# kb

id: women-in-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00
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parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
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=== Ancient history === The involvement of women in the field of medicine has been recorded in several early civilizations. An ancient Egyptian physician, Peseshet (c. 2600–2500 B.C.E.), described in an inscription as "lady overseer of the female physicians", is the earliest known female physician named in the history of science. Agamede was cited by Homer as a healer in ancient Greece before the Trojan War (c. 1194–1184 BCE). The study of natural philosophy in ancient Greece was open to women. Recorded examples include Aglaonike, who predicted eclipses; and Theano, mathematician and physician, who was a pupil (possibly also wife) of Pythagoras, and one of the school in Crotone founded by Pythagoras, which included many other women. A passage in Pollux speaks about those who invented the process of coining money, mentioning Pheidon and Demodike from Cyme, wife of the Phrygian king, Midas, and daughter of King Agamemnon of Cyme. A daughter of a certain Agamemnon, king of Aeolian Cyme, married a Phrygian king called Midas. This link may have facilitated the Greeks "borrowing" their alphabet from the Phrygians because the Phrygian letter shapes are closest to the inscriptions from Aeolis. During the period of the Babylonian civilization, around 1200


id: women-in-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00
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parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
Margaret Cavendish, a seventeenth-century aristocrat, took part in some of the most important scientific debates of that time. She was, however, not inducted into the English Royal Society, although she was once allowed to attend a meeting. She wrote a number of works on scientific matters, including Observations upon Experimental Philosophy (1666) and Grounds of Natural Philosophy. In these works she was especially critical of the growing belief that humans, through science, were the masters of nature. The observations provided a critique of the experimental science of Bacon and criticized microscopes as imperfect machines. Isabella Cortese, an Italian alchemist, is best known for her book I secreti della signora Isabella Cortese or The Secrets of Isabella Cortese. Cortese was able to manipulate nature in order to create several medicinal, alchemy and cosmetic "secrets" or experiments. Isabella's book of secrets belongs to a larger book of secrets that became extremely popular among the elite during the 16th century. Despite the low percentage of literate women during Cortese's era, the majority of alchemical and cosmetic "secrets" in the book of secrets were geared towards women. This included but was not limited to pregnancy, fertility, and childbirth. Sophia Brahe, sister of Tycho Brahe,


id: women-in-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
Although women excelled in many scientific areas during the eighteenth century, they were discouraged from learning about plant reproduction. Carl Linnaeus' system of plant classification based on sexual characteristics drew attention to botanical licentiousness, and people feared that women would learn immoral lessons from nature's example. Women were often depicted as both innately emotional and incapable of objective reasoning, or as natural mothers reproducing a natural, moral society. The eighteenth century was characterized by three divergent views towards women: that women were mentally and socially inferior to men, that they were equal but different, and that women were potentially equal in both mental ability and contribution to society. While individuals such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau believed women's roles were confined to motherhood and service to their male partners, the Enlightenment was a period in which women experienced expanded roles in the sciences. The rise of salon culture in Europe brought philosophers and their conversation to an intimate setting where men and women met to discuss contemporary political, social, and scientific topics. While Jean-Jacques Rousseau attacked women-dominated salons as producing 'effeminate men' that stifled serious discourse, salons were characterized in this era by the mixing of the sexes. Lady Mary Wortley Montagu


id: women-in-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-4.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
In 1741–42 Charlotta Frölich became the first woman to be published by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences with three books in agricultural science. In 1748 Eva Ekeblad became the first woman inducted into that academy. In 1746 Ekeblad had written to the academy about her discoveries of how to make flour and alcohol out of potatoes. Potatoes had been introduced into Sweden in 1658 but had been cultivated only in the greenhouses of the aristocracy. Ekeblad's work turned potatoes into a staple food in Sweden, and increased the supply of wheat, rye and barley available for making bread, since potatoes could be used instead to make alcohol. This greatly improved the country's eating habits and reduced the frequency of famines. Ekeblad also discovered a method of bleaching cotton textile and yarn with soap in 1751, and of replacing the dangerous ingredients in cosmetics of the time by using potato flour in 1752. Émilie du Châtelet, a close friend of Voltaire, was the first scientist to appreciate the significance of kinetic energy, as opposed to momentum. She repeated and described the importance of an experiment originally devised by Willem 's Gravesande showing the impact of falling objects is proportional not


id: women-in-science-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-5.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
Science remained a largely amateur profession during the early part of the nineteenth century. Botany was considered a popular and fashionable activity, and one particularly suitable to women. In the later eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, it was one of the most accessible areas of science for women in both England and North America. However, as the nineteenth century progressed, botany and other sciences became increasingly professionalized, and women were increasingly excluded. Women's contributions were limited by their exclusion from most formal scientific education, but began to be recognized through their occasional admittance into learned societies during this period. Scottish scientist Mary Fairfax Somerville carried out experiments in magnetism, presenting a paper entitled 'The Magnetic Properties of the Violet Rays of the Solar Spectrum' to the Royal Society in 1826, the second woman to do so. She also wrote several mathematical, astronomical, physical and geographical texts, and was a strong advocate for women's education. In 1835, she and Caroline Herschel were the first two women elected as Honorary Members of the Royal Astronomical Society. English mathematician Ada, Lady Lovelace, a pupil of Somerville, corresponded with Charles Babbage about applications for his analytical engine. In her notes (1842–43) appended to her


id: women-in-science-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-6.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
Among the successful scientists were Nadezhda Suslova (1843–1918), the first woman in the world to obtain a medical doctorate fully equivalent to men's degrees; Maria Bokova-Sechenova (1839–1929), a pioneer of women's medical education who received two doctoral degrees, one in medicine in Zürich and one in physiology in Vienna; Julia Lermontova (1846–1919), the first woman in the world to receive a doctoral degree in chemistry; the marine biologist Sofia Pereiaslavtseva (1849–1903), director of the Sevastopol Biological Station and winner of the Kessler Prize of the Russian Society of Natural Scientists; and the mathematician Sofia Kovalevskaia (1850–1891), the first woman in 19th century Europe to receive a doctorate in mathematics and the first to become a university professor in any field. ==== Late nineteenth century in the United States ==== In the later nineteenth century the rise of the women's college provided jobs for women scientists, and opportunities for education. Women's colleges produced a disproportionate number of women who went on for PhDs in science. Many coeducational colleges and universities also opened or started to admit women during this period; such institutions included just over 3000 women in 1875, by 1900 numbered almost 20,000. An example is Elizabeth Blackwell, who became


id: women-in-science-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-7.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
In 1892, Ellen Swallow Richards called for the "christening of a new science" – "oekology" (ecology) in a Boston lecture. This new science included the study of "consumer nutrition" and environmental education. This interdisciplinary branch of science was later specialized into what is currently known as ecology, while the consumer nutrition focus split off and was eventually relabeled as home economics, which provided another avenue for women to study science. Richards helped to form the American Home Economics Association, which published a journal, the Journal of Home Economics, and hosted conferences. Home economics departments were formed at many colleges, especially at land grant institutions. In her work at MIT, Ellen Richards also introduced the first biology course in its history as well as the focus area of sanitary engineering. Women also found opportunities in botany and embryology. In psychology, women earned doctorates but were encouraged to specialize in educational and child psychology and to take jobs in clinical settings, such as hospitals and social welfare agencies. In 1901, Annie Jump Cannon first noticed that it was a star's temperature that was the principal distinguishing feature among different spectra. This led to re-ordering of the ABC types by temperature instead of


id: women-in-science-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-8.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
Wu would later also confirm Albert Einstein's EPR Paradox in the first experimental corroboration, and prove the first violation of Parity and Charge Conjugate Symmetry, thereby laying the conceptual basis for the future Standard Model of Particle Physics, and the rapid development of the new field. Women in other disciplines looked for ways to apply their expertise to the war effort. Three nutritionists, Lydia J. Roberts, Hazel K. Stiebeling, and Helen S. Mitchell, developed the Recommended Dietary Allowance in 1941 to help military and civilian groups make plans for group feeding situations. The RDAs proved necessary, especially, once foods began to be rationed. Rachel Carson worked for the United States Bureau of Fisheries, writing brochures to encourage Americans to consume a wider variety of fish and seafood. She also contributed to research to assist the Navy in developing techniques and equipment for submarine detection. Women in psychology formed the National Council of Women Psychologists, which organized projects related to the war effort. The NCWP elected Florence Laura Goodenough president. In the social sciences, several women contributed to the Japanese Evacuation and Resettlement Study, based at the University of California. This study was led by sociologist Dorothy Swaine Thomas, who directed


id: women-in-science-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-9.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00
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parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== Europe after World War II ==== South-African born physicist and radiobiologist Tikvah Alper(1909–95), working in the UK, developed many fundamental insights into biological mechanisms, including the (negative) discovery that the infective agent in scrapie could not be a virus or other eukaryotic structure. French virologist Françoise Barré-Sinoussi performed some of the fundamental work in the identification of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) as the cause of AIDS, for which she shared the 2008 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. In July 1967, Jocelyn Bell Burnell discovered evidence for the first known radio pulsar, which resulted in the 1974 Nobel Prize in Physics for her supervisor. She was president of the Institute of Physics from October 2008 until October 2010. Astrophysicist Margaret Burbidge was a member of the B2FH group responsible for originating the theory of stellar nucleosynthesis, which explains how elements are formed in stars. She has held a number of prestigious posts, including the directorship of the Royal Greenwich Observatory. Mary Cartwright was a mathematician and student of G. H. Hardy. Her work on nonlinear differential equations was influential in the field of dynamical systems. Rosalind Franklin was a crystallographer, whose work helped to elucidate the fine structures


id: women-in-science-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-10.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
Immediately after the end of World War II, the country saw a "retrenchment of positions for women" as male veterans returned and began filling open job positions. While men benefited from the opportunities of the G.I. Bill, some women had success with programs such as Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service (WAVES), a women's branch of the US Navy Reserve. The Society of Women Engineers held their first meeting in 1950. Although NASA was established in 1958, women were only admitted to the astronaut program in 1983, 25 years later. Kay McNulty, Betty Jennings, Betty Snyder, Marlyn Wescoff, Fran Bilas and Ruth Lichterman were six of the original programmers for the ENIAC, the first general purpose electronic computer. Linda B. Buck is a neurobiologist who was awarded the 2004 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine along with Richard Axel for their work on olfactory receptors. Rachel Carson was a marine biologist from the United States. She is credited with being the founder of the environmental movement. The biologist and activist published Silent Spring, a work on the dangers of pesticides, in 1962. The publishing of her environmental science book led to the questioning of usage of harmful pesticides and other


id: women-in-science-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-11.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== Australia after World War II ==== Amanda Barnard, an Australia-based theoretical physicist specializing in nanomaterials, winner of the Malcolm McIntosh Prize for Physical Scientist of the Year. Isobel Bennett, was one of the first women to go to Macquarie Island with the Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions (ANARE). She is one of Australia's best known marine biologists. Dorothy Hill, an Australian geologist who became the first female professor at an Australian university. Ruby Payne-Scott, was an Australian who was an early leader in the fields of radio astronomy and radiophysics. She was one of the first radio astronomers and the first woman in the field. Penny Sackett, an astronomer who became the first female chief scientist of Australia in 2008. She is a US-born Australian citizen. Fiona Stanley, winner of the 2003 Australian of the Year award, is an epidemiologist noted for her research into child and maternal health, birth disorders, and her work in the public health field. Michelle Simmons, winner of the 2018 Australian of the Year award, is a quantum physicist known for her research and leadership on atomic-scale silicon quantum devices. ==== Israel after World War II ==== Ada Yonath, the first woman from the


id: women-in-science-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-12.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Situation in the 1990s === Women appear to do less well than men (in terms of degree, rank, and salary) in the fields that have been traditionally dominated by women, such as nursing. In 1991 women attributed 91% of the PhDs in nursing, and men held 4% of full professorships in nursing. In the field of psychology, where women earn the majority of PhDs, women do not fill the majority of high rank positions in that field. Women's lower salaries in the scientific community are also reflected in statistics. According to the data provided in 1993, the median salaries of female scientists and engineers with doctoral degrees were 20% less than men. This data can be explained as there was less participation of women in high rank scientific fields/positions and a female majority in low-paid fields/positions. However, even with men and women in the same scientific community field, women are typically paid 15–17% less than men. In addition to the gender gap, there were also salary differences between ethnicity: African-American women with more years of experiences earn 3.4% less than European-American women with similar skills, while Asian women engineers out-earn both Africans and Europeans. Women are also under-represented in


id: women-in-science-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-13.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== In decision-making ==== As of 2015, each step up the ladder of the scientific research system saw a drop in female participation until, at the highest echelons of scientific research and decision-making, there were very few women left. In 2015, the EU Commissioner for Research, Science and Innovation Carlos Moedas called attention to this phenomenon, adding that the majority of entrepreneurs in science and engineering tended to be men. In 2013, the German government coalition agreement introduced a 30% quota for women on company boards of directors. In 2010, women made up 14% of university chancellors and vice-chancellors at Brazilian public universities and 17% of those in South Africa in 2011. As of 2015, in Argentina, women made up 16% of directors and vice-directors of national research centres and, in Mexico, 10% of directors of scientific research institutes at the National Autonomous University of Mexico. In the US, numbers are slightly higher at 23%. In the EU, less than 16% of tertiary institutions were headed by a woman in 2010 and just 10% of universities. In 2011, at the main tertiary institution for the English-speaking Caribbean, the University of the West Indies, women represented 51% of lecturers but only


id: women-in-science-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-14.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== In engineering and related fields ==== Women are consistently underrepresented in engineering and related fields. In Israel, for instance, where 28% of senior academic staff are women, there are proportionately many fewer in engineering (14%), physical sciences (11%), mathematics and computer sciences (10%) but dominate education (52%) and paramedical occupations (63%). In Japan and the Republic of Korea, women represent just 5% and 10% of engineers. For women who are pursuing STEM major careers, these individuals often face gender disparities in the work field, especially in regards to science and engineering. It has become more common for women to pursue undergraduate degrees in science, but are continuously discredited in salary rates and higher ranking positions. For example, men show a greater likelihood of being selected for an employment position than a woman. In Europe and North America, the number of female graduates in engineering, physics, mathematics and computer science is generally low. Women make up just 19% of engineers in Canada, Germany and the US and 22% in Finland, for example. However, 50% of engineering graduates are women in Cyprus, 38% in Denmark and 36% in the Russian Federation, for instance. In many cases, engineering has lost ground to


id: women-in-science-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-15.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
During the early 1960s, the first American astronauts, nicknamed the Mercury Seven, were training. At the same time, William Randolph Lovelace II was interested to see if women could manage to go through the same training that the Mercury 7 undergoing at the time. Lovelace recruited thirteen female pilots, called the "Mercury 13", and put them through the same tests that the male astronauts took. As a result, the women actually performed better on these tests than the men of the Mercury 7 did. However, this did not convince NASA officials to allow women in space. In response, congressional hearings were held to investigate discrimination against women in the program. One of the women who testified at the hearing was Jerrie Cobb, the first woman to pass Lovelace's tests. During her testimony, Cobb said:I find it a little ridiculous when I read in a newspaper that there is a place called Chimp College in New Mexico where they are training chimpanzees for space flight, one a female named Glenda. I think it would be at least as important to let the women undergo this training for space flight.NASA officials also had representatives present, notably astronauts John Glenn and Scott Carpenter,


id: women-in-science-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-16.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== Latin America and the Caribbean ==== Latin America has some of the world's highest rates of women studying scientific fields; it also shares with the Caribbean one of the highest proportions of female researchers: 44%. Of the 12 countries reporting data for the years 2010–2013, seven have achieved gender parity, or even dominate research: Bolivia (63%), Venezuela (56%), Argentina (53%), Paraguay (52%), Uruguay (49%), Brazil (48%) and Guatemala (45%). Costa Rica is on the cusp (43%). Chile has the lowest score among countries for which there are recent data (31%). The Caribbean paints a similar picture, with Cuba having achieved gender parity (47%) and Trinidad and Tobago on 44%. Recent data on women's participation in industrial research are available for those countries with the most developed national innovation systems, with the exception of Brazil and Cuba: Uruguay (47%), Argentina (29%), Colombia and Chile (26%). As in most other regions, the great majority of health graduates are women (60–85%). Women are also strongly represented in science. More than 40% of science graduates are women in each of Argentina, Colombia, Ecuador, El Salvador, Mexico, Panama and Uruguay. The Caribbean paints a similar picture, with women graduates in science being on a


id: women-in-science-20260505-17
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-17.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== European Union ==== Women make up 33% of researchers overall in the European Union (EU), slightly more than their representation in science (32%). Women constitute 40% of researchers in higher education, 40% in government and 19% in the private sector, with the number of female researchers increasing faster than that of male researchers. The proportion of female researchers has been increasing over the last decade, at a faster rate than men (5.1% annually over 2002–2009 compared with 3.3% for men), which is also true for their participation among scientists and engineers (up 5.4% annually between 2002 and 2010, compared with 3.1% for men). Despite these gains, women's academic careers in Europe remain characterized by strong vertical and horizontal segregation. In 2010, although female students (55%) and graduates (59%) outnumbered male students, men outnumbered women at the PhD and graduate levels (albeit by a small margin). Further along in the research career, women represented 44% of grade C academic staff, 37% of grade B academic staff and 20% of grade A academic staff.11 These trends are intensified in science, with women making up 31% of the student population at the tertiary level to 38% of PhD students and 35% of


id: women-in-science-20260505-18
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-18.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== Southeast Asia ==== Southeast Asia presents a different picture entirely, with women basically on a par with men in some countries: they make up 52% of researchers in the Philippines and Thailand, for example. Other countries are close to parity, such as Malaysia and Vietnam, whereas Indonesia and Singapore are still around the 30% mark. Cambodia trails its neighbours at 20%. Female researchers in the region are spread fairly equally across the sectors of participation, with the exception of the private sector, where they make up 30% or less of researchers in most countries. The proportion of women tertiary graduates reflects these trends, with high percentages of women in science in Brunei Darussalam, Malaysia, Myanmar and the Philippines (around 60%) and a low of 10% in Cambodia. Women make up the majority of graduates in health sciences, from 60% in Laos to 81% in Myanmar – Vietnam being an exception at 42%. Women graduates are on a par with men in agriculture but less present in engineering: Vietnam (31%), the Philippines (30%) and Malaysia (39%); here, the exception is Myanmar, at 65%. In the Republic of Korea, women make up about 40% of graduates in science and agriculture and


id: women-in-science-20260505-19
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-19.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== Sub-Saharan Africa ==== Just under one in three (30%) researchers in sub-Saharan Africa is a woman. Much of sub-Saharan Africa is seeing solid gains in the share of women among tertiary graduates in scientific fields. In two of the top four countries for women's representation in science, women graduates are part of very small cohorts, however: they make up 54% of Lesotho's 47 tertiary graduates in science and 60% of those in Namibia's graduating class of 149. South Africa and Zimbabwe, which have larger graduate populations in science, have achieved parity, with 49% and 47% respectively. The next grouping clusters seven countries poised at around 35–40% (Angola, Burundi, Eritrea, Liberia, Madagascar, Mozambique and Rwanda). The rest are grouped around 30% or below (Benin, Ethiopia, Ghana, Swaziland and Uganda). Burkina Faso ranks lowest, with women making up 18% of its science graduates. Female representation in engineering is fairly high in sub-Saharan Africa in comparison with other regions. In Mozambique and South Africa, for instance, women make up more than 34% and 28% of engineering graduates, respectively. Numbers of female graduates in agricultural science have been increasing steadily across the continent, with eight countries reporting the share of women graduates of


id: women-in-science-20260505-20
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-20.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Underrepresentation of homosexual and bi women, and gender nonconformists in STEM === While there has been a push to encourage more women to participate in science, there is less outreach to lesbian, bi, or gender nonconforming women, and gender nonconforming people more broadly. Due to the lack of data and statistics of LGBTQ members involvement in the STEM field, it is unknown to what exact degree lesbian and bisexual women, gender non-conformers (transgender, nonbinary/agender, or anti-gender gender abolitionists who eschew the system altogether) are potentially even more repressed and underrepresented than their straight peers. But a general lack of out lesbian and bi women in STEM has been noted. Reasons for under-representation of same-sex attracted women and anyone gender nonconforming in STEM fields include lack of role models in K–12, the desire of some transgender girls and women to adopt traditional heteronormative gender roles as gender is a cultural performance and socially-determined subjective internal experience, employment discrimination, and the possibility of sexual harassment in the workplace. Historically, women who have accepted STEM research positions for the government or the military remained in the closet due to lack of federal protections or the fact that homosexual or gender nonconforming expression


id: women-in-science-20260505-21
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-21.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Societal disadvantages === Despite women's tendency to perform better than men academically, there are flaws involving stereotyping, lack of information, and family influence that have been found to affect women's involvement in science. Stereotyping has an effect, because people associate characteristics such as nurturing, kind, and warm or characteristics like strong and powerful with a particular gender. These character associations lead people to stereotype that certain jobs are more suitable to a particular gender. Lack of information is something that many institutions have worked hard over the years to improve by making programs such as the IFAC project (Information for a choice: empowering women through learning for scientific and technological career paths) which investigated low women participation in science and technology fields at high school to university level. However, not all efforts were as successful, "Science: it's a girl thing" campaign, which has since been removed, received backlash for further encouraging women that they must partake in "girly" or "feminine" activities. The idea being that if women are fully informed of their career choices and employability, they will be more inclined to pursue STEM field jobs. Women also struggle in the sense of lacking role models of women in


id: women-in-science-20260505-22
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-22.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Efforts to increase participation === A number of organizations have been set up to combat the stereotyping that may encourage girls away from careers in these areas. In the UK The WISE Campaign (Women into Science, Engineering and Construction) and the UKRC (The UK Resource Centre for Women in SET) are collaborating to ensure industry, academia and education are all aware of the importance of challenging the traditional approaches to careers advice and recruitment that mean some of the best brains in the country are lost to science. The UKRC and other women's networks provide female role models, resources and support for activities that promote science to girls and women. The Women's Engineering Society, a professional association in the UK, has been supporting women in engineering and science since 1919. In computing, the British Computer Society group BCSWomen is active in encouraging girls to consider computing careers, and in supporting women in the computing workforce. In the United States, the Association for Women in Science is one of the most prominent organization for professional women in science. In 2011, the Scientista Foundation was created to empower pre-professional college and graduate women in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM), to


id: women-in-science-20260505-23
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-23.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
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=== Notable controversies and developments === A study conducted at Lund University in 2010 and 2011 analysed the genders of invited contributors to News & Views in Nature and Perspectives in Science. It found that 3.8% of the Earth and environmental science contributions to News & Views were written by women even while the field was estimated to be 16–20% female in the United States. Nature responded by suggesting that, worldwide, a significantly lower number of Earth scientists were women, but nevertheless committed to address any disparity. In 2012, a journal article published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) reported a gender bias among science faculty. Faculty were asked to review a resume from a hypothetical student and report how likely they would be to hire or mentor that student, as well as what they would offer as starting salary. Two resumes were distributed randomly to the faculty, only differing in the names at the top of the resume (John or Jennifer). The male student was rated as significantly more competent, more likely to be hired, and more likely to be mentored. The median starting salary offered to the male student was greater than $3,000 over the


id: women-in-science-20260505-24
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-24.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:03:55.623183+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== Problematic public statements ==== In January 2005, Harvard University President Lawrence Summers sparked controversy at a National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) Conference on Diversifying the Science & Engineering Workforce. Dr. Summers offered his explanation for the shortage of women in senior posts in science and engineering. He made comments suggesting the lower numbers of women in high-level science positions may in part be due to innate differences in abilities or preferences between men and women. Making references to the field and behavioral genetics, he noted the generally greater variability among men (compared to women) on tests of cognitive abilities, leading to proportionally more men than women at both the lower and upper tails of the test score distributions. In his discussion of this, Summers said that "even small differences in the standard deviation [between genders] will translate into very large differences in the available pool substantially out [from the mean]". Summers concluded his discussion by saying:So my best guess, to provoke you, of what's behind all of this is that the largest phenomenon, by far, is the general clash between people's legitimate family desires and employers' current desire for high power and high intensity, that in the special


id: center-for-the-history-of-women-philosophers-and-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_for_the_History_of_Women_Philosophers_and_Scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: Center for the History of Women Philosophers and Scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_for_the_History_of_Women_Philosophers_and_Scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:03:56.830179+00:00
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parent: center-for-the-history-of-women-philosophers-and-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
The Center for the History of Women Philosophers and Scientists (HWPS) is an interdisciplinary research center at the University of Paderborn, focused on the work of historical women philosophers and scientists. The Center is responsible for the publication of the Journal of the History of Women Philosophers and Scientists. The Center also awards the annual Elizabeth of Bohemia prize, Europe's first prize honoring women philosophers. The Center received a major grant from the Alexander von Humboldt foundation for the study of women philosophers in Ukraine, and also maintains a research network and talk series for researchers working on the history of women philosophers and scientists. == Encyclopedia of Concise Concepts by Women Philosophers == The Encyclopedia of Concise Concepts by Women Philosophers (ECC) is an online encyclopedia that exclusively contains entries on concepts from the work of female philosophers. The ECC is an open access database developed by the Center for the History of Women Philosophers and Scientists that went online on June 15, 2018. Each entry is written by an internationally recognized researcher and peer-reviewed before publication. It will contain a brief explanation of a philosophical concept both either developed or significantly advanced by a woman philosopher as well


id: european-platform-of-women-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Platform_of_Women_Scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: European Platform of Women Scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Platform_of_Women_Scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:22.350149+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: european-platform-of-women-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
The European Platform of Women Scientists EPWS is an umbrella organisation bringing together networks of women scientists and organisations committed to gender equality in research in all disciplines in Europe 27 and the countries associated to the European Union's Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development. The Platform welcomes researchers working in any discipline and working in science in its widest sense, ranging from natural to social sciences, including, but not restricted to, science, engineering and technology. EPWS currently counts more than 100 member organisations, together working for more than 12.000 women researchers all over Europe active in academia and in industrial research. == Purpose == Legally established as an international non-profit organisation under Belgian law (AISBL) in November 2005 and governed by an international, multidisciplinary Board of Administration of 11 high ranking women scientists, EPWS constitutes a new strategic instrument in European research policy, complementing various initiatives taken at the European level to ensure a better participation of women scientists in research and in the research policy process as well as the inclusion of the gender dimension in research. == Goals == The platform's main goals are to: Network existing networks of women scientists and networks engaged in promoting


id: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:23.558030+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
This is a timeline of women in science, spanning from ancient history up to the 21st century. While the timeline primarily focuses on women involved with natural sciences such as astronomy, biology, chemistry, and physics, it also includes women from the social sciences (e.g. sociology, psychology), and the formal sciences (e.g. mathematics, computer science), as well as notable science educators and medical scientists. The chronological events listed in the timeline relate to both scientific achievements and gender equality within the sciences. == Ancient history == 1900 BCE: Aganice, also known as Athyrta, was an Egyptian princess during the Middle Kingdom (about 2000–1700 BCE) working on astronomy and natural philosophy. c. 1505–1458 BCE: Hatshepsut, also known as the Queen Doctor, promoted a botanical expedition searching for officinal plants. 1200 BCE: The Mesopotamian perfume-maker Tapputi-Belatekallim was referenced in the text of a cuneiform tablet. She is often considered the world's first recorded chemist. 500 BCE: Theano was a Pythagorean philosopher. c. 150 BCE: Aglaonice became the first female astronomer to be recorded in Ancient Greece. == Early post-classical history == 1st century BCE: A woman known only as Fang became the earliest recorded Chinese female alchemist. She is credited with "the discovery


id: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:23.558030+00:00
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parent: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
1561: Italian alchemist Isabella Cortese published her popular book The Secrets of Lady Isabella Cortese. The work included recipes for medicines, distilled oils and cosmetics, and was the only book published by a female alchemist in the 16th century. 1572: Italian botanist Loredana Marcello died from the plague – but not before developing several effective palliative formulas for plague sufferers, which were used by many physicians. 1572: Danish scientist Sophia Brahe (1556–1643) assisted her brother Tycho Brahe with his astronomical observations. 1590: After her husband's death, Caterina Vitale took over his position as chief pharmacist to the Order of St John, becoming the first female chemist and pharmacist in Malta. == 17th century == 1609: French midwife Louise Bourgeois Boursier became the first woman to write a book on childbirth practices. 1636: Anna Maria van Schurman is the first woman ever to attend university lectures. She had to sit behind a screen so that her male fellow students would not see her. 1642: Martine Bertereau, the first recorded female mineralogist, was imprisoned in France on suspicion of witchcraft. Bertereau had published two written works on the science of mining and metallurgy before being arrested. 1650: Silesian astronomer Maria Cunitz published


id: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:23.558030+00:00
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parent: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-0
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1702: Pioneering English entomologist Eleanor Glanville captured a butterfly specimen in Lincolnshire, which was subsequently named the Glanville fritillary in her honour. Her extensive butterfly collection impressed fellow entomologist William Vernon, who called Glanville's work "the noblest collection of butterflies, all English, which has sham'd us". Her butterfly specimens became part of early collections in the Natural History Museum. 1702: German astronomer Maria Kirch became the first woman to discover a comet. c. 1702–1744: In Montreal, Canada, French botanist Catherine Jérémie collected plant specimens and studied their properties, sending the specimens and her detailed notes back to scientists in France. 1732: At the age of 20, Italian physicist Laura Bassi became the first female member of the Bologna Academy of Sciences. One month later, she publicly defended her academic theses and received a PhD. Bassi was awarded an honorary position as professor of physics at the University of Bologna. She was the first female physics professor in the world. 1738: French polymath Émilie du Châtelet became the first woman to have a paper published by the Paris Academy, following a contest on the nature of fire. 1740: French polymath Émilie du Châtelet published Institutions de Physique (Foundations of Physics) providing


id: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:23.558030+00:00
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1808: Anna Sundström began assisting Jacob Berzelius in his laboratory, becoming one of the first Swedish women chemists. 1809: Sabina Baldoncelli earned her university degree in pharmacy but was allowed to work only in the Italian orphanage where she resided. 1815: English archaeologist Lady Hester Stanhope used a medieval Italian manuscript to locate a promising archaeological site in Ashkelon, becoming the first archaeologist to begin an excavation in the Palestinian region. It was one of the earliest examples of the use of textual sources in field archaeology. 1816: French mathematician and physicist Sophie Germain became the first woman to win a prize from the Paris Academy of Sciences for her work on elasticity theory. 1823: English palaeontologist and fossil collector Mary Anning discovered the first complete Plesiosaurus. 1831: Italian botanist Elisabetta Fiorini Mazzanti published her best-known work Specimen Bryologiae Romanae. 1830–1837: Belgian botanist Marie-Anne Libert published her four-volume Plantae cryptogamicae des Ardennes, a collection of 400 species of mosses, ferns, lichen, algae and fungi from the Ardennes region. Her contributions to systemic cryptogamic studies were formally recognized by Prussian king Friedrich Wilhelm III, and Libert received a gold medal of merit. 1832: French marine biologist Jeanne Villepreux-Power invented the first


id: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-4.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:23.558030+00:00
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1854: Mary Horner Lyell was a conchologist and geologist. She is most well known for her scientific work in 1854, where she studied her collection of land snails from the Canary Islands. She was married to the notable British geologist Charles Lyell and assisted him in his scientific work. It is believed by historians that she likely made major contributions to her husband's work. 1854–1855: Florence Nightingale organized care for wounded soldiers during the Crimean War. She was an English social reformer and statistician, and the founder of modern nursing. Her pie charts clearly showed that most deaths resulted from disease rather than battle wounds or "other causes," which led the general public to demand improved sanitation at field hospitals. 1855: Working with her father, Welsh astronomer and photographer Thereza Dillwyn Llewelyn produced some of the earliest photographs of the moon. 1856: American atmospheric scientist Eunice Newton Foote presented her paper "Circumstances affecting the heat of the sun's rays" at an annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences. She was an early researcher of the greenhouse effect. 1862: Belgian botanist Marie-Anne Libert became the first woman to join the Royal Botanical Society of Belgium. She was


id: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-5.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:23.558030+00:00
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parent: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-0
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=== 1890s === 1890: Austrian-born chemist Ida Freund became the first woman to work as a university chemistry lecturer in the United Kingdom. She was promoted to full lecturer at Newnham College, Cambridge. 1890: Popular science educator and author Agnes Giberne co-founded the British Astronomical Association. Subsequently, English astronomer Elizabeth Brown was appointed the director of the association's Solar Section, well known for her studies in sunspots and other solar phenomena. 1890: Mathematician Philippa Fawcett became the first woman to obtain the highest score in the Cambridge Mathematical Tripos examinations, a score "above the Senior Wrangler". (At the time, women were ineligible to be named Senior Wrangler.) 1891: American-born astronomer Dorothea Klumpke was appointed as Head of the Bureau of Measurements at the Paris Observatory. For the next decade, in addition to completing her doctorate of science, she worked on the Carte du Ciel mapping project. She was recognized for her work with the first Prix de Dames award from the Société astronomique de France and named an Officier of the Paris Academy of Sciences. 1892: American psychologist Christine Ladd-Franklin presented her evolutionary theory on the development of colour vision to the International Congress of Psychology. Her theory was the


id: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-6.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:23.558030+00:00
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parent: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
1900: American botanist Anna Murray Vail became the first librarian of the New York Botanical Garden. A key supporter of the institution's establishment, she had earlier donated her entire collection of 3000 botanical specimens to the garden. 1900: Physicists Marie Skłodowska–Curie and Isabelle Stone attended the first International Congress of Physics in Paris, France. They were the only two women out of 836 participants. 1901: American Florence Bascom became the first female geologist to present a paper before the Geological Survey of Washington. 1901: Czech botanist and zoologist Marie Zdeňka Baborová-Čiháková became the first woman in the Czech Republic to receive a PhD. 1901: American astronomer Annie Jump Cannon published her first catalog of stellar spectra, which classified stars by temperature. This method was universally and permanently adopted by other astronomers. 1903: Grace Coleridge Frankland née Toynbee was an English microbiologist. Her most notable work was Bacteria in Daily Life. She was one of the nineteen female scientists who wrote the 1904 petition to the Chemical Society to request that they should create some female fellows of the society. 1903: Polish-born physicist and chemist Marie Skłodowska–Curie became the first woman to receive a Nobel Prize when she received the Nobel


id: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-7.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:23.558030+00:00
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parent: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
1911: Polish-born physicist and chemist Marie Curie became the first woman to receive the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, which she received "[for] the discovery of the elements radium and polonium, by the isolation of radium and the study of the nature and compounds of this remarkable element". This made her the first person to win the Nobel Prize twice. As of 2022, she is the only woman to win it twice and the only person to win the Nobel Prize in two scientific fields. 1911: Norwegian biologist Kristine Bonnevie became the first woman member of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters. 1912: American astronomer Henrietta Swan Leavitt studied the bright-dim cycle periods of Cepheid stars, then found a way to calculate the distance from such stars to Earth. 1912: Canadian botanist and geneticist Carrie Derick was appointed a professor of morphological botany at McGill University. She was the first woman to become a full professor in any department at a Canadian university. 1913: Regina Fleszarowa became the first Polish woman to receive a PhD in natural sciences. 1913: Izabela Textorisová, the first Slovakian female botanist, published "Flora Data from the County of Turiec" in the journal Botanikai Közlemények. Her


id: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-8.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:23.558030+00:00
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parent: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
1920: Louisa Bolus was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of South Africa for her contributions to botany. Over the course of her lifetime, Bolus identified and named more than 1,700 new South African plant species - more species than any other botanist in South Africa. 1921: Edelmira Inés Mórtola (1894–1973), the first woman to become a geologist in Argentina was awarded her PhD at the University of Buenos Aires, the first woman to received her doctorate there. The university named the Mórtola Mineralogy Museum in her honor. 1923: María Teresa Ferrari, an Argentine physician, earned the first diploma awarded to a woman by the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Paris for her studies of the urinary tract. 1924: Florence Bascom became the first woman elected to the Council of the Geological Society of America. 1925: Mexican-American botanist Ynes Mexia embarked on her first botanical expedition into Mexico, collecting over 1500 plant specimens. Over the course of the next thirteen years, Mexia collected more than 145,000 specimens from Mexico, Alaska, and multiple South American countries. She discovered 500 new species. 1925: American medical scientist Florence Sabin became the first woman elected to the National Academy of Sciences.


id: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-9.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:23.558030+00:00
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parent: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
1940: Turkish Archaeologist, Sumerologist, Assyriologist, and writer Muazzez İlmiye Çığ. Upon receiving her degree in 1940, she began a multi-decade career at Museum of the Ancient Orient, one of three such institutions comprising Istanbul Archaeology Museums, as a resident specialist in the field of cuneiform tablets, thousands of which were being stored untranslated and unclassified in the facility's archives. In the intervening years, due to her efforts in the deciphering and publication of the tablets, the museum became a Middle Eastern languages learning center attended by ancient history researchers from every part of the world. 1941: American scientist Ruth Smith Lloyd became the first African-American woman to receive a PhD in anatomy. 1942: Austrian-American actress and inventor Hedy Lamarr and composer George Antheil developed a radio guidance system for Allied torpedoes that used spread spectrum and frequency hopping technology to defeat the threat of jamming by the Axis powers. Although the US Navy did not adopt the technology until the 1960s, the principles of their work are incorporated into Bluetooth technology and are similar to methods used in legacy versions of CDMA and Wi-Fi. This work led to their induction into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2014. 1942:


id: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-10.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:23.558030+00:00
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1950s: Chinese-American medical scientist Tsai-Fan Yu co-founded a clinic at Mount Sinai Medical Center for the study and treatment of gout. Working with Alexander B. Gutman, Yu established that levels of uric acid were a factor in the pain experienced by gout patients, and subsequently developed multiple effective drugs for the treatment of gout. 1950: Chinese-American particle physicist Chien-Shiung Wu proved the validity of Quantum entanglement which counters Albert Einstein's EPR Paradox and published her work on the new year of the new decade. She also proved the validity of beta decay around this time. 1950: Ghanaian, Matilda J. Clerk became the first woman in Ghana and West Africa to attend graduate school, earning a postgraduate diploma at the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine. 1950: Isabella Abbott became the first Native Hawaiian woman to receive a PhD in any science; hers was in botany. 1950: American microbiologist Esther Lederberg became the first to isolate lambda bacteriophage, a DNA virus, from Escherichia coli K-12. 1951: Ghana's Esther Afua Ocloo became the first person of African ancestry to obtain a cooking diploma from the Good Housekeeping Institute in London and to take the post-graduate Food Preservation Course at Long Ashton


id: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-11.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:23.558030+00:00
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parent: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-0
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1960: British primatologist Jane Goodall began studying chimpanzees in Tanzania; her study of them continued for over 50 years. Her observations challenged previous ideas that only humans made tools and that chimpanzees had a basically vegetarian diet. Early 1960s: German-Canadian metallurgist Ursula Franklin studied levels of radioactive isotope strontium-90 that were appearing in the teeth of children as a side effect of nuclear weapons testing fallout. Her research influenced the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty of 1963. 1960s: American mathematician Katherine Johnson calculated flight paths at NASA for crewed space flights. 1961: Indian chemist Asima Chatterjee became the first female recipient of a Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize. She was recognized in the Chemical Sciences category for her contributions to phytomedicine. 1962: Rachel Louise Carson was an American marine biologist, author, and conservationist whose book Silent Spring and other writings are credited with advancing the global environmental movement. 1962: South African botanist Margaret Levyns became the first female president of the Royal Society of South Africa. 1962: French physicist Marguerite Perey became the first female Fellow elected to the Académie des Sciences. 1963: Elsa G. Vilmundardóttir became the first female Icelandic geologist, completing her studies at Stockholm University. 1963: Maria Goeppert


id: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-12.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:23.558030+00:00
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parent: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
1980: Japanese geochemist Katsuko Saruhashi became the first woman elected to the Science Council of Japan. 1980: Nigerian geophysicist Deborah Ajakaiye became the first woman in any West African country to be appointed a full professor of physics. Over the course of her scientific career, she became the first female Fellow elected to the Nigerian Academy of Science, and the first female dean of science in Nigeria. 1981: Vera Rubin was the second female astronomer elected to the National Academy of Science. Beginning her academic career as the sole undergraduate in astronomy at Vassar College, Rubin went on to graduate studies at Cornell University and Georgetown University, where she observed deviations from Hubble flow in galaxies and provided evidence for the existence of galactic superclusters. 1982: Nephrologist Leah Lowenstein became the first female dean of a co-educational medical school in the United States. 1982: Janet Vida Watson FRS FGS (1923–1985) was a British geologist. She was a professor of geology at Imperial College, London. A fellow of the Royal Society, she is well known for her contribution to the understanding of the Lewisian complex and as an author and co-author of several books. In 1982 she was elected president of


id: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-13.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:23.558030+00:00
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parent: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== 2000s === 2000: Venezuelan astrophysicist Kathy Vivas presented her discovery of approximately 100 "new and very distant" RR Lyrae stars, providing insight into the structure and history of the Milky Way galaxy. 2003: American geophysicist Claudia Alexander oversaw the final stages of Project Galileo, a space exploration mission that ended at the planet Jupiter. 2004: American biologist Linda B. Buck received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine along with Richard Axel "for their discoveries of odorant receptors and the organization of the olfactory system". 2006: Chilean biochemist Cecilia Hidalgo Tapia became the first woman to receive the Chilean National Prize for Natural Sciences. 2006: Chinese-American biochemist Yizhi Jane Tao led a team of researchers to become the first to map the atomic structure of Influenza A, contributing to antiviral research. 2006: Parasitologist Susan Lim became the first Malaysian scientist elected to the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. 2006: Merieme Chadid became the first Moroccan person and the first female astronomer to travel to Antarctica, leading an international team of scientists in the installation of a major observatory in the South Pole. 2006: American computer scientist Frances E. Allen won the Turing Award for "pioneering contributions to the theory


id: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-14.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:23.558030+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== 2010s === 2010: Marcia McNutt became the first female director of the United States Geological Survey. 2011: Kazakhstani neuroscience student and computer hacker Alexandra Elbakyan launched Sci-Hub, a website that provides users with pirated copies of scholarly scientific papers. Within five years, Sci-Hub grew to contain 60 million papers and recorded over 42 million annual downloads by users. Elbakyan was finally sued by major academic publishing company Elsevier, and Sci-Hub was subsequently taken down, but it reappeared under different domain names. 2011: Taiwanese-American astrophysicist Chung-Pei Ma led a team of scientists in discovering two of the largest black holes ever observed. 2012: Computer scientist and cryptographer Shafi Goldwasser won the Turing award for her contributions to cryptography and complexity theory. 2013: Canadian genetic specialist Turi King identified the 500-year-old skeletal remains of King Richard III. 2013: Kenyan ichthyologist Dorothy Wanja Nyingi published the first guide to freshwater fish species of Kenya. 2013: Canadian teenagers Miranda Wang and Jeanny Yao jointly identify a bacteria in British Columbia's Fraser River that breaks down phthalates. 2014: Norwegian psychologist and neuroscientist May-Britt Moser received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, shared with Edvard Moser and John O'Keefe, "for their discoveries of cells


id: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-15.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:23.558030+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== 2020s === 2020: The Nigerian Academy of Science elected epidemiologist/parasitologist Ekanem Braide as its first female president. 2020: Brazilian Scientist and Researcher Jaqueline Goes de Jesus, sequenced COVID-19 genome in 12 hours. 2020: Biochemists Jennifer Doudna (American) and Emmanuelle Charpentier (French) received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their work on CRISPR genome editing tool. 2020: Andrea M. Ghez received the Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery of a supermassive compact object. 2020: German-Turkish scientist Özlem Türeci is the co-founder and chief medical officer of BioNTech. Her team developed BNT162b2 (tozinameran (INN)), commonly known as the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine. 2020: British vaccinologist Sarah Gilbert leads the development and testing of a vaccine which becomes the Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine. 2021: Catherine Heymans was appointed as the first female Astronomer Royal for Scotland. 2022: American chemist Carolyn R. Bertozzi received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for her development of Bioorthogonal chemistry. 2023: Australian geomicrobiologist Jillian Banfield became the first female recipient of the van Leeuwenhoek Medal, which she received for her studies of complex microbial communities and their interaction with the environment. 2025: South African-born physicist and space scientist Michele Dougherty is appointed Astronomer Royal for the United Kingdom, becoming


id: wise-campaign-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WISE_Campaign-0.md
category: reference
title: WISE Campaign
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WISE_Campaign
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:24.777776+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wise-campaign-20260505-0
summary:
The WISE Campaign (Women into Science and Engineering) is a United Kingdom-based organization that encourages women and girls to value and pursue science, technology, engineering and maths-related courses in school or college and to move on into related careers and progress. Its mission statement aims to facilitate understanding of these disciplines among women and girls and the opportunities which they present at a professional level. It is operated by UKRC trading as WISE (company number 07533934). == Formation == The campaign began on 17 January 1984, headed by The Baroness Platt of Writtle, a qualified mechanical engineer, at which time women made up 7% of graduate engineers and 3% of professional engineers in the UK. It was a collaboration between the Engineering Council and the Equal Opportunities Commission, originally viewed as a one-year campaign "Women into Science and Engineering" WISE'84. == Activities == One of WISE's main objectives is to listen to students and women qualified or working in these sectors, and understand and voice their opinions to academic institutions, policy-makers and employers. It then works creatively with delivery agencies and others, offering models, tools and approaches to support them in challenging traditional approaches, so as to demonstrate equitable involvement.


id: women-in-antarctica-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_Antarctica-0.md
category: reference
title: Women in Antarctica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_Antarctica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:25.983025+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-antarctica-20260505-0
summary:
Women have been exploring the regions around Antarctica for many centuries. The most celebrated "first" for women in Antarctica was in 1935 when Caroline Mikkelsen became the first woman to set foot on one of Antarctica's islands. Early male explorers, such as Richard Byrd, named areas of Antarctica after wives and female heads of state. As Antarctica moved from a place of exploration and conquest to a scientific frontier, women worked to be included in the sciences. The first countries to have female scientists working in Antarctica were the Soviet Union, South Africa and Argentina. Besides exploring and working as scientists, women have also played supportive roles as wives, fund-raisers, publicists, historians, curators and administrators of organizations and services that support Antarctic operations. Many early women on Antarctica were the wives of explorers. Some women worked with Antarctica from afar, crafting policies for a place they had never seen. Women who wished to have larger roles in Antarctica and on the continent itself had to "overcome gendered assumptions about the ice and surmount bureaucratic inertia". As women began to break into fields in Antarctica, they found that it could be difficult to compete against men who already had the "expeditioner


id: women-in-antarctica-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_Antarctica-1.md
category: reference
title: Women in Antarctica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_Antarctica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:25.983025+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-antarctica-20260505-0
summary:
== Early women involved in Antarctica == Oral records from Oceania indicate that women explorers may have traveled to the Antarctic regions like male explorers Ui-te-Rangiora around 650 CE and Te Ara-tanga-nuku in 1000 CE, but this is unconfirmed. The first western woman to visit the Antarctic region was Louise Séguin, who sailed on the Roland with Yves Joseph de Kerguelen in 1773. The oldest known human remains in Antarctica was a skull that belonged to a young Indigenous Chilean woman on Yamana Beach at the South Shetland Islands, which dates back to 1819 to 1825. Her remains were found by the Chilean Antarctic Institute in 1985. In the early twentieth century, women were interested in going to Antarctica. When Ernest Shackleton advertised his 1914 Antarctic expedition, three women wrote to him, requesting to join. The women never became part of the journey. In 1919, newspapers reported that women wanted to go to Antarctica, writing that "several women were anxious to join, but their applications were refused." Later, in 1929, twenty-five women applied to the British, Australian and New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition (BANZARE). They were also rejected. When a privately funded British Antarctic Expedition was proposed in 1937, 1,300


id: women-in-antarctica-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_Antarctica-2.md
category: reference
title: Women in Antarctica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_Antarctica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:25.983025+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-antarctica-20260505-0
summary:
Women scientists first began researching Antarctica from ships. The first woman scientist, Maria V. Klenova of the Soviet Union, worked on the ships Ob and Lena just off the Antarctic coastline in 1955 to 1956. Klenova's work helped create the first Antarctic atlas. Women served on Soviet Union ships going to Antarctica after 1963. The first women to visit a US station and the first to fly to Antarctica were Pat Hepinstall and Ruth Kelley, Pan Am flight attendants who spent four hours on the ground at the McMurdo Station on 15 October 1957. Often women going to Antarctica had to be approved in both official and unofficial ways. An early candidate for becoming one of the first women scientists to go to Antarctica was geologist Dawn Rodley. She had been approved of not only by the expedition sponsor, Colin Bull, but also by the wives of the male team-members. Rodley was set to go in 1958, but the United States Navy, who were in charge of Operation Deep Freeze, refused to take her to Antarctica. The Navy decided that sending a four-woman team would be acceptable and Bull began to build a team including Lois Jones, Kay Lindsay, Eileen


id: women-in-antarctica-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_Antarctica-3.md
category: reference
title: Women in Antarctica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_Antarctica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:25.983025+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-antarctica-20260505-0
summary:
The National Science Foundation (NSF) started long-range planning in 1978, looking towards facilities that could accommodate a population made up of 25% women. In the 1979–1980 season, there were only 43 women on the continent. By 1981, there were nearly one woman for every ten men in Antarctica. In 1983, the ratio was back to 20 men for every woman. In the 1980s, Susan Solomon's research in Antarctica on the ozone layer and the "ozone hole" causes her to gain "fame and acclaim." In Spain, Josefina Castellví, helped coordinate and also participated in her country's expedition to Antarctica in 1984. Later, after a Spanish base was constructed in 1988, Castellví was put in charge after the leader, Antoni Ballester, had a stroke. The first female station leader on Antarctica was Australian, Diana Patterson, head of Mawson Station in 1989. The first woman station leader in charge of an American Antarctic station was LT Trina Baldwin, CEC, USN (Civil Engineer Corps, United States Navy). The first all-female overwintering group was from Germany and spent the 1990–1991 winter at Georg von Neumayer. The first German female station leader and medical doctor was Monika Puskeppeleit. In 1991 In-Young Ahn was the first female


id: women-in-antarctica-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_Antarctica-4.md
category: reference
title: Women in Antarctica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_Antarctica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:25.983025+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-antarctica-20260505-0
summary:
== Sexual harassment and sexism == When heavy equipment operator, Julia Uberuaga, first went to Antarctica in the late 70s and early 80s, she recalled that "the men stared at her, or leered at her, or otherwise let her know she was unwelcome on the job." Rita Matthews, who went to Antarctica during the same period, said that the "men were all over the place. There were some that would never stop going after you." In 1983, Marilyn Woody described living at McMurdo station and said, "It makes your head spin, all this attention from all these men." Then she said, "You realize you can put a bag over your head and they'll still fall in love with you." Another scientist, Cynthia McFee, had been completely shut out of the "male camaraderie" at her location and had to deal with loneliness for long periods of time. Martha Kane, the second woman to overwinter at the South Pole, experienced "negative pressure" from men with "some viewing her as an interloper who had insinuated herself into a male domain." In the 1990s, some women experienced stigma in Antarctica. These women were labeled "whores" for interacting with men and those who did not


id: absent-minded-professor-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absent-minded_professor-0.md
category: reference
title: Absent-minded professor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absent-minded_professor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:27.636609+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: absent-minded-professor-20260505-0
summary:
The absent-minded professor is a stock character of popular fiction, usually portrayed as a talented scholar whose academic brilliance is accompanied by below-par functioning in other areas, leading to forgetfulness and mistakes. One explanation of this is that highly-talented individuals often have unevenly distributed capabilities, being brilliant in their field of choice but below average on other measures of ability. Alternatively, they are considered to be so engrossed in their field of study that they forget their surroundings. The phrase is also commonly used in English to describe people who are so engrossed in their own world that they fail to keep track of their surroundings. It is a common stereotype that professors get so obsessed with their research that they pay little attention to anything else. The archetype is sometimes mixed with that of the mad scientist, often for comic effect, as in the Jerry Lewis film The Nutty Professor or the Professor Bacterio in the Mortadelo y Filemón comics and movies. However, a distinction is usually made that absent-minded professors are forgetful and careless rather than maliciously causing harm. == Examples of real scholars == The archetype is very old: the ancient Greek biographer Diogenes Laërtius wrote that


id: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory-0.md
category: reference
title: The Big Bang Theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:29.021226+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-0
summary:
The Big Bang Theory is an American television sitcom created by Chuck Lorre and Bill Prady for CBS. It aired from September 24, 2007, to May 16, 2019, running for 12 seasons and 279 episodes. The show originally centered on five characters living in Pasadena, California: Leonard Hofstadter (Johnny Galecki) and Sheldon Cooper (Jim Parsons), both physicists at the California Institute of Technology, who share an apartment; Penny (Kaley Cuoco), a waitress and aspiring actress who lives across the hall; and Leonard and Sheldon's similarly geeky and socially awkward friends and coworkers, aerospace engineer Howard Wolowitz (Simon Helberg) and astrophysicist Raj Koothrappali (Kunal Nayyar). Over time, supporting characters were promoted to starring roles, including neuroscientist Amy Farrah Fowler (Mayim Bialik), microbiologist Bernadette Rostenkowski (Melissa Rauch), and comic book store owner Stuart Bloom (Kevin Sussman). The series was filmed in front of a live audience and produced by Chuck Lorre Productions, with Warner Bros. Television handling distribution. While the first season received mixed reviews, critical reception improved in subsequent seasons. Seven seasons ranked within the top ten of the final-season ratings, and the series reached the No. 1 spot in its eleventh season. It was nominated for the Emmy Award for


id: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory-1.md
category: reference
title: The Big Bang Theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:29.021226+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Johnny Galecki as Leonard Hofstadter: An experimental physicist with an IQ of 173, who received his Ph.D. when he was 24 years old. Leonard is a nerd who loves video games, comic books, and Dungeons & Dragons. Leonard is the straight man of the series, sharing an apartment in Pasadena, CA, with Sheldon Cooper. Leonard is smitten with his new neighbor, Penny, when they first meet, and they eventually marry. Jim Parsons as Sheldon Cooper: Originally from Galveston, Texas, Sheldon was a child prodigy with an eidetic memory who began college at the age of eleven and earned a Ph.D. at age sixteen. He is a theoretical physicist researching quantum mechanics and string theory, and, despite his IQ of 187, he finds many routine aspects of social situations difficult to grasp. He is determined to have his own way, continually boasts of his intelligence, and has an extremely ritualized way of living. Despite these quirks, he begins a relationship with Amy Farrah Fowler, and they eventually marry. Kaley Cuoco as Penny: An aspiring actress from Omaha, Nebraska. Penny moves in across the hall from Sheldon and Leonard. She waits tables and occasionally tends the bar at The Cheesecake Factory. After


id: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory-2.md
category: reference
title: The Big Bang Theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:29.021226+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-0
summary:
The show's pilot episode premiered on September 24, 2007. This was the second pilot produced for the show. A different pilot was produced for the 2006‍–‍07 television season but never aired. The structure of the original unaired pilot was different from the series' eventual form. The only main characters retained in both pilots were Leonard (Johnny Galecki) and Sheldon (Jim Parsons), who are named after Sheldon Leonard, a longtime figure in episodic television as a producer, director, and actor. A minor character, Althea (Vernee Watson), appeared in the first scene of both pilots that was retained generally as-is. The first pilot included two female lead characters - Katie, "a street-hardened, tough-as-nails woman with a vulnerable interior" (played by Canadian actress Amanda Walsh), and Gilda, a scientist colleague and friend of the male characters (played by Iris Bahr). Sheldon and Leonard meet Katie after she breaks up with a boyfriend, and they invite her to share their apartment. Gilda is threatened by Katie's presence. Test audiences reacted negatively to Katie, but they liked Sheldon and Leonard. The original pilot used Thomas Dolby's hit "She Blinded Me with Science" as its theme song. Although the original pilot was not picked up, its


id: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory-3.md
category: reference
title: The Big Bang Theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:29.021226+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-0
summary:
The Canadian alternative rock band Barenaked Ladies wrote and recorded the show's theme song, which describes the history and formation of the universe and the Earth. Co-lead singer Ed Robertson was asked by Lorre and Prady to write a theme song for the show after the producers attended one of the band's concerts in Los Angeles. Coincidentally, Robertson had recently read Simon Singh's 2004 book Big Bang, and at the concert he improvised a freestyle rap about the origins of the universe. Lorre and Prady phoned him shortly thereafter and asked him to write the theme song. Having been asked to write songs for other films and shows, but ending up being rejected because producers favored songs by other artists, Robertson agreed to write the theme only after learning that Lorre and Prady had not asked anyone else. In October 2007, a full-length (1 minute and 45 seconds) version of the song was released commercially. Although some unofficial pages identify the song title as "History of Everything," the cover art for the single identifies the title as "Big Bang Theory Theme." A music video also was released via special features on The Complete Fourth Season DVD and Blu-ray set. The


id: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory-4.md
category: reference
title: The Big Bang Theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:29.021226+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-0
summary:
The four main male characters are all avid fans of nerd culture. Among their shared interests are science fiction, fantasy, comic books, and collecting memorabilia. Star Trek in particular is referred to frequently, and Sheldon identifies strongly with the character of Spock, so much so that when he is given a used napkin signed by Leonard Nimoy as a Christmas gift from Penny, he is overwhelmed with excitement and gratitude ("I possess the DNA of Leonard Nimoy?!"). Star Trek: The Original Series cast members William Shatner and George Takei have made guest appearances, and Leonard Nimoy made a guest appearance as the voice of Sheldon's vintage Mr. Spock action figure. Star Trek: The Next Generation cast members Brent Spiner and LeVar Burton have had guest appearances as themselves, while Wil Wheaton has a recurring role as a fictionalized version of himself. Leonard and Sheldon have had conversations in Klingon. They are also fans of Star Wars, Battlestar Galactica, and Doctor Who. James Earl Jones, Carrie Fisher and Mark Hamill made guest appearances. In the episode "The Ornithophobia Diffusion", when there is a delay in watching Star Wars on Blu-ray, Howard complains, "If we don't start soon, George Lucas is going


id: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory-5.md
category: reference
title: The Big Bang Theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:29.021226+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Leonard and Penny's relationship === One of the recurring plot lines is the relationship between Leonard and Penny. Leonard becomes attracted to Penny in the pilot episode, and his need to do favors for her is a frequent point of humor in the first season. Meanwhile, Penny dates a series of muscular, stereotypically "attractive," unintelligent, and insensitive jocks. Their first long-term relationship begins when Leonard returns from a three-month expedition to the North Pole in the season 3 premiere. However, when Leonard tells Penny that he loves her, she realizes she cannot say it back, and they break up. Both Leonard and Penny go on to date other people, most notably with Leonard dating Raj's sister Priya for much of season 4. This relationship is jeopardized when Leonard mistakenly comes to believe that Raj has slept with Penny, and it ultimately ends when Priya sleeps with a former boyfriend in "The Good Guy Fluctuation". Penny, who admits to missing Leonard in "The Roommate Transmogrification", accepts his request to renew their relationship in "The Beta Test Initiation". After Penny suggests having sex in "The Launch Acceleration", Leonard breaks the mood by proposing to her. Penny says "no" but does not


id: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory-6.md
category: reference
title: The Big Bang Theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:29.021226+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Sheldon and Amy's relationship === In the third-season finale, Raj and Howard sign Sheldon up for online dating to find a woman compatible with Sheldon, and they discover neurobiologist Amy Farrah Fowler. Like Sheldon, she has a history of social ineptitude and participates in online dating only to fulfill an agreement with her mother. This spawns a story line in which Sheldon and Amy communicate daily while insisting to Leonard and Penny that they are not romantically involved. In "The Agreement Dissection", Sheldon and Amy talk in her apartment after a night of dancing, and she kisses him on the lips. Instead of getting annoyed, Sheldon says "fascinating" and later asks Amy to be his girlfriend in "The Flaming Spittoon Acquisition". The same night he draws up "The Relationship Agreement" to verify the ground rules of him as her boyfriend and vice versa (similar to his "Roommate Agreement" with Leonard). Amy agrees but later regrets not having had a lawyer read through it. In "The Launch Acceleration", Amy tries to use her "neurobiology bag of tricks" to increase the attraction between herself and Sheldon. Her efforts appear to be working because Sheldon is not happy, but he makes no


id: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory-7.md
category: reference
title: The Big Bang Theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:29.021226+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Apartment building elevator === In the apartment building where Sheldon, Leonard, and Penny (and later Amy) live, the elevator has been out of order throughout most of the series, forcing characters to have to use the stairs. Stairway conversations between the characters as they walk up the three flights to their apartments occur in almost every episode, often serving as a transition between longer scenes. The Season 3 episode, "The Staircase Implementation" reveals that the elevator was broken when Leonard was experimenting with rocket fuel. In the penultimate episode of the series, the elevator is returned to an operational state, causing Sheldon some angst, until he realizes that the fixed elevator reverted things to the "status quo". === Vanity cards === Like most shows created by Chuck Lorre, The Big Bang Theory ends by showing for one second a vanity card written by Lorre after the credits, followed by the Warner Bros. Television closing logo. These cards are archived on Lorre's website. The series' final vanity card reads simply "The End". == Release == === Broadcast === The Big Bang Theory premiered in the United States on September 24, 2007, on CBS. The series debuted in Canada on CTV


id: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory-8.md
category: reference
title: The Big Bang Theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:29.021226+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== American ratings === The Big Bang Theory started off slowly in the ratings, failing to make the top 50 in its first season (ranking 68th), and ranking 40th in its second season. When the third season premiered on September 21, 2009, however, The Big Bang Theory ranked as CBS's highest-rated show of that evening in the adults 18–49 demographic (4.6/10) along with a then-series-high 12.83 million viewers. After the first three seasons aired at different times on Monday nights, CBS moved the show to Thursdays at 8:00 ET for the 2010‍–‍2011 schedule, to be in direct competition with NBC's Comedy Block and Fox's American Idol (then the longest reigning leading primetime show on American television from 2004 to 2011). During its fourth season, it became television's highest rated comedy, just barely beating out Two and a Half Men (which held the position for the past 8 years). However, in the age 18–49 demographic (the show's target age range), it was the second highest-rated comedy, behind ABC's Modern Family. The fifth season opened with viewing figures of over 14 million. The sixth season boasts some of the highest-rated episodes for the show so far, with a then-new series high set


id: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory-9.md
category: reference
title: The Big Bang Theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:29.021226+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Canadian ratings === The Big Bang Theory initially had moderate success in Canada, but gained wider popularity in later seasons. The series is broadcast on the CTV Television Network, often through simultaneous substitution with cross-border CBS affiliates. It also aired in daily reruns on the Canadian cable channel The Comedy Network. The season 4 premiere garnered an estimated 3.1 million viewers across Canada. This was the largest audience for a sitcom since the series finale of Friends. The show later increased in viewership and became the most-watched entertainment television show in Canada. === Accolades === In August 2009, the sitcom won the best comedy series TCA award and Jim Parsons (Sheldon) won the award for individual achievement in comedy. In 2010, the show won the People's Choice Award for Favorite Comedy, while Parsons won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series. On January 16, 2011, Parsons was awarded a Golden Globe for Best Performance by an Actor in a Television Series – Comedy or Musical, an award that was presented by co-star Kaley Cuoco. On September 18, 2011, Parsons was again awarded an Emmy for Best Actor in a Comedy Series. On January 9,


id: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory-10.md
category: reference
title: The Big Bang Theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:29.021226+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-0
summary:
In January 2024, it was announced that there will be a spin-off series of Young Sheldon focused on Georgie Cooper and Mandy McAllister The series premiered on CBS on October 17, 2024. ==== Stuart Fails to Save the Universe ==== On April 12, 2023, it was announced that a spin-off of the original series was in development. On October 10, 2024, it was announced that the third spin-off would feature Stuart Bloom, Denise, and Bert Kibbler, with Kevin Sussman, Lauren Lapkus, and Brian Posehn reprising their roles. On March 19, 2025, it was announced that the title of the show would be Stuart Fails to Save the Universe. In the premise of the series, Stuart is "tasked with restoring reality after he breaks a device built by Sheldon and Leonard, accidentally bringing about a multiverse Armageddon." John Ross Bowie will reprise his role as Barry Kripke. Filming for the show began in September 2025 and was completed by February 2026. === Television special === On May 16, 2019, a television special titled Unraveling the Mystery: A Big Bang Farewell aired following the series finale of The Big Bang Theory. It is a backstage retrospective featuring Johnny Galecki and Kaley Cuoco.


id: british-scientists-meme-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_scientists_(meme)-0.md
category: reference
title: British scientists (meme)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_scientists_(meme)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:30.272337+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: british-scientists-meme-20260505-0
summary:
In modern Russian culture, "British scientists" (Russian: Британские учёные, Britanskiye uchyonyye) is a running joke used as an ironic reference to absurd news reports about scientific discoveries: "British scientists managed to establish that..." It has also become a Russian internet meme. A similar joke, "British research" (Chinese: 英国研究 yīngguó yánjiū), exists in Chinese-speaking countries. == Description == The crowdsourced Russian internet subculture encyclopedia Lurkmore defined the term as "a synonym for researchers working on pseudoscientific projects that are bonkers, idiotic and have absolutely no practical value". James Harkin wrote: "When they hear the phrase 'British scientists', Russians don't tend to think of Newton, Darwin or Faraday; nor do they think of Stephen Hawking or Peter Higgs. Instead, they are much more likely to think of psychologist Richard Stephens of Keele University, who determined that swearing can help reduce pain, or Olli Loukola of Queen Mary University of London, who has taught bumblebees how to play football". Typical news about "Британские учёные" [Britanskiye uchyonyye, "British scientists"] report that they: found out that people start lying as early as at 6 years old debunked the myth that mice love cheese invented non-stick bubble gum designed an ideal sandwich developed a universal vaccine


id: the-dreamers-novella-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dreamers_(novella)-0.md
category: reference
title: The Dreamers (novella)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dreamers_(novella)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:31.500345+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-dreamers-novella-20260505-0
summary:
The Dreamers is a novella by Stephen King, first published in King's 2024 collection You Like It Darker. == Plot summary == In June 1971, Vietnam War veteran William Davis is discharged from the military; his wartime experiences have left him "empty", with his "emotions scrubbed". After staying with his mother in Skowhegan, Maine, Davis relocates to Portland, Maine and finds work as a stenographer for Temp-O. The following year, Davis responds to a job advertisement posted by Elgin, a self-described gentleman scientist in Castle Rock, Maine. Elgin hires Davis as an assistant for his experiments, which aim to "go under" the "wall of sleep". Elgin and Davis begin their experiments, which entail administering the hypnotic drug Flurazepam to a human test subject who is instructed to study a picture of a red house with a green door in a forest. The subject is then instructed to dream of the house, and then to enter the house and attempt to lift up the living room floor and see what is beneath. Elgin and Davis watch the subject through a one-way mirror, with Davis transcribing the subject's remarks. Davis witnesses the teeth of the first subject, Althea Gibson, grow larger. After


id: frankenstein-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankenstein-0.md
category: reference
title: Frankenstein
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankenstein
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:32.694815+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: frankenstein-20260505-0
summary:
Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus is an 1818 Gothic novel written by English author Mary Shelley. Frankenstein tells the story of Victor Frankenstein, a young scientist who creates a sapient creature from different body parts in an unorthodox scientific experiment. Shelley started writing the story when she was 18 and staying in Bath, and the first edition was published anonymously in London on 1 January 1818, when she was 20. Her name first appeared in the second edition, which was published in Paris in 1821. Shelley travelled through Europe in 1815, moving along the river Rhine in Germany, and stopping in Gernsheim, 17 kilometres (11 mi) away from Frankenstein Castle, where, about a century earlier, Johann Konrad Dippel, an alchemist, had engaged in experiments. She then journeyed to the region of Geneva, Switzerland, where much of the story takes place. Galvanism and occult ideas were topics of conversation for her companions, particularly for her lover and future husband, Percy Bysshe Shelley. In 1816—at the suggestion of Lord Byron—Mary, Percy, John Polidori and Byron himself, each agreed to try writing a ghost story. After thinking for days, Shelley was inspired to write Frankenstein after imagining a scientist who created life and


id: frankenstein-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankenstein-1.md
category: reference
title: Frankenstein
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankenstein
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:32.694815+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: frankenstein-20260505-0
summary:
Mary Shelley's mother, Mary Wollstonecraft, died from infection eleven days after giving birth to her. Shelley grew close to her father, William Godwin. Godwin hired a nurse, who briefly cared for her and her half-sister, before marrying his second wife, Mary Jane Clairmont, who did not like the close bond between Shelley and her father. The resulting friction caused Godwin to favour his other children. Shelley's father was a famous author of the time, and her education was of great importance to him, although it was not formal. Shelley grew up surrounded by her father's friends, writers, and persons of political importance, who often gathered at the family home. This inspired her authorship at an early age. Mary, at the age of sixteen, met Percy Bysshe Shelley (who later became her husband) while he was visiting her father. Godwin disapproved of the relationship between his daughter and an older, married man, so they fled to France along with her stepsister, Claire Clairmont. On 22 February 1815, Shelley gave birth prematurely to her first child, Clara, who died two weeks later. In the summer of 1816, Mary, Percy, and Claire took a trip to visit Claire's lover, Lord Byron, in Geneva.


id: frankenstein-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankenstein-2.md
category: reference
title: Frankenstein
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankenstein
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:32.694815+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: frankenstein-20260505-0
summary:
During the rainy summer of 1816, the "Year Without a Summer", the world was locked in a long, cold volcanic winter caused by the eruption of Mount Tambora in 1815. Mary Shelley, aged 18, and her lover (and future husband), Percy Bysshe Shelley, visited Lord Byron at the Villa Diodati by Lake Geneva, in the Swiss Alps. The weather was too cold and dreary that summer to enjoy the outdoor holiday activities they had planned, so the group retired indoors until dawn. Sitting around a log fire at Byron's villa, the company amused themselves by reading German ghost stories translated into French from the book Fantasmagoriana. Byron proposed that they "each write a ghost story." Unable to think of a story, Mary Shelley became anxious. She recalled being asked "Have you thought of a story?" each morning, and every time being "forced to reply with a mortifying negative." During one evening in the middle of summer, the discussions turned to the nature of the principle of life. "Perhaps a corpse would be re-animated," Mary noted, "galvanism had given token of such things". It was after midnight before they retired and, unable to sleep, she became possessed by her imagination as


id: frankenstein-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankenstein-3.md
category: reference
title: Frankenstein
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankenstein
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:32.694815+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: frankenstein-20260505-0
summary:
In the novel, the creature is compared to Adam, the first man in the Garden of Eden. The monster also compares himself with the fallen angel. Speaking to Frankenstein, the monster says "I ought to be thy Adam, but I am rather the fallen angel". That angel would be Lucifer (meaning "light-bringer") in Milton's Paradise Lost, which the monster has read. Adam is also referred to in the epigraph of the 1818 edition: Did I request thee, Maker, from my clay To mould Me man? Did I solicit thee From darkness to promote me? Some have posited the creature as a composite of Percy Shelley and Thomas Paine. If the creature's hatred for Victor and his desire to raise a child mirror Percy's filial rebelliousness and his longing to adopt children, his desire to do good and his persecution can be said to echo Paine's utopian visions and fate in England. The Creature has often been mistakenly called Frankenstein. In 1908, one author said "It is strange to note how well-nigh universally the term 'Frankenstein' is misused, even by intelligent people, as describing some hideous monster." Edith Wharton's The Reef (1916) describes an unruly child as an "infant Frankenstein". David


id: frankenstein-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankenstein-4.md
category: reference
title: Frankenstein
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankenstein
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:32.694815+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: frankenstein-20260505-0
summary:
== Publication == Shelley completed her writing in April/May 1817, and Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus was published on 1 January 1818 by the small London publishing house Lackington, Hughes, Harding, Mavor, & Jones. It was issued anonymously, with a preface written for Mary by Percy Bysshe Shelley and with a dedication to philosopher William Godwin, her father. It was published in an edition of just 500 copies in three volumes, the standard "triple-decker" format for 19th-century first editions. A French translation (Frankenstein: ou le Prométhée Moderne, translated by Jules Saladin) appeared as early as 1821. The second English edition of Frankenstein was published on 11 August 1823 in two volumes (by G. and W. B. Whittaker) following the success of the stage play Presumption; or, the Fate of Frankenstein by Richard Brinsley Peake. This edition credited Mary Shelley as the book's author on its title page. On 31 October 1831, the first "popular" edition in one volume appeared, published by Henry Colburn & Richard Bentley. This edition was heavily revised by Mary Shelley, partially to make the story less radical. It included a lengthy new introduction by the author, presenting a somewhat embellished version of the genesis of the


id: frankenstein-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankenstein-5.md
category: reference
title: Frankenstein
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankenstein
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:32.694815+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: frankenstein-20260505-0
summary:
The 1931 film, with Boris Karloff playing the monster, is considered the most well-known portrayal of Frankenstein. The Hammer Horror films focused on the character of Dr Frankenstein (played by Peter Cushing in six films beginning with the 1957 film) rather than his monster. In December 1945, the Gilberton Company issued a comic book version of Frankenstein as No. 26 in its long-running Classics Illustrated series, with illustrations by Robert Hayward Webb and Ann Brewster. The title went through nineteen printings between 1945 and 1971, and has been praised by comics historian Mike Benton as "probably the most faithful adaptation of the original novel -- movies included." Manga artist and writer Junji Ito, best known for his horror work, published a comics adaptation of Frankenstein, which won an Eisner Award in 2019 for “Best Adaptation from Another Medium.” == See also == == Notes == == References == == Sources == == Further reading == Holmes, Richard (21 December 2017). "Out of Control". The New York Review of Books. Archived from the original on 14 December 2017. Retrieved 29 December 2024. After two hundred years, how exactly are we to go back to Mary Shelley's 'Frankenstein' itself, as distinct from


id: graf-zeppelin-march-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graf_Zeppelin_(march)-0.md
category: reference
title: Graf Zeppelin (march)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graf_Zeppelin_(march)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:33.892714+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: graf-zeppelin-march-20260505-0
summary:
"Graf Zeppelin-Marsch" is a German military march, written by military music composer Carl Teike. The name refers to Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin. It was originally composed in 1903 under the title "March of the Teutons" (March of the Teutons). Joachim Toeche-Mittler, a German authority on the history of German military music, regarded the march as an "immortal" piece. The march was published by Carl Fischer Music in the United States under the name "The Conqueror" in 1912, arranged by Canadian composer Louis-Philippe Laurendeau. To avoid confusion, the march was often called "Graf Zeppelin (The Conqueror)" (ツェッペリン伯爵（征服者）) in CDs published in Japan. The march was especially popular in the Soviet Union. It was sometimes called "March of the Air Fleet" (Воздушный флот) in Russian. It was once used as the Swedish navy's parade march. == References == == External links == "Graf Zeppelin" (Teike): Scores at the International Music Score Library Project Video on YouTube


id: the-invisible-man-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Invisible_Man-0.md
category: reference
title: The Invisible Man
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Invisible_Man
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:39.100039+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-invisible-man-20260505-0
summary:
The Invisible Man is an 1897 science fiction novel by H. G. Wells. Originally serialised in Pearson's Weekly in 1897, it was published as a novel the same year. The Invisible Man to whom the title refers is Griffin, a scientist who has devoted himself to research into optics and invents a way to change a body's refractive index to that of air so that it neither absorbs nor reflects light. He carries out this procedure on himself and renders himself invisible, but fails in his attempt to reverse it. A practitioner of random and irresponsible violence, Griffin has become an iconic character in horror fiction. While its predecessors, The Time Machine and The Island of Doctor Moreau, were written using first-person narrators, Wells adopts a third-person objective point of view in The Invisible Man. The novel is considered influential, and helped establish Wells as the "father of science fiction". == Plot summary == A man named Griffin arrives at an inn owned by Mr. and Mrs. Hall of the English village of Iping, West Sussex, during a snowstorm. He wears a wide-brimmed hat, a long-sleeved, thick coat and gloves; his face is hidden entirely by bandages except for a


id: the-invisible-man-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Invisible_Man-1.md
category: reference
title: The Invisible Man
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Invisible_Man
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:39.100039+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-invisible-man-20260505-0
summary:
== Background == According to John Sutherland, Wells and his contemporaries such as Arthur Conan Doyle, Robert Louis Stevenson and Rudyard Kipling "essentially wrote boy's books for grown-ups." Sutherland identifies The Invisible Man as one such book. Wells said that his inspiration for the novella was "The Perils of Invisibility", one of the Bab Ballads by W. S. Gilbert, which includes the couplet "Old Peter vanished like a shot/but then – his suit of clothes did not." Another influence on The Invisible Man was Plato's Republic, a book which had a significant effect on Wells when he read it as an adolescent. In the second book of the Republic, Glaucon recounts the legend of the Ring of Gyges, which posits that, if a man were made invisible and could act with impunity, he would "go about among men with the powers of a god." Wells wrote the original version of the tale between March and June 1896. This version was a 25,000 word short story titled "The Man at the Coach and Horses" with which Wells was dissatisfied, so he extended it. == Scientific accuracy == Russian writer Yakov I. Perelman pointed out in Physics Can Be Fun (1913) that


id: lessons-in-chemistry-miniseries-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lessons_in_Chemistry_(miniseries)-0.md
category: reference
title: Lessons in Chemistry (miniseries)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lessons_in_Chemistry_(miniseries)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:40.372728+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lessons-in-chemistry-miniseries-20260505-0
summary:
Lessons in Chemistry is an American period drama miniseries created by Lee Eisenberg, based on the novel of the same name by Bonnie Garmus. It stars Brie Larson as chemist Elizabeth Zott who begins hosting her own feminist cooking show in 1950s America. The series began streaming on Apple TV on October 13, 2023 and ended November 22, 2023. It received positive reviews from critics, and received nominations for two Golden Globe Awards, Best Limited or Anthology Series and Best Actress – Miniseries for Larson. In 2024 Sarah Adina Smith won the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Movies for Television and Limited Series for directing the second episode "Her and Him". == Premise == After being fired from her job as a lab tech, chemist Elizabeth Zott uses her new job hosting a 1950s television cooking show titled Supper at Six to educate housewives on scientific topics. == Cast == === Main === Brie Larson as Elizabeth Zott Lewis Pullman as Calvin Evans Aja Naomi King as Harriet Sloane Stephanie Koenig as Fran Frask Patrick Walker as Reverend Curtis Wakely === Recurring === Derek Cecil as Dr. Robert Donatti Thomas Mann as Boryweitz Andy Daly


id: the-lost-world-doyle-novel-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lost_World_(Doyle_novel)-0.md
category: reference
title: The Lost World (Doyle novel)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lost_World_(Doyle_novel)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:41.529856+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-lost-world-doyle-novel-20260505-0
summary:
The Lost World is an adventure and science fiction novel by British writer Sir Arthur Conan Doyle recounting an expedition to a remote plateau in the Amazon basin of South America where dinosaurs and other prehistoric animals still survive, along with a tribe of vicious ape-like creatures that are in conflict with a group of indigenous Indians. The work introduces the character of Professor Challenger, who leads the expedition (and who would appear in later Conan Doyle stories), and is narrated in the first person by the journalist member (Edward Malone) of the exploration party. The Lost World appeared in serial form in the Strand Magazine, illustrated by New-Zealand-born artist Harry Rountree, during the months of April through November 1912 and also was serialized in magazines in the United States from March to November 1912. Hodder & Stoughton published the first book edition in October 1912 in Great Britain (London), with printings as well in the United States (New York) and in Canada (Toronto). When he was working on The Lost World, Doyle explained to his editor Herbert Greenhough Smith: "My ambition is to do for the boys' book what Sherlock Holmes did for the detective story". Doyle cast the


id: the-lost-world-doyle-novel-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lost_World_(Doyle_novel)-1.md
category: reference
title: The Lost World (Doyle novel)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lost_World_(Doyle_novel)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:41.529856+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-lost-world-doyle-novel-20260505-0
summary:
Running the gauntlet of hostile tribes, the expedition finally reaches the lost world with the aid of indigenous guides, who are superstitiously scared of the area. Summerlee retains his arrogance and his skepticism, until a pterodactyl flies down and is seen by all at close range, as it steals the companions’ dinner. After this, Summerlee apologises to Challenger. The group explores the entire base of the plateau to find a way to the top and discover that a former route up is now blocked by a rock slide. They also encounter human bones at one spot at the base of the cliff, identified as James Colver, Maple White’s companion, who, it would seem, somehow fell to his death. With the cliffs to the plateau apparently unscalable, an adjacent pinnacle is climbable but separated by a wide gap. Challenger determines that a tall tree on the pinnacle can be cut down and used as a bridge, which allows the four explorers to cross over to the plateau. However, they are almost immediately trapped on the other side, thanks to the treachery of one of their hired porters, Gomez—who, as it turns out, is a former slaver whose brother had previously been


id: the-lost-world-doyle-novel-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lost_World_(Doyle_novel)-2.md
category: reference
title: The Lost World (Doyle novel)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lost_World_(Doyle_novel)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:41.529856+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-lost-world-doyle-novel-20260505-0
summary:
== Characters == Professor George Edward Challenger – An energetic British zoologist with a volatile temper; his hairy, burly body and his thick beard are a source of humor in the story, including a resemblance to the king of the ape-men, who treats him like a brother after he is captured Edward D. Malone – A reporter at the Daily Gazette of Irish background; an athletic rugby player McArdle – Malone's editor at the Daily Gazette Professor Summerlee – An older British zoologist who is skeptical of Challenger’s claims Lord John Roxton – A widely traveled adventurer and skilled big-game hunter, an opponent of slavery Gomez – Brother to an enslaver whom Roxton killed Manuel – Gomez's friend Zambo – South American black man loyal to the explorers Gladys Hungerton – Edward Malone's love interest Jessie Challenger – Challenger's wife, who objects to his belligerent behavior Maple White – Deceased explorer who discovered the lost world The Accala Indians – The native human inhabitants of the lost world plateau == Prehistoric animals encountered == Iguanodon – Large plant-eating dinosaurs: "they looked like monstrous kangaroos, twenty feet in length, and with skins like black crocodiles"; treated like cattle by the tribe


id: the-lost-world-doyle-novel-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lost_World_(Doyle_novel)-3.md
category: reference
title: The Lost World (Doyle novel)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lost_World_(Doyle_novel)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:41.529856+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-lost-world-doyle-novel-20260505-0
summary:
=== Television === Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's The Lost World (1999–2002; TV series) Dinosaur Island (2002 animated film) Adventures in Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's The Lost World (2002) (Canadian-French-Luxembourger animated series) The Lost World (2001; television film) === Documentary === The Real Lost World (2006) === Audio === The Lost World (1944; radio) John Dickson Carr as Narrator (all characters) The Lost World (1949; BBC Light Programme radio serial) With Abraham Sofaer, Ivor Barnard, Lewis Stringer, Cyril Gardiner Dinosaurs! (1966, an audio dramatic version of The Lost World adapted and directed by Ronald Liss and recorded by permission of the Estate of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle; MGM/Leo the Lion Records C/CH-1016) Basil Rathbone as Professor Challenger Leo Marion as Dr. Summerlee Peter Fernandez as Edward Malone (The character of Lord John Roxton was not included in this adaptation.) The Lost World (1975 BBC Radio 4 Classic Serial) Francis de Wolff as Professor Challenger Gerald Harper as Lord John Roxton Kevin McHugh as Edward Malone Carleton Hobbs as Professor Summerlee The Lost World (2011; BBC Radio 4 Classic Serial) David Robb as Professor Challenger Jamie Glover as Lord John Roxton Jonathan Forbes as Edward Malone Jasmine Hyde as Dr. Diana Summerlee


id: statue-of-marie-victorin-kirouac-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statue_of_Marie-Victorin_Kirouac-0.md
category: reference
title: Statue of Marie-Victorin Kirouac
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statue_of_Marie-Victorin_Kirouac
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:42.757185+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: statue-of-marie-victorin-kirouac-20260505-0
summary:
The Marie-Victorin Statue (French: Monument au Frère Marie-Victorin, pronounced [mɔnymɑ̃ o fʁɛʁ maʁi viktɔʁɛ̃]), created by Sylvia Daoust, is a monument in the Botanical Garden of Montreal, Quebec, Canada. The monument to Brother Marie-Victorin (Marie-Victorin Kirouac) was unveiled by Maurice Duplessis and Paul-Émile Léger on September 18, 1954. == References == == External links == Media related to Statue of Brother Marie-Victorin at Wikimedia Commons Inauguration de la statue du frère Marie-Victorin


id: the-martians-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Martians_(scientists)-0.md
category: reference
title: The Martians (scientists)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Martians_(scientists)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:44.067011+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-martians-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
"The Martians" (Hungarian: "A marslakók") were a group of prominent scientists (mostly, but not exclusively, physicists and mathematicians) of Hungarian Jewish descent who emigrated from Europe to the United States in the early half of the 20th century. Leo Szilard jokingly suggested that Hungary was a front for aliens from Mars. In an answer to the question of why there is no evidence of intelligent life beyond Earth (called the Fermi paradox) despite its high probability of existence, Szilárd responded: "They are already here among us – they just call themselves Hungarians." This account is featured in György Marx's book The Voice of the Martians. == Men included in the description == Individuals considered members of The Martians group include: == Origin of the name == The original story from György Marx's book The Voice of the Martians: The universe is vast, containing myriads of stars ... likely to have planets circling around them. ... The simplest living things will multiply, evolve by natural selection and become more complicated till eventually active, thinking creatures will emerge. ... Yearning for fresh worlds ... they should spread out all over the Galaxy. These highly exceptional and talented people could hardly overlook such


id: the-monstrumologist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Monstrumologist-0.md
category: reference
title: The Monstrumologist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Monstrumologist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:45.202623+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-monstrumologist-20260505-0
summary:
The Monstrumologist is a young adult horror novel written by American author Rick Yancey. It was published on September 22, 2009 by Simon & Schuster Children's Publishing. It is the first book in The Monstrumologist series, followed by The Curse of the Wendigo. The story follows Will Henry, an orphaned assistant to Dr. Pellinore Warthrop, a man who specializes in monstrumology, the study of monsters. The novel received the 2010 Michael L. Printz Honor Award for excellence in young adult literature. == Reception == The review in Publishers Weekly said, "Yancey's elegant depiction of an America plagued with monsters, human and otherwise, spares no grisly detail. ... Horror lovers will be rapt." The reviewer in the School Library Journal wrote "Though the pace sometimes falters beneath the weight of Will's verbose observations, the author folds surprising depth and twists into the plot and cast alike, crafts icky bits that can be regarded as comically over-the-top (or not), and all in all dishes up an escapade fully 'capable,' as Will puts it, 'of fulfilling our curious and baffling need for a marauding horror of malicious intent'". == Sequels == The monstrumologist had three subsequent books in the saga. These books are


id: murder-madness-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murder_Madness-0.md
category: reference
title: Murder Madness
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murder_Madness
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:46.433005+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: murder-madness-20260505-0
summary:
Murder Madness is a science fiction novel by American author Murray Leinster. It was first published in book form in 1931 by Brewer and Warren, marking Leinster's debut novel. Prior to its book publication, the story was serialized in four installments in the magazine Astounding SF beginning in May 1930. == Plot summary == The story centers on a brilliant but ruthless scientist who develops a chemical agent capable of inducing madness in anyone who is exposed to it. Seeking to manipulate society and seize global power, he spreads the drug covertly, causing widespread fear and chaos. The narrative follows a group of protagonists, including journalists and law enforcement figures, who gradually uncover his scheme and attempt to stop him before civilization collapses. The novel explores the consequences of scientific hubris, the moral implications of controlling human behavior, and the social instability that arises when fear and irrationality are unleashed on a population. Leinster’s story blends elements of suspense, adventure, and early speculative science fiction. == Characters == **The Villain** – The unnamed scientist who invents the madness-inducing drug and seeks to dominate the world. **Protagonists** – A team of investigators and journalists working to expose and halt the villain's


id: the-nutty-professor-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Nutty_Professor-0.md
category: reference
title: The Nutty Professor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Nutty_Professor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:47.656081+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-nutty-professor-20260505-0
summary:
The Nutty Professor may refer to: The Nutty Professor (1963 film), a comedy directed by and starring Jerry Lewis The Nutty Professor (1996 film), a comedy starring Eddie Murphy The Nutty Professor (soundtrack), soundtrack album for the 1996 film The Nutty Professor (2008 film), animated comedy and sequel to the 1963 film The Nutty Professor (character), the titular character in the above media The Nutty Professor (franchise), encompassing the above media and their sequels


id: the-platonic-permutation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Platonic_Permutation-0.md
category: reference
title: The Platonic Permutation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Platonic_Permutation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:48.950959+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-platonic-permutation-20260505-0
summary:
"The Platonic Permutation" is the ninth episode of the ninth season of The Big Bang Theory. The 192nd episode overall, it first aired on CBS on November 19, 2015. The story follows the characters throughout Thanksgiving. The first storyline explores Sheldon and Amy's relationship as they meet-up, after being broken up. The next subplot follows Bernadette, Raj, Emily and Howard where they volunteer at a soup kitchen and the last follows Leonard and Penny after they have a minor conflict as Penny forgets Leonard's birthday. "The Platonic Permutation" features a guest appearance of South-African American entrepreneur and business magnate, Elon Musk as himself. Critics had mixed reviews of the episode. Critics praised Sheldon and Amy's storyline, but were critical of the other two subplots and Musk's appearance. == Plot == With Sheldon Cooper and Amy Farrah Fowler still broken up and all of his friends busy for Thanksgiving, Sheldon tries to give Amy tickets he bought them to Thanksgiving dinner at the aquarium, but Amy suggests they can still go as friends. Along the way, Sheldon asks Amy questions about her current dating life and plays a game about fish. Despite the initial awkwardness, Amy answers his questions, and the


id: bust-of-spock-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bust_of_Spock-0.md
category: reference
title: Bust of Spock
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bust_of_Spock
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:04:50.271524+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bust-of-spock-20260505-0
summary:
The bust of Spock is a bronze sculpture in the town of Vulcan in Alberta, Canada, placed at the corner of Centre Street and 2nd Avenue S. The monument consists of a bust of Spock, a character from science fiction television series Star Trek: The Original Series, portrayed by actor Leonard Nimoy. It also features a plaque with his handprint cast in bronze, performing the Vulcan salute. It was unveiled on April 23, 2010. The sculpture celebrates the coincidental similarity of the town's name to the fictional homeworld of extraterrestrial species of Vulcans, with Spock being its member. == History == The monument dedicated to Spock, the one of main characters from science fiction television series Star Trek: The Original Series, was unveiled in Vulcan, Alberta, on April 23, 2010, by Leonard Nimoy, who portrayed him. The sculpture celebrates the coincidental similarity of the town's name to the fictional homeworld of extra-terrestrial species of Vulcans, with Spock being its member. During the ceremony, Nimoy left a handprint of his right hand, to be cast in bronze and later added to the monument. It was imprinted performing the Vulcan salute, with open hand, and fingers parted between the middle and ring.


