# kb

id: the-primordial-emotions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Primordial_Emotions-0.md
category: reference
title: The Primordial Emotions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Primordial_Emotions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:50:46.441212+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-primordial-emotions-20260505-0
summary:
The Primordial Emotions: The Dawning of Consciousness is a 2006 book by Australian neuroscientist Derek Denton. == Summary == Denton argues that, if self-awareness and intentionality are intrinsic to consciousness, the primordial emotions such as thirst, hunger and pain (that involve feeling the self and intentionality) are the likely precursors to consciousness; that a kind of non-reflective consciousness evolved along with these feelings and before the emergence of cognition. This opposes the view put by Edelman and others that consciousness emerged after the development of cognitive processes such as the ability to create a scene from diverse sensory inputs. He sees the evolution of consciousness as a gradual, continuous process, beginning in the brain's most primitive regions with non-reflective consciousness of instincts, followed by reflective consciousness of the feelings and impulses associated with these instincts (this subjective experience is what he terms "primordial emotions"), then reflective consciousness of surroundings evolves, followed by the emergence of reflective consciousness of memories and behavioural options. Denton distinguishes between primordial emotions, "imperious states of arousal and compelling intentions to act" (p. 7) driven by activation of interoceptors and involving ancient, lower brain regions such as the medulla, midbrain and hypothalamus, and "classic" emotions, such


id: principles-of-neural-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principles_of_Neural_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Principles of Neural Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principles_of_Neural_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:50:47.618631+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: principles-of-neural-science-20260505-0
summary:
Principles of Neural Science is a neuroscience textbook edited by Columbia University professors Eric R. Kandel, James H. Schwartz, and Thomas M. Jessell. First published in 1981 by McGraw-Hill, the original edition was 468 pages, and has now grown to 1,646 pages on the sixth edition. The second edition was published in 1985, third in 1991, fourth in 2000. The fifth was published on October 26, 2012 and included Steven A. Siegelbaum and A. J. Hudspeth as editors. The sixth and latest edition was published on March 8, 2021. == Authors == === Editors === Kandel was one of the recipients of the 2000 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. He is currently a professor of biochemistry, molecular biophysics, physiology, cellular biophysics, and psychiatry at Columbia University. He is a senior investigator at the Howard Hughes Medical Institute and a recipient of the National Medal of Science. Schwartz was a professor of physiology, cellular biophysics, neurology, and psychiatry at Columbia University. Jessell became an editor of the book starting from the third edition. He was a professor of biochemistry and molecular biophysics at Columbia University, and an investigator at the Howard Hughes Medical Institute. Hudspeth is a professor of sensory


id: proust-was-a-neuroscientist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proust_Was_a_Neuroscientist-0.md
category: reference
title: Proust Was a Neuroscientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proust_Was_a_Neuroscientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:50:48.758484+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: proust-was-a-neuroscientist-20260505-0
summary:
Proust Was a Neuroscientist is a non-fiction book written by Jonah Lehrer, first published in 2007. In it, Lehrer argues that many 20th and 21st-century discoveries of neuroscience are actually re-discoveries of insights made earlier by various artists, including Gertrude Stein, Walt Whitman, Paul Cézanne, Igor Stravinsky, and, as alluded to in the title, Marcel Proust. Lehrer became embroiled in controversy following the publication of his third book, Imagine: How Creativity Works (2012), and his work was subject to charges of plagiarism and fabrication. Though both Imagine and one of his other books, How We Decide, were pulled from publication, Proust Was a Neuroscientist was found by his publisher to be without significant problems and would remain in print. == References ==


id: sleights-of-mind-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleights_of_Mind-0.md
category: reference
title: Sleights of Mind
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleights_of_Mind
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:50:49.893928+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sleights-of-mind-20260505-0
summary:
Sleights of Mind: What the Neuroscience of Magic Reveals about Our Everyday Deceptions is a 2010 popular science book, written by neuroscientists Stephen Macknik and Susana Martinez-Conde, with science writer Sandra Blakeslee. Working alongside several magicians, Macknik and Martinez-Conde studied how conjuring techniques trick the brain. Sleights of Mind considers the greater implications of magic and misdirection for clinical conditions such as autism, and for everyday life situations, including choice and trust in personal and business relationships. Sleights of Mind introduces Neuromagic as a new area of scientific endeavor, a discipline aimed to uncover the interaction between brain science and the art of magic. Macknik and Martinez-Conde propose that understanding how the mind perceives magic and illusion will provide a greater understanding of perception and cognition at large. == Synopsis == Macknik and Martinez-Conde say that magic tricks fool us because humans have hardwired processes of attention and awareness that are hackable. Good magicians use our inherent mental and neural limitations against us by leading us to perceive and feel what we are neurologically inclined to. Working with renowned magicians like Apollo Robbins, Teller, Mac King, and James Randi, Macknik and Martinez-Conde research the ways in which the perceptual and


id: the-space-between-our-ears-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Space_Between_Our_Ears-0.md
category: reference
title: The Space Between Our Ears
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Space_Between_Our_Ears
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:50:51.056850+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-space-between-our-ears-20260505-0
summary:
The Space Between Our Ears: How the Brain Represents Visual Space is a 2001 non-fiction book by Michael J. Morgan, which explores the workings of vision. == Reception == The Space Between Our Ears won the Wellcome Trust Book Prize for science writing. In the Guardian, Steven Rose lauded Morgan's explanations of binocularity and depth perception, but faulted the inclusion of "irrelevant anecdotes, bad poems and even worse jokes". Perception described it as an "intelligent and erudite romp", and commended its appeal to scientists, noting that Morgan sets ideas which (to vision specialists) are of "cosy (...) familiarity" in a "rich context". == References ==


id: the-tale-of-the-dueling-neurosurgeons-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tale_of_the_Dueling_Neurosurgeons-0.md
category: reference
title: The Tale of the Dueling Neurosurgeons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tale_of_the_Dueling_Neurosurgeons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:50:52.249199+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-tale-of-the-dueling-neurosurgeons-20260505-0
summary:
The Tale of the Dueling Neurosurgeons, also known by its full title The Tale of the Dueling Neurosurgeons: The History of The Human Brain as Revealed by True Stories of Trauma, Madness, and Recovery is a science book regarding the brain and its functions by Sam Kean. The Daily Telegraph described it as "A dramatic account of the gruesome accidents that shaped modern neuroscience." == Publication == The book was published in hardback on May 6, 2014 by Little, Brown and Company. == Contents/Synopsis == In The Tale of the Dueling Neurosurgeons, Sam Kean travels through time with stories of startling peculiarity and incredible fascination, stories of neurological curiosities: phantom limbs, cannibalism, Siamese brains and a plethora of other strange, though equally fascinating things. Kean effortlessly ties historical accounts, stories of madness and insanity, with the scientific breakthroughs that often followed. His writing shows that every breakthrough was borne of malady, injury, necessity. === Part I: Gross Anatomy === ==== Introduction ==== Each chapter begins with a rebus, a word puzzle, pertaining to the subject of the chapter. In this introductory section, Kean essentially provides some background information and summarizes how the book will continue. ==== Chapter 1: The Dueling


id: the-tale-of-the-dueling-neurosurgeons-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tale_of_the_Dueling_Neurosurgeons-1.md
category: reference
title: The Tale of the Dueling Neurosurgeons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tale_of_the_Dueling_Neurosurgeons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:50:52.249199+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-tale-of-the-dueling-neurosurgeons-20260505-0
summary:
==== Chapter 3: Wiring and Rewiring ==== Here, Kean introduces the eccentric James Holman. He was a blind explorer, a man who climbed mountains and visited all corners of the globe without sight. He was appointed the Naval Knight of Windsor, which was more illustrious than it sounded. Holman hated being home and often sank into deep bouts of depression when cooped up for too long a time. To get around during his journeys, he carried a cane. He did not use the cane like other blind people did, feeling around with it. He used his cane to strike the ground, causing a click that he could hear. This click, in turn, echoed in his ears, creating what was essentially human echolocation. Kean ties in Holman's use of his cane, to teach his brain to "see", with gray matter and white matter. He also talks extensively about circuits. Circuits essentially make up the brain, every human function being controlled by one. The circuits for breathing and yawning do not have much variation and are extremely simple. In contrast to that, the circuit that connects pictures to words, sounds to pictures (i.e. small children learning to read and associating the word


id: the-tale-of-the-dueling-neurosurgeons-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tale_of_the_Dueling_Neurosurgeons-2.md
category: reference
title: The Tale of the Dueling Neurosurgeons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tale_of_the_Dueling_Neurosurgeons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:50:52.249199+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-tale-of-the-dueling-neurosurgeons-20260505-0
summary:
==== Chapter 5: The Brain's Motor ==== Kean begins the chapter with the sad (fictional) tale of George Dedlow, protagonist of a short story by Silas Weir Mitchell. George Dedlow had fought in the Civil War and in turn had both his arms and both his legs amputated for various reasons. These amputations brought on another neurological phenomenon: phantom limbs. George Dedlow, amongst millions of other war amputees, felt pain in limbs that he did not have. A neuroscientist, Mitchell specialized in examining amputees and was fascinated with them. He examined patients who complained of pain or discomfort in their phantom arms, legs, and genitals. Here, Kean ties the motor and sensory cortexes in. When something is amputated, the respective part of the brain for controlling that part goes black (figuratively). The now obsolete part of the brain is quickly taken over by neighboring brain areas, such as the face or arms. V. S. Ramachandran, a neuroscientist, was also fascinated with amputees and their phantom pains. One of his patients was a man with insistent pain in his arm, an arm that was in fact removed many years prior. Ramachandran proceeded to test out a treatment of his own creation.


id: the-tale-of-the-dueling-neurosurgeons-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tale_of_the_Dueling_Neurosurgeons-3.md
category: reference
title: The Tale of the Dueling Neurosurgeons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tale_of_the_Dueling_Neurosurgeons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:50:52.249199+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-tale-of-the-dueling-neurosurgeons-20260505-0
summary:
==== Chapter 7: Sex and Punishment ==== Harvey Cushing was obsessed with the pituitary gland. He sent his assistant, William Sharp, to retrieve this gland from a giant who had just died, among other things such as the heart, the lungs, and the brain. After retrieving the organs in a hurry, Sharp was brutally yelled at by Cushing because he had forgotten a part he hadn't even known existed. He was later forgiven, as Cushing still had his pituitary. Cushing was absolutely fascinated with the idea of mishaps in the pituitary gland. He often sought out circuses and freak shows in hopes that they would have a giant or a dwarf, and often stopped to talk with them about their lives and their pasts. One such man was one by the name of John who was a giant, a farmer from South Dakota, the man who Cushing's assistant de-organed before his funeral service. The modern study of emotion came about because of James Papez, a neuroanatomist. It is in his chapter that Kean discusses the limbic system of the brain, the hypothalamus, and the amygdala. Kean recalls a story in which a woman named S.M. contracted a rare disease that


id: the-tale-of-the-dueling-neurosurgeons-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tale_of_the_Dueling_Neurosurgeons-4.md
category: reference
title: The Tale of the Dueling Neurosurgeons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tale_of_the_Dueling_Neurosurgeons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:50:52.249199+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-tale-of-the-dueling-neurosurgeons-20260505-0
summary:
==== Chapter 10: Honest Lying ==== This chapter covers the mental disorders that afflict those who always lie, compulsively so. It begins with Kean introducing the fact that the Japanese captured 100,000 men, many of whom were British, as prisoners of war. Some British doctors who had been captured noticed that the Japanese were depriving the men of certain nutrients to see the results. The nutrient in question was thiamine, necessary for proper brain function. Without it, many of the prisoners developed beriberi. Korsakoff's Syndrome leads to people lying compulsively, especially brain-damaged alcoholics. Back to before, the brain needs thiamine. Alcohol prevents the intestines from absorbing it, leading to thiamine shortage. Because of this shortage, the brain changes majorly. Another way to lie, other than outright lying, is confabulation. Confabulation is not an outright lie: it happened to the patient at some point, they just cannot recall when. Memories have time stamps, and that time stamp can be corrupted. So a patient might have eaten an exquisite meal twenty years ago on their honeymoon and claimed they ate it yesterday simply because they cannot remember. Confabulation is also a defense mechanism, to protect themselves from embarrassment. When asked how many


id: the-tell-tale-brain-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tell-Tale_Brain-0.md
category: reference
title: The Tell-Tale Brain
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tell-Tale_Brain
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:50:53.400228+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-tell-tale-brain-20260505-0
summary:
The Tell-Tale Brain: A Neuroscientist's Quest for What Makes Us Human is a 2010 nonfiction book by V. S. Ramachandran that explores the uniqueness of human nature from a neurological viewpoint. == Synopsis == Ramachandran discusses seven main concepts which define the human aspect of self and how each may be disrupted by a specific neurological disorder. The concepts are: unity, continuity, embodiment, privacy, social embedding, free will, and self-awareness. In the first chapter, Ramachandran discusses the human ability to change and adapt, illustrating the concept from his work on phantom limbs. The second chapter describes some of his work with visual perception and cognition, addressing the concept of human awareness. In chapter three, he connects ideas about synesthesia to creativity. Chapters four and five talk about mirror neurons, while chapter six discusses human language. Ramachandran proposes "nine laws of aesthetics," which he discusses in chapters seven and eight. The final chapter, chapter nine, "The Ape With A Soul" concerns introspection and human self-awareness. == Reception == Tell-Tale Brain was on the New York Times best-seller list (Number 32 on the Hardcover Nonfiction list). It received mostly positive reviews, with some criticism particularly focusing on Ramachandran's theories about mirror neurons.


id: this-is-your-brain-on-music-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/This_Is_Your_Brain_on_Music-0.md
category: reference
title: This Is Your Brain on Music
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/This_Is_Your_Brain_on_Music
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:50:54.533539+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: this-is-your-brain-on-music-20260505-0
summary:
This Is Your Brain on Music: The Science of a Human Obsession is a popular science book written by the McGill University neuroscientist Daniel J. Levitin, and first published by Dutton Penguin in the U.S. and Canada in 2006, and updated and released in paperback by Plume/Penguin in 2007. It has been translated into 18 languages and spent more than a year on The New York Times, The Globe and Mail, and other bestseller lists, and sold more than one million copies. == Overview == The aim of This Is Your Brain on Music was to make recent findings in neuroscience of music accessible to the educated layperson. Characteristics and theoretical parameters of music are explained alongside scientific findings about how the brain interprets and processes these characteristics. The neuroanatomy of musical expectation, emotion, listening and performance is discussed. This Is Your Brain on Music describes the components of music, such as timbre, rhythm, pitch, and harmony and ties them to neuroanatomy, neurochemistry, cognitive psychology, and evolution, while also making these topics accessible to nonexpert readers by avoiding the use of scientific jargon. One particular focus of the book is on cognitive models of categorization and expectation, and how music


id: up-from-dragons-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Up_from_Dragons-0.md
category: reference
title: Up from Dragons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Up_from_Dragons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:50:55.766972+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: up-from-dragons-20260505-0
summary:
Up from Dragons: The Evolution of Human Intelligence is a 2002 book on human evolution, the human brain, and the origins of human cognition by John Skoyles and Dorion Sagan. The book considers how the brain and genes evolved into their present condition over the course of thousands and millions of years. It was published by McGraw Hill. The book argues that the earlier ape brain had evolved “mindmakers” and that the human mind arose when these were “rewired” by symbols. This new “mindware” was created by the prefrontal cortex in combination with neural plasticity. This “Symbolic capacity is the ‘missing link’ that changed the ape brain into a human and made mindware possible, allowing symbols to structure the brain”. p. 277 Mindware itself has been evolving for the last 120,000 years and as a result kept reshaping human consciousness, thought and culture. Its last chapter speculates upon the future of human cognition. The title relates to Carl Sagan (co-author Dorion Sagan's father) and his 1977 book The Dragons of Eden for which this book provides a 25th-anniversary reappraisal. == Chapters == Cosmic Mirror: The questions of who and what humans are explored in terms of the history of the


id: up-from-dragons-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Up_from_Dragons-1.md
category: reference
title: Up from Dragons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Up_from_Dragons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:50:55.766972+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: up-from-dragons-20260505-0
summary:
==== Gifted environments ==== These are the learning environments humans create. Components of a gifted environment include “a rich variety of representations”, a “stimulating learning environment”, and “’empowering environments’—ones which foster specific paths of development, an opportunity sometimes limited to brief windows of developmental time” It is proposed that such gifted environments are created by adult prefrontal cortex. The potential to create gifted environments predates humans and exists in chimpanzees. But they are limited because as adults chimpanzees lack time, cooperate only weakly and are under constant stress. It was the highly cooperative sociability of humans that allowed gifted environments to arise that could fully support cognitive development. ==== Human change bootstrapping problem ==== Bootstrapping concerns the paradox that the best way for something to occur is for it to already to be established. This problem has been identified in computer and cognitive science as an important obstacle: computers need to load programs to start but this is best done when they have already loaded the program for doing this; reading is easier to acquire once a person can already read. Cognitive development can be interpreted as the process by which cognitive systems sidestep and work around bootstrapping problems that


id: up-from-dragons-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Up_from_Dragons-2.md
category: reference
title: Up from Dragons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Up_from_Dragons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:50:55.766972+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: up-from-dragons-20260505-0
summary:
==== Nonimmediate sociability ==== Two kinds of sociability exist: immediate and nonimmediate. The former depends upon sensory interaction with others such as smell, touch, sound or vision. Nonimmediate depends upon carrying the experience of the group within the head. Such sociability is already present in apes and is due to processes called mindmakers. But due to the modification of these mindmakers with symbolons, sociability in groups has become highly developed in humans. The combination of symbols and mindmakers created social mindware. ==== Mindmakers ==== These are “processes that weave this sense we all have of being a ‘me. .. give existence its animated feel, the feeling of being alive. They are clues to understanding such things as our freedom and the links between the prefrontal cortex’s inner cues and our hidden sociability’”. Mindmakers evolved to enable animals to remain part of a social group when separated. Mindmaker processes are identified in the anterior cingulate cortex (protective attentive envelopes), hippocampus (continuity), orbitofrontal cortex (social right and wrong). Mindmakers are present in other animals but only in humans have they become extensively elaborated. They also provide the neural substrate for cultural symbolism and so the human ability to sustain socially defined groups


id: why-we-sleep-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_We_Sleep-0.md
category: reference
title: Why We Sleep
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_We_Sleep
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:50:56.918854+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: why-we-sleep-20260505-0
summary:
Why We Sleep: The New Science of Sleep and Dreams is a 2017 popular science book about sleep written by Matthew Walker, from England, who is a professor of neuroscience and psychology and the director of the Center for Human Sleep Science at the University of California, Berkeley. In the book, Walker discusses the importance of sleeping, the side effects of failing to do so, and its impact on society. The book asserts that sleep deprivation is linked to numerous fatal diseases, including dementia. Why We Sleep became a New York Times and Sunday Times bestseller. The book received generally positive reviews from mainstream critics, while also garnering criticism from academics for making broad or unfounded claims and alarmism. == Background == According to Walker, who had never written a book at the time, he was motivated to write the book after an encounter with a woman who glanced at his work related to sleep and its benefits for health, stating, "When that comes out, I want to read it". Walker described this encounter as a sincere "independent ratification" that made him write the book. The book took Walker roughly four and a half years to write. Walker and his


id: why-we-sleep-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_We_Sleep-1.md
category: reference
title: Why We Sleep
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_We_Sleep
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:50:56.918854+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: why-we-sleep-20260505-0
summary:
"Sleep pressure and circadian rhythms", the driving forces and the framework of sleep, are brought up in the book. Other sleep behaviors, such as rapid eye movement sleep (REM) and non-rapid eye movement sleep (NREM), and the impact sleep has on "synaptic pruning" and the creation of memories during a human's lifespan are also covered. REM and NREM are further explained as the two sleeping basics, with 5 cycles present in a good night sleep. The book mentions "morning types" and "evening types" of people, with Walker writing about how spending less time sleeping benefited human predecessors who slept in groups due to being safer. The book emphasises the significance of having a good night's sleep without a feeling of uneasiness, or guilt of laziness. Walker defines insomnia as a disorder usually related to an overwrought, commiserating nervous system that's usually caused by being anxious. He goes on to address the PTSD victims' nightmares, stating that their dreams' ability to heal them by easing the emotions connected to a distressing memory, is affected by a larger quantity of noradrenaline being created. Walker also believes that dreams carry information regarding fundamental emotions, while admitting that they can be quite apparent, resulting


id: why-we-sleep-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_We_Sleep-2.md
category: reference
title: Why We Sleep
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_We_Sleep
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:50:56.918854+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: why-we-sleep-20260505-0
summary:
== Critical reception == Why We Sleep has garnered a generally positive reception from critics. The book would go on to make Walker famous in his field of expertise. The book became an international bestseller, including a #1 on the Sunday Times Bestseller in the UK, and a #8 on the New York Times Bestseller. It received numerous other reviews, including the Guardian, BBC, NPR, Financial Times, UC Berkeley and Kirkus Reviews. Critics praised the book for Walker's convincing studies on the importance of sleep and its impact on society. Seithikurippu R. Pandi-Perumal praised Walker's structuring of the book, calling it informative, organised and intelligibly written while noting its informative yet reader-friendly nature. In a review from Bill Gates, he noted that the book teaches about the importance of sleeping, despite some points in the book not being convincing. He also noted that the book aided him in sleeping better, pointing out that it took a longer time to finish the book as he followed Walker's word on putting the book down to go to sleep. Kylie O'Brien's review described the book as "beautifully written" and filled with scientific facts that clarifies the question its title asks. A review by


id: the-yipping-tiger-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Yipping_Tiger-0.md
category: reference
title: The Yipping Tiger
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Yipping_Tiger
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:50:58.051577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-yipping-tiger-20260505-0
summary:
The Yipping Tiger and Other Tales from the Neuropsychiatric Clinic is a book by neuropsychiatrist Perminder Sachdev, M.D. consisting of ten case studies which explore the relationship between the brain and the mind. The case studies are based on Sachdev's experience in the neuropsychiatric clinic at the Neuropsychiatric Institute, Sydney, Australia. Each case study examines a different medical condition, the current research findings related to the condition, and the challenges these conditions pose for the doctor and patient. == Contents == The Yipping Tiger (Golfer's cramps) Shaking hands with Dr Strangelove (The Alien hand syndrome) Swearing like a Spanish sailor (Coprolalia in Tourette's syndrome) The Mozart Complex (Brain enhancement) The mirror always lies (Anorexia nervosa) The dead homunculus (Frontal lobe disorder) Serotonin's seductive song (Major depressive disorder) A chesty problem (Obsessive-compulsive disorder) Lord Nelson's ghost (Phantom limb) Freudian slips and semantic slides (Mild cognitive impairment) == Reception == G. Boucher, ‘Off-putting tales from a yipping yarn’. The Australian 2009 (8 August): http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/off-putting-tales-from-a-yipping-yarn/story-e6frg8no-1225758241816 J. Horder, ‘Medicine: IN BRIEF’. The Times Literary Supplement 2010 (23 July), page 27: S. Hussein, ‘Brains, Minds, Hearts and Souls’. New Matilda 2010 (20 May): https://web.archive.org/web/20110823213551/http://newmatilda.com/2010/05/20/brains-minds-hearts-souls K. Ridel, ‘Book Review: The Hidden Brain and The Yipping Tiger


id: list-of-books-on-popular-physics-concepts-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_books_on_popular_physics_concepts-0.md
category: reference
title: List of books on popular physics concepts
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_books_on_popular_physics_concepts
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:00.750037+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-books-on-popular-physics-concepts-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of books which talk about things related to current day physics or physics as it would be in the future. There a number of books that have been penned about specific physics concepts, e.g. quantum mechanics or kinematics, and many other books which discuss physics in general, i.e. not focussing on a single topic. There are also books that encourage beginners to enjoy physics by making them look at it from different angles. Capra, Fritjof (1999). The Tao of physics : an exploration of the parallels between modern physics and Eastern mysticism (4th, updated ed.). Boston: Shambhala. ISBN 1-57062-519-0. Chandrasekhar, S. (1958). An introduction to the study of stellar structure. [Republication]. New York: Dover. ISBN 978-0486604138. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) Feynman, Richard P.; Leighton, Robert B.; Sands, Matthew (2009). The Feynman lectures on physics : the definitive and extended edition (2nd ed.). San Francisco, Calif.: Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0805390452. — (1997). "Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman!" : adventures of a curious character (1st Norton pbk. ed.). New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 978-0393316049. Greene, Brian (2000). The Elegant Universe: Superstrings, Hidden Dimensions, and the Quest for the Ultimate Theory (1. Vintage Books ed.). New York:


id: the-4-percent-universe-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_4_Percent_Universe-0.md
category: reference
title: The 4 Percent Universe
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_4_Percent_Universe
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:01.948595+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-4-percent-universe-20260505-0
summary:
The 4 Percent Universe: Dark Matter, Dark Energy, and the Race to Discover the Rest of Reality is a nonfiction book by writer and professor Richard Panek and published by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt on January 10, 2011. In October 2011, the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Saul Perlmutter, Brian Schmidt, and Adam Riess, three of the main figures discussed in the book for the primary discovery that is the topic of The 4 Percent Universe. == Content == The book's namesake comes from the scientific confusion over how ordinary matter makes up only four percent of the mass–energy in the universe, with the rest consisting of mysterious dark matter and dark energy that are both invisible and almost impossible to detect. It is due to dark matter that galaxies are able to keep their shape, with the mass of dark matter creating enough gravitational force to hold the stars that make up a galaxy together. Dark energy, however, is a substance or force responsible for the accelerating expansion of the universe over time. The significant focus of The 4 Percent Universe is on the developments of astronomical science in the 20th century, including the formation of the expanding


id: alpha-omega-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_&_Omega_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Alpha & Omega (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_&_Omega_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:04.317508+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alpha-omega-book-20260505-0
summary:
Alpha & Omega: The Search for the Beginning and End of the Universe is the second non-fiction book by Charles Seife, published by Viking, a division of Penguin Putnam, in 2003. == Background == It is a survey of historic and contemporary efforts at cosmology: to describe the universe, trace the universe back to its origins, including the Big Bang Theory, and to determine the universe's eventual end-state. The books title refers to the Alpha and Omega appellation for Christ, as found in the Book of Revelation. A paperback reprint was published in 2004, also from Penguin. == Table of contents == Preface "The First Cosmology: The Golden Age of the Gods" "The First Cosmological Revolution: The Copernican Theory" "The Second Cosmological Revolution: Hubble and the Big Bang" "The Third Revolution Begins: The Universe Amok" "The Music of the Spheres: The Cosmic Microwave Background" "The Dark Universe: What's the Matter with Matter?" "Darker Still: The Enigma of Exotic Dark Matter" "The Big Bang in Our Backyard: The Birth of Baryons" "The Good Nus: The Exotic Neutrino" "Supersymmetry: Fearlessly Framing the Laws of Matter" "Seeing the Invisible: MACHOs, WIMPs, and Illuminating the Darkest Regions of the Universe" "The Deepest Mystery in


id: astronomia-nova-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-0.md
category: reference
title: Astronomia nova
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:05.564785+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronomia-nova-20260505-0
summary:
Astronomia nova (English: New Astronomy, full title in original Latin: Astronomia Nova ΑΙΤΙΟΛΟΓΗΤΟΣ seu physica coelestis, tradita commentariis de motibus stellae Martis ex observationibus G.V. Tychonis Brahe) is a book, published in 1609, that contains the results of the astronomer Johannes Kepler's ten-year-long investigation of the motion of Mars. One of the most significant books in the history of astronomy, the Astronomia nova provided strong arguments for heliocentrism and contributed valuable insight into the movement of the planets. This included the first mention of the planets' elliptical paths and the change of their movement to the movement of free floating bodies as opposed to objects on rotating spheres. It is recognized as one of the most important works of the Scientific Revolution. == Background == Prior to Kepler, Nicolaus Copernicus proposed in 1543 that the Earth and other planets orbit the Sun. The Copernican model of the Solar System was regarded as a device to explain the observed positions of the planets rather than a physical description. Kepler sought for and proposed physical causes for planetary motion. His work is primarily based on the research of his mentor, Tycho Brahe. The two, though close in their work, had a tumultuous


id: astronomia-nova-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-1.md
category: reference
title: Astronomia nova
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:05.564785+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronomia-nova-20260505-0
summary:
=== Part 2 === In part 2, Kepler introduces the vicarious Hypothesis, his first hypothesis to explain the motion of Mars. In chapters 7-10, Kepler tells the story of how he was introduced to the problem of Mars' orbit. Tycho and his assistant had been working on a theory of Mars, but they had failed to accurately account for the observed position of Mars. Tycho's observational data included 12 oppositions of Mars, for which he had determined its position in ecliptic longitude and latitude. They had managed to fit a theory to the observed ecliptic longitudes accurate to within 2 minutes of arc, yet it failed completely to account for the ecliptic latitudes. Kepler was then tasked with determining a more accurate theory to match this observational data. His first step was to establish a precise definition of opposition. Since planets do not orbit in the same plane, in general they never reach precisely 180 ∘ {\textstyle 180\circ } in angular separation. Ptolemy had assumed the planet reaches opposition when its ecliptic longitude is 180 degrees from the mean position of the sun. This definition ignores the ecliptic latitude, so when constructing the table of oppositions, Tycho's assistant suggested a


id: astronomia-nova-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-2.md
category: reference
title: Astronomia nova
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:05.564785+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronomia-nova-20260505-0
summary:
The actual correction Kepler shows to be less than 1 minute of arc, which is smaller than the error in Tycho's observations, and for practical purposes can be ignored. So, opposition can be defined as the moment when the ecliptic longitude of the sun and Mars are 180 ∘ {\textstyle 180\circ } apart. Although the ecliptic longitude of Mars is the same from the Earth and sun at this point, the same is not true for the ecliptic latitude. In the diagram above G {\textstyle G} is the sun, H {\textstyle H} is the Earth and I {\textstyle I} is Mars. The line G H {\textstyle GH} is in the plane of the ecliptic. The angle β {\textstyle \beta } is the angle that Mars appears above the ecliptic when viewed from Earth; this is the ecliptic latitude. The angle α {\textstyle \alpha } is the ecliptic latitude viewed from the sun, which is smaller than β {\textstyle \beta } . The relation between these angles tells us something about the ratio of the Earth-sun distance G H {\textstyle GH} and the Mars-Sun distance G I {\textstyle GI} . In chapter 11, Kepler attempts to determine the parallax of Mars.


id: astronomia-nova-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-3.md
category: reference
title: Astronomia nova
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:05.564785+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronomia-nova-20260505-0
summary:
In the diagram above, let A {\textstyle A} be the sun, B {\textstyle B} be the center of the circular orbit, and C {\textstyle C} be the equant point. The points I {\textstyle I} and H {\textstyle H} are the perihelion and aphelion respectively. Let G {\textstyle G} be the position of Mars at a particular observation. The angle ∠ G A H {\textstyle \angle GAH} Kepler refers to as the true anomaly, and the angle ∠ G C H {\textstyle \angle GCH} the mean anomaly. For any observation, the true anomaly could be deduced if we knew the longitude of aphelion, by finding the difference between this and the longitude of the observation. The mean anomaly could be deduced if we knew the time when Mars it at aphelion, and by using the fact the Mars, viewed from the equant, traverses equal angles in equal times. If the true anomaly and the mean anomaly were known, we could likewise determine the location of the point G {\textstyle G} by finding where the lines drawn from B {\textstyle B} and A {\textstyle A} intersect. For the purposes of calculation, we can take the length of the line C A ¯


id: astronomia-nova-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-4.md
category: reference
title: Astronomia nova
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:05.564785+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronomia-nova-20260505-0
summary:
In chapters 18-21, Kepler compares the theory to observations. First, he compares the longitude of the remaining 8 oppositions and finds that they all fit the predicted position of Mars to within Tycho's observational accuracy of two minutes of arc. This means that the vicarious hypothesis can be taken as an accurate theory for the true anomaly. Despite this remarkable accuracy, however, Kepler shows that the theory is false. He remarks:Who would have thought it possible? This hypothesis, so closely in agreement with the observations, is nevertheless false. Using the latitudes of the opposition and the latitude triangle from figure 1, Kepler is able to find the ratio of the Earth and Mars distances from the sun. The Earth-Sun distances G H {\textstyle GH} are taken from an existing theory given by Tycho Brahe in his Progymnasmata, even though these values are not precisely correct, and the goal of the next part will be to determine a more accurate theory for the Earth's motion. The angles ∠ I H E {\textstyle \angle IHE} are determined by the latitude of the observations, and the angle I G H {\textstyle IGH} is determined from the orbital inclination and the angle between Mars


id: astronomia-nova-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-5.md
category: reference
title: Astronomia nova
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:05.564785+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronomia-nova-20260505-0
summary:
=== Part 3 === In the third part, Kepler aims to determine an accurate theory for the motion of the Earth, which will be the steppingstone for determining a more accurate theory for Mars in the next section. In chapters 22-27, Kepler shows that the Earth does not move uniformly about the center of its orbit. The primary observations for determining the Earth's motion around the sun are direct observations of the sun; its ecliptic longitude as seen from the Earth is the opposite to that seen from the sun. Remarkably, uniform circular motion can match these observations to within an accuracy of one minute of arc, less than the accuracy of Tycho's observation. Tycho himself determined the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit based on his observations and the assumption of uniform circular motion to be 0.03584 {\textstyle 0.03584} . Using the observations of Mars, Kepler finds several methods to show that the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit calculated, on the basis of uniform circular motion, cannot possibly be correct. One method that Kepler uses is based on the fact that after one complete orbit, Mars returns to exactly the same physical location. Since the orbital period of Mars is


id: astronomia-nova-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-6.md
category: reference
title: Astronomia nova
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:05.564785+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronomia-nova-20260505-0
summary:
In chapter 40, Kepler gives a method for computing the orbit of the Earth based on these physical hypotheses. Kepler notes the extreme difficulty that arises when trying to compute the speed of the planet as the distance is constantly changing. For this reason, he introduces a shortcut, inspired by Archimedes' method of computing pi. If we break the orbit up into little triangles drawn from the sun, then the distance the planet travels is given by the base of the triangle, and the distance from the sun is given by the height of the triangle. If we choose triangles that divide the planet's motion into equal units of time, then the triangles are shown to have equal area, because as the height decreases, the base must increase by the same amount, as the planet moves faster, and vice versa. Kepler therefore introduces his law of areas, equal areas correspond to equal times. To calculate the orbit from this, we define the mean anomaly as the time since planet has last reached aphelion divided by the orbital period times 360 degrees. The true anomaly is defined as the angle between the planet and aphelion as viewed from the sun, and


id: astronomia-nova-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-7.md
category: reference
title: Astronomia nova
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:05.564785+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronomia-nova-20260505-0
summary:
In the diagram above, A {\textstyle A} is the sun and B {\textstyle B} is the center of the circle; G {\textstyle G} is aphelion and D {\textstyle D} is the planet. The area of the sector G A D {\textstyle GAD} is the area swept by the line drawn from the planet to the sun. From the area law, this is proportional to the time that the planet has traversed the segment G D {\textstyle GD} in its orbit, and therefore also the mean anomaly. Thus the area G A D {\textstyle GAD} gives the mean anomaly. The eccentric anomaly is defined by the angle ∠ G B D {\textstyle \angle GBD} . Since the angle of a sector, centered on a circle, is always proportional to its area, we can also express this by the area G B D {\textstyle GBD} . The relation between these two areas gives the relation between the mean anomaly (and therefore time) and eccentric anomaly. From the diagram, it is clear that the mean anomaly is simply the eccentric anomaly plus the area of the triangle D A B {\textstyle DAB} . The base of this triangle A B ¯ {\textstyle {\overline


id: astronomia-nova-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-8.md
category: reference
title: Astronomia nova
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:05.564785+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronomia-nova-20260505-0
summary:
=== Part 4 === In part 4, Kepler develops an accurate theory to account for the motion of Mars based on the observations and the physical hypotheses that were laid out in the previous section. In chapters 41-44, Kepler proves that the orbit of Mars is not a circle. The procedure once again uses the fact that the Earth, sun and Mars form a triangle. The Earth-sun distance can now be calculated accurately from the theory developed in the previous section, and the heliocentric longitude of Mars is determined from the vicarious hypothesis. For any given observation of Mars, the position of Mars can now be plotted accurately using the following procedure: plot the position of Earth using the theory developed in the previous section. Then, draw a line extending from the sun in the direction given by the vicarious hypothesis. Draw a line from the Earth in the direction corresponding to the heliocentric longitude that Mars is observed. The intersection between these two lines is the position of Mars. Finally, a correction is made for the fact that Mars is not in the plane of the ecliptic when observed, by using the latitude determined from the sun. By plotting


id: astronomia-nova-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-9.md
category: reference
title: Astronomia nova
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:05.564785+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronomia-nova-20260505-0
summary:
I laid [the original equation] aside, and fell back on ellipses, believing that this was quite a different hypothesis, whereas the two, as I shall prove in the next chapter, are one in [sic] the same... Ah, what a foolish bird I have been! === Part 5 === In the final section, Kepler gives an accurate account of the ecliptic latitude of Mars. He also outlines a physical hypothesis to explain why the orbit of planets are not precisely in the same plane. In chapters 61-62, Kepler determines the values for Mars' ascending and descending nodes. Using the distance to Earth and Mars computed from the previous section, and the observed geocentric latitude of Mars, Kepler is able to determine the heliocentric latitude of Mars at any point in its orbit. From this, Kepler determines each of the parameters using the same methods from chapters 11-14. For the ascending node he finds 46 ∘ 32 1 2 ′ {\textstyle 46^{\circ }32{\frac {1}{2}}'} and for the descending nodes 226 ∘ 32 1 2 ′ {\displaystyle 226^{\circ }32{\frac {1}{2}}'} . He also determines the orbital inclination to be 1 ∘ 49 ′ {\displaystyle 1^{\circ }49'} . In chapter 63, Kepler gives a


id: astronomia-nova-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-10.md
category: reference
title: Astronomia nova
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:05.564785+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronomia-nova-20260505-0
summary:
The sphere of the attractive virtue which is in the moon extends as far as the earth, and entices up the waters; but as the moon flies rapidly across the zenith, and the waters cannot follow so quickly, a flow of the ocean is occasioned in the torrid zone towards the westward. If the attractive virtue of the moon extends as far as the earth, it follows with greater reason that the attractive virtue of the earth extends as far as the moon and much farther; and, in short, nothing which consists of earthly substance anyhow constituted although thrown up to any height, can ever escape the powerful operation of this attractive virtue. Kepler also clarifies the concept of lightness in terms of relative density, in opposition to the Aristotelian concept of the absolute nature or quality of lightness as follows. His argument could easily be applied today to something like the flight of a hot air balloon. Nothing which consists of corporeal matter is absolutely light, but that is comparatively lighter which is rarer, either by its own nature, or by accidental heat. And it is not to be thought that light bodies are escaping to the surface of


id: bcs-50-years-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BCS:_50_Years-0.md
category: reference
title: BCS: 50 Years
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BCS:_50_Years
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:06.722519+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bcs-50-years-20260505-0
summary:
BCS: 50 Years is a review volume on the topic of superconductivity edited by Leon Cooper, a 1972 Nobel Laureate in Physics, and Dmitri Feldman of Brown University, first published in 2010. The book consists of 23 articles written by outstanding physicists, including many Nobel prize-winners, and presents the complete theory of superconductivity - a phenomenon where the electrical resistance of some metallic materials suddenly vanish at temperatures near absolute zero. == Background == In 1957, John Bardeen, Leon Cooper and John Robert Schrieffer finally pieced together the puzzle of superconductivity, explaining in detail its mechanism and the associated effects. The BCS theory, named after the three scientists, won Professor Cooper the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1972, which he shared with John Robert Schrieffer and his teacher, John Bardeen. == Contents == === Section 1: Historical Perspectives === The first section of the book describes important discoveries which led to the development of BCS theory. Chapter 1: "Remembrance of Superconductivity Past" by Leon N Cooper Chapter 2: "The Road to BCS" by John Robert Schrieffer Chapter 3: "Development of Concepts in Superconductivity" by John Bardeen Chapter 4: "Failed Theories of Superconductivity" by Jörg Schmalian Chapter 5: "Nuclear Magnetic Resonance


id: de-beghinselen-der-weeghconst-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Beghinselen_Der_Weeghconst-0.md
category: reference
title: De Beghinselen Der Weeghconst
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Beghinselen_Der_Weeghconst
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:07.980193+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: de-beghinselen-der-weeghconst-20260505-0
summary:
De Beghinselen der Weeghconst (lit. "The Principles of the Art of Weighing") is a book about statics written by the Flemish physicist Simon Stevin in Dutch. It was published in 1586 in a single volume with De Weeghdaet (lit. "The Act of Weighing"), De Beghinselen des Waterwichts ("The Principles of Hydrostatics") and an Anhang (an appendix). In 1605, there was another edition. == Importance == The importance of the book was summarized by the Encyclopædia Britannica: In De Beghinselen der Weeghconst (1586; “Statics and Hydrostatics”) Stevin published the theorem of the triangle of forces. The knowledge of this triangle of forces, equivalent to the parallelogram diagram of forces, gave a new impetus to the study of statics, which had previously been founded on the theory of the lever. He also discovered that the downward pressure of a liquid is independent of the shape of its vessel and depends only on its height and base. == Contents == The first part consists of two books, together account for 95 pages, here divided into 10 pieces. === Book I === Start: panegyrics, Mission to Rudolf II, Uytspraeck Vande Weerdicheyt of Duytsche Tael, Cortbegryp Bepalinghen and Begheerten (definitions and assumptions) Proposal 1 t


id: beyond-einstein-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Einstein_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Beyond Einstein (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Einstein_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:09.145130+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: beyond-einstein-book-20260505-0
summary:
Beyond Einstein: The Cosmic Quest for the Theory of the Universe is a book by Michio Kaku, a theoretical physicist from the City College of New York, and Jennifer Trainer Thompson. It focuses on the development of superstring theory, which might become the unified field theory of the strong force, the weak force, electromagnetism and gravity. The book was initially published on February 1, 1987, by Bantam Books. == Overview == Beyond Einstein tries to explain the basics of superstring theory. Michio Kaku analyzes the history of theoretical physics and the struggle to formulate a unified field theory. He posits that the superstring theory might be the only theory that can unite quantum mechanics and general relativity in one theory. == References ==


id: black-body-theory-and-the-quantum-discontinuity-1894-1912-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-Body_Theory_and_the_Quantum_Discontinuity,_1894–1912-0.md
category: reference
title: Black-Body Theory and the Quantum Discontinuity, 1894–1912
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-Body_Theory_and_the_Quantum_Discontinuity,_1894–1912
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:10.340329+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: black-body-theory-and-the-quantum-discontinuity-1894-1912-20260505-0
summary:
Black-Body Theory and the Quantum Discontinuity, 1894–1912 (1978; second edition 1987) is a book by the philosopher Thomas Kuhn, in which the author surveys the development of quantum mechanics. The second edition has a new afterword. == Summary == Kuhn surveys the development of quantum mechanics by Max Planck at the end of the 19th century. He argues that Planck misread his own earlier work. == Reception == Alexander Bird describes Kuhn's book as "masterly", writing that it "differs from traditional history of science less in the kind of explanation offered and more in the vast erudition and scholarly attention to detail displayed." According to philosopher Tim Maudlin, Planck and the Black Body Discontinuity (sic) "is a mixed bag: some good historiography and some poor analysis." == References ==


id: book-of-optics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Optics-0.md
category: reference
title: Book of Optics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Optics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:11.581748+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: book-of-optics-20260505-0
summary:
The Book of Optics (Arabic: كتاب المناظر, romanized: Kitāb al-Manāẓir; Latin: De Aspectibus or Perspectiva; Italian: Deli Aspecti) is a seven-volume treatise on optics and other fields of study composed by the medieval Arab scholar Ibn al-Haytham, known in the West as Alhazen or Alhacen (965 – c. 1040 AD). The Book of Optics presented experimentally founded arguments against the widely held extramission theory of vision (as held by Euclid in his Optica), and proposed the modern intromission theory, the now accepted model that vision takes place by light entering the eye. The book is also noted for its early use of the scientific method, its description of the camera obscura, and its formulation of Alhazen's problem. The book extensively affected the development of optics, physics and mathematics in Europe between the 13th and 17th centuries. == Vision theory == Before the Book of Optics was written, two theories of vision existed. The extramission or emission theory was forwarded by the mathematicians Euclid and Ptolemy, who asserted that certain forms of radiation are emitted from the eyes onto the object which is being seen. When these rays reached the object they allowed the viewer to perceive its color, shape and


id: book-of-optics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Optics-1.md
category: reference
title: Book of Optics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Optics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:11.581748+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: book-of-optics-20260505-0
summary:
== Influence == The Book of Optics was most strongly influenced by Ptolemy's Optics, while the description of the anatomy and physiology of the eye was based upon an account by Galen. The Book of Optics was translated into Latin by an unknown scholar at the end of the 12th (or the beginning of the 13th) century. The work was influential during the Middle Ages. It was printed by Friedrich Risner in 1572, as part of his collection Opticae thesaurus. This included a book on twilight falsely attributed to Alhazen, as well as a work on optics by Vitello. == See also == History of optics Ibn Sahl Scientific method == English translations == Sabra, A. I., ed. (1983), The Optics of Ibn al-Haytham, Books I–II–III: On Direct Vision. The Arabic text, edited and with Introduction, Arabic-Latin Glossaries and Concordance Tables, Kuwait: National Council for Culture, Arts and Letters Sabra, A. I., ed. (2002), The Optics of Ibn al-Haytham. Edition of the Arabic Text of Books IV–V: On Reflection and Images Seen by Reflection. 2 vols, Kuwait: The National Council for Culture, Arts and Letters The Optics of Ibn al-Haytham. Books I–II–III: On Direct Vision. English Translation and Commentary. 2


id: calculating-space-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculating_Space-0.md
category: reference
title: Calculating Space
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculating_Space
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:12.805197+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: calculating-space-20260505-0
summary:
Calculating Space (German: Rechnender Raum) is Konrad Zuse's 1969 book on automata theory. He proposed that all processes in the universe are computational. This view is known today as the simulation hypothesis, digital philosophy, digital physics or pancomputationalism. Zuse proposed that the universe is being computed by some sort of cellular automaton or other discrete computing machinery, challenging the long-held view that some physical laws are continuous by nature. He focused on cellular automata as a possible substrate of the computation and pointed out that the classical notions of entropy and its growth do not make sense in deterministically computed universes. == See also == A New Kind of Science Simulated reality == References == == Further reading == Zuse, Konrad (1969). Rechnender Raum [Calculating Space]. Schriften zur Datenverarbeitung (in German). Vol. 1. Braunschweig, Germany: Friedrich Vieweg & Sohn. ISBN 3-528-09609-8. (70+4 pages) Zuse, Konrad (February 1970). "Calculating Space - Translation of: Rechnender Raum" (PDF). MIT Technical Translation. Translated by Aztec School of Languages, Inc. Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology. AZT-70-164-GEMIT (Project MAC). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-07-06. Retrieved 2020-03-25. (98 pages); Zuse, Konrad (2012). "Konrad Zuse's Rechnender Raum (Calculating Space)" (PDF). In German, Adrian; Zenil,


id: categories-on-the-beauty-of-physics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Categories:_On_the_Beauty_of_Physics-0.md
category: reference
title: Categories: On the Beauty of Physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Categories:_On_the_Beauty_of_Physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:14.271478+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: categories-on-the-beauty-of-physics-20260505-0
summary:
Categories: On the Beauty of Physics is a non-fiction science and art book edited, co-written, and published by American author Hilary Thayer Hamann in 2006. The book was conceived as a multidisciplinary educational tool that uses art and literature to broaden the reader's understanding of challenging material. Alan Lightman, author of Einstein's Dreams, called Categories "A beautiful synthesis of science and art, pleasing to the mind and to the eye," and Dr. Helen Caldicott, founder and president of the Nuclear Policy Research Institute, said, "This wonderful book will provoke thought in lovers of science and art alike, and with knowledge comes the inspiration to preserve the beauty of life on Earth." == Author == Hamann is co-writer, creative and editorial director of Categories—On the Beauty of Physics (2006), a multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary educational text that uses imagery to facilitate the reader's encounter with challenging material. She worked with physicist Emiliano Seffusati, Ph.D., who wrote the science text, and collage artist John Morse, who created the original artwork. == Overview == Categories is a book about physics that uses literature and art to stimulate the wonder and interest of the reader. It is intended to promote scientific literacy, foster an appreciation of


id: the-character-of-physical-law-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Character_of_Physical_Law-0.md
category: reference
title: The Character of Physical Law
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Character_of_Physical_Law
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:15.394498+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-character-of-physical-law-20260505-0
summary:
The Character of Physical Law is a series of seven lectures by physicist Richard Feynman concerning the nature of the laws of physics. Feynman delivered the lectures in 1964 at Cornell University, as part of the Messenger Lectures series. The BBC recorded the lectures and published a book under the same title the following year; Cornell published the BBC's recordings online in September 2015. In 2017 MIT Press published, with a new foreword by Frank Wilczek, a paperback reprint of the 1965 book. == Topics == The lectures covered the following topics: The law of gravitation, an example of physical law The relation of mathematics and physics The great conservation principles Symmetry in physical law The distinction of past and future Probability and uncertainty – the quantum mechanical view of nature Seeking new laws == Reception == Critical reception has been positive. The journal The Physics Teacher, in recommending it to both scientists and non-scientists alike, gave The Character of Physical Law a favorable review, writing that although the book was initially intended to supplement the recordings, it was "complete in itself and will appeal to a far wider audience". == Selections == "In general we look for a new


category: reference
title: Concise Encyclopedia of Supersymmetry and Noncommutative Structures in Mathematics and Physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:16.652705+00:00
instance: kb-cron
id:
concise-encyclopedia-of-supersymmetry-and-noncommutative-structures-in-mathematics-and-physics-20260505-0

file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concise_Encyclopedia_of_Supersymmetry_and_Noncommutative_Structures_in_Mathematics_and_Physics-0.md

summary:
Concise Encyclopedia of Supersymmetry and Noncommutative Structures in Mathematics and Physics is a fundamental authoritative text in specialized areas of contemporary mathematics and physics. This is an English language reference work which consists of around 800 original articles by around 280 scientists under the guidance of 23 advisory board members. == Publication history == The first edition was published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 2004, when Kluwer was a part of Springer. A second printing with corrections was issued in 2005 by Springer Science & Business Media. == Contents == Concise Encyclopedia of Supersymmetry contains articles devoted to supergravity, M-theory, quantum gravity, quantum groups, noncommutative geometry and other topics related to supersymmetry. The articles are of the following kinds: 1) short review; 2) term/notion definition; 3) biography. The detailed Subject Index consists of 31 four-column oversized pages and is of three level, which makes easier navigation through the volume. A useful list of 116 abbreviations helps to understand special articles on supersymmetry also in other sources. The book can serve as a working instrument for professionals and PhD students. == Editions == Duplij, Steven; Siegel, Warren; Bagger, Jonathan, eds. (2005), Concise Encyclopedia of Supersymmetry: And Noncommutative Structures in Mathematics and

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concise_Encyclopedia_of_Supersymmetry_and_Noncommutative_Structures_in_Mathematics_and_Physics

parent:
concise-encyclopedia-of-supersymmetry-and-noncommutative-structures-in-mathematics-and-physics-20260505-0


id: cosmic-evolution-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_Evolution-0.md
category: reference
title: Cosmic Evolution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_Evolution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:17.866701+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cosmic-evolution-20260505-0
summary:
Cosmic Evolution: The Rise of Complexity in Nature (2001) is a book by Harvard astrophysicist Eric Chaisson. It examines cosmic evolution which includes the history of natural evolution from the Big Bang to the present from the perspective of the emerging multi-scientific discipline of Big History. It offers an explanation of why simple structures billions of years ago gave way to more complex structures, such as stars, planets, life, and human beings in complex civilizations. It is written for a general audience interested in science. == Overview == Chaisson argues that cosmic history can be examined from the perspective of energy flows. He analyzes the flows of energy through various objects and argues that these flows are relevant to understanding the relative complexity of these objects. He suggests that a key measure for scientific analysis should be energy per second per gram, termed "energy rate density," and that analysis using this yardstick can be used to explain not only human evolution but cosmic evolution. He sees energy as "work per unit time" which he equates with power, and shows how energy rate density in some structures has increased over time. For example, in Chaisson's view, the human brain uses a


id: crc-handbook-of-chemistry-and-physics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRC_Handbook_of_Chemistry_and_Physics-0.md
category: reference
title: CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRC_Handbook_of_Chemistry_and_Physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:19.118897+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: crc-handbook-of-chemistry-and-physics-20260505-0
summary:
The CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics is a comprehensive one-volume reference resource for science research. First published in 1914, it is currently (as of 2024) in its 105th edition, published in 2024. It is known colloquially among chemists as the "Rubber Bible", as CRC originally stood for "Chemical Rubber Company". As late as the 1962–1963 edition (3604 pages), the Handbook contained myriad information on many branches of science and engineering. Sections in that edition include: Mathematics, Properties and Physical Constants, Chemical Tables, Properties of Matter, Heat, Hygrometric and Barometric Tables, Sound, Quantities and Units, and Miscellaneous. Mathematical Tables from Handbook of Chemistry and Physics was originally published as a supplement to the handbook up to the 9th edition (1952); afterwards, the 10th edition (1956) was published separately as CRC Standard Mathematical Tables. Earlier editions included sections such as "Antidotes of Poisons", "Rules for Naming Organic Compounds", "Surface Tension of Fused Salts", "Percent Composition of Anti-Freeze Solutions", "Spark-gap Voltages", "Greek Alphabet", "Musical Scales", "Pigments and Dyes", "Comparison of Tons and Pounds", "Twist Drill and Steel Wire Gauges" and "Properties of the Earth's Atmosphere at Elevations up to 160 Kilometers". Later editions focus almost exclusively on chemistry and physics topics and


id: critical-mass-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_Mass_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Critical Mass (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_Mass_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:20.286126+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: critical-mass-book-20260505-0
summary:
Critical Mass: How One Thing Leads to Another, a non-fiction book by English chemist and physicist Philip Ball originally published in 2004, discusses the concept of a "physics of society". Ball discusses thinkers such as Thomas Hobbes, Lewis Mumford, Emyr Hughes, and Gottfried Achenwall who have attempted to apply (or argue against the use of) physics, chemistry, or mathematics in the study of mass social phenomena. He also discusses how the concept relates to recent research, including his own. == Physics of society == The outlines of Ball's Critical Mass, the most popular of his many noted books, beginning in various circa 2001 lectures, talks, and articles focused on what he calls a 'physics of society', similar to the social physics in the Auguste Comte sense, a subject Ball approaches using statistical mechanics viewing people as atoms or molecules that show characteristic behaviours in bulk. The following is an excerpt of his 2003 talk on the physical modeling of society: "There seem to be 'laws' [of] social systems that have at least something of the character of natural physical laws, in that they do not yield easily to planned and arbitrary interventions. Over the past several decades, social, economic and


id: the-dancing-wu-li-masters-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dancing_Wu_Li_Masters-0.md
category: reference
title: The Dancing Wu Li Masters
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dancing_Wu_Li_Masters
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:21.527550+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-dancing-wu-li-masters-20260505-0
summary:
The Dancing Wu Li Masters is a 1979 book by Gary Zukav, a popular science work exploring modern physics, and quantum phenomena in particular. It was awarded a 1980 U.S. National Book Award in category of Science. Although it explores empirical topics in modern physics research, The Dancing Wu Li Masters gained attention for leveraging metaphors taken from eastern spiritual movements, in particular the Huayen school of Buddhism with the monk Fazang's treatise on the Golden Lion, to explain quantum phenomena and has been regarded by some reviewers as a New Age work, although the book is mostly concerned with the work of pioneers in western physics down through the ages. The toneless pinyin phrase Wu Li in the title is most accurately rendered 物理 in Chinese characters, one Chinese translation of the word "physics" (wù lǐ 物理) in the light of the book's subject matter. This becomes somewhat of a pun as there are many other Chinese characters that could be rendered as "wu li" in atonal pinyin, and chapters of the book are each titled with alternative translations of Wu Li, such as "Nonsense" (wú lǐ 無理), "My Way" and "I Clutch My Ideas". Zukav participated as a


id: de-magnete-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Magnete-0.md
category: reference
title: De Magnete
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Magnete
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:22.751224+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: de-magnete-20260505-0
summary:
De Magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus, et de Magno Magnete Tellure (On the Magnet and Magnetic Bodies, and on That Great Magnet the Earth) is a scientific work published in 1600 by the English physician and scientist William Gilbert. A highly influential and successful book, it exerted an immediate influence on many contemporary writers, including Francis Godwin and Mark Ridley. == Contents == In De Magnete, Gilbert described many of his experiments with his model Earth called the terrella. Gilbert made the claim that gravity was due to the same force and he believed that this held the Moon in orbit around the Earth. The work then considered static electricity produced by amber. Amber is called elektron in Greek, and electrum in Latin, so Gilbert decided to refer to the phenomenon by the adjective electricus. == Summary == De Magnete consists of six books. === Book 1 === Historical survey of magnetism and theory of Earth's magnetism. The lodestone in antiquity from Plato onwards and the gradual identification of iron ores. The south pole of a lodestone points to the north pole of the Earth and vice versa as the terrestrial globe is magnetic. === Book 2 === Distinction between electricity and


id: de-motu-antiquiora-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-0.md
category: reference
title: De motu antiquiora
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:23.985272+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: de-motu-antiquiora-20260505-0
summary:
De motu antiquiora ("The Older Writings on Motion"), or simply De Motu, is Galileo Galilei's early written work on motion (not to be confused with Newton's De motu corporum in gyrum, which shares the abbreviated name, De Motu). It was written largely between 1589 and 1592, but was not published in full until 1890. De Motu is known for expressing Galileo's ideas on motion during his Pisan period prior to transferring to Padua. Galileo left the manuscript unfinished and unpublished in his lifetime due to several uncertainties in his understanding and his mathematics. It is unclear whether this book was initially made out to be a book in the form of a dialogue or a more conventional way of writing. The reason for this is that Galileo worked on this book for many years, creating multiple copies of each section. In the last parts of his work, the writing style changes from an essay to a dialogue between two people who strongly uphold his views. Galileo would later incorporate select arguments and examples from his De Motu into his subsequent works Le Mecaniche (On Mechanics), Discorso intorno alle cose che stanno in su l'acqua (Discourse on Floating Bodies), and Discorsi


id: de-motu-antiquiora-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-1.md
category: reference
title: De motu antiquiora
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:23.985272+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: de-motu-antiquiora-20260505-0
summary:
== Influences and origins of Galileo's Pisan dynamics == Historians have debated the exact influences and development of Galileo’s early dynamics during his Pisan period and whether his early concepts of impressed forces were directly descended from the medieval impetus theory of the 14th century. Pierre Duhem proposed that Galileo’s Pisan dynamics was a continuation of the tradition taught by Jean Buridan and Nicole Oresme, in which Galileo continued to perfect the impetus theory throughout his career, potentially drawing influence from Giambattista Benedetti whose dynamics are generally described as a partisan of the impetus physics. Alexandre Koyré also noted Benedetti's potential influence on Galileo but argued, against Duhem, that Galileo’s Pisan dynamics was an attempt to achieve a coherent mathematical formulation of medieval impetus modeled after Archimedes’ statics, but instead of perfecting it, as suggested by Duhem, Galileo ultimately failed, which led him to abandon the medieval tradition and began anew into his Paduan period. Ernest Moody pointed out that Galileo’s arguments that rejected Aristotle’s explanation for projectile motion were exactly the same as those used by Buridan and Albert of Saxony, and was therefore not original; however, Moody argued against Duhem and Koyré that Galileo’s early dynamics were not


id: de-motu-antiquiora-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-2.md
category: reference
title: De motu antiquiora
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:23.985272+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: de-motu-antiquiora-20260505-0
summary:
=== Chapter 2: Heavy substances are by nature located in a lower place and light substances in a higher place === Galileo assumes a quasi-Aristotelean arrangement of the universe based on the classical elements where things move according to their proper place: earth rests at the center, water is above earth, air is above water, and fire is above air. Based on this arrangement, it appears Galileo assumes a Ptolemaic system that places Earth at the center of the universe, despite his later acknowledgment of Nicolaus Copernicus’s De revolutionibus orbium coelestium in Chapter 20. Galileo indicates that Aristotle gave no reason for the arrangement of the classical elements other than that everything must be disposed in some arrangement as provided by divine providence; however, Galileo finds this view unsatisfactory and believes that Aristotle was potentially incorrect in his criticism of the ancient monist and atomist theories. He argues that, if the monists and atomists were correct, it would provide a logical explanation for the arrangement of the elements: heavier bodies would enclose more particles of that matter in a narrower space and would also occupy narrower places, such as those near the center of the universe (Galileo claims that spaces


id: de-motu-antiquiora-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-3.md
category: reference
title: De motu antiquiora
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:23.985272+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: de-motu-antiquiora-20260505-0
summary:
=== Chapter 7: The cause of speed and slowness of natural motion === Differences in speed of motion occur in two ways: either the same body moves in different media, or different bodies move through the same media; furthermore, the case in which different bodies move in different media can be simplified down to these two ways. In both cases, the speed of motion depend upon the same cause: the greater or lesser weight of the media and the moving bodies. In this argument, Galileo focuses on the primary cause of motion rather than any “accidental” (e.g., the shape of the body) or external cause. Aristotle claimed that the same body moves more swiftly in a rarer medium than in a denser medium, and that therefore the cause of slowness of motion is the density of the medium, and the cause of speed is rareness of the medium; however, Galileo points out that Aristotle asserted this claim on the basis of no other reason than from experience (i.e., we see a moving body move more swiftly in air than in water) and that this explanation of the cause to produce this effect is insufficient since there are many moving bodies


id: de-motu-antiquiora-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-4.md
category: reference
title: De motu antiquiora
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:23.985272+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: de-motu-antiquiora-20260505-0
summary:
=== Chapter 8: Different bodies moving in the same medium maintain a ratio of speeds different from what is said by Aristotle === Galileo states that two bodies may differ in two ways: 1) they are of same material but have different size (i.e., volume), and 2) they are of different material but a) they differ in size and weight, b) differ in weight but not size, or c) differ in size but not weight. He then refutes Aristotle’s claims for each situation. Aristotle claims that, in the case of naturally moving bodies that are of the same material, the larger moves more swiftly, such that a large piece of gold would move more swiftly than a small piece, and that the ratio of their speeds is the same as the ratio of their sizes. Galileo asserts that this is ridiculous because this would imply that, for two lead balls, one ball a hundred times larger than the other, both falling from a great height, then the lighter ball would take a hundred times longer to fall than the heavier ball, but this does not happen. Instead, Galileo argues that objects made of the same material, though different in size,


id: de-motu-antiquiora-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-5.md
category: reference
title: De motu antiquiora
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:23.985272+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: de-motu-antiquiora-20260505-0
summary:
When solids lighter than water are completely submerged in water, they are carried upward with a force measured by the difference between the weight of a volume of water equal to the volume of the submerged body and the weight of the body itself. In other words, Galileo argues that natural motion is based on an object's apparent weight. He concludes that if we wish to know at once the relative speeds of a same body in two different media, we take an amount of each medium equal to the volume of the body, and subtract from the weights of each medium the weight of the body. The numbers found as remainders will be to each other as the speeds of the motions. Similar arguments are then made for the ratios of speeds of two bodies equal in volume but unequal in weight moving the same media in both upward and downward motion. By the end of the chapter, Galileo provides the ratio of the speeds for natural motion made of the same or different material, in the same medium or in different medium, and in natural motion upward or downwards. Galileo ends the chapter claiming that lighter bodies will


id: de-motu-antiquiora-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-6.md
category: reference
title: De motu antiquiora
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:23.985272+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: de-motu-antiquiora-20260505-0
summary:
=== Chapter 9: In view of all the above, bodies moving naturally are reduced to the weights of a balance === Galileo investigates the force responsible for the motions explained in Chapter 8, specifically, the amount of force necessary to hold wood underwater, to which he concludes that wood moves upward with a force measured by the amount by which the weight of a volume of water equals to the wood exceeds the weight of the wood. Similarly, he investigates the force of a lead sphere as it moves downward in water, and he concludes that the sphere moves downward with a force equal to the weight by which it exceeds the weight of an aqueous sphere of the same size. He then revisits the conclusion of the previous chapter: in the case of bodies of different material, provided that they are equal in size, the ratio of the speeds of their natural downward motions is the same as the ratio of their weights–and not their weights as such, but the weights found by weighing them in the medium in which the motion takes place. From this, Galileo recognizes that, when objects occupy a medium and we weigh the object


id: de-motu-antiquiora-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-7.md
category: reference
title: De motu antiquiora
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:23.985272+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: de-motu-antiquiora-20260505-0
summary:
=== Chapter 12: Disproving Aristotle’s claim that absolutely light and absolutely heavy exist; and even if they did, it would not be earth and fire === Aristotle defined that the “absolutely heaviest” are things that lay below everything else and always move towards the center of the universe, and he calls the “absolutely lightest” things that rise above everything else and always move up and never down. Thus, the heaviest is earth, and the lightest is fire. For if fire had heaviness, it would remain below something, which is not observed. Galileo rebuts that Aristotle’s argument is not conclusive, for it is sufficient for fire to be less heavy than everything else, and is not necessarily without weight. Aristotle argues that, if fire had weight, then a large amount of fire would be heavier than a small amount, thus the large amount would rise slower. Similarly, if earth had lightness, then a large amount of earth would fall slower than a small amount. But experience shows the opposite. Galileo rebuts that this is also an invalid argument, for weight of a body is modified by the medium it is in. In other words, fire does not have weight in air.


id: de-motu-antiquiora-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-8.md
category: reference
title: De motu antiquiora
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:23.985272+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: de-motu-antiquiora-20260505-0
summary:
=== Chapter 15: An argument that rectilinear and circular motions have a ratio to each other === Aristotle asserts that circular motion does not have any ratio to rectilinear motion because a straight line is not in any ratio to or comparable to a curve. Galileo rejects this stating that this would be like saying a triangle and a square are not comparable because the triangle has only three angles while the square has four. Even a circle inscribed in a square has some ratio even though the circle has curved edges while the square has straight edges. He further argues that Aristotle failed to see that the lines have a quantitative relation even if they are qualitatively different. Galileo further claims that Aristotle was reckless in asserting that there is no straight line equal to the circumference of a circle–Archimedes was able to prove this in his work On Spirals, where a straight line is found equal to the circumference of the circle around the spiral of first revolution. === Chapter 16: The question of whether circular motion is natural or forced === Galileo offers the question: if the center of a rotating marble sphere (and its center of


id: de-motu-antiquiora-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-9.md
category: reference
title: De motu antiquiora
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:23.985272+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: de-motu-antiquiora-20260505-0
summary:
=== Chapter 17: The agency by which projectiles are moved === Aristotle argues that objects move due to contact with a mover, but since projectiles fly without contact from a mover, then it must be that the rushing of air behind the object is propagating its motion. Galileo raises several objections to this explanation (most of which were recognized much before Galileo): the successive parts of air that push the projectile would always be accelerated, which is contrary to Aristotle’s assumptions; experience shows that arrows fly despite a strong opposing headwind; a ship propelled by oars against a current continues to move forward long after the oars are retracted from the water; iron balls can be flung at a great distance, and yet flaxen fibers fall to the ground sooner than the iron ball; lastly, a marble sphere can spin for a long time without displacing, thus leaving no space for air to push against it, nor is a flame placed underneath the sphere disturbed by any air currents. Instead, Galileo argues that projectile motion results from an impressed force that gives the projectile a self-depleting impetus for its motion (as a side note, according to Drabkin, medieval philosophy historian


id: de-motu-antiquiora-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-10.md
category: reference
title: De motu antiquiora
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:23.985272+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: de-motu-antiquiora-20260505-0
summary:
=== Chapter 19: The cause of acceleration of natural motion towards the end of motion === Galileo admits he struggled to find an explanation as to why objects accelerate toward the end of its motion. Although he states that he was excited to find a solution, the explanation he provides is mostly erroneous. Galileo would later provide a correct description of natural acceleration in his Two New Sciences: interlocutor Salviati, who represents an older Galileo, explicitly states that he would not provide an explanation as to the cause of such acceleration, but the explanation provided here is expressed by the interlocutor, Sagredo, who represents a younger Galileo. Aristotle argued against such acceleration, stating that natural motion is not accelerated by extrusion since that would imply forced motion, but later, the Peripatetics would argue that it was the rushing of air behind the projectile that caused the acceleration. Galileo states that this doesn’t explain why a rhombus-shaped object would accelerate since the rushing air would become split by the edges of the shape and therefore unable to strike the object. Instead, Galileo argues that, since a heavy falling body moves more slowly at the beginning, it follows that the body is


id: de-motu-antiquiora-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-11.md
category: reference
title: De motu antiquiora
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:23.985272+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: de-motu-antiquiora-20260505-0
summary:
=== Chapter 22: An explanation as to why, at the beginning of their motion, less heavy bodies move more swiftly than heavier ones === Averroes and his followers had proposed a solution to this question that supposed that elements were heavy in their own region, a proposition that Galileo rejected in Chapter 11. They also believed that a wooden sphere contains more air in it than a lead sphere, thus making the wooden sphere move more swiftly; further, it was believed that lead is heavier than iron in air because the lead contained more air than in iron – Galileo states that it’s obvious that this argument contains many complications. Instead, Galileo proposes that, when objects begin their natural motion from rest, it begins with an impressed force that is equal but opposite to their weight (i.e., a hand or some device initially supporting the object provides the impressed force). As a result, heavier bodies begin their motion with a greater contrary force and thus fall more slowly at the beginning of their motion than lighter bodies, but once the contrary force is depleted, the heavier body then falls faster than lighter bodies, as is seen from experience. However, he


id: de-motu-corporum-in-gyrum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_corporum_in_gyrum-0.md
category: reference
title: De motu corporum in gyrum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_corporum_in_gyrum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:25.182996+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: de-motu-corporum-in-gyrum-20260505-0
summary:
De motu corporum in gyrum (from Latin: "On the motion of bodies in an orbit"; abbreviated De Motu) is the presumed title of a manuscript by Isaac Newton sent to Edmond Halley in November 1684. The manuscript was prompted by a visit from Halley earlier that year when he had questioned Newton about problems then occupying the minds of Halley and his scientific circle in London, including Sir Christopher Wren and Robert Hooke. This manuscript gave important mathematical derivations relating to the three relations now known as "Kepler's laws of planetary motion" (before Newton's work, these had not been generally regarded as scientific laws). Halley reported the communication from Newton to the Royal Society on 10 December 1684 (Old Style). After further encouragement from Halley, Newton developed the ideas outlined by De Motu into his book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica. == Contents == One of the surviving copies of De Motu was made by being entered in the Royal Society's register book, and its (Latin) text is available online. For ease of cross-reference to the contents of De Motu that appeared again in the Principia, there are online sources for the Principia in English translation, as well as in Latin.


id: de-motu-corporum-in-gyrum-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_corporum_in_gyrum-1.md
category: reference
title: De motu corporum in gyrum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_corporum_in_gyrum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:25.182996+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: de-motu-corporum-in-gyrum-20260505-0
summary:
=== Theorem 3 === Theorem 3 now evaluates the centripetal force in a non-circular orbit, using another geometrical limit argument, involving ratios of vanishingly small line-segments. The demonstration comes down to evaluating the curvature of the orbit as if it were made of infinitesimal arcs, and the centripetal force at any point is evaluated from the speed and the curvature of the local infinitesimal arc. This subject reappears in the Principia as Proposition 6 of Book 1. A corollary then points out how it is possible in this way to determine the centripetal force for any given shape of orbit and center. Problem 1 then explores the case of a circular orbit, assuming the center of attraction is on the circumference of the circle. A scholium points out that if the orbiting body were to reach such a center, it would then depart along the tangent. (Proposition 7 in the Principia.) Problem 2 explores the case of an ellipse, where the center of attraction is at its center, and finds that the centripetal force to produce motion in that configuration would be directly proportional to the radius vector. (This material becomes Proposition 10, Problem 5 in the Principia.) Problem 3


id: de-motu-corporum-in-gyrum-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_corporum_in_gyrum-2.md
category: reference
title: De motu corporum in gyrum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_corporum_in_gyrum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:25.182996+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: de-motu-corporum-in-gyrum-20260505-0
summary:
== Commentaries on the contents == At some points in 'De Motu', Newton depends on matters proved being used in practice as a basis for regarding their converses as also proved. This has been seen as especially so in regard to 'Problem 3'. Newton's style of demonstration in all his writings was rather brief in places; he appeared to assume that certain steps would be found self-evident or obvious. In 'De Motu', as in the first edition of the Principia, Newton did not specifically state a basis for extending the proofs to the converse. The proof of the converse here depends on its being apparent that there is a unique relation, i.e., that in any given setup, only one orbit corresponds to one given and specified set of force/velocity/starting position. Newton added a mention of this kind into the second edition of the Principia, as a Corollary to Propositions 11–13, in response to criticism of this sort made during his lifetime. A significant scholarly controversy has existed over the question whether and how far these extensions to the converse, and the associated uniqueness statements, are self-evident and obvious or not. (There is no suggestion that the converses are not true,


id: dialogue-concerning-the-two-chief-world-systems-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems-0.md
category: reference
title: Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:26.483495+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dialogue-concerning-the-two-chief-world-systems-20260505-0
summary:
Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo) is a 1632 book by Galileo Galilei comparing Nicolaus Copernicus's heliocentric system model with Ptolemy's geocentric model. Written in Italian, it was translated into Latin as Systema cosmicum (Cosmic System) in 1635 by Matthias Bernegger. The book was dedicated to Galileo's patron, Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, who received the first printed copy on February 22, 1632. It consists of four Socratic dialogues between the Copernican Salviati, the educated layman Sagredo and the geocentrist Simplicio. They discuss the findings of their "mutual friend the Academician" (Galileo). In the heliocentric system, the Earth and other planets orbit the Sun, while in the Ptolemaic system, everything in the Universe circles around the Earth. The Dialogue was published in Florence under a formal license from the Inquisition. In 1633, Galileo was found to be "vehemently suspect of heresy" based on the book, which was then placed on the Index of Forbidden Books, from which it was not removed until 1835 (after the theories it discussed had been permitted in print in 1822). In an action that was not announced at the time, the publication of


id: dialogue-concerning-the-two-chief-world-systems-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems-1.md
category: reference
title: Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:26.483495+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dialogue-concerning-the-two-chief-world-systems-20260505-0
summary:
Direct physical argument for the Earth's motion, by means of an explanation of tides. As an account of the causation of tides or a proof of the Earth's motion, it is a failure. The fundamental argument is internally inconsistent and actually leads to the conclusion that tides do not exist. But, Galileo was fond of the argument and devoted the "Fourth Day" of the discussion to it. The degree of its failure is—like nearly anything having to do with Galileo—a matter of controversy. On the one hand, the whole thing has recently been described in print as "cockamamie." On the other hand, Einstein used a rather different description: It was Galileo's longing for a mechanical proof of the motion of the earth which misled him into formulating a wrong theory of the tides. The fascinating arguments in the last conversation would hardly have been accepted as proof by Galileo, had his temperament not got the better of him. [Emphasis added] === Omissions === The Dialogue does not treat the Tychonic system, which was becoming the preferred system of many astronomers at the time of publication and which was ultimately proven incorrect. The Tychonic system is a motionless Earth system but


id: dialogue-concerning-the-two-chief-world-systems-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems-2.md
category: reference
title: Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:26.483495+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dialogue-concerning-the-two-chief-world-systems-20260505-0
summary:
=== Day one === Salviati starts with Aristotle's proof of the completeness and perfection of the world (i.e. the universe) because of its three dimensions. Simplicio points out that three was favoured by the Pythagoreans whereas Salviati cannot understand why three legs are better than two or four. He suggests that the numbers were "trifles which later spread among the vulgar" and that their definitions, such as those of straight lines and right angles, were more useful in establishing the dimensions. Simplicio's response was that Aristotle thought that in physical matters mathematical demonstration was not always needed. Salviati attacks Aristotle's definition of the heavens as incorruptible and unchanging whilst only the lunar-bound zone shows change. He points to the changes seen in the skies: the new stars of 1572 and 1604 and sunspots, seen through the new telescope. There is a discussion about Aristotle's use of a priori arguments. Salviati suggests that Aristotle uses Aristotle’s personal experience to choose an appropriate argument to prove just as others do and that Aristotle would change his mind in the present circumstances. Simplicio argues that sunspots could simply be small opaque objects passing in front of the Sun, but Salviati points out that


id: dialogue-concerning-the-two-chief-world-systems-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems-3.md
category: reference
title: Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:26.483495+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dialogue-concerning-the-two-chief-world-systems-20260505-0
summary:
They consider three main objections to the motion of the Earth: that a falling body would be left behind by the Earth and thus fall far to the west of its point of release; that a cannonball fired to the west would similarly fly much further than one fired to the east; and that a cannonball fired vertically would also land far to the west. Salviati shows that these do not take account of the impetus of the cannon. He also points out that attempting to prove that the Earth does not move by using vertical fall commits the logical fault of paralogism (assuming what is to be proved), because if the Earth is moving then it is only in appearance that it is falling vertically; in fact it is falling at a slant, as happens with a cannonball rising through the cannon (illustrated). In rebutting a work which claims that a ball falling from the Moon would take six days to arrive, the odd-number rule is introduced: a body falling 1 unit in an interval would fall 3 units in the next interval, 5 units in the subsequent one, etc. This gives rise to the rule by which the


id: dialogue-concerning-the-two-chief-world-systems-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems-4.md
category: reference
title: Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:26.483495+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dialogue-concerning-the-two-chief-world-systems-20260505-0
summary:
Copernicus has succeeded in reducing some of the uneven motions of Ptolemy who had to deal with motions that sometimes go fast, sometimes slow, and sometimes backwards, by means of vast epicycles. Mars, above the Sun's sphere, often falls far below it, then soars above it. These anomalies are cured by the annual movement of the Earth. This is explained by a diagram in which the varying motion of Jupiter is shown using the Earth's orbit. Simplicio produces another booklet in which theological arguments are mixed with astronomic, but Salviati refuses to address the issues from Scripture. So he produces the argument that the fixed stars must be at an inconceivable distance with the smallest larger than the whole orbit of the Earth. Salviati explains that this all comes from a misrepresentation of what Copernicus said, resulting in a huge over-calculation of the size of a sixth magnitude star. But many other famous astronomers over-estimated the size of stars by ignoring the brightness factor. Not even Tycho, with his accurate instruments, set himself to measure the size of any star except the Sun and Moon. But Salviati (Galileo) was able to make a reasonable estimate simply by hanging a cord


id: dialogue-concerning-the-two-chief-world-systems-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems-5.md
category: reference
title: Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:26.483495+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dialogue-concerning-the-two-chief-world-systems-20260505-0
summary:
=== Day four === They are in Sagredo's house in Venice, where tides are an important issue, and Salviati wants to show the effect of the Earth's movement on the tides. He first points out the three periods of the tides: daily (diurnal), generally with intervals of 6 hours of rising and six more of falling; monthly, seemingly from the Moon, which increases or decreases these tides; and annual, leading to different sizes at the equinoxes. He considers first the daily motion. Three varieties are observed: in some places the waters rise and fall without any forward motion; in others they move towards the east and back to the west without rising or falling; in still others there is a combination of both—this happens in Venice where the waters rise on entering and fall on leaving. In the Straits of Messina there are very swift currents between Scylla and Charybdis. In the open Mediterranean the alteration of height is small but the currents are noticeable. Simplicio counters with the peripatetic explanations, which are based on the depths of the sea, and the dominion of the Moon over the water, though this does not explain the risings when the Moon is


id: a-different-universe-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Different_Universe-0.md
category: reference
title: A Different Universe
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Different_Universe
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:27.657885+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: a-different-universe-20260505-0
summary:
A Different Universe: Reinventing Physics from the Bottom Down is a 2005 physics book by Robert B. Laughlin, a winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics for the fractional quantum Hall effect. Its title is a play on the P. W. Anderson manifesto More is Different (historically important in claiming that condensed-matter physics deserves greater respect). The book extends his articles "The Middle Way" and "The Theory of Everything", arguing the limits of reductionism. A key concept in Laughlin's works is protectorates, meaning robust physical regimes of behavior that do not depend on (that is, they are protected from the fickle details of) the underlying smaller-scale physics such as quantum noise. Such robust or reliable behavior at macroscopic scales makes possible higher-level entities, from biological life to nanotechnology. The book emphasizes more study of such macroscopic phenomena, sometimes called emergence, over the ever-downward dive into theoretically fundamental ideas such as string theory, which at some point become empirically irrelevant by having no observable consequences in our world. The arguments come full circle with modern dark energy ideas suggesting that spacetime or the vacuum may not be empty, but rather (for all we can observe) a medium, a possibility ironically glimpsed


id: einstein-wrote-back-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_Wrote_Back-0.md
category: reference
title: Einstein Wrote Back
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_Wrote_Back
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:28.913584+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: einstein-wrote-back-20260505-0
summary:
Einstein Wrote Back is a memoir by Canadian physicist John Moffat that documents his encounters with various other famous physicists, including Niels Bohr, Albert Einstein, Erwin Schrödinger, Fred Hoyle, Wolfgang Pauli, Paul Dirac, Abdus Salam, and J. Robert Oppenheimer, as well as his work at Imperial College London, Princeton University, CERN, and the University of Toronto. The book's title comes from a series of letters Moffat exchanged with Einstein early in his life, which inspired Moffat to continue studying physics. == Reception == Writing in Physics World, Graham Farmelo described the book as a pleasant read, though some of the anecdotes appeared embellished and historical details were inconsistent. == See also == Reinventing Gravity, 2008 book by Moffat Cracking the Particle Code of the Universe: The Hunt for the Higgs Boson, 2014 book by Moffat == References == == External links == "EINSTEIN WROTE BACK by John Moffat". YouTube. ThomasAllenPublisher. October 19, 2010.


id: an-elementary-treatise-on-electricity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Elementary_Treatise_on_Electricity-0.md
category: reference
title: An Elementary Treatise on Electricity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Elementary_Treatise_on_Electricity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:30.214982+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: an-elementary-treatise-on-electricity-20260505-0
summary:
An Elementary Treatise on Electricity is a posthumously published treatise on electricity by James Clerk Maxwell that was edited by William Garnett. The book was published in 1881 by Oxford University Press two years after Maxwell died in 1879. The editor's note at the beginning of the book states that most of the book's content was written about five years prior to Maxwell's death, some of which was used in the lectures Maxwell gave on electricity to members of the Cavendish Laboratory. == Contents == The book contains thirteen chapters, covering the following topics: Chapter I: [No overall heading; covers basic electrical experiments] Chapter II: 'On the charges of electrified bodies' Chapter III: 'On electrical work and energy' Chapter IV: 'The electric field' Chapter V: 'Faraday's law of lines of induction' Chapter VI: 'Particular cases of electrification' Chapter VII: 'Electrical images' Chapter VIII: 'Capacity' Chapter IX: 'Electric current' Chapter X: 'Phenomena of an electric current which flows through heterogeneous media' Chapter XI: 'Methods of maintaining an electric current' Chapter XII: 'On the measurement of electric resistance' Chapter XIII: 'On the electric resistance of substances' The first eight chapters were complete at the time of Maxwell's death, as were parts of


id: an-elementary-treatise-on-electricity-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Elementary_Treatise_on_Electricity-1.md
category: reference
title: An Elementary Treatise on Electricity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Elementary_Treatise_on_Electricity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:30.214982+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: an-elementary-treatise-on-electricity-20260505-0
summary:
== Maxwell, Faraday and the Elementary Treatise == The book is not merely a re-statement of some parts of A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism. Maxwell notes thatIn the larger treatise I sometimes made use of methods which I do not think the best in themselves, but without which the student cannot follow the investigations of the founders of the Mathematical Theory of Electricity. I have since become more convinced of the superiority of methods akin to those of Faraday, and have therefore adopted them from the first.This is thought to refer to the use, in A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism of the potentials A and Ψ as fundamental. That Maxwell adopted "methods akin to those of Faraday" "from the first" in the Elementary Treatise gives it an important place in our understanding of what Maxwell might have done with the full mathematical treatment of the second edition of A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism. For this reason, and owing to the less technical presentation of the Elementary Treatise, the latter has been called "the final, unfinished expression of the understanding [Maxwell] achieved by studying and extending Faraday's work". Maxwell's relationship with Michael Faraday's work was foundational: as a


id: elements-of-dynamic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elements_of_Dynamic-0.md
category: reference
title: Elements of Dynamic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elements_of_Dynamic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:31.462570+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: elements-of-dynamic-20260505-0
summary:
Elements of Dynamic is a book published by William Kingdon Clifford in 1878. In 1887 it was supplemented by a fourth part and an appendix. The subtitle is "An introduction to motion and rest in solid and fluid bodies". It was reviewed positively, has remained a standard reference since its appearance, and is now available online as a Historical Math Monograph from Cornell University. On page 95 Clifford deconstructed the quaternion product of William Rowan Hamilton into two separate products of two vectors: vector product and scalar product. This separation of the quaternion product into two was followed by J. W. Gibbs in his development of vector analysis, first in a pamphlet acknowledging Clifford's Kinematic, and later in a textbook published by Yale University, called Vector Analysis. He apparently remained unaware of Clifford's seminal paper on the unification of these two products into what he termed a geometric algebra. Elements of Dynamic was the debut of the term cross-ratio for a four-argument function frequently used in geometry. Clifford uses the term twist to discuss (pages 126 to 131) the screw theory that had recently been introduced by Robert Stawell Ball. The operation on vectors by matrix multiplication was given with


id: the-end-of-the-certain-world-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_End_of_the_Certain_World-0.md
category: reference
title: The End of the Certain World
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_End_of_the_Certain_World
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:32.665122+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-end-of-the-certain-world-20260505-0
summary:
The End of the Certain World: The Life and Science of Max Born is a biography of Max Born by Nancy Thorndike Greenspan that was initially published in 2005 by Basic Books. It was the first book-length biography of Born, a Nobel laureate and one of the founders of quantum mechanics. The book was critically acclaimed and was reviewed by Publishers Weekly, David C. Cassidy, Kurt Gottfried, Graham Farmelo, and Cathryn Carson, among others. == Background == Max Born played a pivotal role in the development of quantum mechanics, a term that he coined prior to Werner Heisenberg, his assistant, developing matrix mechanics. He is also the author of the classic textbook Principles of Optics. Despite his role in the quantum revolution, however, he received his Nobel Prize in Physics much later than his contemporaries and had never received a book-length biography prior to Greenspan's 2005 work. Heisenberg received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1932 and, according to the biography, Born felt dejected for not being included in the award. Born was awarded his own Nobel Prize in 1954. == Reception == The book was reviewed by David C. Cassidy, Kurt Gottfried, and Cathryn Carson, among several others. The


id: experiments-and-observations-on-electricity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiments_and_Observations_on_Electricity-0.md
category: reference
title: Experiments and Observations on Electricity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiments_and_Observations_on_Electricity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:34.035855+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: experiments-and-observations-on-electricity-20260505-0
summary:
Experiments and Observations on Electricity is a treatise by Benjamin Franklin based on letters that he wrote to Peter Collinson, who communicated Franklin's ideas to the Royal Society. The letters were published as a book in England in 1751, and over the following years the book was reissued in four more editions containing additional material, the last in 1774. Science historian I. Bernard Cohen crafted an edition with historical commentary that was published in 1941. == References == == Further reading == "Experiments and Observations, [April 1751]". Founders Online. National Archives. Original source: Labaree, Leonard W., ed. (1961). The Papers of Benjamin Franklin, vol. 4, July 1, 1750, through June 30, 1753. Yale University Press. pp. 125–130. Watson, William (1751). "An Account of Mr. Benjamin Franklin's Treatise, Lately Published, Intituled, Experiments and Observations on Electricity, Made at Philadelphia in America; By Wm. Watson, F. R. S.". Philosophical Transactions. 47: 202–211. JSTOR 105044. == External links == Experiments and observations on electricity, made at Philadelphia in America (1751), scanned from a copy in Franklin's personal library with his own handwritten notes, at the Internet Archive


id: feynman-s-lost-lecture-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feynman's_Lost_Lecture-0.md
category: reference
title: Feynman's Lost Lecture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feynman's_Lost_Lecture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:35.280798+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: feynman-s-lost-lecture-20260505-0
summary:
Feynman's Lost Lecture: The Motion of Planets Around the Sun is a book based on a lecture by Richard Feynman. Restoration of the lecture notes and conversion into book form was undertaken by Caltech physicist David L. Goodstein and archivist Judith R. Goodstein. Feynman had given the lecture on the motion of bodies at Caltech on March 13, 1964, but the notes and pictures were lost for a number of years and consequently not included in The Feynman Lectures on Physics series. The lecture notes were later found, but without the photographs of his illustrative chalkboard drawings. One of the editors, David L. Goodstein, stated that at first without the photographs, it was very hard to figure out what diagrams he was referring to in the audiotapes, but a later finding of his own private lecture notes made it possible to understand completely the logical framework with which Feynman delivered the lecture. == Overview == You can explain to people who don't know much of the physics, the early history... how Newton discovered... Kepler's Laws, and equal areas, and that means it's toward the sun, and all this stuff. And then the key - they always ask then, "Well, how


id: geshu-bu-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geshu_bu-0.md
category: reference
title: Geshu bu
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geshu_bu
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:36.490564+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geshu-bu-20260505-0
summary:
The Geshu bu (格術補), translated to English as the Supplement to Geometric Optics, Science Updates, or Optic Updates, is a book on optics written by the Chinese Guangdong gentry and intellectual Zou Boqi (1819–1869). The book was written in the late Qing Dynasty period in China. It covers the principles of lenses and is based on mathematical theory. == Background == Zou Boqi wrote two significant works in optics: the Geshu bu and the "Notes on the Mechanism for Capturing Images" (Sheying zhi qi ji). The Geshu bu tackles the Chinese principles on optics and its related literature while the Sheyi zhi qi ji delves more on the results of Zou's experiments as well as principles on photography. The Geshu bu was published in 1874, after Zou Boqi's death. In the late nineteenth century, Western knowledge, especially in optics, began to influence China. Zou's book, Geshu bu, introduced basic concepts of optics and lens, building on earlier Jesuit translations. This work challenged the traditional Mohist views and laid the groundwork for geometrical optics in China. == Contents == Based from one fascicle of the book, published in 1877, it aims to expand on ancient Chinese mathematics. The term geshu highlights


id: harmonice-mundi-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonice_Mundi-0.md
category: reference
title: Harmonice Mundi
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonice_Mundi
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:37.722025+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: harmonice-mundi-20260505-0
summary:
Harmonice Mundi (Latin: The Harmony of the World, 1619) is a book by Johannes Kepler. In the work, written entirely in Latin, Kepler discusses harmony and congruence in geometrical forms and physical phenomena. The final section of the work relates his discovery of the so-called third law of planetary motion. The full title is Harmonices mundi libri V (The Five Books of The Harmony of the World), which is commonly but ungrammatically shortened to Harmonices mundi. == Background and history == Kepler began working on Harmonice Mundi around 1599, which was the year Kepler sent a letter to Michael Maestlin detailing the mathematical data and proofs that he intended to use for his upcoming text, which he originally planned to name De harmonia mundi. Kepler was aware that the content of Harmonice Mundi closely resembled that of the subject matter for Ptolemy's Harmonica, but was not concerned. The new astronomy Kepler would use (most notably the adoption of elliptic orbits in the Copernican system) allowed him to explore new theorems. Another important development that allowed Kepler to establish his celestial-harmonic relationships was the abandonment of the Pythagorean tuning as the basis for musical consonance and the adoption of geometrically supported


id: harmonice-mundi-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonice_Mundi-1.md
category: reference
title: Harmonice Mundi
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonice_Mundi
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:37.722025+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: harmonice-mundi-20260505-0
summary:
Accordingly you won't wonder any more that a very excellent order of sounds or pitches in a musical system or scale has been set up by men, since you see that they are doing nothing else in this business except to play the apes of God the Creator and to act out, as it were, a certain drama of the ordination of the celestial movements. Kepler discovers that all but one of the ratios of the maximum and minimum speeds of planets on neighboring orbits approximate musical harmonies within a margin of error of less than a diesis (a 25:24 interval). The orbits of Mars and Jupiter produce the one exception to this rule, creating the inharmonic ratio of 18:19. === Chapter 5 === Chapter 5 includes a long digression on astrology. This is immediately followed by Kepler's third law of planetary motion, which shows a constant proportionality between the cube of the semi-major axis of a planet's orbit and the square of the time of its orbital period. Kepler's previous book, Astronomia nova, related the discovery of the first two principles now known as Kepler's laws. == Recent history == A copy of the 1619 edition was stolen from


id: helgoland-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helgoland_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Helgoland (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helgoland_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:38.907667+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: helgoland-book-20260505-0
summary:
Helgoland is a book by Italian physicist Carlo Rovelli about quantum mechanics and the relational interpretation of it that Rovelli developed. The title refers to Heligoland, an island in the North Sea where Werner Heisenberg secluded himself while developing the basic ideas of quantum mechanics in 1925. The book was first published in Italian in 2020, and an English translation by Erica Segre and Simon Carnell was published the following year. The Persian translation, translated by Samane Noroozi (Chatrang Publisher), was published the following year in Iran. == References ==


id: higgs-discovery-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higgs_Discovery-0.md
category: reference
title: Higgs Discovery
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higgs_Discovery
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:40.162884+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: higgs-discovery-20260505-0
summary:
Higgs Discovery: The Power of Empty Space is a short non-fiction book by Lisa Randall, in which she concentrates on the ideas discussed in her two previous books. Higgs Discovery was initially published on September 24, 2013 by Ecco Press. == Review == Lisa Randall is a well-known theoretical physicist, Professor at Harvard and author of two previous, chunkier popular books on particle physics, cosmology and their implications. This ebook contains extracts from those books but the main content is a thirty page account of the significance of the discovery and of her personal experience of it (listening to the seminar in a cafe on a Greek Island, doing an interview about it halfway up a rock face...). The style is informal and easygoing; the content is advanced. Randall goes beyond the poetic one-liners and beyond what any single news article could deliver in terms of explaining the significance of the discovery, how it was made, and what might come next. A lot of specialist terms are used, but most are introduced in a way which does not interfere with the impact of the narrative or the big picture Randall summarises. I think it will work well for non-specialists (certainly


id: horologium-oscillatorium-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horologium_Oscillatorium-0.md
category: reference
title: Horologium Oscillatorium
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horologium_Oscillatorium
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:41.406888+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: horologium-oscillatorium-20260505-0
summary:
Horologium Oscillatorium: Sive de Motu Pendulorum ad Horologia Aptato Demonstrationes Geometricae (English: The Pendulum Clock: or Geometrical Demonstrations Concerning the Motion of Pendula as Applied to Clocks) is a book published by Dutch mathematician and physicist Christiaan Huygens in 1673 and his major work on pendula and horology. It is regarded as one of the three most important works on mechanics in the 17th century, the other two being Galileo’s Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences (1638) and Newton’s Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687). Much more than a mere description of clocks, Huygens's Horologium Oscillatorium is the first modern treatise in which a physical problem (the accelerated motion of a falling body) is idealized by a set of parameters then analyzed mathematically and constitutes one of the seminal works of applied mathematics. The book is also known for its strangely worded dedication to Louis XIV. The appearance of the book in 1673 was a political issue, since at that time the Dutch Republic was at war with France; Huygens was anxious to show his allegiance to his patron, which can be seen in the obsequious dedication to Louis XIV. == Overview == The motivation behind Horologium Oscillatorium


id: horologium-oscillatorium-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horologium_Oscillatorium-1.md
category: reference
title: Horologium Oscillatorium
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horologium_Oscillatorium
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:41.406888+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: horologium-oscillatorium-20260505-0
summary:
If there is no gravity, and the air offers no resistance to the motion of bodies, then any one of these bodies admits of a single motion to be continued with an equal velocity along a straight line. Now truly this motion becomes, under the action of gravity and for whatever the direction of the uniform motion, a motion composed from that constant motion that a body now has or had previously, together with the motion due gravity downwards. Also, either of these motions can be considered separately, neither one to be impeded by the other. He uses these three rules to re-derive geometrically Galileo's original study of falling bodies, including linear fall along inclined planes and fall along a curved path. He then studies constrained fall, culminating with a proof that a body falling along an inverted cycloid reaches the bottom in a fixed amount of time, regardless of the point on the path at which it begins to fall. This in effect shows the solution to the tautochrone problem as given by a cycloid curve. In modern notation: ( π / 2 ) √ ( 2 D / g ) {\displaystyle (\pi /2)\surd (2D/g)} The following propositions are


id: horologium-oscillatorium-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horologium_Oscillatorium-2.md
category: reference
title: Horologium Oscillatorium
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horologium_Oscillatorium
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:41.406888+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: horologium-oscillatorium-20260505-0
summary:
=== Reception === Initial reviews of Huygens's Horologium Oscillatorium in major research journals at the time were generally positive. An anonymous review in Journal de Sçavans (1674) praised the author of the book for his invention of the pendulum clock "which brings the greatest honor to our century because it is of utmost importance... for astronomy and for navigation" while also noting the elegant, but difficult, mathematics needed to fully understand the book. Another review in the Giornale de' Letterati (1674) repeated many of the same points than the first one, with further elaboration on Huygens's trials at sea. The review in the Philosophical Transactions (1673) likewise praised the author for his invention but mentions other contributors to the clock design, such as William Neile, that in time would lead to a priority dispute. In addition to submitting his work for review, Huygens sent copies of his book to individuals throughout Europe, including statesmen such as Johan De Witt, and mathematicians such as Gilles de Roberval and Gregory of St. Vincent. Their appreciation of the text was due not exclusively on their ability to comprehend it fully but rather as a recognition of Huygens’s intellectual standing, or of his gratitude


id: hydrodynamica-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrodynamica-0.md
category: reference
title: Hydrodynamica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrodynamica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:42.667840+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hydrodynamica-20260505-0
summary:
Hydrodynamica, sive de Viribus et Motibus Fluidorum Commentarii (Latin for Hydrodynamics, or commentaries on the forces and motions of fluids) is a book published by Daniel Bernoulli in 1738. The title of this book eventually christened the field of fluid mechanics as hydrodynamics. This book introduced the Bernoulli's principle, stating the first form of conservation of energy in fluid dynamics. == Description == The book deals with fluid mechanics and is organized around preliminary versions of the conservation of energy, as received from Christiaan Huygens's formulation of vis viva (Latin for living forces). The book describes the theory of water flowing through a tube and of water flowing from a hole in a container. In doing so, Bernoulli explained the nature of hydrodynamic pressure and discovered the role of loss of vis viva in fluid flow, which would later be known as the Bernoulli principle. The book also discusses hydraulic machines and introduces the notion of work and efficiency of a machine. In the tenth chapter, Bernoulli discussed a primitive version of kinetic theory of gases. Assuming that heat increases the velocity of the gas particles, he first demonstrated that the pressure of air is proportional to kinetic energy of


id: imagining-the-elephant-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imagining_the_Elephant-0.md
category: reference
title: Imagining the Elephant
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imagining_the_Elephant
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:43.952249+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: imagining-the-elephant-20260505-0
summary:
Imagining the Elephant: A Biography of Allan MacLeod Cormack is a 2008 biography of physicist and Nobel laureate Allan MacLeod Cormack written by biomedical engineer and author Christopher Kit Vaughan and published by Imperial College Press. The book won the University of Cape Town Book Award in 2010, an honour shared with Nobel laureate J. M. Coetzee who won the award in 1984 for Waiting for the Barbarians. Cormack shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1979 with Godfrey Hounsfield “for the development of computer assisted tomography.” The book's title is inspired by the parable of six blind men and an elephant, in which the men, by approaching the animal from different angles, imagine it to be an elephant. This is analogous to computed tomography – or CT scan – in which a series of two-dimensional X-rays taken from different angles are used to construct a three-dimensional image of the object. == Overview == The book is divided into nine chapters: (1) From John O'Groats to Jo'burg; (2) On the Slopes of Table Mountain; (3) Physics and Friends at Cambridge; (4) Return to the Fairest Cape; (5) A New Beginning in Boston; (6) Finding Radon and His Transform;


id: landolt-b-rnstein-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landolt–Börnstein-0.md
category: reference
title: Landolt–Börnstein
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landolt–Börnstein
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:45.181501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: landolt-b-rnstein-20260505-0
summary:
Landolt–Börnstein is a collection of property data in materials science and the closely related fields of chemistry, physics and engineering published by Springer Nature. == History == On July 28, 1882, Dr. Hans Heinrich Landolt and Dr. Richard Börnstein, both professors at the "Landwirtschaftliche Hochschule" (Agricultural College) at Berlin, signed a contract with the publisher Ferdinand Springer on the publication of a collection of tables with physical-chemical data. The title of this book "Physikalisch-chemische Tabellen" (Physical-Chemical Tables) published in 1883 was soon forgotten. Owing to its success the data collection has been known for more than a hundred years by each scientist only as "The Landolt-Börnstein". A total of 1,250 copies of the first edition were printed and sold. The second edition was published in 1894, followed by the third in 1905, the fourth in 1912, and finally the fifth edition in 1923. Supplementary volumes to the fifth edition were printed as late as 1936. New editions introduced major changes, including a large expansion of volumes, an increased number of authors, an updated structure, additional tables, and coverage of new areas in physics and chemistry. The fifth edition was eventually published in 1923 and consisted of two volumes totaling 1,695


id: le-mecaniche-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche-0.md
category: reference
title: Le Mecaniche
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:46.380111+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: le-mecaniche-20260505-0
summary:
Le Mecaniche ("The Mechanics"; sometimes spelled Le Meccaniche in modern Italian) is a short treatise by Galileo Galilei, composed while he was teaching mathematics in Padua. The precise date of its most refined form is difficult, if not impossible, to determine, but it is generally dated around 1600 or earlier, and was unlikely revised after 1608. It was preceded by a brief version written around 1593, Galileo's first full year in Padua. The work was never printed during his lifetime but circulated in manuscript form among his students and colleagues. The treatise examines the theory of simple machines, such as the lever, pulley, winch (i.e., windlass and capstan), screw, and inclined plane, drawing on classical sources such as Aristotle, Archimedes, Pappus, Philoponus, and Jordanus de Nemore, but reformulated through Galileo's mathematical perspective. In the text, Galileo discusses principles of equilibrium, mechanical advantage, virtual velocities (speeds), and the impossibility of "cheating" nature, emphasizing that machines do not create force but only transform and transmit it. Although Galileo's Mechanics is referenced in the Discorsi e dimostrazioni matematiche intorno a due nuove scienze (Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences (1638)), including a literal citation to the Mecaniche in amendments added


id: le-mecaniche-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche-1.md
category: reference
title: Le Mecaniche
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:46.380111+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: le-mecaniche-20260505-0
summary:
== Critical reception == Clavelin argues that the Le Mecaniche combined three distinct trends in statics into an orderly and rational theory of simple machines: the Peripatetic tradition, whose origins are traced back to the Mechanical Problems; the Archimedean tradition; and a 13th century tradition originated by Jordanus Nemorarius, who produced the first proof in statics based expressly on the idea of virtual displacements, and a correct explanation of motion on an inclined plane. The Mechanical Problems of the Peripatetic school provided the earliest known analysis of why small forces can move great weights by means of the lever, treating the problem implicitly as one in statics, using an approach that contained the beginnings of the principle of virtual velocities, but it should be emphasized that the Mechanical Problems never treated virtual displacements but only virtual velocities. It also described the behavior of the wedge, the pulley, the tackle, the forceps, and the nutcracker, reducing each to that of the lever; however, it failed to adduce a systematic theory of simple machines. In the Archimedean tradition, Archimedes set out to transform statics into a demonstrative science, refusing, in his theory of the lever, to treat equilibrium in terms of virtual


id: le-mecaniche-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche-2.md
category: reference
title: Le Mecaniche
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:46.380111+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: le-mecaniche-20260505-0
summary:
=== The beginnings of Galilean momento === Galileo's Mecaniche presents his early adoption and transformation of momento into a technical term. Prior to drafting his Mecaniche, Galileo had made several attempts to correct the deficiencies and contradictions of his De motu, particularly with the system and definitions relating to gravitas, levitas, and his concept of force, virtus impressa; however, he ultimately abandoned the work. Galluzzi indicates that, during the period spanning 1593 through 1600, Galileo consciously dedicated himself to reforming his lexicon, including his use of momento. As Galluzzi notes, the Pasadena and Regensburg versions of the Mecaniche first used momento without definition and only within a few sentences, wherein the term indicated a negligible amount of weight, which reflected the biblical expression momentum staterae. The years 1595-1597 then marked a period of intense research, definition, and introduction of the term that we now find in the definitive version of the text, making Galileo's momento a Paduan achievement. During the academic year of 1597-98, Galileo taught a course dedicated to the pseudo-Aristotelian Questions of Mechanics at the University of Padua. Galluzzi argues that, while preparing for this task, and stimulated by extensive readings of mechanical texts (he would have certainly


id: le-mecaniche-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche-3.md
category: reference
title: Le Mecaniche
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:46.380111+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: le-mecaniche-20260505-0
summary:
the weight to be transferred from one place to another; the force or power that must move the weight; the distance between the beginning and the end of this motion; and the time in which the change must be made (which comes to mean the same as swiftness and speed of its motion, in which to be "swifter" means to pass an equal distance in less time). Given any determined resistance and delimiting any force, noting any distance in its motion, a weight will be driven by a given force to a given distance. Even if the force is small, we can divide the weight into many pieces, each of which is not superior to the force. By transferring these pieces one at a time, the entire weight can eventually be moved to the desired location. In this fashion, we do not say that the whole weight was translated by a small force, but rather that the small force is applied through many repeated motions and spaces, of which the entire weight only traverses but once. From this, it appears that the speed of the force is greater than the resistance of the weight by as many times as the


id: le-mecaniche-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche-4.md
category: reference
title: Le Mecaniche
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:46.380111+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: le-mecaniche-20260505-0
summary:
==== Terms of mechanics ==== Galileo then introduces special terms used for his analysis of mechanics, along with their basic assumptions. Heaviness (gravità) is the tendency of heavy bodies to move downward naturally. In solid bodies, heaviness is caused by the greater or lesser abundance of matter (materia). It is interesting to note that Galileo does not reduce heaviness to weight (peso) or state that it is to be measured by weight. Moment (momento) is the tendency of heavy bodies to move downward caused not just by the heaviness of the mobile but also by the arrangement that different heavy bodies have among themselves. It is through moment that a less heavy body can be seen to counterbalance another of greater heaviness. For example, on the steelyard balance, a small counterweight can lift a very heavy weight, not through its greater heaviness (of which it lacks) but rather by its distance of suspension of the steelyard. This arrangement, in combination with its heaviness, contributes to its moment and impetus (i.e., drive, propensity, or tendency; not to be confused with Buridanist impetus) to go downward, which may exceed the moment of the other heavier weight. Thus, moment is that impetus to


id: le-mecaniche-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche-5.md
category: reference
title: Le Mecaniche
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:46.380111+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: le-mecaniche-20260505-0
summary:
Having established the case of equal moments of the lever, Galileo notes another "probable" truth. As previously established, if we consider a lever balancing unequal weights at inverse distances (i.e., a state of equal moments), but now one side is hypothetically given a minimal moment of heaviness (i.e., an insensible addition of weight capable of breaking equilibrium), this side will now descend, albeit slowly, while the other side rises. Since any minimal (and insensible) heaviness is sufficient to break equilibrium, we can ignore this quantity so that the power that one weight has in sustaining a second weight compared to the power to move the second weight is essentially indistinguishable. In other words, the additional minimal weight is so small and negligible (yet enough to set the system in motion), the ability of the weights to produce static equilibrium on the lever is also the same ability of the same weights to sustain motion on the lever. This arrangement forms the basis of mechanical analysis through virtual displacements and virtual speeds (and later, during the analysis of inclined planes, the principle of virtual work). The analysis using virtual speeds was originally drawn from Aristotle. Now, as one weight descends while


id: le-mecaniche-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche-6.md
category: reference
title: Le Mecaniche
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:46.380111+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: le-mecaniche-20260505-0
summary:
=== Of Pulleys === Galileo asserts that pulleys (i.e., block-and-tackle systems and simple pulleys) are also describable as a lever; however, prior to demonstrating pulleys, he first demonstrates class II levers (prior analysis of levers up until this section were class I levers). Again, Galileo demonstrates the class II lever in terms of moment, and shows that whatever is gained in force is lost in speed. In viewing a single fixed pulley system with a rope hanging about it vertically on both sides of the pulley, Galileo notes that the wheel of the pulley is essentially a lever with equal arms, which amounts to no mechanical advantage. He further notes that Aristotle "childishly deceived himself" into believing that larger pulley wheels provided a greater advantage than smaller pulley wheels. Instead, Galileo asserts that the only advantage that these simple pulleys offer is the convenience of not having to fight against our own bodies when lifting a weight: in lifting a weight with our arms, we must lift the weight itself along with the weight of our own arms; in contrast, the simple pulley allows us to use the weight of our own arms to pull the rope downwards. Thus, the


id: le-mecaniche-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche-7.md
category: reference
title: Le Mecaniche
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:46.380111+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: le-mecaniche-20260505-0
summary:
Galileo begins by stating that the theory he presents was originally attempted by Pappus of Alexandria in the eighth book of his Mathematical Collections; however, he argues that Pappus failed because he assumed that heavy bodies require an applied force in order to be moved along the horizontal, which Galileo asserts is false. In his construction, Galileo relies on a "bent lever" analogy for analyzing the inclined plane. As the bent lever suspending a weight is turned downward, its moment and its impetus to go down decrease as the lever increases its support of the weight along its radius. He then argues that this arrangement would be no different if the weight were instead placed on a circular surface such that the surface supports the weight instead of the radius of the lever – in both cases, the constrained path of the weight is the same. Thus, when the lever is straight (i.e., not bent), the weight exerts its maximum moment and would behave no differently if placed, unsuspended, against a vertical surface. If the lever is bent downward slightly, then the weight is partly sustained by the radius of the lever, or equivalently, partly sustained by the curved surface


id: le-mecaniche-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche-8.md
category: reference
title: Le Mecaniche
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:46.380111+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: le-mecaniche-20260505-0
summary:
Lastly, Galileo reminds us of the principle that applies to all mechanical instruments: whatever is gained in force is lost in time and speed. He demonstrates this principle with the screw, using an example of a weight raised on an inclined plane. Consider a weight placed on an inclined plane, and connected to the weight via an inextensible cord is a counterweight that hangs vertically over the edge of the plane. If the proportion of the force produced by the counterweight on the vertical to the weight on the incline is the same as the vertical elevation of the plane to the inclined length (here, Galileo is applying the ratio found in the previous section to construct an equilibrium condition for the two weights such that the reduced force of the weight on the inclined plane, which is now determinable from the ratio, is canceled by the equivalent opposing force of the counterweight; as described earlier, this arrangement is reducable to the bent lever analogy in which the counterweight is on one side of a lever while the other, heavier weight is on the bent side, such that the ratio of weights are inverse ratio to their horizontal distances from


id: lecture-notes-in-physics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lecture_Notes_in_Physics-0.md
category: reference
title: Lecture Notes in Physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lecture_Notes_in_Physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:47.617778+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lecture-notes-in-physics-20260505-0
summary:
Lecture Notes in Physics (LNP) is a book series published by Springer Science+Business Media in the field of physics, including articles related to both research and teaching. It was established in 1969. == See also == Lecture Notes in Computer Science Lecture Notes in Mathematics == External links == Official website


id: list-of-publications-in-physics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_physics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of publications in physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:48.844414+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-publications-in-physics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of publications in physics, organized by type. == General audience == List of books on popular physics concepts == Textbooks == List of textbooks on classical mechanics and quantum mechanics List of textbooks in electromagnetism List of textbooks on relativity List of textbooks in thermodynamics and statistical mechanics == Bibliographies by author == Max Born Albert Einstein John von Neumann Emmy Noether == Journals == List of physics journals List of fluid mechanics journals List of materials science journals List of mathematical physics journals


id: list-of-textbooks-on-relativity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_textbooks_on_relativity-0.md
category: reference
title: List of textbooks on relativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_textbooks_on_relativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:50.091729+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-textbooks-on-relativity-20260505-0
summary:
Textbooks on the theory of relativity have been published by several notable physicists and mathematicians: == Special relativity == The primary sources section of the latter article in particular contains many additional (early) publications of importance in the field. Lorentz, Hendrik (1892). "De relatieve beweging van de aarde en den aether". Zittingsverlag Akad. (in Dutch). 5 (1): 74–79. :For a translation see: s:Translation:The Relative Motion of the Earth and the Aether. Hendrik Lorentz was a major influence on Einstein's theory of special relativity. Lorentz laid the fundamentals for the work by Einstein and the theory was originally called the Lorentz-Einstein theory. After 1905 Lorentz wrote several papers on what he called "Einstein's principle of relativity". Einstein, Albert (1905-06-30). "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper" [On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies]. Annalen der Physik (in German). 17 (10): 891–921. Bibcode:1905AnP...322..891E. doi:10.1002/andp.19053221004. "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies". Translation by George Barker Jeffery and Wilfrid Perrett in The Principle of Relativity, London: Methuen and Company, Ltd. (1923) "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies". Translation by Megh Nad Saha in The Principle of Relativity: Original Papers by A. Einstein and H. Minkowski, University of Calcutta, 1920, pp. 1–34: :Introduced the special theory of relativity. Reconciled


id: the-meaning-of-relativity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Meaning_of_Relativity-0.md
category: reference
title: The Meaning of Relativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Meaning_of_Relativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:51.346439+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-meaning-of-relativity-20260505-0
summary:
The Meaning of Relativity: Four Lectures Delivered at Princeton University, May 1921 is a book published by Princeton University Press in 1922 that compiled the 1921 Stafford Little Lectures at Princeton University, given by Albert Einstein. The lectures were translated into English by Edwin Plimpton Adams. The lectures and the subsequent book were Einstein's last attempt to provide a comprehensive overview of his theory of relativity and is his only book that provides an accessible overview of the physics and mathematics of general relativity. Einstein explained his goal in the preface of the book's German edition by stating he "wanted to summarize the principal thoughts and mathematical methods of relativity theory" and that his "principal aim was to let the fundamentals in the entire train of thought of the theory emerge clearly". Among other reviews, the lectures were the subject of the 2017 book The Formative Years of Relativity: The History and Meaning of Einstein's Princeton Lectures by Hanoch Gutfreund and Jürgen Renn. == Background == The book contains four of Einstein's Stafford Little Lectures that were given at Princeton University in 1921. The lectures follow a series of 1915 publications by Einstein developing the theory of general relativity. During


id: m-canique-analytique-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mécanique_analytique-0.md
category: reference
title: Mécanique analytique
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mécanique_analytique
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:52.609931+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: m-canique-analytique-20260505-0
summary:
Mécanique analytique (1788–89) is a two volume French treatise on analytical mechanics, written by Joseph-Louis Lagrange, and published 101 years after Isaac Newton's Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica. == Treatise == It consolidated into one unified and harmonious system, the scattered developments of contributors such as Alexis Clairaut, Jean le Rond d'Alembert, Pierre-Simon Laplace, Leonhard Euler, and Johann and Jacob Bernoulli in the historical transition from geometrical methods, as presented in Newton's Principia, to the methods of the calculus. The treatise expounds a great labor-saving and thought-saving general analytical method by which every mechanical question may be stated in a single differential equation. Lagrange wrote that this work was entirely new and that his intent was to reduce the theory and the art of solving mechanics problems to general formulae, providing all the equations necessary for the solution of each problem. He stated that:No diagrams will be found in this work. The methods that I explain require neither geometrical, nor mechanical, constructions or reasoning, but only algebraical operations in accordance with regular and uniform procedure. Those who love Analysis will see with pleasure that Mechanics has become a branch of it, and will be grateful to me for having thus extended


id: metamaterials-handbook-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamaterials_Handbook-0.md
category: reference
title: Metamaterials Handbook
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamaterials_Handbook
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:53.868225+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: metamaterials-handbook-20260505-0
summary:
Metamaterials Handbook is a two-volume handbook on metamaterials edited by Filippo Capolino professor of electrical engineering in University of California. The series is designed to cover all theory and application topics related to electromagnetic metamaterials. Disciplines have combined to study, and develop electromagnetic metamaterials. Some of these disciplines are optics, physics, electromagnetic theory (including computational methods) microfabrication, microwaves, nanofabrication, nanotechnology, and nanochemistry. == Theory and Phenomena of Metamaterials == Theory and Phenomena of Metamaterials is the first volume of the Metamaterials Handbook. It contains contributions from researchers (scientists) who have produced accepted results in the field of metamaterials. Most of the contributors are associated with Metamorphose VI AISBL, a non-profit, European organization that focuses on artificial electromagnetic materials and metamaterials. Metamorphose provided access to the network of contributors (researchers) who work in a variety of scientific disciplines, involved with metamaterials This book is in an article review format, covering prior work in metamaterials. It focuses on theories underpinning metamaterial research along with the properties of metamaterials. The text covers all areas of metamaterial research. == Applications of Metamaterials == Applications of Metamaterials is the second volume of the Metamaterials Handbook. This book derives its organization for discussion of its topics


id: metamaterials-physics-and-engineering-explorations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamaterials:_Physics_and_Engineering_Explorations-0.md
category: reference
title: Metamaterials: Physics and Engineering Explorations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamaterials:_Physics_and_Engineering_Explorations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:55.065823+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: metamaterials-physics-and-engineering-explorations-20260505-0
summary:
Metamaterials: Physics and Engineering Explorations is a book length introduction to the fundamental research and advancements in electromagnetic composite substances known as electromagnetic metamaterials. The discussion encompasses examination of the physics of metamaterial interactions, the designs, and the perspectives of engineering regarding these materials. Also included throughout the book are potential applications, which are discussed at various points in each section of each chapter. The book encompasses a variety of theoretical, numerical, and experimental perspectives. This book has been cited by a few hundred other peer-reviewed research efforts, mostly peer-reviewed science articles. == Authors == Nader Engheta received his Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering (with a minor in Physics), in 1982 from the California Institute of Technology. Currently he is a Professor of Electrical and Systems Engineering, and Professor of Bioengineering at the University of Pennsylvania. His current research activities include metamaterials, plasmonics, nano-optics, nanophotonics, bio-inspired sensing and imaging, miniaturized antennas and nanoantennas. Richard W. Ziolkowski received both his M.S. and Ph.D. in physics, in 1975 and 1980, respectively from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Currently he has a dual appointment at the University of Arizona. He is a Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering, and a Professor of the


id: mit-radiation-laboratory-series-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Radiation_Laboratory_Series-0.md
category: reference
title: MIT Radiation Laboratory Series
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Radiation_Laboratory_Series
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:56.302812+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mit-radiation-laboratory-series-20260505-0
summary:
The MIT Radiation Laboratory Series is a 28-volume collection of technical books on microwave electronics and radar technology, published by McGraw-Hill between 1947 and 1951. Produced under the general editorship of Louis Ridenour, more than fifty volume editors, and hundreds of contributing authors and technical staff, the series documented research conducted at the MIT Radiation Laboratory during World War II. The volumes became foundational texts for postwar electronics, influencing the development of microwave engineering, control systems engineering, and semiconductor physics. Because the Series was produced with federal funds, its publication contract returned royalties to the United States Treasury and limited McGraw-Hill's copyright to ten years per volume, after which the content entered the public domain. The series is credited with disseminating wartime radar technology to academic and industrial researchers who would otherwise have lacked access to it. == Background == The MIT Radiation Laboratory, established in 1940, was the principal center for Allied microwave radar development during World War II. Over five years, the laboratory grew to employ nearly 4,000 people working on several continents. Half of all radar systems deployed by the U.S. military during the war were designed there, comprising over 100 different systems. MIT became the largest


id: mit-radiation-laboratory-series-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Radiation_Laboratory_Series-1.md
category: reference
title: MIT Radiation Laboratory Series
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Radiation_Laboratory_Series
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:56.302812+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mit-radiation-laboratory-series-20260505-0
summary:
=== Microwave technology === The series served as what Robert Buderi termed "the occupational bible for at least a generation of physicists and engineers studying microwave electronics." Writing fifty years after their publication, historian Louis Brown observed that volumes "would be found on the bookshelves of almost every electronics engineer and experimental physicist for more than a generation, indeed some are found there today and not just as mementos." Pierce's review praised the volume on klystrons and microwave triodes for including "valuable material, both experimental and theoretical, which is unavailable elsewhere," including treatments of close-spaced amplifiers and noise sidebands in reflex oscillators. The volume on microwave duplexers was noted as "surprisingly rich in material of general interest on waveguides and resonators." Buderi credits the series with preventing the concentration of wartime microwave knowledge within a single corporate laboratory and democratizing access to radar technology for academic, industrial, and government researchers. The techniques documented in the series found applications in postwar microwave spectroscopy and radio astronomy as well as continued radar development. === Control systems engineering === The volume Theory of Servomechanisms (1947) by Hubert M. James, Nathaniel B. Nichols, and Ralph S. Phillips became particularly influential in establishing control systems


id: opticks-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opticks-0.md
category: reference
title: Opticks
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opticks
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:57.483127+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: opticks-20260505-0
summary:
Opticks: or, A Treatise of the Reflexions, Refractions, Inflexions and Colours of Light is a collection of three books by Isaac Newton that was published in English in 1704 (a scholarly Latin translation appeared in 1706). The treatise analyses the fundamental nature of light by means of the refraction of light with prisms and lenses, the diffraction of light by closely spaced sheets of glass, and the behaviour of colour mixtures with spectral lights or pigment powders. Opticks was Newton's second major work on physical science and it is considered one of the three major works on optics during the Scientific Revolution (alongside Johannes Kepler's Astronomiae Pars Optica and Christiaan Huygens' Treatise on Light). == Overview == The publication of Opticks represented a major contribution to science, different from but in some ways rivalling the Principia, yet Newton's name did not appear on the cover page of the first edition. Opticks is largely a record of experiments and the deductions made from them, covering a wide range of topics in what was later to be known as physical optics. That is, this work is not a geometric discussion of catoptrics or dioptrics, the traditional subjects of reflection of light by


id: opticks-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opticks-1.md
category: reference
title: Opticks
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opticks
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:57.483127+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: opticks-20260505-0
summary:
Newton originally considered to write four books, but he dropped the last book on action at a distance. Instead he concluded Opticks with a set of unanswered questions and positive assertions referred to as queries in Book III. The first set of queries were brief, but the later ones became short essays, filling many pages. In the first edition, these were sixteen such queries; that number was increased to 23 in the Latin edition, published in 1706, and then in the revised English edition, published in 1717–18. In the fourth edition of 1730, there were 31 queries. These queries, especially the later ones, deal with a wide range of physical phenomena that go beyond the topic of optics. The queries concern the nature and transmission of heat; the possible cause of gravity; electrical phenomena; the nature of chemical action; the way in which God created matter; the proper way to do science; and even the ethical conduct of human beings. These queries are not really questions in the ordinary sense. These queries are almost all posed in the negative, as rhetorical questions. That is, Newton does not ask whether light "is" or "may be" a "body." Rather, he declares: "Is


id: the-order-of-time-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Order_of_Time_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: The Order of Time (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Order_of_Time_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:58.697289+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-order-of-time-book-20260505-0
summary:
The Order of Time (Italian: L'ordine del tempo) is a book by Italian physicist Carlo Rovelli, a specialist in quantum gravity research, about time in physics. An audiobook, four hours and nineteen minutes long, was read by Benedict Cumberbatch. == Contents == The Order of Time is divided into three sections, covering the theory of relativity, space-time, loop quantum gravity, and thermodynamics. The first section, The Crumbling of Time, opens with Rovelli explaining time, which is considered as a fourth dimension in space-time. He then discusses Ludwig Boltzmann's concept of entropy, which never decreases, and its role in thermodynamics and Bayesian probability theory, which Rovelli described as "the only equation of fundamental physics that knows any difference between past and future", and concluded that the direction of time is lost. In the second part, The World without Time, Rovelli writes that events constitute the universe instead of particles, and introduces the concept of quanta of time in loop quantum gravity. The final section, The Sources of Time, proposes that the apparent flow of time is due to the inability to observe all the microscopic details of the world. == Reception == Writing for The Guardian, Ian Thomson praised the "lucid"


id: phase-transitions-and-critical-phenomena-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_Transitions_and_Critical_Phenomena-0.md
category: reference
title: Phase Transitions and Critical Phenomena
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_Transitions_and_Critical_Phenomena
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:51:59.922655+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: phase-transitions-and-critical-phenomena-20260505-0
summary:
Phase Transitions and Critical Phenomena is a 20-volume series of books, comprising review articles on phase transitions and critical phenomena, published during 1972-2001. It is "considered the most authoritative series on the topic". Volumes 1-6 were edited by Cyril Domb and Melville S. Green, and after Green's death, volumes 7-20 were edited by Domb and Joel Lebowitz. Volume 4 was never published. Volume 5 was published in two volumes, as 5A and 5B. The first volume was praised for its coherent approach. While praised for its sound theoretical approach, the first volume remained at considerable distance from being able to explain experimental results in things like structural phase transitions. The second volume was praised for being well written, and was suggested as a standard reference. The third volume was also suggested as an index for researchers. == Contents == Volume 1: Exact Results (1972) ISBN 0122203011 'Introductory Note on Phase Transitions and Critical Phenomena', by C.N. Yang. 'Rigorous Results and Theorems', by R.B. Griffiths. 'Dilute Quantum Systems', by J. Ginibre. 'The C*-Algebraic Approach to Phase Transitions', by G.G. Emch. 'One-dimensional Models — Short Range Forces', by C.J. Thompson 'Two-dimensional Ising Models', by H.N.V. Temperley. 'Transformation of Ising Models', by I.


id: philosophi-naturalis-principia-mathematica-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-0.md
category: reference
title: Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:01.253670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophi-naturalis-principia-mathematica-20260505-0
summary:
Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (English: The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy), often called simply the Principia (), is a book by Sir Isaac Newton that expounds Newton's laws of motion and his law of universal gravitation. The Principia is written in Latin and comprises three volumes, and was authorized (imprimatur) by Samuel Pepys, then-President of the Royal Society on 5 July 1686 and first published in 1687. After annotating and correcting his personal copy of the first edition, Newton published two further editions, during 1713 with errors in the 1687 version corrected, and an improved version of 1726. The Principia forms a mathematical foundation for the theory of classical mechanics, and is generally considered to be one of the most important works in the history of science. It has been referred to as "the greatest scientific work in history" and "the supreme expression in human thought of the mind's ability to hold the universe fixed as an object of contemplation". In formulating his physical laws, Newton developed and used mathematical methods now included in the field of calculus, expressing them in the form of geometric propositions about "vanishingly small" shapes. In a revised conclusion to the Principia (see § General


id: philosophi-naturalis-principia-mathematica-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-1.md
category: reference
title: Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:01.253670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophi-naturalis-principia-mathematica-20260505-0
summary:
=== Book 2, part 2 of De motu corporum === Part of the contents originally planned for the first book was divided out into a second book, which largely concerns motion through resisting mediums. Just as Newton examined consequences of different conceivable laws of attraction in Book 1, here he examines different conceivable laws of resistance; thus Section 1 discusses resistance in direct proportion to velocity, and Section 2 goes on to examine the implications of resistance in proportion to the square of velocity. Through Book II, Newton was an important pioneer of fluid mechanics, and a later analysis showed that of its 53 propositions almost all are correct, with only two or three open to question. Book 2 discusses (in Section 5) hydrostatics and the properties of compressible fluids; he also derives Boyle's law (incorrectly; for an ideal gas is not like an elastic fluid). The effects of air resistance on pendulums are studied in Section 6, along with Newton's account of experiments that he carried out, to try to find out some characteristics of air resistance in reality by observing the motions of pendulums under different conditions. Newton compares the resistance offered by a medium against motions of


id: philosophi-naturalis-principia-mathematica-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-2.md
category: reference
title: Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:01.253670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophi-naturalis-principia-mathematica-20260505-0
summary:
Only I must observe, that the vulgar conceive those quantities under no other notions but from the relation they bear to perceptible objects. And it will be convenient to distinguish them into absolute and relative, true and apparent, mathematical and common. ... instead of absolute places and motions, we use relative ones; and that without any inconvenience in common affairs; but in philosophical discussions, we ought to step back from our senses, and consider things themselves, distinct from what are only perceptible measures of them. To some modern readers it can appear that some dynamical quantities recognised today were used in the Principia but not named. The mathematical aspects of the first two books were so clearly consistent that they were easily accepted; for example, John Locke asked Christiaan Huygens whether he could trust the mathematical proofs and was assured about their correctness. However, the concept of an attractive force acting at a distance received a cooler response. In his notes, Newton wrote that the inverse square law arose naturally due to the structure of matter. However, he retracted this sentence in the published version, where he stated that the motion of planets is consistent with an inverse square law,


id: philosophi-naturalis-principia-mathematica-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-3.md
category: reference
title: Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:01.253670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophi-naturalis-principia-mathematica-20260505-0
summary:
The General Scholium is a concluding essay added to the second edition, 1713 (and amended in the third edition, 1726). It is not to be confused with the General Scholium at the end of Book 2, Section 6, which discusses his pendulum experiments and resistance due to air, water, and other fluids. Here Newton used the expression hypotheses non fingo, "I formulate no hypotheses", in response to criticisms of the first edition of the Principia. ("Fingo" is sometimes nowadays translated "feign" rather than the traditional "frame," although "feign" does not properly translate "fingo"). Newton's gravitational attraction, an invisible force able to act over vast distances, had led to criticism that he had introduced "occult agencies" into science. Newton firmly rejected such criticisms and wrote that it was enough that the phenomena implied gravitational attraction, as they did; but the phenomena did not so far indicate the cause of this gravity, and it was both unnecessary and improper to frame hypotheses of things not implied by the phenomena: such hypotheses "have no place in experimental philosophy", in contrast to the proper way in which "particular propositions are inferr'd from the phenomena and afterwards rendered general by induction". Newton also underlined his


id: philosophi-naturalis-principia-mathematica-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-4.md
category: reference
title: Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:01.253670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophi-naturalis-principia-mathematica-20260505-0
summary:
=== Halley and Newton's initial stimulus === In January 1684, Edmond Halley, Christopher Wren and Robert Hooke had a conversation in which Hooke claimed to not only have derived the inverse-square law but also all the laws of planetary motion. Wren was unconvinced, Hooke did not produce the claimed derivation although the others gave him time to do it, and Halley, who could derive the inverse-square law for the restricted circular case (by substituting Kepler's relation into Huygens' formula for the centrifugal force) but failed to derive the relation generally, resolved to ask Newton. Halley's visits to Newton in 1684 thus resulted from Halley's debates about planetary motion with Wren and Hooke, and they seem to have provided Newton with the incentive and spur to develop and write what became Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. Halley was at that time a Fellow and Council member of the Royal Society in London (positions that in 1686 he resigned to become the Society's paid Clerk). Halley's visit to Newton in Cambridge in 1684 probably occurred in August. When Halley asked Newton's opinion on the problem of planetary motions discussed earlier that year between Halley, Hooke and Wren, Newton surprised Halley by saying that


id: philosophi-naturalis-principia-mathematica-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-5.md
category: reference
title: Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:01.253670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophi-naturalis-principia-mathematica-20260505-0
summary:
It is not known just why Newton changed his mind so radically about the final form of what had been a readable narrative in De motu corporum, Liber Secundus of 1685, but he largely started afresh in a new, tighter, and less accessible mathematical style, eventually to produce Book 3 of the Principia as we know it. Newton frankly admitted that this change of style was deliberate when he wrote that he had (first) composed this book "in a popular method, that it might be read by many", but to "prevent the disputes" by readers who could not "lay aside the[ir] prejudices", he had "reduced" it "into the form of propositions (in the mathematical way) which should be read by those only, who had first made themselves masters of the principles established in the preceding books". The final Book 3 also contained in addition some further important quantitative results arrived at by Newton in the meantime, especially about the theory of the motions of comets, and some of the perturbations of the motions of the Moon. The result was numbered Book 3 of the Principia rather than Book 2 because in the meantime, drafts of Liber primus had expanded and


id: philosophi-naturalis-principia-mathematica-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-6.md
category: reference
title: Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:01.253670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophi-naturalis-principia-mathematica-20260505-0
summary:
=== Newton's role === Newton had studied these books, or, in some cases, secondary sources based on them, and taken notes entitled Quaestiones quaedam philosophicae (Questions about philosophy) during his days as an undergraduate. During this period (1664–1666) he created the basis of calculus and performed the first experiments in the optics of colour. At this time, his proof that white light was a combination of primary colours (found via prismatics) replaced the prevailing theory of colours and received an overwhelmingly favourable response and occasioned bitter disputes with Robert Hooke and others, which forced him to sharpen his ideas to the point where he already composed sections of his later book Opticks by the 1670s in response. Work on calculus is shown in various papers and letters, including two to Leibniz. He became a fellow of the Royal Society and the second Lucasian Professor of Mathematics (succeeding Isaac Barrow) at Trinity College, Cambridge. === Newton's early work on motion === In the 1660s Newton studied the motion of colliding bodies and deduced that the centre of mass of two colliding bodies remains in uniform motion. Surviving manuscripts of the 1660s also show Newton's interest in planetary motion and that by


id: philosophi-naturalis-principia-mathematica-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-7.md
category: reference
title: Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:01.253670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophi-naturalis-principia-mathematica-20260505-0
summary:
=== Controversy with Hooke === Hooke published his ideas about gravitation in the 1660s and again in 1674. He argued for an attracting principle of gravitation in Micrographia of 1665, in a 1666 Royal Society lecture On gravity, and again in 1674, when he published his ideas about the System of the World in somewhat developed form, as an addition to An Attempt to Prove the Motion of the Earth from Observations. Hooke clearly postulated mutual attractions between the Sun and planets, in a way that increased with nearness to the attracting body, along with a principle of linear inertia. Hooke's statements up to 1674 made no mention, however, that an inverse square law applies or might apply to these attractions. Hooke's gravitation was also not yet universal, though it approached universality more closely than previous hypotheses. Hooke also did not provide accompanying evidence or mathematical demonstration. On these two aspects, Hooke stated in 1674: "Now what these several degrees [of gravitational attraction] are I have not yet experimentally verified" (indicating that he did not yet know what law the gravitation might follow); and as to his whole proposal: "This I only hint at present", "having my self many other


id: philosophi-naturalis-principia-mathematica-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-8.md
category: reference
title: Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:01.253670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophi-naturalis-principia-mathematica-20260505-0
summary:
== Location of early edition copies == It has been estimated that as many as 750 copies of the first edition were printed by the Royal Society, and "it is quite remarkable that so many copies of this small first edition are still in existence ... but it may be because the original Latin text was more revered than read". A survey published in 1953 located 189 surviving copies with nearly 200 further copies located by the most recent survey published in 2020, suggesting that the initial print run was larger than previously thought. However, more recent book historical and bibliographical research has examined those prior claims, and concludes that Macomber's earlier estimation of 500 copies is likely correct. Cambridge University Library has Newton's own copy of the first edition, with handwritten notes for the second edition. The Earl Gregg Swem Library at the College of William & Mary has a first edition copy of the Principia. Throughout are Latin annotations written by Thomas S. Savage. These handwritten notes are currently being researched at the college. The Frederick E. Brasch Collection of Newton and Newtoniana in Stanford University also has a first edition of the Principia. A first edition forms


id: philosophi-naturalis-principia-mathematica-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-9.md
category: reference
title: Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:01.253670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophi-naturalis-principia-mathematica-20260505-0
summary:
=== Third edition, 1726 === After his serious illness in 1722 and after the appearance of a reprint of the second edition in Amsterdam in 1723, the 80-year-old Newton began to revise once again the Principia in the autumn of 1723. The third edition was published 25 March 1726, under the stewardship of Henry Pemberton, M.D., a man of the greatest skill in these matters...; Pemberton later said that this recognition was worth more to him than the two hundred guinea award from Newton. In 1739–1742, two French priests, Pères Thomas LeSeur and François Jacquier (of the Minim order, but sometimes erroneously identified as Jesuits), produced with the assistance of J.-L. Calandrini an extensively annotated version of the Principia in the 3rd edition of 1726. Sometimes this is referred to as the Jesuit edition: it was much used, and reprinted more than once in Scotland during the 19th century. Émilie du Châtelet also made a translation of Newton's Principia into French. Unlike LeSeur and Jacquier's edition, hers was a complete translation of Newton's three books and their prefaces. She also included a Commentary section where she fused the three books into a much clearer and easier to understand summary. She


id: philosophi-naturalis-principia-mathematica-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-10.md
category: reference
title: Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:01.253670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophi-naturalis-principia-mathematica-20260505-0
summary:
In 1977, the spacecraft Voyager 1 and 2 left earth for the interstellar space carrying a picture of a page from Newton's Principia Mathematica, as part of the Golden Record, a collection of messages from humanity to extraterrestrials. In 2014, British astronaut Tim Peake named his upcoming mission to the International Space Station Principia after the book, in "honour of Britain's greatest scientist". Tim Peake's Principia launched on 15 December 2015 aboard Soyuz TMA-19M. == See also == Atomism Elements of the Philosophy of Newton Isaac Newton's occult studies == References == == Further reading == == External links == === Latin versions === First edition (1687) Trinity College Library, Cambridge High resolution digitised version of Newton's own copy of the first edition, with annotations. Cambridge University, Cambridge Digital Library High resolution digitised version of Newton's own copy of the first edition, interleaved with blank pages for his annotations and corrections. 1687: Newton's Principia, first edition (1687, in Latin). High-resolution presentation of the Gunnerus Library copy. 1687: Newton's Principia, first edition (1687, in Latin). Project Gutenberg. ETH-Bibliothek Zürich. From the library of Gabriel Cramer. Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica From the Rare Book and Special Collection Division at the Library of


id: photometria-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photometria-0.md
category: reference
title: Photometria
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photometria
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:02.445282+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: photometria-20260505-0
summary:
Photometria is a book on the measurement of light by Johann Heinrich Lambert published in 1760. It established a complete system of photometric quantities and principles; using them to measure the optical properties of materials, quantify aspects of vision, and calculate illumination. == Content of Photometria == Written in Latin, the title of the book is a word Lambert devised from Ancient Greek: φῶς, φωτος (transliterated phôs, photos) = light, and μετρια (transliterated metria) = measure. Lambert’s word has found its way into European languages as photometry, photometrie, and fotometria. Photometria was the first work to accurately identify most fundamental photometric concepts, assemble them into a coherent system of photometric quantities, define these quantities with a precision sufficient for mathematical statements, and build from them a system of photometric principles. These concepts, quantities, and principles are still in use today. Lambert began with two simple axioms: light travels in a straight line in a uniform medium and rays that cross do not interact. Like Kepler before him, he recognized that "laws" of photometry are simply consequences and follow directly from these two assumptions. In this way Photometria demonstrated (rather than assumed) that Illuminance varies inversely as the square of the


id: photometria-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photometria-1.md
category: reference
title: Photometria
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photometria
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:02.445282+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: photometria-20260505-0
summary:
== Nature of Photometria == Lambert's book is fundamentally experimental. The forty experiments described in Photometria were conducted by Lambert between 1755 and 1760, after he decided to write a treatise on light measurement. His interest in acquiring experimental data spanned several fields: optics, thermometry, pyrometry, hydrometry, and magnetics. This interest in experimental data and its analysis, so evident in Photometria, is also present in other articles and books Lambert produced. For his optics work, extremely limited equipment sufficed: a few panes of glass, convex and concave lenses, mirrors, prisms, paper and cardboard, pigments, candles, and the means to measure distances and angles. Lambert's book is also mathematical. Though he knew that the physical nature of light was unknown (it would be 150 years before the wave-particle duality was established) he was certain that light's interaction with materials and its effect on vision could be quantified. Mathematics was for Lambert not only indispensable for this quantification but also the indisputable sign of rigor. He used linear algebra and calculus extensively with matter-of-fact confidence that was uncommon in optical works of the time. On this basis, Photometria is certainly uncharacteristic of mid-18th century works. == Writing and publishing of Photometria ==


id: physica-speculatio-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physica_speculatio-0.md
category: reference
title: Physica speculatio
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physica_speculatio
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:03.680995+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physica-speculatio-20260505-0
summary:
Physica speculatio is a text of scientific character written by Alonso de la Vera Cruz in 1557 in the capital of New Spain. It was the first published work in the American continent that specifically addressed the study of physics, and was written to teach the students of the Real University of Mexico. It introduced the main theoretical concepts of geocentric astronomy and references the heliocentric model. Fray Alonso de la Vera Cruz published in the capital of New Spain a Course of Arts, constituted in three volumes in Latin. The first form in 1553 under the title of Recognitio Summularum, that had like purpose help to the students of the Real University of Mexico to understand the philosophy by means of the understanding of the formal logic. A year afterwards appeared the second called Dialectica Resolutio, that was a continuation of the previous. The last was Physica speculatio. They did four editions, the last 3 of which were for use of the salmantino students and were abbreviated versions of the Mexican one. == Subjects == The Physica speculatio has by object the study or "investigation" -speculatio- and the exhibition, in general, of subjects of physics on the nature -Physica-,


id: the-physical-principles-of-the-quantum-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Physical_Principles_of_the_Quantum_Theory-0.md
category: reference
title: The Physical Principles of the Quantum Theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Physical_Principles_of_the_Quantum_Theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:04.847312+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-physical-principles-of-the-quantum-theory-20260505-0
summary:
The Physical Principles of the Quantum Theory (German: Physikalischen Prinzipien der Quantentheorie publisher: S. Hirzel Verlag, 1930) by Nobel laureate (1932) Werner Heisenberg and subsequently translated by Carl Eckart and Frank C. Hoyt. The book was first published in 1930 by University of Chicago Press. Then in 1949, according to its copyright page, Dover Publications reprinted the "unabridged and unaltered" 1930's version. The book is collection of 1929 university lectures delivered at the University of Chicago by Heisenberg but with more detailed mathematics. The book discusses quantum mechanics and one 1931 review states that this is a "less technical and less involved account of the theor[y]". This book has been cited more than 2,000 times. In the book, after briefly discussing various theories, including quantum theory, Heisenberg discusses the basis for the fundamental concepts of quantum theory. Also by this time Heisenberg has stated, "the interaction between observer and object causes uncontrollable and large changes in the [atomic] system being observed...". In this work Heisenberg also discusses his uncertainty principle or uncertainty relations. == About the author == Werner Heisenberg (b. 1901 - d. 1976) was a renowned German theoretical physicist whose work pioneered and advanced quantum mechanics. He received


id: the-physics-of-blown-sand-and-desert-dunes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Physics_of_Blown_Sand_and_Desert_Dunes-0.md
category: reference
title: The Physics of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Physics_of_Blown_Sand_and_Desert_Dunes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:06.005728+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-physics-of-blown-sand-and-desert-dunes-20260505-0
summary:
The Physics of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes is a scientific book written by Ralph A. Bagnold. The book laid the foundations of the scientific investigation of the transport of sand by wind. It also discusses the formation and movement of sand dunes in the Libyan Desert. During his expeditions into the Libyan Desert, Bagnold had been fascinated by the shapes of the sand dunes, and after returning to England he built a wind tunnel and conducted the experiments which are the basis of the book. Bagnold finished writing the book in 1939, and it was first published on 26 June 1941. A reprinted version, with minor revisions by Bagnold, was published by Chapman and Hall in 1953, and reprinted again in 1971. The book was reissued by Dover Publications in 2005. The book explores the movement of sand in desert environments, with a particular emphasis on how wind affects the formation and movement of dunes and ripples. Bagnold's interest in this subject was spurred by his extensive desert expeditions, during which he observed various sand storms. One pivotal observation was that the movement of sand, unlike that of dust, predominantly occurs near the ground, within a height of one


id: plastic-fantastic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_Fantastic-0.md
category: reference
title: Plastic Fantastic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_Fantastic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:07.283385+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: plastic-fantastic-20260505-0
summary:
Plastic Fantastic: How the Biggest Fraud in Physics Shook the Scientific World is a 2009 book by U.S.-based science reporter Eugenie Samuel Reich. == Plot == In Plastic Fantastic, Reich investigates how Jan Hendrik Schön, a young physicist working in the field of advanced microelectronics at Bell Labs, was able to repeatedly fabricate scientific results to mislead his collaborators, journal editors, and the scientific community. The book is based on interviews with 126 scientists. The book carries ISBN 978-0-230-22467-4, and was initially published by Palgrave MacMillan. == See also == List of books about the politics of science The Great Betrayal: Fraud In Science Scientific misconduct == References ==


id: principles-of-philosophy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principles_of_Philosophy-0.md
category: reference
title: Principles of Philosophy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principles_of_Philosophy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:08.510611+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: principles-of-philosophy-20260505-0
summary:
Principles of Philosophy (Latin: Principia Philosophiae) is a book by the French philosopher and scientist René Descartes. In essence, it is a synthesis of the Discourse on Method and Meditations on First Philosophy. It was written in Latin, published in 1644 and dedicated to Elisabeth of Bohemia, with whom Descartes had a long-standing friendship. A French version (Les Principes de la Philosophie) followed in 1647. The book sets forth the principles of nature—the laws of physics—as Descartes viewed them. Most notably, it set forth the principle that in the absence of external forces, an object's motion will be uniform and in a straight line. Isaac Newton borrowed this principle from Descartes and included it in his own Principia; to this day, it is still generally referred to as Newton's first law of motion. The book was primarily intended to replace the Aristotelian curriculum then used in French and British universities. The work provides a systematic statement of his metaphysics and natural philosophy, and represents the first truly comprehensive, mechanistic account of the universe. == Contents == === Preface to the French edition === Descartes asked Abbot Claude Picot to translate his Latin Principia Philosophiae into French. For this edition, he


id: progress-in-optics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progress_in_Optics-0.md
category: reference
title: Progress in Optics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progress_in_Optics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:09.717700+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: progress-in-optics-20260505-0
summary:
Progress in Optics are a series of books published by Elsevier. Edited by Emil Wolf until his death in 2018, the series is now edited by Taco D. Visser. They consist of collections of already published review articles deemed to be representative of the advances made in the fields of optics. The series was established in 1962. == References == == External links == Official website


id: qed-the-strange-theory-of-light-and-matter-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QED:_The_Strange_Theory_of_Light_and_Matter-0.md
category: reference
title: QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QED:_The_Strange_Theory_of_Light_and_Matter
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:10.876978+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qed-the-strange-theory-of-light-and-matter-20260505-0
summary:
QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter is an adaptation for the general reader of four lectures on quantum electrodynamics (QED) published in 1985 by American physicist and Nobel laureate Richard Feynman. QED was designed to be a popular science book, written in a witty style, and containing just enough quantum-mechanical mathematics to allow the solving of very basic problems in quantum electrodynamics by an educated lay audience. It is unusual for a popular science book in the level of mathematical detail it goes into, actually allowing the reader to solve simple optics problems, as might be found in an actual textbook. But unlike in a typical textbook, the mathematics is taught in very simple terms, with no attempt to solve problems efficiently, use standard terminology, or facilitate further advancement in the field. The focus instead is on nurturing a basic conceptual understanding of what is really going on in such calculations. Complex numbers are taught, for instance, by asking the reader to imagine that there are tiny clocks attached to subatomic particles. The book was first published in 1985 by the Princeton University Press. == The book == In an acknowledgement Feynman wrote: This book purports to be


id: the-radiation-belt-and-magnetosphere-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Radiation_Belt_and_Magnetosphere-0.md
category: reference
title: The Radiation Belt and Magnetosphere
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Radiation_Belt_and_Magnetosphere
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:12.063654+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-radiation-belt-and-magnetosphere-20260505-0
summary:
The Radiation Belt and Magnetosphere is a book written by Wilmot Hess in 1968. The intention of the book is to amalgamate and sift through some 2500 articles, written since 1960, on this topic. == See also == Magnetosphere Van Allen radiation belt == Notes ==


id: radium-and-other-radioactive-substances-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radium,_and_Other_Radioactive_Substances-0.md
category: reference
title: Radium, and Other Radioactive Substances
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radium,_and_Other_Radioactive_Substances
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:13.256026+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: radium-and-other-radioactive-substances-20260505-0
summary:
Radium, and Other Radio-active Substances; Polonium, Actinium, and Thorium is a book published in 1903 by William Joseph Hammer, when he was about 50 years old. The book is the text of a lecture delivered at a meeting of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. The title of the lecture was "Radium and other radioactive substances with a consideration of phosphorescent and fluorescent substances. The properties and applications of selenium and the treatment of disease by the ultra violet light". The lecture was augmented by 38 lantern slides, which are reproduced in the book. == Subjects == === Radioactivity === In addition to the matters implied by the title of the lecture (radium, polonium, actinium and thorium), Hammer discusses: The work of Pierre and Marie Curie, Dewar, Roentgen, Henri Becquerel, Rutherford, J. J. Thomson and Kelvin Uranium Ores of various radioactive materials Alpha, beta, gamma and X-rays forms of radiation, including radiographs of mice made by the latter, and experiments into the lethal effects of X-rays and radioactive sources === Selenium === There are 21 pages devoted to "The properties and applications of selenium", including the use of its changing electrical resistance in different light levels. A quantitative measurement of


id: reflections-on-the-motive-power-of-fire-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Motive_Power_of_Fire-0.md
category: reference
title: Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Motive_Power_of_Fire
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:14.402767+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: reflections-on-the-motive-power-of-fire-20260505-0
summary:
Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire and on Machines Fitted to Develop that Power (French: Réflexions sur la puissance motrice du feu et sur les machines propres à développer cette puissance) is a scientific treatise written by the French military engineer Sadi Carnot. Published in 1824 in French, the short book (118 pages in the original) sought to advance a rational theory of heat engines. At the time, heat engines had acquired great technological and economic importance, but very little was understood about them from the point of view of physics. Carnot's Reflections is now widely regarded as a key document in the development of modern thermodynamics, and Carnot himself (who published nothing else during his lifetime) has often been identified as the "father of thermodynamics". The book introduced such concepts as thermodynamic efficiency, reversible processes, the thermodynamic cycle, and Carnot's theorem. == Overview == The book is considered the founding work of thermodynamics. It contains the preliminary outline of the second law of thermodynamics. Carnot stated that motive power is due to the fall of caloric (chute de calorique) from a hot to a cold body, which he analogized to the work done by a water wheel due


id: the-strangest-man-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Strangest_Man-0.md
category: reference
title: The Strangest Man
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Strangest_Man
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:16.685981+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-strangest-man-20260505-0
summary:
The Strangest Man: The Hidden Life of Paul Dirac, Quantum Genius is a 2009 biography of quantum physicist Paul Dirac written by British physicist and author, Graham Farmelo, and published by Faber and Faber. The book won the Biography Award at the 2009 Costa Book Awards, and the 2009 Los Angeles Times Book Prize for Science and Technology. The title is based on a comment by physicist Niels Bohr four years before his death that of all the scientists who had visited his institute, Dirac was "the strangest man". == Overview == Farmelo charts Dirac's life from his upbringing in early 20th-century Bristol, through his years in Cambridge, Göttingen and Princeton up until his death in 1984, and that of his wife 18 years later. Throughout the book, Dirac's work and his unusual personality is explored, with his reservedness, apparent lack of empathy, and relentless literal-mindedness leading way to several humorous anecdotes. For example, when approached by two graduate students, while on a brief visit to Berkeley, Dirac sat through a brief presentation about their work on quantum field theory, bracing themselves for his perceptive comments, there was a long silence, after which Dirac asked them "Where is the post


id: theory-of-colours-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours-0.md
category: reference
title: Theory of Colours
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:17.896676+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: theory-of-colours-20260505-0
summary:
Theory of Colours (German: Zur Farbenlehre, lit. 'On color theory') is a book by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe about the poet's views on the nature of colours and how they are perceived by humans. It was published in German in 1810 and in English in 1840. The book contains detailed descriptions of phenomena such as coloured shadows, refraction, and chromatic aberration. The book is a successor to two short essays titled "Contributions to Optics" (German: Beiträge zur Optik). The work originated in Goethe's occupation with painting and primarily had its influence in the arts, with painters such as (Philipp Otto Runge, J. M. W. Turner, the Pre-Raphaelites, Hilma af Klint, and Wassily Kandinsky). Although Goethe's work was rejected by some physicists, a number of philosophers and physicists have concerned themselves with it, including Thomas Johann Seebeck, Arthur Schopenhauer (see: On Vision and Colors), Hermann von Helmholtz, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Werner Heisenberg, Kurt Gödel, and Mitchell Feigenbaum. Goethe's book provides a catalogue of how colour is perceived in a wide variety of circumstances, and considers Isaac Newton's observations to be special cases. Unlike Newton, Goethe's concern was not so much with the analytic treatment of colour, as with the qualities of how


id: theory-of-colours-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours-1.md
category: reference
title: Theory of Colours
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:17.896676+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: theory-of-colours-20260505-0
summary:
== Goethe's theory == Goethe's theory of the constitution of colours of the spectrum has not proved to be an unsatisfactory theory, rather it really isn't a theory at all. Nothing can be predicted with it. It is, rather a vague schematic outline of the sort we find in James's psychology. Nor is there any experimentum crucis which could decide for or against the theory. It is hard to present Goethe's "theory", since he refrains from setting up any actual theory; he says, "its intention is to portray rather than explain" (Scientific Studies). Instead of setting up models and explanations, Goethe collected specimens—he was responsible for the meteorological collections of Jena University. By the time of his death, he had amassed over 17,800 minerals in his personal collection—the largest in all of Europe. He took the same approach to colour—instead of narrowing and isolating things to a single 'experimentum crucis' (or critical experiment that would prove or disprove his theory), he sought to gain as much breadth for his understanding as possible by developing a wide-ranging exposition through which is revealed the essential character of colour—without having to resort to explanations and theories about perceived phenomena such as 'wavelengths' or


id: theory-of-colours-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours-2.md
category: reference
title: Theory of Colours
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:17.896676+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: theory-of-colours-20260505-0
summary:
The highest degree of light, such as that of the sun... is for the most part colourless. This light, however, seen through a medium but very slightly thickened, appears to us yellow. If the density of such a medium be increased, or if its volume become greater, we shall see the light gradually assume a yellow-red hue, which at last deepens to a ruby colour. If on the other hand darkness is seen through a semi-transparent medium, which is itself illumined by a light striking on it, a blue colour appears: this becomes lighter and paler as the density of the medium is increased, but on the contrary appears darker and deeper the more transparent the medium becomes: in the least degree of dimness short of absolute transparence, always supposing a perfectly colourless medium, this deep blue approaches the most beautiful violet. He then proceeds with numerous experiments, systematically observing the effects of rarefied mediums such as dust, air, and moisture on the perception of colour. === Boundary conditions === When viewed through a prism, the orientation of a light–dark boundary with respect to the prism's axis is significant. With white above a dark boundary, we observe the light extending


id: theory-of-colours-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours-3.md
category: reference
title: Theory of Colours
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:17.896676+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: theory-of-colours-20260505-0
summary:
It is not clear how Goethe's Rot, Purpur (explicitly named as the complementary to green), and Schön (one of the six colour sectors) are related between themselves and to the red tip of the visible spectrum. The text about interference from the "physical" chapter does not consider Rot and Purpur synonymous. Also, Purpur is certainly distinct from Blaurot, because Purpur is named as a colour which lies somewhere between Blaurot and Gelbrot (, paragraph 476), although possibly not adjacent to the latter. This article uses the English translations from the above table. == Newton and Goethe == Ernst Lehrs writes, "In point of fact, the essential difference between Goethe's theory of colour and the theory which has prevailed in science (despite all modifications) since Newton's day, lies in this: While the theory of Newton and his successors was based on excluding the colour-seeing faculty of the eye, Goethe founded his theory on the eye's experience of colour." "The renouncing of life and immediacy, which was the premise for the progress of natural science since Newton, formed the real basis for the bitter struggle which Goethe waged against the physical optics of Newton. It would be superficial to dismiss this struggle


id: theory-of-colours-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours-4.md
category: reference
title: Theory of Colours
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:17.896676+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: theory-of-colours-20260505-0
summary:
=== Influence on philosophers === In the nineteenth century Goethe's Theory was taken up by Schopenhauer in On Vision and Colors, who developed it into a kind of arithmetical physiology of the action of the retina, much in keeping with his own representative idealism ["The world is my representation or idea"]. In the twentieth century the theory was transmitted to philosophy via Ludwig Wittgenstein, who devoted a series of remarks to the subject at the end of his life. These remarks are collected as Remarks on Colour, (Wittgenstein, 1977). Someone who agrees with Goethe finds that Goethe correctly recognized the nature of colour. And here ‘nature’ does not mean a sum of experiences with respect to colours, but it is to be found in the concept of colour. Wittgenstein was interested in the fact that some propositions about colour are apparently neither empirical nor exactly a priori, but something in between: phenomenology, according to Goethe. However, Wittgenstein took the line that 'There is no such thing as phenomenology, though there are phenomenological problems.' He was content to regard Goethe's observations as a kind of logic or geometry. Wittgenstein took his examples from the Runge letter included in the "Farbenlehre", e.g.


id: theory-of-colours-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours-5.md
category: reference
title: Theory of Colours
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:17.896676+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: theory-of-colours-20260505-0
summary:
=== Current status === "Newton believed that with the help of his prism experiments, he could prove that sunlight was composed of variously coloured rays of light. Goethe showed that this step from observation to theory is more problematic than Newton wanted to admit. By insisting that the step to theory is not forced upon us by the phenomena, Goethe revealed our own free, creative contribution to theory construction. And Goethe's insight is surprisingly significant, because he correctly claimed that all of the results of Newton's prism experiments fit a theoretical alternative equally well.. a century before Duhem and Quine's famous arguments for Underdetermination." "Goethe's critique of Newton was not an attack on reason or science, though it has often been portrayed that way.. The critique maintained that Newton had mistaken mathematical imagining as the pure evidence of the senses.. Goethe tried to define the scientific function of imagination: to interrelate phenomena once they have been meticulously produced, described, and organized... Newton had introduced dogma.. into color science by claiming that color could be reduced to a function of rays." (Dennis L. Sepper, 2009) Goethe started out by accepting Newton's physical theory. He soon abandoned it... finding modification to be


id: trait-de-m-canique-c-leste-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traité_de_mécanique_céleste-0.md
category: reference
title: Traité de mécanique céleste
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traité_de_mécanique_céleste
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:19.106731+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: trait-de-m-canique-c-leste-20260505-0
summary:
Traité de mécanique céleste (transl. "Treatise of celestial mechanics") is a five-volume treatise on celestial mechanics written by Pierre-Simon Laplace and published from 1798 to 1825 with a second edition in 1829. In 1842, the government of Louis Philippe gave a grant of 40,000 francs for a 7-volume national edition of the Oeuvres de Laplace (1843–1847); the Traité de mécanique céleste with its four supplements occupies the first 5 volumes. Newton laid the foundations of Celestial Mechanics, at the close of the seventeenth century, by the discovery of the principle of universal gravitation. Even in his own hands, this discovery led to important consequences, but it has required a century and a half, and a regular succession of intellects the most powerful, to fill up the outline sketched by him. Of these, Laplace himself was the last, and, perhaps after Newton, the greatest; and the task commenced in the Principia of the former, is completed in the Mécanique Céleste of the latter. In this last named work, the illustrious author has proposed to himself his object, to unite all the theories scattered throughout the various channels of publication, employed by his predecessors, to reduce them to one common method, and


id: trait-de-m-canique-c-leste-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traité_de_mécanique_céleste-1.md
category: reference
title: Traité de mécanique céleste
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traité_de_mécanique_céleste
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:19.106731+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: trait-de-m-canique-c-leste-20260505-0
summary:
The first four volumes of Dr. Bowditch's Translation and Commentary were published successively, in 1828, 1832, 1834, and 1839, at the sacrifice of one quarter of his whole property. The expense was largely increased by the voluminous commentary. This was really of the nature of an original work, and was rendered necessary by the frequent gaps which Laplace had left in his own publication. Mr. N. I. Bowditch says, in his biography of his father, that Dr. Bowditch was accustomed to remark, "Whenever I meet in Laplace with the words, Thus it plainly appears, I am sure that hours, and perhaps days, of hard study will alone enable me to discover how it plainly appears." Bowditch's translation of the first four volumes of Laplace's Traité de mécanique céleste was completed by 1818 but he would not publish it for many years. Almost certainly the cost of publication caused the delay, but Bowditch did not just put the work on one side after 1818 but continued to improve it over the succeeding years. Bowditch was helped by Benjamin Peirce in this project and his commentaries doubled the length of the book. His purpose was more than just an English translation. He


id: a-treatise-on-electricity-and-magnetism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Treatise_on_Electricity_and_Magnetism-0.md
category: reference
title: A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Treatise_on_Electricity_and_Magnetism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:20.339919+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: a-treatise-on-electricity-and-magnetism-20260505-0
summary:
A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism is a two-volume treatise on electromagnetism written by James Clerk Maxwell in 1873. Maxwell was revising the Treatise for a second edition when he died in 1879. The revision was completed by William Davidson Niven for publication in 1881. A third edition was prepared by J. J. Thomson for publication in 1892. The treatise is said to be notoriously hard to read, containing plenty of ideas but lacking both the clear focus and orderliness that may have allowed it catch on more easily. It was noted by one historian of science that Maxwell's attempt at a comprehensive treatise on all of electrical science tended to bury the important results of his work under "long accounts of miscellaneous phenomena discussed from several points of view". He goes on to say that, outside the treatment of the Faraday effect, Maxwell failed to expound on his earlier work, especially the generation of electromagnetic waves and the derivation of the laws governing reflection and refraction. Maxwell introduced the use of vector fields, and his labels have been perpetuated: A (vector potential), B (magnetic induction), C (electric current), D (displacement), E (electric field – Maxwell's electromotive intensity), F (mechanical


id: a-treatise-on-electricity-and-magnetism-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Treatise_on_Electricity_and_Magnetism-1.md
category: reference
title: A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Treatise_on_Electricity_and_Magnetism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:20.339919+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: a-treatise-on-electricity-and-magnetism-20260505-0
summary:
Hermann von Helmholtz (1881): "Now that the mathematical interpretations of Faraday's conceptions regarding the nature of electric and magnetic force has been given by Clerk Maxwell, we see how great a degree of exactness and precision was really hidden behind Faraday's words...it is astonishing in the highest to see what a large number of general theories, the mechanical deduction of which requires the highest powers of mathematical analysis, he has found by a kind of intuition, with the security of instinct, without the help of a single mathematical formula." Oliver Heaviside (1893):”What is Maxwell's theory? The first approximation is to say: There is Maxwell's book as he wrote it; there is his text, and there are his equations: together they make his theory. But when we come to examine it closely, we find that this answer is unsatisfactory. To begin with, it is sufficient to refer to papers by physicists, written say during the first twelve years following the first publication of Maxwell's treatise to see that there may be much difference of opinion as to what his theory is. It may be, and has been, differently interpreted by different men, which is a sign that is not set forth


id: a-treatise-on-electricity-and-magnetism-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Treatise_on_Electricity_and_Magnetism-2.md
category: reference
title: A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Treatise_on_Electricity_and_Magnetism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:20.339919+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: a-treatise-on-electricity-and-magnetism-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == Achard, F. (1 January 2005), Grattan-Guinness, I.; Cooke, Roger; Corry, Leo; Crépel, Pierre (eds.), "Chapter 44 - James Clerk Maxwell, A treatise on electricity and magnetism, first edition (1873)", Landmark Writings in Western Mathematics 1640-1940, Amsterdam: Elsevier Science, pp. 564–587, ISBN 978-0-444-50871-3, retrieved 12 October 2020{{citation}}: CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN (link) Levin, M. L.; Miller, M. A. (30 November 1981). "Maxwell's "Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism"". Soviet Physics Uspekhi. 24 (11): 904. doi:10.1070/PU1981v024n11ABEH004793. ISSN 0038-5670. Chrystal, G. (January 1882). "A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism An Elementary Treatise on Electricity". Nature. 25 (637): 237–240. Bibcode:1882Natur..25..237C. doi:10.1038/025237a0. ISSN 1476-4687. S2CID 41145395. == External links == Media related to A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism at Wikimedia Commons Reprint from Dover Publications (ISBN 0-486-60636-8) A Treatise on Electricity And Magnetism – Volume 1 – 1873 – Posner Memorial Collection – Carnegie Mellon University. Volume 2 A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism at Internet Archive 1st edition 1873 Volume 1, Volume 2 2nd edition 1881 Volume 1, Volume 2 3rd edition 1892 (ed. J. J. Thomson) Volume 1, Volume 2 3rd edition 1892 (Dover reprint 1954) Volume 1, Volume 2 Original Maxwell Equations – Maxwell's 20 Equations


id: treatise-on-light-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Light-0.md
category: reference
title: Treatise on Light
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Light
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:21.570998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: treatise-on-light-20260505-0
summary:
Treatise on Light: In Which Are Explained the Causes of That Which Occurs in Reflection & Refraction (French: Traité de la Lumière: Où sont expliquées les causes de ce qui luy arrive dans la reflexion & dans la refraction) is a book written by Dutch polymath Christiaan Huygens that was published in French in 1690. The book describes Huygens's conception of the nature of light propagation which makes it possible to explain the laws of geometrical optics shown in Descartes's La Dioptrique, which Huygens aimed to replace. Unlike Newton's corpuscular theory, which was presented in the Opticks, Huygens conceived of light as an irregular series of shock waves which proceeds with very great, but finite, velocity through the ether, similar to sound waves. Moreover, he proposed that each point of a wavefront is itself the origin of a secondary spherical wave, a principle known today as the Huygens–Fresnel principle. The book is considered a pioneering work of theoretical and mathematical physics and the first mechanistic account of an unobservable physical phenomenon. == Overview == Huygens worked on the mathematics of light rays and the properties of refraction in his work Dioptrica, which began in 1652 but remained unpublished, and which


id: treatise-on-light-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Light-1.md
category: reference
title: Treatise on Light
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Light
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:21.570998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: treatise-on-light-20260505-0
summary:
=== Remainder of the book === Chapter two briefly treats reflection while chapters three and four explore refraction. Huygens carefully explains the differences between transparent and opaque media in terms of their particulate composition, specifically exploring atmospheric refraction. Chapter five addresses the strange refraction of the Iceland crystal. Huygens cuts a piece of the crystal and studies the geometry of light propagation inside it before guiding the reader through a series of step-by-step empirical investigations. His explanation of strange refraction is based on the properties of the ordinary ray and the extraordinary ray. The ordinary ray has a spherical wavefront due to a constant refractive index, which is independent of the propagation direction inside the crystal, having the same velocity in all directions. The extraordinary ray, on the other hand, has an ellipsoidal wavefront due to its refractive index, which varies with the propagation direction within the crystal, leading to different velocities in different directions. Thus, when light travels through the crystal, it breaks into two wave surfaces that follow distinct paths within it, resulting in two refracted rays being observed. The series of step-by-step investigations that follow were meant to corroborate Huygens' explanation of strange refraction. They were prompted


id: treatise-on-natural-philosophy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Natural_Philosophy-0.md
category: reference
title: Treatise on Natural Philosophy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Natural_Philosophy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:22.745473+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: treatise-on-natural-philosophy-20260505-0
summary:
Treatise on Natural Philosophy was an 1867 text book by William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin) and Peter Guthrie Tait, published by Oxford University Press. The Treatise was often referred to as T {\displaystyle T} and T 1 {\displaystyle T^{1}} , as explained by Alexander Macfarlane: Maxwell had facetiously referred to Thomson as T {\displaystyle T} and Tait as T 1 {\displaystyle T^{1}} . Hence the Treatise on Natural Philosophy came to be commonly referred to as T {\displaystyle T} and T 1 {\displaystyle T^{1}} in conversation with mathematicians. == Reception == The first volume was received by an enthusiastic review in Saturday Review: The grand result of all concurrent research in modern times has been to confirm what was but perhaps a dream of genius, or an instinct of the keen Greek intellect, that all the operations of nature are rooted and grounded in number and figure. The Treatise was also reviewed as Elements of Natural Philosophy (1873). Thomson & Tait's Treatise on Natural Philosophy was reviewed by J. C. Maxwell in Nature of 3 July 1879 indicating the importance given to kinematics: "The guiding idea … is that geometry itself is part of the science of motion." In 1892


id: treatise-on-radioactivity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Radioactivity-0.md
category: reference
title: Treatise on Radioactivity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Radioactivity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:23.941632+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: treatise-on-radioactivity-20260505-0
summary:
Treatise on Radioactivity (French: Traité de Radioactivité) is a two-volume 1910 book written by the Polish scientist Marie Curie as a survey on the subject of radioactivity. She was awarded her second Nobel Prize in the following year after the publication of the book. The book, which was dedicated to her newly deceased collaborator and husband Pierre Curie, has been described as "a classic synthesis of current research on radioactivity by scientists of the early 20th century." It was published by the Paris publisher Gauthier-Villars. == References == == External links ==


id: the-trouble-with-gravity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Trouble_with_Gravity-0.md
category: reference
title: The Trouble with Gravity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Trouble_with_Gravity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:25.231213+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-trouble-with-gravity-20260505-0
summary:
The Trouble with Gravity: Solving the Mystery Beneath Our Feet is a nonfiction popular science book by Richard Panek and published by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt on July 9, 2019. == Content == The book begins its first chapter by discussing ancient history and old beliefs regarding gravity and what lies above. This includes a discussion of belief in gods and how those religious views were shaped by the existence of gravity and its prevalence on living beings and all matter. The topics of Mount Olympus and stories among Aboriginal cultures in Australia are discussed in how the sky is believed to be separate from the earth and creates a separation between humans and the divine. The book points out that gravity was often seen in such context as something that only affects people on Earth and not as a universal force. Authors and those more on the philosophical end of the topic are also considered, including Dante Alighieri and Ernst Mach. The second chapter investigates how gravity formed from the beginning of the universe and also how the Big Bang may have created a large number of parallel universes and that gravity is not sourced in our universe, but is


id: two-new-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences-0.md
category: reference
title: Two New Sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:26.487700+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: two-new-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
The Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences (Italian: Discorsi e dimostrazioni matematiche intorno a due nuove scienze pronounced [diˈskorsi e ddimostratˈtsjoːni mateˈmaːtike inˈtorno a dˈduːe ˈnwɔːve ʃˈʃɛntse]) published in 1638 was Galileo Galilei's final book and a scientific testament covering much of his work in physics over the preceding thirty years. It was written partly in Italian and partly in Latin. After his Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, the Roman Inquisition had banned the publication of any of Galileo's works, including any he might write in the future. After the failure of his initial attempts to publish Two New Sciences in France, Germany, and Poland, it was published by Lodewijk Elzevir who was working in Leiden, South Holland, where the writ of the Inquisition was of less consequence (see House of Elzevir). Fra Fulgenzio Micanzio, the official theologian of the Republic of Venice, had initially offered to help Galileo publish the new work there, but he pointed out that publishing the Two New Sciences in Venice might cause Galileo unnecessary trouble; thus, the book was eventually published in Holland. Galileo did not seem to suffer any harm from the Inquisition for publishing this book since


id: two-new-sciences-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences-1.md
category: reference
title: Two New Sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:26.487700+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: two-new-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
=== Day one: Resistance of bodies to separation === [50] Preliminary discussions. Sagredo (taken to be the younger Galileo) cannot understand why with machines one cannot argue from the small to the large: "I do not see that the properties of circles, triangles and...solid figures should change with their size". Salviati (speaking for Galileo) says the common opinion is wrong. Scale matters: a horse falling from a height of 3 or 4 cubits will break its bones whereas a cat falling from twice the height won't, nor will a grasshopper falling from a tower. [56] The first example is a hemp rope which is constructed from small fibres which bind together in the same way as a rope round a windlass to produce something much stronger. Then the vacuum that prevents two highly polished plates from separating even though they slide easily gives rise to an experiment to test whether water can be expanded or whether a vacuum is caused. In fact, Sagredo had observed that a suction pump could not lift more than 18 cubits of water and Salviati observes that the weight of this is the amount of resistance to a void. The discussion turns to the strength


id: two-new-sciences-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences-2.md
category: reference
title: Two New Sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:26.487700+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: two-new-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
=== Day three: Naturally accelerated motion === [191] He first defines uniform (steady) motion and shows the relationship between speed, time and distance. He then defines uniformly accelerated motion where the speed increases by the same amount in increments of time. Falling bodies start very slowly and he sets out to show that their velocity increases in simple proportionality to time, not to distance which he shows is impossible. [208] He shows that the distance travelled in naturally accelerated motion is proportional to the square of the time. He describes an experiment in which a steel ball was rolled down a groove in a piece of wooden moulding 12 cubits long (about 5.5m) with one end raised by one or two cubits. This was repeated, measuring times by accurately weighing the amount of water that came out of a thin pipe in a jet from the bottom of a large jug of water. By this means he was able to verify the uniformly accelerated motion. He then shows that whatever the inclination of the plane, the square of the time taken to fall a given vertical height is proportional to the inclined distance. [221] He next considers descent along the


id: two-new-sciences-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences-3.md
category: reference
title: Two New Sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:26.487700+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: two-new-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
=== The motion of objects === Galileo expresses clearly for the first time the constant acceleration of a falling body which he was able to measure accurately by slowing it down using an inclined plane. In Two New Sciences, Galileo (Salviati speaks for him) used a wood molding, "12 cubits long, half a cubit wide and three finger-breadths thick" as a ramp with a straight, smooth, polished groove to study rolling balls ("a hard, smooth and very round bronze ball"). He lined the groove with "parchment, also smooth and polished as possible". He inclined the ramp at various angles, effectively slowing down the acceleration enough so that he could measure the elapsed time. He would let the ball roll a known distance down the ramp, and use a water clock to measure the time taken to move the known distance. This clock was a large vessel of water placed in an elevated position; to the bottom of this vessel was soldered a pipe of small diameter giving a thin jet of water, which we collected in a small glass during the time of each descent, whether for the whole length of the channel or for a part of its length.


id: two-new-sciences-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences-4.md
category: reference
title: Two New Sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:26.487700+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: two-new-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
Yet at the outset we said there are many more numbers than squares, since the larger portion of them are not squares. Not only so, but the proportionate number of squares diminishes as we pass to larger numbers. (In modern language, there is a bijection between the set of positive integers N and the set of squares S, and S is a proper subset of N of density zero.) He resolves the contradiction by denying the possibility of comparing infinite numbers (and of comparing infinite and finite numbers): We can only infer that the totality of all numbers is infinite, that the number of squares is infinite, and that the number of their roots is infinite; neither is the number of squares less than the totality of all numbers, nor the latter greater than the former; and finally the attributes "equal", greater", and "less", are not applicable to infinite, but only to finite, quantities. This conclusion, that ascribing sizes to infinite sets should be ruled impossible, owing to the contradictory results obtained from these two ostensibly natural ways of attempting to do so, is a resolution to the problem that is consistent with, but less powerful than, the methods used


id: two-new-sciences-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences-5.md
category: reference
title: Two New Sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:26.487700+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: two-new-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
== References == Drake, Stillman, translator (1974). Two New Sciences, University of Wisconsin Press, 1974. ISBN 0-299-06404-2. A new translation including sections on centers of gravity and the force of percussion. Drake, Stillman (1978). Galileo At Work. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-16226-3. Henry Crew and Alfonso de Salvio, translators, [1914] (1954). Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences, Dover Publications Inc., New York, NY. ISBN 978-0-486-60099-4. The classic source in English, originally published by McMillan (1914). Jones, Howard, "Gassendi's Defense of Galileo: The Politics of Discretion", Medieval Renaissance Texts and Studies 58, 1988. Titles of the first editions taken from Leonard C. Bruno 1989, The Landmarks of Science: from the Collections of the Library of Congress. ISBN 0-8160-2137-6 Q125.B87 Galileo Galilei, Discorsi e dimostrazioni matematiche intorno a due nuove scienze attinenti la meccanica e i movimenti locali (pag.664, of Claudio Pierini) publication Cierre, Simeoni Arti Grafiche, Verona, 2011, ISBN 9788895351049. Wallace, Willian, A. Galileo and Reasoning Ex Suppositione: The Methodology of the Two New Sciences. PSA: Proceedings of the Biennial Meeting of the Philosophy of Science Association, Vol. 1974, (1974), pp. 79–104 Salvia, Stafano (2014). "'Galileo's Machine': Late Notes on Free Fall, Projectile Motion, and the Force of Percussion (ca.


id: what-is-life-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Is_Life-0.md
category: reference
title: What Is Life?
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Is_Life?
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:27.710753+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: what-is-life-20260505-0
summary:
What Is Life? The Physical Aspect of the Living Cell is a 1944 science book written for the lay reader by the physicist Erwin Schrödinger. The book was based on a course of public lectures delivered by Schrödinger in February 1943, under the auspices of the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, where he was Director of Theoretical Physics, at Trinity College, Dublin. The lectures attracted an audience of about 400, who were warned "that the subject-matter was a difficult one and that the lectures could not be termed popular, even though the physicist’s most dreaded weapon, mathematical deduction, would hardly be utilized." Schrödinger's lecture focused on one important question: "how can the events in space and time which take place within the spatial boundary of a living organism be accounted for by physics and chemistry?" In the book, Schrödinger introduced the idea of an "aperiodic solid" that contained genetic information in its configuration of covalent chemical bonds. In the 1940s, this idea stimulated enthusiasm for discovering the chemical basis of genetic inheritance. Although the existence of some form of hereditary information had been hypothesized since 1869, its role in reproduction and its helical shape were still unknown at the time


id: what-is-life-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Is_Life-1.md
category: reference
title: What Is Life?
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Is_Life?
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:27.710753+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: what-is-life-20260505-0
summary:
The lectures may be regarded as “the most important and exciting thing to happen in Trinity in all of the six dark years of wartime.” Time magazine reported that “Only in the precarious peace of Eire could Europe today provide such a spectacle. At Dublin’s Trinity College last month crowds were turned away from a jampacked scientific lecture. Cabinet ministers, diplomats, scholars and socialites loudly applauded a slight, Vienna-born professor of physics. Erwin Schrödinger was speaking on the subject ‘What Is Life?’.” Trinity College now commemorates the lectures in various ways: an annual “What is Life?” Lecture (inaugurated in 1995) and usually delivered in the Physics Lecture Theatre honours the 1943 series; in 2018 the 75th-anniversary conference “Schrödinger at 75: The Future of Biology” was organised. The Trinity Library also produced an exhibition celebrating Schrödinger’s Dublin years and the impact of the lectures. == Background == Max Delbrück's thinking about the physical basis of life was an important influence on Schrödinger. However, long before the publication of What is Life?, the American geneticist Hermann J. Muller, who would later win a Nobel Prize in 1946, had in his 1922 article "Variation due to Change in the Individual Gene" already laid


id: what-is-life-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Is_Life-2.md
category: reference
title: What Is Life?
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Is_Life?
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:27.710753+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: what-is-life-20260505-0
summary:
Schrödinger concludes this chapter and the book with philosophical speculations on determinism, free will, and the mystery of human consciousness. He attempts to "see whether we cannot draw the correct non-contradictory conclusion from the following two premises: (1) My body functions as a pure mechanism according to Laws of Nature; and (2) Yet I know, by incontrovertible direct experience, that I am directing its motions, of which I foresee the effects, that may be fateful and all-important, in which case I feel and take full responsibility for them. The only possible inference from these two facts is, I think, that I – I in the widest meaning of the word, that is to say, every conscious mind that has ever said or felt 'I' – am the person, if any, who controls the 'motion of the atoms' according to the Laws of Nature". Schrödinger then states that this insight is not new and that the Upanishads considered this insight of "ATMAN = BRAHMAN" to "represent quintessence of deepest insights into the happenings of the world." Schrödinger rejects the idea that the source of consciousness should perish with the body because he finds the idea "distasteful". He also rejects the idea


id: the-world-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: The World (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:28.912689+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-world-book-20260505-0
summary:
The World, also called Treatise on the Light (French title: Traité du monde et de la lumière), is a book by René Descartes (1596–1650). Written between 1629 and 1633, it contains a nearly complete version of his philosophy, from method, to metaphysics, to physics and biology. Descartes espoused mechanical philosophy, a form of natural philosophy popular in the 17th century. He thought everything physical in the universe to be made of tiny "corpuscles" of matter. Corpuscularianism is closely related to atomism. The main difference was that Descartes maintained that there could be no vacuum, and all matter was constantly swirling to prevent a void as corpuscles moved through other matter. The World presents a corpuscularian cosmology in which swirling vortices explain, among other phenomena, the creation of the Solar System and the circular motion of planets around the Sun. The World rests on the heliocentric view, first explicated in Western Europe by Copernicus. Descartes delayed the book's release upon news of the Roman Inquisition's conviction of Galileo for "suspicion of heresy" and sentencing to house arrest. Descartes discussed his work on the book, and his decision not to release it, in letters with another philosopher, Marin Mersenne. Some material from


id: the-world-book-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_(book)-1.md
category: reference
title: The World (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:28.912689+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-world-book-20260505-0
summary:
Descartes elaborates on how the universe could have started from utter chaos and with these basic laws could have had its particles arranged so as to resemble the universe we observe today. Once the particles in the chaotic universe began to move, the overall motion would have been circular because there is no void in nature, so whenever a single particle moves, another particle must also move to occupy the space where the previous particle once was. This type of circular motion, or vortex, would have created what Descartes observed to be the orbits of the planets about the Sun with the heavier objects spinning out towards the outside of the vortex and the lighter objects remaining closer to the center. To explain this, Descartes used the analogy of a river that carried both floating debris (leaves, feathers, etc.) and heavy boats. If the river abruptly arrived at a sharp bend, the boats would follow Descartes third law of motion and hit the shore of the river since the flow of the particles in the river would not have enough force to change the direction of the boat. However, the much lighter floating debris would follow the river since the


id: 12-rules-for-life-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12_Rules_for_Life-0.md
category: reference
title: 12 Rules for Life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12_Rules_for_Life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:30.445868+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 12-rules-for-life-20260505-0
summary:
12 Rules for Life: An Antidote to Chaos is a 2018 self-help book by the Canadian clinical psychologist Jordan Peterson. It provides life advice through essays in abstract ethical principles, psychology, mythology, religion, and personal anecdotes. The book topped bestseller lists in Canada, the United States, and the United Kingdom, and had sold over ten million copies worldwide, as of May 2023. Peterson went on a world tour to promote the book, receiving much attention following an interview with Channel 4 News. The book is written in a more accessible style than his previous academic book, Maps of Meaning: The Architecture of Belief (1999). A sequel, Beyond Order: 12 More Rules for Life, was published in March 2021. == Overview == === Background === Peterson's interest in writing the book grew out of a personal hobby of answering questions posted on Quora. One such question being "What are the most valuable things everyone should know?", to which his answer comprised 42 rules. The early vision and promotion of the book aimed to include all rules, with the title "42". Peterson stated that it "isn't only written for other people. It's a warning to me." === Rules === The book is


id: 12-rules-for-life-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12_Rules_for_Life-1.md
category: reference
title: 12 Rules for Life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12_Rules_for_Life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:30.445868+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 12-rules-for-life-20260505-0
summary:
To promote the book, Peterson went on a world tour, initially from January 14, 2018, to February 17, 2018, including events in England, Canada, and the United States. The sold-out venues included 1,000-seat conference hall Emmanuel Centre in London, and 2,000-seat Orpheum Theatre in Los Angeles. The February 11 event at Citadel Theatre in Edmonton was cancelled by the theatre's board of directors and management, for which they later apologized, and instead was held at a sold-out Hyatt Place. The second part included three sold-out events in March in Australia, continuing at Beacon Theatre in New York, and the third part held between early May and June initially numbering ten events in the US and Canada and one in the UK. Until June, the tour visited 45 cities in North America, Europe and Australia, reaching an audience of over 100,000 people. According to Peterson, nearly 200,000 people attended the live events until late July. As part of the tour, Peterson had an interview on Channel 4 News that went viral, receiving considerable attention and nearly 49 million views on YouTube. He also appeared on BBC Radio 5 Live and BBC's HARDtalk; LBC's Maajid Nawaz radio show; Fox & Friends and


id: 12-rules-for-life-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12_Rules_for_Life-2.md
category: reference
title: 12 Rules for Life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12_Rules_for_Life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:30.445868+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 12-rules-for-life-20260505-0
summary:
The book was received with mixed reviews. Melanie Reid, for The Times, said the book is "aimed at teenagers, millennials and young parents...If you peel back the verbiage, the cerebral preening, you are left with a hardline self-help manual of self-reliance, good behaviour, self-betterment and individualism that probably reflects [Peterson's] childhood in rural Canada in the 1960s." Bryan Appleyard, also in The Times, describes it as "a less dense and more practical version of Maps of Meaning...a baggy, aggressive, in-your-face, get-real book that, ultimately, is an attempt to lead us back to what Peterson sees as the true, the beautiful and the good – i.e., God." Hari Kunzru of The Guardian said it collates advice from Peterson's clinical practice with anecdotes, accounts of his academic work as a psychologist and "a lot of intellectual history of the 'great books' variety", but the essays are explained in an overcomplicated style. Kunzru called Peterson sincere, but found the book irritating because he considers Peterson failed to follow his own rules. In an interview with Peterson for The Guardian, Tim Lott called the book atypical of the self-help genre. For The Scotsman, Bill Jamieson praised it as "richly illustrated and packed with excellent


id: 12-rules-for-life-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12_Rules_for_Life-3.md
category: reference
title: 12 Rules for Life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12_Rules_for_Life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:30.445868+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 12-rules-for-life-20260505-0
summary:
some of his critics might be surprised to find much of the advice he offers unobjectionable, if old-fashioned: he wants young men to be better fathers, better husbands, better community members. In this way, he might be seen as an heir to older gurus of manhood like Elbert Hubbard, who in 1899 published a stern and wildly popular homily called A Message to Garcia ... At times, Peterson emphasizes his interest in empirical knowledge and scientific research—although these tend to be the least convincing parts of 12 Rules for Life. David French of National Review called the book a "beacon of light" for the current time, with a simple but profound purpose "to help a person look in the mirror and respect the person he or she sees." Some critics, such as National Review's Heather Wilhelm and Toronto Star's James Grainger, were critical of negative reviews they believed had misinterpreted Peterson. In September 2018, Peterson threatened to sue Cornell University philosopher Kate Manne for defamation after she called his work misogynistic in an interview with Vox. Manne called Peterson's threat an attempt to chill free speech. Vox considered the threat baseless and ignored it. In a critique often shared by


id: 50-signs-of-mental-illness-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/50_Signs_of_Mental_Illness-0.md
category: reference
title: 50 Signs of Mental Illness
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/50_Signs_of_Mental_Illness
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:31.594207+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 50-signs-of-mental-illness-20260505-0
summary:
50 Signs of Mental Illness: A Guide to Understanding Mental Health is a 2005 book by psychiatrist James Whitney Hicks published by Yale University Press. The book is designed as an accessible psychiatric reference for non-professionals that describes symptoms, treatments and strategies for understanding mental health. == List of signs == The 50 signs covered in the book are: == Reception == A review in the American Journal of Psychiatry commended Hicks's phrasing of acceptable ways to speak about mental illness. A review in The National Medical Journal of India likewise applauded the book's accessibility to non-experts, though it criticized Hicks's choice of symptoms and suggested "It would be difficult for an Indian to relate to the book" due to the examples he uses. The book also received attention from Health, Library Journal, The Baltimore Sun, and The Washington Post. == References == == Further reading == Bardi, C. A. (2005). The Promise And Perils Of Psychological Self-Help. PsycCRITIQUES, 50(51). doi:10.1037/05200711 American Psychiatric Association (July, 2018) "Warning Signs of Mental Illness". www.psychiatry.org. Retrieved 2021-06-19. == External links == Official site Archived 2014-01-07 at the Wayback Machine Yale University Press


id: der-alkoholismus-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der_Alkoholismus-0.md
category: reference
title: Der Alkoholismus
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der_Alkoholismus
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:32.768761+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: der-alkoholismus-20260505-0
summary:
Der Alkoholismus: Einführung in ein soziales Problem (English: The Alcoholism: Introduction to a Social Problem) is a 1908 book published by Austrian Catholic sociologist Anton Orel (1881-1959). Its goal was to reduce alcohol consumption and bring attention to the Alkoholfrage (English: The alcohol question). The book contains 25 sections that deal with different alcohol issues, ranging from the explanation of the alcohol question, to an elucidation of the alcohol's devastating health consequences and to the general economic impact of alcohol in the 20th century. Orel primarily aims to establish an abstinence movement against the existing drinking customs in order to save society from the devastating consequences. He frequently quotes experts' opinions on health and economic consequences in order to underline his statements. He particularly appeals to the youth as representing the basis for the planned revolutionary movement against the widespread alcoholism. == Context == After studying law, Anton Orel became redactor of several magazines, among others Arbeiterjugend and Unserer Jugend. Famous for his anti-capitalistic views, Anton Orel founded the Bund der deutschen Arbeiterjugend in 1905, which was known as Verband der christlichen Jugend Österreichs from 1907 onwards. Orel values the possible impact youth can have on society; his book Der


id: the-anatomy-of-dependence-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Anatomy_of_Dependence-0.md
category: reference
title: The Anatomy of Dependence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Anatomy_of_Dependence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:34.017383+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-anatomy-of-dependence-20260505-0
summary:
The Anatomy of Dependence (甘えの構造, Amae no Kōzō) is a 1971 book by Japanese psychoanalyst Takeo Doi, discussing at length Doi's concept of amae, which he describes as a uniquely Japanese need to be in good favor with, and be able to depend on, the people around oneself. He likens this to behaving childishly in the assumption that parents will indulge you (Doi 2001:16), and claims that the ideal relationship is that of the parent–child, and all other relationships should strive for this degree of closeness (Doi 2001:39). == Main concept == Amae (甘え) is the nominal form of the verb amaeru (甘える), which Doi uses to describe the behavior of a person attempting to induce an authority figure, such as a parent, spouse, teacher, or supervisor, to take care of them. The word is rarely used of oneself, but rather is applied descriptively to the behavior of other people. The person who is carrying out amae may beg or plead, or alternatively act selfishly while secure in the knowledge that the caregiver will indulge them. The behavior of children towards their parents is perhaps the most common example of amae, but Doi argued that child-rearing practices in the Western


id: angewandte-psychologie-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angewandte_Psychologie-0.md
category: reference
title: Angewandte Psychologie
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angewandte_Psychologie
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:35.185758+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: angewandte-psychologie-20260505-0
summary:
The book Angewandte Psychologie (English: Applied Psychology), by the Swiss-Austrian psychologist and philosopher Theodor Paul Erismann, was published in 1917 in Berlin and Leipzig. It discusses major topics concerning school, work, law and their connections to psychology. The book aims at giving a short overview of how psychology can be applied to important areas in life. Erismann uses many applicable tests and describes them in great detail, thus providing a practical guideline on how to use the findings of psychology in different fields. == Context == The book was published during the First World War. The war is not mentioned in the book and there are no references that could be linked to the war. Angewandte Psychologie happens to be a book for a layman person who is eager to learn something about the latest contributions of psychology to different areas in life. Erismann was greatly influenced by Wilhelm Wundt and his experimental approach to psychology. During Erismann's time, psychology was a fairly new topic itself. Psychology gained popularity through Wilhelm Wundt who is also called "the father of experimental psychology" and founded the first formal laboratory for psychological research at the University of Leipzig. Thus, Erismann adapted techniques and


id: animal-spirits-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_Spirits_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Animal Spirits (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_Spirits_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:36.346610+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: animal-spirits-book-20260505-0
summary:
Animal Spirits: How Human Psychology Drives the Economy, and Why It Matters for Global Capitalism (2009) is a book by economists George Akerlof and Robert Shiller written to promote the understanding of the role played by emotions in influencing economic decision making. According to the authors, economists have tended to de-emphasize the importance of emotional factors, as the effects of emotions are difficult to model and quantify. The book asserts that a variety of otherwise puzzling questions can be answered once one allows for the effect that emotional drives, or "animal spirits," have on economic factors. Akerlof and Shiller began writing the book in 2003. While finishing the work after the 2008 financial crisis, the authors set themselves the additional aim of promoting a much more aggressive US government intervention to alleviate the crises than has been seen as of February 2009. They repeatedly stress the need for decisive action targeted at restoring credit flows, and that the overall stimulus from the government needs to be much larger than would otherwise be the case due to very low levels of confidence about short and medium term economic prospects. == Synopsis == The Preface recalls economist John Maynard Keynes's use of


id: animal-spirits-book-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_Spirits_(book)-1.md
category: reference
title: Animal Spirits (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_Spirits_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:36.346610+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: animal-spirits-book-20260505-0
summary:
== Critical reception == Reviewing the book for the Financial Times, Clive Crook write "it is a fine book at exactly the right time.... Animal Spirits carries its ambition lightly—but is ambitious nonetheless. Economists will see it as a kind of manifesto." Andrew Rosenblum from The New York Observer says "Animal Spirits is most compelling when the authors summon all the key behavioral patterns to explain vast, complex phenomena such as the Great Depression.... Animal Spirits...is aimed squarely at the general reader, and rightly so: Macroeconomics is now everybody's business—the banks are playing with our money." An exception to the numerous glowing reviews the book received was a lengthy critique published in The New Republic by the Judge Richard Posner. The authors responded to Posner's criticisms in an article published a few weeks later in the same periodical. And, on the same day and in the same periodical, Posner replied to the authors' response. Animal Spirits was shortlisted for the 2009 Financial Times and Goldman Sachs Business Book of the Year Award. The book has been translated into more than 20 languages including German, Chinese, Dutch, Persian, Greek, Italian, Spanish, and French. == See also == Behavioral economics Keynesian economics


id: apple-sex-drugs-motherhood-and-the-recovery-of-the-feminine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple:_Sex,_Drugs,_Motherhood_and_the_Recovery_of_the_Feminine-0.md
category: reference
title: Apple: Sex, Drugs, Motherhood and the Recovery of the Feminine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple:_Sex,_Drugs,_Motherhood_and_the_Recovery_of_the_Feminine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:37.716314+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: apple-sex-drugs-motherhood-and-the-recovery-of-the-feminine-20260505-0
summary:
Apple: Sex, Drugs, Motherhood and the Recovery of the Feminine is a 2022 non-fiction, semi-autobiographical cultural analysis of the 20th and 21st centuries through the prism of obstetric practice, written by Australian author and journalist Antonella Gambotto-Burke. It made the front page of the Australian national paper, which also published a 3000-word excerpt. Reader's Digest described Apple: Sex, Drugs, Motherhood and the Recovery of the Feminine as "a major cultural event" and stated that it was "the first time" a connection had been made between "a wide range of personal and social issues — from drug addictions and mental illness to the breakdown of relationships — to the manner in which women are treated during pregnancy and labour." == Summary == === Biographical section === Gambotto-Burke opens the book with memories of her childhood on North Shore (Sydney) and the systemic sexism that penetrated every level of her existence. With this, she introduces the questions that unfold her argument, ending on her traumatic birth experience in a Sydney hospital. Apple: Sex, Drugs, Motherhood and the Recovery of the Feminine took "years to write", Gambotto-Burke told an interviewer: "Maybe three years of reading, years of experience, discussion and observation, and then


id: the-art-of-listening-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Art_of_Listening-0.md
category: reference
title: The Art of Listening
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Art_of_Listening
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:38.909668+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-art-of-listening-20260505-0
summary:
The Art of Listening is a 1994 book on psychology by the psychoanalyst Erich Fromm. In the work, Fromm elucidates his therapeutic method of dealing with the psychological sufferings of people in contemporary society. Fromm's work contains a great deal of clinical reflections of the psychoanalyst. In The Art of Listening, Fromm studies the communication between analyst and analysand in which the analyst offers himself as a human being specially trained in the "art of listening." The art of therapy is the art of listening. In The Art of Listening, Fromm suggests that a person's character orientation results from socialization into shared psychic attitudes of a particular society. == References ==


id: the-art-of-loving-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Art_of_Loving-0.md
category: reference
title: The Art of Loving
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Art_of_Loving
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:40.080123+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-art-of-loving-20260505-0
summary:
The Art of Loving is a 1956 book by psychoanalyst and social philosopher Erich Fromm. It was originally published as part of the World Perspectives series edited by Ruth Nanda Anshen. In this work, Fromm develops his perspective on human nature from his earlier works, Escape from Freedom and Man for Himself – principles which he revisits in many of his other major works. He criticizes the popular conception of love and asserts that "love is the only provision for a sane and satisfying human existence". == Background == In 1930, Fromm was recruited to the Frankfurt School by Max Horkheimer. Fromm played a central role in the early development of the school. He left the school in the late 1930s, following a "bitter and contentious" deterioration in his relationship with Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno. In 1956, the year The Art of Loving was released, Fromm's relationship with Herbert Marcuse, also a member of the Frankfurt School, also deteriorated. Dissent published a debate between the two, and though later scholars would come to view Marcuse's arguments as being weaker than Fromm's, Marcuse's were better received within their lifetimes, and Fromm's reputation and in leftist circles was permanently damaged. The book


id: the-art-of-loving-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Art_of_Loving-1.md
category: reference
title: The Art of Loving
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Art_of_Loving
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:40.080123+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-art-of-loving-20260505-0
summary:
==== 1. Love, the Answer to the Problem of Human Existence ==== Fromm opens this chapter by stating that "Any theory of love must begin with a theory of man, of human existence." For Fromm, a person's key trait is their ability to reason. Prior to humans developing the ability to reason, we were part of the animal kingdom and in a state of harmony. To recover this state of harmony it is impossible for us to regress to the idyll of the animal kingdom, but rather humanity must progress to a new harmony by developing their ability to reason. This ability to reason makes humanity "life being aware of itself", and separates us from all other creatures. This separation is, for Fromm, "the source of all anxiety". He says that by understanding the story of Adam and Eve, people can understand the barriers to loving connection. For Fromm, when man and woman develop awareness of their difference from each other, they remain strangers, and this is the source of shame, guilt, and anxiety, and it is reunion through love which allows people to overcome this feeling of difference. For Fromm the fundamental question facing mankind is "the question of


id: the-art-of-loving-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Art_of_Loving-2.md
category: reference
title: The Art of Loving
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Art_of_Loving
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:40.080123+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-art-of-loving-20260505-0
summary:
==== 2. Love Between Parents and Child ==== Fromm opens this section by hypothesizing on love through the eyes of a baby in relation to its mother. In this dynamic, the child intuits that "I am loved for what I am", or rather "I am loved because I am". This love is unconditional: "it need not be acquired, it need not be deserved." The unconditional aspect of motherly love, a blessing if present, produces a problem of its own: if this love is absent, there is nothing the child can do to create it. Before growing to the age of between eight and a half to ten, Fromm considers that children experience being loved, but do not themselves begin to love. At this point a child may begin to practice love, for example, by giving a gift to one of their parents. Fromm states that it takes many years for this form of love to develop into mature love. He contrasts the difference, the primary one being that someone who loves maturely believes that loving is more pleasurable than receiving love. Through practicing love, and thus producing love, the individual overcomes the dependence on being loved, having to be "good"


id: the-art-of-loving-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Art_of_Loving-3.md
category: reference
title: The Art of Loving
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Art_of_Loving
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:40.080123+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-art-of-loving-20260505-0
summary:
===== (d) Self-Love ===== Fromm begins this section by criticising the "widespread" belief in Western thought that "while it is virtuous to love others, it is sinful to love oneself." He critiques the conclusions of John Calvin and Freud in particular, and states that self-love ought not be confused with either narcissism or the turning inwards of the libido. Fromm claims that it is a logical fallacy to love one's neighbour for the sake of their humanity and not also love one's self for the same reason. Fromm states that "love of others and love of ourselves are not alternatives. On the contrary, an attitude of love towards themselves will be found in all those who are capable of loving others. Love, in principle, is indivisible as far as the connection between 'objects' and one's own self is concerned. Genuine love is an expression of productiveness and implies care, respect, responsibility and knowledge." By this token, he classifies love as "an active striving for the growth and happiness of the loved person", and so classifies such action as virtuous. Fromm contends that "love of man" (which is to say the love that one holds for a given individual for the


id: attitude-reconstruction-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_Reconstruction-0.md
category: reference
title: Attitude Reconstruction
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_Reconstruction
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:41.284447+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: attitude-reconstruction-20260505-0
summary:
Attitude Reconstruction: A Blueprint for Building a Better Life is a book written by American author and psychotherapist Jude Bijou. The book was 2012 Winner of ForeWord Review in both psychology and self-help, the 2012 IBPA Benjamin Franklin Award in self-help, and the 2012 Nautilus Silver Award in personal growth/psychology. It proposes that unexpressed sadness, anger, and fear are the root causes of all negative attitudes and perceived problems. The author, daughter of pioneer behavioral child psychologist Sidney W. Bijou, blends eastern philosophy with western innovation to create a holistic system of human behavior. == Synopsis == Bijou asserts that humans have only six emotions, existing in three opposing pairs – sadness and joy, anger and love, fear and peace. Attitude Reconstruction correlates these six emotions with predictable feelings, thoughts, communication, and actions. The author proposes that emotions are nothing but energy, or pure physical sensations in the body; when we do not release sadness, anger, and fear from hurts and losses, we revert to predictable destructive attitudes. When not in the grip of these three emotions, the author states our attitudes embody the other three emotions – joy, love, and peace. Bijou's central methodology incorporates physically and constructively releasing


id: autism-explaining-the-enigma-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism:_Explaining_the_Enigma-0.md
category: reference
title: Autism: Explaining the Enigma
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism:_Explaining_the_Enigma
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:42.560014+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: autism-explaining-the-enigma-20260505-0
summary:
Autism: Explaining the Enigma is a non-fiction book by developmental psychologist Uta Frith, first published by Basil Blackwell in 1989, that surveys research on autism through a cognitive and neuropsychological lens. A substantially updated second edition was published in 2003. == Overview == In the book, Frith synthesises research on autism and discusses cognitive accounts that were influential in late-20th-century autism research, including difficulties in understanding other people's mental states (often discussed in relation to theory of mind) and atypical integration of information (commonly discussed under the term weak central coherence). The second edition adds discussion of subsequent developments and includes expanded coverage of neuropsychological and neuroscience research that emerged after the first edition. == See also == Cognitive psychology == References == == External links == List of the editions on Google Books Leekam, Susan R. (May 1991). "Book Review: Autism: Explaining the Enigma". The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. 43 (2): 301–302. doi:10.1080/14640749108400972. S2CID 149418391. Frith, Uta (October 2014). "Autism - are we any closer to explaining the enigma?". The Psychologist. Vol. 27. British Psychological Society. pp. 744–745.


id: becoming-cliterate-why-orgasm-equality-matters-and-how-to-get-it-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Becoming_Cliterate:_Why_Orgasm_Equality_Matters—And_How_to_Get_It-0.md
category: reference
title: Becoming Cliterate: Why Orgasm Equality Matters—And How to Get It
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Becoming_Cliterate:_Why_Orgasm_Equality_Matters—And_How_to_Get_It
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:43.809473+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: becoming-cliterate-why-orgasm-equality-matters-and-how-to-get-it-20260505-0
summary:
Becoming Cliterate: Why Orgasm Equality Matters—And How to Get It is a non-fiction book by psychologist and sex educator Laurie Mintz, published in 2017. The book was published by HarperOne, an imprint of HarperCollins, on May 9, 2017. == Recognition == Becoming Cliterate received the 2019 Consumer Book Award from the Society for Sex Therapy and Research. == Summary == Becoming Cliterate: Why Orgasm Equality Matters—and How to Get includes a detailed section on female anatomy, a review of misconceptions about the female orgasm, and practical techniques aimed at improving sexual experiences. The book advocates for a more informed and equitable approach to sexual intimacy, aiming to shift both individual behaviors and broader societal attitudes. Becoming Cliterate: Why Orgasm Equality Matters—and How to Get It received positive reviews for its accessible and research-based approach to female sexuality. == References ==


id: being-you-a-new-science-of-consciousness-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Being_You:_A_New_Science_of_Consciousness-0.md
category: reference
title: Being You: A New Science of Consciousness
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Being_You:_A_New_Science_of_Consciousness
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:45.009003+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: being-you-a-new-science-of-consciousness-20260505-0
summary:
Being You: A New Science of Consciousness is a 2021 non-fiction book by neuroscientist Anil Seth, published by Faber and Faber. The book explores the author's theory of consciousness and the self. Seth also looks at the relationship between humans, animals, and the potential for machines to have consciousness. The writing process took Seth three years, with support from the Wellcome Trust. The ideas in the book come from Seth's long-standing interest in understanding the mind, combined with research and discussions with his team in Sussex. The book was well-received by major publications and was awarded Best Book of 2021 from Bloomberg and The Economist and Best Science Book of 2021 by The Guardian and the Financial Times. Critics praised the book for being rigorous and meticulous in its research, and Seth's writing style. However, some reviewers pointed out concerns with the language and approach towards solving consciousness used in the book. == Context == Anil Seth is a neuroscientist based out of Sussex, England. Having been interested in consciousness since childhood, and after finding Tononi's 1998 paper compelling, he developed his theory of "causal density" with a different mathematical foundation. In an interview with The Guardian, Seth stated he


id: being-you-a-new-science-of-consciousness-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Being_You:_A_New_Science_of_Consciousness-1.md
category: reference
title: Being You: A New Science of Consciousness
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Being_You:_A_New_Science_of_Consciousness
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:45.009003+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: being-you-a-new-science-of-consciousness-20260505-0
summary:
=== Scientific === The neuroscientist Felix Haas in his review published in World Literature Today believes Seth's position on the hard problem of consciousness to fall in the middle between the two positions of either finding the hard problem to be meaningful or meaningless; rather, Haas states Seth's view is "not think[ing] that the hard problem is inherently meaningless" while also finding direct confrontation to it to be unproductive. In his view, Seth instead wants to focus on the "real" problem of consciousness which is “why a particular pattern of brain activity ... maps to a particular kind of conscious experience", which Haas claimed is a "pivotal role" in Seth's thought process. Haas found Seth's description of error minimisation, which results in the brain receiving controlled hallucinations, to have magnitude, though whether it is for the field of neuroscience or to world in general is left unclear in his review. The book has the same issues of many other introductory texts, Haas claims, such as it contains detail that would be "exciting to the researcher" but "frustrating to the novice" and the author defending their own school of philosophy, but Haas praises the book as being "more careful yet bolder


id: beyond-order-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Order-0.md
category: reference
title: Beyond Order
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Order
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:46.179108+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: beyond-order-20260505-0
summary:
Beyond Order: 12 More Rules for Life is a 2021 self-help book by Canadian clinical psychologist, YouTube personality, and psychology professor Jordan Peterson, as a sequel to his 2018 book 12 Rules for Life. == Overview == === Background === Peterson's original interest in writing his last book, 12 Rules for Life, grew out of a personal hobby of answering questions posted on Quora; one such question being, "What are the most valuable things everyone should know?", to which his answer comprised 42 rules. Essentially psychological in their intention, the rules in both books are told using particular episodes of Peterson's clinical experience. Moreover, Peterson has stated that these rules were "explicitly formulated to aid in the development of the individual," though they may also prove useful at "levels of social organisation that incorporate the individual." Peterson states that both books are predicated on the notion that chaos and order are "the two fundamental elements of reality", and that "people find meaning in optimally balancing them". The difference between the two books, according to Peterson, is that the first focuses "more on the dangers of an excess of chaos", while the second is more concerned "with the dangers of too


id: blink-the-power-of-thinking-without-thinking-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blink:_The_Power_of_Thinking_Without_Thinking-0.md
category: reference
title: Blink: The Power of Thinking Without Thinking
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blink:_The_Power_of_Thinking_Without_Thinking
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:47.385178+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: blink-the-power-of-thinking-without-thinking-20260505-0
summary:
Blink: The Power of Thinking Without Thinking (2005) is Canadian writer Malcolm Gladwell's second book. It presents in popular science format research from psychology and behavioral economics on the adaptive unconscious: mental processes that work rapidly and automatically from relatively little information. It considers both the strengths of the adaptive unconscious, for instance in expert judgment, and its pitfalls, such as prejudice and stereotypes. == Summary == The author describes the main subject of his book as "thin-slicing": our ability to use limited information from a very narrow period of experience to come to a conclusion. This idea suggests that spontaneous decisions are often as good as—or even better than—carefully planned and considered ones. To reinforce his ideas, Gladwell draws from a wide range of examples from science and medicine (including malpractice suits), sales and advertising, gambling, speed dating (and predicting divorce), tennis, military war games, and movies and popular music. Gladwell also uses many examples of regular people's experiences with "thin-slicing," including our instinctive ability to read minds, which is how we can get to know a person's emotions just by looking at his or her face. Gladwell explains how an expert's ability to "thin slice" can be corrupted


id: blink-the-power-of-thinking-without-thinking-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blink:_The_Power_of_Thinking_Without_Thinking-1.md
category: reference
title: Blink: The Power of Thinking Without Thinking
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blink:_The_Power_of_Thinking_Without_Thinking
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:47.385178+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: blink-the-power-of-thinking-without-thinking-20260505-0
summary:
== Research and examples == The book begins with the story of the Getty kouros, which was a statue brought to the J. Paul Getty Museum in California. It was thought by many experts to be legitimate, but when others first looked at it, their initial responses were skeptical. For example, George Despinis, head of the Acropolis Museum in Athens, said "Anyone who has ever seen a sculpture coming out of the ground could tell that that thing has never been in the ground". Gradually, the argument for the legitimacy of the kouros' provenance fell apart. The letters tracing its history turned out to be fakes, referencing postal codes and bank accounts that did not exist until after the letters were supposedly written. However, experts to this day are unsure whether the kouros is authentic or not. The museum notes that "anomalies of the Getty kouros may be due more to our limited knowledge of Greek sculpture in this period rather than to mistakes on the part of a forger." John Gottman is a researcher on marital relationships whose work is explored in Blink. After analyzing a normal conversation between a husband and wife for an hour, Gottman can predict


id: blueprint-plomin-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blueprint_(Plomin_book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Blueprint (Plomin book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blueprint_(Plomin_book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:48.517843+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: blueprint-plomin-book-20260505-0
summary:
Blueprint: How DNA Makes Us Who We Are is a book by behavioral geneticist Robert Plomin, first published in 2018 by the MIT Press and Allen Lane. The book argues that genetic factors, and specifically variations in individuals' DNA, have a large effect on human psychological traits, accounting for approximately half of all variation in such traits. The book also claims that genes play a more important role in people's personalities than does the environment. In Blueprint, Plomin argues that environmental effects on human psychological differences, although they exist, are "...mostly random – unsystematic and unstable – which means that we cannot do much about them." == Reviews == Science journalist Matt Ridley praised Blueprint as "a hugely important book." Behavior geneticist Kathryn Paige Harden criticized the book for overstating the importance of genes for the development of human traits, writing, "Insisting that DNA matters is scientifically accurate; insisting that it is the only thing that matters is scientifically outlandish." Steven Mithen gave the book a mixed review in the Guardian, in which he wrote, "I am happy to bow to Plomin as a psychologist and a geneticist, but I found his sociology rather lacking, in fact quite baffling." Nathaniel


id: bodies-under-siege-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodies_Under_Siege-0.md
category: reference
title: Bodies Under Siege
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodies_Under_Siege
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:49.685731+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bodies-under-siege-20260505-0
summary:
Bodies Under Siege: Self-mutilation in Culture and Psychiatry is a book written by psychiatrist Dr. Armando Favazza, and published in 1987. Bodies Under Siege is a psychiatric book on self-harm. The second edition (1996) was subtitled Self-Mutilation and Body Modification in Culture and Psychiatry. Favazza's classification divides self-harm behaviors into two major categories, namely Culturally Sanctioned and Deviant. The subtypes of the former are practices and rituals. Practices often are faddish and include tattoos and body piercing. Ritual body modification behaviors are traditional and reflect the history, spiritualism, and beliefs of a society. They are culturally and psychologically embedded in profound, elemental experiences especially connected to healing, spirituality, and social orderliness. Understanding body modification rituals sheds light on Deviant behaviors which, in Favazza's classification, include Major, Stereotypic, Compulsive, and Impulsive. Each subtype is usually associated with specific mental disorders. The Major type, for example, exemplified by self-castration or eye-enucleation, is usually associated with psychosis, transsexualism, and/or substance intoxication. The most common type is the Impulsive, as exemplified by skin-cutting and burning, and is associated with a broad variety of disorders including generalized anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, and antisocial, histrionic, and borderline personality disorder. One aspect of body modification discussed by


id: bounded-choice-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bounded_Choice-0.md
category: reference
title: Bounded Choice
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bounded_Choice
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:50.865156+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bounded-choice-20260505-0
summary:
Bounded Choice: True Believers and Charismatic Cults is a 2004 psychology and sociology book on cults by Janja Lalich. It was published by University of California Press. Lalich had previously studied Heaven's Gate and the Democratic Workers Party (DWP) for her doctoral dissertation titled "Bounded Choice: The Fusion of Personal Freedom and Self-Renunciation in Two Transcendent Groups", and that research was incorporated into the book. Lalich's methodologies were influenced by the work of Anthony Giddens, Herbert Simon and Robert Lifton. Heaven's Gate, a UFO religion, was used as a model for analyzing the cult structure. According to Rubina Ramji's review, Lalich identifies four structures to cults: charismatic authority, a transcendent belief system, systems of control, and systems of influence. They interlock to create "true believers" who end up in a state of "bounded choice" in the cult. == Reception == Marion Harmon wrote "Lalich's research culminated in a new theory to explain how the combination of ideology, social structure, and commitment constrains the choice of true believers." Richard Erik Ocejo in Contemporary Sociology compliments Lalich's research as "extensive". He writes that her work avoids being a "quasi auto-ethnography" despite the DWP being fairly unknown to academia. Ocejo believes the work


id: brainwashing-the-science-of-thought-control-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brainwashing:_The_Science_of_Thought_Control-0.md
category: reference
title: Brainwashing: The Science of Thought Control
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brainwashing:_The_Science_of_Thought_Control
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:52.069152+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: brainwashing-the-science-of-thought-control-20260505-0
summary:
Brainwashing: The Science of Thought Control is a 2004 popular science book explaining brainwashing, mind control, thought reform, and coercive persuasion by neuroscientist and physiologist Kathleen Taylor. It explains the neurological basis for reasoning and cognition in the brain, and proposes that the self is changeable, and describes the physiology of neurological pathways. It reviews case studies including Patty Hearst, Charles Manson, and the mass murder/suicide of members of Peoples Temple at Jonestown, and compares the techniques of influence used by cults to those of totalitarian and communist societies. It lays out a model FACET – Freedom, Agency, Complexity, Ends-not-means, and Thinking – which she believes can be used to negate the influence of brainwashing techniques. == Contents == Taylor provides background on the development of the term brainwashing, from its use in 1950 by journalist Edward Hunter and its later usage as applied to the spheres of cults, marketing, influence, thought reform, torture, and re-education. She references psychiatrist Robert Jay Lifton's work Thought Reform and the Psychology of Totalism as a resource throughout the book. Lifton based his research on interviews he conducted with prisoners of war who had been subjected to indoctrination and torture during the Korean War.


id: brainwashing-the-science-of-thought-control-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brainwashing:_The_Science_of_Thought_Control-1.md
category: reference
title: Brainwashing: The Science of Thought Control
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brainwashing:_The_Science_of_Thought_Control
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:52:52.069152+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: brainwashing-the-science-of-thought-control-20260505-0
summary:
== Reception == Brainwashing was first published in hardcover format on 16 December 2004 by Oxford University Press, and again in paperback format on 24 August 2006. The book was "highly commended" and runner-up in the 2005 Times Higher Education Supplement Young Academic Author Award, and also made it to the shortlist for the 2005 MIND "Book of the Year Award". The book also made it to the longlist of the 2005 Aventis "Science Book Prize", where it was described as containing "elegant and accessible prose". PD Smith gave the book a positive review in The Guardian, and concluded: "Her ambitious and well-written study celebrates human freedom through a history of attempts to destroy it." Joseph Szimhart reviewed the book for Skeptical Inquirer, and wrote: "I enjoyed the book as a challenge to think about a sorely neglected topic." Szimhart concluded: "Taylor's concern is with any human venture (be it science, religion, or politics) that restricts brain function from creative 'stop and think' activity, and which becomes little more than another exclusive cult." In a review of the book for The Daily Telegraph, British doctor and science writer James Le Fanu was critical, and commented that Taylor did not acknowledge


id: building-the-bonds-of-attachment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Building_the_Bonds_of_Attachment-0.md
category: reference
title: Building the Bonds of Attachment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Building_the_Bonds_of_Attachment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:06.198206+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: building-the-bonds-of-attachment-20260505-0
summary:
Building the Bonds of Attachment: Awakening Love in Deeply Troubled Children by Daniel A. Hughes is a guide to the therapy and parenting of children experiencing attachment disorder that promotes dyadic developmental psychotherapy. == Summary == The contents of the book have changed from one edition to another, reflecting changing research and practice. This summary is based on the third edition. Building the Bonds of Attachment comprises eighteen chapters, most of which comprise a narrative account of the life and therapeutic journey of a fictional child, Katie, followed by a 'commentary' which makes explicit the psychological issues and therapeutic practices being portrayed. Katie is born in the American state of Maine in August 1987 and experiences both severe neglect and more explicit forms of abuse from her birth parents. Adapting to these circumstances, Katie does not learn to trust or to share joy or empathise with others, but rather to try to control the people around her, whether through politeness, tantrums, or other forms of manipulation. She internalises a profound sense of shame but lacks awareness of her inner states and a coherent self-concept; her emotional development is thus significantly impaired. Taken into the care of the state at the


id: the-bully-the-bullied-and-the-bystander-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bully,_the_Bullied,_and_the_Bystander-0.md
category: reference
title: The Bully, the Bullied, and the Bystander
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bully,_the_Bullied,_and_the_Bystander
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:07.410992+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-bully-the-bullied-and-the-bystander-20260505-0
summary:
The Bully, the Bullied, and the Bystander (full title: The Bully, the Bullied, and the Bystander: From Preschool to High School—How Parents and Teachers Can Help Break the Cycle of Violence) is a 2003 nonfiction book by Barbara Coloroso. The book covers the issue of school bullying and the roles played by those involved, including the victims and bystanders. == Synopsis == The book examines the phenomena of bullying, particularly amongst students, including taunting, tormenting, and aggressive behavior by stronger students against weaker students. It describes the key players as well as the problems and possible solutions in dealing with them. It also discusses the roles of parents, students, and teachers in such situations as well as what they can and should do. == 2010 edition == A 2010 edition of the book included updated & modernized information. == References == == External links == The Bully, The Bullied, and the Bystander -short essay on the subject by Barbara Coloroso (book author). Book review at goodreads


id: the-call-girl-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Call_Girl-0.md
category: reference
title: The Call Girl
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Call_Girl
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:08.572633+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-call-girl-20260505-0
summary:
The Call Girl is a best seller of 1958 written by the doctor Harold Greenwald, a psychotherapist whose doctoral dissertation is about the psychology of prostitutes. In 1960, he made a Hollywood movie on the same topic, Girl of the Night. In 1970, a new edition of the book was published, titled The Elegant Prostitute. == References == == External links == ISBN 0-87212-219-0 ISBN 978-0-87212-219-2


id: chatter-the-voice-in-our-head-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chatter:_The_Voice_in_Our_Head-0.md
category: reference
title: Chatter: The Voice in Our Head
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chatter:_The_Voice_in_Our_Head
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:09.703603+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chatter-the-voice-in-our-head-20260505-0
summary:
Chatter: The Voice in Our Head, Why It Matters, and How to Harness It is a book by psychology professor Ethan Kross, published by Crown in January 2021. The book was praised by reviewers for its systematic clarity. The book explains how inner, silent dialogues are intrinsic to human nature, offering advice on how to avoid unproductive mental chatter, take advantage of inner dialogues to reflect on life's circumstances, and arrive at sound judgments for making decisions. == References ==


id: the-chemistry-between-us-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Chemistry_Between_Us_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: The Chemistry Between Us (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Chemistry_Between_Us_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:10.856103+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-chemistry-between-us-book-20260505-0
summary:
The Chemistry Between Us: Love, Sex, and the Science of Attraction is a 2012 book by the American neuroscientist Larry J. Young and the journalist Brian Alexander, in which the authors examine the neurobiological roots of love. == Reception == The book was well received by critics. Supportive reviews appeared in New Scientist, Publishers Weekly, Kirkus Reviews etc. The book has been translated into many languages including Polish and Russian. == References ==


id: childhood-and-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childhood_and_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: Childhood and Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childhood_and_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:12.045826+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: childhood-and-society-20260505-0
summary:
Childhood and Society is a 1950 book about the social significance of childhood by the psychoanalyst Erik H. Erikson. == Summary == Erikson discusses the social significance of childhood, introducing ideas such as the eight stages of psychosocial development and the concept of an "identity crisis". == Reception == Childhood and Society was the first of Erikson's books to become popular. The critic Frederick Crews calls the work "a readable and important book extending Freud's developmental theory." The Oxford Handbook of Identity names Erikson as the seminal figure in "the developmental approach of understanding identity". == References ==


id: the-complexity-of-cooperation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Complexity_of_Cooperation-0.md
category: reference
title: The Complexity of Cooperation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Complexity_of_Cooperation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:13.211575+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-complexity-of-cooperation-20260505-0
summary:
The Complexity of Cooperation, by Robert Axelrod, is the sequel to The Evolution of Cooperation. It is a compendium of seven articles that previously appeared in journals on a variety of subjects. The book extends Axelrod's method of applying the results of game theory, in particular that derived from analysis of the Prisoner's Dilemma (IPD) problem, to real world situations. == Prisoner's Dilemma findings == Axelrod explains the Tit for tat (TFT or T4T) strategy emerged as the most robust option in early IPD tournaments on computer. This strategy combines a willingness to cooperate with a determination to punish non-cooperation. In these articles, however, he shows, that under more complex circumstances, such as the possibility of error, strategies that are a little more cooperative or a little less punitive do even better than TFT. Generous TFT, or GTFT, cooperates a bit more often than TFT, while Contrite TFT or CTFT defects less frequently. == Applications == Axelrod applies various models related to IPD to a variety of situations, drawing conclusions from these simulations about the ways in which groups form, adhere, oppose or join other groups, and other topics in the fields of genetic evolution, business, political science, military alliances,


id: the-concept-of-anxiety-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Concept_of_Anxiety-0.md
category: reference
title: The Concept of Anxiety
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Concept_of_Anxiety
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:14.338620+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-concept-of-anxiety-20260505-0
summary:
The Concept of Anxiety: A Simple Psychologically Orienting Deliberation on the Dogmatic Issue of Hereditary Sin (Danish: Begrebet Angest. En simpel psychologisk-paapegende Overveielse i Retning af det dogmatiske Problem om Arvesynden) is a philosophical work written by Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard in 1844. It explores the concept of anxiety as it relates to human freedom, original sin, and existential choice. The original 1944 English translation by Walter Lowrie (now out of print), was titled The Concept of Dread. The Concept of Anxiety was dedicated "to the late professor Poul Martin Møller". Kierkegaard used the pseudonym Vigilius Haufniensis (which, according to Josiah Thompson, is the Latin transcription for "the Watchman" of Copenhagen) for The Concept of Anxiety. == Themes and analysis == The Concept of Anxiety was published on June 17, 1844, the same date as Prefaces' publication. Both books deal with Hegel's idea of mediation. Kierkegaard mentions that anxiety is a way for humanity to be saved as well. Anxiety informs us of our choices, our self-awareness and personal responsibility, and brings us from a state of un-self-conscious immediacy to self-conscious reflection. (Jean-Paul Sartre calls these terms pre-reflective consciousness and reflective consciousness.) == Progress == Kierkegaard states that "anxiety about


id: the-concept-of-anxiety-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Concept_of_Anxiety-1.md
category: reference
title: The Concept of Anxiety
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Concept_of_Anxiety
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:14.338620+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-concept-of-anxiety-20260505-0
summary:
== Contemporary reception == Walter Lowrie translated The Concept of Dread in 1944. He was asked "almost petulantly" why it took him so long to translate the book. Alexander Dru had been working on the book, and Charles Williams hoped the book would be published along with The Sickness unto Death, which Lowrie was working on in 1939. After the war started, Dru was wounded and gave the job over to Lowrie. Lowrie could find no adequate word to use for Angst. Lee Hollander had used the word dread in 1924, a Spanish translator used angustia, and Miguel Unamuno, writing in French used agonie while other French translators used angoisse. Rollo May quoted Kierkegaard in his book Meaning of Anxiety, which is the relation between anxiety and freedom. I would say that learning to know anxiety is an adventure which every man has to affront if he would not go to perdition either by not having known anxiety or by sinking under it. He therefore who has learned rightly to be anxious has learned the most important thing.— Kierkegaard, The Concept of Dread. Robert Harold Boethius, in his 1948 book Christian Paths to Self-Acceptance, discusses Kierkegaard's concept of dread, explaining


id: contemplative-practices-in-action-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contemplative_Practices_in_Action-0.md
category: reference
title: Contemplative Practices in Action
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contemplative_Practices_in_Action
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:15.515373+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: contemplative-practices-in-action-20260505-0
summary:
Contemplative Practices in Action: Spirituality, Meditation, and Health is an interdisciplinary scholarly and scientific book. It examines the nature, function, and impact of meditation and other contemplative practices in several different religious traditions, both eastern and western, including methods for incorporating contemplative practice into education, healthcare, and other human services. Edited by Thomas G. Plante and with a foreword by Huston Smith, the book was published in the United States by Prager in 2010. The book reviews evidences for health effects and includes 14 chapters divided among three major parts that focus on well-defined systems of practice, traditions as storehouses of many alternative forms of practice, and applications. It has been reviewed in several professional journals, including PsycCRITIQUES, and the Journal of Psychosocial Research,. == Topics covered == The book contains 14 chapters written by scholars in the health and behavioral sciences and religious studies. Chapter titles and authors are listed in the table (below, at right). Huston Smith's foreword describes the book as "ecumenically inclusive," "in line" with Smith's own work. The editor's introductory chapter notes an increasing usage of meditative practices in health and human service practice, along with an increasing evidence base. It also acknowledges "a number


id: crazy-therapies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crazy_Therapies-0.md
category: reference
title: Crazy Therapies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crazy_Therapies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:16.705976+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: crazy-therapies-20260505-0
summary:
"Crazy" Therapies: What Are They? Do They Work? is a book by the psychologist Margaret Singer and the sociologist Janja Lalich. It was published by Jossey-Bass in 1996. == Content == Singer and Lalich's intended audience is psychiatric and psychotherapy patients. They discuss a list of severe warning signs that psychotherapy patients should pay attention to, regardless of the psychotherapist's credentials or reputation. They discuss these in detail and quantify them into ten classic behaviour patterns. These include potential sexual abuse; asking the patient to perform menial chores; discussing the psychotherapist's own problems in detail; asking the patient to cut off relations with friends and family; diagnosing the patient's condition before thoroughly discussing the issue; claiming the patient must be hypnotized in order to sort through past memories; treating patients as if they all have the same psychological root cause of illness; claiming to have a magical miracle technique; utilizing a checklist to find out if the patient has an illness that the psychotherapist specializes in; and finally, demanding that the patient accept certain religious, metaphysical or pseudoscientific beliefs in order to continue psychotherapy. Specific therapies include those that espouse beliefs in "possession by spirit entities, past-life regression, alien abduction,


id: the-cry-for-myth-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Cry_for_Myth-0.md
category: reference
title: The Cry for Myth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Cry_for_Myth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:17.894107+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-cry-for-myth-20260505-0
summary:
The Cry for Myth (1991) is a book by the American existential psychologist Rollo May, in which he proposes that modern people need myths to make sense of their lives, and that without myth they are prey to anxiety and addiction. The book explores numerous myths from Classical Greece through to twentieth century writers, and shows their relevance to the personal existential dilemmas of today. The book is divided into four parts: "The function of myths," "Myths in America," "Myths of the Western World" and "Myths for survival." == The function of myths == === What is a myth? === "Myths are narrative patterns that give significance to our existence." (p 15) "As long as our world and society remain... empty of myths, which express beliefs and moral goals, there will be depression... and suicide." (p 21) "In such directionless states as we find ourselves near the end of the twentieth century, it is not surprising that frantic people flock to the new cults, or resurrect the old ones, seeking answers to their anxiety and longing for relief from their guilt or depressions, longing for something to fill the vacuum of their lives." (p 22) Max Muller, writing in 1873,


id: das-problem-der-willensfreiheit-in-der-neuesten-deutschen-philosophie-20260505-0
category: reference
title: Das Problem der Willensfreiheit in der neuesten deutschen Philosophie
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Das_Problem_der_Willensfreiheit_in_der_neuesten_deutschen_Philosophie
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:19.059072+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: das-problem-der-willensfreiheit-in-der-neuesten-deutschen-philosophie-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Das_Problem_der_Willensfreiheit_in_der_neuesten_deutschen_Philosophie-0.md

summary:
Das Problem der Willensfreiheit in der neuesten deutschen Philosophie (English: The problem of free will within the newest German philosophy) is a book written by Dr. Leopold Müffelmann and published in Leipzig in 1902. It is the dissertation of Dr. Leopold Müffelmann who was a jurist and chief executive of the lodge of the Freemason, and summarizes historical viewpoints on the topic of free will with a focus on the common opinion within German philosophy in the early 20th century. The book considers the general ideas towards the problem, namely indeterminism, fatalism and determinism. Müffelmann treats the subject of free will rather objectively, however, it becomes apparent that his view towards the problem of free will is deterministic. In the dissertation Müffelmann argues, that the problem of free will is actually not as important as often claimed by philosophers and that ethical life and thought should not be made dependent upon it. The book is divided into five main parts, which include an introduction to the meaning of the topic of free will, followed by the main part, which treats the Problem of free will and its solutions. This part is divided into solutions in the past and solutions in


id: a-deadly-wandering-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Deadly_Wandering-0.md
category: reference
title: A Deadly Wandering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Deadly_Wandering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:20.242620+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: a-deadly-wandering-20260505-0
summary:
A Deadly Wandering: A Mystery, a Landmark Investigation, and the Astonishing Science of Attention in the Digital Age is a 2014 book by Matt Richtel. It details the story of Reggie Shaw, a Mormon teenager who killed two scientists in Utah in 2006 while he was texting and driving. Richtel also reports scientific studies on human attention interspersed with the narrative. == Background == A Deadly Wandering is based on a series of articles in The New York Times that Richtel wrote in 2010, garnering him a Pulitzer Prize. His 2011 novel Devil's Plaything dealt with themes of personal technology and its sometimes harmful impact on society. == Synopsis == On September 22, 2006, shortly after being denied a Mormon mission due to premarital sex, nineteen-year-old Utah college student Reggie Shaw is texting and driving with his girlfriend when he crosses the yellow lines on the highway west of Logan, Utah. He causes a chain-reaction accident that kills James Furfaro and Keith O’Dell, two rocket scientists headed to work. Unharmed, Shaw attempts to call 911 but the call didn't go through. A state trooper that comes to the scene said he witnessed “a collision so violent it popped out the


id: diagnostiek-der-zielsziekten-in-voorlezingen-voor-studenten-artsen-en-juristen-20260505-0
category: reference
title: Diagnostiek der Zielsziekten in voorlezingen voor studenten, artsen en juristen
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:21.423324+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: diagnostiek-der-zielsziekten-in-voorlezingen-voor-studenten-artsen-en-juristen-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnostiek_der_Zielsziekten_in_voorlezingen_voor_studenten,_artsen_en_juristen-0.md

summary:
The book Diagnostiek der Zielsziekten in voorlezingen voor studenten, artsen en juristen (English: Diagnostics for Mind diseases in Lectures for students, medical practitioners and jurists) is an 1891 book written by J.W.H Wijsman. Wijsman (1857–1928) was born in The Hague and studied in Amsterdam. In 1882, he became officer of health in the East Indies and worked as medical practitioner and director at the health establishment Sindanglaija. After this position, he came back to the Netherlands and became a school doctor in 1904. During the years Wijsman lived in the East Indies, he wrote the book Diagnostics for mind diseases as a manual for medical practitioners. According to him, medical practitioners had very little knowledge about psychiatry, and without this knowledge they could not examine and treat mentally ill people in a proper way. == Structure == The book contains ten lectures. These lectures make up the chapters of the book. The first chapter, which is called Aetiology. Medical examination (Aetiologie. Ziekenonderzoek), gives an introduction of possible causes for mental diseases and instructions for diagnosing these diseases. The next six chapters are about specific diseases, in each chapter a couple of related diseases are discussed: hallucinations, illusions, affects, moods, delusions,

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnostiek_der_Zielsziekten_in_voorlezingen_voor_studenten,_artsen_en_juristen


id: diagnostiek-der-zielsziekten-in-voorlezingen-voor-studenten-artsen-en-juristen-20260505-1
category: reference
title: Diagnostiek der Zielsziekten in voorlezingen voor studenten, artsen en juristen
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:21.423324+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: diagnostiek-der-zielsziekten-in-voorlezingen-voor-studenten-artsen-en-juristen-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnostiek_der_Zielsziekten_in_voorlezingen_voor_studenten,_artsen_en_juristen-1.md

summary:
=== Judicial-medical reports === The most common crimes done by mentally ill people are: murder, theft, arson and fraud. For some diseases certain crimes are very distinctive, for example; paranoia is associated with murder and idiocy with moral offenses. To decide about the liability in case of certain crimes, a mental examination can be done, which can change the sentence. A medical report contains the answers patients have given to questions of the medical practitioner, the impression the practitioner has of the patient and remarkable occurrences. The examination of genitals and skull measures is also mentioned. Further, it concludes the confession and explanation of the crime and the opinions of people who know the patient. At the end the conclusions of the examination and the continuation of the process are stated. Examples of these medical reports are included in the final chapter. Because mental illnesses are difficult to simulate, fraud is not very common. Simulating a disease is very exhausting and can be noticed fast. Moreover, some features are not to simulate, like changes in respiration or blood circulation. The book gives an advice in how to handle by suspecting fraud: ignore the person and if this does not work

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnostiek_der_Zielsziekten_in_voorlezingen_voor_studenten,_artsen_en_juristen


id: dibs-in-search-of-self-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dibs_in_Search_of_Self-0.md
category: reference
title: Dibs in Search of Self
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dibs_in_Search_of_Self
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:22.569919+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dibs-in-search-of-self-20260505-0
summary:
Dibs in Search of Self is a book by clinical psychologist and author Virginia Axline published in 1964. The book chronicles a series of play therapy sessions over a period of one year with a boy (Dibs) who comes from a wealthy and highly educated family. Despite signs that he is gifted, his mother, father, and most of his teachers perceive him as having an emotional or cognitive disorder. Dibs presents abnormal social behavior by continuously isolating himself, rarely speaking, and physically lashing out at those around him. In their weekly sessions together, Axline incorporates the principles of non-directive play therapy. Her approach to children was based on the humanistic concepts of Carl Rogers and person-centered therapy. Dibs is able to do and say whatever he wants during his hour in play therapy, while Axline provides patience and support. In this environment, Dibs slowly opens up and begins exploring his feelings. Axline's responses to Dibs are primarily reflections, demonstrating to Dibs that she is listening to him without judging him. By the end of the book, which spans the course of one full year, Dibs makes notable strides in his ability to express himself, identify and cope with his feelings,


id: the-disowned-self-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Disowned_Self-0.md
category: reference
title: The Disowned Self
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Disowned_Self
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:23.718225+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-disowned-self-20260505-0
summary:
The Disowned Self is a book written by Nathaniel Branden in 1971 and published in 1972. It was Branden's third book in the area of psychology (preceded by The Psychology of Self-Esteem and Breaking Free). == Synopsis == The Disowned Self explores, "...the problem of self-alienation - a condition in which the individual is out of contact with his own needs, feelings, emotions, frustrations and longings, so that he is largely oblivious to his actual self and his life is the reflection of an unreal self, of a role he has adopted. The problem of obliviousness to self, the causes and consequences of such obliviousness, and its treatment psychotherapeutically - is the theme of this book." Branden describes the process whereby individuals become disconnected from their inner experience. The book reintroduces, in an abbreviated form, Branden's previously published theory of psychology and the central role played by self-esteem. It goes on to provide a philosophical foundation for the psychological theory of the disowned self. The book gives detailed descriptions of patients experiencing the problem, the history of their problems, and the treatments used by Branden. One method emphasized by Branden is the use of "sentence stems", a therapeutic technique he


id: the-doctor-and-the-soul-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Doctor_and_the_Soul-0.md
category: reference
title: The Doctor and the Soul
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Doctor_and_the_Soul
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:24.866904+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-doctor-and-the-soul-20260505-0
summary:
The Doctor and the Soul (German: Ärztliche Seelsorge; subtitled From Psychotherapy to Logotherapy in English translations) is a 1946 book by Viktor E. Frankl, the Viennese psychiatrist and founder of logotherapy. The book explores topics on the meaning of life in general as well as the meaning of specific areas of one's life, such as work and personal relationships. Frankl took the original manuscript of the book with him into the Nazi concentration camps where he was held. However, it was soon discarded by other inmates. Frankl later reconstructed the manuscript from memory while still in the concentration camps, and published after the end of World War II. == Contents == The Doctor and the Soul is divided into five sections: From Psychotherapy to Logotherapy From Psychoanalysis to Existential Analysis Logotherapy as a Psychotherapeutic Technique From Secular Confession to Medical Ministry Psychotherapy on Its Way to Rehumanization == Writing == Frankl wrote the book initially during Nazi occupation of Austria. However, he was not able to publish at that time. Instead, he was forced to hide his manuscript and take it with him to the concentration camps. Soon after arriving at the concentration camp, Frankl was forced to discard his


id: drive-the-surprising-truth-about-what-motivates-us-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drive:_The_Surprising_Truth_About_What_Motivates_Us-0.md
category: reference
title: Drive: The Surprising Truth About What Motivates Us
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drive:_The_Surprising_Truth_About_What_Motivates_Us
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:26.044988+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: drive-the-surprising-truth-about-what-motivates-us-20260505-0
summary:
Drive: The Surprising Truth About What Motivates Us is a non-fiction book written by Daniel Pink. The book was published in 2009 by Riverhead Hardcover. It argues that human motivation is largely intrinsic and that the aspects of this motivation can be divided into autonomy, mastery, and purpose, while old models of motivation driven by rewards and fear of punishment, dominated by extrinsic factors such as money. == Summary == The central claim of the book is that higher pay and bonuses result in better performance within the workplace only if tasks consist of basic mechanical skills. If the task involved cognitive skills, decision-making, creativity, or higher-order thinking, higher pay resulted in lower performance. Pink suggests, "You should pay enough to take the issue of money off the table". Much of the book is based on studies done at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and other universities, To motivate employees who work beyond basic tasks, Pink believes that supporting employees in the following areas will result in increased performance and satisfaction: Autonomy – A desire to be self directed, it increases engagement over compliance. Mastery – The urge to get better skilled. Purpose – The desire to do something that


id: the-eden-express-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Eden_Express-0.md
category: reference
title: The Eden Express
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Eden_Express
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:27.153224+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-eden-express-20260505-0
summary:
The Eden Express: A Memoir of Insanity (ISBN 1-58322-543-9) is a 1975 memoir by Mark Vonnegut, son of American writer Kurt Vonnegut, about Mark's experiences in the late 1960s and his major psychotic breakdown and recovery. After his recovery, he undertook the study of medicine and orthomolecular medicine, although he later disavowed the latter. The foreword was written by Kurt Vonnegut, who said, "his [Mark Vonnegut's] wish is to tell people who are going insane something about the shape of the roller coaster they are on." The Eden Express is an autobiographical account of Mark's years immediately after college, his thoughts, experiences and descent into and eventual emergence from mental illness. It starts with the words, "June 1969: Swarthmore Graduation. The night before, someone had taken white paint and painted "Commence What?" on the front of the stage." It continues with an account of his journey in a VW Bug to the wilds of British Columbia to build a commune with his girlfriend and college friends. The book continues until two years later, on Valentine's Day, 1971, Vonnegut had suffered from a psychotic episode and was committed to Woodlands Psychiatric Hospital in New Westminster, about 10 days after taking mescaline,


id: edifying-discourses-in-diverse-spirits-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edifying_Discourses_in_Diverse_Spirits-0.md
category: reference
title: Edifying Discourses in Diverse Spirits
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edifying_Discourses_in_Diverse_Spirits
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:28.330506+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: edifying-discourses-in-diverse-spirits-20260505-0
summary:
Edifying Discourses in Diverse Spirits (Danish: Opbyggelige Taler i forskjellig Aand, also known as Upbuilding Discourses in Various Spirits) is an 1847 book by Søren Kierkegaard. Like many of his other books, this one is split into three parts. Kierkegaard had been working toward creating a place for the concepts of guilt and sin in the conscience of the single individual. He discussed the ideas generated by both Johann von Goethe and Friedrich Hegel concerning reason and nature. This book is his response to the ideas that nature and reason are perfect. The first part of the book challenges those who say they are not guilty of anything, the second to do with the idea that nature is perfect, and the third to discuss the concept of the abstract and the concrete examples. == Structure == Walter Lowrie translated The Point of View of My Work as an Author by Kierkegaard in 1939 and 1962 and included My Activity as a Writer by Soren Kierkegaard (1851) in the book, in which Kierkegaard wrote:I attached myself again religiously to "that individual", to whom the next essential work (after the Concluding Postscript) was dedicated. I refer to Edifying Discourses in Divers Spirits,


id: edifying-discourses-in-diverse-spirits-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edifying_Discourses_in_Diverse_Spirits-1.md
category: reference
title: Edifying Discourses in Diverse Spirits
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edifying_Discourses_in_Diverse_Spirits
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:28.330506+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: edifying-discourses-in-diverse-spirits-20260505-0
summary:
Harold Victor Martin published Kierkegaard, the Melancholy Dane (1950) and said in regards to the book: The personal religious sense of Repetition in relation to time and eternity is brought out by Kierkegaard in a striking Discourse entitled: The Joy of it—that what thou dost lose temporally, thou dost gain eternally. Within his temporal existence, man can only lose the temporal temporally. The seriousness of life is that it is possible for man in his temporal existence to lose the eternal; and this in fact is Kierkegaard's definition of sin—in time to lose eternity. What man must strive after is to gain the eternal eternally. p. 60Douglas V. Steere wrote a long introduction to his 1938 publication of the first part of Upbuilding Discourses in Various Spirits. Purify your Heart of 1937 became Purity of Heart is to Will One Thing in the hands of Steere in 1938. He says Eduard Geismar (1871–1939), the Danish scholar, said of the book, "It seems to me that nothing that he has written has sprung so directly out of his relationship with God as this address. Anyone who wishes to understand Kierkegaard properly will do well to begin with it." Three Discourses on


id: either-or-kierkegaard-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Either/Or_(Kierkegaard_book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Either/Or (Kierkegaard book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Either/Or_(Kierkegaard_book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:29.518019+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: either-or-kierkegaard-book-20260505-0
summary:
Either/Or (Danish: Enten – Eller) is the first published work of Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard. It appeared in two volumes in 1843 under the pseudonymous editorship of Victor Eremita (Latin for "victorious hermit"). It outlines a theory of human existence, marked by the distinction between an essentially hedonistic, aesthetic mode of life and the ethical life, which is predicated upon commitment. Either/Or portrays two life views. Each life view is written and represented by a fictional author, with the prose reflecting and depending on the life view. The aesthetic life view is written in short essay form, with poetic imagery and allusions, discussing aesthetic topics such as music, seduction, drama, and beauty. The ethical life view is written as two long letters, with a more argumentative and restrained prose, discussing moral responsibility, critical reflection, and marriage. The views are expressed as experiences embodied by the fictional authors. The book's central concern is Aristotle's primal question, "How should we live?" His motto comes from Plutarch, "The deceived is wiser than one not deceived." The aesthetic is the personal, subjective realm of existence, where an individual lives and extracts pleasure from life for its own sake. This realm offers the possibility of


id: either-or-kierkegaard-book-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Either/Or_(Kierkegaard_book)-1.md
category: reference
title: Either/Or (Kierkegaard book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Either/Or_(Kierkegaard_book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:29.518019+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: either-or-kierkegaard-book-20260505-0
summary:
This essay discusses the idea that music expresses sensuality. "A" evaluates Mozart's The Marriage of Figaro, The Magic Flute and Don Giovanni, as well as Goethe's Faust. "A" accepts the task of proving, through the works of Mozart, that "music is a higher, or more spiritual art, than language". During this process, he offers three stages of the musical-erotic. He distinguishes a seducer such as Don Juan, who falls under aesthetic categories, and Faust, who falls under ethical categories. "The musical Don Juan enjoys the satisfaction of desire; the reflective Don Juan enjoys the deception, enjoys the cunning." Don Juan is split between the aesthetic and the ethical. He becomes lost in the multiplicity of the "1,003 women he has to seduce" (as in the famous aria "Madamina, il catalogo è questo"), Faust seduces just one woman. This section deals with theological questions. "A" asks if God seduces 1,003 people at one time or if he seduces one individual at a time in order to make a believer. He writes: Achim v. Arnim tells somewhere of a seducer of a very different style, a seducer who falls under ethical categories. About him he uses an expression which in truth, boldness,


id: either-or-kierkegaard-book-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Either/Or_(Kierkegaard_book)-2.md
category: reference
title: Either/Or (Kierkegaard book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Either/Or_(Kierkegaard_book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:29.518019+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: either-or-kierkegaard-book-20260505-0
summary:
=== Diary of a Seducer === Written by "Johannes the Seducer", this volume illustrates how the aesthete holds the "interesting" as his highest value and that to satisfy his voyeuristic reflections, he manipulates the girl Cordelia into becoming interesting – he seduces her, but then schemes to have her question the idea of engagement. Finally, Johannes succeeds in having Cordelia break the engagement. He uses irony, artifice, caprice, imagination and arbitrariness to engineer poetically satisfying possibilities; he is not so much interested in the act of seduction as in willfully creating its interesting possibility. The Seducer is reminiscent of Faust Part 1, Scene VII (A Street). Faust says to Mephistopheles, "Listen, you must get that girl for me!" Mephistopheles says she's an "innocent" girl, but Faust says she's "older than 14". Mephistopheles says he's "speaking like some Don Juan". Faust then calls the devil a Master Moraliser. But Goethe may have been responding to Christopher Marlowe's The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus (1616); Goethe and Marlowe have devils and angels as third person or persons between him and his love, but Kierkegaard has a different third person involved in the discussions between Johannes the Seducer and Cordelia. He has this


id: either-or-kierkegaard-book-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Either/Or_(Kierkegaard_book)-3.md
category: reference
title: Either/Or (Kierkegaard book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Either/Or_(Kierkegaard_book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:29.518019+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: either-or-kierkegaard-book-20260505-0
summary:
"The Aesthetic Validity of Marriage": This letter is about the aesthetic value of marriage and defends marriage as a way of life. "Equilibrium between the Aesthetic and the Ethical in the Development of Personality" concerns the subject of choosing the good, or one's self, and of the value of making binding life-choices. "Ultimatum": The volume ends in a discourse on the Thought that, against God everyone is always wrong. His spiritual advice for "A" and "B" is that they make peace with each other. Kierkegaard quotes from: the Gospel of Luke 19:42 NIV "and said, "If you, even you, had only known on this day what would bring you peace --but now it is hidden from your eyes." Sennacherib's prism 2 Kings 19:35 "That night the angel of the LORD went out and put to death a hundred and eighty-five thousand men in the Assyrian camp When the people got up the next morning -- there were all the dead bodies!" to the end for this discourse. It is human nature to look to external forces when faced with obstacles, but the ethicist is against this. Comparison is an esthetic exercise and has nothing to do with ethics and religion.


id: either-or-kierkegaard-book-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Either/Or_(Kierkegaard_book)-4.md
category: reference
title: Either/Or (Kierkegaard book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Either/Or_(Kierkegaard_book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:29.518019+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: either-or-kierkegaard-book-20260505-0
summary:
The characters in Either/Or believe everyone is alike in that everyone has talent or everyone has the conditions that would allow them to live an ethical life. Goethe wanted to love and complained that he couldn't be loved, but everyone else could be. But he wished, he didn't have an expectancy to work his will to love. Kierkegaard responds to him: You know that you must not wish - and thereupon he went further. When his soul became anxious, he called to it and said: When you are anxious, it is because you are wishing; anxiety is a form of wishing, and you know that you must not wish - then he went further. When he was close to despair, when he said: I cannot; everyone else can - only I cannot. Oh, that I had never heard those words, that with my grief I had been allowed to go my way undisturbed - and with my wish. Then he called to his soul and said: Now you are being crafty, for you say that you are wishing and pretend that it is a question of something external that one can wish, whereas you know that it is something internal


id: either-or-kierkegaard-book-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Either/Or_(Kierkegaard_book)-5.md
category: reference
title: Either/Or (Kierkegaard book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Either/Or_(Kierkegaard_book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:29.518019+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: either-or-kierkegaard-book-20260505-0
summary:
== Interpretation == The extremely nested pseudonymity of this work adds a problem of interpretation. A and B are the authors of the work, Eremita is the editor. Kierkegaard's role in all this appears to be that he deliberately sought to disconnect himself from the points of view expressed in his works, although the absurdity of his pseudonyms" bizarre Latin names proves that he did not hope to thoroughly conceal his identity from the reader. Kierkegaard's Papers first edition VIII(2), B 81 - 89 explain this method in writing. He discussed Either/Or in first and second edition in his 1848, 1859 book The Point of View of My Work as an Author. In my career as an author, a point has now been reached where it is permissible to do what I feel a strong impulse to do and so regard as my duty — namely, to explain once for all, as directly and frankly as possible, what is what: what I as an author declare myself to be. The moment (however unpropitious it may be in another sense) is now appropriate; partly because (as I have said) this point has been reached, and partly because I am about to


id: either-or-kierkegaard-book-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Either/Or_(Kierkegaard_book)-6.md
category: reference
title: Either/Or (Kierkegaard book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Either/Or_(Kierkegaard_book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:29.518019+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: either-or-kierkegaard-book-20260505-0
summary:
From a purely literary and historical point of view, Either/Or can be seen as a thinly veiled autobiography of the events between Kierkegaard and his ex-fiancée Regine Olsen. Johannes the Seducer in The Diary of a Seducer treats the object of his affection, Cordelia, much as Kierkegaard treats Regine: befriending her family, asking her to marry him, and breaking off the engagement. Either/Or, then, could be the poetic and literary expression of Kierkegaard's decision between a life of sensual pleasure, as he had experienced in his youth, or a possibility of marriage and what social responsibilities marriage might or ought to entail. Ultimately however, Either/Or stands philosophically independent of its relation to Kierkegaard's life. Yet, Kierkegaard was concerned about Regine because she tended to assume the life view of characters she saw in the plays of Shakespeare at the theater. One day she would be "Beatrice in Much Ado about Nothing" and another Juliet. == Reception == === Early reception === Either/Or established Kierkegaard's reputation as a respected author. Henriette Wulff, in a letter to Hans Christian Andersen, wrote, "Recently a book was published here with the title Either/Or! It is supposed to be quite strange, the first part full


id: either-or-kierkegaard-book-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Either/Or_(Kierkegaard_book)-7.md
category: reference
title: Either/Or (Kierkegaard book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Either/Or_(Kierkegaard_book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:29.518019+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: either-or-kierkegaard-book-20260505-0
summary:
=== Later reception === Although Either/Or, published in 1843, was Kierkegaard's first major book, it was one of his last books to be translated into English, as late as 1944. Frederick DeW. Bolman Jr. insisted that reviewers consider the book in this way: "In general, we have a right to discover, if we can, the meaning of a work as comprehensive as Either/Or, considering it upon its own merits and not reducing the meaning so as to fit into the author's later perspective. It occurred to me that this was a service to understanding Kierkegaard, whose esthetic and ethical insights have been much slighted by those enamored of his religion of renunciation and transcendence. ... Kierkegaard's brilliance seems to me to be showing that while goodness, truth, and beauty can not speculatively be derived one from another, yet these three are integrally related in the dynamics of a healthy character structure". David F. Swenson, a professor at the University of Minnesota, introduced three lectures about Kierkegaard in 1918 in which he "presented Soren Kierkegaard’s delineation of three fundamental modes of life: First, the Life of Enjoyment – Folly and Cleverness in the Pursuit of Pleasure; second, the Life of Duty


id: the-elephant-in-the-brain-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Elephant_in_the_Brain-0.md
category: reference
title: The Elephant in the Brain
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Elephant_in_the_Brain
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:30.672062+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-elephant-in-the-brain-20260505-0
summary:
The Elephant in the Brain: Hidden Motives in Everyday Life is a 2018 nonfiction book by Kevin Simler and Robin Hanson. Simler is a writer and software engineer, while Hanson is an associate professor of economics at George Mason University. The book explores self-deception and hidden motives in human behaviour. The publisher's website describes the aim of the book as 'to track down the darker, unexamined corners of our psyches and blast them with floodlights'. == Summary == The main thesis of the book is that we are very often not aware of our real reasons for most of our behaviours. Our behaviors are optimised for living in a social group and very often, from the point of view of natural selection, it is useful if we are not consciously aware of our real motivations. The book is split into two sections. The first, entitled 'Why We Hide Our Motives', includes an introduction to the subjects of animal behaviour, signalling, social norms and self-deception. In the second section, entitled 'Hidden Motives in Everyday Life', each chapter covers an aspect of human behaviour and describes how it can be explained through the framework of signalling and self-deception outlined in the first


id: the-elephant-in-the-brain-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Elephant_in_the_Brain-1.md
category: reference
title: The Elephant in the Brain
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Elephant_in_the_Brain
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:30.672062+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-elephant-in-the-brain-20260505-0
summary:
=== Politics === On the face of it, the reason that people participate in politics is to improve the world in some way. However, most of us engage in politics in a way which is emotional, poorly informed relative to the strength of claims that we make, and we are generally unwilling to compromise on political issues. These facts are better explained if politics is a way of signalling affiliation to a 'tribe' of like-minded people than as a way of actually trying to improve the world. == Reception == Writing in The Wall Street Journal, Matthew Hutson called the book 'refreshingly frank' and 'penetrating'. In a mostly negative review for The New Yorker, journalist and novelist John Lanchester praised the section on education, but criticized the book for 'taking an argument that has worthwhile applications and extending it further than it usefully goes '. He also claimed that the emphasis on hidden motives undermined human achievements generated by those motives, such as 'writing symphonies, curing diseases, building cathedrals, searching into the deepest mysteries of time and space and so on'. Hanson responded to these criticisms on his blog. A review for Publishers Weekly called the book a 'fascinating and


id: emotional-design-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_Design-0.md
category: reference
title: Emotional Design
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_Design
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:31.814293+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: emotional-design-20260505-0
summary:
Emotional Design is both the title of a book by Donald Norman and of the concept it represents. == Content == The main topic covered is how emotions have a crucial role in the human ability to understand the world, and how they learn new things. In fact, studies show that emotion influences people's information processing and decision-making For example: aesthetically pleasing objects appear to the user to be more effective, by virtue of their sensual appeal. This is due to the affinity the user feels for an object that appeals to them, due to the formation of an emotional connection with the object. Consequently, It is believed that companies and designers should not rely on pricey marketing; they should link their services to customers' emotions and daily lives to get them "hooked" on a product. Norman's approach is based on classical ABC model of attitudes. However, he changed the concept to be suitable for application in design. The three dimensions have new names (visceral, behavioral and reflective level) and partially new content . The first is the "visceral" level which is about immediate initial reactions people unconsciously do and are greatly determined by sensory factors (look, feel, smell, and


id: emotional-design-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_Design-1.md
category: reference
title: Emotional Design
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_Design
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:31.814293+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: emotional-design-20260505-0
summary:
== Concept == Emotions are a fundamental aspect of human experience, and our emotional responses to people, places, and objects are shaped by a complex interplay of factors. As Peter Boatwright and Jonathan Cagan point out, "emotion is human, and its reach is vast". In the current marketplace, successful companies are not just creating good products, but also producing captivating ones that not only attract consumer attention, but also influence their demands and increase their engagement based on both the product's performance and how it makes them feel. Emotional design is also influenced by the four pleasures, identified in Designing Pleasurable Products by Patrick W. Jordan. In this book Jordan builds on the work of Lionel Tiger to identify the four kinds of pleasures. Jordan describes these as "modes of motivation that enhance a product or a service. Life is unenjoyable without appreciating what we do, and it is human intuition to seek pleasure." The idea of incorporating pleasure into products is to provide the buyer with an added experience. Jordan points out in his book that a product should be more than something functional and/or aesthetically pleasing and it should evoke an emotion through the use of pleasures. Although


id: emotional-design-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_Design-2.md
category: reference
title: Emotional Design
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_Design
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:31.814293+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: emotional-design-20260505-0
summary:
=== In product design === Emotional design has a crucial role in product design, extending beyond a product's functionality and into the realm of meaningful experiences that evoke emotions in users. By introducing emotional cues into the product design, designers can provide users with emotions that create trust, satisfaction, joy, or nostalgia - all of which have an influential way of impacting user perceptions, engagement, and loyalty towards products. Research has shown that when users have an emotional connection to their product, it can enhance how effectively a product is usable, desirable, aesthetically pleasing, and valuable over time. Emotional design is associated with shaping user experience through affective responses that may influence how users perceive and evaluate a product over time. These responses can be influenced by design elements such as visual appearance, color, and feedback, which may contribute to usability and perceived product quality. ==== Enhancing usability through emotional design ==== One prominent impact of emotional design in product development is to improve usability and self-efficacy. Buker et al. outline that when products are designed to evoke positive emotion, it can improve the overall confidence of users performing tasks successfully. Their research found that emotional product design can develop


id: emotional-design-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_Design-3.md
category: reference
title: Emotional Design
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_Design
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:31.814293+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: emotional-design-20260505-0
summary:
== Relationship between emotion and design == Emotion and design are intricately linked in the field of emotional design, which is concerned with creating products, interfaces, and experiences that engage users on an emotional level. Emotions design involves the intentional use of design elements to evoke specific emotional responses in users. The relationship between emotion and design in emotional design is rooted in the idea that emotions are a key driver of human behavior. People are more likely to engage with products and interfaces that evoke positive emotions such as joy, excitement, and delight, while negative emotions such as frustration and anger can lead to disengagement and avoidance. In emotional design, designers use a variety of techniques to evoke emotions in users. These may include the use of color, typography, imagery, sound, and motion, among others. For example, a website might use bright, cheerful colors and playful animations to create a sense of fun and whimsy, while a meditation app might use soft, calming colors and soothing sounds to create a sense of relaxation and tranquility. == Ethical considerations in emotional design == While the potential of emotional design is significant, ethical considerations also come into play, especially when it


id: the-end-of-average-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_End_of_Average-0.md
category: reference
title: The End of Average
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_End_of_Average
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:33.031450+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-end-of-average-20260505-0
summary:
The End of Average: How We Succeed in a World That Values Sameness is a book by Todd Rose. It was published by HarperCollins in 2016, and talks about the importance of individuality rather than the concept of average human beings. In this book, the author argues that no individual can be accurately labeled as average. He presents an alternative to understanding individuals solely based on averages. He introduces three principles of individuality - the jaggedness principle (talent is always uneven), the context principle (traits are not fixed), and the pathways principle (we often take unconventional routes). According to The New York Times, “Readers will be moved to examine their own averagerian prejudices, most so ingrained as to be almost invisible, all worthy of review.” As per Kirkus Reviews, the book is “an intriguing view into the evolution and imperfections of our current system but lacks a clear path toward implementing the proposed principles of individuality.” == References == == Further reading == Bethune, Brian (January 25, 2016). "Todd Rose, high school dropout turned Harvard professor, on why the idea of average is damaging, especially when it comes to education". Maclean's. pp. 12–13. Retrieved February 22, 2016. Hart, Anna (January


id: escape-from-freedom-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escape_from_Freedom-0.md
category: reference
title: Escape from Freedom
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escape_from_Freedom
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:34.221271+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: escape-from-freedom-20260505-0
summary:
Escape from Freedom is a book by psychoanalyst Erich Fromm, first published under that title in the United States by Farrar & Rinehart in 1941 and a year later as The Fear of Freedom in the UK by Routledge & Kegan Paul. It was translated into German and first published in 1952 under the title Die Angst vor der Freiheit (The Fear of Freedom). In the book, Fromm explores humanity's shifting relationship with freedom, how individual freedom can cause fear, anxiety, and alienation, and how many people seek relief by relinquishing freedom. He describes how authoritarianism can be a mechanism of escape for such people, with special emphasis on the psychosocial conditions that enabled the rise of Nazism. == Summary == === Fromm's concept of freedom === Fromm distinguishes between "freedom from" (negative freedom) and "freedom to" (positive freedom). The former refers to emancipation from restrictions such as social conventions placed on individuals by other people or institutions. This is the kind of freedom typified by the existentialism of Sartre, and has often been fought for historically but, according to Fromm, on its own it can be a destructive force unless accompanied by a creative element – 'freedom to' –


id: escape-from-freedom-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escape_from_Freedom-1.md
category: reference
title: Escape from Freedom
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escape_from_Freedom
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:34.221271+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: escape-from-freedom-20260505-0
summary:
=== Freedom in the 20th century === Fromm analyzes the character of Nazi ideology and suggests that the psychological conditions of Germany after the first world war fed into a desire for some form of new order to restore the nation's pride. This came in the form of Nazism and Fromm's interpretation of Mein Kampf suggests that Hitler had an authoritarian personality structure that not only made him want to rule over Germany in the name of a higher authority (the idea of a natural master race) but also made him an appealing prospect for an insecure middle class that needed some sense of pride and certainty. Fromm suggests there is a propensity to submit to authoritarian regimes when nations experience negative freedom but he sounds a positive note when he claims that the work of cultural evolution hitherto cannot be undone and Nazism does not provide a genuine union with the world. Fromm examines democracy and freedom. Modern democracy and the industrialised nation are models he praises but it is stressed that the kind of external freedom provided by this kind of society can never be utilised to the full without an equivalent inner freedom. Fromm suggests that though


id: essays-on-the-active-powers-of-the-human-mind-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essays_on_the_Active_Powers_of_the_Human_Mind-0.md
category: reference
title: Essays on the Active Powers of the Human Mind
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essays_on_the_Active_Powers_of_the_Human_Mind
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:35.372617+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: essays-on-the-active-powers-of-the-human-mind-20260505-0
summary:
Essays on the Active Powers of the Human Mind is a book written by the Scottish philosopher Thomas Reid. The first edition was published in 1788 in Edinburgh. It is the third and last volume in a collection of his essays on the powers of the human mind and was preceded by the first book Inquiry into the Human Mind on the Principles of Common Sense (1764), in which Reid focused on the senses, and the second volume Essays on the Intellectual Powers of Man (1785), which focuses on human cognitive powers. In this third volume, Reid discusses the active behavioral nature of the human mind, including discourses about free will, principles of action and morals. == Context == Reid's writings can be placed in the historical context of the emerging Scottish Enlightenment. This is a period of profound intellectual development and discourse in Scotland in the second half of the 18th century and beginning of the 19th century, especially revolving around the intellectual hub Edinburgh. During this period, Scottish philosophers including Hume, Smith and Stewart were disputing philosophical topics including questions about the human nature, morality and epistemology. Reid was especially in close correspondence with his contemporary David Hume.


id: essays-on-the-active-powers-of-the-human-mind-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essays_on_the_Active_Powers_of_the_Human_Mind-1.md
category: reference
title: Essays on the Active Powers of the Human Mind
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essays_on_the_Active_Powers_of_the_Human_Mind
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:35.372617+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: essays-on-the-active-powers-of-the-human-mind-20260505-0
summary:
that the action has to be voluntary to be morally evaluated ("what is in no degree voluntary can neither deserve oral approbation nor blame", "what is done from unavoidable necessity [...] cannot be object either of blame or of moral approbation") an evaluation as immoral can result either from an action or from the omission of an action Reid sees it as "duty" and revealing the "true worth of a man" to have reflected thoroughly about his moral foundations in a well informed manner and to always have these moral foundations in mind and act accordingly, avoiding temptations humans are the only living beings on the world being that are capable of acting according to or against their moral intention everyone should do as much good as possible to the societies he belongs to (including mankind overall but also family, neighborhoods, etc. in the smaller context) one should act towards others in a way one would judge to be right (or how one would like to be treated) moral judgment develops similarly to mathematical skills as one matures and can be aided or hurt by proper education == Reception == Reid's work played a major role in the development of


id: evaluating-a-large-group-awareness-training-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaluating_a_Large_Group_Awareness_Training-0.md
category: reference
title: Evaluating a Large Group Awareness Training
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaluating_a_Large_Group_Awareness_Training
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:36.551025+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evaluating-a-large-group-awareness-training-20260505-0
summary:
Evaluating a Large Group Awareness Training: A Longitudinal Study of Psychosocial Effects is a non-fiction psychology book on Large Group Awareness Training, published in 1990 by Springer-Verlag. The book was co-authored by psychologists Jeffrey D. Fisher, Roxane Cohen Silver, Jack M. Chinsky, Barry Goff, and Yechiel Klar. The book was based on a psychological study of "The Forum", a course at the time run by Werner Erhard and Associates, the company that commissioned the research. Werner Erhard and Associates financed the study, providing US$88,000 in funding for research of its program. Results of the study were published in two articles in the Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology in 1989 and 1990. Fisher and co-authors gave initial context for the study, providing analysis and discussion of academic literature in psychology regarding Large Group Awareness Training. The psychologists analyzed whether Large Group Awareness Training could be classified as psychotherapy, and attempted to determine whether these techniques are harmful, beneficial, or produce no effects to an individual's mental health. Participants included individuals that took part in a 1985 program of "The Forum" in the Northeastern United States. They were told they were participating in a "Quality of Life" study, and were instructed


id: evaluating-a-large-group-awareness-training-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaluating_a_Large_Group_Awareness_Training-1.md
category: reference
title: Evaluating a Large Group Awareness Training
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaluating_a_Large_Group_Awareness_Training
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:36.551025+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evaluating-a-large-group-awareness-training-20260505-0
summary:
== Methods == The book analyzed whether Large Group Awareness Training could be classified as psychotherapy, and attempted to determine whether these techniques are harmful, beneficial, or produce no effects to an individual's mental health. Participants were told that the psychologists were studying the "Quality of Life" in North America. These participants included men and women that had attended Werner Erhard and Associates' "The Forum" seminar in 1985, in a large city in the northeastern United States. Participants in the study were split into Group 1 and Group 2. Group 1 was told to fill out a questionnaire both prior to and after completing their "Forum". Group 2 was told only to fill out the questionnaire after completing their Forum course. The sample size included 83 individuals who had taken part in "The Forum", as well as an additional 52 sample groups for comparison, composed of individuals who had similar baseline characteristics to the sample Forum participants, but had not taken part in the course. The belief systems and characteristics of the participants were studied by Fisher and his team of psychologists four to six weeks before they took part in the course, four to six weeks after completing the


id: evaluating-a-large-group-awareness-training-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaluating_a_Large_Group_Awareness_Training-2.md
category: reference
title: Evaluating a Large Group Awareness Training
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaluating_a_Large_Group_Awareness_Training
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:36.551025+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evaluating-a-large-group-awareness-training-20260505-0
summary:
Authors Gerald Koocher and Patricia Keith-Spiegel cited the study in their 1998 book, Ethics in Psychology: Professional Standards and Cases. They characterized the study as, "One of the few careful attempts to study Erhard's techniques in a rigorous fashion". Koocher and Keith Spiegel noted that the Fisher study, "showed no long-term treatment effects and concluded that claims of far-reaching effects for programs of the Forum were found to be exaggerated." In a discussion of Werner Erhard's programs in his 2003 book, Psychological Foundations of Success, author Stephen J. Kraus cited the Fisher study and contrasted conclusions from it with stated results from course participants. Kraus wrote, "People who attend est or the Landmark Forum generally report positive benefits from the experience, but a study that compared attendees with a control group of non-attendees suggests that the seminar produces only a short-term boost in locus of control, and no measurable long-term effects." Writing in the 2006 book, Help at Any Cost, author Maia Szalavitz referenced the Fisher study in a discussion of the phenomenon of testimonials regarding perceived outcomes by participants from taking part in Large Group Awareness Training. Szalavitz noted, "The little research conducted on the outcomes of these seminars


id: evolutional-ethics-and-animal-psychology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutional_Ethics_and_Animal_Psychology-0.md
category: reference
title: Evolutional Ethics and Animal Psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutional_Ethics_and_Animal_Psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:37.836794+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evolutional-ethics-and-animal-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
Evolutional Ethics and Animal Psychology is an 1897 book by American scholar Edward Payson Evans, published by D. Appleton & Company. The book examines the ethical implications of evolutionary theory for the treatment of nonhuman animals. Evans argues that evolutionary continuity undermines traditional anthropocentrism in moral philosophy and supports extending moral concern to animals. The book discusses animal psychology, the history of ethics, and human–animal relationships. Evans argues that animals' mental and emotional capacities should be recognized in ethics and law. It was among the early English-language works to connect evolutionary ethics with animal rights, and was later cited by writers including Henry Stephens Salt. Reviews at the time were mixed. == Background == Edward Payson Evans (1831–1917) was an American scholar with interests in literature, languages, and moral philosophy. He taught modern languages at the University of Michigan and later lived in Europe, where he contributed to the Allgemeine Zeitung of Munich. His published works covered German literature, linguistics, religious symbolism, and ethics. Evolutional Ethics and Animal Psychology followed Evans's 1894 article "Ethical Relations Between Man and Beast", in which he criticized anthropocentric moral views and argued for broader ethical consideration of animals. In that article, Evans discussed religious


id: existential-psychotherapy-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_Psychotherapy_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Existential Psychotherapy (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_Psychotherapy_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:38.976955+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: existential-psychotherapy-book-20260505-0
summary:
Existential Psychotherapy is a book about existential psychotherapy by the American psychiatrist Irvin D. Yalom, in which the author, addressing clinical practitioners, offers a brief and pragmatic introduction to European existential philosophy, as well as to existential approaches to psychotherapy. He presents his four ultimate concerns of life—death, freedom, isolation, and meaninglessness—and discusses developmental changes, psychopathology and psychotherapeutic strategies with regard to these four concerns. This work is considered to be among Yalom's most influential books, as is his groundbreaking textbook on group therapy The Theory and Practice of Group Psychotherapy (1970). == Contents == === Introduction === In Chapter 1 (Introduction), the author presents three views of the prototype of intrapsychic conflict in the individual: the Freud­ian view, the neo-Freudian view (as represented by Harry Stack Sullivan, Karen Horney, Erich Fromm), and the existential view. He also offers a short review of the European tradition of existential philosophical thinking (with brief excursions on Søren Kierkegaard, Martin Heidegger and others) as well as existential analytic thought (referring to the presentation in Rollo May's book Existence of 1958), outlining also the American field of humanistic psychology in comparison with the existential tradition in Europe. He points out the influence of European


id: existential-psychotherapy-book-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_Psychotherapy_(book)-1.md
category: reference
title: Existential Psychotherapy (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_Psychotherapy_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:38.976955+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: existential-psychotherapy-book-20260505-0
summary:
"To experience existence in this manner is a dizzying sensation. Nothing is as it seemed The very ground beneath one seems to open up. Indeed, groundlessness is a commonly used term for a subjective experience of responsibility awareness. Many existential philosophers have described the anxiety of groundlessness as ″ur-anxiety″—the most fundamental anxiety, an anxiety that cuts deeper even than the anxiety associated with death." Yalom contends that: "The classical psychoneurotic syndromes have become a rarity. [...] Today's patient has to cope more with freedom than with suppressed drives. [...] the patient has to cope with the problem of choice—what he or she wants to do" and that "at both individual and social level, we engage in a frenetic search to shield ourselves from freedom." Yalom discusses various responsibility-voiding defenses, including: "compulsivity", displacement of responsibility to another, denial of responsibility ("innocent victim", "losing control"), avoidance of autonomous behaviour and decisional pathology. Yalom recites examples in literature, case studies and therapeutical implications concerning situations in which persons avoid responsibility. He discusses therapeutic approaches to disorders of wishing, willing and deciding, among them Viktor Frankl's paradoxical intention, which he equates with the "symptom prescription" approach in the writings of Don Jackson, Jay Hayley,


id: existential-psychotherapy-book-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_Psychotherapy_(book)-2.md
category: reference
title: Existential Psychotherapy (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_Psychotherapy_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:38.976955+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: existential-psychotherapy-book-20260505-0
summary:
=== Part IV: Meaninglessness === In Part IV, the author discusses meaninglessness and its role in psychotherapy. He discusses various answers related to questions around the "meaning of life", distinguishing between "cosmic" and "terrestrial" meaning, and noting that "most Western theological and atheistic existential systems agree [that] it is good and right to immerse oneself in the stream of life", describing hedonism and self-actualization, which have a main focus on the self, and altruism, dedication to a cause, and creativity, which focus more on transcending oneself. He presents in depth Frankl's therapeutic approach, logotherapy, that focusses on the human search for meaning. In terms of clinical research, he speaks of two psychometric instruments designed to measure purpose in life, summarizing criticism and results with regard to the "Purpose–in–Life Test" and briefly mentioning the "Life Regard Index". Yalom holds that the search for meaning is paradoxical in a similar sense as Frankl sees the search for pleasure to be paradoxical: it cannot be achieved if aimed at directly and must rather be pursued indirectly ("obliquely"). He states that, if a patient reports a lack of meaning in life, it is important for the therapist to first learn whether there are possibly


id: fads-fakes-and-frauds-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fads,_Fakes,_and_Frauds-0.md
category: reference
title: Fads, Fakes, and Frauds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fads,_Fakes,_and_Frauds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:40.137606+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fads-fakes-and-frauds-20260505-0
summary:
Fads, Fakes, and Frauds: Exploding Myths in Culture, Science and Psychology is a 2022 book written by Tomasz Witkowski and foreworded by Roy Baumeister. == Outline == The book consists of 18 critical essays, organized into five distinct parts. The initial part, Under the Veneer of Reality, explores the paradoxical nature of human diversity and similarity, the significance of perspective in perceiving reality, the impact of contemporary gurus, and the culture of victims. The next part, On the Edge of Life and Death, delves into the concept of suicide as an expression of ultimate freedom, evaluates the efficacy and evolution of suicide prevention strategies, and scrutinizes societal perceptions of different forms of suicide. This part concludes with a discussion on the principle of presumed innocence. The third part, Behind the Altar of Science, examines the interplay between wisdom and authority, the crucial role of unambiguity in scientific discourse, and the value of a reductive approach in epistemology. The fourth part, Under the Scenery of Pop Psychology, encompasses essays addressing misconceptions about contemporary views on loneliness, embodied cognition, misunderstandings of placebo and nocebo effects, and the controversy surrounding Hans Eysenck's fabricated research on lung cancer prevalence. The final part, Behind the


id: faith-and-health-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faith_and_Health-0.md
category: reference
title: Faith and Health
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faith_and_Health
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:41.330284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: faith-and-health-20260505-0
summary:
Faith and Health: Psychological Perspectives is a book of scientific psychology on the relationship between religious faith and health. Edited by Thomas G. Plante and Allen C. Sherman, the book was published in the United States in 2001. The book includes 16 chapters divided among four major parts that focus on general population outcomes (such as impacts on longevity), outcomes in special populations such as medical patients or adolescents, clinical implications, and overall criticisms and reflections. Faith and Health has been reviewed in several professional journals, including Contemporary Psychology, Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, and others. == Topics Covered == Faith and Health contains 16 chapters written by various psychological or biomedical researchers, and some of them are notable. Chapter titles and authors are listed in the table (below, at right). After an introductory chapter, the remaining 15 chapters are divided into four major parts. The book's first part focuses on the faith/health relation in the general population. Chapter 2 by Carl E. Thoresen and his colleagues describes the existing empirical evidence, and discusses many methodological issues. The authors view the evidence as indicating that religious/spiritual factors "appear to be associated with physical, mental, and overall health, but the


id: the-flight-from-woman-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Flight_from_Woman-0.md
category: reference
title: The Flight from Woman
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Flight_from_Woman
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:42.483832+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-flight-from-woman-20260505-0
summary:
The Flight from Woman is a book by psychiatrist Karl Stern, first published in 1965 by Farrar, Straus and Giroux. It is described as a study of the polarity of the sexes as reflected in the conflict between two modes of knowledge—scientific or rational, as contrasted with intuitive or poetic. In the course of exploring this theme Stern undertakes to provide psychological portraits of six representative figures whose thought and work have influenced modern man: Descartes, Goethe, Schopenhauer, Kierkegaard, Tolstoy, and Sartre. Reviews Man, Woman, and Person: Karl Stern, The Flight from Woman, Z. John Levay, M. D. Modern Age Volume 11, Number 1, page 83 [1]


id: the-flight-of-the-wild-gander-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Flight_of_the_Wild_Gander-0.md
category: reference
title: The Flight of the Wild Gander
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Flight_of_the_Wild_Gander
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:43.636471+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-flight-of-the-wild-gander-20260505-0
summary:
The Flight of the Wild Gander: Explorations in the Mythological Dimension is a 1969 book by mythologist Joseph Campbell, in which he collects a number of his early essays and forwards. Essays include "Bios and Mythos" (on the psycho-biological sources of mythic forms and symbols), "Mythogenesis" (on the rise and fall of a single Native American legend) and "The Symbol without Meaning" (about the secularization of myths in the modern age). The wild gander of the title is a reference to the Hindu concept of the paramahamsa, a great spiritual teacher of exalted illumination, able to transcend the mundane, just as the hamsa is able to fly above the sky-scraping Himalayas. Published originally in 1969 by Viking Press, the book was rereleased by Harper and Row in 1990. The third edition was published by New World Library in 2002, making The Flight of the Wild Gander the third title in the Joseph Campbell Foundation's Collected Works of Joseph Campbell series. == References == Campbell, Joseph (2002). The Flight of the Wild Gander. Novato, California: New World Library. ISBN 1-57731-210-4. == External links == Flight of the Wild Gander page on the JCF site


id: fooled-by-randomness-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fooled_by_Randomness-0.md
category: reference
title: Fooled by Randomness
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fooled_by_Randomness
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:44.869202+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fooled-by-randomness-20260505-0
summary:
Fooled by Randomness: The Hidden Role of Chance in Life and in the Markets is a book by Nassim Nicholas Taleb that deals with the fallibility of human knowledge. It was first published in 2001. Updated editions were released a few years later. The book is the first part of Taleb's multi-volume philosophical essay on uncertainty, titled the Incerto, which also includes The Black Swan (2007–2010), The Bed of Procrustes (2010–2016), Antifragile (2012), and Skin in the Game (2018). == Thesis == Taleb sets forth the idea that modern humans are often unaware of the existence of randomness. They tend to explain random outcomes as non-random. Human beings: overestimate causality, e.g., they see elephants in the clouds instead of understanding that they are in fact randomly shaped clouds that appear to our eyes as elephants (or something else); tend to view the world as more explainable than it really is. So they look for explanations even when there are none. Other misperceptions of randomness that are discussed include: Survivorship bias. We see the winners and try to learn from them, while forgetting the huge number of losers. Skewed distributions. Many real life phenomena are not 50:50 bets like tossing a


id: foundations-of-cyclopean-perception-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundations_of_Cyclopean_Perception-0.md
category: reference
title: Foundations of Cyclopean Perception
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundations_of_Cyclopean_Perception
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:46.034842+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: foundations-of-cyclopean-perception-20260505-0
summary:
Foundations of Cyclopean Perception (ISBN 0-226-41527-9) is a book by Bela Julesz, published in 1971. The Millennium Project ranked it at #57 on a list of the 100 most influential books in cognitive science in the 20th century. == References ==


id: four-upbuilding-discourses-1844-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Upbuilding_Discourses,_1844-0.md
category: reference
title: Four Upbuilding Discourses, 1844
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Upbuilding_Discourses,_1844
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:47.221735+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: four-upbuilding-discourses-1844-20260505-0
summary:
Four Upbuilding Discourses (1844) is the last of the Eighteen Upbuilding Discourses published during 1843–1844 by Søren Kierkegaard. == Overview == Similar to Kierkegaard's other books, the Four Upbuilding Discourses discusses decision making. In the book, he has to decide if he wants to get married after having already made the "sacred pledge". He also has to decide if he would carry out the wishes of his father Michael and become a Lutheran preacher. == Criticism == Critics were against putting stress on the inner life of the spiritual self at the expense of the outer life of the physical self. Kierkegaard would agree that a balance is necessary for one to be happy. George Brandes said in his memoirs, "That God had died for me as my Saviour,—I could not understand what it meant." == References == == Sources == === Primary sources === Man's Need of God Constitutes His Highest Perfection Søren Kierkegaard, Four Upbuilding Discourses, 1844 first discourse of the series. Translated by David F. Swenson 1944–45, 1958 Four Upbuilding Discourses, 1844 Wikiquote Eighteen Upbuilding Discourses, Hong 1990 === Secondary sources === The Western Literary Messenger, Sept 1849 Living Philosophers in Denmark Sixteen Months in the Danish


id: gender-shock-exploding-the-myths-of-male-and-female-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_Shock:_Exploding_the_Myths_of_Male_and_Female-0.md
category: reference
title: Gender Shock: Exploding the Myths of Male and Female
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_Shock:_Exploding_the_Myths_of_Male_and_Female
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:48.396687+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gender-shock-exploding-the-myths-of-male-and-female-20260505-0
summary:
Gender Shock: Exploding the Myths of Male and Female is a nonfiction book written by Phyllis Burke and published in 1996 by Anchor Books. == Background == After Burke adopted the son of her lesbian partner, she began to conduct research about gender and the relationship of gender role behavior and biologic sex. In 1993, she had published Family Values: Two Moms and Their Son, a memoir about the adoption process. Her own experience as a parent led to a research focus for Gender Shock on gender issues related to raising children. == Synopsis == The book begins with a section titled Behavior that addresses treatments by psychologists and psychiatrists for what was then described as gender identity disorder by the DSM-IV. Treatments reviewed in the book include attempts at behavior modification, psychiatric medication, psychotherapy, and psychiatric hospitalization. The other sections of the book are titled Appearance, Science, and Gender Independence. In the Science section, the impact of physical differences is addressed. Based on her research, Burke asserted "gender is a social construct rather than a natural characteristic" and called for the elimination of the gender identity disorder diagnosis. == Critical reception == In Psychiatric Services, Dr. Margery Sved describes


id: a-general-theory-of-love-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_General_Theory_of_Love-0.md
category: reference
title: A General Theory of Love
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_General_Theory_of_Love
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:49.554818+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: a-general-theory-of-love-20260505-0
summary:
A General Theory of Love is a book about the science of human emotions and biological psychiatry written by Thomas Lewis, Fari Amini, and Richard Lannon, psychiatric professors at the University of California, San Francisco, and was first published by Random House in 2000. It has since been reissued twice, with new editions appearing in 2001 and 2007. == Overview == The book examines the phenomenon of love and human connection from a combined scientific and cultural perspective. It attempts to reconcile the language and insights of humanistic inquiry and cultural wisdom (literature, song, poetry, painting, sculpture, dance and philosophy) with the more recent findings of social science, neuroscience and evolutionary biology. A General Theory of Love has been compared to the work of Steven Pinker and Oliver Sacks. Since its first publication, the book has been translated into Spanish, Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese, Korean, Latvian, Croatian, and Persian. == Contents == The book surveys scientific understanding of emotions and particularly intimacy and love, from Freud through modern neuroscience, with a focus on the emerging understanding of the limbic brain and the development of personality. The authors put forward the idea that our nervous systems are not separate or self-contained; beginning


id: gestalt-therapy-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestalt_Therapy_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Gestalt Therapy (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gestalt_Therapy_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:50.726339+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gestalt-therapy-book-20260505-0
summary:
Gestalt Therapy is a 1951 book that outlines an extension to psychotherapy, known as gestalt therapy, written by Fritz Perls, Ralph Hefferline, and Paul Goodman. Presented in two parts, the first introduces psychotherapeutic self-help exercises, and the second presents a theory of personality development and growth. The book is known in the gestalt community as "PHG". English literature professor George Levine thought of the book as the only emotionally engaging textbook he knew. == References == == Bibliography == == External links == Full text at the Internet Archive


id: get-it-done-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Get_It_Done_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Get It Done (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Get_It_Done_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:51.852321+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: get-it-done-book-20260505-0
summary:
Get It Done: Surprising Lessons from the Science of Motivation is a nonfiction book by psychologist Ayelet Fishbach, published by Little, Brown Spark in January, 2022. Featured in the Financial Times, Scientific American, and Fast Company, the book is a layperson's guide to understanding what motivates people to set their personal goals, what keeps them from getting to work and incrementally advancing towards their fulfillment, and what practical recommendations they may use to bridge the gap between goal setting and accomplishment. == References ==


id: getting-it-the-psychology-of-est-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Getting_It:_The_Psychology_of_est-0.md
category: reference
title: Getting It: The Psychology of est
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Getting_It:_The_Psychology_of_est
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:53.019682+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: getting-it-the-psychology-of-est-20260505-0
summary:
Getting It: The Psychology of est is a non-fiction book by American clinical psychologist Sheridan Fenwick first published in 1976 which analyses Werner Erhard's Erhard Seminars Training or est. Fenwick based the book on her own experience of attending a four-day session of the est training, an intensive 60-hour personal-development course in the self-help genre. Large groups of up to 250 people took the est training at one time. In the first section of Fenwick's book, she recounts the est training process and the methods used during the course. Fenwick details the rules or "agreements" laid out by the trainers to the attendees, which include not talking to others or leaving the session to go to the bathroom unless during an announced break period. The second section is analytic: Fenwick analyzes the methods used by the est trainers, evaluates the course's potential effects, and discusses Erhard's background. Fenwick concludes that the program's long-term effects are unknown, the est training may not be appropriate for certain groups of people, and that a large proportion of participants report perceived positive effects. Writing in Library Journal, psychiatrist James Charney describes the book as "the only useful critical look" at the training. Zane Berzins


id: getting-it-the-psychology-of-est-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Getting_It:_The_Psychology_of_est-1.md
category: reference
title: Getting It: The Psychology of est
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Getting_It:_The_Psychology_of_est
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:53.019682+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: getting-it-the-psychology-of-est-20260505-0
summary:
== Contents == The book comprises two sections. The first section describes Fenwick's own experiences of the training; the second analyzes the est program's methodology and effects. In her analysis of the course, she states:"While the consensus of informed opinion, based on summaries of research findings, is that interventions similar to the est training have only modestly positive effects, I think that the existing research provides us with an underestimate of the effect of the est training. This training represents a distillation of some of the most powerful techniques and central precepts for attitude and behavior change ... I would guess that the effects of the est training are substantial for a large proportion of people." In the latter portion of the book Fenwick discusses comparisons of the est training to brainwashing and to psychotherapy, potential harmful effects of the course, and the extent that positive benefit from the course may be attributed to a self-fulfilling prophecy. Fenwick sees est as a form of psychotherapy that utilizes "in" therapies, and questions its suitability for certain individuals. Fenwick writes that the est training draws influences from Synanon, Gestalt therapy, encounter groups, and Scientology. She discusses the potential positive and negative psychological


id: getting-it-the-psychology-of-est-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Getting_It:_The_Psychology_of_est-2.md
category: reference
title: Getting It: The Psychology of est
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Getting_It:_The_Psychology_of_est
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:53.019682+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: getting-it-the-psychology-of-est-20260505-0
summary:
== Reception == Getting It received mixed, but generally positive, reviews. One positive evaluation came from psychiatrist James Charney, in a 1976 review for Library Journal. Charney calls the book "the only useful critical look at this essential issue", referring to the est training. He notes in particular that Fenwick's "analysis of the function of the group, the restrictive rules, and the enforced discomfort is convincing". In a 1977 review in Library Journal Edith Crockett and Ellis Mount highly recommended the book, commenting that "A plethora of newspaper and magazine reports, along with books written by graduates ... have attempted to explain the phenomenon of this self-help program, but none has done it as well or as objectively as this writer." Kirkus Reviews noted the precedent set by the analytical nature of the book, writing "Finally. Here's someone who is willing to disclose the details of Erhard Seminars Training, and then go on to analyze them from a psychological point of view." Zane Berzins, writing for The New York Times Book Review in 1977, describes Fenwick's work as a "calm and professionally informed view". Berzins describes the book as a "brave attempt" at an analysis of est's appeal, and concludes


id: getting-it-the-psychology-of-est-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Getting_It:_The_Psychology_of_est-3.md
category: reference
title: Getting It: The Psychology of est
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Getting_It:_The_Psychology_of_est
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:53.019682+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: getting-it-the-psychology-of-est-20260505-0
summary:
Bader, Barbara, ed. (July 15, 1976), "Getting It", Kirkus Reviews, 44 (Part II, Section No. 14): 821 Berzins, Zane (February 6, 1977), "Getting It", The New York Times Book Review, 82, The New York Times Company: 25 Chamberlin, Jamie (June 1998), "For these psychologists, retirement has been no time for slowing down: Five APA members embark on new careers when others might be more inclined to relax", APA Monitor, 29 (6), American Psychological Association, retrieved April 11, 2008 Charney, James (Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine) (October 1, 1976), "Review of Getting It alongside Hargrove, Robert est: Making Life Work, and Rhinehart, Luke The Book of est", Library Journal, 101 (17): 2071{{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Conway, Flo; Siegelman, Siegelman (1995), Snapping: America's Epidemic of Sudden Personality Change, Stillpoint, p. 349, ISBN 0-9647650-0-4 Crockett, Edith S.; Mount, Ellis (March 1, 1977), "Sci-Tech Books of 1976", Library Journal, 102 (5): 543–552 Denison, Charles Wayne (June 1995), "The children of EST: A study of the experience and perceived effects of a large group awareness training", Dissertation Abstracts International, 55 (12–B), Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International: 5564, ISSN 0419-4217 Fenwick, Sheridan (1976), Getting It: The psychology of


id: gifts-differing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gifts_Differing-0.md
category: reference
title: Gifts Differing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gifts_Differing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:53:54.212433+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gifts-differing-20260505-0
summary:
Gifts Differing: Understanding Personality Type is a 1980 book written by Isabel Briggs Myers with Peter B. Myers, which describes the insights into the psychological type model originally developed by C. G. Jung as adapted and embodied in the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) personality test. The book explains the many practical applications of this typological model using four categories of psychological type differences — Extraversion / Introversion; Sensing / Intuition; Thinking / Feeling; Judging / Perceiving. The book also suggests how different combinations of these characteristics tend to influence the ways people perceive the world and how they both respond to and interact with it. Type tables show how type preferences tend to correlate with occupational interests. Profiles of the sixteen types also suggest how people of each type tend to act and relate to people with other type dynamics. Every year over 2.5 million people take the MBTI assessment, and it has become the most widely used personality questionnaire in history. Over 150,000 copies of Gifts Differing have been sold. The late Isabel Briggs Myers devoted her life to the observation, study and measurement of personality and psychological type indicator theory. With her mother, Katharine Cook Briggs, she developed


