology-0.md
category: reference
title: McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science & Technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McGraw-Hill_Encyclopedia_of_Science_&_Technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:20.714972+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mcgraw-hill-encyclopedia-of-science-technology-20260505-0
summary:
The McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science & Technology is an English-language multivolume encyclopedia, specifically focused on scientific and technical subjects, and published by McGraw-Hill Education. The most recent edition in print is the eleventh edition, copyright 2012 (ISBN 9780071778343), comprising twenty volumes. The encyclopedia covers the life sciences and physical sciences, as well as engineering and technology topics. There is also a one-volume McGraw-Hill Concise Encyclopedia of Science and Technology based on the full set. The sixth edition was published in May 2009 in twenty volumes including the "Index" (ISBN 9780071613668). Further "Concise" editions for Chemistry or Engineering are available today. The references work has been mentioned and reviewed too. == References ==


id: merck-index-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merck_Index-0.md
category: reference
title: Merck Index
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merck_Index
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:21.838561+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: merck-index-20260505-0
summary:
The Merck Index is an encyclopedia of chemicals, drugs and biologicals with over 10,000 monographs on single substances or groups of related compounds published online by the Royal Society of Chemistry. == History == The NFL edition of the Merck's Index was published in 1889 by the German chemical company Emanuel Merck and was primarily used as a sales catalog for Merck's growing list of chemicals it sold. The American subsidiary was established two years later and continued to publish it. During World War I the US government seized Merck's US operations Merck & Co., forming a separate American company that continued to publish the Merck Index. In 2012 the Merck Index was licensed to the Royal Society of Chemistry. An online version of The Merck Index, including historic records and new updates not in the print edition, is commonly available through research libraries. It also includes an appendix with monographs on organic named reactions. The 15th edition was published in April 2013. Monographs in The Merck Index typically contain: a CAS registry number synonyms of the substance, such as trivial names and International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry nomenclature a chemical formula molecular weight percent composition a structural


id: the-new-encyclopedia-of-snakes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Encyclopedia_of_Snakes-0.md
category: reference
title: The New Encyclopedia of Snakes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Encyclopedia_of_Snakes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:24.296362+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-new-encyclopedia-of-snakes-20260505-0
summary:
The New Encyclopedia of Snakes is an encyclopedia by Chris Mattison. == Book summary == The encyclopedia has information about snakes that is listed from A-Z. The book has pictures and information about snake morphology, habitats, diets, hunting and defense behaviors, taxonomy, and a history of human responses to snakes. == Reception == It was reviewed by Science Activities, Washington Times, Booklist, King Features Syndicate, Wildlife Activist, Dover Post, Choice, and Science Books and Fun. == References ==


id: the-ocean-world-of-jacques-cousteau-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ocean_World_of_Jacques_Cousteau-0.md
category: reference
title: The Ocean World of Jacques Cousteau
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ocean_World_of_Jacques_Cousteau
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:25.437982+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-ocean-world-of-jacques-cousteau-20260505-0
summary:
The Ocean World of Jacques Cousteau by Jacques Cousteau is an encyclopedia in 21 volumes, that forms an encyclopedia of marine life. It was published between 1973 and 1978. == List of books == Oasis in Space The Act of Life Quest for Food Window in the Sea The Art of Motion Attack and Defense Invisible Messages Instinct and Intelligence Pharaohs of the Sea Mammals in the Sea Provinces of the Sea Man Re-Enters Sea A Sea of Legends Adventure of Life Outer and Inner Space The Whitecaps Riches of the Sea Challenges of the Sea The Sea in Danger Guide to the Sea and Index Calypso == References ==


id: orr-s-circle-of-the-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orr's_Circle_of_the_Sciences-0.md
category: reference
title: Orr's Circle of the Sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orr's_Circle_of_the_Sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:26.585211+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: orr-s-circle-of-the-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
Orr's Circle of the Sciences was a scientific encyclopedia of the 1850s, published in London by William Somerville Orr. == William S. Orr & Co. == William S. Orr & Co. was a publisher in Paternoster Row, London. It put out the British Cyclopædia in ten volumes of the 1830s. It also was in business selling engravings (for example the Kenny Meadows illustrations to Shakespeare), and maps, such as a mid-century Cab Fare and Guide Map of London (c. 1853). The firm was a general commercial publisher, with a specialist area of natural history, and also published periodicals. It was innovative in its use of wood engraving, in its 1838 edition of Paul et Virginie. In children's literature, it published Christoph von Schmid's Basket of Flowers in an English translation of 1848, in partnership with J. B. Müller of Stuttgart. == William Somerville Orr == Orr himself was a publishers' agent from the 1830s, and was a close associate of Robert and William Chambers. He printed a London edition of Chambers's Edinburgh Journal by mid-1832. The arrangement used stereotype plates, and brought the circulation up to 50,000. By 1845 the circulation was declining from its peak, and Orr wrote to


id: the-oxford-companion-to-the-history-of-modern-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Oxford_Companion_to_the_History_of_Modern_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Oxford_Companion_to_the_History_of_Modern_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:27.770746+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-oxford-companion-to-the-history-of-modern-science-20260505-0
summary:
The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science is an encyclopedia on the history of science from around the middle of the 16th century (the early modern period) to the beginning of the 21st century. The book includes 609 articles by over two hundred authors. The editor-in-chief was John L. Heilbron and the editors were James R. Bartholomew, Jim Bennett, Frederic L. Holmes, Rachel Laudan, and Giuliano Pancaldi. The book was published by Oxford University Press in 2003. An e-book version appeared in 2006. In 2014, the book was translated into Japanese and published by Asakura Publishing. The book has been reviewed by the British Journal for the History of Science Choice, Nature, and the Times Literary Supplement. == See also == Oxford Companions == References == == External links == OUP UK catalogue entry Aasakura Publishing catalogue entry (in Japanese)


id: prehistoric-life-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistoric_Life_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Prehistoric Life (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistoric_Life_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:28.920273+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: prehistoric-life-book-20260505-0
summary:
Prehistoric Life is a non-fiction encyclopedia edited by Angeles Gavira Guerrero and Peter Frances. The full title of the book is Prehistoric Life: The Definitive Visual History of Life on Earth. The 512-page book was published by DK in 2009. == Reception == Saying it had a "wealth of scientific information", Shauna Yusko of Booklist praised the book, writing, "The collection of full-color photographs of fossils (ranging from spore to dinosaur) and skeletons show amazing detail and clarity." In a positive review, the Courier Journal reviewer Scott Coffman wrote, "The intimate photographs, fossil scans, and CGI illustrations number over 2,500, with which the producers of this tome provide a history of life more thorough than that provided by any museum." The Globe and Mail said the book presents its information about the history of life on Earth in "colourful, well-illustrated, bite-sized morsels" and is "a reference book to savour". == References == == External links == Prehistoric Life: The Definitive Visual History of Life on Earth at Amazon.com


id: project-emitel-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_EMITEL-0.md
category: reference
title: Project EMITEL
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_EMITEL
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:30.038780+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: project-emitel-20260505-0
summary:
The Project EMITEL was a pilot project of the EC Programme Leonardo da Vinci, which developed the first e-Encyclopaedia with Multilingual Scientific Dictionary of medical physics (2005–2009), aimed to support the education in the profession. The project continues activities of previous projects (as EMERALD, EMERALD2 and EMIT) to develop materials and e-books for medical physics education. The project included as partners Universities and Hospitals from the UK, Sweden, Italy, Bulgaria and the International Organization for Medical Physics (IOMP) and was headed by specialists from King's College London. In the post-project time the Encyclopaedia with Dictionary were updated by hundreds of specialists from over 50 countries, overseen by an editorial board. The materials are available for free use through their original website emitel2.eu with thousands of users worldwide. The Encyclopaedia has been printed on paper by CRC Press/Routledge (Taylor and Francis Group). == References ==


id: proteopedia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteopedia-0.md
category: reference
title: Proteopedia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:31.189687+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: proteopedia-20260505-0
summary:
Proteopedia is a wiki, 3D encyclopedia of proteins and other molecules. == Website == The site contains a page for all of the entries in the Protein Data Bank (PDB), as well as pages that are more descriptive of protein structures in general such as acetylcholinesterase, hemoglobin, and the photosystem II with a Jmol view that highlights functional sites and ligands. It employs a scene-authoring tool so that users do not have to learn JSmol script language to create customized molecular scenes. Custom scenes are easily attached to "green links" in descriptive text that display those scenes in JSmol. A web browser is all that is needed to access the site and the 3D information; no viewers are required to be installed. Proteopedia was the winner of the 2010 award for the best website by The Scientist magazine. == Licensing terms == All user-added content is free and covered by the GNU Free Documentation License. Proteopedia is hosted at the Israel Structural Proteomics Center at the Weizmann Institute of Science. == References == == External links == Proteopedia website


id: r-mpp-encyclopedia-natural-products-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Römpp_Encyclopedia_Natural_Products-0.md
category: reference
title: Römpp Encyclopedia Natural Products
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Römpp_Encyclopedia_Natural_Products
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:32.374695+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: r-mpp-encyclopedia-natural-products-20260505-0
summary:
The Römpp Encyclopedia Natural Products is an encyclopedia of natural products written by German chemists who specialize in this area of science. It is published by Thieme Medical Publishers. == See also == Römpp's Chemistry Lexicon == References == == Further reading == == External links == Official website


id: r-mpp-s-chemistry-lexicon-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Römpp's_Chemistry_Lexicon-0.md
category: reference
title: Römpp's Chemistry Lexicon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Römpp's_Chemistry_Lexicon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:33.532065+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: r-mpp-s-chemistry-lexicon-20260505-0
summary:
Römpp's Chemistry Lexicon (German Römpp Lexikon Chemie) is a chemical encyclopedia from Germany. Started by chemistry teacher Hermann Römpp in 1947 it has evolved to the leading chemical encyclopedia in German language. Römpp's Chemistry Lexicon contains around 64,000 entries and 215,000 links. == History == After the first five editions by Hermann Römpp, Erhard Ühlein took over editorship in 1964. He died shortly after publishing the 6th edition. The 7th and 8th edition were edited by Otto-Albrecht Neumüller. In 1988, Römpp's Chemistry Lexicon was transferred to Thieme Medical Publishers, with editorship handled by a team of authors. The 9th edition and 10th edition, the final two print editions, were published in 1992 and 1999, respectively. Since 2002 the Römpp is published online as a web encyclopedia. == Spin-offs == The editorial team has created several spinoffs, e.g. the Römpp Encyclopedia Natural Products (2000) and volumes about biotechnology & genetics, environment, food chemistry, and paint & varnish. == References == == External links == Official website


id: rp-photonics-encyclopedia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RP_Photonics_Encyclopedia-0.md
category: reference
title: RP Photonics Encyclopedia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RP_Photonics_Encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:34.680656+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rp-photonics-encyclopedia-20260505-0
summary:
The RP Photonics Encyclopedia (formerly Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and Technology) is an encyclopedia of optics and optoelectronics, laser technology, optical fibers, nonlinear optics, optical communications, imaging science, optical metrology, spectroscopy and ultrashort pulse physics. It is available online as a free resource. An earlier version of the encyclopedia appeared as a two-volume book. As of March 2024, the online version of the encyclopedia contains 1043 articles. Since 2012, the encyclopedia is closely interlinked with the RP Photonics Buyer's Guide, a large directory of photonics product suppliers. For the majority of products, there is a one-to-one correspondence between an encyclopedia article and a listing of suppliers for that product. Other resources linked with the RP Photonics Encyclopedia are a blog named The Photonics Spotlight, a glossary of photonics terms and acronyms, various tutorials and case studies, and a photonics quiz. The author is Dr. Rüdiger Paschotta, founder and managing director of RP Photonics AG in Frauenfeld, Switzerland. == References == == External links == RP Photonics Encyclopedia


id: the-simon-schuster-encyclopedia-of-dinosaurs-and-prehistoric-creatures-20260505-0
category: reference
title: The Simon & Schuster Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Creatures
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:35.828034+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-simon-schuster-encyclopedia-of-dinosaurs-and-prehistoric-creatures-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Simon_&_Schuster_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Creatures-0.md

summary:
The Simon & Schuster Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Creatures: A Visual Who's Who of Prehistoric Life is an encyclopedia that was published in 1999 by Simon & Schuster. The book was first published in 1988. == Reception == The Houston Chronicle stated, "this reference work for the serious student combines succinct scientific descriptions with superbly rendered color illustrations". In a positive review for Palaeos, M. Alan Kazlev wrote, "This is a very good non-technical introduction to prehistoric vertebrates" and "it is the sheer number and diversity of creatures covered here, that makes this book so interesting". The Globe and Mail said of the book, "Here's an elegantly illustrated directory of ancient animals, from a tiny marine creature of Canada called a pkaia through a dim-witted, 21-metre dinosaur named after the Alamo, to mankind's departed brethren, the Cro-Magnon." == References ==

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Simon_&_Schuster_Encyclopedia_of_Dinosaurs_and_Prehistoric_Creatures


id: the-skeptic-encyclopedia-of-pseudoscience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Skeptic_Encyclopedia_of_Pseudoscience-0.md
category: reference
title: The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Skeptic_Encyclopedia_of_Pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:37.033504+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-skeptic-encyclopedia-of-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience is a two-volume collection of articles that discuss the Skeptics Society's scientific findings of investigations into pseudoscientific and supernatural claims. The editor, Michael Shermer, director of the Skeptics Society, has compiled articles originally published in Skeptic magazine with some conceptual overviews and historical documents to create this encyclopedia. It was published by ABC-CLIO in 2002. == About the editor == Michael Shermer is an American science writer and science historian. He gained Bachelor's and master's degrees in psychology before completing a PhD in the history of science. The author of more than 18 books on skepticism and science, Shermer is the founder of The Skeptics Society—which began in Los Angeles but now has an international membership—and the editor of its magazine Skeptic. Between April 2001 to January 2019, he was a monthly contributor to Scientific American magazine with a column called Skeptic. Shermer regularly engages in debates on a variety of topics, in which he emphasises the application of scientific skepticism to combat pseudoscience. Shermer was the producer and co-host of the 13-hour Fox Family television series "Exploring the Unknown" which was broadcast in 1999. He is also a scientific advisor to the American Council


id: treatise-on-invertebrate-paleontology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Invertebrate_Paleontology-0.md
category: reference
title: Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Invertebrate_Paleontology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:38.182148+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: treatise-on-invertebrate-paleontology-20260505-0
summary:
The Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, published from 1953–1966 by the Geological Society of America and the University of Kansas Press, 1969–2007 by the Geological Society of America and the University of Kansas, then 2009–present by the University of Kansas Paleontological Institute, is a definitive multi-authored work of currently 55 volumes, written by more than 300 paleontologists, and covering every phylum, class, order, family, and genus of fossil and extant (still living) invertebrate animals. The prehistoric invertebrates are described as to their taxonomy, morphology, paleoecology, stratigraphic and paleogeographic range. However, taxa with no fossil record whatsoever have just a very brief listing. Publication of the decades-long Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology is a work-in-progress; and therefore it is not yet complete: For example, there is no volume yet published regarding the post-Paleozoic era caenogastropods (a molluscan group including the whelk and periwinkle). Furthermore, when needed, previously published volumes of the Treatise are revised. == Evolution of the project == Raymond C. Moore, the project's founder and first editor, originally envisioned this Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology as comprising just three large volumes, and totaling only three thousand pages. The Treatise project has expanded far beyond that original expectation. The project began with work


id: treatise-on-invertebrate-paleontology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Invertebrate_Paleontology-1.md
category: reference
title: Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Invertebrate_Paleontology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:38.182148+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: treatise-on-invertebrate-paleontology-20260505-0
summary:
== Editors of the Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology: == Raymond C. Moore, the founder of the Paleontological Institute was the first editor of the Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, serving from 1953–1969. As Moore stated in the Editorial Preface to the first published Treatise volume, “the aim of the Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology is … to present the most comprehensive and authoritative, yet compact statement of knowledge concerning invertebrate fossil groups that can be formulated by collaboration of competent specialists.” Moore’s idea was that the Treatise “could serve two purposes: summarizing the past and looking to the future.” The initial purpose of the Paleontological Institute was to expedite the Treatise project. Moore’s vision and guidance of the project, beginning with the first published volume in 1953, set the template for all subsequent Treatise volumes. Since Moore’s original idea was that the Treatise would not publish new genera, he accordingly oversaw the creation of the journal Paleontological Contributions in which systematic and taxonomic papers would be published containing new material that would eventually be published in the Treatise. In addition to editing the Treatise, Moore himself also contributed, to some extent, to nine individual volumes: Part D Protista 3, 1954; Part F


id: treatise-on-invertebrate-paleontology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Invertebrate_Paleontology-2.md
category: reference
title: Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Invertebrate_Paleontology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:38.182148+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: treatise-on-invertebrate-paleontology-20260505-0
summary:
== Layout of the articles == From the beginning, the character of the Treatise volumes has followed and further developed the pattern of the classic Invertebrate Paleontology written by Moore, Lalicker and Fischer (1953). Following their lead, the Treatise includes in a typical article (a) a description of the basic anatomy of the modern members of each invertebrate group, (b) distinctive features of the fossils, (c) a comprehensive illustrated glossary of terms, (d) a short discussion of the evolutionary history of the group, (e) a stratigraphic range chart, done at the level of the major subdivision (lower, middle and upper) of each Geologic period. This is followed by (f) a listing and technical description of every known genus, along with (g) geographic distribution (usually by continent only, but occasionally by country) and (h) stratigraphic range. Next come (i) one or two representative species illustrated by line drawings (in the early volumes) or by black-and-white photographs (in subsequent volumes), each accompanied by an appropriate reference for that genus. Furthermore, each Treatise article includes (j) the date, authorship, and scientific history of the taxa. Finally, there is (k) a comprehensive bibliography and list of references. Not only that, but the more recent


id: treatise-on-invertebrate-paleontology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Invertebrate_Paleontology-3.md
category: reference
title: Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Invertebrate_Paleontology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:38.182148+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: treatise-on-invertebrate-paleontology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Mollusca (I, J, K, L, M & N) === Part I. Mollusca 1: Mollusca General Features, Scaphopoda, Amphineura, Monoplacophora, Gastropoda General Features, Archaeogastropoda, Mainly Paleozoic Caenogastropoda and Opisthobranchia), xxiii + 351 p., 216 fig., 1960. ISBN 0-8137-3009-0. The original volume is out-of-print, but is available here. --- Parts I and J refer to primitive mollusks and gastropods (such as snails). (Part J, Mollusca 2: Paleozoic Gastropoda --- volume in preparation). Part K. Mollusca 3: Cephalopoda General Features, Endoceratoidea, Actinoceratoidea, Nautiloidea, & Bactritoidea, xxviii + 519 p., 361 fig., 1964. ISBN 0-8137-3011-2. The original volume is out of print, but is available here. --- Parts K and L refer to cephalopods with external shells, including ammonites and Nautilus-like creatures. (Part K, Revised. Mollusca 3: Nautiloidea --- volume in preparation). Part L. Mollusca 4: Ammonoidea, xxii + 490 p., 558 fig., 1957. ISBN 0-8137-3012-0. The original volume is out-of-print, but is available here. Part L. Revised. Mollusca 4, Volume 2: Carboniferous and Permian Ammonoidea (Goniatitida and Prolecanitida), xxix + 258 p., 139 fig., 1 table, 2009, available here. ISBN 978-1-891276-61-3. Part L. Revised. Mollusca 4, Volume 4: Cretaceous Ammonoidea, xx + 362 p., 216 fig., 1995 / 1996, available here. ISBN


id: van-nostrand-s-scientific-encyclopedia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Nostrand's_Scientific_Encyclopedia-0.md
category: reference
title: Van Nostrand's Scientific Encyclopedia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Nostrand's_Scientific_Encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:40.443378+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: van-nostrand-s-scientific-encyclopedia-20260505-0
summary:
Van Nostrand's Scientific Encyclopedia is an encyclopedia published in the United States. Currently in a three volume 10th edition, it was published in two volumes for editions 6 to 9. The 8th edition is available as two CD ROMs. The first edition was published in 1938 by the D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc. From about 1976 the encyclopedia was published by the Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. From the late 1990s it was published by John Wiley and Sons and by Wiley-Interscience. More than 4,000 pages long, the work provides a thorough scientific reference, while establishing a midpoint between massive multi-volume science encyclopedias and handheld reference books. This work is sometimes compared to the McGraw-Hill Concise Encyclopedia of Science & Technology. == References ==


id: zipcodezoo-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZipcodeZoo-0.md
category: reference
title: ZipcodeZoo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZipcodeZoo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:41.614248+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: zipcodezoo-20260505-0
summary:
ZipcodeZoo was a free, online encyclopedia intended to document all living species and infraspecies known to science. It was compiled from existing databases. It offered one page for each living species, supplementing text with video, sound, and images where available. ZipcodeZoo was integrated into an app called Lookup Life. As of 2019 the site no longer works. ZipcodeZoo was an online database that collected the natural history, classification, species characteristics, conservation biology, and distribution information of thousands of species and infraspecies. It included over 800,000 photographs, 50,000 videos, 160,000 sound clips, and 3.2 million maps describing nearly 3.2 million species and infraspecies. Its content is now only available on the Internet Archive The site and its sister site lookup.life included a number of specialized search functions, such as identifying a bird species from its color, shape and other traits, including where it was seen; or generating a list of plants or animals likely to be found in or near a specific location (a zipcode, state, country, latitude/longitude, etc.). The searches could be restricted to specific taxa, or broad categories like reptiles or fish. A sound trainer could play multiple bird song recordings simultaneously. ZipcodeZoo drew on the Catalogue of Life


id: elements-of-general-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elements_of_General_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Elements of General Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elements_of_General_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:43.056959+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: elements-of-general-science-20260505-0
summary:
Elements of General Science is a book written by Otis W. Caldwel and William L. Eikenberry that was first published by Ginn and Company in 1914. A revised version appeared in 1918. The book was designed to provide an introduction to the fundamental concepts of various scientific disciplines, aimed at high school students. It was the first general science textbook and contributed to the development of the general science movement in the United States in the early 20th century. == Context == In 1893, the Committee of Ten of the National Education Association (NEA) in the United States called for the gap between the goals of secondary education and the academic standards of the university to be closed, citing the poor quality and lack of preparation for college at the secondary level. The new goal was to make education more practical and relevant to everyday life. This triggered a process of educational reorganisation in secondary education, leading to the emergence of the general science in the US. General science, in contrast to separate sciences such as biology, physics or chemistry, was an integrated or combined science that emerged as an introductory secondary school subject in the 20th century in the


id: elements-of-general-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elements_of_General_Science-1.md
category: reference
title: Elements of General Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elements_of_General_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:43.056959+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: elements-of-general-science-20260505-0
summary:
The 1918 revised version of the book retained the organization and methodology of the original edition while incorporating updates based on scientific discoveries and educational experimentation. Certain topics were omitted from the revised edition. The Work and Energy major division was expanded to include electricity. An additional major section, The Earth in Relation to Other Astronomical Bodies, has been introduced. It discusses topics about the Moon, planets and comets, and the Sun and other stars. A list of Questions for Discussion was included at the beginning of each chapter, intended for teachers to read and discuss them briefly. These questions aimed to help students recall their previous experiences and establish new, relevant problems related to the book. According to the authors, they could serve as the best review of the material. The revised edition also includes fifty extra illustrations. == Reception == === Reviews === In the revised edition of The Elements of General Science, the authors claimed that the use of the course resulted in students feeling that they hadn't had any of the differentiated sciences (for example physics, chemistry or biology) and made them much more interested in studying these differentiated sciences in the future. The textbook was


id: elements-of-general-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elements_of_General_Science-2.md
category: reference
title: Elements of General Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elements_of_General_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:43.056959+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: elements-of-general-science-20260505-0
summary:
The general science course faced challenges such as the lack of clear definitions, despite Eikenberry's attempts to address this issue in 1922, and inadequate training in general science within teacher training programs. Not all educators could effectively grasp or teach the course, with many preferring to focus on specialized sciences or lacking the comprehensive understanding needed to teach general science. The professor of educational history and culture John M. Heffron's also criticised the general science course, developed and promoted by Caldwell and Eikenberry, for its approach to integrating science into general education, which he argued often diluted the rigour of scientific inquiry. He claimed that the course's emphasis on common sense and practical reasoning overshadowed the theoretical foundations of science, leading to a reduction in scientific education to problem-solving techniques applicable to everyday life. This, he suggested, compromised the integrity of science by blurring the line between science and non-science. Heffron noted that the course's broad sociological framing of science, while aimed at fulfilling educational and vocational goals, failed to foster a deep understanding of scientific principles, limiting its educational value.Whether couched in broad sociological terms or in the language of common sense observation rejected by scientists over three centuries


id: environmental-principles-and-policies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_Principles_and_Policies-0.md
category: reference
title: Environmental Principles and Policies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_Principles_and_Policies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:44.179395+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: environmental-principles-and-policies-20260505-0
summary:
Environmental Principles and Policies: An Interdisciplinary Introduction is a textbook written by Professor Sharon Beder. The book examines six environmental and social principles that have been used at the international and national level. It uses them to evaluate the new wave of market-based policy instruments that have been introduced in many countries. == Six principles == The six principles discussed in the book are: the sustainability principle the polluter pays principle the precautionary principle the equity principle the human rights principles the participation principle == Interdisciplinary approach == This book on environmental policy-making takes a critical and interdisciplinary approach. Rather than merely setting out policy options in a descriptive way, it evaluates policies from different perspectives. This enables readers to gain a thorough understanding of important principles and current policies, and also to be able to apply the various principles and critically evaluate them. == The author == Professor Beder was included in a list of "Australia's most influential engineers", published by Engineers Australia in 2004. She was also included in Bulletin Magazine's "Smart 100" in 2003. == See also == Sustainable development Environmental policy List of Australian environmental books == References == == External links == Review: Principled environmental


id: free-high-school-science-texts-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_High_School_Science_Texts-0.md
category: reference
title: Free High School Science Texts
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_High_School_Science_Texts
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:45.364559+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: free-high-school-science-texts-20260505-0
summary:
The Free High School Science Texts (FHSST) organization is a South African non-profit project, which creates open textbooks on scientific subjects. Textbooks are edited to follow the government's syllabus, and published under a Creative Commons license (CC BY), allowing teachers and students to print them or share them digitally. == History == FHSST was conceived in 2002 by Mark Horner, a physicist, when some rural South African children asked him to proofread notes that they had taken on a talk he gave on wave phenomena. The children intended to take the notes back to their schoolmates to use as a textbook on the subject. == Subjects == FHSST has released books for grades 10-12 on physics, chemistry and mathematics. They are developing books in life sciences and computer literacy and a guide to teach students how to study. == See also == OpenCourseWare Open educational resources Open textbook Bookboon China Open Resources for Education Connexions Curriki Flat World Knowledge Flexbook Khan Academy MIT OpenCourseWare National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning India Open.Michigan Tufts OpenCourseWare == References == == External links == Official website


id: hydrology-in-practice-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrology_in_Practice-0.md
category: reference
title: Hydrology in Practice
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrology_in_Practice
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:46.534024+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hydrology-in-practice-20260505-0
summary:
Hydrology in Practice is a hydrology textbook by British hydrologist Elizabeth M. Shaw. The book was originally published in 1983 by Van Nostrand Reinhold (UK) Co. Ltd. and the most recent fourth edition was published in July 2010 by CRC Press, a division of Taylor & Francis. The book has been described as both an introductory text and a resource for professionals. == Synopsis == The third edition of the book is separated into three parts which discuss hydrological measurements, hydrological analysis, and engineering applications. == Reception == Hydrology in Practice has been described by CRC Press as "likely to be the course text for every undergraduate/MSc hydrology course in the UK". The book has been reviewed by the Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, the Journal of the American Water Resources Association, the Hydrological Sciences Journal, and the Journal of Hydrology, along with being cited in many scientific journals. In a review of the third edition, the Hydrological Sciences Journal described the book as "an excellent compendium of techniques and methods of hydrological measurement and data analysis". The book is also recommended reading at Dartmouth College, Utah State University, the University of Malta, the American Institute of Hydrology,


id: school-of-natural-philosophy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_of_Natural_Philosophy-0.md
category: reference
title: School of Natural Philosophy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_of_Natural_Philosophy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:47.694044+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: school-of-natural-philosophy-20260505-0
summary:
School of Natural Philosophy is an 1837 scientific textbook by Richard Green Parker. It is credited with inspiring the inventor Thomas Edison. == References == == External links == Parker's Natural And Experimental Philosophy (Electronic Historical Publications) John H. Lienhard (2006). "Parker's Philosophy". The Engines of Our Ingenuity. Episode 2071. NPR. KUHF-FM Houston. Archived from the original on September 29, 2020.


id: de-natura-fossilium-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Natura_Fossilium-0.md
category: reference
title: De Natura Fossilium
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Natura_Fossilium
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:49.241517+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: de-natura-fossilium-20260505-0
summary:
De Natura Fossilium is a scientific text written by Georg Bauer also known as Georgius Agricola, first published in 1546. The book represents the first scientific attempt to categorize minerals, rocks and sediments since the publication of Pliny's Natural History. This text along with Agricola's other works including De Re Metallica compose the earliest comprehensive "scientific" approach to mineralogy, mining, and geological science. == Notes == == References == == External links == Full text searchable English version and illustrations Archived 2021-05-14 at the Wayback Machine


id: de-re-metallica-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_re_metallica-0.md
category: reference
title: De re metallica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_re_metallica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:50.484105+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: de-re-metallica-20260505-0
summary:
De re metallica (Latin for On the Nature of Metals [Minerals]) is a book in Latin cataloguing the state of the art of mining, refining, and smelting metals, published a year posthumously in 1556 due to a delay in preparing woodcuts for the text. The author was Georg Bauer, whose pen name was the Latinized Georgius Agricola ("Bauer" and "Agricola" being respectively the German and Latin words for "farmer"). The book remained the authoritative text on mining for 180 years after its publication. It was also an important chemistry text for the period and is significant in the history of chemistry. Mining was typically left to professionals, craftsmen and experts who were not eager to share the experiential knowledge they had accumulated over centuries; this knowledge was passed down orally within a small group of technicians and mining overseers. In the Middle Ages, these people held the same leading role as the master builders of the great cathedrals, or were perhaps like alchemists; a small, cosmopolitan elite within which knowledge was guarded from the outside world. Only a few writers found it worth the effort to write about mining, and only in the Renaissance did this begin to change. With


id: de-re-metallica-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_re_metallica-1.md
category: reference
title: De re metallica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_re_metallica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:50.484105+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: de-re-metallica-20260505-0
summary:
=== Book I: Arguments for and against this art === This book consists of the arguments used against the art and Agricola's counter arguments. He explains that mining and prospecting are not just a matter of luck and hard work; there is specialized knowledge that must be learned. A miner should have knowledge of philosophy, medicine, astronomy, surveying, arithmetic, architecture, drawing and law, though few are masters of the whole craft and most are specialists. This section is full of classical references and shows Agricola's classical education to its fullest. The arguments range from philosophical objections to gold and silver as being intrinsically worthless, to the danger of mining to its workers and its destruction of the areas in which it is carried out. He argues that without metals, no other activity such as architecture or agriculture are possible. The dangers to miners are dismissed, noting that most deaths and injuries are caused by carelessness, and other occupations are hazardous too. Clearing forests for timber is advantageous as the land can be farmed. Mines tend to be in mountains and gloomy valleys with little economic value. The loss of food from the forests destroyed can be replaced by purchase from


id: de-re-metallica-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_re_metallica-2.md
category: reference
title: De re metallica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_re_metallica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:50.484105+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: de-re-metallica-20260505-0
summary:
This book is extensively illustrated and describes the tools and machinery associated with mining. Handtools and different sorts of buckets, wheelbarrows and trucks on wooded plankways are described. Packs for horses and sledges are used to carry loads above ground. Agricola then provides details of various kinds of machines for lifting weights. Some of these are man-powered and some powered by up to four horses or by waterwheels. Horizontal drive shafts along tunnels allow lifting in shafts not directly connected to the surface. If this is not possible, treadmills will be installed underground. Instead of lifting weights, similar machines use chains of buckets to lift water. Agricola also describes several designs of piston force pumps, which are either man or animal-powered, or powered by water wheels. Because these pumps can only lift water about 24 feet, batteries of pumps are required for the deepest mines. Water pipe designs are also covered in this section. Designs of wind scoop for ventilating shafts or forced air using fans or bellows are also described. Finally, ladders and lifts using wicker cages are used to get miners up and down shafts. === Book VII: On the assaying of ore === This book deals with


id: de-re-metallica-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_re_metallica-3.md
category: reference
title: De re metallica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_re_metallica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:50.484105+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: de-re-metallica-20260505-0
summary:
=== Book XII: Manufacturing salt, soda, alum, vitriol, sulphur, bitumen, and glass === This describes the preparation of what Agricola calls "juices": salt, soda, nitre, alum, vitriol, saltpetre, sulphur and bitumen. Finally glass making is covered. Agricola seems less secure about this process. He is not clear about making glass from the raw ingredients but clearer about remelting glass to make objects. Prof. Philippus Bechius (1521–1560), a friend of Agricola, translated De re metallica libri XII into German. It was published with the German title Vom Bergkwerck XII Bücher in 1557. Herbert Hoover and Lou Henry Hoover describe the translation as "a wretched work, by one who knew nothing of the science," but it, like the Latin original, saw further editions. In 1563 Agricola's publisher, Froben and Bischoff ("Hieronimo Frobenio et Nicolao Episcopio") in Basel, published an Italian translation by Michelangelo Florio as well. == Publication history == Although Agricola died in 1555, the publication was delayed until the completion of the extensive and detailed woodcuts one year after his death. A German translation was published in 1557 and a second Latin edition appeared in 1561. A version in Spanish, though not a mere translation, was produced by Bernardo Pérez


id: aberdeen-bestiary-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeen_Bestiary-0.md
category: reference
title: Aberdeen Bestiary
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeen_Bestiary
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:51.826157+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aberdeen-bestiary-20260505-0
summary:
The Aberdeen Bestiary (Aberdeen University Library, Univ Lib. MS 24) is a 12th-century English illuminated manuscript bestiary that was first listed in 1542 in the inventory of the Old Royal Library at the Palace of Westminster. Due to similarities, it is often considered to be the "sister" manuscript of the Ashmole Bestiary. The connection between the ancient Greek didactic text Physiologus and similar bestiary manuscripts is also often noted. Information about the manuscript's origins and patrons are circumstantial, although the manuscript most likely originated from the 13th century and was owned by a wealthy ecclesiastical patron from northern or southern England. Currently, the Aberdeen Bestiary resides in the Aberdeen University Library in Scotland. == History == The Aberdeen Bestiary and the Ashmole Bestiary are considered by Xenia Muratova, a professor of Art History, to be "the work of different artists belonging to the same artistic milieu." Due to their "striking similarities" they are often compared and described by scholars as being "sister manuscripts." The medievalist scholar M. R. James considered the Aberdeen Bestiary ''a replica of Ashmole 1511" a view echoed by many other art historians. === Provenance === The original patron of both the Aberdeen and Ashmole Bestiary was


id: aberdeen-bestiary-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeen_Bestiary-1.md
category: reference
title: Aberdeen Bestiary
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeen_Bestiary
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:51.826157+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aberdeen-bestiary-20260505-0
summary:
=== Illuminations === Folio page 1 to 3 recto depicts the Genesis 1:1-25 which is represented with a large full page illumination Biblical Creation scene in the manuscript. Folio 5 recto shows Adam, a large figure surrounded by gold leaf and towering over others, with the theme of 'Adam naming the animals' - this starts the compilation of the bestiary portion within the manuscript. Folio 5 verso depicts quadrupeds, livestock, wild beasts, and the concept of the herd. Folio 7 to 18 recto depicts large cats and other beasts such as wolves, foxes and dogs. Many pages from the start of the manuscript's bestiary section such as 11 verso featuring a hyena shows small pin holes which were likely used to map out and copy artwork to a new manuscript. Folio 20 verso to 28 recto depicts livestock such as sheep, horses, and goats. Small animals like cats and mice are depicted on folio 24 to 25. Pages 25 recto to 63 recto feature depictions of birds and folio 64 recto to 80 recto depicts reptiles, worms and fish. 77 recto to 91 verso depicts trees and plants and other elements of nature such as the nature of man. The


id: aberdeen-bestiary-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeen_Bestiary-2.md
category: reference
title: Aberdeen Bestiary
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeen_Bestiary
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:51.826157+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aberdeen-bestiary-20260505-0
summary:
=== Livestock (Pecora) === Folio 20 verso : Sheep (Ovis) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 9; Ambrose, Hexaemeron, Book VI, 20) Folio 21 recto : Wether (Vervex) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 10) Folio 21 recto : Ram (Aries) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 11) Folio 21 recto : Lamb (Agnus) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 12; Ambrose, Hexaemeron, Book VI, 28) Folio 21 recto : He-goat (Hircus) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 14) Folio 21 verso : Kid (Hedus) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 13) Folio 21 verso : Boar (Aper) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 27) Folio 21 verso : Bullock (Iuvencus) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 28) Folio 21 verso : Bull (Taurus) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 29) Folio 22 recto : Horse (Equus) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 41–56; Hugh of Fouilloy, III, xxiii) Folio 23 recto : Mule (Mulus) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 57–60) === Small animals (Minuta animala) === Folio 23 verso : Cat (Musio) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, ii, 38) Folio 23 verso : Mouse (Mus) (Isidore


id: aberdeen-bestiary-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeen_Bestiary-3.md
category: reference
title: Aberdeen Bestiary
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeen_Bestiary
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:51.826157+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aberdeen-bestiary-20260505-0
summary:
=== Stones (Lapides) === Folio 93 verso : Fire-bearing stone (Lapis ignifer) Folio 94 verso : Adamas stone (Lapis adamas) Folio 96 recto : Myrmecoleon (Mermecoleon) Folio 96 verso : Verse (Versus) Folio 97 recto : Stone in the foundation of the wall (Lapis in fundamento muri) Folio 97 recto : The first stone, Jasper Folio 97 recto : The second stone, Sapphire Folio 97 recto : The third stone, Chalcedony Folio 97 verso : The fourth stone, Smaragdus Folio 98 recto : The fifth stone, Sardonyx Folio 98 recto : The sixth stone, Sard Folio 98 verso : The seventh stone, Chrysolite Folio 98 verso : The eighth stone, Beryl Folio 99 recto : The ninth stone, Topaz Folio 99 verso : The tenth stone, Chrysoprase Folio 99 verso : The eleventh stone, Hyacinth Folio 100 recto : The twelfth stone, Amethyst Folio 100 recto : Of stones and what they can do (De effectu lapidum) == Gallery == == See also == Bestiary List of medieval bestiaries Physiologus Ashmole Bestiary Paris Psalter Aviarium == References == == External links == The Aberdeen Bestiary Project - University of Aberdeen, Online version of the bestiary. David Badke, The Medieval Bestiary


id: almost-like-a-whale-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almost_Like_a_Whale-0.md
category: reference
title: Almost Like a Whale
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almost_Like_a_Whale
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:53.025647+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: almost-like-a-whale-20260505-0
summary:
Almost like a Whale by Steve Jones is a modern introduction to Charles Darwin's Origin of Species and closely follows its structure. It won the 1999 BP Natural World Book Prize. An American version was published as Darwin's Ghost: The Origin of Species Updated (ISBN 978-0-375-50103-6). The title refers to Darwin's observation that a bear, swimming in a lake and catching insects in its mouth, might conceivably evolve over time into a creature "almost like a whale". This statement attracted much ridicule at the time. == References ==


id: the-ancestor-s-tale-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ancestor's_Tale-0.md
category: reference
title: The Ancestor's Tale
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ancestor's_Tale
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:54.233690+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-ancestor-s-tale-20260505-0
summary:
The Ancestor's Tale: A Pilgrimage to the Dawn of Life is a popular science book by Richard Dawkins and Yan Wong in which the history of life is retraced in reverse chronological order. A growing band of species meet their most recent common ancestors (concestors) at 40 rendezvous points. First published in 2004, it was updated in 2016 to reflect recent discoveries. Many reviewers described it as Dawkins's magnum opus. Dawkins dedicated the book to John Maynard Smith. == Background == The book is patterned on Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales, in which pilgrims on the road to Canterbury converge with other travelers and tell tales. Here, species convene with their common ancestors ("concestors"), and "Canterbury" is the origin of life. The epigraph is from Mark Twain: "History doesn't repeat itself, but it rhymes." The authors contend that "Evolution rhymes, patterns occur. And this doesn't just happen to be so. It is so for well-understood reasons: Darwinian reasons, mostly, for unlike human history or even physics, biology already has its grand unifying theory." They emphasize that no living species is ancestral to any other, but that all share a common ancestor, some more recently than others. Evidence for this fact


id: the-ancestor-s-tale-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ancestor's_Tale-1.md
category: reference
title: The Ancestor's Tale
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ancestor's_Tale
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:54.233690+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-ancestor-s-tale-20260505-0
summary:
== Reception == Carl Zimmer of the New York Times wrote that it is one of the best books to understand evolutionary trees. Rob Colwell of the Wall Street Journal called it "a fittingly superior beast -- lavishly produced and, weighing in at 1.6 kilograms, substantially heavier than the fully-evolved human brain that thought it up." Clive Cookson of the Financial Times called it "one of the richest accounts of evolution ever written. It is also an object lesson in the way thorough picture research, carefully commissioned illustrations and good design can enhance even the best text." He adds "He is so good at explaining complex scientific issues that readers will learn painlessly about matters well outside the author's field of evolutionary biology, from maths to cosmology. But he interlaces the hard science with 'pleasing speculations', humorous asides, personal anecdotes and even political observations." He concludes "we have no right to expect a second magnum opus on the scale of The Ancestor's Tale." Marek Kohn wrote "The success of this book comes from having one truly Chaucerian character: the author himself." Robin McKie in The Guardian thought it awkward to move backward in time starting from humans and thought this


id: anticipatory-systems-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anticipatory_Systems-0.md
category: reference
title: Anticipatory Systems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anticipatory_Systems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:55.400444+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anticipatory-systems-20260505-0
summary:
Anticipatory Systems: Philosophical, Mathematical, and Methodological Foundations is a book by Robert Rosen, conceived in the 1970s and published for the first time in 1985. The book describes the way that biological systems anticipate the environment. The book draws from mathematics, in particular category theory, in describing the way systems can anticipate. The first five chapters of the book are about modeling: Rosen shows that natural systems, physical things in the world, are modeled by formal systems, which are at their heart mathematical. These formal systems simulate the natural systems. But in order to provide anticipatory knowledge, they must produce predictions ahead of the predicted phenomena. == Publication history == The first edition of Anticipatory Systems was published in 1985 by Pergamon Press. The second edition of Anticipatory Systems was published in 2012 by Springer. == Publication details == The second edition includes a fifty-page prolegomena by Mihai Nadin, as well as contributions by Judith Rosen and John J. Kineman. The book is the 27th volume in the International Federation for Systems Research International Series on Systems Science and Engineering, a series edited by George Klir. == Critical reception == A review by Eric Minch of the first edition called


id: behave-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behave_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Behave (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behave_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:56.575701+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: behave-book-20260505-0
summary:
Behave: The Biology of Humans at Our Best and Worst is a 2017 non-fiction book by Robert Sapolsky. It describes how various biological processes influence human behavior, on scales ranging from less than a second before an action to thousands of years before. == Reception == A review in The Guardian called Behave "a miraculous synthesis of scholarly domains". Kirkus Reviews called it "An exemplary work of popular science, challenging but accessible." A review in the Star Tribune considers Behave to be Sapolsky's magnum opus as well as "a stunning achievement and an invaluable addition to the canon of scientific literature." In Science Magazine's edited book review blog, Behave was described as "exceptional in its scale, scope, detail, and writing style". == References ==


id: the-biology-of-the-cell-surface-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Biology_of_the_Cell_Surface-0.md
category: reference
title: The Biology of the Cell Surface
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Biology_of_the_Cell_Surface
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:57.758861+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-biology-of-the-cell-surface-20260505-0
summary:
The Biology of the Cell Surface is a book by American biologist Ernest Everett Just. It was published by P. Blakiston’s Son & Co in 1939. Just began writing the book in 1934 in Naples and finished it in France, shortly before being sent to a prisoner-of-war camp. He considered the book to be his "crowning achievement". The book examined the role of the cell surface in embryology, development and evolution, and presented a critique of gene theory, particularly the views of Jacques Loeb. Sapp suggests that "Just’s theorizing on the cell cortex [in this work] was unsurpassed". == References == == External links == The Biology of the Cell Surface - full text Biodiversity Heritage Library


id: brain-gender-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_Gender-0.md
category: reference
title: Brain Gender
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_Gender
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:29:58.927865+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: brain-gender-20260505-0
summary:
Brain Gender is a 2005 biology book by Melissa Hines, published by Oxford University Press. Hines is a psychologist and neuroscientist at the University of Cambridge in England. Hines graduated with an undergraduate degree from Princeton, following through with a doctorate in psychology from UCLA. Brain Gender is a book exploring the biological differences between sex and gender. Hines questions whether different biological differences, such as hormones, affect the way people develop and act. Hines demonstrates the possibilities that genetic, biological, neuroendocrine, behavioral, social, and statistical aspects of born sex affect the differences between males or females in gender roles. In the end of the book, it is concluded that the human tendency to perceive generalized gender differences is not supported by evidence. Biology does not imply a deterministic set of gender creation or identification. == References ==


id: frank-macfarlane-burnet-bibliography-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Macfarlane_Burnet_bibliography-0.md
category: reference
title: Frank Macfarlane Burnet bibliography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Macfarlane_Burnet_bibliography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:00.062720+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: frank-macfarlane-burnet-bibliography-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of books and monographs by Sir Frank Macfarlane Burnet, arranged thematically, with original titles, publishers and dates of publication. Burnet wrote widely on virology, immunology and later in life on popular science issues. He wrote over 500 papers and 31 books, several of which were published in multiple editions; 15 of those books followed his retirement as director of the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute. == Virology == The Use of the Developing Egg in Virus Research (Special Report No, 220), London: Medical Research Council, 1936 Biological Aspects of Infectious Disease Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1940. Later editions of the book were published as The Natural History of Infectious Disease in 1953, 1962 and in 1973 with D.O. White. Published in Italian, Japanese, Spanish and German. With E. Clarke, Influenza: A Survey of the Last 50 years in Light of Modern Work and the Virus of Epidemic Influenza (Monograph of the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute). Melbourne: Macmillam, 1942 Virus as Organism: evolutionary and ecological aspects of some human virus diseases. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1945. Published in Russian and Japanese. The Background of Infectious Diseases in Man. Melbourne: The Melbourne Permanent Postgraduate Committee, 1946 With


id: campbell-biology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campbell_Biology-0.md
category: reference
title: Campbell Biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campbell_Biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:01.197728+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: campbell-biology-20260505-0
summary:
Campbell Biology is a biology textbook used for introductory Biology and Advanced Placement Biology courses. The textbook was initially published in 1987 by American biologist Neil Campbell, and has been used internationally by over 700,000 students in both high school and college-level classes. == History == The first edition of the textbook was published in 1987 by Benjamin Cummings, an imprint of Pearson Education. Over time, the textbook was substantially revised and updated. American biologists Jane Reece and Lisa Urry have provided substantial pedagogical contributions, making it an internationally known biology textbook. It is used in 90 percent of AP Biology classes and 60 percent of introductory college biology courses. As of 2024, the textbook has been used by over 14 million students and has been translated into over 20 languages. The book is currently in its 13th edition. == Contents == The textbook is divided into eight separate units comprising 56 chapters. The organization of the units are logical, appropriate, and easy for first-year university students to follow and help them learn the content. The first unit is an introductory unit that introduces the scientific method and concepts of evolution. The second unit focuses on the various components of


id: the-canon-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Canon_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: The Canon (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Canon_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:02.438846+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-canon-book-20260505-0
summary:
The Canon: A Whirligig Tour of the Beautiful Basics of Science is a book written by American science author Natalie Angier. == Overview == The Canon presents a summary of some of the different areas of science, as well as extensive descriptions of, and interviews with, contemporary scientists who work in these fields. Angier's tenet is that an understanding of the basics of major areas of science can assist with providing a means by which to understand current scientific issues, and that this process should be fun. In her Introduction, Angier writes: Of course you should know about science, for the same reason Dr. Seuss counsels his readers to sing with a Ying or play Ring the Gack: These things are fun, and fun is good. Angier included quotes from the scientists she interviewed throughout her descriptions of different scientific topics in an attempt to show how scientists experience and think about their work, and why they do it. == Scientists interviewed == To obtain material for The Canon, Angier interviewed a number of scientists, professors, and other science professionals, and incorporated their stories and quotes into her work. She asked them questions such as, "What does it mean to


id: chasing-shadows-my-life-tracking-the-great-white-shark-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chasing_Shadows:_My_Life_Tracking_the_Great_White_Shark-0.md
category: reference
title: Chasing Shadows: My Life Tracking the Great White Shark
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chasing_Shadows:_My_Life_Tracking_the_Great_White_Shark
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:03.601135+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chasing-shadows-my-life-tracking-the-great-white-shark-20260505-0
summary:
Chasing Shadows: My Life Tracking the Great White Shark is a memoir written by Greg Skomal that chronicles his decades long career as an Atlantic shark researcher. It was published in July 2023 by William Morrow, an imprint of HarperCollins. Ret Talbot, a science writer and independent journalist, co-authored this book. Talbot collaborated with Skomal so that the book would appeal to a general audience. The goal for Skomal is to educate and share insights with readers about the Great white shark. == Other books == Close to Shore by Michael Capuzzo about the Jersey Shore shark attacks of 1916 Twelve Days of Terror by Richard Fernicola about the same events The Devil's Teeth by Canadian born journalist Susan Casey. == References == == External links == Official website Book excerpt Ret Talbot biography page. ISBN 9780063090835


id: close-to-shore-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Close_to_Shore-0.md
category: reference
title: Close to Shore
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Close_to_Shore
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:04.769968+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: close-to-shore-20260505-0
summary:
Close to Shore: A True Story of Terror in an Age of Innocence is a non-fiction book by journalist Michael Capuzzo about the Jersey Shore shark attacks of 1916. The book was published in 2001 by Broadway Books. According to a reviewer writing for the New Yorker, it is an "adventure classic". The factual content and backgrounds were based on Richard Fernicola's In Search of the Jersey Man-Eater (1987). An adapted version, Close to Shore: The Terrifying Shark Attacks of 1916, was published in 2003, aimed at a middle-school audience, with fewer biographical background of the victims. There are photos and news clippings not in the original. Capuzzo's description of the shark's behaviour verges on being anthropomorphic. == References == == External links == Close to Shore homepage at RandomHouse.com. Capuzzo, Michael. Close to Shore: The Terrifying Shark Attacks of 1916. Crown. ISBN 0375922318.


id: colecci-n-la-fauna-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colección_La_Fauna-0.md
category: reference
title: Colección La Fauna
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colección_La_Fauna
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:05.933883+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: colecci-n-la-fauna-20260505-0
summary:
Colección La Fauna (La Fauna Collection) is a series of books about the Fauna of Venezuela. The first four titles were published in 2019 by Ediciones La Fauna KPT, based in Madrid. The collection have as origin the studies by German-born, Venezuelan zoologist, Pedro Trebbau, along with the documentary research of Israel Cañizales and Salvador Boher. The adaptation of the texts were made by writer Eduardo Sánchez Rugeles. The illustrations were made by the artist Leonardo Rodríguez. The editorial director of the collection is Miriam Ardizzone, the art direction is in charge of Manuel González Ruiz == History == The collection is part of the project for rescue of the scientific works of Pedro Trebbau, initiated with the re-edition of the book The Turtles of Venezuela (2018), as well of the publication of the biography Trebbau: Maestro por naturaleza (2018), by Albor Rodríguez. Trebbau is known for the promotion and preservation of Venezuelan wildlife and nature. == Titles == == References ==


id: daedalus-or-science-and-the-future-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daedalus-0.md
category: reference
title: Daedalus; or, Science and the Future
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daedalus;_or,_Science_and_the_Future
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:08.274374+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: daedalus-or-science-and-the-future-20260505-0
summary:
Daedalus; or, Science and the Future is a book by the British scientist J. B. S. Haldane, published in England in 1924. It was the text of a lecture read to the Heretics Society (an intellectual club at the University of Cambridge) on 4 February 1923. Haldane uses the Greek myth of Daedalus as a symbol for the revolutionary nature of science with particular regard to his own discipline of biology. The chemical or physical inventor is always a Prometheus. There is no great invention, from fire to flying, which has not been hailed as an insult to some god. But if every physical and chemical invention is a blasphemy, every biological invention is a perversion. There is hardly one which, on first being brought to the notice of an observer from any nation which had not previously heard of their existence, would not appear to him as indecent and unnatural. He also expressed skepticism over the human benefits of some scientific advances, arguing that scientific advance would bring grief, rather than progress to mankind, unless it was accompanied by a similar advance in ethics. The book is an early vision of transhumanism and his vision of a future in


id: darwin-and-his-children-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin_and_His_Children-0.md
category: reference
title: Darwin and His Children
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin_and_His_Children
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:09.432218+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: darwin-and-his-children-20260505-0
summary:
Darwin and His Children: His Other Legacy is a 2013 book by biologist and author, Tim Berra. The book examines the full lives of the ten children of Charles Darwin and his wife Emma Wedgwood. This book is written for a lay audience concluding with a timeline, cast of characters, references and index. An overview of Darwin's scientific achievements runs though the chronology of the children's lives. The book was published by Oxford University Press. == Synopsis == The book is broken into twelve chapters. The first, "Darwin's Paradigm Shift", is described by reviewer Christopher Cumo as a good overview of Darwin for any history of science student, saying the book is able to "present the scaffolding of Darwin's ideas without requiring one to build the entire house". Chapter two covers Charles Darwin and his first-cousin soon to be wife, Emma Wedgwood, with whom he had been friends since childhood. Emma's father, Josiah Wedgwood, was brother to Charles's mother Susannah Wedgwood. The stress of believing this close family relationship was the reason so many of their ten children suffered from ill health, and the infertility of three adult children, was woven throughout chapters three to twelve. Darwin struggled with intestinal


id: charles-darwin-bibliography-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Darwin_bibliography-0.md
category: reference
title: Charles Darwin bibliography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Darwin_bibliography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:10.668533+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: charles-darwin-bibliography-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of the writings of Charles Darwin. == Works published during lifetime == 1829–1832. [Records of captured insects, in] Stephens, J. F., Illustrations of British entomology 1835: Extracts from Letters to Henslow (Read at a meeting of the Cambridge Philosophical Society on 16 November 1835, with comments by John Stevens Henslow and Adam Sedgwick, and printed for private distribution dated 1 December 1835. Selected remarks had been read by Sedgwick to the Geological Society of London on 18 November 1835, and these were summarised in Proceedings of the Geological Society published in 1836. Further extracts were published in the Entomological Magazine and, with a review, in the Magazine of Natural History. A reprint was issued in 1960, again for private distribution.) 1836: A LETTER, Containing Remarks on the Moral State of TAHITI, NEW ZEALAND, &c. – BY CAPT. R. FITZROY AND C. DARWIN, ESQ. OF H.M.S. 'Beagle.' 1838–1843: Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle: published between 1839 and 1843 in five Parts (and nineteen numbers) by various authors, edited and superintended by Charles Darwin, who contributed sections to two of the Parts: 1838: Part 1 No. 1 Fossil Mammalia, by Richard Owen (Preface and Geological introduction


id: darwinian-happiness-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwinian_Happiness-0.md
category: reference
title: Darwinian Happiness
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwinian_Happiness
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:11.849211+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: darwinian-happiness-20260505-0
summary:
Darwinian Happiness: Evolution As a Guide for Living and Understanding Human Behavior, ISBN 0-87850-159-2, is a 2002 book by the Norwegian biologist Bjørn Grinde from the Norwegian Institute of Public Health. He argues that human emotions find their cause in evolution, and offers ways by which we can use this to our advantage. More specifically, mammals are equipped with a nerve system that enables them to distinguish not only between pleasant and unpleasant sensations, but positive and negative experiences in general. While the biological term fitness refers to the capacity to create offspring, happiness (or quality of life) is, at least in a biological perspective, a question of the qualities of the experiences our nervous system offers us. In order to improve these experiences there are two main principles to consider: To utilize the rewarding sensations the brain has evolved to offer in a way that gives optimal long-term benefits; and, similarly, to avoid punishing sensations. To avoid stress and maladaptive ways of living in order to have a healthy mind with optimal potential for positive experiences. As to the first principle, humans may actually have been equipped with more powerful positive and negative sensations, compared to other mammals, due


id: demonic-males-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demonic_Males-0.md
category: reference
title: Demonic Males
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demonic_Males
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:12.979177+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: demonic-males-20260505-0
summary:
Demonic Males: Apes and the Origins of Human Violence is a 1996 book by Richard Wrangham and Dale Peterson examining the evolutionary factors leading to human male violence. == Summary == Demonic Males begins by explaining that humans, chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans are a group of genetically related great apes, that humans are genetically closer to chimps than chimps are to gorillas, and that chimps and bonobos are most closely genetically related. After speculating about what enabled humans' ancestors to leave the rainforest (the use of roots as sources of water and food), Demonic Males next provides a catalog of the types of violence practiced by male chimpanzees (intragroup hierarchical violence, violence against females, and extragroup murdering raids). The high incidence of rape by non-alpha male orangutans and infanticide by male gorillas are also cited as examples of our mutual genetic heritage. The authors present chimp society as extremely patriarchal, in that no adult male chimpanzee is subordinate to any female of any rank. They present evidence that most dominant human civilizations have always been likewise behaviorally patriarchal, and that male humans share male chimpanzees' innate propensity for dominance, gratuitous violence, war, rape, and murder. They claim that the brain's


id: a-devil-s-chaplain-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Devil's_Chaplain-0.md
category: reference
title: A Devil's Chaplain
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Devil's_Chaplain
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:14.150365+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: a-devil-s-chaplain-20260505-0
summary:
A Devil's Chaplain: Reflections on Hope, Lies, Science, and Love is a 2003 book of selected essays and other writings by Richard Dawkins. Published five years after Dawkins's previous book Unweaving the Rainbow, it contains essays covering subjects including pseudoscience, genetic determinism, memetics, terrorism, religion and creationism. A section of the book is devoted to Dawkins' late adversary Stephen Jay Gould. The book's title is a reference to a quotation of Charles Darwin, in a letter to J.D. Hooker dated 13 July 1856, made in reference to Darwin's lack of belief in how "a perfect world" was designed by God (and a reference to Reverend Robert Taylor): "What a book a devil's chaplain might write on the clumsy, wasteful, blundering low and horridly cruel works of nature!" == Reception == Robin McKie reviewed the book for The Observer and stated that the book contained a mixture of touching essays and "the good, old knockabout stuff at which Dawkins excels". == See also == Argument from poor design Great Ape Project == References == == External links == Review by Michael Ruse, 2003. "Through a Glass, Darkly." American Scientist. Review by Richard Holloway, 2003. "A callous world." The Guardian.


id: the-devil-s-teeth-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Devil's_Teeth-0.md
category: reference
title: The Devil's Teeth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Devil's_Teeth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:15.324544+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-devil-s-teeth-20260505-0
summary:
The Devil's Teeth: A True Story of Obsession and Survival Among America's Great White Sharks is a non-fiction book about great white sharks by Canadian born journalist Susan Casey. The text was initially published by Henry Holt and Company on June 7, 2005. == Overview == Susan Casey became infatuated with great white sharks of the Farallon Islands—dubbed by sailors in the 1850s the "devil's teeth." The sharks there are at the top of the food chain, some longer than twenty feet, and they congregate 27 miles off the coast of San Francisco. After going through many restrictions and barriers, she manages to join a group of scientists studying predation patterns by great white sharks within the so-called Red Triangle. == Commentary == As the creative director of Outside magazine during its Jon Krakauer-Sebastian Junger heyday, Casey ([then] the development editor of Time Inc.) acquired a good ear for the false notes of ecotourism and a thorough understanding of the humbling swipe nature can take at cocky adventurers. Because of that awareness, she often allows herself to come across as a blundering nautical novice, which is refreshing (and true), though somewhat alarming considering that her lack of competence puts the


id: the-dialectical-biologist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dialectical_Biologist-0.md
category: reference
title: The Dialectical Biologist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dialectical_Biologist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:16.453154+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-dialectical-biologist-20260505-0
summary:
The Dialectical Biologist is a 1985 book by the ecologist Richard Levins and the biologist Richard Lewontin, in which the authors sketch a dialectical approach to biology. They see "dialectics" more as a set of questions to ask about biological research, a weapon against dogmatism, than as a set of pre-determined answers. They focus on the (dialectical) relationship between the "whole" (or totality) and the "parts." "Part makes whole, and whole makes part". That is, a biological system of some kind consists of a collection of heterogeneous parts. All of these contribute to the character of the whole, as in reductionist thinking. On the other hand, the whole has a nature of its own and feeds back to affect and determine the nature of the parts. This back-and-forth (dialectic) of causation implies a dynamic process. For example, Darwinian evolution points to the competition of a variety of species, each with heterogeneous members, within a given environment. This leads to changing species and even to new species arising. A dialectical biologist fully accepts this picture then looks for ways in which the competing creatures (which serve as the internal conflicts in the environment) lead to changes. The changes manifest in the


id: the-different-forms-of-flowers-on-plants-of-the-same-species-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Different_Forms_of_Flowers_on_Plants_of_the_Same_Species-0.md
category: reference
title: The Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the Same Species
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Different_Forms_of_Flowers_on_Plants_of_the_Same_Species
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:17.609466+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-different-forms-of-flowers-on-plants-of-the-same-species-20260505-0
summary:
The Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the Same Species is a book by Charles Darwin first published in 1877. It is the fifth of his six books devoted solely to the study of plants (excluding The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication). == Context == These writings contributed to Darwin's pursuit of evidence that would support his theory of natural selection. There were only two more books to follow: The Power of Movement in Plants (1880) and The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms (1881). He conducted a wide range of experiments and observations and the results of these form the framework of the book. He was assisted in this work by his son, Francis Darwin who also wrote a preface for the second edition which was published two years after his father's death in 1882. The book was dedicated to his longtime friend and colleague, Harvard botany professor Asa Gray "as a small tribute of respect and affection". == The work == Using the four classifications established by Carl Linnaeus (hermaphroditic, monoecious, dioecious, polygamous), Darwin concentrated on two divisions of the hermaphroditic class, namely the cleistogamic and heterostyled. Darwin’s reflections indicate the economy


id: dna-repair-and-mutagenesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_Repair_and_Mutagenesis-0.md
category: reference
title: DNA Repair and Mutagenesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_Repair_and_Mutagenesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:30.549881+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dna-repair-and-mutagenesis-20260505-0
summary:
DNA Repair and Mutagenesis is a college-level textbook about DNA repair and mutagenesis written by Errol Friedberg, Graham Walker, Wolfram Siede, Richard D. Wood, and Roger Schultz. In its second edition as of 2009, DNA Repair and Mutagenesis contains over 1,000 pages, 10,000 references and 700 illustrations and has been described as "the most comprehensive book available in [the] field." == References ==


id: the-double-helix-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Double_Helix-0.md
category: reference
title: The Double Helix
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Double_Helix
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:31.737265+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-double-helix-20260505-0
summary:
The Double Helix: A Personal Account of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA is an autobiographical account of the discovery of the double helix structure of DNA written by James D. Watson and published in 1968. It has earned both critical and public praise, along with continuing controversy about credit for the Nobel award and attitudes towards female scientists at the time of the discovery. == Significance == Watson was an American molecular biologist, geneticist and zoologist, best known as one of the co-discoverers of the structure of DNA in 1953 with Francis Crick. In 1998, the Modern Library placed The Double Helix at number 7 on its list of the 100 best nonfiction books of the 20th century. In 2012, The Double Helix was named as one of the 88 "Books That Shaped America" by the Library of Congress. Since its publication, The Double Helix has been a controversial account. Although it was originally slated to be published by Harvard University Press, Watson's home university, Harvard dropped the arrangement after protestations from Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins, co-discoverers of the structure of DNA, and it was published instead by Atheneum in the United States and Weidenfeld & Nicolson


id: the-double-helix-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Double_Helix-1.md
category: reference
title: The Double Helix
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Double_Helix
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:31.737265+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-double-helix-20260505-0
summary:
== Film adaptation == In 1987, the memoir was adapted as a 107-minute television docudrama called Life Story for the BBC, airing on Horizon, the long-running British documentary television series on BBC Two that covers science and philosophy. The script was written by William Nicholson, and it was produced and directed by Mick Jackson. Jeff Goldblum starred as Watson, with Tim Pigott-Smith as Francis Crick, Juliet Stevenson as Rosalind Franklin, and Alan Howard as Maurice Wilkins. The film won several awards in the UK and U.S., including the 1988 BAFTA TV Award as the Best Single Drama. == Notes == == References == James D. Watson, The Double Helix: A Personal Account of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA (1968), Atheneum, 1980, ISBN 0-689-70602-2, OCLC 6197022 James D. Watson, The Annotated and Illustrated Double Helix, edited by Alexander Gann and Jan Witkowski (2012) Simon & Schuster, ISBN 978-1-4767-1549-0. James D. Watson, The Double Helix: A Personal Account of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA (1980 Norton Critical Edition), editor Gunther Stent, W.W. Norton, ISBN 0-393-95075-1. Maddox, Brenda (2002). Rosalind Franklin: the dark lady of DNA. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-393-32044-8. Sayre, Anne. Rosalind Franklin and DNA (1975), New York: W.W.


id: louis-du-preez-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_du_Preez-0.md
category: reference
title: Louis du Preez
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_du_Preez
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:32.941961+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: louis-du-preez-20260505-0
summary:
Louis Heyns Du Preez (born 9 July 1962) is a South African professor of zoology who specialises in parasitology and herpetology at the North-West University. Du Preez is best known for his research on South African frog species, writing a widely used wildlife guide for the frogs of Southern Africa, and contributions to global parasitology with special focus studies on polystome worms. His contributions to polystome research have led to a recently discovered Malagasy frog species, Blommersia dupreezi, being named in his honour. == Biography == Du Preez grew up in Ficksburg and started his tertiary education at the University of the Free State located in the same province he was brought up. In 1986 he obtained his Master of Science degree with the thesis titled 'Polystoma australis (Monogenea): aspekte van ontwikkeling en gedrag wat betrekking het op rekrutering en vestiging'. From 1989 to 1990 he was a school teacher in Bloemfontein. From 1991 to 1993 he was Head of the Department of Herpetology at the National Museum in Bloemfontein. In 1994 he obtained a PhD degree from the University of the Free State with a thesis titled 'Study of factors influencing the nature and extent of host-specificity among polystomatids


id: louis-du-preez-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_du_Preez-1.md
category: reference
title: Louis du Preez
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_du_Preez
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:32.941961+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: louis-du-preez-20260505-0
summary:
=== Species descriptions === Du Preez has described or contributed to the description of at least 24 polystome species, 8 polystome genera, and more than 10 other non-polystome parasite species that have frogs or reptiles as their hosts. In herpetology, du Preez has described or contributed to the description of at least 20 new frog species and 6 reptile species. ==== Amphibians ==== Breviceps carruthersi Du Preez, Netherlands, and Minter, 2017 Breviceps passmorei Minter, Netherlands, and Du Preez, 2017 Gephyromantis cornucopia Miralles, Köhler, Glaw, Wollenberg Valero, Crottini, Rosa, Du Preez, Gehring, Vieites, Ratsoavina, and Vences, 2023 Gephyromantis feomborona Miralles, Köhler, Glaw, Wollenberg Valero, Crottini, Rosa, Du Preez, Gehring, Vieites, Ratsoavina, and Vences, 2023 Gephyromantis fiharimpe Vences, Köhler, Crottini, Hofreiter, Hutter, Du Preez, Preick, Rakotoarison, Rancilhac, Raselimanana, Rosa, Scherz, and Glaw, 2022 Gephyromantis kremenae Miralles, Köhler, Glaw, Wollenberg Valero, Crottini, Rosa, Du Preez, Gehring, Vieites, Ratsoavina, and Vences, 2023 Gephyromantis mafifeo Miralles, Köhler, Glaw, Wollenberg Valero, Crottini, Rosa, Du Preez, Gehring, Vieites, Ratsoavina, and Vences, 2023 Gephyromantis matsilo Vences, Köhler, Crottini, Hofreiter, Hutter, Du Preez, Preick, Rakotoarison, Rancilhac, Raselimanana, Rosa, Scherz, and Glaw, 2022 Gephyromantis mitsinjo Miralles, Köhler, Glaw, Wollenberg Valero, Crottini, Rosa, Du Preez, Gehring, Vieites, Ratsoavina, and Vences, 2023


id: louis-du-preez-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_du_Preez-2.md
category: reference
title: Louis du Preez
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_du_Preez
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:32.941961+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: louis-du-preez-20260505-0
summary:
==== Flatworms ==== Aussietrema queenslandense (Pichelin, 1995) Du Preez & Verneau, 2020 Aussietrema spratti (Pichelin, 1995) Du Preez & Verneau, 2020 Emoleptalea mozambiquensis Curran, Dutton, Warren, du Preez & Bullard, 2021 Eupolystoma namibiense Du Preez, 2015 Fornixtrema elizabethae (Platt, 2000) Du Preez & Verneau, 2020 Fornixtrema guianense (Du Preez, Badets, Héritier & Verneau, 2017) Du Preez & Verneau, 1920 Fornixtrema liewi (Du Preez & Lim, 2000) Du Preez & Verneau, 2020 Fornixtrema grossi (Du Preez & Morrison, 2012) Du Preez & Verneau, 2020 Fornixtrema palpebrae (Strelkov, 1950) Du Preez & Verneau, 2020 Fornixtrema scorpioides (Du Preez, Badets, Héritier & Verneau, 2017) Du Preez & Verneau, 2020 Indopolystoma hakgalense (Crusz & Ching, 1975) Chaabane, Verneau & Du Preez, 2019 Indopolystoma indicum (Diengdoh & Tandon, 1991) Chaabane, Verneau & Du Preez, 2019 Indopolystoma parvum Chaabane, Verneau & Du Preez, 2019 Indopolystoma viridi Chaabane, Verneau & Du Preez, 2019 Indopolystoma zuoi (Shen, Wang & Fan, 2013) Chaabane, Verneau & Du Preez, 2019 Manotrema brasiliensis (Viera, Novelli, Sousa & SouzaLima, 2008) du Preez, Domingues & Verneau, 2022 Manotrema fuquesi (Mañe-Garzón & Gil, 1962) du Preez, Domingues & Verneau, 2022 Manotrema uruguayensis (Mañe-Garzón & Gil, 1961) du Preez, Domingues & Verneau, 2022 Metapolystoma ansuanum Landman,


id: encyclopedia-of-life-support-systems-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Life_Support_Systems-0.md
category: reference
title: Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Life_Support_Systems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:34.193814+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: encyclopedia-of-life-support-systems-20260505-0
summary:
The Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) is an integrated compendium of twenty one encyclopedias. One of the largest database repositories on the web, dedicated to the health, maintenance and future of the web of life on planet Earth, focusing on the complex connections among all the myriad aspects from natural and social sciences through water, energy, land, food, agriculture, environment, biodiversity, health, education, culture, engineering and technology, management, development and environmental security carrying knowledge for our times. It has been developed under the auspices of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The EOLSS body of knowledge is a virtual compendium of Twenty One component encyclopedias (Subject Categories). It is regarded as the world’s largest comprehensive professional publication carrying state-of-the-art, high-quality, peer-reviewed, thematically organized archival content in many traditional disciplines and interdisciplinary subjects including the coverage of transdisciplinary pathways. The contributions are from thousands of scholars from over 100 countries and edited by more than 395 subject experts. It also includes up-to-date coverage of various aspects of sustainable development that are relevant to the current state of the world. The objectives are Education for Sustainable Development and Promotion of Life Support Systems Culture of Peace and Social


id: evolution-of-infectious-disease-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_Infectious_Disease-0.md
category: reference
title: Evolution of Infectious Disease
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_Infectious_Disease
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:35.384243+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evolution-of-infectious-disease-20260505-0
summary:
Evolution of Infectious Disease is a 1993 book by the evolutionary biologist Paul W. Ewald. In this book, Ewald contests the traditional view that parasites should evolve toward benign coexistence with their hosts. He draws on various studies that contradict this dogma and asserts his theory based on fundamental evolutionary principles. This book provides one of the first in-depth presentations of insights from evolutionary biology on various fields in health science, including epidemiology and medicine. == Infectious diseases == Infectious disease are illnesses induced by another organism. Such diseases range from mild to severe cases. The onset of infectious disease can be induced by bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. Several examples of infectious diseases are as follows: tuberculosis, chickenpox, mumps, meningitis, measles, and malaria. Infectious diseases can be obtained through many routes of transmission such as inhalation, open wounds, sores, ingestion, sexual intercourse, and insect bites. Author, Paul Ewald used his book to expound upon infectious diseases in humans and animals, explain various routes of transmission as well as epidemiology as a whole. Epidemiology is defined as the study of the onset, distribution, and control of diseases. Evolutionary epidemiology focuses on the distribution of infectious diseases whereas Darwinian epidemiology focuses


id: evolutionary-biology-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_Biology_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Evolutionary Biology (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_Biology_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:36.555686+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evolutionary-biology-book-20260505-0
summary:
Evolutionary Biology is a college-level evolutionary biology textbook written by Eli C. Minkoff that is 627 pages long. It was published in 1983 by Addison-Wesley. This is Minkoff's first foray into the world of college-level textbook authorship. The book contains an index and various biographical references. == About the book == The textbook Evolutionary Biology was written and published in 1983 during which Minkoff was the head of the Biology department at Bates College. The book is written in a format to which it could be used in an evolutionary biology 101 course. The book contains over 25 chapters, for example, "The Origin and Early Evolution of Life". == Bibliography == Eli C. Minkoff (1983). Evolutionary Biology. 1st Edition. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-15890-6.


id: the-facts-of-life-darlington-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Facts_of_Life_(Darlington_book)-0.md
category: reference
title: The Facts of Life (Darlington book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Facts_of_Life_(Darlington_book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:37.656653+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-facts-of-life-darlington-book-20260505-0
summary:
The Facts of Life is a book published in 1953 by C. D. Darlington of the subject of race, heredity and evolution. Darlington was a major contributor to the field of genetics around the time of the modern synthesis. == References ==


id: fertilisation-of-orchids-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertilisation_of_Orchids-0.md
category: reference
title: Fertilisation of Orchids
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertilisation_of_Orchids
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:38.882356+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fertilisation-of-orchids-20260505-0
summary:
Fertilisation of Orchids is a book by English naturalist Charles Darwin published on 15 May 1862 under the full explanatory title On the Various Contrivances by Which British and Foreign Orchids Are Fertilised by Insects, and On the Good Effects of Intercrossing. Darwin's previous book, On the Origin of Species, had briefly mentioned evolutionary interactions between insects and the plants they fertilised, and this new idea was explored in detail. Field studies and practical scientific investigations that were initially a recreation for Darwin—a relief from the drudgery of writing—developed into enjoyable and challenging experiments. Aided in his work by his family, friends, and a wide circle of correspondents across Britain and worldwide, Darwin tapped into the contemporary vogue for growing exotic orchids. The book was his first detailed demonstration of the power of natural selection, and explained how complex ecological relationships resulted in the coevolution of orchids and insects. The view has been expressed that the book led directly or indirectly to all modern work on coevolution and the evolution of extreme specialisation. It influenced botanists, and revived interest in the neglected idea that insects played a part in pollinating flowers. It opened up the new study areas of pollination


id: fertilisation-of-orchids-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertilisation_of_Orchids-1.md
category: reference
title: Fertilisation of Orchids
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertilisation_of_Orchids
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:38.882356+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fertilisation-of-orchids-20260505-0
summary:
In the summer of 1841 Charles and Emma Darwin moved from the turmoil of London to the countryside, to Down House, a quiet former parsonage in the village of Downe. He wrote, "The flowers are here very beautiful". Darwin followed the recommendation of his friend, the leading botanist Robert Brown, and read Das entdeckte Geheimnis der Natur im Bau und in der Befruchtung der Blumen (The Secret of Nature in the Form and Fertilisation of Flowers Discovered). The little known book, published in 1793 by Christian Konrad Sprengel but never translated into English, introduced the idea that flowers were created by God to fulfill a teleological purpose: insects would act as "living brushes" to cross-fertilise plants in a symbiotic relationship. This functional view was rejected and mostly forgotten, as it contradicted the common belief that flowers had been created for beauty, and were generally self-fertilising. For Darwin, the concept of evolution gave new meaning to Sprengel's research into the mechanisms for cross-fertilisation. He welcomed its support for his supposition that cross-fertilisation in flowering plants tended to allow their offspring to avoid possible disadvantages resulting from self-fertilisation, and by 1845 he had verified many of Sprengel's observations. A favourite walk took


id: fertilisation-of-orchids-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertilisation_of_Orchids-2.md
category: reference
title: Fertilisation of Orchids
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertilisation_of_Orchids
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:38.882356+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fertilisation-of-orchids-20260505-0
summary:
During 1861, botany became a preoccupation for Darwin, and his projects became serious scientific pursuits. He continued his study of orchids throughout the summer, writing to anyone who might be able to supply specimens he had not yet examined. Field naturalists, botanists, and country gentry sent specimens from across the British Isles. Darwin also tramped around the countryside with tin cans and biscuit boxes, collecting specimens which his gardeners potted up for him. His family joined in, and neighbours contributed to the research. As he had only a cold greenhouse, a friend on the other side of the village who had a hot-house allowed him to use that, and offered the services of his gardener to look after the delicate specimens. Darwin's aim was to show how the complex structures and life cycles of the plants could be explained by natural selection rather than by the handiwork of God; he saw the huge variety of flowers as a collection of ad hoc evolutionary adaptations. In June he described his examination of bee orchids as a passion, and his findings on insect fertilisation of orchids as "beautiful facts". There were several replies to Darwin's enquiry in The Gardeners' Chronicle seeking evidence


id: fertilisation-of-orchids-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertilisation_of_Orchids-3.md
category: reference
title: Fertilisation of Orchids
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertilisation_of_Orchids
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:38.882356+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fertilisation-of-orchids-20260505-0
summary:
The orchid book was delayed because of illness, but Darwin continued to "look at it as a hobby-horse, which has given me great pleasure to ride". He was particularly astounded by the long spur of the Angraecum sesquipedale flowers, one of the orchids sent by the distinguished horticulturist James Bateman, and wrote to Hooker "Good Heavens what insect can suck it[?]" By November, a specimen of the exotic South American Catasetum orchid Hooker had given to Darwin had shown its "truly marvellous" mechanism, by which it shot out a pollinium at any insect touching a part of the flower "with sticky gland always foremost". This plant had astonished botanists in 1836 when Robert Hermann Schomburgk stated that he had seen one plant growing three distinct flowers which usually grew separately and had wrongly been categorised as three distinct genera, namely Catasetum tridentatum, Monachanthus viridis, and Myanthus barbatus. John Lindley had remarked that "such cases shake to the foundation all our ideas of the stability of genera and species." One of Darwin's correspondents told of delight at growing a beautiful specimen of Myanthus barbatus imported from Demerara, then dismay when the plant flowered the next year as a simple Catasetum. In


id: fertilisation-of-orchids-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertilisation_of_Orchids-4.md
category: reference
title: Fertilisation of Orchids
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertilisation_of_Orchids
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:38.882356+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fertilisation-of-orchids-20260505-0
summary:
A poet might imagine, that whilst the pollinia are borne from flower to flower through the air, adhering to a moth's body, they voluntarily and eagerly place themselves, in each case, in that exact position in which alone they can hope to gain their wish and perpetuate their race. This is followed by descriptions of the differences in the mechanisms of several other orchids. In Orchis pyramidalis, the adhesive balls are combined into a strap or saddle shape, which curls round the thin proboscis of a moth or butterfly to attach to it the pair of pollen masses, illustrated in the book by figure 4 showing a moth's head with seven pairs of pollen masses attached to its proboscis. While the bee orchid showed adaptation for self-fertilisation, its mechanism also enabled occasional cross-fertilisation, creating the biological diversity that Darwin felt was needed for vigorous survival, which could not be provided by self-fertilisation. As an example of "how beautifully everything is contrived", Darwin described how he had found that in Spiranthes flowers the pollen is ready for collection before access is open for the female organ to receive pollen. At Torquay he had watched bees visiting spires of these flowers, starting


id: fertilisation-of-orchids-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertilisation_of_Orchids-5.md
category: reference
title: Fertilisation of Orchids
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertilisation_of_Orchids
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:38.882356+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fertilisation-of-orchids-20260505-0
summary:
=== Final chapter === Darwin noted that the essential nectar, secreted to attract insects, seemed also in some cases to act as an excretion: "It is in perfect accordance with the scheme of nature, as worked out by natural selection, that matter excreted to free the system from superfluous or injuring substances should be utilised for purposes of the highest importance." Homologies of the flowers of orchids showed them all to be based on "fifteen groups of vessels, arranged three within three, in alternating order". He disparaged the idea that this was an "ideal type" fixed by the Omnipotent Creator, but attributed it instead to its "descent from some monocotyledonous plant, which, like so many other plants of the same division, possessed fifteen organs, arranged alternately three within three in five whorls; and that the now wonderfully changed structure of the flower is due to a long course of slow modification,—each modification having been preserved which was useful to each plant, during the incessant changes to which the organic and the inorganic world has been exposed". Describing the final end state of the whole flower cycle as the production of seed, he set out a simple experiment in which he


id: fertilisation-of-orchids-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertilisation_of_Orchids-6.md
category: reference
title: Fertilisation of Orchids
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertilisation_of_Orchids
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:38.882356+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fertilisation-of-orchids-20260505-0
summary:
Although the book contradicted the prevailing natural theology and its teleological approach to design in nature, the Saturday Review thought that it would avoid the angry polemics aroused by On the Origin of Species. The Literary Churchman welcomed "Mr. Darwin's expression of admiration at the contrivances in orchids", only complaining that it was too indirect a way of saying "O Lord, how manifold are Thy works!" (Psalm 104:24) Darwin regarded these theological views as irritating misunderstandings, but wrote to Asa Gray describing his approach as a "flank movement on the enemy". By showing that the "wonderful contrivances" of the orchid have discoverable evolutionary histories, Darwin was countering claims by natural theologians that the organisms were examples of the perfect work of the Creator. There was considerable controversy surrounding Darwin's prediction that a moth would be found in Madagascar with a long proboscis matching the nectary of Angraecum sesquipedale. An anonymous article in the Edinburgh Review of October 1862 by George Campbell, 8th Duke of Argyll, argued that Darwin's wording implied purpose, and concluded that "We know, too, that these purposes and ideas are not our own, but the ideas and purposes of Another." He considered Darwin's explanations the "most unsatisfactory


id: fertilisation-of-orchids-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertilisation_of_Orchids-7.md
category: reference
title: Fertilisation of Orchids
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertilisation_of_Orchids
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:38.882356+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fertilisation-of-orchids-20260505-0
summary:
For some years before 1862 I had specially attended to the fertilisation of our British orchids; and it seemed to me the best plan to prepare as complete a treatise on this group of plants as well as I could, rather than to utilise the great mass of matter which I had slowly collected with respect to other plants. My resolve proved a wise one; for since the appearance of my book, a surprising number of papers and separate works on the fertilisation of all kinds of flowers have appeared; and these are far better done than I could possibly have effected. The merits of poor old Sprengel, so long overlooked, are now fully recognised many years after his death. Among the many prominent biologists who began research on coevolution, Hermann Müller was particularly interested in the evolutionary sequence in which insects and flowers became adapted to each other. Like Darwin, he began with the premise that flowers were adapted to ensure cross-fertilisation, and added his own premise that most insects were not "limited by hereditary instinct to particular flowers". On this basis, he developed the view that specialisation develops from the need for flowers to attract pollinating insects (without


id: fertilisation-of-orchids-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertilisation_of_Orchids-8.md
category: reference
title: Fertilisation of Orchids
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertilisation_of_Orchids
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:38.882356+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fertilisation-of-orchids-20260505-0
summary:
Darwin had "found the study of orchids eminently useful in showing me how nearly all parts of the flower are coadapted for fertilisation by insects, & therefore the result of n. selection,—even most trifling details of structure". His own interest in orchids and in fertilisation of plants by insects continued. Darwin had been given the use of a hot-house at The Rookery on the other side of the village, and at the end of 1862 he was persuaded by this neighbour's helpful gardener to have his own built at Down House as an extension to the existing cold lean-to greenhouse. The gardener drew up plans, and Darwin investigated stoves and ventilation devices. When it was completed in February 1863 he asked Hooker for some plants from Kew Gardens, writing "I long to stock it, just like a school-boy", and sent his butler with a cart. When over 160 different plants were delivered, Darwin made apologetic remarks about depleting the national collection. He told Hooker "You cannot imagine what pleasure your plants give me ... Henrietta & I go & gloat over them." Darwin's life was changed by having a warm hothouse to spend time in before his walk round the


id: fields-virology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fields_Virology-0.md
category: reference
title: Fields Virology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fields_Virology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:40.085413+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fields-virology-20260505-0
summary:
Fields Virology is an English-language virology textbook, originally it was published in two volumes and edited by Bernard N. Fields. The first edition in 1985 was called Virology, but from the second edition, the book's title was changed to Fields Virology. The book is widely regarded as an influential work on the subject and is cited as the "bible of virology" by many virologists. Fields was the senior editor for the first three editions of the textbook. After his death in 1995, subsequent editions have retained his name in the title. The sixth edition was published in 2013 by Wolters Kluwer under the Lippincott Williams & Wilkins imprint and it was edited by David M. Knipe and Peter M. Howley. Volume 1 (of 4) of the seventh edition was published in 2020. The fourth volume including ebook was published in June 2023. == References ==


id: figments-of-reality-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figments_of_Reality-0.md
category: reference
title: Figments of Reality
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figments_of_Reality
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:41.241633+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: figments-of-reality-20260505-0
summary:
Figments of Reality: The Evolution of the Curious Mind (1997) is a book about the evolution of the intelligent and conscious human mind by biologist Jack Cohen and mathematician Ian Stewart. == Overview == In this book Cohen and Stewart give their ideas on how the sentient human being evolved. Various chapters discuss scientific and philosophical ideas such as emergence and chaos, free will, perception versus reality, objectivity versus subjectivity, self-awareness, the ego and id, groupthink, and extelligence. A theme is that the traditional reductionist approach of trying to understand things as interaction of simpler things can not alone explain such complex concepts as intelligence or culture. To better understand them one has to consider also the context in which they have evolved and the fact that the evolution is a recursive process, often changing the context so that previously unseen evolutionary paths became available. The authors claim that intelligence is an inevitable result of letting evolution progress for long enough. Topics are illustrated with humorous science fiction snippets dealing with a hypothetical alien intelligence, the Zarathustrians, whom Cohen and Stewart use as metaphors of the human mind itself, an alternative evolution story, and various philosophical concepts. == References ==


id: fuzz-when-nature-breaks-the-law-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuzz:_When_Nature_Breaks_the_Law-0.md
category: reference
title: Fuzz: When Nature Breaks the Law
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuzz:_When_Nature_Breaks_the_Law
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:42.363919+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fuzz-when-nature-breaks-the-law-20260505-0
summary:
Fuzz: When Nature Breaks the Law is a 2021 nonfiction book by Mary Roach. Published by W. W. Norton & Company, it details the "curious science of human-wildlife conflict." In the book, Roach details many ways humans have tried, often unsuccessfully, to handle animals that might harm humans or damage crops and livestock. The work mostly follows her first-hand accounts of wildlife researchers on the job. For example, Roach follows Colorado Parks and Wildlife when they get called in after bears break into restaurant dumpsters late at night (a hyperphagic black bear, Roach notes, can consume double or triple its usual amount of calories), she tags along as the Wildlife Institute of India holds meetings to warn residents about migrating elephants (for an elephant that smells something delicious, small things like doors and walls don't get in their way), and she visits Vatican City to witness lasers set up to guard Easter flowers, after a famous 2017 debacle where gulls destroyed the arrangements. Interspersed throughout the book is a history of previous efforts to handle species considered pests, often with poison or explosives. For example, she notes that between 1934 and 1945, an estimated 3.8 million crows were killed in


id: god-apes-and-fossil-men-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God-Apes_and_Fossil_Men-0.md
category: reference
title: God-Apes and Fossil Men
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God-Apes_and_Fossil_Men
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:43.516783+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: god-apes-and-fossil-men-20260505-0
summary:
God-Apes and Fossil Men is a book on paleoanthropology in the Indian subcontinent by Kenneth A.R. Kennedy (Ann Arbor, 2000). The book is a detailed study of the history of Indian paleoanthropology and of the fossil record of prehistoric people of the Indian Subcontinent. == Contents == The fifth chapter is about the prehistoric God-Apes of the Siwalik hills. Other chapters describe the fossil hominids of the Pleistocene. The Mesolithic skeletal record is also described, and the last chapters treat the Harappan civilization and the Megalith builders. == References == == External links == Publisher announcement Review by Lynne A. Schepartz


id: good-natured-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_Natured-0.md
category: reference
title: Good Natured
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_Natured
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:44.657322+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: good-natured-20260505-0
summary:
Good Natured is a book by primatologist Frans de Waal on animal behavior and the evolution of ethics. == Publishing history == The book was published in 1996 by Harvard University Press under the full title Good Natured: The Origins of Right and Wrong in Humans and Other Animals. Much of the book details observations of primate behavior, especially that of chimpanzees and bonobos. On the final page, he concludes: We seem to be reaching a point at which science can wrest morality from the hands of philosophers. That this is already happening—albeit largely at a theoretical level—is evident from recent books by, among others, Richard D. Alexander, Robert Frank, James Q. Wilson, and Robert Wright (journalist). The occasional disagreements within this budding field are far outweighed by the shared belief that evolution needs to be part of any satisfactory explanation of morality. … It takes up space in our heads, it reaches out to fellow human beings, and it is as much a part of what we are as the tendencies that it holds in check. == Notes == == References == Frans, de Waal (1996). Good Natured: The Origins of Right and Wrong in Humans and Other Animals.


id: the-goodness-paradox-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Goodness_Paradox-0.md
category: reference
title: The Goodness Paradox
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Goodness_Paradox
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:45.807693+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-goodness-paradox-20260505-0
summary:
The Goodness Paradox: The Strange Relationship Between Virtue and Violence in Human Evolution is a book by British primatologist Richard Wrangham. Wrangham argues that humans have domesticated themselves by a process of self-selection similar to the selective breeding of foxes described by Dmitry Belyayev, a theory first proposed by Johann Friedrich Blumenbach in the early 1800s. Charles Darwin disagreed, as have most evolutionary biologists since. According to paleoanthropologist John D. Hawks, Wrangham follows scholars including Kenneth A. Dodge in dividing human aggression into two types. The first type, "reactive aggression", is when individuals attack in response to provocation. The second type, "proactive aggression", is planned, premeditated, and involves deliberate tactical strikes. To explain his idea, Wrangham invited readers to imagine a commercial airline flight. Other primates crowded into such a space would react by, in Hawks' words, "ripping one another limb from limb". Humans do not because they have a comparatively very low tendency to reactive aggression. Proactive aggression, by contrast, is so highly developed in humans that we must put elaborate security measures in place to prevent others from carrying out plans to bring the plane down. Wrangham offers a new perspective on a topic that has been investigated


id: grossology-book-series-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grossology_(book_series)-0.md
category: reference
title: Grossology (book series)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grossology_(book_series)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:46.945712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: grossology-book-series-20260505-0
summary:
Grossology (ISBN 0-201-40964-X) is a non-fiction children's book written by Sylvia Branzei and published by Price Stern Sloan in 1992. It is a frank, thorough, yet light-hearted examination of various unappealing bodily functions and medical conditions. The topics are organized into three categories: “Slimy Mushy Oozy Gross Things,” (vomit, diarrhea, urine, acne, blisters, etc.); “Crusty Scaly Gross Things,” (dandruff, tooth decay, etc.); and “Stinky Smelly Gross Things,” (halitosis, flatulence, etc.). The text is also accompanied by many humorous illustrations, which were provided by Jack Keely. Grossology spawned several sequels, most notably Animal Grossology (ISBN 0-201-95994-1) and Grossology Begins at Home (ISBN 0-201-95993-3), both written and illustrated by Branzei and Keely. Animal Grossology, published in 1996, is an exploration of various organisms that either produce or consume unappealing substances. It is divided into four sections: “Vomit Munchers” (flies, starfish, etc.); “Blood Slurpers” (leeches, ticks, etc.); “Slime Makers” (hagfish, slime mold, sea cucumbers, etc.); and “Dookie Lovers” (tapeworms, dung beetles, etc.). Grossology Begins at Home, published in 1997, focuses on the hidden germs and unseen pests that thrive in a typical house. One of the highlights of this book is a chapter on Defect Action Levels, the acceptable amounts of animal contaminants


id: the-growth-of-biological-thought-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Growth_of_Biological_Thought-0.md
category: reference
title: The Growth of Biological Thought
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Growth_of_Biological_Thought
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:48.130829+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-growth-of-biological-thought-20260505-0
summary:
The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance is a book written by Ernst Mayr, first published in 1982 by Belknap Press and is as much a book of philosophy and history as it is of biology. It is a sweeping, academic study of the first 2,400 years of the science of biology. It focuses largely on how the philosophical assumptions of biologists influenced and limited their understanding. It includes many important general observations about the role of philosophy in scientific inquiry and the place of biology amongst the sciences. == Reception == Horace Freeland Judson praised the book for its extremely extensive coverage which he likened to an encyclopaedia. He commended the book for examining through the lens of evolution the discipline whose central theory is the theory of evolution, writing that it "turns the scholarly component of Darwinian method reflexively onto the evolution of the very disciplines that make up evolutionary theory". == References == == External links == The Growth of Biological Thought - Google Books


id: gulp-adventures-on-the-alimentary-canal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulp:_Adventures_on_the_Alimentary_Canal-0.md
category: reference
title: Gulp: Adventures on the Alimentary Canal
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulp:_Adventures_on_the_Alimentary_Canal
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:49.285281+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gulp-adventures-on-the-alimentary-canal-20260505-0
summary:
Gulp: Adventures on the Alimentary Canal is a nonfiction work by science author Mary Roach, published in April 2013 by W.W. Norton & Company. == Topics covered == The book covers 17 topics: Nose Job: Tasting has little to do with taste I'll Have the Putrescine: Your pet is not like you. Liver and Opinions: Why we eat what we eat and despise the rest The Longest Meal: Can thorough chewing lower the national debt? Hard to Stomach: The acid relationship of William Beaumont and Alexis St. Martin. Spit Gets a Polish: Someone ought to bottle the stuff A Bolus of Cherries: Life at the oral processing lab Big Gulp: How to survive being swallowed alive Dinner's Revenge: Can the eaten eat back? Stuffed: The science of eating yourself to death Up Theirs: The alimentary canal as criminal accomplice Inflammable You: Fun with hydrogen and methane Dead Man's Bloat: And other diverting tales from the history of flatulence research. Smelling a Rat: Does noxious flatus do more than clear a room? Eating Backward: Is the digestive tract a two-way street? I'm All Stopped Up: Elvis Presley's megacolon, and other ruminations on death by constipation. The Ick Factor: We can cure


id: how-the-snake-lost-its-legs-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_the_Snake_Lost_Its_Legs-0.md
category: reference
title: How the Snake Lost Its Legs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_the_Snake_Lost_Its_Legs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:51.528717+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: how-the-snake-lost-its-legs-20260505-0
summary:
How the Snake Lost Its Legs: Curious Tales from the Frontier of Evo-Devo is a 2014 book on evolutionary developmental biology by Lewis I. Held, Jr. The title pays homage to Rudyard Kipling's Just So Stories, but the "tales" are strictly scientific, explaining how a wide range of animal features evolved, in molecular detail. The book has been admired by other biologists as both accurate and accessible. == Context == Lewis Irving Held, Jr. is a professor of developmental genetics at Texas Tech University. His laboratory is known for its research on pattern formation in the fruit fly embryo. His books on evolutionary developmental biology (evo-devo) include Imaginal Discs: The Genetic and Cellular Logic of Pattern Formation (2002), Quirks of Human Anatomy: An Evo-Devo Look at the Human Body (2009), and Deep Homology? Uncanny Similarities of Humans and Flies Uncovered by Evo-Devo (2017). In Held's view, Quirks, Snake, and Deep Homology form a trilogy on evo-devo. == Book == === Contents === How the Snake Lost Its Legs is ostensibly organised into six chapters, but in effect into three parts. The first chapter serves as an introduction and overview. The next four chapters provide what Held calls "the meatier aspects


id: human-biology-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Biology_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Human Biology (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Biology_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:52.702095+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: human-biology-book-20260505-0
summary:
Human Biology is a basic biology textbook published in 1993 by Jones & Bartlett Learning. It has been recognized as a "good introductory text" for students without a strong scientific background. == References == == External links == Human Biology


id: kunstformen-der-natur-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunstformen_der_Natur-0.md
category: reference
title: Kunstformen der Natur
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunstformen_der_Natur
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:53.932600+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kunstformen-der-natur-20260505-0
summary:
Kunstformen der Natur (known in English as Art Forms in Nature) is a book of lithographic and halftone prints by German biologist Ernst Haeckel. == Publication == Originally published in sets of ten between 1899 and 1904 and collectively in two volumes in 1904, it consists of 100 prints of various organisms, many of which were first described by Haeckel himself. Over the course of his career, over 1000 prints were produced based on Haeckel's sketches and watercolors; many of the best of these were chosen for Kunstformen der Natur, translated from sketch to print by lithographer Adolf Giltsch. A second edition of Kunstformen, containing only 30 prints, was produced in 1914. == Themes == According to Haeckel scholar Olaf Breidbach, the work was "not just a book of illustrations but also the summation of his view of the world." The over-riding themes of the Kunstformen plates are symmetry and level of organization. The subjects were selected to embody these to the full, from the scale patterns of boxfishes to the spirals of ammonites to the perfect symmetries of jellies and microorganisms, while images composing each plate are arranged for maximum visual impact. Among the notable prints are numerous radiolarians,


id: list-of-books-about-mushrooms-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_books_about_mushrooms-0.md
category: reference
title: List of books about mushrooms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_books_about_mushrooms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:55.034027+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-books-about-mushrooms-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of published books about mushrooms and mycology, including their history in relation to man, their identification, their usage as food and medicine, and their ecology. == Identification guides == These are larger works that may be hard to take on a hike but help with in depth identification after mushroom hunting. Kuo, Michael (2005). Morels. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0472030361. Pacioni, Giovanni (1981). Simon and Schuster's Guide to Mushrooms. New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0671428495. Stamets, Paul (1978). Psilocybe Mushrooms & Their Allies. Seattle Berkeley, Calif: Homestead Book Co. Distributed nationally by And/Or Press. ISBN 0-930180-03-8. Stamets, Paul (1996). Psilocybin Mushrooms of the World: An Identification Guide. Berkeley, Calif: Ten Speed Press. ISBN 0-89815-839-7. === Europe === These are identification guides relevant only to Europe. Bondartsev, A.S. (1971). The Polyporaceae of the European USSR and Caucasia. Jerusalem, Israel: Program for Scientific Translations. OCLC 204648. Breitenbach, J (1984). Fungi of Switzerland. Mad River Press. ISBN 978-0916422479. Kavina, Karel (1934). Atlas des Champignons de l'Europe (in French). Praha: Chez les éditeurs. OCLC 3065296.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link) Lange, Jakob (1983). Guide des Champignons (in French). Neuchâtel: Delachaux et Niestle. ISBN 9782603004692. Lange,


id: list-of-books-about-mushrooms-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_books_about_mushrooms-1.md
category: reference
title: List of books about mushrooms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_books_about_mushrooms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:55.034027+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-books-about-mushrooms-20260505-0
summary:
=== Field guides === These are identification guides small enough to take with you while mushroom hunting or on a hike. Arora, David (1991). All That the Rain Promises and More...: A Hip Pocket Guide to Western Mushrooms. Berkeley: Ten Speed Press. ISBN 978-0-89815-388-0. Marrone, Teresa (2016). Mushrooms of the Northeast: A Simple Guide to Common Mushrooms. Cambridge, MN: Adventure Publications. ISBN 978-1591935919. Marrone, Teresa (2014). Mushrooms of the Upper Midwest: A Simple Guide to Common Mushrooms. Cambridge, Minnesota: Adventure Publications, Inc. ISBN 978-1591934172. Lincoff, Gary (1981). National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Mushrooms. New York: Knopf Distributed by Random House. ISBN 978-0394519920. Smith, Alexander and Weber, Nancy (1980). The Mushroom Hunter's Field Guide. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-85610-7. Russel, Bill. (2006). Field Guide to Wild Mushrooms of Pennsylvania and the Mid-Atlantic. University Park, PA. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-271-02891-2. == Cultivation == These are books about growing mushrooms and fungiculture. Cotter, Tradd (2014). Organic Mushroom Farming and Mycoremediation: Simple to Advanced and Experimental Techniques for Indoor and Outdoor Cultivation. White River Junction, Vermont: Chelsea Green Publishing. ISBN 978-1603584555. Oss, O. T. (1991). Psilocybin: Magic Mushroom Grower's Guide: A Handbook for Psilocybin Enthusiasts.


id: mathematical-biology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_Biology-0.md
category: reference
title: Mathematical Biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_Biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:56.209611+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mathematical-biology-20260505-0
summary:
Mathematical Biology is a two-part monograph on mathematical biology first published in 1989 by the applied mathematician James D. Murray. It is considered to be a classic in the field and sweeping in scope. == Part I: An Introduction == Part I of Mathematical Biology covers population dynamics, reaction kinetics, oscillating reactions, and reaction-diffusion equations. Chapter 1: Continuous Population Models for Single Species Chapter 2: Discrete Population Models for a Single Species Chapter 3: Models for Interacting Populations Chapter 4: Temperature-Dependent Sex Determination (TSD) Chapter 5: Modelling the Dynamics of Marital Interaction: Divorce Prediction and Marriage Repair Chapter 6: Reaction Kinetics Chapter 7: Biological Oscillators and Switches Chapter 8: BZ Oscillating Reactions Chapter 9: Perturbed and Coupled Oscillators and Black Holes Chapter 10: Dynamics of Infectious Diseases Chapter 11: Reaction Diffusion, Chemotaxis, and Nonlocal Mechanisms Chapter 12: Oscillator-Generated Wave Phenomena Chapter 13: Biological Waves: Single-Species Models Chapter 14: Use and Abuse of Fractals == Part II: Spatial Models and Biomedical Applications == Part II of Mathematical Biology focuses on pattern formation and applications of reaction-diffusion equations. Topics include: predator-prey interactions, chemotaxis, wound healing, epidemic models, and morphogenesis. Chapter 1: Multi-Species Waves and Practical Applications Chapter 2: Spatial Pattern Formation with


id: the-mathematics-of-life-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mathematics_of_Life-0.md
category: reference
title: The Mathematics of Life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mathematics_of_Life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:57.378085+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-mathematics-of-life-20260505-0
summary:
The Mathematics of Life is a 2011 popular science book by mathematician Ian Stewart, on the increasing role of mathematics in biology. == Overview == Stewart discusses the mathematics behind such topics as population growth, speciation, brain function, chaos theory, game theory, networking, symmetry, and animal coloration, with little recourse to equations. He identifies six revolutions which modernized biology: The invention of the microscope A systematic means of classifying species Evidence of evolution The expansion of the field of genetics The discovery of the structure of DNA The application of new mathematics to biology == Reception == Writer Alex Bellos described The Mathematics of Life as "a testament to the versatility of maths and how it is shaping our understanding of the world." Kirkus Reviews called the book "an ingenious overview of biology with emphasis on mathematical ideas—stimulating but requiring careful reading despite the lack of equations." A review in Notices of the American Mathematical Society noted that the book "does an admirable job of unfolding the mathematics undergirding so much of the research being carried out today in the many fields that comprise the subject of biology." Mathematician and science writer Keith Devlin criticized the book, writing that "readers


id: men-microscopes-and-living-things-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Men,_Microscopes,_and_Living_Things-0.md
category: reference
title: Men, Microscopes, and Living Things
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Men,_Microscopes,_and_Living_Things
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:30:59.007480+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: men-microscopes-and-living-things-20260505-0
summary:
Men, Microscopes, and Living Things is a children's book written by the American author Katherine Shippen and illustrated by Anthony Ravielli. The book was first published in 1955 and is a 1956 Newbery Honor recipient. == Overview == Shippen traces the history of biological thought beginning with Aristotle and followed by Pliny, Linnaeus, Cuvier, Lamarck, Darwin, and several others. The book is 190 pages including a 7-page index. == References ==


id: the-mentality-of-apes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mentality_of_Apes-0.md
category: reference
title: The Mentality of Apes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mentality_of_Apes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:00.215109+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-mentality-of-apes-20260505-0
summary:
Intelligenzprüfungen an Menschenaffen (literally translated: Intelligence tests on great apes) is a book by Wolfgang Köhler published in 1921. The English version called "The Mentality of Apes", translated by Ella Winter, was published in 1925. With the book Köhler showed that chimpanzees could solve problems by insight. The importance of this work was to show there is no absolute dividing line between the human species and their nearest living relative, at least in this respect. The insights of Köhler's book had a profound and lasting impact on studies in psychology, primatology, creativity and many other fields. == Context == Before Köhler's work, the field of comparative psychology was revolutionised by Charles Darwin, proposing evolutionary continuity between humans and other animals. In the 19th century Darwin wrote about the possible reasoning abilities of animals. In the early 20th century, further influential research was among others published by Edward Thorndike, who investigated learning abilities of apes and other animals. The Thorndiken view explained animal intelligence with stimulus-response associations, limiting animal learning to trial and error learning. At the same time Robert Yerkes, studying animals' intelligence and Leonard Hobhouse, who described sudden problem-solving abilities in monkeys, opposed these proposals of Thorndike. Hobhouse's experimental


id: the-mentality-of-apes-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mentality_of_Apes-1.md
category: reference
title: The Mentality of Apes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mentality_of_Apes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:00.215109+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-mentality-of-apes-20260505-0
summary:
== Reception == Gabriel Ruiz and Natividad Sánchez from the University of Seville examined Köhler's experiments in the context of the animal psychology of his time with the aim of assessing the historical significance of Köhler's book. With regard to its reception, the researchers concluded, "The impact and historical relevance of Köhler’s Intelligenzprüfungen an Menschenaffen is utterly undeniable". At first the influence of the book was limited, due to the ongoing war in Europe and the highly specialised nature of the topic. Following the English translation in 1925, the book attracted international attention and interest. Over the course of the 20th century, it became a seminal text in the field of comparative psychology, significantly influencing the study of apes. The increased interest was "followed by nearly a century of German primate research, observations of gorillas in Germany’s sophisticated zoos, and public funding for the study of primates." In other countries, the work of Köhler was built upon by Ivan Pavlov, who replicated the experiments, critiquing them and publishing alternative explanations for ape behaviour. The influence of the book was also the basis for the Jane Goodall's work in primatology in the 1960s. In contrast to Köhler's experiments on chimpanzees in


id: metamorphosis-of-plants-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamorphosis_of_Plants-0.md
category: reference
title: Metamorphosis of Plants
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamorphosis_of_Plants
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:01.366960+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: metamorphosis-of-plants-20260505-0
summary:
Versuch die Metamorphose der Pflanzen zu erklären, known in English as Metamorphosis of Plants, was published by German poet and philosopher Johann Wolfgang von Goethe in 1790. In this work, Goethe essentially discovered the (serially) homologous nature of leaf organs in plants, from cotyledons, to photosynthetic leaves, to the petals of a flower. Although Sir Richard Owen, the British vertebrate anatomist, is generally credited with first articulating a definition of the word "homology" (in 1843), it is clear that Goethe had already arrived at a sophisticated view of homology and transformation (within an idealist morphological perspective) more than fifty years earlier. == See also == Goethean science Phyllody Teratology == External links == Metamorphosis of Plants (poem) in English Versuch die Metamorphose der Pflanzen zu Erklären (Gotha, 1790) The Metamorphosis of Plants, by Zemplén Gábor


id: micrographia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micrographia-0.md
category: reference
title: Micrographia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micrographia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:02.549383+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: micrographia-20260505-0
summary:
Micrographia: or Some Physiological Descriptions of Minute Bodies Made by Magnifying Glasses. With Observations and Inquiries Thereupon is a historically significant book by Robert Hooke about his observations through various lenses. It was the first book to include illustrations of insects and plants as seen through microscopes. Published in January 1665, the first major publication of the Royal Society, it became the first scientific best-seller, inspiring a wide public interest in the new science of microscopy. The book originated the biological term "cell". == Observations == Hooke most famously describes a fly's eye and a plant cell (where he coined that term because plant cells, which are walled, reminded him of the cells of a monastery). Known for its spectacular copperplate of the miniature world, particularly its fold-out plates of insects, the text itself reinforces the tremendous power of the new microscope. The plates of insects fold out to be larger than the large folio itself, the engraving of the louse in particular folding out to four times the size of the book. Although the book is best known for demonstrating the power of the microscope, Micrographia also describes distant planetary bodies, the wave theory of light, the organic origin


category: reference
title: Microscopical researches into the accordance in the structure and growth of animals and plants
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:03.689055+00:00
instance: kb-cron
id:
microscopical-researches-into-the-accordance-in-the-structure-and-growth-of-animals-and-plants-20260505-0

file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscopical_researches_into_the_accordance_in_the_structure_and_growth_of_animals_and_plants-0.md

summary:
Microscopical researches into the accordance in the structure and growth of animals and plants is a famous treatise by Theodor Schwann published in 1839 which officially formulated the basis of the cell theory. The original title was Mikroskopische Untersuchungen über die Uebereinstimmung in der Struktur und dem Wachsthum der Thiere und Pflanzen. The book has been called "a conspicuous milestone in nineteenth century biology" by Karl Sudhoff and "epoch making" By Francis Münzer. The book, originally published in German, was translated to English in 1847 by Henry Spencer Smith in an edition that also contained the treatise Phytogenesis, by Matthias Schleiden. Besides the theoretical work, that Schwann called a "philosophical" section of general anatomy, Schwann provided several plates with drawings of cells and tissues and discussions of observations of other microscopists. == Cell theory == Schwann dedicated a chapter of the treatise to explicitly formulate the cell theory, stating that ("the elementary parts of all tissues are formed of cells” and that “there is one universal principle of development for the elementary parts of organisms... and this principle is in the formation of cells" (Henry Smith's translation, 1847). His book had the goal to prove via observations that the cell

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscopical_researches_into_the_accordance_in_the_structure_and_growth_of_animals_and_plants

parent:
microscopical-researches-into-the-accordance-in-the-structure-and-growth-of-animals-and-plants-20260505-0


id: monad-to-man-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monad_to_Man-0.md
category: reference
title: Monad to Man
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monad_to_Man
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:06.056642+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: monad-to-man-20260505-0
summary:
Monad to Man: the concept of progress in evolutionary biology is a 1996 book about the longstanding idea that evolution is progressive by the philosopher of biology Michael Ruse. It analyses the connection between ideas of progress in culture generally and its application in evolutionary biology. == Summary == Ruse surveys the attitude to progress throughout the history of biology, exploring the connections between the idea of progress and the belief that evolution is progressive (orthogenesis). He argues that from early nineteenth century speculation, Charles Darwin came to suggest that natural selection drove species to "a higher stage of perfection", jumping from relative to absolute progress. In this, Ruse argues, he was followed by many later biologists. Ruse interviews well-known evolutionary biologists such as Ernst Mayr, John Maynard Smith, Stephen Jay Gould, and E. O. Wilson, and both reports their views and gives his own opinion of how progressionist they were. == Illustrations == The book is illustrated with photographs of the major figures, such as Henry Fairfield Osborn and Sewall Wright, and a few drawings such as of the titanothere, an animal used by Osborn to illustrate "orthogenetic evolution beyond the adaptive optimum" There are a few diagrams such


id: monkeyluv-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monkeyluv-0.md
category: reference
title: Monkeyluv
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monkeyluv
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:07.210910+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: monkeyluv-20260505-0
summary:
Monkeyluv: And Other Essays on Our Lives as Animals is a 2005 non-fiction book by Robert Sapolsky. It collects eighteen essays on biological topics previously published by Sapolsky in various magazines, with additional notes and three section introductions. It has been reviewed in The New York Times, Kirkus Reviews, and New Scientist. == References ==


id: monographiae-biologicae-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monographiae_Biologicae-0.md
category: reference
title: Monographiae Biologicae
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monographiae_Biologicae
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:08.355110+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: monographiae-biologicae-20260505-0
summary:
Monographiae Biologicae (ISSN 0077-0639) is a scholarly scientific literature review series, consisting of monographs published by Kluwer Academic Publishers, an imprint of Springer Science+Business Media. The series subject area generally covers ecology, zoology, and biology. More specifically, the book series covers the biogeography of continental areas, including whole continents; differentiated stand-alone ecosystems such as islands, island groups, mountains or mountain chains; aquatic or marine ecosystems such as coastal systems, mangroves, coral reefs, and other related ecosystems. Fresh water environments are also included in this series such as major river basins, lakes, and groups of lakes. Taxonomic studies include the main groups of animals, plants, fungi and the comparative ecology of major biomes. The series continues Physiologia comparata et oecologia, (ISSN 0369-8637). == Abstracting and indexing == This series is indexed by the following services: Bibliography of agriculture (USDA) Biological Abstracts Chemical Abstracts Service GeoRef == References == == External links == Official website


id: thomas-hunt-morgan-bibliography-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Hunt_Morgan_bibliography-0.md
category: reference
title: Thomas Hunt Morgan bibliography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Hunt_Morgan_bibliography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:09.578105+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: thomas-hunt-morgan-bibliography-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of books and monographs by the American geneticist Thomas Hunt Morgan. Morgan produced 22 books on embryology, genetics and evolution. Books are in order by date. Three of Morgan's co-authors have their own articles: Calvin Bridges, Alfred Sturtevant and Hermann Joseph Muller. The Development of the Frog's Egg: An Introduction to Experimental Embryology, New York: Macmillan, 1897. Full text online at [1]. Translated into German by Bernhard Solger and published in 1904 as Die Entwicklung des Froscheies.[2]. Regeneration Columbia University Biological Series, New York: Macmillan, 1901. Full text online at [3]. Evolution and Adaptation, New York: Macmillan, 1903. Full text online at [4]. Experimental Zoology, New York: Macmillan, 1907 Heredity and Sex, New York: Columbia University Press, 1913. Full text online at [5]. The Mechanism of Mendelian Heredity, with A.H. Sturtevant, H.J. Muller and C.B. Bridges, New York:Henry Holt, 1915. Revised and re-issued in 1922. Full text online at [6]. A Critique of the Theory of Evolution, Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 1916. Full text online at [7]. Sex-linked Inheritance in Drosophila, with C.B. Bridges, Washington DC: Carnegie Institution, 1916. Full text online at [8]. The Genetic and the Operative Evidence of Relating to Secondary Sexual


id: mycelium-running-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycelium_Running-0.md
category: reference
title: Mycelium Running
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycelium_Running
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:10.759280+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mycelium-running-20260505-0
summary:
Mycelium Running: How Mushrooms Can Help Save the World is the sixth book written by American mycologist Paul Stamets. In Mycelium Running (Ten Speed Press 2005), Stamets explores the use and applications of fungi in bioremediation—a practice called mycoremediation. Stamets details methods of termite and ant control using nontoxic mycelia, and describes how certain fungi may be able to neutralize anthrax, nerve gas, and smallpox. He includes the following with regard to the mycelium: Is this the largest organism in the world? This 2,400-acre (9.7 km2) site in eastern Oregon had a contiguous growth of mycelium before logging roads cut through it. Estimated at 1,665 football fields in size and 2,200 years old, this one fungus has killed the forest above it several times over, and in so doing has built deeper soil layers that allow the growth of ever-larger stands of trees. Mushroom-forming forest fungi are unique in that their mycelial mats can achieve such massive proportions. == See also == List of books about mushrooms == References ==


id: naples-dioscurides-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naples_Dioscurides-0.md
category: reference
title: Naples Dioscurides
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naples_Dioscurides
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:11.878971+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: naples-dioscurides-20260505-0
summary:
The Naples Dioscurides, in the Biblioteca Nazionale, Naples (MS Suppl. gr. 28), is an early 7th-century secular illuminated manuscript Greek herbal. The book has 172 folios and a page size of 29.7 x 14 cm (11 11/16 x 5 1/2 inches) and the text is a redaction of De Materia Medica by the 1st century Greek military physician Dioscorides, with descriptions of plants and their medicinal uses. Unlike De Materia Medica, the text is arranged alphabetically by plant. The patron who commissioned it and the craftsmen who worked on the manuscript have not been identified. The style of Greek script used in the manuscript indicates that it was probably written in Byzantine-ruled southern Italy, where ancient Greek cultural traditions remained strong, although it is not known exactly where it was produced. The codex derives independently from the same model as the Vienna Dioscurides, which was created ca. 512 for a Byzantine princess, but differs from it significantly. Additionally, in the Naples manuscript, the illustrations occupy the top half of each folio, rather than being full page miniatures as in the Vienna Dioscurides. The script is somewhat rough and uneven, and the painting style of the miniatures less precise and naturalistic


id: naples-dioscurides-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naples_Dioscurides-1.md
category: reference
title: Naples Dioscurides
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naples_Dioscurides
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:11.878971+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: naples-dioscurides-20260505-0
summary:
=== Composition === The composition of the Naples Dioscurides differs greatly from its predecessor, De Materia Medica, and its contemporary, the Vienna Dioscurides. The Vienna Dioscurides is closer to the original text than the Naples Dioscurides. It also predates the Naples Dioscurides by one hundred years. The Vienna Dioscurides retains descriptions of animal and mineral medicine. It also differs in that it includes references to Pedanius Dioscorides through two author portraits, which are absent on the Naples Dioscurides. In fact, other copies of the Dioscurides are all much closer to the original, with only the Naples example as the outlier. Another major difference between the manuscripts is the way they are illustrated. The Naples Dioscurides features illustrations that take up one-half to two-thirds of the page. The uses of the plants are written underneath. The illustrations of the Vienna Dioscurides are full page illustrations, in contrast. A possible reason why the Naples Dioscurides only features plant information may lie with its intended use. Rather than focus on wonderfully illustrated pictures and artistic value, as the Vienna Dioscurides does, the Naples Dioscurides may have had a more practical purpose. A competing explanation for the manuscript states that it was intended as


id: nationalnyckeln-till-sveriges-flora-och-fauna-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalnyckeln_till_Sveriges_flora_och_fauna-0.md
category: reference
title: Nationalnyckeln till Sveriges flora och fauna
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalnyckeln_till_Sveriges_flora_och_fauna
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:13.113610+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nationalnyckeln-till-sveriges-flora-och-fauna-20260505-0
summary:
Nationalnyckeln till Sveriges flora och fauna (Swedish for "National Key to Sweden's Flora and Fauna") is a set of books, the first volume of which, Fjärilar: Dagfjärilar (Butterflies, 140 species), appeared on 25 April 2005. The publishing plan comprises 100,000 illustrations spread over more than 100 volumes, to appear over a period of 20 years, listing and providing popular scientific descriptions of all species of plants (flora) and animals (fauna) in Sweden. So large a work has never been published in the history of Swedish literature. Nationalnyckeln is a popular scientific account produced on contract from the Riksdag by the Swedish Species Information Centre (ArtDatabanken) at the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU) in Uppsala. == References == == External links == Nationalnyckeln, official website SLU Artdatabanken, official website


id: natural-obsessions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_Obsessions-0.md
category: reference
title: Natural Obsessions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_Obsessions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:14.320712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-obsessions-20260505-0
summary:
Natural Obsessions is a book written by American science author Natalie Angier published in 1988. It chronicles a year in the laboratories of two prominent cancer biologists during a period where there was a race to discover and characterize some of the first cancer-causing and cancer-suppressing genes. == Overview == It chronicles the time, about a year, that she spent in the labs of two very prominent cancer biologists, Robert Weinberg and Michael Wigler, during a period where there was a race to discover and characterize some of the first cancer causing and cancer-suppressing genes (oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes, respectively). This book gives insight into the day-to-day working of a top scientific laboratory with no embellishment - both the excitement and thrill of discovery as well as the drudgery and politics can be found in Natural Obsessions. Pressure to find these genes mounts and everyone is scrambling to be the first to announce this major discovery which could have gone to several laboratories. == Commercial and critical reception == Natural Obsessions was reviewed favorably in the New York Times and Smithsonian magazine in the months after its initial publication. The book was named a New York Times Notable Book


id: the-naturalists-handbooks-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Naturalists'_Handbooks-0.md
category: reference
title: The Naturalists' Handbooks
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Naturalists'_Handbooks
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:15.491076+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-naturalists-handbooks-20260505-0
summary:
The Naturalists' Handbooks is a series of natural history books aimed at students, naturalists and ecologists. Most volumes cover topics relating to insects, but some cover other groups of invertebrates, and some are botanical or mycological in scope, and other cover study techniques. The series first handbook, Insects on Nettles was published in 1983. == Volumes == A list of the volumes published to date is: Insects on Nettles by B N K Davis (1991) Grasshoppers by V K Brown (1990) Solitary Wasps by Peter F Yeo and Sarah A Corbet (1995) Insects and Thistles by Margaret Redfern (1995) Hoverflies by Francis S Gilbert (1993) Bumblebees by Oliver E Prys-Jones and Sarah A Corbet (1991) Dragonflies by Peter L Miller (1995) Common Ground Beetles by Trevor G Forsythe (1987) Animals on Seaweed by Peter J Hayward (1998) Ladybirds by Michael Majerus and Peter Kearns (1989) 11 Aphid Predators by Graham E Rotheray (1989) Animals on the Surface Film by Marjorie Guthrie (1989) Mayflies by Janet Harker (1989) Mosquitoes by Keith R Snow (1990) Insects, Plants and Microclimate by D M Unwin and Sarah A Corbet (1991) Weevils by M G Morris (1991) Plant Galls by Margaret Redfern and R R


id: neural-darwinism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_Darwinism-0.md
category: reference
title: Neural Darwinism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_Darwinism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:16.671366+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neural-darwinism-20260505-0
summary:
Neural Darwinism is a biological, and more specifically Darwinian and selectionist, approach to understanding global brain function, originally proposed by American biologist, researcher and Nobel-Prize recipient Gerald Maurice Edelman (July 1, 1929 – May 17, 2014). Edelman's 1987 book Neural Darwinism introduced the public to the theory of neuronal group selection (TNGS), a theory that attempts to explain global brain function. TNGS (also referred to as the theory of neural Darwinism) has roots going back to Edelman and Mountcastle's 1978 book, The Mindful Brain – Cortical Organization and the Group-selective Theory of Higher Brain Function, which describes the columnar structure of the cortical groups within the neocortex, and argues for selective processes operating among degenerate primary repertoires of neuronal groups. The development of neural Darwinism was deeply influenced by work in the fields of immunology, embryology, and neuroscience, as well as Edelman's methodological commitment to the idea of selection as the unifying foundation of the biological sciences. == Introduction to neural Darwinism == Neural Darwinism is really the neural part of the natural philosophical and explanatory framework Edelman employs for much of his work – Somatic selective systems. Neural Darwinism is the backdrop for a comprehensive set of biological hypotheses


id: neural-darwinism-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_Darwinism-1.md
category: reference
title: Neural Darwinism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_Darwinism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:16.671366+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neural-darwinism-20260505-0
summary:
=== Antibodies and NCAM – the emerging understanding of somatic selective systems === Edelman was a medical researcher, physical chemist, immunologist, and aspiring neuroscientist when he was awarded the 1972 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (shared with Rodney Porter of Great Britain). Edelman's part of the prize was for his work revealing the chemical structure of the vertebrate antibody by cleaving the covalent disulfide bridges that join the component chain fragments together, revealing a pair of two-domain light chains and four-domain heavy chains. Subsequent analysis revealed the terminal domains of both chains to be variable domains responsible for antigen recognition. The work of Porter and Edelman revealed the molecular and genetic foundations underpinning how antibody diversity was generated within the immune system. Their work supported earlier ideas about pre-existing diversity in the immune system put forward by the pioneering Danish immunologist Niels K. Jerne (December 23, 1911 – October 7, 1994); as well as supporting the work of Frank MacFarlane Burnet describing how lymphocytes capable of binding to specific foreign antigens are differentially amplified by clonal multiplication of the selected preexisting variants following antigen discovery. Edelman would draw inspiration from the mechano-chemical aspects of antigen/antibody/lymphocyte interaction in relation to


id: neural-darwinism-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_Darwinism-2.md
category: reference
title: Neural Darwinism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_Darwinism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:16.671366+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neural-darwinism-20260505-0
summary:
=== Rejection of computational models, codes, and point-to-point wiring === Edelman was well aware of the earlier debate in immunology between the instructionists, who believed the lymphocytes of the immune system learned or was instructed about the antigen and then devised a response; and the selectionists, who believed that the lymphocytes already contained the response to the antigen within the existing population that was differentially amplified within the population upon contact with the antigen. And, he was well aware that the selectionist had the evidence on their side. Edelman's theoretical approach in Neural Darwinism was conceived of in opposition to top-down algorithmic, computational, and instructionist approaches to explaining neural function. Edelman seeks to turn the problems of that paradigm to advantage instead; thereby highlighting the difference between bottom-up processes like we see in biology vis a vis top-down processes like we see in engineering algorithms. He sees neurons as living organisms working in cooperative and competitive ways within their local ecology and rejects models that see the brain in terms of computer chips or logic gates in an algorithmically organized machine. Edelman's commitment to the Darwinian underpinnings of biology, his emerging understanding of the evolutionary relationships between the two molecules


id: neural-darwinism-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_Darwinism-3.md
category: reference
title: Neural Darwinism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_Darwinism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:16.671366+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neural-darwinism-20260505-0
summary:
Genome-germ (zygotes) – the paternal and maternal gene contributions are recombined in the fertilized egg, along with the maternal endowment of proteins, and mRNAs, and other developmental components, but the individuals newly formed diploid genetic complement is not in control of the zygote yet; it needs to be activated, or bootstrapped, into the zygotes ongoing maternally-inherited metabolism and physiology. Shortly after recombination the zygote proceeds through transformation (T1) to the point where genetic control of the zygote has been handed off to the individual, Phenotype-soma (embryo) – the embryo, which transforms (T2) according to the rules that govern the relationship between the genes, cellular behavior, and the epigenetic contingencies of nature, into Phenotype-soma (adult) – an adult, who procreates (T3) with another individual to bring together a new genetic recombination by each introducing a gamete in the form of Genome-germ (gametes) – sperm and egg, which contain the haploid genetic contribution of each parent which is transformed (T4)... Genome-germ (zygotes) -into a diploid set genes in a fertilized egg, soon to be a newly individual zygote . Lewontin's exploration of these transformations between genomic and phenotypic spaces was in terms of key selection pressures that sculpt the organism over geological


id: neural-darwinism-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_Darwinism-4.md
category: reference
title: Neural Darwinism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_Darwinism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:16.671366+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neural-darwinism-20260505-0
summary:
== TNGS – the theory of neuronal group selection == Edelman's motivation for developing the theory of neuronal group selection (TNGS) was to resolve "a number of apparent inconsistencies in our knowledge of the development, anatomy, and physiological function of the central nervous system." A pressing issue for Edelman was explaining perceptual categorization without reference to a central observing homunculus or "assuming that the world is prearranged in an informational fashion." To free himself of the demands, requirements, and contradictions of information processing model; Edelman proposes that perceptual categorization operates by the selection of neuronal groups organized into variant networks that are differentially amplified of their responses in conjunction with hedonic feedback over the course of experience, from within a massive population of neuronal groups being confronted by a chaotic array of sensory input of differing degrees of significance and relevance to the organism. Edelman outright rejects the notion of a homunculus, describing it as a "close cousin of the developmental electrician and the neural decoder", artifacts of the observer-centralized top-down design logic of information processing approaches. Edelman properly points out that "it is probably a safe guess that most neurobiologists would view the homunculus as well as dualist solutions


id: neural-darwinism-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_Darwinism-5.md
category: reference
title: Neural Darwinism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_Darwinism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:16.671366+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neural-darwinism-20260505-0
summary:
==== Secondary repertoire – experiential selection ==== The second tenet of TNGS regards postnatal events that govern the development of a secondary repertoire of synaptic connectivity between higher-order populations of neuronal groups whose formation is driven by behavioral or experiential selection acting on synaptic populations within and between neuronal groups. Edelman's notion of the secondary repertoire heavily borrows from work of Jean-Pierre Changeux, and his associates Philippe Courrège and Antoine Danchin – and, their theory of selective stabilization of synapses. ===== Synaptic modification ===== Once the basic variegated anatomical structure of the primary repertoire of neuronal groups is laid down, it is more or less fixed. But given the numerous and diverse collection of neuronal group networks, there are bound to be functionally equivalent albeit anatomically non-isomorphic neuronal groups and networks capable of responding to certain sensory input. This creates a competitive environment where neuronal groups proficient in their responses to certain inputs are "differentially amplified" through the enhancement of the synaptic efficacies of the selected neuronal group network. This leads to an increased probability that the same network will respond to similar or identical signals at a future time. This occurs through the strengthening of neuron-to-neuron synapses. These adjustments


id: neural-darwinism-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_Darwinism-6.md
category: reference
title: Neural Darwinism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_Darwinism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:16.671366+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neural-darwinism-20260505-0
summary:
== Reception == An early review of the book Neural Darwinism in The New York Review of Books by Israel Rosenfield invited a lively response on the part of the neurosciences community. Edelman's views would be seen as an attack on the dominant paradigm of computational algorithms in cognitive psychology and computational neuroscience – inviting criticism from many corners. There would be copious complaints about the language difficulty. Some would see Edelman coming across as arrogant, or an interloper into the field of neuroscience, from neighboring molecular biology. There were legitimate arguments raised as to how much experimental and observational data had been gathered in support of the theory at that time. Or, if the theory was even original or not. But more often, rather than dealing with Edelman's critique of computational approaches, the criticism would be centered around whether Edelman's system was a truly proper Darwinian explanation. Nonetheless, Neural Darwinism, both the book and the concept, received fairly broad critical acclaim. One of the most famous critiques of Neural Darwinism would be the 1989 critical review by Francis Crick, Neural Edelmanism. Francis Crick based his criticism on the basis that neuronal groups are instructed by the environment rather than


id: neural-darwinism-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_Darwinism-7.md
category: reference
title: Neural Darwinism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_Darwinism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:16.671366+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neural-darwinism-20260505-0
summary:
Burnet, Frank MacFarlane; Medawar, Peter Brian (1960). "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1960". NobelPrize.org. Calvin, William (June 24, 1988). "Neural Darwinism: The Theory of Neuronal Group Selection". Science. Changeux, Jean-Pierre (1985). Neuronal Man – The Biology of Mind. Translated by Laurence Carey. Pantheon Books, New York. ISBN 0-394-53692-4. Changeux, Jean-Pierre; Courrège, Philippe; Danchin, Antoine (1973). "A theory of the epigenesis of neural networks by selective stabilization of synapses". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 70 (10): 2974–2978. Bibcode:1973PNAS...70.2974C. doi:10.1073/pnas.70.10.2974. PMC 427150. PMID 4517949. Crick, Francis (1989). "Neural Edelmanism". Trends Neurosci. 12 (7): 240–248. doi:10.1016/0166-2236(89)90019-2. PMID 2475933. S2CID 3947768. Darwin, Charles (1859). On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. D. Appleton and Company, New York, 1869. Darwin, Charles (1872). The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals – with a preface by Konrad Lorentz. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago & London, 1965. ISBN 0-226-13656-6. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) Darwin, Charles (1887). The Autobiography of Charles Darwin 1809–1882. With the Original Omissions Restored. Edited and with Appendix and Notes by his Granddaughter Nora Barlow. W.W. Norton & Company, 1969. ISBN 0-393-00487-2. {{cite


id: not-in-our-genes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Not_in_Our_Genes-0.md
category: reference
title: Not in Our Genes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Not_in_Our_Genes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:17.915639+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: not-in-our-genes-20260505-0
summary:
Not in Our Genes: Biology, Ideology and Human Nature is a 1984 book by the evolutionary geneticist Richard Lewontin, the neurobiologist Steven Rose, and the psychologist Leon Kamin, in which the authors criticize sociobiology and genetic determinism and advocate a socialist society. Its themes include the relationship between biology and society, the nature versus nurture debate, and the intersection of science and ideology. The book formed part of a larger campaign against sociobiology. Its authors were praised for their criticism of IQ testing and were complimented by some for their critique of sociobiology. However, they have been criticized for misrepresenting the views of scientists such as the biologist E. O. Wilson and the ethologist Richard Dawkins, for using “determinism” and “reductionism” simply as terms of abuse, and for the influence of Marxism on their views. Critics have seen its authors' conclusions as political rather than scientific. == Summary == Lewontin, Rose and Kamin identify themselves as "respectively an evolutionary geneticist, a neurobiologist, and a psychologist." They criticize biological determinism and reductionism, and state that they share a commitment to the creation of a socialist society and a recognition that "a critical science is an integral part of the struggle to


id: not-in-our-genes-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Not_in_Our_Genes-1.md
category: reference
title: Not in Our Genes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Not_in_Our_Genes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:17.915639+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: not-in-our-genes-20260505-0
summary:
=== Mainstream media === Not in Our Genes received positive reviews from the columnist Gene Lyons in Newsweek and the paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould in The New York Review of Books, a mixed review from the philosopher Philip Kitcher in The New York Times Book Review, and negative reviews from the anthropologist Melvin Konner in Natural History and the biologist Patrick Bateson and the ethologist Richard Dawkins (whom they criticized) in New Scientist. The editors of New Scientist noted that the book would "inevitably attract either extreme criticism or glowing praise" depending on the reviewer's stance on sociobiology, and that they published two reviews to help encourage debate, having approached Dawkins "for the opposition" and Bateson, "who feels that the attack on genetic determinism is justified." The book was reviewed by the psychologist Sandra Scarr in American Scientist, Nathaniel S. Lehrman in The Humanist, and in The Wilson Quarterly and Science News. Lyons described the book as a "spirited, if often repetitive, demolition of sociobiology's pretensions", adding that its authors' arguments were "made doubly impressive" by their "analysis of how the economic determinism of what they call '“vulgar” Marxism' and the spinelessness of 'sociological relativism' have contributed to a climate


id: not-in-our-genes-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Not_in_Our_Genes-2.md
category: reference
title: Not in Our Genes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Not_in_Our_Genes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:17.915639+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: not-in-our-genes-20260505-0
summary:
=== Academic journals === Not in Our Genes received positive reviews from the biologist Peter Medawar in Nature, the geneticist Alan Emery in Trends in Neurosciences, and T. Benton in The Sociological Review, the biologist Franz M. Wuketits in the Journal of Social and Biological Structures, and a mixed review from the anthropologist Vernon Reynolds in Ethnic and Racial Studies. The book was also reviewed by Howard L. Kaye in Society. Medawar described the book as a well-written and "in the main convincing rebuttal of a variety of determinist ideologies that have come to acquire the status of a public nuisance in biology and sociology." He endorsed its authors' criticism of IQ testing and their argument that determinism is an expression of conservative ideology. However, he was less satisfied by their criticism of reductionism, writing that despite its shortcomings reductive analysis was "the most successful research stratagem ever devised in science." He argued that it was also the way of understanding the world that made it easiest to see how it could be changed, something left-wing writers such as the authors of Not in Our Genes should appreciate. Emery welcomed the book as a refreshing attempt to create a more


id: not-in-our-genes-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Not_in_Our_Genes-3.md
category: reference
title: Not in Our Genes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Not_in_Our_Genes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:17.915639+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: not-in-our-genes-20260505-0
summary:
== Criticism == The psychologist David P. Barash criticized Lewontin et al. for unfairly linking sociobiology with "racist eugenics and misguided Social Darwinism." Dawkins accused the authors of misquoting his comment on genes, "they created us, body and mind", by altering "created" to "control". He maintained that genes do not control people in the way that "genetic determinism" suggests and accused Lewontin et al. of failing to understand that genes can "exert a statistical influence on human behavior" but that "this influence can be modified, overridden or reversed by other influences." The biologist Dean Hamer described Not in Our Genes as "a political rather than a scientific book". He expressed his disagreement with its politics. Nevertheless, Hamer commented that it taught him that the genetics of behavior is an emotionally and politically charged topic, especially where it concerns sexuality, and helped motivate him to change fields from metallothionein research to the genetics of homosexuality. The philosopher Daniel Dennett criticized Lewontin et al.′s account of reductionism, calling it "idiosyncratic". He also criticized their claim that memes involve a Cartesian view of the mind, arguing that memes are "a key (central but optional) ingredient in the best alternatives to Cartesian models", and


id: of-moths-and-men-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Of_Moths_and_Men-0.md
category: reference
title: Of Moths and Men
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Of_Moths_and_Men
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:19.077244+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: of-moths-and-men-20260505-0
summary:
Of Moths and Men is a book by journalist Judith Hooper about the Oxford University ecological genetics school led by E.B. Ford. The book specifically concerns Bernard Kettlewell's experiments on the peppered moth which were intended as experimental validation of evolution. She highlights supposed problems with the methodology of Kettlewell's experiments and suggests that these issues could invalidate the results obtained, ignoring or disparaging evidence supporting natural selection while repeatedly implying that Kettlewell and his colleagues committed fraud or made careless errors. Subject matter experts have described the book as presenting a "conspiracy theory" with "errors, misrepresentations, misinterpretations and falsehoods". The evolutionary biologist Michael Majerus spent the last 7 years of his life systematically repeating Kettlewell's experiments, demonstrating that Kettlewell had in fact been correct. == Allegations of poor experimental practice == In the book, Hooper alleges multiple flaws in experimental methodology, including gluing the moths in place on parts of trees where they would not naturally settle, feeding birds heavily enough to condition them to expect feeding at that point, artificially boosting recapture rates, altering experiments (unconsciously) to favour the expected outcome, and errors in statistical analysis. == Rebuttals by experts == The book was described as well-written in


id: on-human-nature-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_Human_Nature-0.md
category: reference
title: On Human Nature
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_Human_Nature
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:20.293240+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: on-human-nature-20260505-0
summary:
On Human Nature (1978; second edition 2004) is a book by the biologist E. O. Wilson, in which the author attempts to explain human nature and society through sociobiology. Wilson argues that evolution has left its traces on characteristics such as generosity, self-sacrifice, worship and the use of sex for pleasure, and proposes a sociobiological explanation of homosexuality. He attempts to complete the Darwinian revolution by bringing biological thought into social sciences and humanities. Wilson describes On Human Nature as a sequel to his earlier books The Insect Societies (1971) and Sociobiology: The New Synthesis (1975). The book won the Pulitzer Prize in 1979. == Summary == === 2004 Preface === The conundrum of human nature, as I and a few others saw it in 1978, can be solved only if scientific explanations embrace both the how (neurosciences) and why (evolutionary biology) of brain action, with the two axes of explanation fitted together. In The Insect Societies (1971), I proposed that a coherent branch of biology might be constructed from a synthesis of social behavior and population biology. In 1975 I expanded the conception of the discipline outlined to include vertebrate animals. The result was Sociobiology: The New Synthesis, a


id: on-human-nature-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_Human_Nature-1.md
category: reference
title: On Human Nature
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_Human_Nature
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:20.293240+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: on-human-nature-20260505-0
summary:
=== Chapter 6. Sex === Sex has evolved because it creates diversity which can cope with a changing environment. The differing roles of the two sexes creates a conflict of interest which varies between species. But how far are the observed cultural differences innate or environmental? Some indication is given by considering the effects of hormone treatments during pregnancy and the equal treatment in the kibbutz movement. The theoreticians of Judaism and Christianity have misinterpreted the biological significance of sex, with the insistence that its primary role is procreation, and particularly in its treatment of homosexuals. Homosexuality is common in many species and may be normal in a biological sense as a form of bonding. === Chapter 7. Altruism === Human cultures value highly those who pay the “ultimate sacrifice”, more than most mammal species and only outperformed by the social insects where kin selection reigns. One needs to distinguish this from “soft-core” altruism where the giver expects something in return. Hard-core altruism is the enemy of civilization. But in humans soft-core altruism has been carried to elaborate extremes. Loyalty to close kin is emotionally important but doesn't always override other issues. === Chapter 8. Religion === Religion is one


id: on-the-beginning-of-human-history-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_the_Beginning_of_Human_History-0.md
category: reference
title: On the Beginning of Human History
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_the_Beginning_of_Human_History
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:21.440279+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: on-the-beginning-of-human-history-20260505-0
summary:
On the Beginning of Human History (Problems of Paleopsychology) is a philosophical and natural-scientific treatise by Soviet historian Boris Fyodorovich Porshnev, dedicated to the problems of anthropogenesis. The initial concept for a book on human prehistory dates back to 1924, although Porshnev directly addressed the topic of the emergence of Homo sapiens in the 1950s in connection with his interest in troglodytidae and the issue of the "snowman". After 1968, the researcher's work was entirely devoted to writing and publishing On the Beginning of Human History, which he considered the main research work of his life. The book presents a complex interdisciplinary study at the intersection of physical anthropology, evolutionary psychology, sociology, philosophy of history, and other disciplines. The "beginning" highlighted in the title was, in the author's view, is a key to the entire complex of sciences about human society and the individual within society, creating a research program. For Porshnev, there was a fundamental distinction between humans and all other animals (an "evolutionary gap"), rooted in creativity, which is absent in any animal, even in rudimentary form. B. F. Porshnev's theory of anthropogenesis centers on the “individual-to-individual” model of interaction rather than the “individual-to-environment” approach. He traced the


id: on-the-beginning-of-human-history-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_the_Beginning_of_Human_History-1.md
category: reference
title: On the Beginning of Human History
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_the_Beginning_of_Human_History
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:21.440279+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: on-the-beginning-of-human-history-20260505-0
summary:
According to Porshnev, ancient humans and troglodytids in a shared environment led to the strengthening of inhibition and prohibition mechanisms — modern humans and Neanderthals coexisted within a single community, with individuals of the former species serving as the primary food source for troglodytes, that led to the establishment of human sacrifices and initiation rituals imitating death in human culture. B. F. Porshnev theorized that gender relations among neoanthropes, including promiscuity, arose from the need to feed paleoanthropes by sacrificing part of their own population. Females produced many offspring, but a large share —likely males— was killed for this purpose. Surviving males formed isolated "provider" groups that "ransomed" neoanthrope young through hunting yields. These biological value differences between male and female neoanthropes, combined with an induced killing instinct, fostered war as a exclusively male pursuit. Wars occurred only among neoanthrope groups, with a taboo against paleoanthropes. The hypothesis described constant separation of females and young from adult males due to hunting mobility demands, preventing reunions. Other males temporarily joined female groups during migrations. Neoanthropes lacked a fixed family structure, instead forming transient associations across groups. Porshnev linked the emergence of cultural prohibitions (interdictions) to their inherent exceptions, rooted in the


id: on-the-beginning-of-human-history-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_the_Beginning_of_Human_History-2.md
category: reference
title: On the Beginning of Human History
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_the_Beginning_of_Human_History
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:21.440279+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: on-the-beginning-of-human-history-20260505-0
summary:
== Theory's origin and development == At the time of writing On the Origin of Human History, B. F. Porshnev was internationally recognized as a specialist in 17th-century French history, though in the USSR he was often seen as a dogmatic Marxist-Leninist or mocked for his yeti research. Porshnev described his interests in the following way:For many years, I have heard caste-based reproaches: why am I dealing with this range of issues when my direct specialty is the history of 17th–18th century Europe? I take this opportunity to correct the misunderstanding: the science of the origin of human history—and, above all, paleopsychology—is my main specialty. If, in addition to this, I have devoted considerable time in my life to history, as well as philosophy, sociology, and political economy, this in no way discredits me in the aforementioned primary field of my research. But the questions of prehistory arise for me in aspects that my colleagues in related specialties do not study.Porshnev dated the concept to the mid-1920s (or 1924 in drafts), envisioning a trilogy with On the Origin… as the middle volume, though archives show the plan solidified in the mid-1960s amid his publications on ancient humans. 1930s manuscripts outlined


id: on-the-movements-and-habits-of-climbing-plants-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_the_Movements_and_Habits_of_Climbing_Plants-0.md
category: reference
title: On the Movements and Habits of Climbing Plants
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_the_Movements_and_Habits_of_Climbing_Plants
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:22.574346+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: on-the-movements-and-habits-of-climbing-plants-20260505-0
summary:
On the Movements and Habits of Climbing Plants is a book by Charles Darwin first printed in book form in 1875 by John Murray. Originally, the text appeared as an essay in the 9th volume of the Journal of the Linnean Society, therefore the first edition in book form is actually called the ‘second edition, revised.’ Illustrations were drawn by Charles Darwin’s son, George Darwin. Following the 1859 publication of Origin of Species Darwin set out to produce evidence for his theory of natural selection. Initially Darwin spent much time in studying plants to achieve this aim. This book stands second in line to his first work on plants, On the various contrivances by which British and foreign orchids are fertilised by insects. (1862) This work is subdivided into chapters concentrating on a particular type of climber which he divided into four main classes but Darwin, in this volume, concentrates on the two main classes, the twining plants and the leaf climbers (divided into two sub-divisions: leaf climbers and tendril bearers) The following comprise the chapters: 1. Twining plants 2. Leaf climbers 3 & 4.Tendril bearers 5. Hook and Root climbers. == Context == Inspired by reading an 1858 short


id: origination-of-organismal-form-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origination_of_Organismal_Form-0.md
category: reference
title: Origination of Organismal Form
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origination_of_Organismal_Form
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:24.926590+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: origination-of-organismal-form-20260505-0
summary:
Origination of Organismal Form: Beyond the Gene in Developmental and Evolutionary Biology is an anthology published in 2003 edited by Gerd B. Müller and Stuart A. Newman. The book is the outcome of the 4th Altenberg Workshop in Theoretical Biology on "Origins of Organismal Form: Beyond the Gene Paradigm", hosted in 1999 at the Konrad Lorenz Institute for Evolution and Cognition Research. It has been cited over 200 times and has a major influence on extended evolutionary synthesis research. == Description of the book == The book explores the multiple factors that may have been responsible for the origination of biological form in multicellular life. These biological forms include limbs, segmented structures, and different body symmetries. It explores why the basic body plans of nearly all multicellular life arose in the relatively short time span of the Cambrian Explosion. The authors focus on physical factors (structuralism) other than changes in an organism's genome that may have caused multicellular life to form new structures. These physical factors include differential adhesion of cells and feedback oscillations between cells. The book also presents recent experimental results that examine how the same embryonic tissues or tumor cells can be coaxed into forming dramatically different


id: oxford-dictionary-of-biology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_Dictionary_of_Biology-0.md
category: reference
title: Oxford Dictionary of Biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_Dictionary_of_Biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:26.175388+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: oxford-dictionary-of-biology-20260505-0
summary:
Oxford Dictionary of Biology (often abbreviated to ODB) is a multiple editions dictionary published by the English Oxford University Press. With more than 5,500 entries, it contains comprehensive information in English on topics relating to biology, biophysics, and biochemistry. The first edition was published in 1985 as A Concise Dictionary of Biology. The seventh edition, A Dictionary of Biology, was published in 2015 and it was edited by Robert Hine and Elizabeth Martin. Robert Hine studied at King's College London and University of Aberdeen and since 1984 he has contributed to numerous journals and books. == Digital and on-line availability == The sixth and seventh editions of the ODB are available online for members of subscribed institutions and for subscribed individuals via Oxford Reference. == Editions == The first edition of Oxford Dictionary of Biology was first published in 1985 and the seventh edition in 2015. == References == == External links == Oxford Reference Online


id: parasite-rex-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasite_Rex-0.md
category: reference
title: Parasite Rex
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasite_Rex
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:27.343842+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: parasite-rex-20260505-0
summary:
Parasite Rex: Inside the Bizarre World of Nature's Most Dangerous Creatures is a nonfiction book by Carl Zimmer that was published by Free Press in 2000. The book discusses the history of parasites on Earth and how the field and study of parasitology formed, along with a look at the most dangerous parasites ever found in nature. A special paperback edition was released in March 2011 for the tenth anniversary of the book's publishing, including a new epilogue written by Zimmer. Signed bookplates were also given to fans that sent in a photo of themselves with a copy of the special edition. The cover of Parasite Rex includes a scanning electron microscope image of a tick as the focus, along with illustrations in the centerfold of parasites and topics discussed in the book. == Content == The book begins by discussing the history of parasites in human knowledge, from the earliest writings about them in ancient cultures, up through modern times. The focus comes to rest extensively on the views and experiments conducted by scientists in the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, such as those done by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, Japetus Steenstrup, Friedrich Küchenmeister, and Ray Lankester. Among them, Leeuwenhoek


id: patterns-of-sexual-behavior-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patterns_of_Sexual_Behavior-0.md
category: reference
title: Patterns of Sexual Behavior
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patterns_of_Sexual_Behavior
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:28.484178+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patterns-of-sexual-behavior-20260505-0
summary:
Patterns of Sexual Behavior is a 1951 book by anthropologist Clellan S. Ford and ethologist Frank A. Beach, in which the authors integrate information about human sexual behavior from different cultures, and include detailed comparisons across animal species, with particular emphasis on primates. The book received positive reviews and has been called a classic. It provided the foundation for the later research of Masters and Johnson. == Summary == Ford and Beach employ a "cross-cultural correlational method" in exploring sexual behavior, a statistical approach suitable for distinguishing behavioral trends and making generalizations. They integrate information from 191 cultures: 47 from Oceania, 28 from Eurasia, 33 from Africa, 57 from North America, and 26 from South America. Much of their data was collected in the Human Relations Area Files, a cross-institutional organization co-founded by Ford. They offer information on such topics as "sexual positions, length (time) of intercourse, locations for intercourse, orgasm experiences, types of foreplay, courting behaviors, frequencies of intercourse [and] methods of attracting a partner." They cover homosexuality in both humans and other animals, citing evidence of accepted homosexual behavior in 49 of the 76 cultures for which the relevant data were available. Ford and Beach conclude that there


id: phycologia-australica-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phycologia_Australica-0.md
category: reference
title: Phycologia Australica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phycologia_Australica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:29.655199+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: phycologia-australica-20260505-0
summary:
Phycologia Australica, written by William Henry Harvey, is one of the most important 19th-century works on phycology, the study of algae. The work, published in five volumes between 1858 and 1863, is the result of Harvey's extensive collecting along the Australian shores during a three-year sabbatical. By the time Harvey set foot in Western Australia, he had already established himself as a leading phycologist, having published several large works on algae from the British Isles, northern America as well as the Southern Ocean (Nereis Australica). The fact that Harvey travelled the globe on several occasions and collected the seaweeds which he described himself in his later publications, set him apart from most of his contemporaries who relied for the most part on specimens collected by others. In addition, Harvey's zest for work meant he pressed sometimes over 700 specimens in a single day, which were distributed to his colleagues a set of Australian algae. Upon his return to Trinity College in Dublin, Harvey embarked on a mission: the illustration and description of over 300 species of Australian algae, for which he earned the title "father of Australian Phycology". The dedications and specific epithets of the species commemorate his friend George


id: physiologus-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiologus-0.md
category: reference
title: Physiologus
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiologus
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:30.874377+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physiologus-20260505-0
summary:
The Physiologus (Greek: Φυσιολόγος) is a didactic Christian text written or compiled in Greek by an unknown author in Alexandria. Its composition has been traditionally dated to the 2nd century AD by readers who saw parallels with writings of Clement of Alexandria, who is asserted to have known the text, though Alan Scott has made a case for a date at the end of the 3rd or in the 4th century. The Physiologus consists of descriptions of animals, birds, and fantastic creatures, sometimes stones and plants, provided with moral content. Each animal is described, and an anecdote follows, from which the moral and symbolic qualities of the animal are derived. Manuscripts are often, but not always, given illustrations, often lavish. The book was translated into Armenian in 5th century, into Latin by the early 6th century or possibly even by the mid-4th century and into Ethiopic and Syriac, then into many European and Middle-Eastern languages, and many illuminated manuscript copies such as the Bern Physiologus survive. It retained its influence over ideas of the "meaning" of animals in Europe for over a thousand years. It was a predecessor of bestiaries (books of beasts). Medieval poetical literature is full of allusions


id: physiologus-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiologus-1.md
category: reference
title: Physiologus
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiologus
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:30.874377+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physiologus-20260505-0
summary:
== Translations == The Physiologus had an impact on neighboring literatures: medieval translations into Latin, Armenian, Georgian, Slavic, Syriac, Coptic, and Ethiopic are known. Translations and adaptations from the Latin introduced the "Physiologus" into almost all the languages of Western Europe. An Old High German (Alemannic) translation was written in Hirsau in c. 1070 (ed. Müllenhoff and Scherer in Denkmäler deutscher Poesie und Prosa No. LXXXI); a later translation (12th century) has been edited by Friedrich Lauchert in Geschichte des Physiologus (pp. 280–99); and a rhymed version appears in Karajan, Deutsche Sprachdenkmale des XII. Jahrhunderts (pp. 73–106), both based on the Latin text known as Dicta Chrysostomi. Fragments of a 9th-century metrical Anglo-Saxon Physiologus are extant (ed. Thorpe in Codex Exoniensis pp. 335–67, Grein in Bibliothek der angelsächsischen Poesie I, 223-8). About the middle of the 13th century there appeared a Middle English metrical Bestiary, an adaptation of the Latin Physiologus Theobaldi; this has been edited by Wright and Halliwell in Reliquiæ antiquæ (I, 208-27), also by Morris in An Old English Miscellany (1-25). There is an Icelandic Physiologus preserved in two fragmentary redactions from around 1200. In the 12th and 13th centuries there appeared the Bestiaires of Philippe de


id: plague-time-the-new-germ-theory-of-disease-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_Time:_The_New_Germ_Theory_of_Disease-0.md
category: reference
title: Plague Time: The New Germ Theory of Disease
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_Time:_The_New_Germ_Theory_of_Disease
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:32.029862+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: plague-time-the-new-germ-theory-of-disease-20260505-0
summary:
Plague Time: The New Germ Theory of Disease is a non-fiction book by evolutionary biologist Paul W. Ewald. It argues that the role of pathogens has been overlooked in medicine, as a primary cause of many chronic diseases. It is his second book, following Evolution of Infectious Disease in 1994. Collecting accounts from medical history, Ewald describes the ways in which infectious agents are underestimated, in favour of genetic or environmental causes of disease. As an evolutionarily biologist, he takes the long-term perspective of the virus or bacteria circulating in its lifecycle. Although much is known about the acute phase of infections, he argues we have systematically overlooked the medical effects of long-term infections. == Overview == === Part I: A sphere of infection === In part one, Ewald describes the lifecycle of different viruses, and the way this can manifest in medical disease. Respiratory viruses must spread between people in a short period of time before the immune system response, while sexually transmitted infections must maintain a longer lifespan in the human body, sometimes for one’s entire life. He also compares the trade-offs in lifecycle of diarrhea-born, vector borne, and hospital acquired infections. Ewald argues against the aggressive application


id: quantum-aspects-of-life-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_Aspects_of_Life-0.md
category: reference
title: Quantum Aspects of Life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_Aspects_of_Life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:33.191007+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: quantum-aspects-of-life-20260505-0
summary:
Quantum Aspects of Life, a book published in 2008 with a foreword by Roger Penrose, explores the open question of the role of quantum mechanics at molecular scales of relevance to biology. It contains chapters written by various world experts from a 2003 symposium and includes two debates from 2003 to 2004, giving rise to a mix of both sceptical and sympathetic viewpoints. The book addresses questions of quantum physics, biophysics, nanoscience, quantum chemistry, mathematical biology, complexity theory, and philosophy that are inspired by the 1944 seminal book What Is Life? by Erwin Schrödinger. == Contents == Foreword by Roger Penrose Section 1: Emergence and Complexity Chapter 1: "A Quantum Origin of Life?" by Paul C. W. Davies Chapter 2: "Quantum Mechanics and Emergence" by Seth Lloyd Section 2: Quantum Mechanisms in Biology Chapter 3: "Quantum Coherence and the Search for the First Replicator" by Jim Al-Khalili and Johnjoe McFadden Chapter 4: "Ultrafast Quantum Dynamics in Photosynthesis" by Alexandra Olaya-Castro, Francesca Fassioli Olsen, Chiu Fan Lee, and Neil F. Johnson Chapter 5: "Modeling Quantum Decoherence in Biomolecules" by Jacques Bothma, Joel Gilmore, and Ross H. McKenzie Section 3: The Biological Evidence Chapter 6: "Molecular Evolution: A Role for Quantum Mechanics


id: race-the-reality-of-human-difference-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race:_The_Reality_of_Human_Difference-0.md
category: reference
title: Race: The Reality of Human Difference
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race:_The_Reality_of_Human_Difference
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:34.369594+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: race-the-reality-of-human-difference-20260505-0
summary:
Race: The Reality of Human Differences is an anthropology book, in which authors Vincent M. Sarich, Emeritus Professor of Anthropology at the University of California, Berkeley, and Frank Miele, senior editor of Skeptic Magazine, argue for the reality of race, a view rejected by modern science. The book was published by Basic Books in 2004. It particularly disputes the statements of the PBS documentary Race: The Power of an Illusion aired in 2003. After arguing that human races exist, the authors put forth three different political systems that take race into account in the final chapter, "Learning to Live with Race." These are "Meritocracy in the Global Marketplace", "Affirmative Action and Race Norming", and "Resegregation and the Emergence of Ethno-States." Sarich and Miele list the advantages and disadvantages of each system and advocate Global Meritocracy as the best of the three options. The authors then discuss "the horrific prospect of ethnically targeted weapons," which they view as technically feasible but not very likely to be used. == References == == External links == Website of the video Race: The Power of an Illusion


id: the-science-of-life-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Science_of_Life-0.md
category: reference
title: The Science of Life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Science_of_Life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:35.983998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-science-of-life-20260505-0
summary:
The Science of Life is a book written by H. G. Wells, Julian Huxley and G. P. Wells, published in three volumes by The Waverley Publishing Company Ltd in 1929–30, giving a popular account of all major aspects of biology as known in the 1920s. It has been called "the first modern textbook of biology" and "the best popular introduction to the biological sciences". Wells's most recent biographer notes that The Science of Life "is not quite as dated as one might suppose". In undertaking The Science of Life, H. G. Wells, who had published The Outline of History a decade earlier, selling over two million copies, desired the same sort of treatment for biology. He thought of his readership as "the intelligent lower middle classes ... [not] idiots, half-wits ... greenhorns, religious fanatics ... smart women or men who know all that there is to be known". Julian Huxley, the grandson of T. H. Huxley under whom Wells had studied biology, and Wells' son "Gip", a zoologist, divided the initial writing between them; H. G. Wells revised, dealt (with the help of his literary agent, A. P. Watt) with publishers, and acted as a strict taskmaster, often obliging his


id: the-science-of-life-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Science_of_Life-1.md
category: reference
title: The Science of Life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Science_of_Life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:35.983998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-science-of-life-20260505-0
summary:
== Publication record == The Science of Life: a summary of contemporary knowledge about life and its possibilities was first issued in 31 fortnightly parts published by Amalgamated Press in 1929–30, bound up in three volumes as publication proceeded. A mail-order version of the book was also published, though this was dropped after the stock market crash. It was first issued in one volume by Cassell in 1931, and reprinted in 1934 and 1937; a popular edition, fully revised, with a new preface by H. G. Wells, appeared in 1938. It was again published as separate volumes by Cassell in 1934–1937: I The living body. II Patterns of life (1934). III Evolution—fact and theory. IV Reproduction, heredity and the development of sex. V The history and adventure of life. VI The drama of life. VII How animals behave (1937). VIII Man's mind and behaviour. IX Biology and the human race. In New York, it was published by Doubleday, Doran & Co. in 1931, 1934 and 1939; and by The Literary Guild in 1934. Doubleday also issued a four-volume limited edition of the work in 1931, limited to 750 sets, with the first volume autographed on the limitation page by the


id: the-sea-around-us-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sea_Around_Us-0.md
category: reference
title: The Sea Around Us
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sea_Around_Us
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:37.146601+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-sea-around-us-20260505-0
summary:
The Sea Around Us is a prize-winning and best-selling book by the American marine biologist Rachel Carson, first published as a whole by Oxford University Press in 1951. It reveals the science and poetry of the sea while ranging from its primeval beginnings to the latest scientific probings. Often described as "poetic," it was Carson's second published book and the one that launched her into the public eye and a second career as a writer and conservationist; in retrospect it is counted the second book of her so-called sea trilogy, including Under the Sea-Wind and The Edge of the Sea. The Sea Around Us won both the 1952 National Book Award for Nonfiction and a Burroughs Medal in nature writing. It remained on the New York Times Best Seller List for 86 weeks and it has been translated into 28 languages. == History == Simon & Schuster had published her first book Under the Sea Wind in 1941; it was reviewed favorably but it sold poorly. Carson initially planned to call the sequel Return to the Sea, and began writing in 1948, just after hiring Marie Rodell as her literary agent. Carson began by writing a single chapter (what would


id: the-selfish-gene-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene-0.md
category: reference
title: The Selfish Gene
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:38.351487+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-selfish-gene-20260505-0
summary:
The Selfish Gene is a 1976 popular science book by Richard Dawkins that espouses the gene-centred view of evolution. It builds upon the thesis of George Christopher Williams's Adaptation and Natural Selection (1966) and W. D. Hamilton's work on kin selection. From the gene-centred view, it follows that the more genes two individuals share, the more sense it makes for them to co-operate. The book introduced the term meme for a unit of cultural evolution analogous to the gene. Memetics has become a subject in its own right in the years since. In popularising Hamilton's ideas, as well as making its own valuable contributions to the field, the book has also stimulated research on human inclusive fitness. The "selfish gene" is a metaphor for the gene-centred view of evolution. As such, the book is not about a particular gene that causes selfish behaviour; in fact, much of it is devoted to explaining the evolution of altruism. Dawkins says of the title that he "can readily see that it might give an inadequate impression of its contents" and in retrospect wishes he had taken Tom Maschler's advice and titled it The Immortal Gene. He laments that “Too many people read it


id: the-selfish-gene-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene-1.md
category: reference
title: The Selfish Gene
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:38.351487+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-selfish-gene-20260505-0
summary:
9. Battle of the Sexes Dawkins discusses Darwin’s theory of sexual selection. Females can afford to be choosy in their mates, and select for attractive traits in males. Fisher's principle explains why a 50:50 ratio of males to females is evolutionarily stable. This is true even in an extreme case like the harem-keeping elephant seal, where 4% of the males get 88% of copulations. In that case, the strategy of having a female offspring is safe, as she will have a pup, but the strategy of having a male can bring a large return (dozens of pups), even though many males live out their lives as bachelors. 10. You Scratch My back, I’ll Ride on Yours Dawkins discusses reciprocal altruism. Amotz Zahavi's theory of honest signalling explains stotting as a selfish act that improves the springbok's chances of escaping from a predator by indicating how difficult the chase would be. Dawkins discusses why many species live in groups, achieving mutual benefits through mechanisms such as Hamilton's selfish herd model: each individual behaves selfishly but the result is herd behaviour. Altruism can evolve, as in the social insects such as ants and bees, where workers give up the right to reproduce


id: the-selfish-gene-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene-2.md
category: reference
title: The Selfish Gene
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:38.351487+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-selfish-gene-20260505-0
summary:
=== Choice of words === A good deal of objection to The Selfish Gene stemmed from its failure to be always clear about "selection" and "replication". Dawkins says the gene is the fundamental unit of selection, and then points out that selection does not act directly upon the gene, but upon "vehicles" or '"extended phenotypes". Stephen Jay Gould took exception to calling the gene a 'unit of selection' because selection acted only upon phenotypes. Summarising the Dawkins-Gould difference of view, Sterelny says: Gould thinks gene differences do not cause evolutionary changes in populations, they register those changes. The word "cause" here is somewhat tricky: does a change in lottery rules (for example, inheriting a defective gene "responsible" for a disorder) "cause" differences in outcome that might or might not occur? It certainly alters the likelihood of events, but a concatenation of contingencies decides what actually occurs. Dawkins thinks the use of "cause" as a statistical weighting is acceptable in common usage. Like Gould, Gabriel Dover in criticising The Selfish Gene says: It is illegitimate to give 'powers' to genes, as Dawkins would have it, to control the outcome of selection...There are no genes for interactions, as such: rather, each unique


id: the-selfish-gene-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene-3.md
category: reference
title: The Selfish Gene
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:38.351487+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-selfish-gene-20260505-0
summary:
== Awards and recognition == In July 2017 a poll to celebrate the 30th anniversary of the Royal Society Science Book Prize listed The Selfish Gene as the most influential science book of all time. The Royal Institution conducted a poll to determine the best science book ever. The Selfish Gene made the shortlist, along with Tom Stoppard's Arcadia, Konrad Lorenz's King Solomon's Ring and, in first place, Primo Levi's The Periodic Table. Ian McEwan writes that it "stood at the beginning of a golden age of science writing. With a fine sense of literary tradition, the physicist Steven Weinberg, in his book Dreams of a Final Theory, revisited Huxley's lecture on chalk in order to make the case for reductionism. Steven Pinker's application of Darwinian thought to Chomskyan linguistics in The Language Instinct is one of the finest celebrations of language I know. Among many other indispensable 'classics', I would propose EO Wilson's The Diversity of Life on the ecological wonders of the Amazon rain forest, and on the teeming micro-organisms in a handful of soil; David Deutsch's masterly account of the Many Worlds theory in The Fabric of Reality; Jared Diamond's melding of history with biological thought in


id: stiff-the-curious-lives-of-human-cadavers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stiff:_The_Curious_Lives_of_Human_Cadavers-0.md
category: reference
title: Stiff: The Curious Lives of Human Cadavers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stiff:_The_Curious_Lives_of_Human_Cadavers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:39.507531+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stiff-the-curious-lives-of-human-cadavers-20260505-0
summary:
Stiff: The Curious Lives of Human Cadavers is a 2003 nonfiction book by Mary Roach. Published by W. W. Norton & Company, it details the unique scientific contributions of the deceased. In the book, Roach gives firsthand accounts of cadavers, a history of the use of cadavers, and an exploration of the surrounding ethical/moral issues. She places each chapter's content into a historical context by discussing the history of the method of using a cadaver she is about to witness. Stiff was a New York Times Best Seller, a 2003 Barnes & Noble Discover Great New Writers pick, and one of Entertainment Weekly's Best Books of 2003. It also won the Amazon.com Editor's Choice award in 2003, was voted as a Borders Original Voices book, and was the winner of the Elle Reader's Prize. Stiff has been translated into 17 languages, including Hungarian (Hullamerev) and Lithuanian (Negyvėliai). Stiff was also selected for Washington State University's Common Reading Program in 2008–09. == Topics covered == The book covers 12 topics: Practicing cosmetic surgery on cadaver heads Body snatching and the early years of human dissection The nature of decomposition Cadavers for use as crash test dummies Using cadavers to analyze a


id: the-structure-and-distribution-of-coral-reefs-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_and_Distribution_of_Coral_Reefs-0.md
category: reference
title: The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_and_Distribution_of_Coral_Reefs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:40.659577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-structure-and-distribution-of-coral-reefs-20260505-0
summary:
The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs, Being the first part of the geology of the voyage of the Beagle, under the command of Capt. Fitzroy, R.N. during the years 1832 to 1836, was published in 1842 as Charles Darwin's first monograph, and set out his theory of the formation of coral reefs and atolls. He conceived of the idea during the voyage of the Beagle while still in South America, before he had seen a coral island, and wrote it out as HMS Beagle crossed the Pacific Ocean, completing his draft by November 1835. At the time there was great scientific interest in the way that coral reefs formed, and Captain Robert FitzRoy's orders from the Admiralty included the investigation of an atoll as an important scientific aim of the voyage. FitzRoy chose to survey the Keeling Islands in the Indian Ocean. The results supported Darwin's theory that the various types of coral reefs and atolls could be explained by uplift and subsidence of vast areas of the Earth's crust under the oceans. The book was the first volume of three Darwin wrote about the geology he had investigated during the voyage, and was widely recognised as a major


id: the-structure-and-distribution-of-coral-reefs-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_and_Distribution_of_Coral_Reefs-1.md
category: reference
title: The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_and_Distribution_of_Coral_Reefs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:40.659577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-structure-and-distribution-of-coral-reefs-20260505-0
summary:
By the time that the Beagle set out for the Galápagos Islands on 7 September 1835, Darwin had thought out the essentials of his theory of atoll formation. While he no longer favoured the concept that atolls formed on submerged volcanos, he noted some points on these islands which supported that idea: 16 volcanic craters resembled atolls in being raised slightly more on one side, and five hills appeared roughly equal in height. He then considered a topic which was compatible with either theory, the lack of coral reefs around the Galápagos Islands. One possibility was a lack of calcareous matter around the islands, but his main proposal, which FitzRoy had suggested to him, was that the seas were too cold. As they sailed on, Darwin took note of the records of sea temperature kept in the ship's "Weather Journal". He had his first glimpse of coral atolls as they passed Honden Island on 9 November and sailed on through the Low or Dangerous Archipelago (Tuamotus). Arriving at Tahiti on 15 November, Darwin saw it "encircled by a Coral reef separated from the shore by channels & basins of still water". He climbed the hills of Tahiti, and was strongly


id: the-structure-and-distribution-of-coral-reefs-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_and_Distribution_of_Coral_Reefs-2.md
category: reference
title: The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_and_Distribution_of_Coral_Reefs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:40.659577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-structure-and-distribution-of-coral-reefs-20260505-0
summary:
== Publication of theory == When the Beagle returned on 2 October 1836, Darwin was already a celebrity in scientific circles, as in December 1835 University of Cambridge Professor of Botany John Stevens Henslow had fostered his former pupil's reputation by giving selected naturalists a pamphlet of Darwin's geological letters. Charles Lyell eagerly met Darwin for the first time on 29 October, enthusiastic about the support this gave to his uniformitarianism, and in May wrote to John Herschel that he was "very full of Darwin's new theory of Coral Islands, and have urged Whewell to make him read it at our next meeting. I must give up my volcanic crater theory for ever, though it cost me a pang at first, for it accounted for so much... the whole theory is knocked on the head, and the annular shape and central lagoon have nothing to do with volcanoes, nor even with a crateriform bottom.... Coral islands are the last efforts of drowning continents to lift their heads above water. Regions of elevation and subsidence in the ocean may be traced by the state of the coral reefs." Darwin presented his findings and theory in a paper which he read to


id: the-structure-and-distribution-of-coral-reefs-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_and_Distribution_of_Coral_Reefs-3.md
category: reference
title: The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_and_Distribution_of_Coral_Reefs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:40.659577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-structure-and-distribution-of-coral-reefs-20260505-0
summary:
The first three chapters describe the various types of coral reef, each chapter starting with a section giving a detailed description of the reef Darwin had most information about, which he presents as a typical example of the type. Subsequent sections in each chapter then describe other reefs in comparison with the typical example. In the first chapter, Darwin describes atolls and lagoon islands, taking as his typical example his own detailed findings and the Beagle survey findings on the Keeling Islands. The second chapter similarly describes a typical barrier reef then compares it to others, and the third chapter gives a similar description of what Darwin called fringing or shore reefs. Having described the principal kinds of reef in detail, his finding was that the actual surface of the reef did not differ much. An atoll differs from an encircling barrier reef only in lacking the central island, and a barrier reef differs from a fringing reef only in its distance from the land and in enclosing a lagoon. The fourth chapter on the distribution and growth of coral reefs examines the conditions in which they flourish, their rate of growth and the depths at which the reef building


id: the-structure-and-distribution-of-coral-reefs-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_and_Distribution_of_Coral_Reefs-4.md
category: reference
title: The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_and_Distribution_of_Coral_Reefs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:40.659577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-structure-and-distribution-of-coral-reefs-20260505-0
summary:
=== Late 19th-century controversy and tests of the theory === A major scientific controversy over the origin of coral reefs took place in the late 19th century, between supporters of Darwin's theory (such as the American geologist James Dwight Dana, who early in his career had seen coral reefs in Hawaii and Fiji during the 1838–1842 United States Exploring Expedition), and those who supported a rival theory put forward by the Scottish oceanographer John Murray, who participated in the 1872–76 Challenger expedition. Murray's theory challenged Darwin's notion of subsidence, proposing instead that coral reefs formed when accumulating mounds of calcareous marine sediments reached the shallow depths that could support the growth of corals. Amongst Murray's supporters was the independently wealthy American scientist Alexander Agassiz, who financed and undertook several expeditions to the Caribbean, Pacific and Indian Ocean regions to examine coral reefs in search of evidence to support Murray's theory, and to discredit Darwin. A series of expeditions to test Darwin's theory by drilling on Funafuti atoll in the Ellice Islands (now part of Tuvalu) was conducted by the Royal Society of London for the purpose of investigating whether basalt or traces of shallow water organisms could be found at


id: the-structure-and-distribution-of-coral-reefs-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_and_Distribution_of_Coral_Reefs-5.md
category: reference
title: The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_and_Distribution_of_Coral_Reefs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:40.659577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-structure-and-distribution-of-coral-reefs-20260505-0
summary:
== References == Browne, E. Janet (1995), Charles Darwin: vol. 1 Voyaging, London: Jonathan Cape, ISBN 1-84413-314-1 Darwin, Charles (15 December 1962), Stoddart, D. R. (ed.), "Coral Islands by Charles Darwin, with Introduction, map and remarks", Atoll Research Bulletin, no. 88, Washington, D. C.: The Pacific Science Board, National Academy of Sciences—National Research Council, pp. 1–20, retrieved 22 January 2009 Darwin, Charles (2002–2008), John van Wyhe (ed.), "Extracts from letters to Professor Henslow", Darwin Online, retrieved 20 January 2009 Darwin, C. R. (1837), "On certain areas of elevation and subsidence in the Pacific and Indian oceans, as deduced from the study of coral formations. (Read 31 May)", Proceedings of the Geological Society of London, no. 2, pp. 552–554, retrieved 20 January 2009 Darwin, Charles (1839), Narrative of the surveying voyages of His Majesty's Ships Adventure and Beagle between the years 1826 and 1836, describing their examination of the southern shores of South America, and the Beagle's circumnavigation of the globe. Journal and remarks. 1832–1836., vol. III, London: Henry Colburn, retrieved 20 January 2009 Darwin, Charles (1842), The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs. Being the first part of the geology of the voyage of the Beagle, under the command of


id: the-surprising-archaea-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Surprising_Archaea-0.md
category: reference
title: The Surprising Archaea
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Surprising_Archaea
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:41.804585+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-surprising-archaea-20260505-0
summary:
The Surprising Archaea: Discovering Another Domain of Life is a popular science book written about the domain Archaea. It was written by John L. Howland and first published in 2000 by the Oxford University Press. The book records the, "archaeal rise from obscurity...to their current prominent place in molecular and evolutionary biology." == See also == Carl Woese Towards a natural system of organisms: proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya == References ==


id: the-song-of-the-cell-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Song_of_the_Cell-0.md
category: reference
title: The Song of the Cell
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Song_of_the_Cell
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:42.981156+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-song-of-the-cell-20260505-0
summary:
The Song of the Cell: An Exploration of Medicine and the New Human is a book on the history of the human understanding of cell biology, written by Siddhartha Mukherjee, an Indian-born American physician and oncologist, who is Assistant Professor of Medicine at Columbia University. == Background == Song of the Cell is Mukherjee's fourth book. He is the author of the 2011 "biography of cancer" The Emperor of All Maladies, which won the Pullitzer Prize for General Nonfiction . == Content == The book tells the history of human understanding of the cell. In recounting the early history in the field, Murkherjee focuses on telling the stories of figures such as Robert Hooke, who first coined the term cell after viewing a small piece of cork under a microscope. The book is written for a general readership and there is an emphasis on explaining the roles of cells. The book also examines current concerns, such as on the use of stem cells within regenerative medicine. == Reception == Song of the Cell was positively reviewed. Tom Whipple of The Times called it "a wonderfully ambitious overview of cell biology". In The Guardian Suzanne O'Sullivan felt the imagery could sometimes


id: toward-a-new-philosophy-of-biology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toward_a_New_Philosophy_of_Biology-0.md
category: reference
title: Toward a New Philosophy of Biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toward_a_New_Philosophy_of_Biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:44.146071+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: toward-a-new-philosophy-of-biology-20260505-0
summary:
Toward a New Philosophy of Biology: Observations of an Evolutionist (published by Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1988) is a book by Harvard evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr. It is a collection of 28 essays, five previously unpublished, grouped into ten categories—Philosophy, Natural Selection, Adaptation, Darwin, Diversity, Species, Speciation, Macroevolution, and Historical Perspective. The book, Mayr notes in the Forward, is an attempt "to strengthen the bridge between biology and philosophy, and point to the new direction in which a new philosophy of biology will move." == Reviews == Ayala, Francisco J. Science, New Series, Vol. 240, No. 4860 (June, 1988). Griesemer, James R. The Quarterly Review of Biology, Vol. 64, No. 1 (March, 1989). Maienschein, Jane. Isis, Vol. 80, No. 3 (September, 1989). Smith, John Maynard. New York Review of Books, Volume 39, Number 9, May 14, 1992. == Notes ==


id: treatise-on-man-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Man-0.md
category: reference
title: Treatise on Man
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Man
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:45.250497+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: treatise-on-man-20260505-0
summary:
The Treatise on Man (French: L'Homme) is an unfinished treatise by René Descartes written in the 1630s and published posthumously, firstly in 1662 in Latin, then in 1664 in French by Claude Clerselier. The 1664 edition is accompanied by a short text, The Description of the Human Body and All Its Functions (La description du corps humain et de toutes ses fonctions), also known as the Treatise on the Formation of the Foetus (Traité de la formation du fœtus), the remarks of Louis La Forge and the translated preface from the Latin edition by Florent Schuyl. The book in part focuses on Descartes' views on human physiology. It covers the topics of digestion, nutrition, respiration, blood circulation, nerves, muscles, and tendons. == Editorial context == René Descartes first began work on the treatise in the 1630s, but gave up seeking its publication when he learned of Galileo Galilei's condemnation by the Roman Inquisition. A first version of the text appeared in Latin in 1662, edited and prefaced by Florent Schuyl, who proposed another edition in 1664 in the same language from another manuscript. The first French language edition was published the same year, edited by Claude Clerselier. It includes figures


id: treatise-on-man-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Man-1.md
category: reference
title: Treatise on Man
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Man
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:45.250497+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: treatise-on-man-20260505-0
summary:
=== The Description of the Human Body === The Description of the Human Body is also an unfinished treatise. It was written in 1647. Descartes felt knowing oneself was particularly useful. This for him included medical knowledge. He hoped to cure and prevent disease, even to slow down aging. René Descartes believed the soul caused conscious thought. The body caused automatic functions like the beating of the heart and digestion he felt. The body was necessary for voluntary movement as well as the will. However, he believed the power to move the body was wrongly imagined to come from the soul. A sick or injured body does not do what we want or moves in ways we do not want. He believed the death of the body stopped it from being fit to bring about movement. This did not necessarily happen because the soul left the body. René Descartes believed the body could exist through mechanical means alone. This included digestion, blood circulation, muscle movement and some brain function. He felt we all know what the human body is like because animals have similar bodies and we have all seen them opened up. He saw the body as a machine.


id: twelve-days-of-terror-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelve_Days_of_Terror-0.md
category: reference
title: Twelve Days of Terror
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelve_Days_of_Terror
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:46.411437+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: twelve-days-of-terror-20260505-0
summary:
Twelve Days of Terror: A Definitive Investigation of the 1916 New Jersey Shark Attacks is a non-fiction book by Richard G. Fernicola about the Jersey Shore shark attacks of 1916. The book was published in 2001 by Lyons Press. == Overview == Fernicola offers an in-depth investigation of the shark attacks of 1916 plus modern-day attacks. He interviewed people connected with the victims of the attacks and examines the arguments and conclusions of contemporary and modern scientists to determine the species of the shark involved in the attacks. == Film == The book was made into an episode of the History Channel's documentary series In Search of... titled Shark Attack 1916 (2001) and the Discovery Channel's docudrama 12 Days of Terror in 2004. == References ==


id: under-the-sea-wind-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Under_the_Sea_Wind-0.md
category: reference
title: Under the Sea Wind
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Under_the_Sea_Wind
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:47.663814+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: under-the-sea-wind-20260505-0
summary:
Under the Sea Wind: A Naturalist's Picture of Ocean Life (1941) is the first book written by the American marine biologist Rachel Carson. It was published by Simon & Schuster in 1941 and received very good reviews, but sold poorly. After the great success of a sequel The Sea Around Us (Oxford, 1951), it was reissued by Oxford University Press; that edition was an alternate Book-of-the-Month Club selection and became another bestseller, and has never gone out of print. It is recognized as one of the "definitive works of American nature writing," and is in print as one of the Penguin Nature Classics. Under the sea-wind was reportedly Rachel Carson's personal favourite book, although first edition copies by Simon & Schuster remain scarce. == Background == Under the Sea Wind was based on the article Undersea by Carson, published in The Atlantic Monthly in 1937. This article began as an eleven-page introduction to a government fisheries brochure, and grew into Carson's first book. Prior to publishing Undersea, she wrote marine themed radio scripts which influenced her later work. The article elaborates on ecology and the unwavering will to survive that embodies marine organisms. After the article was published, Dutch-born children's


id: a-universe-of-consciousness-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Universe_of_Consciousness-0.md
category: reference
title: A Universe of Consciousness
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Universe_of_Consciousness
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:48.830461+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: a-universe-of-consciousness-20260505-0
summary:
A Universe of Consciousness: How Matter Becomes Imagination is the title of a 2000 book by biologists Gerald Maurice Edelman and Giulio Tononi; published in UK as Consciousness: How Matter Becomes Imagination. This book, written with Giulio Tononi, is the culmination of a series of works by Gerald Edelman on the workings of the brain which include Neural Darwinism and Bright Air, Brilliant Fire. == Synopsis == It is divided into six sections: the first three cover existing work from philosophical, neurological and Darwinian perspectives. Part IV presents the novel thesis of the work: the Dynamic Core Hypothesis. The remaining two parts explore how it resolves various philosophical and practical issues. === The Background === Since Descartes, philosophers have been occupied with the concept of consciousness and its subjective nature has posed a special problem for science. Its nature arises from the neuronal structures in the brain and some understanding of these, together with the experimental tools needed to explore them, is given in the following chapters. They then recapitulate Edelman's still controversial theory of somatic selectionism during early development which controls the topology of a particular brain and enables restructuring in response to experience. They argue that memory is


id: les-v-lins-du-roi-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_Vélins_du_Roi-0.md
category: reference
title: Les Vélins du Roi
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_Vélins_du_Roi
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:50.015233+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: les-v-lins-du-roi-20260505-0
summary:
Les Vélins du Roi (The King's Vellums) is a collection of 6984 paintings of plants and animals started in 1631 to document specimens from the royal garden and animal collection. Foremost illustrators contributed to the codex during the reigns of Louis XIII, Louis XIV and Louis XV, and the codex was finally entrusted to the Muséum national d'histoire naturelle in 1793, where it still is. According to Ernest Hamy, the Muséum has a "collection of flowers painted by Jean Le Roy de la Boissière", 1610, consisting of 44 watercolour-illuminated vellums, 39 cm × 29 cm; reference Ms 2224) acquired for the Muséum in 1888 by Joseph Deniker. These pages are “sometimes decorated on one side only, and sometimes on both sides, with very fine paintings representing flowers, insects, etc.”. Le Roy devotes some twenty pages to tulips (including several wild tulips), presents a few fruits (including tomatoes and red peppers), and adds a few insects and snails here and there. A smaller vellum (31.1 cm by 20.2 cm) depicting an iris made in Poitiers (where Le Roy lived) in 1608 by one Van Kuyk, a pupil of van Kessel appears in the Cleveland Museum of Art which presents it as


id: les-v-lins-du-roi-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_Vélins_du_Roi-1.md
category: reference
title: Les Vélins du Roi
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_Vélins_du_Roi
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:50.015233+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: les-v-lins-du-roi-20260505-0
summary:
Henri-Joseph Redouté (1766-1852) was a painter at the Muséum, then took part in the Commission des Sciences et des Arts during the "Expedition to Egypt", in the company of botanists such as Ernest Coquebert de Monbret, Hippolyte Nectoux and Raffeneau-Delile - the latter being responsible for the botanical plates in the Description de l'Égypte, illustrated with engravings taken from Redouté's watercolours on Bristol paper. [Pancrace Bessa (1772-1846) succeeded Henri Redouté as painter at the Natural History Museum in 1823. Ange-Louis-Guillaume Le Sourd de Beauregard (Paris, 17 April 1800 – 1886), a pupil of van Spaendonck and a painter of flowers, also became a professor of iconography in 1841. We can also mention Adèle Riché; Jean Saturnin Abeille de Fontaine (born in Paris in 1721, the son of Joseph Abeille); Édouard Maubert (1806-1879), who specialised in botanical and horticultural illustrations; Alfred Riocreux (1820-1912), a painter at the Manufacture Royale de Porcelaine at Sèvres, he drew for Gustave Thuret, algologist, whom he accompanied to Cherbourg (around 1844-45). He bequeathed many vellums to the Muséum from 1849 to 1857. Charles-Émile Cuisin was a pupil of Horace Lecoq de Boisbaudran: Atlas de la flore des environs de Paris by Ernest Cosson and Germain de


id: vienna-dioscurides-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Dioscurides-0.md
category: reference
title: Vienna Dioscurides
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Dioscurides
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:51.191481+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vienna-dioscurides-20260505-0
summary:
The Vienna Dioscurides or Vienna Dioscorides is an early 6th-century Byzantine Greek illuminated manuscript of an even earlier 1st century AD work, De materia medica (Ancient Greek: Περὶ ὕλης ἰατρικῆς, romanized: Perì hylēs iatrikēs) by Pedanius Dioscorides in uncial script. It is an important and rare example of a late antique scientific text. After residing in Constantinople for just over a thousand years, the text passed to the Holy Roman Emperor in Vienna in the 16th century, a century after the city fell to the Ottoman Empire. The 491 vellum folios measure 37 cm (15 in) by 30 cm (12 in) and contain more than 400 pictures of animals and plants, most done in a naturalistic style. In addition to the text by Dioscorides, the manuscript has appended to it, the Carmen de herbis attributed to Rufus, a paraphrase of an ornithological treatise by a certain Dionysius, usually identified with Dionysius of Philadelphia, and a paraphrase of Nicander's treatise on the treatment of snake bites. == History == The manuscript was created in about 515 AD in the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire's capital, Constantinople, for a resident Byzantine imperial princess, Anicia Juliana, the daughter of Anicius Olybrius (one of the


id: vienna-dioscurides-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Dioscurides-1.md
category: reference
title: Vienna Dioscurides
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Dioscurides
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:51.191481+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vienna-dioscurides-20260505-0
summary:
In addition to the illustrations of the text, the manuscript contains several frontispieces in the form of a series of full-page miniatures. Of special note is the dedication miniature portrait of Anicia Juliana on folio 6 verso. The manuscript was presented to Anicia out of gratitude for her funding the construction of a church in the suburbs of Constantinople. This portrait is the oldest extant dedication portrait. The portrait has Anicia seated in a ceremonial pose distributing alms. She is flanked by personifications of Megalopsychia (magnanimity) and Phronesis (prudence). At her feet, another personification, labeled "Gratitude of the Arts", kneels. A putto holds a dedication copy up to Anicia. Anicia and her attendants are enclosed within an eight-point star within a circle all formed of intertwined rope. Within the outer spandrels of the star are putti, done in grisaille, working as masons and carpenters. This miniature is an altogether original creation and, with the inclusion of the personifications and the putti, shows the endurance of the classical tradition in Constantinople, despite the fact that Anicia herself was a pious Christian.The series of frontispieces in the manuscript begins with two full-page miniatures, each having a group of seven noted pharmacologists. In


id: the-voyage-of-the-beagle-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Voyage_of_the_Beagle-0.md
category: reference
title: The Voyage of the Beagle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Voyage_of_the_Beagle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:52.406583+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-voyage-of-the-beagle-20260505-0
summary:
The Voyage of the Beagle, originally published as Journal and Remarks, is an 1839 book written by Charles Darwin, covering his research and activities during the second survey expedition of the ship HMS Beagle, bringing him considerable fame and respect. This was the third volume of The Narrative of the Voyages of H.M. Ships Adventure and Beagle, the other volumes of which were written or edited by the commanders of the ships. Due to the popularity of Darwin's account, the publisher reissued it later in 1839 as Darwin's Journal of Researches, and the revised second edition published in 1845 also used this title. A republication of the book in 1905 introduced the title The Voyage of the Beagle, by which it is now best known. Beagle sailed from Plymouth Sound on 27 December 1831 under the command of Captain Robert FitzRoy. While the expedition was originally planned to last two years, it lasted almost five—Beagle did not return until 2 October 1836. Darwin spent most of this time exploring on land (three years and three months on land; 18 months at sea). The book is a vivid travel memoir as well as a detailed scientific field journal covering biology, geology,


id: the-voyage-of-the-beagle-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Voyage_of_the_Beagle-1.md
category: reference
title: The Voyage of the Beagle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Voyage_of_the_Beagle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:52.406583+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-voyage-of-the-beagle-20260505-0
summary:
=== Darwin's diary / journal === On board the ship, Darwin began a day-to-day record of activities in the form of a diary, which he commonly called "my Journal". Darwin wrote entries, in ink, while on the ship or when staying for a period in a house on shore. When travelling on land, he left the manuscript on the ship, and made pencil notes in pocket books to record details of his excursions along with his field notes on geology and natural history. He then wrote up his diary entries from these notes or from memory, sometimes several weeks after the event. Pages 1 and 2, dated 16 December 1831, outline events from Darwin arriving home on 29 August to his arrival at Devonport on 24 October. From page 3 onwards he adopts a consistent layout, with month, the year and place in a heading at the top, page number in a top corner, and the day of the month in the margin at each entry. After delays and false starts due to weather, they set off on 27 December. Darwin suffered seasickness, and his entry for that date starts "I am now on the 5th of Jan.y writing the


id: the-voyage-of-the-beagle-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Voyage_of_the_Beagle-2.md
category: reference
title: The Voyage of the Beagle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Voyage_of_the_Beagle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:52.406583+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-voyage-of-the-beagle-20260505-0
summary:
=== Journal and remarks === Soon after Darwin's return, he was at a party hosted by Fanny and Hensleigh Wedgwood for their relatives on 4 December 1836. They agreed to review his journal. The physician and travel writer Henry Holland looked at some pages and "thought that it would not be worth while to publish it alone, as it would be partly going over the same ground with the Captain", leaving Darwin "more perplexed" but "becoming rather inclined to the plan of mixing up long passages with Capt Fitzroy." He would "go on with the geology and let the journal take care of itself", but Emma Wedgwood did not think Holland "any judge as to what is amusing or interesting", and like Catherine thought it should be published by itself, not "mixed up with Capt. FitzRoy's". Fanny and Hensleigh found the "Journal so interesting, that it is quite difficult to stop to criticize". Though "not in general a good reader of travels", he "found no part of yours tedious." They had "read a great deal of it aloud too" as a more severe test, and concluded it had "more variety and a greater number of interesting portions" than other travel


id: the-voyage-of-the-beagle-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Voyage_of_the_Beagle-3.md
category: reference
title: The Voyage of the Beagle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Voyage_of_the_Beagle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:52.406583+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-voyage-of-the-beagle-20260505-0
summary:
The second edition of 1845 incorporated extensive revisions made in the light of interpretation of the field collections and developing ideas on evolution. This edition was commissioned by the publisher John Murray, who actually paid Darwin a fee of £150 for the copyright. The full title was modified to Journal of Researches into the Natural History and Geology of the countries visited during the voyage of H.M.S. Beagle round the world. In the first edition, Darwin remarks in regard to the similarity of Galápagos wildlife to that on the South American continent, "The circumstance would be explained, according to the views of some authors, by saying that the creative power had acted according to the same law over a wide area". (This was written in a reference to Charles Lyell's ideas of "centres of creation".) Darwin notes the gradations in size of the beaks of species of finches, suspects that species "are confined to different islands", "But there is not space in this work, to enter into this curious subject." Later editions hint at his new ideas on evolution: Considering the small size of these islands, we feel the more astonished at the number of their aboriginal beings, and at


id: the-voyage-of-the-beagle-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Voyage_of_the_Beagle-4.md
category: reference
title: The Voyage of the Beagle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Voyage_of_the_Beagle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:52.406583+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-voyage-of-the-beagle-20260505-0
summary:
== Sources == Darwin, Charles (June 1960), "Darwin as a Traveller", The Geographical Journal, 126 (2): 129–136, Bibcode:1960GeogJ.126..129D, doi:10.2307/1793952, JSTOR 1793952 Retrieved on 15 December 2006 Browne, E. Janet (1995), Charles Darwin: vol. 1 Voyaging, London: Jonathan Cape, ISBN 1-84413-314-1{{citation}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link) Browne, E. Janet (2002), Charles Darwin: vol. 2 The Power of Place, London: Jonathan Cape, ISBN 0-7126-6837-3{{citation}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link) Darwin, Charles (1835), Extracts from letters to Professor Henslow. Cambridge, [printed by the Cambridge University Press for private distribution] Retrieved on 30 April 2007 Darwin, Charles (1887), Darwin, F (ed.), The life and letters of Charles Darwin, including an autobiographical chapter., London: John Murray{{citation}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link) (The Autobiography of Charles Darwin) Retrieved on 15 December 2006 Darwin, Charles (1958), Barlow, N (ed.), The autobiography of Charles Darwin 1809–1882. With the original omissions restored. Edited and with appendix and notes by his grand-daughter Nora Barlow., London: Collins{{citation}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link) (The Autobiography of Charles Darwin) Retrieved on 15 December 2006 Desmond, Adrian; Moore, James (1991), Darwin, London: Michael Joseph, Penguin Group, ISBN 0-7181-3430-3 Freeman, R. B. (1977), The Works of Charles Darwin: An Annotated Bibliographical Handlist (Second ed.), Cannon


id: what-is-life-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Is_Life-0.md
category: reference
title: What Is Life?
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Is_Life?
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:53.548785+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: what-is-life-20260505-0
summary:
What Is Life? The Physical Aspect of the Living Cell is a 1944 science book written for the lay reader by the physicist Erwin Schrödinger. The book was based on a course of public lectures delivered by Schrödinger in February 1943, under the auspices of the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, where he was Director of Theoretical Physics, at Trinity College, Dublin. The lectures attracted an audience of about 400, who were warned "that the subject-matter was a difficult one and that the lectures could not be termed popular, even though the physicist’s most dreaded weapon, mathematical deduction, would hardly be utilized." Schrödinger's lecture focused on one important question: "how can the events in space and time which take place within the spatial boundary of a living organism be accounted for by physics and chemistry?" In the book, Schrödinger introduced the idea of an "aperiodic solid" that contained genetic information in its configuration of covalent chemical bonds. In the 1940s, this idea stimulated enthusiasm for discovering the chemical basis of genetic inheritance. Although the existence of some form of hereditary information had been hypothesized since 1869, its role in reproduction and its helical shape were still unknown at the time


id: what-is-life-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Is_Life-1.md
category: reference
title: What Is Life?
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Is_Life?
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:53.548785+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: what-is-life-20260505-0
summary:
The lectures may be regarded as “the most important and exciting thing to happen in Trinity in all of the six dark years of wartime.” Time magazine reported that “Only in the precarious peace of Eire could Europe today provide such a spectacle. At Dublin’s Trinity College last month crowds were turned away from a jampacked scientific lecture. Cabinet ministers, diplomats, scholars and socialites loudly applauded a slight, Vienna-born professor of physics. Erwin Schrödinger was speaking on the subject ‘What Is Life?’.” Trinity College now commemorates the lectures in various ways: an annual “What is Life?” Lecture (inaugurated in 1995) and usually delivered in the Physics Lecture Theatre honours the 1943 series; in 2018 the 75th-anniversary conference “Schrödinger at 75: The Future of Biology” was organised. The Trinity Library also produced an exhibition celebrating Schrödinger’s Dublin years and the impact of the lectures. == Background == Max Delbrück's thinking about the physical basis of life was an important influence on Schrödinger. However, long before the publication of What is Life?, the American geneticist Hermann J. Muller, who would later win a Nobel Prize in 1946, had in his 1922 article "Variation due to Change in the Individual Gene" already laid


id: what-is-life-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Is_Life-2.md
category: reference
title: What Is Life?
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Is_Life?
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:53.548785+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: what-is-life-20260505-0
summary:
Schrödinger concludes this chapter and the book with philosophical speculations on determinism, free will, and the mystery of human consciousness. He attempts to "see whether we cannot draw the correct non-contradictory conclusion from the following two premises: (1) My body functions as a pure mechanism according to Laws of Nature; and (2) Yet I know, by incontrovertible direct experience, that I am directing its motions, of which I foresee the effects, that may be fateful and all-important, in which case I feel and take full responsibility for them. The only possible inference from these two facts is, I think, that I – I in the widest meaning of the word, that is to say, every conscious mind that has ever said or felt 'I' – am the person, if any, who controls the 'motion of the atoms' according to the Laws of Nature". Schrödinger then states that this insight is not new and that the Upanishads considered this insight of "ATMAN = BRAHMAN" to "represent quintessence of deepest insights into the happenings of the world." Schrödinger rejects the idea that the source of consciousness should perish with the body because he finds the idea "distasteful". He also rejects the idea


id: what-mad-pursuit-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Mad_Pursuit-0.md
category: reference
title: What Mad Pursuit
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Mad_Pursuit
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:54.697243+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: what-mad-pursuit-20260505-0
summary:
What Mad Pursuit: A Personal View of Scientific Discovery is a book published in 1988 and written by Francis Crick, the English co-discoverer in 1953 of the structure of DNA. In the book, Crick gives important insights into his work on the DNA structure, along with the central dogma of molecular biology and the genetic code, and his later work on neuroscience. == Description == The main purpose of Crick's book is to describe some of his experiences before and during the "classical period" of molecular biology from the 1953 discovery of the DNA double helix to the 1966 elucidation of the genetic code. There is a prologue outlining Crick's upbringing, education, and war work on magnetic and acoustic mines, and following World War II his decision on what branch of science to study, using the "gossip test". (Your interests are revealed by your gossip.) There is also an epilogue that outlines Crick's work after 1966, his move to the Salk Institute with his career transition to neuroscience concentrating on visual consciousness in primates, and some of his conclusions regarding research in theoretical biology, especially with regard to the brain sciences. Crick comments on various aspects of the DNA double


id: where-do-camels-belong-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Where_Do_Camels_Belong-0.md
category: reference
title: Where Do Camels Belong?
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Where_Do_Camels_Belong?
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:55.886547+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: where-do-camels-belong-20260505-0
summary:
Where Do Camels Belong? is a book by biologist Ken Thompson. The book examines the science and history of invasive species. The book describes itself as "an examination of the whole question of native and alien species, and what might be called an alien invasions industry—and its implications". The title of the book is in reference to a question posed on its first page, questioning the reader as to "where camels belong?" as a native species; while pointing out that whilst most associated with the Middle East, camels actually first evolved in North America, are most diverse in South America, and have their only truly wild extant population in Australia. == References ==


id: why-is-sex-fun-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_Is_Sex_Fun-0.md
category: reference
title: Why Is Sex Fun?
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_Is_Sex_Fun?
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:57.090689+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: why-is-sex-fun-20260505-0
summary:
Why Is Sex Fun? The Evolution of Human Sexuality is a 1997 book about the evolution of human sexuality by the biologist Jared Diamond. == Introduction == Why is sex fun? This question has intrigued scientists for years. Sexual pleasure isn't just about biology—it's also a big part of human relationships and culture. While sex originally evolved for reproduction, in humans it serves other purposes like bonding, emotional connection, and even stress relief. In this article, we'll look at biological, psychological, and cultural reasons why sex is enjoyable, using ideas from Jared Diamond's book Why Is Sex Fun? The Evolution of Human Sexuality. == Concealed Ovulation and Recreational Sex == One unique feature of human sexuality is concealed ovulation. Unlike many animals, women do not show obvious signs of fertility. This means sex can happen anytime during the menstrual cycle, not just when a woman is fertile. Diamond offers two main theories for why this evolved: Many-Fathers Theory: Women had sex with multiple men to confuse paternity, which reduced the risk of infanticide. Daddy-at-Home Theory: Frequent sex encouraged men to stick around, provide resources, and protect their children. These ideas help explain why sex became recreational and pleasurable instead of


id: why-zebras-don-t-get-ulcers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_Zebras_Don't_Get_Ulcers-0.md
category: reference
title: Why Zebras Don't Get Ulcers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_Zebras_Don't_Get_Ulcers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:58.244182+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: why-zebras-don-t-get-ulcers-20260505-0
summary:
Why Zebras Don't Get Ulcers is a 1994 (2nd ed. 1998, 3rd ed. 2004) book by Stanford University biologist Robert M. Sapolsky. The book includes the subtitle "A Guide to Stress, Stress-related Diseases, and Coping" on the front cover of its third edition. == Background and synopsis == The title derives from Sapolsky's premise that for animals such as zebras, stress is generally episodic (e.g., running away from a lion), while for humans, stress is often chronic (e.g., worrying about losing one's job). Therefore, many wild animals are less susceptible than humans to chronic stress-related disorders such as ulcers, hypertension, decreased neurogenesis and increased hippocampal neuronal atrophy. However, chronic stress occurs in some social primates (Sapolsky studies baboons) for individuals on the lower side of the social dominance hierarchy. Sapolsky focuses on the effects of glucocorticoids on the human body, arguing that such hormones may be useful to animals in the wild escaping their predators, (see fight-or-flight response) but the effects on humans, when secreted at high quantities or over long periods of time, are much less desirable. Sapolsky relates the history of endocrinology, how the field reacted at times of discovery, and how it has changed through the years.


id: wider-than-the-sky-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wider_than_the_Sky-0.md
category: reference
title: Wider than the Sky
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wider_than_the_Sky
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:31:59.407766+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wider-than-the-sky-20260505-0
summary:
Wider than the Sky: The Phenomenal Gift of Consciousness is an English-language book on neuroscience by the neuroscientist Gerald M. Edelman. Yale University Press published the book in 2004. The book includes a glossary, a bibliographic note, and an index. The title alludes to an English-language poem written by Emily Dickinson in about 1862. In that poem, Dickinson describes the brain as "wider than the sky", "deeper than the sea", and "just the weight of God". In the preface, Edelman describes, as follows, the purpose of the book: A scientific analysis of consciousness must answer the question: How can the firings of neurons give rise to subjective sensations, thoughts, and emotions? To some, the two domains are so disparate as to be irreconcilable. A scientific explanation must provide a causal account of the connection between these domains so that properties in one domain may be understood in terms of events in the other. This is the task I have set myself in this small book. The book's content is similar to the 2000 book Edelman co-authored: A Universe of Consciousness: How Matter Becomes Imagination. Both books put forward the theory of neuronal group selection, also known as neural Darwinism. Both


id: wormbook-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WormBook-0.md
category: reference
title: WormBook
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WormBook
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:32:00.588160+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wormbook-20260505-0
summary:
WormBook is an open access, comprehensive collection of original, peer-reviewed chapters covering topics related to the biology of the nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans). WormBook also includes WormMethods, an up-to-date collection of methods and protocols for C. elegans researchers. WormBook is the online text companion to WormBase, the C. elegans model organism database. Capitalizing on the World Wide Web, WormBook links in-text references (e.g. genes, alleles, proteins, literature citations) with primary biological databases such as WormBase and PubMed. C. elegans was the first multicellular organism to have its genome sequenced and is a model organism for studying developmental genetics and neurobiology. == Contents == The content of WormBook is categorized into the sections listed below, each filled with a variety of relevant chapters. These sections include: Genetics and genomics Molecular biology Biochemistry Cell Biology Signal transduction Developmental biology Post-embryonic development Sex-determination systems The germ line Neurobiology and behavior Evolution and ecology Disease models and drug discovery WormMethods == References ==


id: bully-for-brontosaurus-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bully_for_Brontosaurus-0.md
category: reference
title: Bully for Brontosaurus
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bully_for_Brontosaurus
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:32:02.081985+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bully-for-brontosaurus-20260505-0
summary:
Bully for Brontosaurus (1991) is the fifth volume of collected essays by the Harvard paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould. The essays were culled from his monthly column "This View of Life" in Natural History magazine, to which Gould contributed for 27 years. The book deals, in typically discursive fashion, with themes familiar to Gould's writing: evolution and its teaching, science biography, and probabilities. The title essay, "Bully for Brontosaurus", discusses the theory and history of taxonomy by examining the debate over whether Brontosaurus should be labelled Apatosaurus. In "Justice Scalia's Misunderstanding", Gould dissects and decisively rejects Antonin Scalia's dissent in the United States Supreme Court case Edwards v. Aguillard that overturned the last creationist statute in the country. Gould claimed his favourite essay to be "In a Jumbled Drawer" which discusses the debate between Nathaniel Shaler and William James over whether the improbability of our having evolved necessitates divine intervention (Gould, like James, argues no); the essay includes a letter from former President Jimmy Carter as a postscript, which discusses the issue. The essay "Male Nipples and Clitoral Ripples" dealt with the issue of adaptive arguments. It derives from some work by Elisabeth Lloyd, whose subsequent 2005 book was dedicated to


id: dinosaur-in-a-haystack-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinosaur_in_a_Haystack-0.md
category: reference
title: Dinosaur in a Haystack
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinosaur_in_a_Haystack
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:32:03.336326+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dinosaur-in-a-haystack-20260505-0
summary:
Dinosaur in a Haystack (1995) is the seventh volume of collected essays by the Harvard paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould. It collects essays culled from Gould's monthly column "The View of Life" published in Natural History magazine, which Gould contributed for 27 years. The book deals with themes familiar to Gould's writing: evolution, science biography, probabilities, and strange oddities found in nature. His essay "Poe's Greatest Hit" analyzes the controversial conchology textbook The Conchologist's First Book (1839), edited by Edgar Allan Poe. Poe's volume on natural history sold out within two months, and was his only book republished during his lifetime. Essay "Dinomania" is a review of Michael Crichton's novel Jurassic Park and Steven Spielberg's blockbuster film of the same name. == Reception == The book received favorable reviews in Publishers Weekly and The New York Times. == References == == External links == Up Against the Wall - by Steve Jones Essay Summaries - by Lawrence N. Goeller Dinosaur in a Haystack Review - by Danny Yee Book review by Kathryn Denning Two Cultures - by Howard A. Doughty, Innovation Journal Dinosaur in a Haystack Hooking Leviathan by Its Past Dinomania Cordelia's Dilemma Of Tongue Worms, Velvet Worms, and Water


id: eight-little-piggies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eight_Little_Piggies-0.md
category: reference
title: Eight Little Piggies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eight_Little_Piggies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:32:04.512301+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eight-little-piggies-20260505-0
summary:
Eight Little Piggies (1993) is the sixth volume of collected essays by the Harvard paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould. The essays were selected from his monthly column "The View of Life" in Natural History magazine, to which Gould contributed for 27 years. The book covers topics that are common to Gould's writing in a discursive manner, including evolution and its teaching, science biography, probabilities, and common sense. The title essay, "Eight Little Piggies", is a thought piece on the prevalence of five digits on hands and feet throughout the animal kingdom. It also explores concepts such as archetypes and polydactyly via the anatomy of early tetrapods. Other essays discuss themes such as the scale of extinction, vertebrate anatomy, grand patterns of evolution, and human nature. == References == == External links == The Snail Wars - by Derek Bickerton, The New York Times Book review - by Howard A. Doughty, College Quarterly Book review - John Farrell, National Review Book review - Edward Kay, Eye Weekly W. W. Norton promotional page Google Books - contains book excerpts and jacket description


id: ever-since-darwin-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ever_Since_Darwin-0.md
category: reference
title: Ever Since Darwin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ever_Since_Darwin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:32:05.662577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ever-since-darwin-20260505-0
summary:
Ever Since Darwin is a 1977 book by the paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould. Gould's first book of collected essays, it originated from his monthly column "This View of Life," published in Natural History magazine. Edwin Barber—who was then the editorial director for W. W. Norton & Company— encouraged Gould to produce a book. He soon commissioned Gould to write The Mismeasure of Man, but it was not until three years later, when Gould accumulated 33 columns, that it occurred to either of them that the Natural History columns should be published in a single volume. The collection of essays, written between 1973–1977, became a best-seller and propelled Gould to national prominence. == Reviews == James Gorman, "The History of a Theory", The New York Times, 20 November 1977. Richard Dawkins, "Rejoicing in Multifarious Nature. Review of Ever Since Darwin by S. J. Gould", reprinted in The Devil's Chaplain: Selected Essays, Phoenix, 2003 (ISBN 978-0-7538-1750-6). == External links == W.W.Norton Promotional page == References ==


id: the-flamingo-s-smile-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Flamingo's_Smile-0.md
category: reference
title: The Flamingo's Smile
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Flamingo's_Smile
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:32:06.828166+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-flamingo-s-smile-20260505-0
summary:
The Flamingo's Smile: Reflections in Natural History, published in 1985, is the fourth volume of collected essays from evolutionary biologist and well-known science writer Stephen Jay Gould. The essays were culled from his monthly column The View of Life in Natural History magazine, to which Gould contributed for more than two decades. The book deals, in typically discursive fashion, with themes familiar to Gould's writing: evolution and its teaching, science biography, probabilities and common sense. The title essay, "The Flamingo's Smile", discusses changes in morphology arising as a consequence of behavior, as illustrated by the beak and tongue of the flamingo. Topics discussed in other essays include SETI, the extinction of the dinosaurs, the Omphalos hypothesis, and the importance of taxonomy. == References == == External links == Quammen, David (22 September 1985). "Evolution and the .400 Hitter". The New York Times. Retrieved 25 September 2012.


id: full-house-the-spread-of-excellence-from-plato-to-darwin-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_House:_The_Spread_of_Excellence_from_Plato_to_Darwin-0.md
category: reference
title: Full House: The Spread of Excellence from Plato to Darwin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_House:_The_Spread_of_Excellence_from_Plato_to_Darwin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:32:07.995496+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: full-house-the-spread-of-excellence-from-plato-to-darwin-20260505-0
summary:
Full House: The Spread of Excellence from Plato to Darwin is a 1996 book by evolutionary biologist Stephen Jay Gould. It was released in the United Kingdom as Life's Grandeur, with the same subtitle and with an additional eight-page introduction entitled "A Baseball Primer for British Readers". == Summary == Full House aims to explain to the general reader how misconceptions about statistics can lead people to misunderstand the role variation plays in driving trends in complex systems. One misconception people often have is focusing too narrowly on averages or extreme values rather than the full spectrum of variation in the entire system (what Gould calls the "full house" of variation). The book focuses on two main examples of this misconception: the disappearance of the 0.400 batting average in baseball, and the perceived tendency of evolution towards "progress" making organisms more complex and sophisticated. In the first example, Gould explains that the decline of the top batting average does not imply that there has been a decline in the skill of baseball players. Quite the contrary: he shows that all that has happened is that the variance of the batting average decreased as professional baseball got better and better, while


id: the-hedgehog-the-fox-and-the-magister-s-pox-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hedgehog,_the_Fox,_and_the_Magister's_Pox-0.md
category: reference
title: The Hedgehog, the Fox, and the Magister's Pox
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hedgehog,_the_Fox,_and_the_Magister's_Pox
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:32:09.168207+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-hedgehog-the-fox-and-the-magister-s-pox-20260505-0
summary:
The Hedgehog, the Fox, and the Magister's Pox is a posthumous volume by Stephen Jay Gould released in 2003 exploring the historically complex relationship between the sciences and the humanities in a scholarly discourse. Employing the Greek proverb about the crafty cunning fox that devises many strategies versus the persistent hedgehog who knows one effective strategy, Gould offers a study of the division between the two ways of knowing, attempting to debunk the commonly assumed inextricable conflict between science and the arts as the two falsely opposed realms of the pursuit of knowledge.


id: the-hedgehog-the-fox-and-the-magister-s-pox-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hedgehog,_the_Fox,_and_the_Magister's_Pox-1.md
category: reference
title: The Hedgehog, the Fox, and the Magister's Pox
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hedgehog,_the_Fox,_and_the_Magister's_Pox
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:32:09.168207+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-hedgehog-the-fox-and-the-magister-s-pox-20260505-0
summary:
== Four historical periods == Gould prefers to focus on the commonalities between the humanities and the sciences, such as creative thinking and the psychology of transcendence and discovery. He discusses four historic periods in which the supposed Science wars have been characterized falsely. In each case, the strategy for either side has been to portray centrist members of the opposing camp with radical minority views of extremist strawmen, so as to easily defeat these misrepresentations of otherwise-rational mainstream arguments. He stresses the dangers of presenting cut and dried dichotomies, such as good vs. bad or spirit vs. matter, or focusing on polar positions within continuous ranges of actions, methods, discourse and beliefs. The first period is represented by the leaders of the Scientific Revolution in the seventeenth century, the vast majority of whom had sincere religious convictions. Atheism was extremely rare among these scholars. In the Renaissance, which preceded the period under consideration, scholars focused on the recovery of lost knowledge with an associated reverence for the Ancients. Renaissance compendiums of knowledge did not necessarily discriminate between truth and fiction. Both were domains of human opinion and thought regarded as noteworthy, especially when associated with authoritative classical sources, and


id: the-hedgehog-the-fox-and-the-magister-s-pox-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hedgehog,_the_Fox,_and_the_Magister's_Pox-2.md
category: reference
title: The Hedgehog, the Fox, and the Magister's Pox
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hedgehog,_the_Fox,_and_the_Magister's_Pox
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:32:09.168207+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-hedgehog-the-fox-and-the-magister-s-pox-20260505-0
summary:
He also argued that most social critics and historians of science that he was aware of were not pure relativists, and agreed that there is an external reality that may be scientifically modeled with associated benefits of acquired knowledge and applications.


id: the-hedgehog-the-fox-and-the-magister-s-pox-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hedgehog,_the_Fox,_and_the_Magister's_Pox-3.md
category: reference
title: The Hedgehog, the Fox, and the Magister's Pox
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hedgehog,_the_Fox,_and_the_Magister's_Pox
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:32:09.168207+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-hedgehog-the-fox-and-the-magister-s-pox-20260505-0
summary:
== Analysis of Consilience: The Unity Of Knowledge == Gould includes an analysis of E. O. Wilson's book Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge within the larger scope of his recommendations for a confederation of the physical sciences and humanities. He also provides an exegesis of texts participating in the development of the word consilience within a larger historical context of the concept's inception by Reverend William Whewell, who also is said to have coined the term scientist to refer to Mary Somerville in an anonymous 1834 review of her publication in the Quarterly Review, titled On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences. Gould proclaims William Whewell to be "the first modernist with joint command of both history and philosophy in the analysis of science" (Whewell being best known for his 1837 History of the Inductive Sciences and for his 1840 The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, Founded Upon Their History.). Gould also reminds the reader that he revived Whewell's concept of consilience in print, prior to Wilson. Gould reproves Wilson's program of reductionism by utilizing two main arguments based upon the emergence and contingency or randomness found in some complex, nonlinear or non-additive systems. He indicates that there exist new


id: hen-s-teeth-and-horse-s-toes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hen's_Teeth_and_Horse's_Toes-0.md
category: reference
title: Hen's Teeth and Horse's Toes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hen's_Teeth_and_Horse's_Toes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:32:10.294802+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hen-s-teeth-and-horse-s-toes-20260505-0
summary:
Hen's Teeth and Horse's Toes (1983) is Stephen Jay Gould's third volume of collected essays reprinted from his monthly columns for Natural History magazine titled "This View of Life". Three essays appeared elsewhere. "Evolution as Fact and Theory" first appeared in Discover magazine in May 1981; "Phyletic size decrease in Hershey bars" appeared in C. J. Rubins's Junk Food, 1980; and his "Reply to Critics", was written specifically for this volume as a commentary upon criticism of essay 16, "The Piltdown Conspiracy". == Awards == The book was awarded the 1983 Phi Beta Kappa Award for Science from the Phi Beta Kappa Society. == References == == External links == Steven Rose, "And Zebra Stripes and Chocolate Bars", The New York Times, 8 May 1983, section 7, page 3. Richard Dawkins, "The Art of the Developable. Review of Pluto's Republic by Peter Medawar and Hen's Teeth and Horse's Toes by Stephen Jay Gould", reprinted in The Devil's Chaplain: Selected Essays, Phoenix, 2003 (ISBN 978-0-7538-1750-6). W. W. Norton's promotional page


id: i-have-landed-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Have_Landed-0.md
category: reference
title: I Have Landed
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Have_Landed
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:32:11.495790+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: i-have-landed-20260505-0
summary:
I Have Landed (2002) is the 10th and final volume of collected essays by the Harvard paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould. The essays were culled from his monthly column "This View of Life" in Natural History magazine, to which Gould contributed for 27 years. The book deals, in typically discursive fashion, with themes familiar to Gould's writing: evolution and its teaching, science biography, probabilities and common sense. The series of consecutive essays began in 1974, ending in January 2001 with the title essay "I have landed." The title refers to the very first words his grandfather Papa Joe wrote as he arrived on Ellis Island, New York as a newly arrived Hungarian immigrant, September 11, 1901. In I Have Landed, Gould examines Isabelle Duncan's writings in 1860, in which she tried to reconcile the Biblical creation story and geography. He also provides an analysis of Johann Friedrich Blumenbach's classification of humans into five races. == References == == External links == A Grand Finale - by Robin McKie, The Observer. Review of I Have Landed Book review - by Jim Walker


id: leonardo-s-mountain-of-clams-and-the-diet-of-worms-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo's_Mountain_of_Clams_and_the_Diet_of_Worms-0.md
category: reference
title: Leonardo's Mountain of Clams and the Diet of Worms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo's_Mountain_of_Clams_and_the_Diet_of_Worms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:32:12.674176+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: leonardo-s-mountain-of-clams-and-the-diet-of-worms-20260505-0
summary:
Leonardo's Mountain of Clams and the Diet of Worms (1998) is the eighth volume of collected essays by the Harvard paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould. This collection focuses on what Gould calls "humanistic natural history". The essays were culled from his monthly column "The View of Life" in Natural History magazine, to which Gould contributed for 27 years. The book deals, in typically discursive fashion, with themes familiar to Gould's writing: evolution and its teaching, science biography, probabilities and common sense. == References == == External links == Book Review: by Jacqueline Boone, New York Times The Royal Road of Science: by Bryan Appleyard, Spectator Book review: by Jim Sullivan, Humanist Review by Graham Brack, Renaissance Book Review by Jim Walker Book summary: by Ryan Robinson Profile Page (with introduction) - Unofficial Stephen Jay Gould Archive


id: the-lying-stones-of-marrakech-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lying_Stones_of_Marrakech-0.md
category: reference
title: The Lying Stones of Marrakech
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lying_Stones_of_Marrakech
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:32:13.894106+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-lying-stones-of-marrakech-20260505-0
summary:
The Lying Stones of Marrakech (2000) is the ninth volume of collected essays by the Harvard paleontologist, Stephen Jay Gould. The essays were culled from his monthly column "The View of Life" in Natural History magazine, to which Gould contributed for nearly 30 years. The book addresses themes familiar to Gould's writing, including evolution and its teaching, science biography, probability, and iconoclasm. == References == == External links == Book review - by Christine Kenneally, The New York Times A Gouldian Valediction, Almost - by Henry Gee, Nature Essay Summaries - by Lawrence N. Goeller Book review - by Jim Walker Book excerpt - Random House Press Profile Page (with introduction) - Unofficial Stephen Jay Gould Archive Video interview about the book - Charlie Rose


id: the-mismeasure-of-man-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mismeasure_of_Man-0.md
category: reference
title: The Mismeasure of Man
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mismeasure_of_Man
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:32:15.085525+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-mismeasure-of-man-20260505-0
summary:
The Mismeasure of Man is a 1981 book by paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould. The book is both a history and critique of the statistical methods and cultural motivations underlying biological determinism, the belief that "the social and economic differences between human groups—primarily races, classes, and sexes—arise from inherited, inborn distinctions and that society, in this sense, is an accurate reflection of biology". Gould argues that the primary assumption underlying biological determinism is that "worth can be assigned to individuals and groups by measuring intelligence as a single quantity". Biological determinism is analyzed in discussions of craniometry and psychological testing, the two principal methods used to measure intelligence as a single quantity. According to Gould, these methods possess two deep fallacies. The first fallacy is reification, which is "our tendency to convert abstract concepts into entities". Examples of reification include the intelligence quotient (IQ) and the general intelligence factor (g factor), which have been the cornerstones of much research into human intelligence. The second fallacy is that of "ranking", which is the "propensity for ordering complex variation as a gradual ascending scale". The book received many positive reviews in the literary and popular press, while scientific reception was highly polarized. Positive


id: the-mismeasure-of-man-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mismeasure_of_Man-1.md
category: reference
title: The Mismeasure of Man
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mismeasure_of_Man
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:32:15.085525+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-mismeasure-of-man-20260505-0
summary:
=== IQ, g, statistical correlation, and heritability === As an evolutionary biologist and historian of science, Gould accepted biological variability (the premise of the transmission of intelligence via genetic heredity), but opposed biological determinism, which posits that genes determine a definitive, unalterable social destiny for each man and each woman in life and society. The Mismeasure of Man is an analysis of statistical correlation, the mathematics applied by psychologists to establish the validity of IQ tests, and the heritability of intelligence. For example, to establish the validity of the proposition that IQ is supported by a general intelligence factor (g factor), the answers to several tests of cognitive ability must positively correlate; thus, for the g factor to be a heritable trait, the IQ-test scores of close-relation respondents must correlate more than the IQ-test scores of distant-relation respondents. However, correlation does not imply causation; for example, Gould said that the measures of the changes, over time, in "my age, the population of México, the price of Swiss cheese, my pet turtle's weight, and the average distance between galaxies" have a high, positive correlation—yet that correlation does not indicate that Gould's age increased because the Mexican population increased. More specifically, a


id: the-mismeasure-of-man-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mismeasure_of_Man-2.md
category: reference
title: The Mismeasure of Man
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mismeasure_of_Man
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:32:15.085525+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-mismeasure-of-man-20260505-0
summary:
=== Praise === Gould claimed the majority of reviews of The Mismeasure of Man were positive. Gould's colleague Richard Lewontin, a celebrated evolutionary biologist who held positions at both the University of Chicago and Harvard, wrote a glowing review of Gould's book in The New York Review of Books, endorsing most aspects of its account, and suggesting that it might have been even more critical of the racist intentions of the scientists he discusses, because scientists "sometimes tell deliberate lies because they believe that small lies can serve big truths." Gould said that the most positive review of the first edition to be written by a psychologist was in the British Journal of Mathematical & Statistical Psychology, which reported that "Gould has performed a valuable service in exposing the logical basis of one of the most important debates in the social sciences, and this book should be required reading for students and practitioners alike." In The New York Times, journalist Christopher Lehmann-Haupt wrote that the critique of factor analysis "demonstrates persuasively how factor analysis led to the cardinal error in reasoning, of confusing correlation with cause, or, to put it another way, of attributing false concreteness to the abstract". The


id: the-mismeasure-of-man-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mismeasure_of_Man-3.md
category: reference
title: The Mismeasure of Man
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mismeasure_of_Man
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:32:15.085525+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-mismeasure-of-man-20260505-0
summary:
=== Criticism === In a review of The Mismeasure of Man, Bernard Davis, professor of microbiology at Harvard Medical School, said that Gould erected a straw man argument based upon incorrectly defined key terms—specifically reification—which Gould furthered with a "highly selective" presentation of statistical data, all motivated more by politics than by science. Davis said that Philip Morrison's laudatory book review of The Mismeasure of Man in Scientific American was written and published because the editors of the journal had "long seen the study of the genetics of intelligence as a threat to social justice". Davis also criticized the popular-press and the literary-journal book reviews of The Mismeasure of Man as generally approbatory; whereas, he said that most scientific-journal book reviews were generally critical. Davis accused Gould of having misrepresented a study by Henry H. Goddard (1866–1957) about the intelligence of Jewish, Hungarian, Italian, and Russian immigrants to the U.S., wherein Gould reported Goddard's qualifying those people as "feeble-minded"; whereas, in the initial sentence of the study, Goddard said the study subjects were atypical members of their ethnic groups, who had been selected because of their suspected sub-normal intelligence. Davis also argued that Goddard had proposed that the low IQs


id: the-mismeasure-of-man-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mismeasure_of_Man-4.md
category: reference
title: The Mismeasure of Man
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mismeasure_of_Man
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:32:15.085525+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-mismeasure-of-man-20260505-0
summary:
=== Responses to the second edition (1996) === Arthur Jensen and Bernard Davis argued that if the g factor (general intelligence factor) were replaced with a model that tested several types of intelligence, it would change results less than one might expect. Therefore, according to Jensen and Davis, the results of standardized tests of cognitive ability would continue to correlate with the results of other such standardized tests, and that the intellectual achievement gap between black and white people would remain. James R. Flynn, a researcher critical of racial theories of intelligence, repeated the arguments of Arthur Jensen about the second edition of The Mismeasure of Man. Flynn wrote that "Gould's book evades all of Jensen's best arguments for a genetic component in the black–white IQ gap, by positing that they are dependent on the concept of g as a general intelligence factor. Therefore, Gould believes that if he can discredit g no more need be said. This is manifestly false. Jensen's arguments would bite no matter whether blacks suffered from a score deficit on one or ten or one hundred factors." Rather than defending Jensen and Rushton, however, Flynn concluded that the Flynn Effect, a nongenetic rise in IQ


id: ontogeny-and-phylogeny-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontogeny_and_Phylogeny-0.md
category: reference
title: Ontogeny and Phylogeny
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontogeny_and_Phylogeny
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:32:16.301562+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ontogeny-and-phylogeny-20260505-0
summary:
Ontogeny and Phylogeny is a 1977 book on evolution by Stephen Jay Gould, in which he explores the relationship between embryonic development (ontogeny) and biological evolution (phylogeny). Unlike his many popular books of essays, it was a technical book, and over the following decades it was influential in stimulating research into heterochrony (changes in the timing of embryonic development), which had been neglected since Ernst Haeckel's theory that ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny had been largely discredited. This helped to create the field of evolutionary developmental biology. == Context == Ontogeny and Phylogeny is Stephen Jay Gould's first technical book. He wrote that Ernst Mayr had suggested in passing that he write a book on development. Gould stated he "only began it as a practice run to learn the style of lengthy exposition before embarking on my magnum opus about macroevolution." This later work was published in 2002 as The Structure of Evolutionary Theory. == Book == === Publication === The book was published in 1977 by the Belknap Press of the Harvard University Press. === Summary === The first half of the book explores Ernst Haeckel's biogenetic law (recapitulation)—the discredited idea that embryonic developmental stages replay the evolutionary transitions of adult


id: ontogeny-and-phylogeny-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontogeny_and_Phylogeny-1.md
category: reference
title: Ontogeny and Phylogeny
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontogeny_and_Phylogeny
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:32:16.301562+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ontogeny-and-phylogeny-20260505-0
summary:
The anthropologist C. Loring Brace, in American Anthropologist, noted that two years earlier, E. O. Wilson's Sociobiology had with "woeful ignorance" strayed into anthropology, and Wilson's "bright young colleague" Gould had now done the same thing, possibly making trouble for years to come. Gould was "a wonderful writer, literate, erudite, gracefully witty, and gifted with the ability to present difficult material in a straightforward and easily readable fashion." The bulk of the book was fine, though of no interest to anthropologists. But the tenth chapter, "Retardation and Neoteny in Human Evolution", would "mislead a great many people" who would be unable to make an informed judgement about its conclusions. Gould "turns out to be just as much of a teleologist and progressivist as the scholars of previous generations whom he appraises so effectively. He notes that we associate 'cute' features with mammals of higher intelligence, features that show 'the common traits of babyhood: relatively large eyes, short face, smooth features, bulbous cranium. The presence of this complex in advanced adult mammals argues for neoteny' (Gould p. 350)." In Brace's view, "Gould's main thesis founders between the Scylla of mosaic evolution and the Charybdis of Darwinian theory." Brace concluded that Gould


id: the-panda-s-thumb-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Panda's_Thumb_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: The Panda's Thumb (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Panda's_Thumb_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:32:17.485954+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-panda-s-thumb-book-20260505-0
summary:
The Panda's Thumb: More Reflections in Natural History (1980) is a collection of 31 essays by the Harvard University paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould. It is the second volume culled from his 27-year monthly column "This View of Life" in Natural History magazine. Recurring themes of the essays are evolution and its teaching, science biography, probabilities and common sense. The title essay (of 1978, originally titled "The panda's peculiar thumb") presents the paradox that poor design is a better argument for evolution than good design, as illustrated by the anatomy of the panda's "thumb"—which is not an actual thumb at all, but an extension of the radial sesamoid bone. Topics addressed in other essays include the female brain, the Piltdown Man hoax, Down syndrome, and the relationship between dinosaurs and birds. The Panda's Thumb won the 1981 U.S. National Book Award in Science. == Reviews == Books of the Times - by Christopher Lehmann-Haupt, The New York Times == Notes == == References ==


id: questioning-the-millennium-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Questioning_the_Millennium-0.md
category: reference
title: Questioning the Millennium
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Questioning_the_Millennium
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:32:18.626227+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: questioning-the-millennium-20260505-0
summary:
Questioning the Millennium is a 1997 book by the paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould that deals with the definition and calculation of the millennium, and its meaning in Western culture. New York Times reviewer Robert Eisner described it as a "slim and attractive meditation," which touches upon calendrics, Biblical exegesis, millennial cults, and includes "a charming essay on a young autistic man whose amazing ability to calculate instantly which day of the week coincided with any date mentioned over many centuries". Gould reveals that this young man was his autistic son, Jesse. Michiko Kakutani wrote that while not one of Gould's more important books, Questioning the Millennium "beguiles and entertains, even as it teaches us to reconsider our preconceptions about the natural world." Kakutani noted that its subject was much broader than simply the millennium, encompassing the human love for order and regularity. == References == == Multimedia == "Questioning the Millennium" - interview with Gould on Charlie Rose "Questioning the Millenium" - interview with Gould on All Things Considered == External links == Questioning the Millennium - by Stephen Jay Gould "The First Day of the Rest of Our Life" - by Stephen Jay Gould "Redefining the Millennium: From Sacred


id: rocks-of-ages-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocks_of_Ages-0.md
category: reference
title: Rocks of Ages
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocks_of_Ages
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:32:19.826529+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rocks-of-ages-20260505-0
summary:
Rocks of Ages: Science and Religion in the Fullness of Life is a 1999 book about the relationship between science and religion by the Harvard paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould. First published by Ballantine Books, it was reprinted by Vintage Books. The book is a volume in the series The Library of Contemporary Thought. == Summary == Gould addresses the conflict between secular scientists and religious believers who question or deny scientific theory when it is in discrepancy with religious teachings on the origin and nature of the natural world. Borrowing a term from the Catholic Church, Gould describes science and religion as each comprise a separate magisterium of human understanding. Science defines the natural world, and religion the moral world. If each realm is separate, then according to Gould, they are not in conflict. He calls this the principle of non-overlapping magisteria, abbreviated NOMA. == Reception == The book has been reviewed extensively, and commented on by both sides of the conflict he addresses. == See also == Intelligent design Richard Dawkins Moral Landscape == References == == External links == Rocks of Ages at Ballantine Books website


id: the-structure-of-evolutionary-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Evolutionary_Theory-0.md
category: reference
title: The Structure of Evolutionary Theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Evolutionary_Theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:32:21.033766+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-structure-of-evolutionary-theory-20260505-0
summary:
The Structure of Evolutionary Theory (2002) is Harvard paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould's technical book on macroevolution and the historical development of evolutionary theory. The book was twenty years in the making, published just two months before Gould's death. Aimed primarily at professionals, the volume is divided into two parts. The first is a historical study of classical evolutionary thought, drawing extensively upon primary documents; the second is a constructive critique of the modern synthesis, and presents a case for an interpretation of biological evolution based largely on hierarchical selection, and the theory of punctuated equilibrium (developed by Niles Eldredge and Gould in 1972). == Summary == According to Gould, classical Darwinism encompasses three essential core commitments: Agency, the unit of selection (which for Charles Darwin was the organism) upon which natural selection acts; efficacy, which encompasses the dominance of natural selection over all other forces—such as genetic drift, and biological constraints—in shaping the historical, ecological, and structural influences on evolution; and scope, the degree to which natural selection can be extrapolated to explain biodiversity at the macroevolutionary level, including the evolution of higher taxonomic groups. Gould described these three propositions as the "tripod" of Darwinian central logic, each being so


id: time-s-arrow-time-s-cycle-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time's_Arrow,_Time's_Cycle-0.md
category: reference
title: Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time's_Arrow,_Time's_Cycle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:32:22.239345+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: time-s-arrow-time-s-cycle-20260505-0
summary:
Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle: Myth and Metaphor in the Discovery of Geological Time is a 1987 history of geology by the paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould, in which the author offers a historical account of the conceptualization of Deep Time and uniformitarianism using the works of the English theologian Thomas Burnet, and the Scottish geologists James Hutton and Charles Lyell. == Deep Time == Gould ranks the development of the concept "deep time," which involved deliberately rejecting the biblical description of earth's past for nearly incomprehensible eons, with the revolutions associated with Copernicus and Charles Darwin. To illustrate this, Gould picked three major figures in the history of geology, one traditional villain (Thomas Burnet) and two traditional heroes (James Hutton and Charles Lyell). == Flimsy 'cardboard' == Standard textbook accounts of the achievements of these three figures have long provided what Gould describes as a "self-serving mythology." These flimsy "cardboard" accounts vaunt the superiority of empiricism and inductivism over the scientific nemesis of religious bigotry. This legend, as perpetuated by geology textbooks over the last century, claims that geology remained in the service of the Mosaic story of creation so long as armchair geological theorists refused to place fieldwork ahead of


id: time-s-arrow-time-s-cycle-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time's_Arrow,_Time's_Cycle-1.md
category: reference
title: Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time's_Arrow,_Time's_Cycle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:32:22.239345+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: time-s-arrow-time-s-cycle-20260505-0
summary:
== Hutton’s endless cycles of deep time == Before James Hutton, most geological theorists had dealt only with processes of decay. The earth was created and its geologic structures just wore down through catastrophic events like weathering and especially the biblical Flood. Hutton introduced the concept of repair into geology and, with it, the notion of deep time. The textbook myths see this as a triumph of science and empiricism over religion, but it was nothing of the kind. Hutton's theory of the earth as a geological clockwork of eroding continents balanced against uplifting ocean basins was not based on field observations but on a priori conceptions inspired jointly by religious considerations and "the most rigid and uncompromising version of time's cycle ever developed by a geologist." Hutton's theory grew out of what may be called "the paradox of the soil." Good soil, the product of the "denudation," or eroding, of rock strata, eventually loses its richness to the plant life it sustains. Were there no geological source for continual new soil then the world would bear the intolerable stamp of an imperfectly designed abode for man's existence. Hutton's homocentric and teleological concept of the world therefore demanded that the


id: time-s-arrow-time-s-cycle-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time's_Arrow,_Time's_Cycle-2.md
category: reference
title: Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time's_Arrow,_Time's_Cycle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:32:22.239345+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: time-s-arrow-time-s-cycle-20260505-0
summary:
=== From steady state to progressionism === Nor was Lyell's eventual conversion to evolution a strictly empirical affair. When he finally took this step publicly, in 1868, it was not because he had been persuaded by Darwin's theory of natural selection. In fact, Lyell rejected that theory, accepting only a general evolutionary process without its celebrated Darwinian mechanism. Admitting nonmiraculous progression (that is, evolution) in turn allowed him to preserve three of his four uniformities (uniformity of law, process, and rate) while giving up only uniformity of state. This was as Gould notes, "the most conservative intellectual option available to him." Charles Lyell may have lost the battle over progressionism to Darwinism, but through rhetoric he won a battle against catastrophism, which enabled his hypothesis of the uniformity of rate to become a textbook shibboleth. The catastrophists of Lyell's day, Gould nevertheless maintains, were right all along. The literal fossil evidence of major rapid changes in previous faunas does not need to be interpreted away, as Lyell tried to do by appealing to the imperfection of the geological record. Gould sees supreme irony in the recent hypothesis of the Berkeley scientists Luis and Walter Alvarez that mass extinctions were caused


id: an-urchin-in-the-storm-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Urchin_in_the_Storm-0.md
category: reference
title: An Urchin in the Storm
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Urchin_in_the_Storm
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:32:23.418361+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: an-urchin-in-the-storm-20260505-0
summary:
An Urchin in the Storm is a 1987 essay collection from paleontologist and science writer Stephen Jay Gould. == Overview == All but one of the essays had originally appeared in The New York Review of Books. Grouped by theme, the sections of the book deal respectively with the irreducibility of history (and the pleasures and challenges of contingency) in its two principal domains of life and the earth, nature's complexity, the theory and consequences of biological determinism, and rationalism in explanation. The book is dedicated to Peter Medawar and Isaiah Berlin. It was reviewed in The New York Times by Michiko Kakutani, who noted that although the pieces were technically book reviews, Gould "tends to use the subject at hand as a jumping-off point for more general discussions". == References ==


id: wonderful-life-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wonderful_Life_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Wonderful Life (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wonderful_Life_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:32:24.616556+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wonderful-life-book-20260505-0
summary:
Wonderful Life: The Burgess Shale and the Nature of History is a 1989 book on the evolution of Cambrian fauna by Harvard paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould. The volume made The New York Times Best Seller list, was the 1991 winner of the Royal Society's Rhone-Poulenc Prize and the American Historical Association's Forkosch Award, and was a 1991 finalist for the Pulitzer Prize. Pulitzer juror Joyce Carol Oates later revealed the non-fiction jury had unanimously recommended the book for the prize, but the selection was rejected by the Pulitzer board. Gould described his later book Full House (1996) as a companion volume to Wonderful Life. == Summary == Gould's thesis in Wonderful Life was that contingency plays a major role in the evolutionary history of life. He based his argument on the extraordinarily well preserved fossils of the Burgess Shale, a rich fossil-bearing deposit in Canada's Rocky Mountains, dating 505 million years ago. Gould argues that during this period just after the Cambrian explosion there was a greater disparity of anatomical body plans (phyla) than exist today. However most of these phyla left no modern descendants. All of the Burgess animals, Gould argues, were exquisitely adapted to their environment, and there


