# kb

id: history-of-science-and-technology-journal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Science_and_Technology_(journal)-0.md
category: reference
title: History of Science and Technology (journal)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Science_and_Technology_(journal)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:39.613285+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-journal-20260505-0
summary:
History of Science and Technology is a biannual peer-reviewed academic journal covering the history of science and technology. It is published by State University of Infrastructure and Technologies (Ukraine) and was established in 2011. == Abstracting and indexing == The journal is abstracted and indexed in Scopus and the Emerging Sources Citation Index. == References ==


id: lists-of-engineers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_engineers-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of engineers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_engineers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:48.570054+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-engineers-20260505-0
summary:
Types of engineer include: Chartered Engineer European Engineer Incorporated Engineer Professional Engineer Royal Engineer Lists of individual engineers by discipline include: List of aerospace engineers List of canal engineers List of chemical engineers List of civil engineers List of combat engineering corps List of electrical engineers List of environmental engineers List of genetic engineers List of industrial engineers List of mechanical engineers List of software engineers List of structural engineers List of systems engineers == See also == List of British engineers List of inventors List of architects List of urban planners Lists of scientists List of fictional scientists and engineers


id: lists-of-mathematicians-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_mathematicians-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of mathematicians
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_mathematicians
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:49.790616+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-mathematicians-20260505-0
summary:
This is a List of Lists of mathematicians and covers notable mathematicians by nationality, ethnicity, religion, profession and other characteristics. Alphabetical lists are also available (see table to the right). == Lists by nationality, ethnicity or religion == == Lists by profession == List of actuaries List of game theorists List of geometers List of logicians List of mathematical probabilists List of statisticians List of quantitative analysts == Other lists of mathematicians == List of amateur mathematicians List of mathematicians born in the 19th century List of centenarians (scientists and mathematicians) List of films about mathematicians List of women in mathematics == See also == The Mathematics Genealogy Project – Database for the academic genealogy of mathematicians List of mathematical artists List of mathematics journals List of publications in mathematics == External links == The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive – Extensive list of detailed biographies The Oberwolfach Photo Collection – Photographs of mathematicians from all over the world Photos of mathematicians – Collection of photos of mathematicians (and computer scientists) made by Andrej Bauer. Famous Mathematicians Calendar of mathematicians' birthdays and death anniversaries


id: nature-s-10-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature's_10-0.md
category: reference
title: Nature's 10
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature's_10
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:50.964121+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nature-s-10-20260505-0
summary:
Nature's 10 is an annual listicle of ten "people who mattered" in science, produced by the scientific journal Nature. Nominees have made a significant impact in science either for good or for bad. Reporters and editorial staff at Nature judge nominees to have had "a significant impact on the world, or their position in the world may have had an important impact on science". Short biographical profiles describe the people behind some of the year's most important discoveries and events. Alongside the ten, five "ones to watch" for the following year are also listed. == 2025 == 2025 awardees includeded: Susan Monarez: Public-health guardian Achal Agrawal: Retraction detective Tony Tyson: Telescope pioneer Precious Matsoso: Pandemic negotiator Sarah Tabrizi: Huntington's hero Mengran Du: Deep diver Luciano Moreira: Mosquito rancher Liang Wenfeng: Tech disruptor Yifat Merbl: Peptide detective KJ Muldoon: Trailblazing baby Ones to watch in 2026: Reid Wiseman: Mission commander Artemis II, NASA Georgina Long: Medical oncologist, Melanoma Institute Australia, University of Sydney Amadou Sall: Virologist, Pasteur Institute of Dakar Alice Xiang: Global head of AI governance, Sony AI Colette Delawalla: Chief executive and founder, Stand Up for Science == 2024 == 2024 awardees included: Ekkehard Peik: Father time Kaitlin Kharas:


id: nature-s-10-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature's_10-1.md
category: reference
title: Nature's 10
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature's_10
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:50.964121+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nature-s-10-20260505-0
summary:
Cori Bargmann, Science president, Chan Zuckerberg Initiative Robert Feidenhans’l, Chairman, European XFEL Jef Boeke, Co-leader, Human Genome Project–Write Wu Weiren, Chief Designer, China Lunar Programme Marcia McNutt, President, National Academy of Sciences == 2015 == 2015 awardees included: Christiana Figueres: Climate guardian Junjiu Huang: Embryo editor Alan Stern: Pluto hunter Zhenan Bao: Master of materials Ali Akbar Salehi: Nuclear diplomat Joan Schmelz: A voice for women David Reich: Genome archaeologist Mikhail Eremets: Super conductor Christina Smolke: Fermenting revolution Brian Nosek: Bias blaster Ones to watch in 2016: Fabiola Gianotti, Director-general of CERN Gabriela González, Spokesperson at Advanced LIGO Kathy Niakan, Stem-cell biologist, Francis Crick Institute Demis Hassabis, Co-founder, DeepMind Yang Wei, Head of the National Natural Science Foundation of China == 2014 == 2014 awardees included: Andrea Accomazzo: Comet chaser Suzanne L. Topalian: Cancer combatant Radhika Nagpal: Robot-maker Sheik Umar Khan: Ebola doctor David Spergel: Cosmic skeptic Maryam Mirzakhani: Surface explorer Pete Frates: Ice-bucket challenger Koppillil Radhakrishnan: Rocket launcher Masayo Takahashi: Stem-cell tester Sjors Scheres: Structure solver Ones to watch in 2015: Xie Zhenhua, China's top climate official Alan Stern, Principal investigator of NASA's New Horizons mission Joanne Liu, International president of Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) Bernard Bigot, Nominated as


id: andrew-b-raupp-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_B._Raupp-0.md
category: reference
title: Andrew B. Raupp
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_B._Raupp
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:52.274907+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: andrew-b-raupp-20260505-0
summary:
Andrew B. Raupp (born in Detroit, Michigan) is an American entrepreneur, educator, and leading advocate for science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education. He is the founder and executive director of STEM.org Educational Research, a pioneering organization at the forefront of STEM research and quality assurance. Raupp is known for his groundbreaking work in establishing a decentralized framework for validating STEM credentials, leveraging blockchain technology's immutable and transparent characteristics. This initiative underscores his dedication to enhancing accountability and democratizing access to STEM education standards, aligning with the broader decentralization principles central to blockchain and Web3 innovations. Raupp's scholarly contributions extend to the comprehensive documentation and analysis of the STEM education movement's evolution. His research is considered one of the most authoritative and comprehensive chronologies in the field. It has been cited by institutions, including the Smithsonian Science Education Center, which reinforces his status as a significant contributor to 21st-century STEM education. == Early life and career == Andrew B. Raupp was born and raised in the United States and also holds citizenship in the Republic of Malta. He attended Divine Child High School in Dearborn, Michigan, graduating in 1998. From 1998 to 2000, he studied microbiology at Wayne State University


id: list-of-science-communicators-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_communicators-0.md
category: reference
title: List of science communicators
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_communicators
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:53.574538+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-science-communicators-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of notable science communicators or popularizers of science, in alphabetical order by last name. == A == John Acorn, naturalist and broadcaster known as the "Nature Nut" Amir Aczel, Jewish author and mathematician Maggie Aderin-Pocock, space scientist and broadcaster Hashem Al-Ghaili, molecular biotechnologist and video producer Jim Al-Khalili, theoretical physicist, author, and science communicator Alan Alda, actor; inspired the Alan Alda Center for Communicating Science Michael Allaby, writes on science, ecology, and weather Elise Andrew, British blogger, founder and maintainer of the Facebook page "I Fucking Love Science" Alberto Angela (born 1962), television presenter, paleontologist, writer, popularizer of science and history Piero Angela (1928–2022), journalist, television presenter, writer, popularizer of science, founder of CICAP (Italian Committee for the Investigation of Claims on Pseudosciences) Natalie Angier, science journalist and writer Isaac Asimov, biochemist, science-fiction writer, and author Peter Atkins, physical chemist and author Sir David Attenborough, naturalist and broadcaster Amy Atwater, paleontologist, podcaster and author == B == Francis Bacon, English philosopher, statesman, scientist, jurist, and author J. Michael Bailey, psychologist; known for his research on the etiology of sexual orientation Johnny Ball, broadcaster and math popularizer Kirsten Banks, Australian astrophysicist and science communicator of the Wiradjuri


id: list-of-science-communicators-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_communicators-1.md
category: reference
title: List of science communicators
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_communicators
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:53.574538+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-science-communicators-20260505-0
summary:
== J == Hope Jahren, geochemist and author Ray Jayawardhana, astrophysicist and author Donald Carl Johanson, paleoanthropologist and author Steven Johnson, author Steve Jones, evolutionary biologist and author Horace Freeland Judson, historian of molecular biology and author Olivia Judson, evolutionary biologist, broadcaster and author == K == Michio Kaku, theoretical physicist and author Sam Kean, author David Kipping, associate professor, astronomer and YouTuber Marek Kukula, public astronomer at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich Lawrence Krauss, physicist and author Robert Krulwich, broadcaster Karl Kruszelnicki (also known as Dr Karl), broadcaster == L == Lynne Lamberg, American freelance science journalist Richard Leakey, Kenyan paleoanthropologist and conservationist John Lennox, mathematician and author Edward M. Lerner, computer engineer and author Daniel Levitin, cognitive neuroscientist and author Roger Lewin, British anthropologist Richard Lewontin, evolutionary biologist, geneticist, and author Willy Ley, space-travel enthusiast and science writer (Prophet of the Space Age) Don Lincoln, particle physicist and author Chris Lintott, astrophysicist Avi Loeb, astronomer and author Professor Lyrical, rapper, associate professor of mathematics == M == Bob McDonald, CBC journalist and host of Quirks and Quarks Alister McGrath, molecular biologist and author Katie Mack, astrophysics professor who focuses on studying dark matter Lynn Margulis, evolutionary biologist and author


id: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-0.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:56.575885+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
Science and technology studies (STS) or science, technology, and society is an interdisciplinary field that examines the creation, development, and consequences of science and technology in their historical, cultural, and social contexts. == History == Like most interdisciplinary fields of study, STS emerged from the confluence of disciplines and disciplinary subfields, all of which had developed an interest—typically, during the 1960s or 1970s—in viewing science and technology as socially embedded enterprises. The key disciplinary components of STS took shape independently, beginning in the 1960s, and developed in isolation from each other well into the 1980s, although Ludwik Fleck's (1935) monograph Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact anticipated many of STS's key themes. In the 1970s Elting E. Morison founded the STS program at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), which served as a model. By 2011, 111 STS research centers and academic programs were counted worldwide. === Important key points === History of technology, that examines technology in its social and historical context. Starting in the 1960s, some historians questioned technological determinism, a doctrine that can induce public passivity to technologic and scientific "natural" development. At the same time, some historians began to develop similarly contextual approaches to the


id: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-1.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:56.575885+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
Social constructions are human-created ideas, objects, or events created by a series of choices and interactions. These interactions have consequences that change the perception that different groups of people have on these constructs. Some examples of social construction include class, race, money, and citizenship. The following also alludes to the notion that not everything is set, a circumstance or result could potentially be one way or the other. According to the article "What is Social Construction?" by Ian Hacking, "Social construction work is critical of the status quo. Social constructionists about X tend to hold that: X need not have existed, or need not be at all as it is. X, or X as it is at present, is not determined by the nature of things; it is not inevitable Very often they go further, and urge that: X is quite as bad as it is. We would be much better off if X were done away with, or at least radically transformed." In the past, there have been viewpoints that were widely regarded as fact until being called to question due to the introduction of new knowledge. Such viewpoints include the past concept of a correlation between intelligence and


id: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-2.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:56.575885+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
Social technical systems are an interplay between technologies and humans, this is clearly expressed in the sociotechnical systems theory. To expound on this interplay, humans fulfill and define tasks, then humans in companies use IT and IT supports people, and finally, IT processes tasks and new IT generates new tasks. This IT redefines work practices. This is what we call the sociotechnical systems. In socio-technical systems, there are two principles to internalize, that is joint optimization and complementarity. Joint optimization puts an emphasis on developing both systems in parallel and it is only in the interaction of both systems that the success of an organization arises. The principle of complementarity means that both systems have to be optimized. If you focus on one system and have bias over the other it will likely lead to the failure of the organization or jeopardize the success of a system. Although the above socio-technical system theory is focused on an organization, it is undoubtedly imperative to correlate this theory and its principles to society today and in science and technology studies. Understanding technology in the context of national development: critical reflections discusses how governance frameworks, digital infrastructure, and institutional capacity influence the societal


id: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-3.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:56.575885+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
==== Examples ==== Ford Pinto – Ford Motor Company sold and produced the Pinto during the 1970s. A flaw in the automobile design of the rear gas tank caused a fiery explosion upon impact. The exploding fuel tank killed and injured hundreds of people. Internal documents of test results proved Ford CEO Lee Iacocca and engineers were aware of the flaw. The company decided to ignore improving its technology because of profit-driven motives, strict internal control, and competition from foreign competitors such as Volkswagen. Ford Motor Company conducted a cost-benefit analysis to determine if altering the Ford Pinto model was feasible. An analysis conducted by Ford employees argued against a new design because of increased cost. Employees were also under tight control by the CEO who rushed the Pinto through production lines to increase profits. Ford finally changed after public scrutiny. Safety organizations later influenced this technology by requiring stricter safety standards for motor vehicles. DDT/toxins – DDT was a common and highly effective insecticide used during the 1940s until its ban in the early 1970s. It was utilized during World War 2 to combat insect-borne human diseases that plagued military members and civilian populations. People and companies soon realized


id: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-4.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:56.575885+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
==== Importance ==== Recently, there has been a movement towards greater transparency in the fields of policy and technology. Jasanoff comes to the conclusion that there is no longer a question of if there needs to be increased public participation in making decisions about science and technology, but now there need to be ways to make a more meaningful conversation between the public and those developing the technology. ==== In practice ==== Bruce Ackerman and James S. Fishkin offered an example of a reform in their paper "Deliberation Day." The deliberation is to enhance public understanding of popular, complex and controversial issues through devices such as Fishkin's deliberative polling, though implementation of these reforms is unlikely in a large government such as that of the United States. However, things similar to this have been implemented in small, local governments like New England towns and villages. New England town hall meetings are a good example of deliberative democracy in a realistic setting. An ideal deliberative democracy balances the voice and influence of all participants. While the main aim is to reach consensus, deliberative democracy should encourage the voices of those with opposing viewpoints, concerns due to uncertainties, and questions about assumptions


id: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-5.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:56.575885+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
Langdon Winner states that groups and social interests likely to be affected by a particular kind of technological change ought to be represented at an early stage in defining exactly what that technology will be. It is the idea that relevant parties have a say in technological developments and are not left in the dark. Spoken about by Massimiano Bucchi This ideal does not require the public to become experts on the topics of science and engineering, it only asks that the opinions and ideas be heard before making drastic decisions, as talked about by Steven L. Goldman. === Legacy thinking === Legacy thinking is defined as an inherited method of thinking imposed from an external source without objection by the individual because it is already widely accepted by society. Legacy thinking can impair the ability to drive technology for the betterment of society by blinding people to innovations that do not fit into their accepted model of how society works. By accepting ideas without questioning them, people often see all solutions that contradict these accepted ideas as impossible or impractical. Legacy thinking tends to advantage the wealthy, who have the means to project their ideas on the public. It


id: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-6.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:56.575885+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
== Academic programs == STS is taught in several countries. According to the STS wiki, STS programs can be found in twenty countries, including 45 programs in the United States, three programs in India, and eleven programs in the UK. STS programs can be found in Canada, Germany, Israel, Malaysia, and Taiwan. Some examples of institutions offering STS programs are Stanford University, University College London, Harvard University, the University of Oxford, Mines ParisTech, Bar-Ilan University, and York University. In Europe the European Inter-University Association on Society, Science and Technology (ESST) offers an MA degree in STS through study programs and student exchanges with over a dozen specializations. == Professional associations == The field has professional associations in regions and countries around the world. === In Europe === In Europe, the European Association for the Study of Science and Technology (EASST) was founded in 1981 to "improve scholarly communication and exchange in the field", "increase the visibility of the subject to policy-makers and to the general public", and "stimulate and support teaching on the subject at all levels". Similarly, the European Inter-University Association on Society, Science and Technology (ESST) researches and studies science and technology in society, in both historical and


id: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-7.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:56.575885+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == Bauchspies, Wenda; Croissant, Jennifer; Restivo, Sal (2005). Science, Technology, and Society: A Sociological Approach. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-23210-0. Bijker, Wiebe; Hughes, Thomas; Pinch, Trevor, eds. (1987). The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-02262-0. Felt, Ulrike; Fouché, Rayvon; Miller, Clark A.; Smith-Doerr, Laruel, eds. (2017). The Handbook of Science and Technology Studies (4th ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-03568-2. Fuller, Steve (1993). Philosophy, Rhetoric, and the End of Knowledge: The Coming of Science and Technology Studies. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press. (2nd edition, with James H. Collier, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2004) Hess, David J. (1997). Science Studies: An Advanced Introduction. New York: NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-3564-0. Jasanoff, Sheila; Markle, Gerald; Petersen, James; Pinch, Trevor, eds. (1994). Handbook of Science and Technology Studies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. ISBN 978-0-8039-4021-5. Kuhn, Thomas (1962). The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Latour, Bruno (1987). Science in action: How to follow scientists and engineers through society. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Restivo, Sal, ed. (2005). Science, Technology, and Society: An Encyclopedia. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-514193-1. Guglielmo Rinzivillo (2020), Raccontare la


id: advanced-innovation-design-approach-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Innovation_Design_Approach-0.md
category: reference
title: Advanced Innovation Design Approach
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Innovation_Design_Approach
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:57.767151+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: advanced-innovation-design-approach-20260505-0
summary:
Advanced Innovation Design Approach (AIDA) is a holistic approach for enhancing the innovative and competitive capabilities of industrial companies. The name Advanced Innovation Design Approach (AIDA) was proposed in the research project "Innovation Process 4.0" run at the University of Applied Sciences Offenburg, Germany in co-operation with 10 German industrial companies in 2015–2019. AIDA can be considered as a pioneering mindset, an individually adaptable range of strong innovation techniques such as comprehensive front-end innovation process, advanced innovation methods, best tools and methods of the theory of inventive problem solving TRIZ, organisational measures for accelerating innovation, IT-solutions for Computer-Aided Innovation, and other tools for new product development, elaborated in the recent decade in the industry and academia. Initially the AIDA has been conceptualised as a systemic approach including analysis, optimizations and further development of the innovation process and promoting the innovation climate in industrial companies. The innovation process with self-configuration, self-optimization, self-diagnostics and intelligent information processing and communication, is understood as a holistic system comprising following typical phases with feedback loops and simultaneous auxiliary or follow-up processes: uncovering of solution-neutral customer needs, technology and market trends, identification of the needs and problems with high market potential and formulation of the innovation


id: astronaut-for-a-day-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut_for_a_Day-0.md
category: reference
title: Astronaut for a Day
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut_for_a_Day
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:10:59.026905+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronaut-for-a-day-20260505-0
summary:
Astronaut for a Day, an initiative launched by the Portuguese Space Agency in 2022, provides young students in the Portuguese education system with the chance to experience a zero-gravity flight and the same sensations astronauts have in space. Inspired by the astronaut selection processes of renowned space agencies, this national competition is not for the faint-hearted. It involves a rigorous selection process designed for students aged 14–18. The evaluation process, which includes five elimination phases, tests candidates' creativity, communication skills, and logical, spatial, and physical abilities. Finalists selected for the last phase participate in a parabolic flight aboard an Airbus A310 operated by Novespace. In the first three editions of Astronaut for a Day (2022, 2023, and 2024), the Portuguese Space Agency received over 1,600 applications nationwide. This initiative is considered a significant success and plays a key role in the Agency's strategy of fostering interest in STEM fields, particularly in space studies and careers among younger generations. So far, Portugal has 91 "astronauts". After the flight, each finalist becomes an ambassador for the initiative. They represent the Portuguese Space Agency and promote the activity within their school communities throughout the following academic year. This ambassadorship helps develop their leadership


id: automated-decision-making-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_decision-making-0.md
category: reference
title: Automated decision-making
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_decision-making
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:00.240751+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: automated-decision-making-20260505-0
summary:
Automated decision-making (ADM) is the use of data, machines and algorithms to make decisions in a range of contexts, including public administration, business, health, education, law, employment, transport, media and entertainment, with varying degrees of human oversight or intervention. ADM may involve large-scale data from a range of sources, such as databases, text, social media, sensors, images or speech, that is processed using various technologies including computer software, algorithms, machine learning, natural language processing, artificial intelligence, augmented intelligence and robotics. The increasing use of automated decision-making systems (ADMS) across a range of contexts presents many benefits and challenges to human society requiring consideration of the technical, legal, ethical, societal, educational, economic and health consequences. == Overview == There are different definitions of ADM based on the level of automation involved. Some definitions suggests ADM involves decisions made through purely technological means without human input, such as the EU's General Data Protection Regulation (Article 22). However, ADM technologies and applications can take many forms ranging from decision-support systems that make recommendations for human decision-makers to act on, sometimes known as augmented intelligence or 'shared decision-making', to fully automated decision-making processes that make decisions on behalf of individuals or organizations without human


id: automated-decision-making-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_decision-making-1.md
category: reference
title: Automated decision-making
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_decision-making
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:00.240751+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: automated-decision-making-20260505-0
summary:
=== Law === In legal systems around the world, algorithmic tools such as risk assessment instruments (RAI), are being used to supplement or replace the human judgment of judges, civil servants and police officers in many contexts. In the United States RAI are being used to generate scores to predict the risk of recidivism in pre-trial detention and sentencing decisions, evaluate parole for prisoners and to predict "hot spots" for future crime. These scores may result in automatic effects or may be used to inform decisions made by officials within the justice system. In Canada ADM has been used since 2014 to automate certain activities conducted by immigration officials and to support the evaluation of some immigrant and visitor applications. === Economics === Automated decision-making systems are used in certain computer programs to create buy and sell orders related to specific financial transactions and automatically submit the orders in the international markets. Computer programs can automatically generate orders based on predefined set of rules using trading strategies which are based on technical analyses, advanced statistical and mathematical computations, or inputs from other electronic sources. === Business === ==== Continuous auditing ==== Continuous auditing uses advanced analytical tools to automate auditing


id: automated-decision-making-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_decision-making-2.md
category: reference
title: Automated decision-making
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_decision-making
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:00.240751+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: automated-decision-making-20260505-0
summary:
=== Transport and mobility === Connected and automated mobility (CAM) involves autonomous vehicles such as self-driving cars and other forms of transport which use automated decision-making systems to replace various aspects of human control of the vehicle. This can range from level 0 (complete human driving) to level 5 (completely autonomous). At level 5 the machine is able to make decisions to control the vehicle based on data models and geospatial mapping and real-time sensors and processing of the environment. Cars with levels 1 to 3 are already available on the market in 2021. In 2016 The German government established an 'Ethics Commission on Automated and Connected Driving' which recommended connected and automated vehicles (CAVs) be developed if the systems cause fewer accidents than human drivers (positive balance of risk). It also provided 20 ethical rules for the adaptation of automated and connected driving. In 2020 the European Commission strategy on CAMs recommended that they be adopted in Europe to reduce road fatalities and lower emissions however self-driving cars also raise many policy, security and legal issues in terms of liability and ethical decision-making in the case of accidents, as well as privacy issues. Issues of trust in autonomous vehicles


id: burden-of-knowledge-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burden_of_knowledge-0.md
category: reference
title: Burden of knowledge
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burden_of_knowledge
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:01.486346+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: burden-of-knowledge-20260505-0
summary:
The burden of knowledge describes the difficulty of adding to a scientific field as the amount of previous work that must be understood increases over time. This is seen across scientific disciplines. Evidence for this burden includes a trend that people are older before they receive their first patent or publish in a prestigious journal, and the need for scientific groups to be larger as scientists need to collaborate so that the team has sufficient understanding of prior work. == Scholarship == Explicit scholarship of this idea has entered the mainstream with the works of Benjamin Jones, in particular The Burden of Knowledge and the Death of the Renaissance Man, and with the works of Jan Brendel and Sascha Schweitzer The Burden of Knowledge in Mathematics. == Overview == Theory and empirical studies reflect the case that researchers and innovators are not born with the required expertise and must first undertake education. With accumulating information and discoveries, the time to digest and improve on extant knowledge takes longer. Similarly, frontiers of knowledge advance at an overall increasing rate and are shifting over time. The "burden of knowledge" refers to the difficulty of catching up with this evolving knowledge frontier. A


id: camille-no-s-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camille_Noûs-0.md
category: reference
title: Camille Noûs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camille_Noûs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:02.692330+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: camille-no-s-20260505-0
summary:
Camille Noûs is a fictional name assumed by the French collective academic project RogueESR. The character of "Camille Noûs" was created in 2020 when the group signed an open letter concerning French science policy. In 2021, "Camille Noûs" was listed as an author on 180 journal papers in several scientific disciplines. == Background == The intent of the Camille Noûs character has been described as a protest against changes in research culture, including the rise of temporary academic positions, the decline in researcher job security and tenure protections, and research assessment metrics that emphasise citation numbers. The Camille Noûs campaign has been criticized as "ethically questionable" due to concerns about responsibility and accountability for research results. There has also been criticism that has arisen from some researchers including Camille Noûs on the author list without informing journal editors that it is a fictitious name. The intention of the Camille Noûs character is to protest individualism in scientific research, and to promote collaboration over individual accomplishment. In April 2021, a manifesto by Camille Noûs was published on the science blog 3 Quarks Daily. == See also == Citation impact Scientific citation == References == == Sources == == Further reading ==


id: casanova-s-lottery-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casanova's_Lottery-0.md
category: reference
title: Casanova's Lottery
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casanova's_Lottery
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:03.929410+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: casanova-s-lottery-20260505-0
summary:
Casanova's Lottery: The History of a Revolutionary Game of Chance is a history book about the French Loterie by historian and statistician Stephen M. Stigler. == Content == It is easy to associate statistics with death, thanks to actuarial tables and life expectancies, but the history of statistics also contains its libidinal opposite. Amid frequency distributions and tables of payout odds, Casanova's Lottery reminds us that the history of statistics is also a history of dreams, sex, and hope. Stigler's Casanova's Lottery: The History of a Revolutionary Game of Chance tells how, thanks to the direct involvement of the Venetian Giacomo Casanova, the French Loterie was established, lasting from 1758 to 1836 – with a four-year interruption during the French Revolution in 1793–1797. A quarter of a billion tickets were sold over that period through lottery offices all over France, thanks to which the state budget received "millions of livres (and then francs)". The Loterie was unique because, unlike a raffle, the maximum possible winning to be disbursed by the state to the winners was not known in advance. Thus, it was considerably riskier for the French administration, be it monarchical, republican, or imperial. At each drawing, the state was


id: center-on-organizational-innovation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_on_Organizational_Innovation-0.md
category: reference
title: Center on Organizational Innovation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_on_Organizational_Innovation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:05.117117+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: center-on-organizational-innovation-20260505-0
summary:
The Center on Organizational Innovation (COI) is a research center at Columbia University's Institute for Social and Economic Research and Policy. The center, established in 2000 and directed by sociologist David Stark, promotes research in the areas of organizational studies, science and technology studies and economic sociology, with an emphasis on innovation and reflexivity.[1] == References == ^Stark, D. (2008). "Searching questions: The Center on Organizational Innovation at Columbia University". European Management Review. 5 (4): 275–280. doi:10.1057/emr.2008.24. == External links == Center on Organizational Innovation


id: centre-de-sociologie-de-l-innovation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre_de_Sociologie_de_l'Innovation-0.md
category: reference
title: Centre de Sociologie de l'Innovation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre_de_Sociologie_de_l'Innovation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:06.339150+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: centre-de-sociologie-de-l-innovation-20260505-0
summary:
The Centre de Sociologie de l'Innovation (CSI; "Center for the Sociology of Innovation") is a research center at the Mines Paris – PSL, France, and a research unit affiliated to the French National Centre for Scientific Research. The CSI was created in 1967 and is known for its members' contributions to the field of science and technology studies and to actor–network theory.[1] Prominent past and current members include academics such as Bruno Latour and Michel Callon. == References == ^ Dosse, François (1999). Empire of Meaning: The Humanization of the Social Sciences. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0-8166-2964-0. == External links == Centre de Sociologie de l'Innovation


id: concept-testing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept_testing-0.md
category: reference
title: Concept testing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept_testing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:07.601429+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: concept-testing-20260505-0
summary:
Concept testing (to be distinguished from pre-test markets and test markets which may be used at a later stage of product development research) is the process of using surveys (and sometimes qualitative methods) to evaluate consumer acceptance of a new product idea prior to the introduction of a product to the market. It is important not to confuse concept testing with advertising testing, brand testing and packaging testing, as is sometimes done. Concept testing focuses on the basic product idea, without the embellishments and puffery inherent in advertising. == Questionnaires == It is important that the instruments (questionnaires) to test the product have a high quality themselves. Otherwise, results from data gathered surveys may be biased by measurement error. That makes the design of the testing procedure more complex. Empirical tests provide insight into the quality of the questionnaire. This can be done by: conducting cognitive interviewing. By asking a faction of potential-respondents about their interpretation of the questions and use of the questionnaire, a researcher can verify the viability of the cognitive interviewing. carrying out a small pretest of the questionnaire, using a small subset of target respondents. Results can inform a researcher of errors such as missing questions,


id: conversation-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversation_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Conversation theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversation_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:08.773848+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conversation-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Conversation theory is a pedagogical, dialectical, and cybernetic framework that examines conversation, cognition and learning in the context of two conversational participants who attempt to establish what is meant by a topic during a conversation. In effect, each participant attempts to converge towards a common understanding with the other as to the significance of the said topic between themselves. The theory provides a formal dialectical framework that examines how conversational participants may modulate the conceptualisation processes of each participant throughout a conversational interaction. A conversational interaction is characterised as a shared learning process: Each participant takes turns within the interaction—switching at intervals between the role of a student or the role of a teacher—to achieve a state of mutual understanding between themselves. In this sense, the theory concerns itself with how two a priori asynchronous cognitive systems—either mechanical or organic in nature—are able to converse and conceptualise about a topic, in such a way that each system achieves the a posteriori synchronization of each cognitive system's particular perspective or attitude towards said topic. This resultant synchronization allows each conversational participant to satisfy some shared task or goal. Conversation theory provides an experimental framework that heavily utilizes both human-computer interaction frameworks


id: conversation-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversation_theory-1.md
category: reference
title: Conversation theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversation_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:08.773848+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conversation-theory-20260505-0
summary:
The object language L {\displaystyle L} differs from most formal languages, by virtue of being "a command and question language[,] not an assertoric language like [a] predicate calculus". It priorities the sematic and pragmatic aspects of language rather than the syntactical features of propositions and their corresponding truth or falsity values. It is often formally illustrated and embodied in the form of a conversational skeleton within conversation theory, which forms the basic unit of a conversational interactions between a collection of conversational participants Z = ⟨ A , B ⟩ {\displaystyle Z=\langle A,B\rangle } . This unit is contextualized as an extended learning system whose internal states are changed and modulated through the course of the conversation. Since conversation theory specifically focuses on learning and development within agents capable of cognition and conversation, the object language is separated into two distinct modes of conversing; a likeness of which, resembles the distinction between procedural knowledge and declarative knowledge in epistemology. Firstly, there is conversation which happens at the level of L 0 {\displaystyle L^{0}} of an object language, which is concerned with "how to “do” a topic: how to recognize it, construct it, maintain it and so on". Meanwhile, the L


id: conversation-theory-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversation_theory-2.md
category: reference
title: Conversation theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversation_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:08.773848+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conversation-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Both commands and questions of the type D ( R ) {\displaystyle D(R)} have the following basic form, which is taken from Nicholas Rescher's formalisation of The Logic of Commands (1966): D ( R ) = < Z ! X | Y > {\displaystyle D(R)\ =\ <Z!\ X\ |\ Y\ >} Where Z ! {\displaystyle Z!} obligates the addressee or receiver of the command or question to act in accordance with the intention of the messenger, and | {\displaystyle |} is a conditional relation. Therefore, the expression X | Y {\displaystyle X\ |\ Y} can be read as "Do X, given Y". In terms of speech-acts which take the form of commands and questions, they may sufficiently take the form of the below expressions: C o m m i = < Z ! E x e c Z i | P r e c o n > E Q u e s t i = < Z ! E x p l Z i | P r e c o n > {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{lcl}Comm\ i&=&<Z!\ Exec_{Z}\ i\ |\ Precon\ >\\EQuest\ i&=&<Z!\ Expl_{Z}\ i\ |\ Precon\ >\end{array}}} For example, if some conversational participant A {\displaystyle A} issues a command to conversational


id: conversation-theory-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversation_theory-3.md
category: reference
title: Conversation theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversation_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:08.773848+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conversation-theory-20260505-0
summary:
And where a concept is defined as an operation that is substitutable for the below ordered-pair: C O N ≜ P R O C = ⟨ P R O G , I N T E R ⟩ {\displaystyle CON\triangleq PROC=\langle PROG,INTER\rangle } Whose contents are defined as: I N T E R ≜ λ ( x ) P R O G ≜ π ( x ) {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{lcl}INTER&\triangleq &\lambda (x)\\PROG&\triangleq &\pi (x)\end{array}}} Such that a program is defined as a calculus or set of rules π {\displaystyle \pi } that operates on some input, and an interpretation is conceived of as a compiler λ {\displaystyle \lambda } that attempts to compile said input into an executable form. A concept—as thus defined—is considered by Pask to be an L {\displaystyle L} -procedure or process, which is embodied by its underlying processor called an L {\displaystyle L} -processor. When said form has been compiled by said processor, then the concept may be executed to produce a topic relation, which may be sufficiently written as: A P ( λ ( π ( R H ) ) ) = A P ( C O N ( R H ) ) ⇒ R H {\displaystyle


id: conversation-theory-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversation_theory-4.md
category: reference
title: Conversation theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversation_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:08.773848+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conversation-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Serialists – Progress through a structure in a sequential fashion Holists – Look for higher order relations The ideal is the versatile learner who is neither vacuous holist "globe trotter" nor serialist who knows little of the context of his work. In learning, the stage where one converges or evolves, many Cyberneticians describe the act of understanding as a closed-loop. Instead of simply “taking in” new information, one goes back to look at their understandings and pulls together information that was “triggered” and forms a new connection. This connection becomes tighter and one's understanding of a certain concept is solidified or “stable” (Pangaro, 2003). Furthermore, Gordon Pask emphasized that conflict is the basis for the notion of “calling for'' additional information (Pangaro, 1992). According to Entwistle, experiments which lead to the investigation of phenomenon later denoted by the term learning strategy came about through the implementation of a variety of learning tasks. Initially, this was done through utilising either CASTE, INTUITION, or the Clobbits pseudo-taxonomy. However, given issues resulting from either the time-consuming nature or operating experiments or inexactness of experimental conditions, new tests were created in the form of the Spy Ring History test and the Smuggler's test. The


id: creativity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity-0.md
category: reference
title: Creativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:10.173371+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creativity-20260505-0
summary:
Creativity is the ability to generate novel and valuable ideas or works through the exercise of imagination. The products of creativity may be classified as either intangible or physical. Intangible products of creativity include ideas, scientific theories, literary works, musical compositions, and jokes. Physical products of creativity include inventions, dishes or meals, pieces of jewelry, costumes, and paintings. Creativity may also describe the ability to find new solutions to problems or new methods to accomplish a goal. Therefore, creativity enables people to solve problems in new ways. Most ancient cultures (including Ancient Greece, Ancient China, and Ancient India) lacked the concept of creativity, seeing art as a form of discovery rather than a form of creation. In the Judeo-Christian-Islamic tradition, creativity is seen as the sole province of God, and human creativity was considered an expression of God's work; the modern conception of creativity came about during the Renaissance, influenced by humanist ideas. Scholarly interest in creativity is found in several disciplines, primarily psychology, business studies, and cognitive science. It is also present in education and the humanities (including philosophy and the arts). == Etymology == The English word "creativity" comes from the Latin term creare (meaning "to create"). Its


id: creativity-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity-1.md
category: reference
title: Creativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:10.173371+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creativity-20260505-0
summary:
=== Renaissance === It was during the Renaissance that creativity was first conceived not as a conduit from the divine, but as arising from the abilities of "great men." This could be attributed to the leading intellectual movement of the time, aptly named humanism, which developed an intensely anthropocentric outlook on the world, valuing the intellect and achievement of the individual. From this philosophy arose the Renaissance man (or polymath), an individual who embodies the principles of humanism in their ceaseless courtship with knowledge and creation. One of the most well-known and immensely accomplished examples is Leonardo da Vinci. === From the 17th to the 19th centuries === However, the shift from divine inspiration to the abilities of the individual was gradual and would not become immediately apparent until the Age of Enlightenment. By the 18th century, creativity (notably in aesthetics) linked with the concept of imagination became more frequent. In the writing of Thomas Hobbes, imagination became a key element of human cognition. William Duff was one of the first to identify imagination as a quality of genius, typifying the separation being made between talent (productive, but not breaking new ground) and genius. As an independent topic of study,


id: creativity-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity-2.md
category: reference
title: Creativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:10.173371+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creativity-20260505-0
summary:
mini-c ("transformative learning" involving "personally meaningful interpretations of experiences, actions, and insights"). little-c (everyday problem-solving and creative expression). Pro-C (exhibited by people who are professionally or vocationally creative, though not necessarily eminent). Big-C (creativity considered great in a given field). This model was intended to help accommodate models and theories of creativity that stressed competence as an essential component and a historic transformation of a creative domain as the highest mark of creativity. It also, the authors argued, made a useful framework for analyzing creative processes in individuals. The contrast signified by the terms "Big C" and "little C" has been widely used. Kozbelt, Beghetto, and Runco used a little-c/Big-C model to review major theories of creativity. Margaret Boden distinguished between h-creativity (historical) and p-creativity (personal). Ken Robinson and Anna Craft focused on creativity in a general population, particularly with respect to education. Craft makes a similar distinction between "high" and "little c" creativity and cites Robinson as referring to "high" and "democratic" creativity. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi defined creativity in terms of individuals judged to have made significant creative and perhaps domain-changing contributions. Simonton analyzed the career trajectories of eminent creative people in order to map patterns and predictors of creative


id: creativity-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity-3.md
category: reference
title: Creativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:10.173371+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creativity-20260505-0
summary:
=== Geneplore model === In 1992, Finke, et al., proposed the "Geneplore model", in which creativity takes place in two phases: a generative phase, where an individual constructs mental representations called "preinventive" structures, and an exploratory phase where those structures are used to come up with creative ideas. Some evidence shows that when people use their imagination to develop new ideas, those ideas are structured in predictable ways in accordance with properties of existing categories and concepts. Weisberg argued, in contrast, that creativity involves ordinary cognitive processes yielding extraordinary results. === Explicit–implicit interaction theory === Helie and Sun proposed a framework for understanding creativity in problem solving, namely the explicit–implicit interaction (EII) theory of creativity. This theory attempts to provide a more unified explanation of relevant phenomena (in part by reinterpreting/integrating various fragmentary existing theories of incubation and insight). The EII theory relies mainly on five basic principles: co-existence of, and the difference between, explicit and implicit knowledge simultaneous involvement of implicit and explicit processes in most tasks redundant representation of explicit and implicit knowledge integration of the results of explicit and implicit processing iterative (and possibly bidirectional) processing A computational implementation of the theory was developed based on the


id: creativity-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity-4.md
category: reference
title: Creativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:10.173371+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creativity-20260505-0
summary:
=== Dialectical theory === The term "dialectical theory of creativity" dates back to psychoanalyst Daniel Dervin and was later developed into an interdisciplinary theory. This theory starts with the ancient concept that creativity takes place in an interplay between order and chaos. Similar ideas can be found in neuroscience and psychology. Neurobiologically, it can be shown that the creative process takes place in a dynamic interplay between coherence and incoherence that leads to new and usable neuronal networks. Psychology shows how the dialectics of convergent and focused thinking with divergent and associative thinking leads to new ideas and products. Personality traits such as the "Big Five" seem to bedialectically intertwined in the creative process: emotional instability versus stability, extraversion versus introversion, openness versus reserve, agreeableness versus antagonism, and disinhibition versus constraint. The dialectical theory of creativity also applies to counseling and psychotherapy. === Neuroeconomic framework === Lin and Vartanian developed a neurobiological description of creative cognition. This interdisciplinary framework integrates theoretical principles and empirical results from neuroeconomics, reinforcement learning, cognitive neuroscience, and neurotransmission research on the locus coeruleus system. It describes how decision-making processes studied by neuroeconomists as well as activity in the locus coeruleus system underlie creative cognition and


id: creativity-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity-5.md
category: reference
title: Creativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:10.173371+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creativity-20260505-0
summary:
Jürgen Schmidhuber's formal theory of creativity postulates that creativity, curiosity, and interestingness are by-products of a simple computational principle for measuring and optimizing learning progress. Consider an agent able to manipulate its environment and thus its own sensory inputs. The agent can use a black box optimization method such as reinforcement learning to learn, through informed trial and error, sequences of actions that maximize the expected sum of its future reward signals. There are extrinsic reward signals for achieving externally given goals, such as finding food when hungry. But for Schmidhuber's objective function to be maximized also includes an additional, intrinsic term to model "wow-effects". This non-standard term motivates purely creative behavior of the agent, even when there are no external goals. A wow-effect is formally defined as follows: as the agent is creating and predicting and encoding the continually growing history of actions and sensory inputs, it keeps improving the predictor or encoder, which can be implemented as an artificial neural network, or some other machine learning device, that can exploit regularities in the data to improve its performance over time. The improvements can be measured precisely, by computing the difference in computational costs (storage size, number of required


id: creativity-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity-6.md
category: reference
title: Creativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:10.173371+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creativity-20260505-0
summary:
=== Social-personality approaches === Researchers have taken a social-personality approach by using personality traits such as independence of judgement, self-confidence, attraction to complexity, aesthetic orientation, and risk-taking as measures of personal creativity. Within the framework of the Big Five personality traits, a consistent few of these traits have emerged as being correlated to creativity. Openness to experience is consistently related to a host of different assessments of creativity. Investigation of the other Big Five traits has demonstrated subtle differences between different domains of creativity. Compared to non-artists, artists tend to have higher levels of openness to experience and lower levels of conscientiousness, while scientists are more open to experience, conscientious, and higher in the confidence-dominance facets of extraversion compared to non-scientists. === Self-reporting questionnaires === Biographical methods use quantitative characteristics, such as the number of publications, patents, or artistic performances that can be credited to a person. While this method was originally developed for highly creative personalities, today it is also available as self-report questionnaires supplemented with frequent, less outstanding creative behaviors such as writing a short story or creating recipes. The self-report questionnaire most frequently used in research is the Creative Achievement Questionnaire, a self-report test that measures creative


id: creativity-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity-7.md
category: reference
title: Creativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:10.173371+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creativity-20260505-0
summary:
Sternberg & Lubart's Investment Theory, using the metaphor of a stock market, demonstrates that creative thinkers are like good investors—they buy low and sell high (in their ideas). Like undervalued or low-valued stock, creative individuals generate unique ideas that are initially rejected by other people. The creative individual has to persevere and convince others of the idea's value. After convincing others, and thus increasing the idea's value, the creative individual "sells high" by leaving the idea with the other people and moving on to generate another idea. According to this theory, six distinct, but related elements contribute to successful creativity: intelligence, knowledge, thinking styles, personality, motivation, and environment. Intelligence is just one of the six factors that can, either solely or in conjunction with the other five factors, generate creative thoughts. Amabile's Componential Model of Creativity posits three within-individual components needed for creativity—domain-relevant skills, creativity-relevant processes, and task motivation—and one component external to the individual—their surrounding social environment. Creativity requires the confluence of all components. High creativity will result when a person is intrinsically motivated, possesses both a high level of domain-relevant skills and has high skills in creative thinking, and is working in a highly creative environment. The Amusement


id: creativity-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity-8.md
category: reference
title: Creativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:10.173371+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creativity-20260505-0
summary:
==== Studies ==== A study by psychologist J. Philippe Rushton found creativity to correlate with intelligence and psychoticism. Another study found creativity to be greater in people with schizotypal personality disorder than in people with either schizophrenia or those without mental health disorders. While divergent thinking was associated with activation of both sides of the prefrontal cortex, schizotypal individuals were found to have much greater activation of their right prefrontal cortex. That study hypothesized that such individuals are better at accessing both hemispheres, allowing them to make novel associations at a faster rate. Consistent with this hypothesis, ambidexterity is also more common in people with schizotypal personality disorder and schizophrenia. Three studies by Mark Batey and Adrian Furnham demonstrated the relationships between schizotypal personality disorder, hypomanic personality, and several different measures of creativity. A study of 300,000 persons with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, or unipolar depression, and their relatives, found overrepresentation in creative professions of those with bipolar disorder as well as for undiagnosed siblings of those with schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. There was no overall overrepresentation, but overrepresentation for artistic occupations, among those diagnosed with schizophrenia. There was no association for those with unipolar depression or their relatives. Another study,


id: creativity-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity-9.md
category: reference
title: Creativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:10.173371+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creativity-20260505-0
summary:
=== Personal traits === Creativity can be expressed in a variety of ways, depending on the uniqueness of people and environments. Theorists have suggested a number of different models of the creative person. However, the creativity-profiling approach must take into account the tension between predicting the creative profile of an individual, as characterized by the psychometric approach, and the evidence that group creativity is founded on diversity and difference. From a personality-traits perspective, there are a number of traits that are associated with creativity in people. Creative people tend to be more open to new experiences, are more self-confident, are more ambitious, self-accepting, impulsive, driven, dominant, and hostile, compared to people who are less creative. ==== Divergent production ==== One characteristic of creative people, as measured by some psychologists, is what is called "divergent production"—the ability of a person to generate a diverse assortment, yet an appropriate amount, of responses to a given situation. One way to measure divergent production is by administering the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking, which assess the diversity, quantity, and appropriateness of participants' responses to a variety of open-ended questions. Some researchers also emphasize how creative people are better at balancing between divergent and convergent


id: creativity-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity-10.md
category: reference
title: Creativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:10.173371+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creativity-20260505-0
summary:
==== Vandervert model ==== Vandervert described how the brain's frontal lobes and the cognitive functions of the cerebellum collaborate to facilitate creativity and innovation. Vandervert's explanation rests on considerable evidence that all processes of working memory (responsible for processing all thought) are adaptively modeled for increased efficiency by the cerebellum. The cerebellum (consisting of 100 billion neurons, which is more than the in the entirety of the rest of the brain) also adaptively models all bodily movement for efficiency. The cerebellum's adaptive models of working memory processing are then fed back to especially frontal lobe working memory control processes, where creative and innovative thoughts arise. (Apparently, creative insight or the "aha" experience is then triggered in the temporal lobe.) According to Vandervert, the details of creative adaptation begin in "forward" cerebellar models, which are anticipatory/exploratory controls for movement and thought. These cerebellar processing and control architectures have been termed Hierarchical Modular Selection and Identification for Control (HMOSAIC). New, hierarchically-arranged levels of the cerebellar control architecture (HMOSAIC) develop as mental mulling in working memory is extended over time. These new levels of the control architecture are fed forward to the frontal lobes. Since the cerebellum adaptively models all movement and all


id: creativity-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity-11.md
category: reference
title: Creativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:10.173371+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creativity-20260505-0
summary:
=== Education === For those who view the conventional system of schooling as stifling creativity, an emphasis is made (particularly in the preschool/kindergarten and early school years) to provide a creativity-friendly, rich, imagination-fostering environment for young children. Researchers have seen this as important because technology is advancing at an unprecedented rate and creative problem-solving will be needed to cope with these challenges as they arise. In addition to helping with problem solving, creativity also helps students identify problems where others have failed to do so. The Waldorf School is an example of an education program that promotes creative thought. Promoting intrinsic motivation and problem solving are two areas where educators can foster creativity in students. Students are more creative when they see a task as intrinsically motivating, valued for its own sake. To promote creative thinking, educators need to identify what motivates their students and to structure teaching around it. Providing students with a choice of activities allows them to become more intrinsically motivated and therefore creative in completing the tasks. Teaching students to solve problems that do not have well-defined answers is another way to foster their creativity. This is accomplished by allowing students to explore problems and redefine


id: creativity-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity-12.md
category: reference
title: Creativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:10.173371+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creativity-20260505-0
summary:
=== Team composition === The diversity of team members' backgrounds and knowledge can increase team creativity by expanding the collection of unique information that is available to the team and by introducing different perspectives that can be integrated in novel ways. The Millennium Conferences on Creativity, a two-year-long Canadian review of the subject, for example, advocated for new linkages between the arts and science communities and targeted funding for multidisciplinary research. However, under some conditions, diversity can also decrease team creativity by making it more difficult for team members to communicate about ideas and causing interpersonal conflicts between those with different perspectives. Thus, the potential advantages of diversity must be supported by appropriate team processes and organizational cultures in order to enhance creativity. === Team processes === Team communication norms, such as respecting others' expertise, paying attention to others' ideas, expecting information sharing, tolerating disagreements, negotiating, remaining open to others' ideas, learning from others, and building on each other's ideas, increase team creativity by facilitating the social processes involved with brainstorming and problem solving. Through these processes, team members can access their collective pool of knowledge, reach shared understandings, identify new ways of understanding problems or tasks, and make new


id: creativity-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity-13.md
category: reference
title: Creativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:10.173371+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creativity-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == Rick Rubin The creative act, A. (2023). The Creative Act: A Way of Being. Penguin Press. ISBN 9780593652886. Craft, A. (2005). Creativity in Schools: tensions and dilemmas. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-32414-4. Gielen, P. (2013). Creativity and other Fundamentalisms. Amsterdam: Mondriaan. Glăveanu, Vlad Petre, ed. (2019). The Creativity Reader. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-084171-3. Hadamard, Jacques (2017) [1945]. The Psychology of Invention in the Mathematical Field. Dover. ISBN 978-0-486-20107-8. Jeffery, Graham (2005). The Creative College: building a successful learning culture in the arts. Trentham Books. Johnson, D.M. (1972). Systematic introduction to the psychology of thinking. Harper & Row. Jullien, F. (2004). In Praise of Blandness: Proceeding from Chinese Thought and Aesthetics. Translated by Varsano, Paula M. Zone Books, U.S. ISBN 1-890951-41-2. Jung, Carl G. (1981). The Collected Works of C. G. Jung. Vol. 8. The Structure and Dynamics of the Psyche. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-09774-7. Kanigel, Robert (1992). The Man Who Knew Infinity: A Life of the Genius Ramanujan. Washington Square Press. ISBN 0-671-75061-5. Kolp, P.; Lammé, A.; Regnard, Fr. (2009). Rens, J.M. (ed.). "Musique et créativité". Orphée Apprenti. NS (1): 9–119. D/2009/11848/5 Kounios, John; Kounios, Yvette (1 March 2025). "The Wonder of Insight: Scientists are finally


id: criticism-of-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: Criticism of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:11.499680+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criticism-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Criticism of technology is an analysis of adverse impacts of industrial and digital technologies. It is argued that, in all advanced industrial societies (not necessarily only capitalist ones), technology becomes a means of domination, control, and exploitation, or more generally something which threatens the survival of humanity. Some of the technology opposed by the most radical critics may include everyday household products, such as refrigerators, computers, and medication. However, criticism of technology comes in many shades. == Overview == Some authors such as Chellis Glendinning and Kirkpatrick Sale consider themselves Neo-Luddites and hold that technological progress has had a negative impact on humanity. Their work focused on seeking meaning out of technological change, specifically wrestling with the question of "how tools and their affordances change and alter the fabric of everyday life." Ellul, for instance, maintained that when people assert that technology is an instrument of freedom or the means to achieve historical destiny or the execution of divine vocation, it results in the glorification and sanctification of Technique so that it becomes that which gives meaning and value to life rather than mere ensemble of materials. This is echoed by rhetorical critics who cite the way technological discourse damages


id: cybernetics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybernetics-0.md
category: reference
title: Cybernetics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybernetics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:12.709808+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cybernetics-20260505-0
summary:
Cybernetics is the transdisciplinary study of circular causal processes such as feedback and recursion, where the effects of a system's actions (its outputs) return as inputs to that system, influencing subsequent actions. It is concerned with general principles that are relevant across multiple contexts, including engineering, ecological, economic, biological, cognitive and social systems and also in practical activities such as designing, learning, and managing. Cybernetics' transdisciplinary character means that it intersects with a number of other fields, resulting in a wide influence and diverse interpretations. The field is named after an example of circular causal feedback—that of steering a ship (the ancient Greek κυβερνήτης (kybernḗtēs) refers to the person who steers a ship). In steering a ship, the position of the rudder is adjusted in continual response to the effect it is observed as having, forming a feedback loop through which a steady course can be maintained in a changing environment, responding to disturbances from cross winds and tide. Cybernetics has its origins in exchanges between numerous disciplines during the 1940s. Initial developments were consolidated through meetings such as the Macy conferences and the Ratio Club. Early focuses included purposeful behaviour, neural networks, heterarchy, information theory, and self-organising systems. As


id: cybernetics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybernetics-1.md
category: reference
title: Cybernetics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybernetics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:12.709808+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cybernetics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Second wave === The second wave of cybernetics came to prominence from the 1960s onwards, with its focus shifting away from technology toward social, ecological, and philosophical concerns. It was still grounded in biology, notably Maturana and Varela's autopoiesis, and built on earlier work on self-organising systems and the presence of anthropologists Mead and Bateson in the Macy meetings. The Biological Computer Laboratory, founded in 1958 and active until the mid-1970s under the direction of Heinz von Foerster at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, was a major incubator of this trend in cybernetics research. Focuses of the second wave of cybernetics included management cybernetics, such as Stafford Beer's biologically inspired viable system model; work in family therapy, drawing on Bateson; social systems, such as in the work of Niklas Luhmann; epistemology and pedagogy, such as in the development of radical constructivism. Cybernetics' core theme of circular causality was developed beyond goal-oriented processes to concerns with reflexivity and recursion. This was especially so in the development of second-order cybernetics (or the cybernetics of cybernetics), developed and promoted by Heinz von Foerster, which focused on questions of observation, cognition, epistemology, and ethics. The 1960s onwards also saw cybernetics begin to


id: cybernetics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybernetics-2.md
category: reference
title: Cybernetics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybernetics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:12.709808+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cybernetics-20260505-0
summary:
== Related fields and applications == Cybernetics' central concept of circular causality is of wide applicability, leading to diverse applications and relations with other fields. Many of the initial applications of cybernetics focused on engineering, biology, and exchanges between the two, such as medical cybernetics and robotics and topics such as neural networks, heterarchy. In the social and behavioral sciences, cybernetics has included and influenced work in anthropology, sociology, economics, family therapy, cognitive science, and psychology. As cybernetics has developed, it broadened in scope to include work in management, design, pedagogy, and the creative arts, while also developing exchanges with constructivist philosophies, counter-cultural movements, and media studies. The development of management cybernetics has led to a variety of applications, notably to the national economy of Chile under the Allende government in Project Cybersyn, as well as other lesser known projects by Stafford Beer in Latin America. In design, cybernetics has been influential on interactive architecture, human-computer interaction, design research, and the development of systemic design and metadesign practices. Cybernetics is often understood within the context of systems science, systems theory, and systems thinking. Systems approaches influenced by cybernetics include critical systems thinking, which incorporates the viable system model; systemic design;


id: domestication-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestication_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Domestication theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestication_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:14.030884+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: domestication-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Domestication theory is an approach in Science and Technology Studies (STS) and media studies that describe the processes by which technology is 'tamed' or appropriated by its users. The theory was originally created by Roger Silverstone, who described four steps that technology goes through when being adapted into peoples' lives: First, technologies are integrated into everyday life and adapted to daily practices. Secondly, the user and its environment change and adapt accordingly. Thirdly, these adaptations feedback into innovation processes in industry, shaping the next generation of technologies and services. Fourthly, conversion, signalling what extent and how the technology has the status of reflecting the cultures of a household. The theory was initially developed to help understand the adoption and use of new media technologies by households (Silverstone et al. 1992), but has since been expanded in the innovation literature as a tool to understand technologies and innovations entering any consuming unit (workplace, country etc. e.g. Lie et al., Habib, Punie, Sørensen) that can be analysed economically, culturally and sociologically. The domestication approach considers both the practical and the symbolic aspects of the adoption and use of technologies, showing how these two elements- the meanings of things, and their materiality, are


id: early-adopter-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_adopter-0.md
category: reference
title: Early adopter
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_adopter
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:15.349425+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: early-adopter-20260505-0
summary:
An early adopter or lighthouse customer is an early customer of a given company, product, or technology. The term originates from Everett M. Rogers' Diffusion of Innovations (1962). == History == Typically, early adopters are customers who, in addition to using the vendor's product or technology, also provide considerable and candid feedback to help the vendor refine its future product releases, as well as the associated means of distribution, service, and support. Early adoption could also be referred to as a form of testing in the early stages of a project. The relationship is synergistic. The customer receives early (and sometimes unique, or at least uniquely early) access to an advantageous new product or technology. In return, the customer may also serve as a kind of guinea pig. In exchange for being an early adopter, and thus being exposed to the problems, risks, and annoyances common to early-stage product testing and deployment, the "lighthouse customer" is sometimes given especially attentive vendor assistance and support, even to the point of having personnel at the customer's work site to assist with implementation. The customer is sometimes given preferential pricing, terms, and conditions, although new technology is often very expensive, so the early


id: eco-innovation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eco-innovation-0.md
category: reference
title: Eco-innovation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eco-innovation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:16.559305+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eco-innovation-20260505-0
summary:
Eco-innovation is the development of products and processes that contribute to sustainable development, applying the commercial application of knowledge to elicit direct or indirect ecological improvements. This includes a range of related ideas, from environmentally friendly technological advances to socially acceptable innovative paths towards sustainability. The field of research that seeks to explain how, why, and at what rate new "ecological" ideas and technology spread is called eco-innovation diffusion. == Concept == The idea of eco-innovation is fairly recent. One of the first appearances in the literature was in a 1996 book by Claude Fussler and Peter James. In a subsequent article in 1997, Peter James defined eco-innovation as "new products and processes which provide customer and business value but significantly decrease environmental impacts". Klaus Rennings employs the term eco-innovation to describe three kinds of changes related to sustainable development: technological, social and institutional innovation. Eco-innovation is sometimes called "environmental innovation", and is often linked with environmental technology, eco-efficiency, eco-design, environmental design, sustainable design, or environmental sustainable innovation. While the term "environmental innovation" is used in similar contexts to "eco-innovation", the other terms are mostly used when referring to product or process design, and when the focus is more on


id: economics-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Economics of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:17.813987+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: economics-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The economics of science aims to understand the impact of science on the advance of technology, to explain the behavior of scientists, and to understand the efficiency or inefficiency of scientific institutions and science markets. The importance of the economics of science is substantially due to the importance of science as a driver of technology and technology as a driver of productivity and growth. Believing that science matters, economists have attempted to understand the behavior of scientists and the operation of scientific institutions. == Science as a public good == Economists consider "science" as the search and production of knowledge using known starting conditions. Knowledge can be considered a public good, due to the fact that its utility to society is not diminished with additional consumption (non-rivalry), and once the knowledge is shared with the public it becomes very hard to restrict access to it or use of it (non-excludable). Traditional public economic theory asserts that competitive markets provide poor incentives for production of a public good because the producers cannot reap the benefits of use of their product, and thus costs will be higher than benefits. Economists have identified several possible reasons as to why producers of science might


id: economics-of-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Economics of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:17.813987+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: economics-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== The patent system === In the United States, the Patent and Trademark Office issues patents that give the holder of the patent exclusive, defined property rights to their product for 20 years. From an economic perspective, the value of the patent is that it increases the marginal benefit of the firm that is producing the scientific knowledge. To graphically display this concept, the accompanying figure depicts the marginal benefit and marginal cost curves of a firm in the market for science. The vertical axis displays the marginal cost and marginal benefit of each additional dollar spent on research and development. The horizontal axis displays the amount of money spent on research and development in total. Research and development is assumed to have diminishing returns. For simplicity's sake, all curves are assumed to be linear, and the marginal cost curve is assumed to be constant. A firm will maximize their profits by producing where marginal cost intersects marginal benefit. In the absence of any government intervention, the firm will produce where at RD0, where private marginal benefit (MB0) intersects MC. However, if scientific knowledge is assumed to be a public good, then RD0 is too low a quantity to satisfy


id: ethical-legal-and-social-aspects-research-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethical,_Legal_and_Social_Aspects_research-0.md
category: reference
title: Ethical, Legal and Social Aspects research
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethical,_Legal_and_Social_Aspects_research
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:20.440796+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethical-legal-and-social-aspects-research-20260505-0
summary:
The acronyms ELSI (in the United States) and ELSA (in Europe) refer to research activities that anticipate and address ethical, legal and social implications (ELSI) or aspects (ELSA) of emerging sciences, notably genomics and nanotechnology. ELSI was conceived in 1988 when James Watson, at the press conference announcing his appointment as director of the Human Genome Project (HGP), suddenly and somewhat unexpectedly declared that the ethical and social implications of genomics warranted a special effort and should be directly funded by the National Institutes of Health. == Spread == Various ELSI or ELSA programs have been developed, in Canada, Europe and the Far East. Overview: U.S.A.: Ethical, ....Legal and Social Implications (ELSI) (funding agency: NIH, 1990) Canada: Genomics-related Ethical, Environmental, Economic, Legal and Social Aspects (GE3LS) (funding agency: Genome Canada, 2000) South-Korea: Ethical, Legal and Social Implications (ELSI) (funding: Government of South-Korea, 2001) United Kingdom: ESRC Genomics Network (EGN), including: Cesagen, Innogen, Egenis, Genomics Forum (funding agency: ESRC 2002) Netherlands: Centre for Society and the Life Sciences (CSG) (funding agency: Netherlands Genomics Initiative, 2002); more recently the ELSA labs programme related to Artificial Intelligence Norway: ELSA Program (funding agency: Research Council of Norway, 2002) Germany, Austria, Finland: ELSAGEN Transnational Research


id: ethnomethodology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnomethodology-0.md
category: reference
title: Ethnomethodology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnomethodology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:21.768037+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethnomethodology-20260505-0
summary:
Ethnomethodology is the study of how social order is produced in and through processes of social interaction. It generally seeks to provide an alternative to mainstream sociological approaches. It can be seen as posing a challenge to the social sciences as a whole, as it re-specifies the assumed phenomena of those sciences as being themselves social achievements. Its early investigations led to the founding of conversation analysis, which has found its own place as an accepted discipline within the academy. According to Psathas, it is possible to distinguish five major approaches within the ethnomethodological family of disciplines (see § Varieties). Ethnomethodology is a fundamentally descriptive discipline which does not engage in the explanation or evaluation of the particular social order undertaken as a topic of study. It seeks "to discover the things that persons in particular situations do, the methods they use, to create the patterned orderliness of social life". However, applications have been found within many applied disciplines, such as software design and management studies. == Definition == The term's meaning can be broken down into its three constituent parts: ethno – method – ology, for the purpose of explanation. Using an appropriate Southern California example: ethno refers to


id: ethnomethodology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnomethodology-1.md
category: reference
title: Ethnomethodology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnomethodology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:21.768037+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethnomethodology-20260505-0
summary:
== Theory and methods == Ethnomethodology has often perplexed commentators, due to its radical approach to questions of theory and method. With regard to theory, Garfinkel has consistently advocated an attitude of ethnomethodological indifference, a principled agnosticism with regard to social theory which insists that the shared understandings of members of a social setting under study take precedence over any concepts which a social theorist might bring to the analysis from outside that setting. This can be perplexing to traditional social scientists, trained in the need for social theory. A multiplicity of theoretical references by Anne Rawls, in her introduction to Ethnomethodology's Program, might be interpreted to suggest a softening of this position towards the end of Garfinkel's life. However, the position is consistent with ethnomethodology's understanding of the significance of "member's methods", and with certain lines of philosophical thought regarding the philosophy of science (Polanyi 1958; Kuhn 1970; Feyerabend 1975), and the study of the actual practices of scientific procedure. It also has a strong correspondence with the later philosophy of Ludwig Wittgenstein, especially as applied to social studies by Peter Winch. Regarding theory, Garfinkel's work references the phenomenology of Husserl, Gurwitsch, Merleau-Ponty and, most frequently, to the works


id: ethnomethodology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnomethodology-2.md
category: reference
title: Ethnomethodology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnomethodology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:21.768037+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethnomethodology-20260505-0
summary:
== Some leading policies, methods and definitions == The fundamental assumption of ethnomethodological studies As characterised by Anne Rawls, speaking for Garfinkel: "If one assumes, as Garfinkel does, that the meaningful, patterned, and orderly character of everyday life is something that people must work to achieve, then one must also assume that they have some methods for doing so". That is, "...members of society must have some shared methods that they use to mutually construct the meaningful orderliness of social situations." Ethnomethodology is an empirical enterprise Rawls states: "Ethnomethodology is a thoroughly empirical enterprise devoted to the discovery of social order and intelligibility [sense making] as witnessable collective achievements." "The keystone of the [ethnomethodological] argument is that local [social] orders exist; that these orders are witnessable in the scenes in which they are produced; and that the possibility of [their] intelligibility is based on the actual existence and detailed enactment of these orders." Ethnomethodology is not, however, conventionally empiricist. Its empirical nature is specified in the weak form of the unique adequacy requirement. The unique adequacy requirement of methods (weak form) is that the researcher should have a 'vulgar competence' in the research setting. That is, they should be able


id: ethnomethodology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnomethodology-3.md
category: reference
title: Ethnomethodology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnomethodology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:21.768037+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethnomethodology-20260505-0
summary:
No criteria are offered for the translation of an original text and its misreading—the outcome of such translations are in Garfinkel's term: "incommensurable." The misreading of texts or fragments of texts is a standard feature of ethnomethodology's way of doing theory, especially in regards to topics in phenomenology. Reflexivity Despite the fact that many sociologists use "reflexivity" as a synonym for "self-reflection," the way the term is used in ethnomethodology is different: it is meant "to describe the acausal and non-mentalistic determination of meaningful action-in-context". See also: Reflexivity (social theory). Documentary method of interpretation The documentary method is the method of understanding utilised by everyone engaged in trying to make sense of their social world—this includes the ethnomethodologist. Garfinkel recovered the concept from the work of Karl Mannheim and repeatedly demonstrates the use of the method in the case studies appearing in his central text, Studies in Ethnomethodology. Mannheim defined the term as a search for an identical homologous pattern of meaning underlying a variety of totally different realisations of that meaning. Garfinkel states that the documentary method of interpretation consists of treating an actual appearance as the "document of", "as pointing to", as "standing on behalf of", a presupposed


id: ethnomethodology-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnomethodology-4.md
category: reference
title: Ethnomethodology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnomethodology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:21.768037+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethnomethodology-20260505-0
summary:
== Differences with sociology == Since ethnomethodology has become anathema to certain sociologists, and since those practicing it like to perceive their own efforts as constituting a radical break from prior sociologies, there has been little attempt to link ethnomethodology to these prior sociologies. However, whilst ethnomethodology is distinct from sociological methods, it does not seek to compete with it, or provide remedies for any of its practices. The ethnomethodological approach differs as much from the sociological approach as sociology does from psychology even though both speak of social action. This does not mean that ethnomethodology does not use traditional sociological forms as a sounding board for its own programmatic development, or to establish benchmarks for the differences between traditional sociological forms of study and ethnomethodology as it only means that ethnomethodology was not established in order to: repair, criticize, undermine, or poke fun at traditional sociological forms. In essence the distinctive difference between sociological approaches and ethnomethodology is that the latter adopts a commonsense attitude towards knowledge. In contrast to traditional sociological forms of inquiry, it is a hallmark of the ethnomethodological perspective that it does not make theoretical or methodological appeals to: outside assumptions regarding the structure of


id: ethnomethodology-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnomethodology-5.md
category: reference
title: Ethnomethodology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnomethodology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:21.768037+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethnomethodology-20260505-0
summary:
Even though ethnomethodology has been characterised as having a "phenomenological sensibility", and reliable commentators have acknowledged that "there is a strong influence of phenomenology on ethnomethodology" (Maynard and Kardash 2007:1484), some orthodox adherents to the discipline—those who follow the teachings of Garfinkel—do not explicitly represent it as a form of phenomenology. Garfinkel speaks of phenomenological texts and findings as being "appropriated" for the purposes of exploring topics in the study of social order. Even though ethnomethodology is not a form of phenomenology, the reading and understanding of phenomenological texts, and developing the capability of seeing phenomenologically is essential to the praxis of ethnomethodological studies. As Garfinkel states in regard to the work of the phenomenologist Aron Gurwitsch, especially his Field of Consciousness (1964: ethnomethodology's phenomenological urtext): "you can't do anything unless you do read his texts". == References == === Notes === === Bibliography === Bar-Hillel, Y. (1954) 'Indexical expressions', Mind 63 (251):359–379. Feyerabend, Paul (1975) Against Method, London, New Left Books. Garfinkel, H. (1967) Studies in Ethnomethodology, Prentice-Hall. Garfinkel, H. and Liberman, K. (2007) 'Introduction: the lebenswelt origins of the sciences', Human Studies, 30, 1, pp3–7. Gurwitsch, Aron (1964) The Field of Consciousness, Duquesne University Press. Hammersley, Martyn (2018)


id: evidence-argument-and-persuasion-in-the-policy-process-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence,_Argument,_and_Persuasion_in_the_Policy_Process-0.md
category: reference
title: Evidence, Argument, and Persuasion in the Policy Process
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence,_Argument,_and_Persuasion_in_the_Policy_Process
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:22.978144+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-argument-and-persuasion-in-the-policy-process-20260505-0
summary:
In Evidence, Argument, and Persuasion in the Policy Process, published in 1989, Italian political scientist Giandomenico Majone contrasts a vision of policy analysis as a technical, nonpartisan, and objective enterprise, with one more dependent upon the political environment in which it is formulated. Against a 'decisionist' view of information-for-decisions, Majone sets policy analysis as distinct from the academic social sciences on the one hand, and from problem-solving methodologies such as operations research on the other (p. 7). The tasks entrusted to an analyst - according to Majone - are to screen the evidence according to a plurality of viewpoints, elaborate arguments relative to the appropriateness of given policies, elaborate these arguments as a function of the intended audience, and finally present these argument convincingly. For this reason, beyond the necessary technical competence, the analyst should possess rhetorical and dialectical skills. This book contributes to the efforts to provide a more realistic portrayals of the strengths and limits of analysis, like Richard_R._Nelson’s The Moon and the Ghetto and Aaron Wildavsky’s Speaking Truth to Power: The Art and Craft of Policy Analysis. == References ==


id: extended-peer-community-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_peer_community-0.md
category: reference
title: Extended peer community
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_peer_community
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:24.404724+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: extended-peer-community-20260505-0
summary:
The concept of Extended peer community belongs to the field of Sociology of science, and in particular the use of science in the solution of social, political or ecological problems. It was first introduced by in the 1990s by Silvio Funtowicz and Jerome R. Ravetz. in the context of what would become Post-normal science. An Extended peer community is intended by these authors as a space where both credentialed experts from different disciplines and lay stakeholders can discuss and deliberate. == Content == An Extended peer community is intended by its creators as an arrangement at the science policy interface that helps to expand and assess both the knowledge-base and the value-base of policy-making'. Post-normal science's extended peer community argues for two kind of extensions: first, more than one discipline is assumed to have a potential bearing on the issue being debated, thereby providing different lenses to consider the problem. Second the community is extended to lay actors, taken to be all those with stakes, or an interest, in the given issue. The lay members of the community thus constituted may also take upon themselves active 'research' tasks; this has happened e.g. in the so-called 'popular epidemiology', when the official


id: factor-10-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factor_10-0.md
category: reference
title: Factor 10
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factor_10
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:25.566052+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: factor-10-20260505-0
summary:
Factor Ten is a social and economic policy program developed by the Factor Ten institute with the stated goal of "provid[ing] practical support for achieving significant advances in sustainable value creation, in particular through increases in resource productivity throughout the economy. == History == Friedrich Schmidt-Bleek, from the Wuppertal Institute for Climate, Environment and Energy, first proposed the Factor 10 and dematerialization concepts in the early 1990s. He concluded in his studies that 80% of the world's resources are distributed among First World nations, which contribute 20% of the global population, so those nations are promoting an unsustainable system of development. The goal of Factor 10 is to assure that nations do not exceed the planet's carrying capacity but leave sufficient resources for future generations. == Factor 4 == Factor 10 evolved from the less dramatic Factor 4 was originally proposed by L. Hunter Lovins and Amory Lovins of the Rocky Mountain Institute and Ernst von Weizsäcker, the founder of the Wuppertal Institute for Climate, Environment & Energy. Their book Factor 4 explains how simple it is for nations to achieve Factor 4 results with existing technologies. The concept attempts to reduce resource and energy use by 75% by doubling


id: far-fetched-facts-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Far-Fetched_Facts-0.md
category: reference
title: Far-Fetched Facts
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Far-Fetched_Facts
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:26.782730+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: far-fetched-facts-20260505-0
summary:
Far-Fetched Facts is a book by German anthropologist Richard Rottenburg, published in German as Weit hergeholte Fakten in 2002; the English translation was released in 2009. The book is an ethnography-based, though fictionalized, polyphonic account of a waterworks' improvement project in Tanzania (called Ruritania in the book's fictionalization). The book follows the different stages of the development project by looking closely at the interactions between a Northern development bank, experts of an international consulting firm and African project managers. It focuses thereby on technologies of inscription that enable the reconnaissance and operationalization of improvement measures to be taken, but also guide the overall interaction between the different stakeholders of the project. Showing these representational and managerial practices, the book lays bare the necessary day-to-day production of objectivity and legitimacy in development projects, but also the intricacies and inconsistencies of daily translation processes, that often lead to the rather disappointing results of such development enterprises. Inspired by organizational and science and technology studies, “Far-fetched facts” provides an anthropological critique of the aid industry in Africa distinct from postdevelopment critique. == Reviews == Breyman, Steve 2010. Review of Far-Fetched Facts. In: The History of Science Society, vol. 101, no. 3, pp. 682–683


id: feminist-science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_science_and_technology_studies-0.md
category: reference
title: Feminist science and technology studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_science_and_technology_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:28.065386+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: feminist-science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
Feminist science and technology studies (feminist STS) is a theoretical subfield of science and technology studies (STS), which explores how gender interacts with science and technology. The field emerged in the early 1980s alongside other relativist theories of STS which rejected the dominance of technological determinism, proposing that reality is multiple rather than fixed and prioritizing situated knowledges over scientific objectivity. Feminist STS's material-semiotic theory evolved to display a complex understanding of gender and technology relationships by the 2000s, notable scholars producing feminist critiques of scientific knowledge and the design and use of technologies. The co-constructive relationship between gender and technology contributed to feminist STS's rejection of binary gender roles by the twenty-first century, the field's framework expanding to incorporate principles of feminist technoscience and queer theory amidst widespread adoption of the internet. Historical areas of research include policy development, reproduction, pharmaceuticals, design and use of consumer products, and engineering cultures, researchers exploring ways gender creates and is created by individuals or groups interacting with non-human actors. Feminist STS scholars prioritize this relationship of co-construction to emphasize that neither gender nor technology and science exists before their interaction, but instead, reality exists in the social and material interactions, producing these


id: feminist-science-and-technology-studies-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_science_and_technology_studies-1.md
category: reference
title: Feminist science and technology studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_science_and_technology_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:28.065386+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: feminist-science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
=== 2000s – present === Building upon prior research from two decades of feminist STS literature, studies adopted principles based on updated frameworks at the turn of the millennium, such as Ellen van Oost's research into how gender becomes configured into electric shavers, Ruth Schwartz Cowan's study on technological innovation increasing women's labor, and Jennifer R. Fishman's exploration of pharmaceutical technology's potential to designate potential consumers as dysfunctional. Research regarding decades of body modification practices in queer communities introduced material connections between gender and technology through individuals who represented and created diverse genders for themselves through physical alteration of their bodies, further establishing academic literature on gender beyond binary terminology and connecting queer theory to feminist STS. Compared to past studies which were restricted to questioning the objectivity of scientific knowledge through the language used in descriptions of biological sex, researchers approached reproductive studies through a gender-based framework, Rayna Rapp emphasizing feminist ideology in her study of the impact of reproductive biomedicalization on women, while Laura Mamo's exploration of knowledge negotiation in lesbian reproduction six years later emphasized situated knowledges. Both studies found multiple possibilities of femininity reflected in their research subjects, similar to Wendy Faulkner's conclusions in her 2001


id: gartner-hype-cycle-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gartner_hype_cycle-0.md
category: reference
title: Gartner hype cycle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gartner_hype_cycle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:29.229999+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gartner-hype-cycle-20260505-0
summary:
The Gartner hype cycle is a graphical presentation to represent the maturity, adoption, and social application of specific technologies. The hype cycle's veracity has been largely disputed, with studies pointing to it being inconsistently true at best. == History == The hype cycle framework was introduced in 1995 by Gartner analyst Jackie Fenn, who had joined the firm the year before. In her research reports, Fenn identified common patterns related to the maturity of emerging technologies. Fenn referred to this familiar progression as a "hype cycle" and created a graph depicting its ups and downs with each distinct stage given a title, starting with Technology trigger and ending with Plateau of productivity. The chart was included in a one-off research report, but it was popular with other Gartner analysts and clients and the "Hype Cycle of Emerging Technologies" was soon developed into an annual report. == Five phases == Each hype cycle consists of five key phases of a technology's life cycle. 1. Technology trigger A potential technology breakthrough kicks things off. Early proof-of-concept stories and media interest trigger significant publicity. Often no usable products exist and commercial viability is unproven. 2. Peak of inflated expectations Early publicity produces a


id: graphism-thesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphism_thesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Graphism thesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphism_thesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:30.444789+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: graphism-thesis-20260505-0
summary:
In the sociology of science and science and technology studies (STS), the graphism thesis is a proposition advanced by Bruno Latour that visual inscriptions—especially graphs, diagrams, and other visual representations—are central to the practice and authority of science. First articulated in Latour's 1990 essay "Visualization and Cognition: Drawing Things Together", the thesis holds that the power of scientific disciplines is closely linked to their capacity to produce, circulate, and combine visual representations of data. The thesis has been empirically tested by a number of researchers, who have found strong correlations between the level of graph use in scientific publications and the perceived "hardness" of scientific disciplines. == Background == The graphism thesis emerged from Latour's broader theory of inscriptions in scientific practice, developed across several works including Laboratory Life (1979, with Steve Woolgar) and Science in Action (1987). In these works, Latour defined an inscription device as any apparatus or configuration that transforms a material substance into a visual display usable within a scientific text, such as a diagram, chart, photograph, map, equation, or table. Central to this framework is the concept of immutable mobiles (a key term in actor–network theory)—objects that can be transported across distances while retaining their


id: ideation-creative-process-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideation_(creative_process)-0.md
category: reference
title: Ideation (creative process)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideation_(creative_process)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:31.633440+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ideation-creative-process-20260505-0
summary:
Ideation is the creative process of generating, developing, and communicating new ideas, where an idea is understood as a basic unit of thought that can be either visual, concrete, or abstract. Ideation comprises all stages of a thought cycle, from innovation, to development, to actualization. Ideation can be conducted by individuals, organizations, or crowds. As such, it is an essential part of the design process, both in education and practice. == Criticism == The word "ideation" has come under informal criticism as being a term of meaningless jargon, as well as being inappropriately similar to the psychiatric term for suicidal ideation. == Methods and approaches == There are many methods and approaches for ideation. A list of common ideation techniques is as follows: Brainstorming: A technique where the basic premise is to get a group together and have them share their ideas freely, without judgement. The goal is to generate as many ideas as possible, regardless of whether they are good or bad. Once the brainstorming session is over, the group can evaluate the ideas and narrow them down to the best ones. Idea mapping: This process begins with brainstorming a central idea and then developing said idea by adding


id: infolab21-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InfoLab21-0.md
category: reference
title: InfoLab21
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InfoLab21
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:32.872769+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: infolab21-20260505-0
summary:
InfoLab21 is a research centre at Lancaster University focusing primarily on information and communication technologies. The centre was opened in 2005 by Patricia Hewitt in order to "transfer the knowledge, technology and innovation techniques that are strong within the university into the private sector." The centre houses the University's School of Computing and Communications and operates under the University's department of Science and Technology. == References == == External links == InfoLab21 at Lancaster University


id: innovation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innovation-0.md
category: reference
title: Innovation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innovation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:34.249179+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: innovation-20260505-0
summary:
Innovation is the practical implementation of ideas that result in the creation or improvements of goods or services. ISO TC 279 in the standard ISO 56000:2020 defines innovation as "a new or changed entity, realizing or redistributing value". Others have different definitions; a common element in the definitions is a focus on newness, improvement, and spread of ideas or technologies (see diffusion of innovation). Innovation often takes place through the development of more-effective products, processes, services, technologies, art works or business models that innovators make available to markets, governments, and society. Innovation is related to, but not the same as, invention: innovation is more apt to involve the practical implementation of an invention (i.e. new / improved ability) to make a meaningful impact in a market or society. Not all innovations require a new invention. Technical innovation often manifests itself through the engineering process when the problem being solved is of a technical or scientific nature. The opposite of innovation is exnovation. == Definition == Surveys of the literature on innovation have found a variety of definitions. In 2009, Baregheh et al. found around 60 definitions in different scientific papers, while a 2014 survey found over 40. Based on their


id: innovation-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innovation-1.md
category: reference
title: Innovation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innovation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:34.249179+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: innovation-20260505-0
summary:
One framework proposed by Clayton Christensen draws a distinction between sustaining and disruptive innovations. Sustaining innovation is the improvement of a product or service based on the known needs of current customers (e.g. faster microprocessors, flat screen televisions). Disruptive innovation in contrast refers to a process by which a new product or service creates a new market (e.g. transistor radio, free crowdsourced encyclopedia, etc.), eventually displacing established competitors. According to Christensen, disruptive innovations are critical to long-term success in business. Disruptive innovation is often enabled by disruptive technology. Marco Iansiti and Karim R. Lakhani define foundational technology as having the potential to create new foundations for global technology systems over the longer term. Foundational technology tends to transform business operating models as entirely new business models emerge over many years, with gradual and steady adoption of the innovation leading to waves of technological and institutional change that gain momentum more slowly. The advent of the packet-switched communication protocol TCP/IP—originally introduced in 1972 to support a single use case for United States Department of Defense electronic communication (email), and which gained widespread adoption only in the mid-1990s with the advent of the World Wide Web—is a foundational technology. === Four types


id: innovation-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innovation-2.md
category: reference
title: Innovation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innovation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:34.249179+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: innovation-20260505-0
summary:
=== 20th and 21st centuries === A study by McKinsey & Co. notes that patterns of innovation as measured by patent applications followed the economic cycle during the first part of the 20th century, with businesses reluctant to innovate during the depression of the 1930s. Later in the century, the concept of innovation became more popular after the Second World War of 1939–1945. This was the point in time when people started to talk about technological product innovation and tie it to the ideas of economic growth and competitive advantage. Joseph Schumpeter (1883–1950), who contributed greatly to the study of innovation economics, is seen as the one who made the term popular. Schumpeter argued that industries must incessantly revolutionize the economic structure from within, that is: innovate with better or more effective processes and products, as well as with market distribution (such as the transition from the craft shop to factory). He famously asserted that "creative destruction is the essential fact about capitalism". In business and in economics, innovation can provide a catalyst for growth when entrepreneurs continuously search for better ways to satisfy their consumer base with improved quality, durability, service and price - searches which may come to


id: innovation-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innovation-3.md
category: reference
title: Innovation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innovation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:34.249179+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: innovation-20260505-0
summary:
=== Facilitating innovation === Innovation by businesses is achieved in many ways, with much attention now given to formal research and development (R&D) for "breakthrough innovations". R&D help spur on patents and other scientific innovations that leads to productive growth in such areas as industry, medicine, engineering, and government. Yet, innovations can be developed by less formal on-the-job modifications of practice, through exchange and combination of professional experience and by many other routes. Investigation of relationship between the concepts of innovation and technology transfer revealed overlap. The more radical and revolutionary innovations tend to emerge from R&D, while more incremental innovations may emerge from practice – but there are many exceptions to each of these trends. Information technology and changing business processes and management style can produce a work climate favorable to innovation. For example, the software tool company Atlassian conducts quarterly "ShipIt Days" in which employees may work on anything related to the company's products. Google employees work on self-directed projects for 20% of their time (known as Innovation Time Off). Both companies cite these bottom-up processes as major sources for new products and features. An important innovation factor includes customers buying products or using services. As a result,


id: innovation-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innovation-4.md
category: reference
title: Innovation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innovation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:34.249179+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: innovation-20260505-0
summary:
=== Environmental and social innovation failures === Innovation is generally framed as an inherently positive force, delivering growth and prosperity for all, and is often deemed as both inevitable and unstoppable. In this sense, future innovations are often hailed as solutions to current problems, such as climate change. This business-as-usual approach would mean continued and increased globalization as well as quick innovation cycles which supposedly will maximize the competitiveness of processes, in the end leading to Eco-economic decoupling or Green growth. Yet, it is unclear whether innovative solutions will be capable of solving the climate crisis: According to Mario Giampietro and Silvio Funtowicz (2020), this positive framing of innovation "demonstrates [a] lack of understanding of the biophysical roots of the economic process and the seriousness of the sustainability crisis". This is due to the fact that innovation can be understood in its specific historic and cultural context: The prevailing hegemonic view on innovation, as emphasized by Ben Robra et al. (2023), aligns closely with capitalist mode of production, shown by the mantra of 'innovate or die.' From this viewpoint, innovation is primarily driven by the imperative of capital accumulation, serving the sole purpose of increasing returns, neglecting societal needs such


id: innovation-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innovation-5.md
category: reference
title: Innovation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innovation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:34.249179+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: innovation-20260505-0
summary:
=== Indicators === Many scholars claim that there is a great bias towards the "science and technology mode" (S&T-mode or STI-mode), while the "learning by doing, using and interacting mode" (DUI-mode) is ignored and measurements and research about it rarely done. For example, an institution may be high tech with the latest equipment, but lacks crucial doing, using and interacting tasks important for innovation. A common industry view (unsupported by empirical evidence) is that comparative cost-effectiveness research is a form of price control which reduces returns to industry, and thus limits R&D expenditure, stifles future innovation and compromises new products access to markets. Some academics claim cost-effectiveness research is a valuable value-based measure of innovation which accords "truly significant" therapeutic advances (i.e. providing "health gain") higher prices than free market mechanisms. Such value-based pricing has been viewed as a means of indicating to industry the type of innovation that should be rewarded from the public purse. An Australian academic developed the case that national comparative cost-effectiveness analysis systems should be viewed as measuring "health innovation" as an evidence-based policy concept for valuing innovation distinct from valuing through competitive markets, a method which requires strong anti-trust laws to be effective, on


id: innovation-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innovation-6.md
category: reference
title: Innovation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innovation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:34.249179+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: innovation-20260505-0
summary:
Given its effects on efficiency, quality of life, and productive growth, innovation is a key driver in improving society and economy. Consequently, policymakers have worked to develop environments that will foster innovation, from funding research and development to establishing regulations that do not inhibit innovation, funding the development of innovation clusters, and using public purchasing and standardisation to 'pull' innovation through. For instance, experts are advocating that the U.S. federal government launch a National Infrastructure Foundation, a nimble, collaborative strategic intervention organization that will house innovations programs from fragmented silos under one entity, inform federal officials on innovation performance metrics, strengthen industry-university partnerships, and support innovation economic development initiatives, especially to strengthen regional clusters. Because clusters are the geographic incubators of innovative products and processes, a cluster development grant program would also be targeted for implementation. By focusing on innovating in such areas as precision manufacturing, information technology, and sustainable energy, other areas of national concern would be tackled including government debt, carbon footprint, and oil dependence. The U.S. Economic Development Administration understand this reality in their continued Regional Innovation Clusters initiative. The United States also has to integrate her supply-chain and improve her applies research capability and downstream process


id: institute-for-science-and-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Science_and_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: Institute for Science and Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Science_and_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:35.540532+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: institute-for-science-and-society-20260505-0
summary:
The Institute for Science and Society (ISS) is an international centre of research in Science and Technology Studies located at the University of Nottingham in England. In 2024, Professor Pru Hobson West is the director of the institute. == History == The organisation was founded in 1998. It was known as the Genetics and Society Unit (GSU) until 2001. It was renamed the Institute for the Study of Genetics, Biorisks and Society (IGBiS). Its remit was expanded in 2006 to cover the social, legal, ethical and cultural implications of any field of science, medicine or technology, at which point it became ISS. The institute is located in the School of Sociology and Social Policy but works virtually across the university and has strong links with the sciences and engineering. == About ISS == The Institute for Science and Society is a multidisciplinary centre drawing on a wide range of social sciences and humanities disciplines to conduct research into aspects of the mutual relationship between science and society. Since ISS was founded in 1998 it has attracted over £20 million in research funding and has been variously supported by grants and contracts from the Leverhulme and Wellcome Trusts, the Economic and


id: john-desmond-bernal-prize-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Desmond_Bernal_Prize-0.md
category: reference
title: John Desmond Bernal Prize
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Desmond_Bernal_Prize
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:36.795372+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: john-desmond-bernal-prize-20260505-0
summary:
The John Desmond Bernal Prize is an award given annually by the Society for Social Studies of Science (4S) to scholars judged to have made a distinguished contribution to the interdisciplinary field of Science and Technology Studies (STS). The award was launched in 1981, with the support of Eugene Garfield. The award is named after the scientist John Desmond Bernal. == Award recipients == Source: Society for Social Studies of Science Archived 2017-08-06 at the Wayback Machine == See also == List of social sciences awards == References == == External links == Society for Social Studies of Science


id: knowledge-production-modes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_production_modes-0.md
category: reference
title: Knowledge production modes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_production_modes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:38.027257+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: knowledge-production-modes-20260505-0
summary:
A knowledge production mode is a term from the sociology of science which refers to the way (scientific) knowledge is produced. So far, three modes have been conceptualized. Mode 1 production of knowledge is knowledge production motivated by scientific knowledge alone (basic research) which is not primarily concerned by the applicability of its findings. Mode 1 is founded on a conceptualization of science as separated into discrete disciplines (e.g., a biologist does not bother about chemistry). Mode 2 was coined in 1994 in juxtaposition to Mode 1 by Michael Gibbons, Camille Limoges, Helga Nowotny, Simon Schwartzman, Peter Scott and Martin Trow. In Mode 2, multidisciplinary teams are brought together for short periods address specific, real-world problems, with the aim of producing knowledge (applied research) within the context of knowledge society. Mode 2 can be explained by the way research funds are distributed among scientists and how scientists focus on obtaining these funds in terms of five basic features: knowledge produced in the context of application; transdisciplinarity; heterogeneity and organizational diversity; social accountability and reflexivity; and quality control. Subsequently, Carayannis and Campbell described a Mode 3 knowledge in 2006. == Development of the concept == Gibbons and colleagues argued that a


id: knowledge-production-modes-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_production_modes-1.md
category: reference
title: Knowledge production modes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_production_modes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:38.027257+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: knowledge-production-modes-20260505-0
summary:
The so-called Mode 2 is not new; it is the original format of science (or art) before its academic institutionalization in the 19th century. Another question to be answered is why Mode 1 has arisen after Mode 2: the original organizational and institutional basis of science, consisting of networks and invisible colleges. Where have these ideas, of the scientist as the isolated individual and of science separated from the interests of society, come from? Mode 2 represents the material base of science, how it actually operates. Mode 1 is a construct, built upon that base in order to justify autonomy for science, especially in an earlier era when it was still a fragile institution and needed all the help it could get (references omitted). Thus, Mode 1 is essentially a theoretical construct, not a description of actual scientific research, as the boundaries between different disciplines and "basic" and "applied research" have always been blurred. In the same article, Etzkowitz and Leydesdorff use the notion of the triple helix of the nation state (government), academia (university) and industry to explain innovation, the development of new technology and knowledge transfer. Etzkowitz and Leydesdorff argue, "The Triple Helix overlay provides a model at


id: linear-model-of-innovation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_model_of_innovation-0.md
category: reference
title: Linear model of innovation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_model_of_innovation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:39.296205+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: linear-model-of-innovation-20260505-0
summary:
The linear model of innovation was an early model designed to understand the relationship of science and technology that begins with basic research that flows into applied research, development and diffusion. It posits scientific research as the basis of innovation which eventually leads to economic growth. The model has been criticized by many scholars over decades. The majority of the criticisms pointed out its crudeness and limitations in capturing the sources, process, and effects of innovation. However, it has also been argued that the linear model was simply a creation by academics, debated heavily in academia, but never believed in practice. The model is more fittingly used as a basis to understand more nuanced models. == Versions == Two versions of the linear model of innovation are often presented: "technology push" model "market pull" model From the 1950s to the mid-1960s, the industrial innovation process was generally perceived as a linear progression from scientific discovery, through technological development in firms, to the marketplace. The stages of the "technology push" model are: Basic science→Design and engineering→Manufacturing→Marketing→Sales From the mid-1960s to the early 1970s emerges the second-generation Innovation model, referred to as the "market pull" model of innovation. According to this simple


id: ludwik-fleck-prize-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwik_Fleck_Prize-0.md
category: reference
title: Ludwik Fleck Prize
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwik_Fleck_Prize
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:40.608385+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ludwik-fleck-prize-20260505-0
summary:
The Ludwik Fleck Prize is an annual award given for a book in the field of science and technology studies. It was created by the 4S Council (Society for the Social Studies of Science) in 1992 and is named after microbiologist Ludwik Fleck. The prize is named after the Polish microbiologist and sociologist Ludwik Fleck (1896-1961), author of Genèse et développement d'un fait scientifique (1935), which influenced Thomas Samuel Kuhn's conception of the history of science, constructivist epistemology, and various fields of research such as the sociology of science, the sociology of scientific knowledge, science studies and the social construction of technologies. == Prize Winners == == See also == List of social sciences awards == References == == External links == Official website


id: mapping-controversies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mapping_controversies-0.md
category: reference
title: Mapping controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mapping_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:41.968634+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mapping-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
Mapping controversies (MC) is an academic course taught in science studies, stemming from the writings of the French sociologist and philosopher Bruno Latour. MC focuses exclusively on the controversies surrounding scientific knowledge rather than the established scientific facts or outcomes. Thus, it helps sociologists, anthropologists and other social scientists get insights not into scientific knowledge per se, but rather into the process of gaining knowledge. Thus, MC sheds light on those intermediate stages corresponding to the actual research process and pinpoints the connections between scientific work and other types of activities. == History == The term mapping controversies was first suggested in relation to analysis of scientific and technological controversies, and then lately re-affirmed as a widely applicable methodological approach going beyond the boundaries of science studies. It is usually used for the methodology that identifies and tracks down the polemics or debate surrounding a scientific fact, and utilises various visualisation tools to present the problem in its complexity. From January 2008 until December 2009, Latour coordinated the project "Mapping Controversies on Science for Politics (MACOSPOL)". The showcase website is mappingcontroversies.net. In 2008 and 2009 several universities in Europe and the USA started teaching mapping controversies courses for students in


id: mutual-shaping-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutual_shaping-0.md
category: reference
title: Mutual shaping
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutual_shaping
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:43.256561+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mutual-shaping-20260505-0
summary:
Mutual shaping suggests that society and technology are not mutually exclusive to one another and, instead, influence and shape each other. This process is a combination of social determinism and technological determinism. The term mutual shaping was developed through science and technology studies (STS) in an attempt to explain the detailed process of technological design. Mutual shaping is argued to have a more comprehensive understanding of the development of new media because it considers technological and social change as directly affecting the other. == Comparison of TD and SD == Technological determinism (TD), coined by Thorstein Veblen, suggests that technology is the primary catalyst for change in society. Following this theory, the development and implementation of technology is beyond the control of society as it is pervasive in all elements of our lives. Once a technology has been created its influence on society is an inevitable, predetermined path. Technological deterministic view suggests that technology is the cause of societal change, which shapes humans and their environments. An example that supports technological determinism is the development of the printing press that accelerated the Protestant Reformation. In contrast, social determinism (SD), popularized by social theorists Karl Marx and Emile Durkheim, purports that


id: new-media-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_media-0.md
category: reference
title: New media
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_media
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:44.549298+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: new-media-20260505-0
summary:
New media are communication technologies that enable or enhance interaction between users, as well as interaction between users and content. In the middle of the 1990s, the phrase "new media" became widely used as part of a sales pitch for the influx of interactive CD-ROMs for entertainment and education. The new media technologies, sometimes known as Web 2.0, include a wide range of web-related communication tools such as blogs, wikis, online social networking, virtual worlds, and other social media platforms. The phrase "new media" refers to computational media that share material online and through computers. New media inspire new ways of thinking about older media. Media do not replace one another in a clear, linear succession, instead evolving in a more complicated network of interconnected feedback loops . What is different about new media is how they specifically refashion traditional media and how older media refashion themselves to meet the challenges of new media. Unless they contain technologies that enable digital generative or interactive processes, broadcast television programs, non-interactive news websites, feature films, magazines, and books are not considered to be new media. The term "new media" stands in contrast to old media, which dominated the media landscape as a


id: new-media-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_media-1.md
category: reference
title: New media
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_media
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:44.549298+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: new-media-20260505-0
summary:
New media versus cyberculture – Cyberculture is the various social phenomena that are associated with the Internet and network communications (blogs, online multi-player gaming), whereas new media is concerned more with cultural objects and paradigms (digital to analog television, smartphones). New media as computer technology used as a distribution platform – New media are the cultural objects which use digital computer technology for distribution and exhibition. e.g. (at least for now) Internet, Web sites, computer multimedia, Blu-ray disks etc. The problem with this is that the definition must be revised every few years. The term "new media" will not be "new" anymore, as most forms of culture will be distributed through computers. New media as digital data controlled by software – The language of new media is based on the assumption that, in fact, all cultural objects that rely on digital representation and computer-based delivery do share a number of common qualities. New media is reduced to digital data that can be manipulated by software as any other data. Now media operations can create several versions of the same object. An example is an image stored as matrix data which can be manipulated and altered according to the additional algorithms


id: new-media-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_media-2.md
category: reference
title: New media
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_media
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:44.549298+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: new-media-20260505-0
summary:
== Interactivity == Interactivity has become a term for a number of new media use options evolving from the rapid dissemination of Internet access points, the digitalization of media, and media convergence. In 1984, Ronald E. Rice defined new media as communication technologies that enable or facilitate user-to-user interactivity and interactivity between user and information. Such a definition replaces the "one-to-many" model of traditional mass communication with the possibility of a "many-to-many" web of communication. Any individual with the appropriate technology can now produce his or her online media and include images, text, and sound about whatever he or she chooses. Thus the convergence of new methods of communication with new technologies shifts the model of mass communication, and radically reshapes the ways we interact and communicate with one another. In "What is new media?", Vin Crosbie described three different kinds of communication media. He saw interpersonal media as "one to one", mass media as "one to many", and finally new media as individuation media or "many to many". Interactivity is present in some programming work, such as video games. It's also viable in the operation of traditional media. In the mid-1990s, filmmakers started using inexpensive digital cameras to create


id: new-media-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_media-3.md
category: reference
title: New media
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_media
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:44.549298+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: new-media-20260505-0
summary:
== Globalization == The rise of new media and the Internet has increased communication among people all over the world. It has enabled individuals to express themselves through blogs, websites, videos, pictures, and other forms of user-generated media. Terry Flew stated that as new technologies develop, the world becomes more globalized. Globalization is more than the development of activities throughout the world, globalization allows the world to be connected no matter the distance from user to user and Frances Cairncross expresses this great development as the "death of distance". New media has established the importance of making friendships through digital social places more prominent than in physical places. Globalization is generally stated as "more than expansion of activities beyond the boundaries of particular nation states". New media "radically break the connection between physical place and social place, making physical location much less significant for our social relationships". However, the changes in the new media environment create a series of tensions in the concept of "public sphere". According to Ingrid Volkmer, "public sphere" is defined as a process through which public communication becomes restructured and partly disembedded from national political and cultural institutions. This trend of the globalized public sphere is


id: new-media-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_media-4.md
category: reference
title: New media
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_media
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:44.549298+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: new-media-20260505-0
summary:
=== Social change === Social movement media has a rich and storied history (see Agitprop) that has changed at a rapid rate since new media became widely used. The Zapatista Army of National Liberation of Chiapas, Mexico were the first major movement to make widely recognized and effective use of new media for communiques and organizing in 1994. Since then, new media has been used extensively by social movements to educate, organize, share cultural products of movements, communicate, coalition build, and more. The WTO Ministerial Conference of 1999 protest activity was another landmark in the use of new media as a tool for social change. The WTO protests used media to organize the original action, communicate with and educate participants, and was used as an alternative media source. The Indymedia movement also developed out of this action, and has been a great tool in the democratization of information, which is another widely discussed aspect of new media movement. Some scholars even view this democratization as an indication of the creation of a "radical, socio-technical paradigm to challenge the dominant, neoliberal and technologically determinist model of information and communication technologies." A less radical view along these same lines is that people


id: new-media-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_media-5.md
category: reference
title: New media
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_media
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:44.549298+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: new-media-20260505-0
summary:
=== Electronic literature === New media provides new ways to read and produce literature. The electronic literature is intertwined with new media and is often called "New Media literature" as noted in the New Media Writing Prize as well as critical works of this genre. Astrid Ensslin and Samya Brata Roy point out in their 2023 article, electronic literature "comprises literary media objects, practices and environments that often yet not exclusively require the reader’s active participation," which are based in new media practices and affordances. Electronic literature is often Janez Strehovec compares and new media art. === Games === Terry Flew argues that "the global interactive games industry is large and growing, and is at the forefront of many of the most significant innovations in new media". Interactivity is prominent in these online video games such as World of Warcraft, The Sims Online and Second Life. These games, which are developments of "new media," allow for users to establish relationships and experience a sense of belonging that transcends traditional temporal and spatial boundaries (such as when gamers logging in from different parts of the world interact). These games can be used as an escape or to act out a desired


id: new-media-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_media-6.md
category: reference
title: New media
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_media
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:44.549298+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: new-media-20260505-0
summary:
=== Youth === Based on nationally representative data, a study conducted by Kaiser Family Foundation in five-year intervals in 1998–99, 2003–04, and 2008–09 found that with technology allowing nearly 24-hour media access, the amount of time young people spend with entertainment media has risen dramatically, especially among Black and Hispanic youth. Today, 8 to 18-year-olds devote an average of 7 hours and 38 minutes (7:38) to using entertainment media in a typical day (more than 53 hours a week) – about the same amount most adults spend at work per day. Since much of that time is spent 'media multitasking' (using more than one medium at a time), they actually manage to spend a total of 10 hours and 45 minutes worth of media content in those 7½ hours per day. According to the Pew Internet & American Life Project, 96% of 18 to 29-year-olds and three-quarters (75%) of teens now own a cell phone, 88% of whom text, with 73% of wired American teens using social networking websites, a significant increase from previous years. A survey of over 25000 9- to 16-year-olds from 25 European countries found that many underage children use social media sites despite the site's stated


id: new-media-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_media-7.md
category: reference
title: New media
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_media
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:44.549298+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: new-media-20260505-0
summary:
In trying to determine the impact of new media on political campaigning and electioneering, the existing research has tried to examine whether new media supplants conventional media. Television is still the dominant news source, but new media's reach is growing. What is known is that new media has had a significant impact on elections and what began in the 2008 presidential campaign established new standards for how campaigns would be run. Since then, campaigns also have their outreach methods by developing targeted messages for specific audiences that can be reached via different social media platforms. Both parties have specific digital media strategies designed for voter outreach. Additionally, their websites are socially connected, engaging voters before, during, and after elections. Email and text messages are also regularly sent to supporters encouraging them to donate and get involved. Some existing research focuses on the ways that political campaigns, parties, and candidates have incorporated new media into their political strategizing. This is often a multi-faceted approach that combines new and old media forms to create highly specialized strategies. This allows them to reach wider audiences, but also to target very specific subsets of the electorate. They are able to tap into polling data


id: new-media-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_media-8.md
category: reference
title: New media
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_media
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:44.549298+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: new-media-20260505-0
summary:
==== Observational research ==== One of the major issues for observational research is whether a particular project is considered to involve human subjects. A human subject is one that “is defined by federal regulations as a living individual about whom an investigator obtains data through interaction with the individual or identifiable private information”. If access to a social media site is public, information is considered identifiable but not private, and information gathering procedures do not require researchers to interact with the original poster of the information, then this does not meet the requirements for human subjects research. Research may also be exempt if the disclosure of participant responses outside the realm of the published research does not subject the participant to civic or criminal liability, damage the participant's reputation, employability or financial standing. Given these criteria, however, researchers still have considerable leeway when conducting observational research on social media. Many profiles on Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, and Twitter are public and researchers are free to use that data for observational research. Users have the ability to change their privacy settings on most social media websites. Facebook, for example, provides users with the ability to restrict who sees their posts through specific


id: models-as-mediators-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Models_as_Mediators-0.md
category: reference
title: Models as Mediators
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Models_as_Mediators
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:45.867999+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: models-as-mediators-20260505-0
summary:
Models as Mediators: Perspectives on Natural and Social Science is a multi-author book edited by Mary S. Morgan and Margaret Morrison and published in 1999 by Cambridge University Press. == Synopsis == The volume looks at the working of models in the social and natural sciences, with a focus in economics and physics. The book illustrate the concept of models as mediating between theory and the world and yet independent from both. It offers a historical and philosophical discussion of what models are and of what models do, with detailed examples written by the same editors and scholars such as Ursula Klein, Marcel Boumans, R.I.G. Hughes, Mauricio Suárez, Geert Reuten, Nancy Cartwright, Adrienne van den Boogard and Stephan Hartmann. == Content == Models and theories are related, so that an evolution in the perception of what a scientific theory is also chances the perception of what models are. The concept of scientific theory has moved from the 'received view' - whereby a theory can be seen as an axiomatic system to be dealt with in the context of the discipline of logic, to a new conception of theory as framed in therms of semantics, whereby models acquire a new prominence


id: models-as-mediators-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Models_as_Mediators-1.md
category: reference
title: Models as Mediators
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Models_as_Mediators
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:45.867999+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: models-as-mediators-20260505-0
summary:
== Reception == One review notes that while the title appears to promise a unified theory of models the chapters point instead to a universe of possible ways to characterize the nature and use of models. Acting as mediators, models are partly independent from both theory and world, and this independence, that ensures the versatility of 'models as autonomous agents', is also the reason why they resist an attempt to a unified 'theory of models'. But the individual chapters make clear why Models as Mediators cannot possibly offer such a theory: the models dealt with in the book are so diverse and disparate that they cannot really be covered by a general description. The 'functionalist' — rather than philosophical approach of the work, i.e. more about what a model does than what a model is, leaves several questions unanswered (or answered in different ways in different chapters). Furthermore, the examples are quite technical and detailed, not easy to read for the non initiated. Important epistemological questions left open concerns for example why individual models are constructed with the particular degrees of independence from theory and experiment. Being focused on models in physics, chemistry and economics, the book leaves out biological


id: the-no-nonsense-guide-to-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_No_Nonsense_Guide_To_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: The No Nonsense Guide To Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_No_Nonsense_Guide_To_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:48.383320+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-no-nonsense-guide-to-science-20260505-0
summary:
The No Nonsense Guide to Science is a 2006 book on Post-normal science (PNS). It was written by American born British historian and philosopher of science Jerome Ravetz. == Main == What should a young person do who aspires to make the world a better place and to make their way in science? This is how this work's ambition was summarized. Written in 2006 by one of the founding fathers of Post-normal Science - the other being Silvio Funtowicz - its 142 pages cover several themes, in part synthesizing previous works such as Scientific Knowledge and Its Social Problems, The Merger of Knowledge with Power, and Uncertainty and Quality in Science for Policy (with Funtowicz), and introduces the ideas of Post-normal Science. Topics include: The problem of science being at once 'little' and big or 'mega', embedded in institutions and corporations The fallibility of science, against a possibly 'dogmatic' teaching of the power of science The democratization of science as a necessary and realistic antidote to its hubris The opportunity of forming extended peer communities - inclusive of whistle blowers and investigative journalists as well as academics and interested stakeholders, when science is called to answer conflicted policy questions. The


id: normal-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Normal science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:49.642225+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: normal-science-20260505-0
summary:
Normal science, identified and elaborated on by Thomas Samuel Kuhn in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, is the regular work of scientists theorizing, observing, and experimenting within a settled paradigm or explanatory framework. Regarding science as puzzle-solving, Kuhn explained normal science as slowly accumulating detail in accord with established broad theory, without questioning or challenging the underlying assumptions of that theory. == Route to normal science == Kuhn stressed that historically, the route to normal science could be a difficult one. Prior to the formation of a shared paradigm or research consensus, would-be scientists were reduced to the accumulation of random facts and unverified observations, in the manner recorded by Pliny the Elder or Francis Bacon, while simultaneously beginning the foundations of their field from scratch through a plethora of competing theories. Arguably at least the social sciences remain at such a pre-paradigmatic level today. == Normal science at work == Kuhn considered that the bulk of scientific work was that done by the 'normal' scientist, as they engaged with the threefold task of articulating the paradigm, precisely evaluating key paradigmatic facts, and testing those new points at which the theoretical paradigm is open to empirical appraisal. Paradigms are central


id: normalization-process-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normalization_process_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Normalization process theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normalization_process_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:50.841006+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: normalization-process-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Normalization process theory (NPT) is a sociological theory, generally used in the fields of science and technology studies (STS), implementation research, and healthcare system research. The theory deals with the adoption of technological and organizational innovations into systems, recent studies have utilized this theory in evaluating new practices in social care and education settings. It was developed out of the normalization process model. == Origins == Normalization process theory, dealing with the adoption, implementation, embedding, integration, and sustainment of new technologies and organizational innovations, was developed by Carl R. May, Tracy Finch, and colleagues between 2003 and 2009. It was developed through ESRC funded research on Telehealth and through an ESRC fellowship to May. Its application to randomised controlled trials was led by Professor Elizabeth Murray of University College London, and chararacterised normalization process theory as a trial killer. Through three iterations, the theory has built upon the normalization process model previously developed by May et al. to explain the social processes that lead to the routine embedding of innovative health technologies. == Content == Normalization process theory focuses attention on agentic contributions – the things that individuals and groups do to operationalize new or modified modes of practice as


id: performativity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performativity-0.md
category: reference
title: Performativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:52.163007+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: performativity-20260505-0
summary:
Performativity is the concept that language can function as a form of social action and have the effect of change. The concept has multiple applications in diverse fields such as anthropology, social and cultural geography, economics, gender studies (social construction of gender), law, linguistics, performance studies, history, management studies and philosophy. The concept is first described by philosopher of language John L. Austin when he referred to a specific capacity: the capacity of speech and communication to act or to consummate an action. Austin differentiated this from constative language, which he defined as descriptive language that can be "evaluated as true or false". Common examples of performative language are making promises, betting, performing a wedding ceremony, an umpire calling a foul, or a judge pronouncing a verdict. The concept of performance has been developed by such scholars as Richard Schechner, Victor Turner, Clifford Geertz, Erving Goffman, John Austin, John Searle, Pierre Bourdieu, Stern and Henderson, and Judith Butler. == Defining performance == Performance is a bodily practice that produces meaning. It is the presentation or 're-actualization' of symbolic systems through living bodies as well as lifeless mediating objects, such as architecture. In the academic field, as opposed to the domain


id: performativity-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performativity-1.md
category: reference
title: Performativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:52.163007+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: performativity-20260505-0
summary:
=== J. L. Austin === The term derives from the founding work in speech act theory by ordinary language philosopher J. L. Austin. In the 1950s, Austin gave the name performative utterances to situations where saying something was doing something, rather than simply reporting on or describing reality. The paradigmatic case here is speaking the words "I do". Austin did not use the word performativity. Breaking with analytic philosophy, Austin argued in How to Do Things With Words that a "performative utterance" cannot be said to be either true or false as a constative utterance might be: it can only be judged either "happy" or "infelicitous" depending upon whether the conditions required for its success have been met. In this sense, performativity is a function of the pragmatics of language. Having shown that all utterances perform actions, even apparently constative ones, Austin famously discarded the distinction between "performative" and "constative" utterances halfway through the lecture series that became the book and replaced it with a three-level framework: locution (the actual words spoken, that which the linguists and linguistic philosophers of the day were mostly interested in analyzing) illocutionary force (what the speaker is attempting to do in uttering the locution)


id: performativity-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performativity-2.md
category: reference
title: Performativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:52.163007+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: performativity-20260505-0
summary:
=== Jacques Derrida === Philosopher Jacques Derrida drew on Austin's theory of performative speech act while deconstructing its logocentric and phonocentric premises and reinscribing it within the operations of generalized writing. In contrast to structuralism's focus on linguistic form, Austin had introduced the force of speech acts, which Derrida aligns with Nietzsche's insights on language. In "Signature, Event, Context," Derrida focused on Austin's privileging of speech and the accompanying presumptions of the presence of a speaker ("signature") and the bounding of a performative's force by an act or a context. In a passage that would become a touchstone of poststructuralist thought, Derrida stresses the citationality or iterability of any and all signs.Every sign, linguistic or nonlinguistic, spoken or written (in the current sense of this opposition), in a small or large unit, can be cited, put between quotation marks; in doing so it can break with every given context, engendering an infinity of new contexts in a manner which is absolutely illimitable. This does not imply that the mark is valid outside of a context, but on the contrary that there are only contexts without any center or absolute anchorage [ancrage]. This citationality, this duplication or duplicity, this iterability of


id: performativity-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performativity-3.md
category: reference
title: Performativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:52.163007+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: performativity-20260505-0
summary:
== Various applications == Performance offers a tremendous interdisciplinary archive of social practices. It offers methods to study such phenomena as body art, ecological theatre, multimedia performance and other kinds of performance arts. Performance also provides a new registry of kinaesthetic effects, enabling a more conscientious observation of the moving body. The changing experience of movement, for example as a result of new technologies, has become an important subject of research. Moreover, the performative turn has helped scholars to develop an awareness of the relations between everyday life and stage performances. For example, at conferences and lectures, on the street and in other places where people speak in public, performers tend to use techniques derived from the world of theatre and dance. Performance allows us to study nature and other apparently 'immovable' and 'objectified' elements of the human environment (e.g. architecture) as active agents, rather than only as passive objects. Thus, in recent decades environmental scholars have acknowledged the existence of a fluid interaction between man and nature. The performative turn has provided additional tools to study everyday life. A household for example may be considered as a performance, in which the relation between wife and husband is a role


id: performativity-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performativity-4.md
category: reference
title: Performativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:52.163007+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: performativity-20260505-0
summary:
=== Video art === Theories of performativity have extended across multiple disciplines and discussions. Notably, interdisciplinary theorist José Esteban Muñoz has related video to theories of performativity. Specifically, Muñoz looks at the 1996 documentary by Susana Aiken and Carlos Aparicio, "The Transformation." Although historically and theoretically related to performance art, video art is not an immediate performance; it is mediated, iterative and citational. In this way, video art raises questions of performativity. Additionally, video art frequently puts bodies and display, complicating borders, surfaces, embodiment, and boundaries and so indexing performativity. == Issues and debates == Despite cogent attempts at definition, the concept of performance continues to be plagued by ambiguities. Most pressing seems to be the paradox between performance as the consequence of following a script (cf. Schechners restored behaviour) and performance as a fluid activity with ample room for improvisation. Another problem involves the discrepancy between performance as a human activity that constructs culture (e.g. Butler and Derrida) on the one hand and performance as a representation of culture on the other (e.g. Bourdieu and Schechner). Another issue, important to pioneers such as Austin but now deemed irrelevant by postmodernism, concerns the sincerity of the actor. Can performance be


id: performativity-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performativity-5.md
category: reference
title: Performativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:52.163007+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: performativity-20260505-0
summary:
== Bibliography and further reading == Austin, J. L. 1962. How to Do Things with Words. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Austin, J. L. 1970. "Performative Utterances." In Austin, "Philosophical Papers", 233–52. London: Oxford University Press. Bakhtin, Mikhail. "Discourse in the Novel", The dialogic imagination : four essays; edited by Michael Holquist; translated by Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist Austin: University of Texas Press, c1981. Bamberg, M., Narrative. State of the Art (2007). Barad, Karen. 2003. "Posthumanist Performativity: Toward and Understanding of How Matter Comes to Matter." Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 28.3: 801–831. Boldyrev, Ivan and Svetlova, Ekaterina. 2016. Enacting Dismal Science: New Perspectives on the Performativity of Economics. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Bourdieu, P., Outlines of a Theory of Practice (Cambridge 1972). Burke, Peter, 'Performing history: the importance of occasions', in: Rethinking history 9 afl. 1 (2005), pp. 35–52. Brickell, Chris. 2005. "Masculinities, Performativity, and Subversion: A Sociological Reappraisal." Men and Masculinities 8.1: 24–43. Brisset, Nicolas. 2017. "On performativity: Option Theory and the Resistance of Financial Phenomena". Journal of the History of Economic Thought. 39(4) : 549–569. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1053837217000128 Brisset, Nicolas. 2019. Economics and Performativity. Exploring limits,Theories and Cases. Routledge INEM Advances in Economic Methodology. Butler, Judith. 1993.


id: list-of-philosophers-of-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: List of philosophers of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:53.407591+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-philosophers-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of philosophers of technology. It includes philosophers from other disciplines who are recognised as having made an important contribution to the field, for example those commonly included in reference anthologies. == A–C == Hans Achterhuis Alison Adam Günther Anders Hannah Arendt Aristotle Joxe Azurmendi Francis Bacon Jean Baudrillard Seth Baum Anthony Beavers Walter Benjamin Bernadette Bensaude-Vincent Albert Borgmann Nick Bostrom Joanna Bryson Mario Bunge Wendy Hui Kyong Chun Mark Coeckelbergh Kate Crawford == D–G == John Dewey Hubert Dreyfus Jacques Ellul Andrew Feenberg Michel Foucault Luciano Floridi Ursula Franklin Alexander R. Galloway Marina Gržinić == H–L == Jürgen Habermas Byung-Chul Han Donna Haraway Martin Heidegger Eric Higgs Yuk Hui Don Ihde Lucas Introna Sheila Jasanoff Karl Jaspers Hans Jonas Ernst Kapp Nicole C. Karafyllis Douglas Kellner Friedrich Kittler == M–R == Catherine Malabou Herbert Marcuse Karl Marx Marshall McLuhan Carl Mitcham Lewis Mumford José Ortega y Gasset Jussi Parikka Joseph C. Pitt Neil Postman Günter Ropohl == S–Z == Egbert Schuurman Emanuele Severino Gilbert Simondon Oswald Spengler Bernard Stiegler Mariarosaria Taddeo Behnam Taebi Tiziana Terranova Eugene Thacker Iain Thomson Konstantin Tsiolkovsky Ibo van de Poel Jeroen van den Hoven Álvaro Vieira Pinto Meredith Whittaker Aimee van


id: philosophy-of-design-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_design-0.md
category: reference
title: Philosophy of design
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_design
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:54.685525+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophy-of-design-20260505-0
summary:
Philosophy of design is the study of definitions of design, and the assumptions, foundations, and implications of design. The field, which is mostly a sub-discipline of aesthetics, is defined by an interest in a set of problems, or an interest in central or foundational concerns in design. In addition to these central problems for design as a whole, many philosophers of design consider these problems as they apply to particular disciplines (e.g. philosophy of art). Although most practitioners are philosophers specialized in aesthetics (i.e., aestheticians), several prominent designers and artists have contributed to the field. For an introduction to the philosophy of design see the article by Per Galle at the Royal Danish Academy of Art. == Notable philosophers and theorists == Philosophers of design, or philosophers relevant to the philosophical study of design: == References ==


id: philosophy-of-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: Philosophy of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:56.003968+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophy-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
The philosophy of technology is a reflective inquiry into the assumptions, values, knowledge claims, and consequences embedded in human making and doing, especially when people design, use, and organize tools, systems, and processes. It examines what technology is (beyond mere tools), how technological artifacts are designed and used, and how technology differs from science and craft, addressing ethical, social, and political questions, such as whether technology is value-neutral, how responsibility for technological risks should be assigned, and how technologies shape human behavior, culture, power relations, and conceptions of knowledge and agency. Philosophical discussion of questions relating to technology (or its Greek ancestor techne) dates back to the very dawn of Western philosophy. The phrase "philosophy of technology" was first used in the late 19th century by German-born philosopher and geographer Ernst Kapp, who published a book titled Elements of a Philosophy of Technology (German title: Grundlinien einer Philosophie der Technik). == History == === Greek philosophy === The western term 'technology' comes from the Greek term techne (τέχνη) (art, or craft knowledge) and philosophical views on technology can be traced to the very roots of Western philosophy. A common theme in the Greek view of techne is that it arises


id: philosophy-of-technology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology-1.md
category: reference
title: Philosophy of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:56.003968+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophy-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
=== 20th century to present === Five early and prominent 20th-century philosophers to directly address the effects of modern technology on humanity include John Dewey, Martin Heidegger, Herbert Marcuse, Günther Anders and Hannah Arendt. They all saw technology as central to modern life, although Heidegger, Anders, Arendt and Marcuse were more ambivalent and critical than Dewey. The problem for Heidegger was the hidden nature of technology's essence, Gestell or Enframing which posed for humans what he called its greatest danger and thus its greatest possibility. Heidegger's major work on technology is found in The Question Concerning Technology. His theory of the Gestell is influential in dispositif thinking. Technological determinists such as Jaques Ellul have argued that modern technology constitutes a unified monolithic and deterministic force, and that the notion of technology being simply a tool is a serious error. Ellul views the modern technological world-system as being motivated by the needs of its own efficiency and power, not the welfare of the human race or the integrity of the biosphere. While a number of important individual works were published in the second half of the twentieth century, Paul Durbin has identified two books published at the turn of the century


id: plantationocene-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plantationocene-0.md
category: reference
title: Plantationocene
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plantationocene
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:57.333864+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: plantationocene-20260505-0
summary:
The Plantationocene is a proposed theoretical framework describing the ways in which the plantation system established in the Americas during early settler-colonialism continues to shape the world and the environment today. It was coined in conversation with several interdisciplinary scholars as a response to critiques of the existing proposed epochal names, specifically the Anthropocene and the Capitalocene. In contrast to the Anthropocene, it was not proposed as a scientific geological epoch but rather as a name for a transitional phase between epochs. The Plantationocene aims to explain human impact on the environment and global climate change as a result of social, political, and economic systems based on the plantation. Scholars point to monocrop agriculture, violent control and exploitation of labour, colonial land dispossession and transformation, transplanting of various species, racism, and prioritization of profit over human and non-human well-being as examples of logic inherent to the plantation which still shapes the modern world. The Plantationocene has been adopted by some scholars, but remains somewhat controversial. Various academics have rejected it for differing reasons: some claim that any alternative to the Anthropocene is unnecessary, while others claim that the Plantationocene inadequately considers Black and Indigenous realities and scholarship on the lasting


id: plantationocene-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plantationocene-1.md
category: reference
title: Plantationocene
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plantationocene
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:57.333864+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: plantationocene-20260505-0
summary:
The Plantationocene refers to the globalization of a plantation economy, continuing into the modern day, which is characterized by unequal and unsustainable metabolic exchange and which includes factories and similar sites of non-agricultural production in addition to traditional plantations; It centers the history of colonialism and slavery as what led to modern globalization and to the socio-ecological injustices which are called out by the Anthropocene and Capitalocene; It analyzes geographical relations of power and consumption, emphasizing spatial relationships which recreate the plantation system such as how sites of production characterized by poor working conditions and/or ecological degradation are rarely the same place where products are consumed and wealth is accumulated; It indicates the existence of a "plantation politics", meaning global political systems which are characterized by uniformity and assimilation, by racial, gender, and other social hierarchies, and by exploitation of labour; It emphasizes disturbances to landscapes and reduction of biodiversity caused by plantations, highlighting non-human elements in analysis and critique of modern social-political-ecological organizations. The non-human element addressed in aspect five is a particularly core feature in early discussions around the Plantationocene. Haraway et al. discuss how the enforcement of uniformity onto indigenous landscapes and the transportation of plants and


id: plantationocene-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plantationocene-2.md
category: reference
title: Plantationocene
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plantationocene
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:57.333864+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: plantationocene-20260505-0
summary:
== Critiques == The Plantationocene and other proposed alternatives to the Anthropocene have been criticized for being unnecessary or "silly". Some scholars claim that despite its imperfections, the Anthropocene has value in that it draws attention to the detrimental impacts of certain human actions on the global environment and incites action in a way that other terms do not. Others represent models of modern life using the -cene suffix as inherently Eurocentric and thereby problematic. The initial proposal of the Plantationocene by Haraway et al. has also drawn criticism for inadequately considering racial dynamics and Black scholarship on the plantation. Davis et al. discuss how their emphasis on multi-species considerations, at the expense of taking human considerations into account, ignores the way that slavery, racial struggle, and anti-Blackness specifically impacted plantation systems and the way they persist in the modern day. Critics point to significant existing publications regarding the long-lasting impacts of plantations on Black communities, which Haraway and her colleagues do not cite. Another example of this critique comes from Mythri Jegathesan, who takes a Black feminist perspective and posits that the quote by Noboru Ishikawa in the conversation when the Plantationocene was initially coined, "plantations are just the


id: platform-capitalism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platform_capitalism-0.md
category: reference
title: Platform capitalism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platform_capitalism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:58.664105+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: platform-capitalism-20260505-0
summary:
Platform capitalism refers to the activities of companies such as Google, Facebook, Apple, Microsoft, Uber, Airbnb, Amazon and others to operate as platforms. In this business model both hardware and software are used as a foundation (platform) for other actors to conduct their own business. Platform capitalism has been both heralded as beneficial and denounced as detrimental by various authors. The trends identified in platform capitalism have similarities with those described under the heading of surveillance capitalism. Technology companies build platforms that entire industries rely on, and those industries can easily collapse due to the decisions of those technology companies. The possible effect of platform capitalism on open science has been discussed. Platform capitalism has been contrasted with platform cooperativism. Companies that try to focus on fairness and sharing, instead of just profit motive, are described as cooperatives, whereas more traditional and common companies that focus solely on profit, like Airbnb and Uber, are platform capitalists (or cooperativist platforms vs capitalist platforms). In turn, projects like Wikipedia, which rely on unpaid labor of volunteers, can be classified as commons-based peer-production initiatives. == See also == Enshittification Platform economy == References ==


id: political-economy-of-research-and-innovation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_Economy_of_Research_and_Innovation-0.md
category: reference
title: Political Economy of Research and Innovation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_Economy_of_Research_and_Innovation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:11:59.936327+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: political-economy-of-research-and-innovation-20260505-0
summary:
The Political Economy of Research and Innovation (PERI) (or sometimes political economy of technoscience) is an emerging academic field at the interface of science and technology studies and political economy. It focuses on the production, distribution, and consumption of knowledge, and how these shape and are shaped by different political economies. Most scholars in this field have so-far focused on the two-way relationship between science, technology, and innovation and political economic processes, practices, and logics. It has its origins in the critique of neoclassical or orthodox economics of science by scholars like Philip Mirowski, the 'economic turn' in science and technology studies (see social studies of finance and valuation studies), and innovation studies or science policy. Examples of the field include: An annual Changing Political Economy of Research and Innovation (CPERI) workshop which has been held in Lancaster (UK 2012), Toronto (Canada 2013), San Diego (USA 2015), Liege (Belgium 2016), Boston (USA 2017), and Lancaster (UK 2018). Programmatic handbooks like The Routledge Handbook of the Political Economy of Science (2017, edited by David Tyfield, Rebecca Lave, Samuel Randalls, and Charles Thorpe) and Critical Studies of Innovation (2017, edited by Benoît Godin and Dominique Vinck) published by Edward Elgar. Special issues


id: positive-computing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_computing-0.md
category: reference
title: Positive computing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_computing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:03.422665+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: positive-computing-20260505-0
summary:
Positive computing is a technological design perspective that embraces psychological well-being and ethical practice, aiming at building a digital environment to support happier and healthier users. Positive computing develops approaches that incorporates psychology, education, neuroscience, and HCI with technological development, bridging technology with mental health. == Background == The design of a tool impacts the people who use it. Small design implications of technologies can have their effects amplified when used by many people. Technology researchers typically focus primarily on technical aspects, paying less attention to the ethical impact and ethical considerations of their products. However, researchers from other fields such as psychology and philosophy studied these matters extensively and provided a wealth of methodologies to assess users' well-being, with thousands of quality-of-life assessment methods and validating studies. Positive computing draws many ideas from positive psychology, a domain of psychology that focuses on societal well-being and improving quality of life. === Well-being in technology and technology research === The recognition of the impact of technology and inventions on people's lives has moved technology professionals to rethink the technology tools we use and seek a realignment of companies' goals to the social good. Exemplary of this disposition is the famous Google's


id: post-normal-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-normal_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Post-normal science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-normal_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:04.688073+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: post-normal-science-20260505-0
summary:
Post-normal science (PNS) was developed in the 1990s by Silvio Funtowicz and Jerome R. Ravetz. It is a problem-solving strategy appropriate when "facts [are] uncertain, values in dispute, stakes high and decisions urgent", conditions often present in policy-relevant research. In those situations, PNS recommends suspending temporarily the traditional scientific ideal of truth, concentrating on quality as assessed by internal and extended peer communities. PNS can be considered as complementing the styles of analysis based on risk and cost-benefit analysis prevailing at that time and integrating concepts of a new critical science developed in previous works by the same authors. PNS is not a new scientific method following Aristotle and Bacon, a new paradigm in the Kuhnian sense, or an attempt to reach a new 'normal'. It is instead, a set of insights to guide actionable and robust knowledge production for policy decision making and action in challenges like pandemics, ecosystems collapse, biodiversity loss and, in general, sustainability transitions. == Context == According to its proponents Silvio Funtowicz and Jerome R. Ravetz, the name "post-normal science" echoes the seminal work on modern science by Thomas Kuhn. For Carrozza PNS can be "framed in terms of a call for the 'democratization of


id: post-normal-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-normal_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Post-normal science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-normal_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:04.688073+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: post-normal-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Applications == Beside its dominating influence in the literature on 'futures', PNS is considered to have influenced the ecological 'conservation versus preservation debate', especially via its reading by American pragmatist Bryan G. Norton. According to Jozef Keulartz the PNS concept of "extended peer community" influenced how Norton's developed his 'convergence hypothesis'. The hypothesis posits that ecologists of different orientation will converge once they start thinking 'as a mountain', or as a planet. For Norton this will be achieved via deliberative democracy, which will pragmatically overcome the black and white divide between conservationists and preservationists. More recently it has been argued that conservation science, embedded as it is in a multi-layered governance structures of policy-makers, practitioners, and stakeholders, is itself an 'extended peer community', and as a result conservation has always been 'post-normal'. Other authors attribute to PNS the role of having stimulated the take up of transdisciplinary methodological frameworks, reliant on the social constructivist perspective embedded in PNS. Post-normal science is intended as applicable to most instances where the use of evidence is contested due to different norms and values. Typical instances are in the use of evidence based policy and in evaluation. As summarized in a recent work


id: postnormal-times-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postnormal_times-0.md
category: reference
title: Postnormal times
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postnormal_times
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:05.980479+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: postnormal-times-20260505-0
summary:
Postnormal times (PNT) is a concept developed by Ziauddin Sardar as a development of post-normal science. Sardar describes the present as "postnormal times", "in an in-between period where old orthodoxies are dying, new ones have yet to be born, and very few things seem to make sense." == Context == In support of engaging communities of various scope and scale on how to best navigate PNT and imagine preferred pathways toward the future(s), Sardar and Sweeney published an article in the journal Futures outlining The Three Tomorrows method, which fills a gap in the field as "many methods of futures and foresight seldom incorporate pluralism and diversity intrinsically in their frameworks, and few, if any, emphasize the dynamic and merging nature of futures possibilities, or highlight the ignorance and uncertainties we constantly confront". == Theory and criticism == Rakesh Kapoor criticized PNT in 2011 as a Western concept that does not apply to India and other emerging markets. Sam Cole criticised the three Cs of PNT (chaos, complexity and contradictions) as "Alliterative Logic, theorizing through alliterative word-triads that is not based on empirical evidence". Jay Gary has suggested that PNT is embryonic, needs a more robust framework, and should be


id: private-collective-model-of-innovation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private-collective_model_of_innovation-0.md
category: reference
title: Private-collective model of innovation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private-collective_model_of_innovation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:07.242484+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: private-collective-model-of-innovation-20260505-0
summary:
The term private-collective model of innovation was coined by Eric von Hippel and Georg von Krogh in their 2003 publication in Organization Science. This innovation model represents a combination of the private investment model and the collective-action innovation model. In the private investment model innovators appropriate financial returns from innovations through intellectual property rights such as patents, copyright, licenses, or trade secrets. Any knowledge spillover reduces the innovator's benefits, thus freely revealed knowledge is not in the interest of the innovator. The collective-action innovation model explains the creation of public goods which are defined by the non-rivalry of benefits and non-excludable access to the good. In this case the innovators do not benefit more than any one else not investing into the public good, thus free-riding occurs. In response to this problem, the cost of innovation has to be distributed, therefore governments typically invest into public goods through public funding. As combination of these two models, the private-collective model of innovation explains the creation of public goods through private funding. The model is based on the assumption that the innovators privately creating the public goods benefit more than the free-riders only consuming the public good. While the result of the


id: rachel-carson-prize-academic-book-prize-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachel_Carson_Prize_(academic_book_prize)-0.md
category: reference
title: Rachel Carson Prize (academic book prize)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachel_Carson_Prize_(academic_book_prize)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:08.586204+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rachel-carson-prize-academic-book-prize-20260505-0
summary:
The Rachel Carson Prize is awarded annually by the Society for Social Studies of Science, an international academic association based in the United States. It is given for a book "of social or political relevance" in the field of science and technology studies. This prize was created in 1996. == Honorees == |2025 |Emily Yates-Doerr |Mal-Nutrition: Maternal Health Science and the Reproduction of Harm |} == References ==


id: resisting-ai-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resisting_AI-0.md
category: reference
title: Resisting AI
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resisting_AI
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:09.763744+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: resisting-ai-20260505-0
summary:
Resisting AI: An Anti-fascist Approach to Artificial Intelligence is a book on artificial intelligence (AI) by Dan McQuillan, published in 2022 by Bristol University Press. == Content == Resisting AI takes the form of an extended essay, which contrasts optimistic visions about AI's potential by arguing that AI may best be seen as a continuation and reinforcement of bureaucratic forms of discrimination and violence, ultimately fostering authoritarian outcomes. For McQuillan, AI's promise of objective calculability is antithetical to an egalitarian and just society. McQuillan uses the expression "AI violence" to describe how – based on opaque algorithms – various actors can discriminate against categories of people in accessing jobs, loans, medical care, and other benefits. The book suggests that AI has a political resonance with soft eugenic approaches to the valuation of life by modern welfare states, and that AI exhibits eugenic features in its underlying logic, as well as in its technical operations. The parallel is with historical eugenicists achieving saving to the state by sterilizing defectives so the state would not have to care for their offspring. The analysis of McQuillan goes beyond the known critique of AI systems fostering precarious labour markets, addressing "necropolitics", the politics of


id: reverse-salient-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_salient-0.md
category: reference
title: Reverse salient
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_salient
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:11.006697+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: reverse-salient-20260505-0
summary:
A reverse salient refers to a component of a technological system that, due to its insufficient development, prevents the system in its entirety from achieving its development goals. The term was coined by Thomas P. Hughes, in his work Networks of power: Electrification in western society, 1880-1930. == Technological systems and their evolution == Technological systems may refer to a hierarchically nested structure of technological parts, whereby the system is seen as a composition of interdependent sub-systems that are themselves systems comprising further sub-systems. In this manner the holistic system and its properties are seen to be synthesized through the sub-systems that constitute them. Technological systems may also be seen as socio-technical systems that contain both technical and social sub-systems, such as the creators and users of technology, as well as overseeing regulatory bodies. In both perspectives, technological systems are imputed to be goal-seeking, therefore evolving towards objectives. Hughes proposed that technological systems pass through certain phases during their evolution. The first is invention and development, owed greatly to the efforts of inventors and entrepreneurs, such as Thomas Edison in the development of the electric technological system. The second is the era of technological transfer from one region or society


id: reverse-salient-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_salient-1.md
category: reference
title: Reverse salient
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_salient
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:11.006697+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: reverse-salient-20260505-0
summary:
== Reverse salient examples == While numerous studies illustrate technological systems that have been hampered by reverse salients, the most seminal work in this field of study is that of Hughes, who gives a historical account of the development of Edison's direct-current electric system. In order to supply electricity within a defined region of distribution, sub-systems such as the direct current generator were identified as reverse salients and corrected. The most notable limitation of the direct-current system was, however, its low voltage transmission distance, and the resulting cost of distributing electricity beyond a certain range. To reduce costs, Edison introduced a three-wire system to replace the previously installed two-wire alternative and trialed different configuration of generators, as well as the usage of storage batteries. These improvements however did not correct the reverse salient completely. The satisfactory resolution of the problem was eventually provided by the radical innovation of the alternating current system. Since Hughes' seminal work, other authors have also provided examples of reverse salients in different technological systems. In the ballistic missile technological development, where the systemic objective has been to increase missile accuracy, MacKenzie has identified the gyroscope sub-system as a technical reverse salient. Takeishi and Lee have


id: river-city-science-academy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_City_Science_Academy-0.md
category: reference
title: River City Science Academy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_City_Science_Academy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:12.263762+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: river-city-science-academy-20260505-0
summary:
River City Science Academy (RCSA) is Charter School in Jacksonville, Florida, part of the Duval County School District. The school currently has six locations in Jacksonville being Southeast, Intracoastal, Innovation, Mandarin, Elementary and, Middle High and is known for its focus on STEM curriculum. == School grades == RCSA Middle-High currently has an "A" as of 2019 on the Florida School Accountability Grading Scale. RCSA Elementary currently has an "A" as of 2019 on the Florida School Accountability Grading Scale. RCSA Mandarin currently has an "A" as of 2025 on the Florida School Accountability Grading Scale. RCSA Innovation currently has a "A" as of 2025 on the Florida School Accountability Grading Scale. RCSA Southeast currently has an "A" as of 2025 on the Florida School Accountability Grading Scale. == Academic programs == RCSA offers degree programs to its students including the gifted program, dual enrollment classes through Florida State College at Jacksonville and University of North Florida, the AP Capstone program, and multiple CTE electives, and debate. The debate team that they have is one that was created three years ago. They had multiple placements in the FCDI state debate championship, for both their middle and high school teams. ==


id: science-technology-engineering-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_engineering,_and_mathematics-0.md
category: reference
title: Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_engineering,_and_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:14.664269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-technology-engineering-and-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) is an umbrella term used to group together the related technical disciplines of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. It represents a broad and interconnected set of fields that are crucial for innovation and technological advancement. These disciplines are often grouped together because they share a common emphasis on critical thinking, problem-solving, and analytical skills. The term is typically used in the context of education policy or curriculum choices in schools. It has implications for workforce development, national security concerns (as a shortage of STEM-educated citizens can reduce effectiveness in this area), and immigration policy, with regard to admitting foreign students and tech workers. There is no universal agreement on which disciplines are included in STEM; in particular, whether or not the science in STEM includes social sciences, such as psychology, sociology, economics, and political science. In the United States, these are typically included by the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Department of Labor's O*Net online database for job seekers, and the Department of Homeland Security. In the United Kingdom, the social sciences are categorized separately and are instead grouped with humanities and arts to form another counterpart acronym HASS (humanities, arts, and social sciences),


id: science-technology-engineering-and-mathematics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_engineering,_and_mathematics-1.md
category: reference
title: Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_engineering,_and_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:14.664269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-technology-engineering-and-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
To promote STEM in China, the Chinese government issued a guideline in 2016 on national innovation-driven development strategy, "instructing that by 2020, China should become an innovative country; by 2030, it should be at the forefront of innovative countries; and by 2050, it should become a technology innovation power." "[I]n May 2018, the launching ceremony and press conference for the 2029 Action Plan for China's STEM Education was held in Beijing, China. This plan aims to allow as many students to benefit from STEM education as possible and equip all students with scientific thinking and the ability to innovate." "In response to encouraging policies by the government, schools in both public and private sectors around the country have begun to carry out STEM education programs." "However, to effectively implement STEM curricula, full-time teachers specializing in STEM education and relevant content to be taught are needed." Currently, "China lacks qualified STEM teachers and a training system is yet to be established." Several Chinese cities have made programming a mandatory subject for elementary and middle school students. This is the case of the city of Chongqing. However, most students from small and medium-sized cities have not been exposed to the concept of


id: science-technology-engineering-and-mathematics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_engineering,_and_mathematics-2.md
category: reference
title: Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_engineering,_and_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:14.664269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-technology-engineering-and-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Philippines === In the Philippines, STEM is a two-year program and strand that is used for Senior High School (Grades 11 and 12), assigned by the Department of Education or DepEd. The STEM strand is under the Academic Track, which also includes other strands like ABM, HUMSS, and GAS. The purpose of the STEM strand is to educate students in the field of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, in an interdisciplinary and applied approach, and to give students advanced knowledge and application in the field. After completing the program, the students will earn a Diploma in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics. In some colleges and universities, they require students applying for STEM degrees (like medicine, engineering, computer studies, etc.) to be a graduate of STEM, if not, they will need to enter a bridging program. === Qatar === In Qatar, AL-Bairaq is an outreach program to high-school students with a curriculum that focuses on STEM, run by the Center for Advanced Materials (CAM) at Qatar University. Each year around 946 students, from about 40 high schools, participate in AL-Bairaq competitions. AL-Bairaq makes use of project-based learning, encourages students to solve authentic problems, and inquires them to work with each


id: science-technology-engineering-and-mathematics-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_engineering,_and_mathematics-3.md
category: reference
title: Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_engineering,_and_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:14.664269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-technology-engineering-and-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
==== Immigration policy ==== Although many organizations in the United States follow the guidelines of the National Science Foundation on what constitutes a STEM field, the United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS) has its own functional definition used for immigration policy. In 2012, DHS or ICE announced an expanded list of STEM-designated degree programs that qualify eligible graduates on student visas for an optional practical training (OPT) extension. Under the OPT program, international students who graduate from colleges and universities in the United States can stay in the country and receive up to twelve months of training through work experience. Students who graduate from a designated STEM degree program can stay for an additional seventeen months on an OPT STEM extension. As of 2023, the U.S. faces a shortage of high-skilled workers in STEM, and foreign talents must navigate difficult hurdles to immigrate. Meanwhile, some other countries, such as Australia, Canada, and the United Kingdom, have introduced programs to attract talent at the expense of the United States. In the case of China, the United States risks losing its edge over a strategic rival. ==== Education ==== By cultivating an interest in the natural and social sciences in preschool


id: science-technology-engineering-and-mathematics-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_engineering,_and_mathematics-4.md
category: reference
title: Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_engineering,_and_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:14.664269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-technology-engineering-and-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
==== American Competitiveness Initiative ==== In the State of the Union Address on January 31, 2006, President George W. Bush announced the American Competitiveness Initiative. Bush proposed the initiative to address shortfalls in federal government support of educational development and progress at all academic levels in the STEM fields. In detail, the initiative called for significant increases in federal funding for advanced R&D programs (including a doubling of federal funding support for advanced research in the physical sciences through DOE) and an increase in U.S. higher education graduates within STEM disciplines. The NASA Means Business competition, sponsored by the Texas Space Grant Consortium, furthers that goal. College students compete to develop promotional plans to encourage students in middle and high school to study STEM subjects and to inspire professors in STEM fields to involve their students in outreach activities that support STEM education. The National Science Foundation has numerous programs in STEM education, including some for K–12 students such as the ITEST Program that supports The Global Challenge Award ITEST Program. STEM programs have been implemented in some Arizona schools. They implement higher cognitive skills for students and enable them to inquire and use techniques used by professionals in the


id: science-technology-engineering-and-mathematics-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_engineering,_and_mathematics-5.md
category: reference
title: Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_engineering,_and_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:14.664269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-technology-engineering-and-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
==== Jobs ==== In November 2012 the White House announcement before the congressional vote on the STEM Jobs Act put President Obama in opposition to many of the Silicon Valley firms and executives who bankrolled his re-election campaign. The Department of Labor identified 14 sectors that are "projected to add substantial numbers of new jobs to the economy or affect the growth of other industries or are being transformed by technology and innovation requiring new sets of skills for workers." The identified sectors were as follows: advanced manufacturing, Automotive, construction, financial services, geospatial technology, homeland security, information technology, Transportation, Aerospace, Biotechnology, energy, healthcare, hospitality, and retail. The Department of Commerce notes STEM fields careers are some of the best-paying and have the greatest potential for job growth in the early 21st century. The report also notes that STEM workers play a key role in the sustained growth and stability of the U.S. economy, and training in STEM fields generally results in higher wages, whether or not they work in a STEM field. In 2015, there were around 9.0 million STEM jobs in the United States, representing 6.1% of American employment. STEM jobs were increasing by around 9% percent per year.


id: science-technology-engineering-and-mathematics-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_engineering,_and_mathematics-6.md
category: reference
title: Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_engineering,_and_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:14.664269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-technology-engineering-and-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
The gender ratio depends on the field of study. For example, in the European Union in 2012 women made up 47.3% of the total, 51% of the social sciences, business, and law, 42% of the science, mathematics, and computing, 28% of engineering, manufacturing, and construction, and 59% of PhD graduates in Health and Welfare. In a study from 2019, it was shown that part of the success of women in STEM depends on the way women in STEM are viewed. In a study that researched grants given based primarily on a project versus primarily based on the project lead there was almost no difference in the evaluation between projects from men or women when evaluated on the project, but those evaluated mainly on the project leader showed that projects headed by women were given grants four percent less often. Improving the experiences of women in STEM is a major component of increasing the number of women in STEM. One part of this includes the need for role models and mentors who are women in STEM. Along with this, having good resources for information and networking opportunities can improve women's ability to flourish in STEM fields. A 2018 study suggested the


id: science-technology-engineering-and-mathematics-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_engineering,_and_mathematics-7.md
category: reference
title: Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_engineering,_and_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:14.664269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-technology-engineering-and-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
== Criticism == The focus on increasing participation in STEM fields has attracted criticism. In the 2014 article "The Myth of the Science and Engineering Shortage" in The Atlantic, demographer Michael S. Teitelbaum criticized the efforts of the U.S. government to increase the number of STEM graduates, saying that, among studies on the subject, "No one has been able to find any evidence indicating current widespread labor market shortages or hiring difficulties in science and engineering occupations that require bachelor's degrees or higher", and that "Most studies report that real wages in many—but not all—science and engineering occupations have been flat or slow-growing, and unemployment as high or higher than in many comparably-skilled occupations." Teitelbaum also wrote that the then-current national fixation on increasing STEM participation paralleled previous U.S. government efforts since World War II to increase the number of scientists and engineers, all of which he stated ultimately ended up in "mass layoffs, hiring freezes, and funding cuts"; including one driven by the Space Race of the late 1950s and 1960s, which he wrote led to "a bust of serious magnitude in the 1970s." According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, various STEM occupational outlooks have shown slowing


id: snowmass-process-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snowmass_Process-0.md
category: reference
title: Snowmass Process
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snowmass_Process
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:15.856191+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: snowmass-process-20260505-0
summary:
The Snowmass Process is a particle physics community planning exercise sponsored by the Division of Particles and Fields of the American Physical Society. During this process, scientists develop a collective vision for the next seven to ten years for particle physics research in the US. == History == Original planning meetings were held beginning in 1982 in Snowmass, Colorado, but that has not been the location since 2005. More recent locations of the Snowmass Process include the University of Minnesota (2013) and the University of Washington (2021), which was delayed until July 2022, due to COVID. == Description == The modern Snowmass Process consists of a series of small meetings, which culminate in a community-wide meeting. The Snowmass Process solicits reports on progress and plans within "frontiers". Snowmass 2021 identified ten frontiers: "energy; neutrino physics; rare processes and precision measurements; cosmic; theory; accelerator; instrumentation; computation; underground facilities; and community engagement". Members of the particle physics community submit Letters of interest and provide input to contributed whitepapers. The frontiers use these whitepapers to provide web-based reports based on the material that they receive. The final output of the Snowmass Process is a Snowmass Summary for the Public, a Snowmass Summary Report,


id: social-construction-of-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_construction_of_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: Social construction of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_construction_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:17.191936+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-construction-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Social construction of technology (SCOT) is a theory within the field of science and technology studies. Advocates of SCOT—that is, social constructivists—argue that technology does not determine human action; rather, human action shapes technology. Additionally, they also argue that the ways a technology is used cannot be understood without a thorough understanding of how that technology is embedded within its respective social context. SCOT is a response to technological determinism, and it is sometimes known as technological constructivism. SCOT draws from the contributions of constructivist school of the sociology of scientific knowledge, and its subtopics include actor-network theory (a branch of the sociology of science and technology) and historical analysis of sociotechnical systems, such as the work of historian Thomas P. Hughes. Its empirical methods are an adaptation of the Empirical Programme of Relativism (EPOR), which outlines a method of analysis to demonstrate the ways in which scientific findings are socially constructed (see strong program). Leading adherents of SCOT include Wiebe Bijker and Trevor Pinch. SCOT holds that those who seek to understand the reasons for acceptance or rejection of a technology, should look to the social world. According to SCOT, a mere assertion of a technology's preeminence as "the


id: social-construction-of-technology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_construction_of_technology-1.md
category: reference
title: Social construction of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_construction_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:17.191936+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-construction-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
==== Relevant social groups ==== The most basic relevant groups are the users and the producers of the technological artifact, but most often many subgroups can be delineated – users with different socioeconomic status, competing producers, etc. Sometimes there are relevant groups who are neither users, nor producers of the technology, for example, journalists, politicians, and civil organizations. Trevor Pinch has argued that the salespeople of technology should also be included in the study of technology. The groups can be distinguished based on their shared or diverging interpretations of the technology in question. ==== Design flexibility ==== Just as technologies have different meanings in different social groups, there are always multiple ways of constructing technologies. A particular design is only a single point in the large field of technical possibilities, reflecting the interpretations of certain relevant groups. ==== Problems and conflicts ==== The different interpretations often give rise to conflicts between criteria that are hard to resolve technologically (e.g., in the case of the bicycle, one such problem was how a woman could ride the bicycle in a skirt while still adhering to standards of decency), or conflicts between the relevant groups (the "Anti-cyclists" lobbied for the banning of the


id: social-shaping-of-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_shaping_of_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: Social shaping of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_shaping_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:18.378498+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-shaping-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Social shaping of technology (SST) is the concept that there are choices (though not necessarily conscious choices) inherent in both the design of individual artifacts and systems, and in the direction or trajectory of innovation programs. If technology does not emerge from the unfolding of a predetermined logic or a single determinant, then innovation is a 'garden of forking paths'. Different routes are available, potentially leading to different technological outcomes. Significantly, these choices could have differing implications for society and for particular social groups. SST is one of the models of the technology: society relationship which emerged in the 1980s with MacKenzie and Wajcman's influential 1985 collection, alongside Pinch and Bijker's social construction of technology framework and Callon and Latour's actor-network theory. These have a common feature of criticism of the linear model of innovation and technological determinism. It differs from these notably in the attention it pays to the influence of the social and technological context of development which shapes innovation choices. SST is concerned to explore the material consequences of different technical choices, but criticizes technological determinism, which argues that technology follows its own developmental path, outside of human influences, and in turn, influences society. In this way,


id: social-studies-of-finance-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_studies_of_finance-0.md
category: reference
title: Social studies of finance
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_studies_of_finance
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:19.595301+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-studies-of-finance-20260505-0
summary:
Social studies of finance is an interdisciplinary research area that combines perspectives from anthropology, economic sociology, science and technology studies, international political economy, behavioral finance, and cultural studies in the study of financial markets and financial instruments. Work in social studies of finance emphasizes the social and cultural dimensions of financial activities, but focuses also on technical and economic dimensions such as pricing and trading. == History == Financial markets have been an object for sociological inquiry since, at least, Max Weber’s Die Börse. The rise of quantitative financial theory in financial economics from the 1950s onwards has led to an academic specialization on financial markets rather focused on economic modeling, and poorly attentive to sociological aspects. In the 1980s, a number of economic sociologists developed empirical investigation on the social structure and cultural characteristics of financial markets, especially in the US. Such pioneering researcher included contributions from Wayne E. Baker, Mitchel Y. Abolafia and Charles W. Smith, and was based on methods such as ethnographic observation or social network analysis. In the 1990s, a number of researchers from the field of science and technology studies such as Karin Knorr-Cetina and Donald A. MacKenzie started also developing empirical research in


id: sociology-of-quantification-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_of_quantification-0.md
category: reference
title: Sociology of quantification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_of_quantification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:20.832512+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sociology-of-quantification-20260505-0
summary:
The sociology of quantification is the investigation of quantification as a sociological phenomenon in its own right. == Content == According to a review published in 2018, the sociology of quantification is an expanding field which includes the literature on the quantified self, on algorithms, and on various forms of metrics and indicators. A prior review in 2016 names a similar range of topics: "quantification processes in the sciences, quantification in society driven by the sciences, quantification processes driven by other social processes, including for example implementations of numeric technologies, standardization procedures, bureaucratic management, political decision-taking and newer trends as self-quantification." Older works which can be classified under the heading of the sociology of quantification are Theodore Porter’s Trust in Numbers, the works of French sociologists Pierre Bourdieu and Alain Desrosières, and the classic works on probability by Ian Hacking and Lorraine Daston. The discipline gained traction due to the increasing importance and scope of quantification, its relation to the economics of conventions, and the perception of its dangers as a weapon of oppression or as means to undesirable ends. For Sally Engle Merry quantification is a technology of control, but whether it is reformist or authoritarian depends on who


id: sociotechnology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociotechnology-0.md
category: reference
title: Sociotechnology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociotechnology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:22.023934+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sociotechnology-20260505-0
summary:
Sociotechnology (short for "social technology") is the study of processes on the intersection of society and technology. Vojinović and Abbott define it as "the study of processes in which the social and the technical are indivisibly combined". Sociotechnology is an important part of socio-technical design, which is defined as "designing things that participate in complex systems that have both social and technical aspects". The term has been attributed to Mario Bunge. He defines it as a grouping of social engineering and management science. He sees it thus as a form of technology, distinguished from other branches of it such as engineering, biotechnology, information technology and general technology. Its goal is to help engineer sociosystems and evaluate their performance, while making use of social science research. In short, sociotechnology can be seen as the creation, modification and maintenance of social systems. Writing on sociotechnical change, Bijker wrote: "Society is not determined by technology, nor is technology determined by society. Both emerge as two sides of the sociotechnical coin." Technology is the sum of ways in which social groups construct the material objects of their civilizations. The things made are socially constructed just as much as technically constructed. The merging of these


id: sociotechnology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociotechnology-1.md
category: reference
title: Sociotechnology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociotechnology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:22.023934+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sociotechnology-20260505-0
summary:
== Social technology == Science and technology are big contributions to the economic development, but can also lead to negative side effects as it evolves. For example, people care more about materialistic things than the negative influences they have created in human morals and education. For example, it is more important for people to know words to songs than to remember things for their test. There are other problems due to the development of new technologies such as the conservation of the environment because there is a demand for more products which leads to more destruction of environment to build more to sell from. Many social problems have appeared in society and cannot seem to be solved by natural science and technology alone. It requires the need for social sciences as well. Social technology is the strategy used to help solve the wrong behaviors in the world that are caused by social problems like how to solve the issue of people being invested in materialistic goods more than morals, so that they economy can still continue to grow, and society can be a better place. Organizational theory borrows from sociotechnology through its use of sociotechnical systems, a subset of the


id: software-studies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_studies-0.md
category: reference
title: Software studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:23.197878+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: software-studies-20260505-0
summary:
Software studies is an emerging interdisciplinary research field, which studies software systems and their social and cultural effects. The implementation and use of software has been studied in recent fields such as cyberculture, Internet studies, new media studies, and digital culture, yet prior to software studies, software was rarely ever addressed as a distinct object of study. To study software as an artifact, software studies draws upon methods and theory from the digital humanities and from computational perspectives on software. Methodologically, software studies usually differs from the approaches of computer science and software engineering, which concern themselves primarily with software in information theory and in practical application; however, these fields all share an emphasis on computer literacy, particularly in the areas of programming and source code. This emphasis on analysing software sources and processes (rather than interfaces) often distinguishes software studies from new media studies, which is usually restricted to discussions of interfaces and observable effects. == History == The conceptual origins of software studies include Marshall McLuhan's focus on the role of media in themselves, rather than the content of media platforms, in shaping culture. Early references to the study of software as a cultural practice appear in Friedrich


id: steps-centre-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STEPS_Centre-0.md
category: reference
title: STEPS Centre
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STEPS_Centre
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:25.752852+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: steps-centre-20260505-0
summary:
The STEPS Centre (Social, Technological and Environmental Pathways to Sustainability) was an interdisciplinary research centre hosted at the University of Sussex, funded by the Economic and Social Research Council. The Centre's research brought together development studies with science and technology studies. It was launched at Portcullis House in London on 25 June 2007 and closed in 2022. The STEPS Centre described its aim as to "highlight, reveal and contribute to just and democratic pathways to sustainability that include the needs, knowledge and perspectives of poor and marginalised people". Based at the Institute of Development Studies (IDS) and the Science Policy Research Unit (SPRU) at the University of Sussex, the centre worked with partners in Africa, Asia and Latin America. Professor Ian Scoones and Professor Andy Stirling were its co-directors. Professor Melissa Leach stepped down as STEPS Director in 2014 to become the Director of the Institute of Development Studies. == Areas of work == The STEPS Centre's research investigated the politics of sustainability in various domains, including climate change, food systems, urbanization, and technology. It focused on the perspectives and needs of marginalized people, particularly in poor countries and settings, as well as methodologies for including these priorities in policy


id: sussex-manifesto-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sussex_Manifesto-0.md
category: reference
title: Sussex Manifesto
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sussex_Manifesto
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:41.896406+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sussex-manifesto-20260505-0
summary:
The Sussex Manifesto was a report on science and technology for development written at the request of the United Nations and published in 1970. == History == In the late 1960s the United Nations asked for recommendations on science and technology for development from a team of academics at the Institute of Development Studies (IDS) and the Science Policy Research Unit (SPRU) at the University of Sussex, UK. This team became known as the Sussex Group and their report, Science and Technology to Developing Countries during the Second Development Decade, became known as the Sussex Manifesto. The Sussex Manifesto was intended as the introductory chapter to the UN World Plan of Action on Science and Technology for Development. But the solutions presented in the Manifesto were deemed too radical to be used for that purpose. It was instead published in 1970 as an annex in Science and Technology for Development: Proposals for the Second United Nations Development Decade, a UN report by the Advisory Committee on the Application of Science and Technology to Development (ACAST). The Sussex Manifesto helped raise awareness of science and technology for development in UN circles influenced the design of development institutions and was used for


id: techno-progressivism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Techno-progressivism-0.md
category: reference
title: Techno-progressivism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Techno-progressivism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:43.149434+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: techno-progressivism-20260505-0
summary:
Techno-progressivism, or tech-progressivism, is a stance of active support for the convergence of technological change and social change. Techno-progressives argue that technological developments can be profoundly empowering and emancipatory when they are regulated by legitimate democratic and accountable authorities to ensure that their costs, risks and benefits are all fairly shared by the actual stakeholders to those developments. One of the first mentions of techno-progressivism appeared within extropian jargon in 1999 as the removal of "all political, cultural, biological, and psychological limits to self-actualization and self-realization". == Stance == Techno-progressivism maintains that accounts of progress should focus on scientific and technical dimensions, as well as ethical and social ones. For most techno-progressive perspectives, then, the growth of scientific knowledge or the accumulation of technological powers will not represent the achievement of proper progress unless and until it is accompanied by a just distribution of the costs, risks, and benefits of these new knowledges and capacities. At the same time, for most techno-progressive critics and advocates, the achievement of better democracy, greater fairness, less violence, and a wider rights culture are all desirable, but inadequate in themselves to confront the quandaries of contemporary technological societies unless and until they are accompanied


id: technological-convergence-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_convergence-0.md
category: reference
title: Technological convergence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_convergence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:44.472653+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technological-convergence-20260505-0
summary:
Technological convergence is the tendency for technologies that were originally unrelated to become more closely integrated and even unified as they develop and advance. For example, watches, telephones, television, computers, and social media platforms began as separate and mostly unrelated technologies, but have converged in many ways into an interrelated telecommunication, media, and technology industry. == Definitions == "Convergence is a deep integration of knowledge, tools, and all relevant activities of human activity for a common goal, to allow society to answer new questions to change the respective physical or social ecosystem. Such changes in the respective ecosystem open new trends, pathways, and opportunities in the following divergent phase of the process". Siddhartha Menon defines convergence as integration and digitalization. Integration, here, is defined as "a process of transformation measure by the degree to which diverse media such as phone, data broadcast and information technology infrastructures are combined into a single seamless all purpose network architecture platform". Digitalization is not so much defined by its physical infrastructure, but by the content or the medium. Jan van Dijk suggests that "digitalization means breaking down signals into bytes consisting of ones and zeros". Convergence is defined by Blackman (1998) as a trend


id: technological-convergence-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_convergence-1.md
category: reference
title: Technological convergence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_convergence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:44.472653+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technological-convergence-20260505-0
summary:
=== The Internet === The role of the Internet has changed from its original use as a communication tool to easier and faster access to information and services, mainly through a broadband connection. The television, radio, and newspapers were the world's media for accessing news and entertainment; now, all three media have converged into one, and people all over the world can read and hear news and other information on the Internet. The convergence of the Internet and conventional TV became popular in the 2010s, through Smart TV, also sometimes referred to as "Connected TV" or "Hybrid TV", (not to be confused with IPTV, Internet TV, or with Web TV). Smart TV is used to describe the current trend of integration of the Internet and Web 2.0 features into modern television sets and set-top boxes, as well as the technological convergence between computers and these television sets or set-top boxes. These new devices most often also have a much higher focus on online interactive media, Internet TV, over-the-top content, as well as on-demand streaming media, and less focus on traditional broadcast media like previous generations of television sets and set-top boxes always have had. ==== Social movements ==== The integration


id: technological-convergence-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_convergence-2.md
category: reference
title: Technological convergence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_convergence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:44.472653+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technological-convergence-20260505-0
summary:
Media technological convergence is the tendency that as technology changes, different technological systems sometimes evolve toward performing similar tasks. It is the interlinking of computing and other information technologies, media content, media companies, and communication networks that have arisen as the result of the evolution and popularization of the Internet as well as the activities, products, and services that have emerged in the digital media space. Generally, media convergence refers to the merging of both old and new media and can be seen as a product, a system, or a process. Jenkins states that convergence is "the flow of content across multiple media platforms, the cooperation between multiple media industries, and the migratory behaviour of media audiences who would go almost anywhere in search of the kinds of entertainment experiences they wanted". According to Jenkins, there are five areas of convergence: technological, economic, social or organic, cultural, and global. Media convergence is not just a technological shift or a technological process, it also includes shifts within the industrial, cultural, and social paradigms that encourage the consumer to seek out new information. Convergence, simply put, is how individual consumers interact with others on a social level and use various media platforms


id: technological-convergence-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_convergence-3.md
category: reference
title: Technological convergence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_convergence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:44.472653+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technological-convergence-20260505-0
summary:
The Reuters Island in Second Life was a virtual version of the Reuters real-world news service but covering the domain of Second Life for the citizens of Second Life (numbering 11,807,742 residents as of January 5, 2008). The virtual island was abandoned in 2009 due to lack of financial viability. Media convergence in the digital era means the changes that are taking place with older forms of media and media companies. Media convergence has two roles, the first is the technological merging of different media channels – for example, magazines, radio programs, TV shows, and movies, now are available on the Internet through laptops, iPads, and smartphones. As discussed in Media Culture (by Campbell), convergence of technology is not new. It has been going on since the late 1920s. An example is RCA, the Radio Corporation of America, which purchased Victor Talking Machine Company and introduced machines that could receive radio and play recorded music. Next came the TV, and radio lost some of its appeal as people started watching television, which has both talking and music as well as visuals. As technology advances, convergence of media change to keep up. The second definition of media convergence Campbell discusses is


id: technological-convergence-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_convergence-4.md
category: reference
title: Technological convergence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_convergence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:44.472653+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technological-convergence-20260505-0
summary:
=== History === Communication networks were designed to carry different types of information independently. The older media, such as television and radio, are broadcasting networks with passive audiences. Convergence of telecommunication technology permits the manipulation of all forms of information, voice, data, and video. Telecommunication has changed from a world of scarcity to one of seemingly limitless capacity. Consequently, the possibility of audience interactivity morphs the passive audience into an engaged audience. The historical roots of convergence can be traced back to the emergence of mobile telephony and the Internet, although the term properly applies only from the point in marketing history when fixed and mobile telephony began to be offered by operators as joined products. Fixed and mobile operators were, for most of the 1990s, independent companies. Even when the same organization marketed both products, these were sold and serviced independently. In the 1990s, an implicit and often explicit assumption was that new media was going to replace the old media and Internet was going to replace broadcasting. In Nicholas Negroponte's Being Digital, Negroponte predicts the collapse of broadcast networks in favor of an era of narrow-casting. He also suggests that no government regulation can shatter the media conglomerate.


id: technological-convergence-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_convergence-5.md
category: reference
title: Technological convergence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_convergence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:44.472653+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technological-convergence-20260505-0
summary:
...a "catalyst" for amateur digital film-making and what this case study suggests about the future directions popular culture may take. Star Wars fan films represent the intersection of two significant cultural trends—the corporate movement towards media convergence and the unleashing of significant new tools, which enable the grassroots archiving, annotation, appropriation, and recirculation of media content. These fan films build on long-standing practices of the fan community but they also reflect the influence of this changed technological environment that has dramatically lowered the costs of film production and distribution. === Appliances === Some media observers expect that we will eventually access all media content through one device, or "black box". As such, media business practice has been to identify the next "black box" to invest in and provide media for. This has caused a number of problems. Firstly, as "black boxes" are invented and abandoned, the individual is left with numerous devices that can perform the same task, rather than one dedicated for each task. For example, one may own both a computer and a video games console, subsequently owning two DVD players. This is contrary to the streamlined goal of the "black box" theory, and instead creates clutter. Secondly,


id: technological-convergence-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_convergence-6.md
category: reference
title: Technological convergence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_convergence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:44.472653+00:00
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parent: technological-convergence-20260505-0
summary:
=== VoIP === The U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has not been able to decide how to regulate VoIP (Internet Telephony) because the convergent technology is still growing and changing. In addition to its growth, FCC is tentative to set regulation on VoIP in order to promote competition in the telecommunication industry. There is not a clear line between telecommunication service and the information service because of the growth of the new convergent media. Historically, telecommunication is subject to state regulation. The state of California concerned about the increasing popularity of Internet telephony will eventually obliterate funding for the Universal Service Fund. Some states attempt to assert their traditional role of common carrier oversight onto this new technology. Meisel and Needles (2005) suggests that the FCC, federal courts, and state regulatory bodies on access line charges will directly impact the speed in which Internet telephony market grows. Convergence has also raised several debates about classification of certain telecommunications services. As the lines between data transmission, and voice and media transmission are eroded, regulators are faced with the task of how best to classify the converging segments of the telecommunication sector. Traditionally, telecommunication regulation has focused on the operation of physical


id: technological-convergence-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_convergence-7.md
category: reference
title: Technological convergence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_convergence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:44.472653+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technological-convergence-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == Roco, Mihail C.; Bainbridge, William Sims; Tonn, Bruce; Whitesides, George, eds. (2013). Convergence of Knowledge, Technology and Society: Beyond Convergence of Nano-Bio-Info-Cognitive Technologies. Science Policy Reports. Springer International Publishing. ISBN 9783319022031 – via www.springer.com. Bainbridge, William Sims; Roco, Mihail C. (2016). Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence. Springer International Publishing. ISBN 9783319070513 – via www.springer.com. Roco, Mihail C. (2015). "Principles and Methods That Facilitate Convergence". Handbook of Science and Technology Convergence. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 1–20. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-04033-2_2-2. ISBN 9783319040332. Kurbanoglu, Serap; Al, Umut; Erdogan, Phyllis Lepon; Tonta, Yasar; Ucak, Nazan (2010-09-09). Technological Convergence and Social Networks in Information Management: Second International Symposium on Information Management in a Changing World, IMCW 2010, Ankara, Turkey. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-3-642-16031-8. Goundar, Sam (2021-01-01). Enterprise Systems and Technological Convergence: Research and Practice. IAP. ISBN 978-1-64802-343-9. Colomo, Pablo Ibáñez (2011-12-14). European Communications Law and Technological Convergence: Deregulation, Re-regulation and Regulatory Convergence in Television and Telecommunications. Kluwer Law International B.V. ISBN 978-90-411-4293-1. Wienroth, Matthias; Rodrigues, Eugénia (2015-02-20). Knowing New Biotechnologies: Social Aspects of Technological Convergence. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-69150-1. == External links == Amdocs MultiPlay Strategy WhitePaper Archived 2022-01-18 at the Wayback Machine Technology Convergence Update with Bob Brown


id: technological-determinism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_determinism-0.md
category: reference
title: Technological determinism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_determinism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:45.770046+00:00
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parent: technological-determinism-20260505-0
summary:
Technological determinism is a reductionist theory in assuming that a society's technology progresses by following its own internal logic of efficiency, while determining the development of the social structure and cultural values. The term is believed to have originated from Thorstein Veblen (1857–1929), an American sociologist and economist. The most radical technological determinist in the United States in the 20th century was most likely Clarence Ayres who was a follower of Thorstein Veblen as well as John Dewey. William Ogburn was also known for his radical technological determinism and his theory on cultural lag. == Origin == The origins of technological determinism as a formal concept are often traced to Thorstein Veblen (1857–1929), an influential American sociologist and economist. Veblen, known for his work on social and economic issues, introduced ideas that portrayed technology as a powerful, autonomous force capable of shaping societal norms and structures. He argued that the development and use of machinery exerted an independent influence on human thought and behavior, notably asserting that "the machine throws out anthropomorphic habits of thought." === Historical Context and Influences === During Veblen's time, rapid industrialization and advancements in technology were radically altering American society. Innovations in manufacturing and transportation,


id: technological-determinism-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_determinism-1.md
category: reference
title: Technological determinism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_determinism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:45.770046+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technological-determinism-20260505-0
summary:
Technological determinism seeks to show technical developments, media, or technology as a whole, as the key mover in history and social change. It is a theory subscribed to by "hyperglobalists" who claim that as a consequence of the wide availability of technology, accelerated globalization is inevitable. Therefore, technological development and innovation become the principal motor of social, economic or political change. Technological determinism has been defined as an approach that identifies technology, or technological advances, as the central causal element in processes of social change. It has been described by different scholars as "the belief in technology as a key governing force in society" (Merritt Roe Smith); as "the idea that technological development determines social change" (Bruce Bimber); and as the three-word logical proposition that "technology determines history"' (Rosalind H. Williams). It is the belief that social progress is driven by technological innovation, which in turn follows an inevitable" course. Technological determinism presumes that technology dictates users' behaviors. Therefore, technological determinism implies that "technological progress equals social progress." Therefore, technological determinism is a common ideology in international development aid, assuming that the transfer of modern technology to underdeveloped contexts will lead to social and economic development in the context where


id: technological-determinism-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_determinism-2.md
category: reference
title: Technological determinism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_determinism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:45.770046+00:00
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parent: technological-determinism-20260505-0
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== Criticism == In his article "Subversive Rationalization: Technology, Power and Democracy with Technology," Andrew Feenberg argues that technological determinism is not a very well founded concept by illustrating that two of the founding theses of determinism are easily questionable and in doing so calls for what he calls democratic rationalization (Feenberg 210–212). Another conflicting idea is that of technological somnambulism, a term coined by Winner in his essay "Technology as Forms of Life". Winner wonders whether or not we are simply sleepwalking through our existence with little concern or knowledge as to how we truly interact with technology. In this view, it is still possible for us to wake up and once again take control of the direction in which we are traveling (Winner 104). However, it requires society to adopt Ralph Schroeder's claim that, "users don't just passively consume technology, but actively transform it". In opposition to technological determinism are those who subscribe to the belief of social determinism and postmodernism. Social determinists believe that social circumstances alone select which technologies are adopted, with the result that no technology can be considered "inevitable" solely on its own merits. Technology and culture are not neutral and when knowledge comes


id: technological-determinism-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_determinism-3.md
category: reference
title: Technological determinism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_determinism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:45.770046+00:00
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== Further reading == G.A. Cohen, Karl Marx's Theory of History: A Defence, Oxford and Princeton, 1978. Cowan, Ruth Schwartz (1983). More Work for Mother: The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-04732-1. Croteau, David; Hoynes, William (2003). Media Society: Industries, Images and Audiences ((third edition) ed.). Thousand Oaks: Pine Forge Press. pp. 305–307. ISBN 9780761987734. Ellul, Jacques (1964). The Technological Society. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Green, Lelia (2002). Technoculture. Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin. pp. 1–20. ISBN 9781865080482. Huesemann, Michael H., and Joyce A. Huesemann (2011). Technofix: Why Technology Won't Save Us or the Environment, New Society Publishers, Gabriola Island, British Columbia, Canada, ISBN 0865717044, 464 pp. Miller, Sarah (January 1997). "Futures Work – Recognising the Social Determinants of Change". Social Alternatives (vol.1, No.1 ed.). pp. 57–58. Murphie, Andrew; Potts, John (2003). "1". Culture and Technology. London: Palgrave. p. 21. Ong, Walter J (1982). Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. New York: Methuen. Postman, Neil (1992). Technopoly: the Surrender of Culture to Technology. Vintage: New York. pp. 3–20. Roland, Alex. Once More into the Stirrups; Lynne White Jr, Medieval Technology and Social Change" Classics Revisited. 574-


id: technological-revolution-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_revolution-0.md
category: reference
title: Technological revolution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_revolution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:47.013689+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technological-revolution-20260505-0
summary:
A technological revolution is a period in which one or more technologies is replaced by another new technology in a short amount of time. It is a time of accelerated technological progress characterized by innovations whose rapid application and diffusion typically cause an abrupt change in society. == Description == A technological revolution may involve material or ideological changes caused by the introduction of a device or system. It may potentially impact business management, education, social interactions, finance and research methodology, and is not limited to technical aspects. It has been shown to increase productivity and efficiency. A technological revolution often significantly changes the material conditions of human existence and has been seen to reshape culture. A technological revolution can be distinguished from a random collection of technology systems by two features: 1. A strong interconnectedness and interdependence of the participating systems in their technologies and markets. 2. A potential capacity to greatly affect the rest of the economy (and eventually society). On the other hand, negative consequences have also been attributed to technological revolutions. For example, the use of coal as an energy source have negative environmental impacts, including being a contributing factor to climate change and the increase


id: technological-somnambulism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_somnambulism-0.md
category: reference
title: Technological somnambulism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_somnambulism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:48.251998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technological-somnambulism-20260505-0
summary:
Technological somnambulism is a concept used when talking about the philosophy of technology. The term was used by Langdon Winner in his essay Technology as forms of life. Winner puts forth the idea that we are simply in a state of sleepwalking in our mediations with technology. This sleepwalking is caused by a number of factors. One of the primary causes is the way we view technology as tools, something that can be put down and picked up again. Because of this view of objects as something we can easily separate ourselves from technology, and so we fail to look at the long term implications of using that object. A second factor is the separation of those who make the technology and those who use the technology. This division causes there to be little thought and research going into the effects of using/developing that technology. The third and most important idea is the way in which technology seems to create new worlds in which we live. These worlds are created by the restructuring of the common and seemingly everyday things around us. In most situations the changes take place with little attention or care from us because we are more


id: technological-transitions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_transitions-0.md
category: reference
title: Technological transitions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_transitions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:49.516863+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technological-transitions-20260505-0
summary:
Technological transitions (TT) can best be described as a collection of theories regarding how technological innovations occur, the driving forces behind them, and how they are incorporated into society. TT draws on a number of fields, including history of science, technology studies, and evolutionary economics. Alongside the technological advancement, TT considers wider societal changes such as "user practices, regulation, industrial networks (supply, production, distribution), infrastructure, and symbolic meaning or culture". Hughes refers to the 'seamless web' where physical artifacts, organizations, scientific communities, and social practices combine. A technological transition occurs when there is a major shift in these socio-technical configurations. == Origins == Work on technological transitions draws on a number of fields including history of science, technology studies, and evolutionary economics. The focus of evolutionary economics is on economic change, but as a driver of this technological change has been considered in the literature. Joseph Schumpeter, in his classic Theory of Economic Development placed the emphasis on non-economic forces as the driver for growth. The human actor, the entrepreneur is seen as the cause of economic development which occurs as a cyclical process. Schumpeter proposed that radical innovations were the catalyst for Kondratiev cycles. === Long wave theory ===


id: technological-transitions-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_transitions-1.md
category: reference
title: Technological transitions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_transitions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:49.516863+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technological-transitions-20260505-0
summary:
=== Multi-level perspective (MLP) framework === The multi-level perspective (MLP) is an analytical tool that attempts to deal with this complexity and resistance to change. Focussing on the dynamics of wider transitionary developments as opposed to discrete technological innovations, the MLP concerns itself with socio-technical system transformations, particularly with transitions towards sustainability and resilience. As the name implies, the MLP posits three analytical and heuristic levels on which processes interact and align to result in socio-technical system transformations; landscape (macro-level), regimes (meso-level) and niches (micro-level). Firstly, the regime level represents the current structures and practices characterised by dominant rules, institutions and technologies that are self-reinforcing. The socio-technical regime is dynamically stable in the sense that innovation still transpires albeit incrementally and along a predictable trajectory. This makes the regime 'locked-in' and resistant to both technological and social transitions. Secondly, the landscape level is defined as the exogenous, broader contextual developments in deep-seated cultural patterns, macro-economics, macro-politics and spatial structures, potentially arising from shocks associated with wars, economic crisis, natural disaster and political upheaval. Additionally, landscapes are beyond the direct influence of actors, yet stimulate and exert pressure on them at the regime and niche levels. Finally, the niche is defined


id: technological-transitions-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_transitions-2.md
category: reference
title: Technological transitions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_transitions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:49.516863+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technological-transitions-20260505-0
summary:
== Diffusion: transition phases == Diffusion of an innovation is the concept of how it is picked up by society, at what rate and why. The diffusion of a technological innovation into society can be considered in distinct phases. Pre-development is the gestation period where the new technology has yet to make an impact. Take-off is when the process of a system shift is beginning. A breakthrough is occurring when fundamental changes are occurring in existing structures through the interplay of economic, social and cultural forces. Once the rate of change has decreased and a new balance is achieved, stabilization is said to have occurred. A full transition involves an overhaul of existing rules and change of beliefs which takes time, typically spanning at least a generation. This process can be speeded up through seismic, unforeseen events such as war or economic strife. Geels proposed a similar four-phase approach which draws on the multi-level perspective (MLP) developed by Dutch scholars. Phase one sees the emergence of a novelty, born from the existing regime. Development then occurs in the niche level at phase two. As before, breakthrough then occurs at phase three. In the parlance of the MLP the new technology,


id: technology-acceptance-model-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_acceptance_model-0.md
category: reference
title: Technology acceptance model
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_acceptance_model
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:50.769788+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technology-acceptance-model-20260505-0
summary:
The technology acceptance model (TAM) is an information systems theory that models how users come to accept and use a technology. The actual system use is the end-point where people use the technology. Behavioral intention is a factor that leads people to use the technology. The behavioral intention (BI) is influenced by the attitude (A) which is the general impression of the technology. The model suggests that when users are presented with a new technology, a number of factors influence their decision about how and when they will use it, notably: Perceived usefulness (PU) – This was defined by Fred Davis as "the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system would enhance their job performance". It means whether or not someone perceives that technology to be useful for what they want to do. Perceived ease-of-use (PEOU) – Davis defined this as "the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system would be free from effort". If the technology is easy to use, then the barrier is conquered. If it's not easy to use and the interface is complicated, no one has a positive attitude towards it. External variables such as social influence is


id: technology-acceptance-model-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_acceptance_model-1.md
category: reference
title: Technology acceptance model
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_acceptance_model
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:50.769788+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technology-acceptance-model-20260505-0
summary:
Subjective norm – An individual's perception that other individuals who are important to him/her/them consider if he/she/they could perform a behavior. This was consistent with the theory of reasoned action (TRA). Voluntariness – This was defined by Venkatesh & Davis as "extent to which potential adopters perceive the adoption decision to be non-mandatory". Image – This was defined by Moore & Benbasat as "the degree to which use of an innovation perceived to enhance one's status in one's social system". Job relevance – Venkatesh & Davis defined this as personal perspective on the extent to which the target system is suitable for the job. Output quality – Venkatesh & Davis defined this as personal perception of the system's ability to perform specific tasks. Result demonstrability – The production of tangible results will directly influence the system's usefulness. In an attempt to integrate the main competing user acceptance models, Venkatesh et al. formulated the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT). This model was found to outperform each of the individual models (Adjusted R square of 69 percent). UTAUT has been adopted by some recent studies in healthcare. In addition, authors Jun et al. also think that the technology


id: technology-adoption-life-cycle-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_adoption_life_cycle-0.md
category: reference
title: Technology adoption life cycle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_adoption_life_cycle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:51.930612+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technology-adoption-life-cycle-20260505-0
summary:
The technology adoption lifecycle is a sociological model that describes the adoption or acceptance of a new product or innovation, according to the demographic and psychological characteristics of defined adopter groups. The process of adoption over time is typically illustrated as a classical normal distribution or "bell curve". The model calls the first group of people to use a new product "innovators", followed by "early adopters". Next come the "early majority" and "late majority", and the last group to eventually adopt a product are called "laggards" or "phobics". For example, a phobic may only use a cloud service when it is the only remaining method of performing a required task, but the phobic may not have an in-depth technical knowledge of how to use the service. The demographic and psychological (or "psychographic") profiles of each adoption group were originally specified by agricultural researchers in 1956: innovators – had larger farms, were more educated, more prosperous and more risk-oriented early adopters – younger, more educated, tended to be community leaders, less prosperous early majority – more conservative but open to new ideas, active in community and influence to neighbors late majority – older, less educated, fairly conservative and less socially active


id: technology-dynamics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_dynamics-0.md
category: reference
title: Technology dynamics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_dynamics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:53.174967+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technology-dynamics-20260505-0
summary:
Technology dynamics is broad and relatively new scientific field that has been developed in the framework of the postwar science and technology studies field. It studies the process of technological change. Under the field of Technology Dynamics the process of technological change is explained by taking into account influences from "internal factors" as well as from "external factors". Internal factors relate technological change to unsolved technical problems and the established modes of solving technological problems and external factors relate it to various (changing) characteristics of the social environment, in which a particular technology is embedded. == Overview == For the last three decades, it has been argued that technology development is neither an autonomous process, determined by the "inherent progress" of human history, nor a process completely determined by external conditions like the prices of the resources that are needed to operate (develop) a technology, as it is theorized in neoclassical economic thinking. In mainstream neoclassical economic thinking, technology is seen as an exogenous factor: at the moment a technology is required, the most appropriate version can be taken down from the shelf based on costs of labor, capital and eventually raw materials. Conversely, modern technology dynamics studies generally advocate


id: technology-life-cycle-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_life_cycle-0.md
category: reference
title: Technology life cycle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_life_cycle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:54.417280+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technology-life-cycle-20260505-0
summary:
The technology life cycle (TLC) describes the commercial gain of a product through the expense of research and development phase, and the financial return during its "vital life". Some technologies, such as steel, paper or cement manufacturing, have a long lifespan (with minor variations in technology incorporated with time) while in other cases, such as electronic or pharmaceutical products, the lifespan may be quite short. The TLC associated with a product or technological service is different from product life-cycle (PLC) dealt with in product life-cycle management. The latter is concerned with the life of a product in the marketplace with respect to timing of introduction, marketing measures, and business costs. The technology underlying the product (for example, that of a uniquely flavoured tea) may be quite marginal but the process of creating and managing its life as a branded product will be very different. The technology life cycle is concerned with the time and cost of developing the technology, the timeline of recovering cost, and modes of making the technology yield a profit proportionate to the costs and risks involved. The TLC may, further, be protected during its cycle with patents and trademarks seeking to lengthen the cycle and to


id: technology-life-cycle-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_life_cycle-1.md
category: reference
title: Technology life cycle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_life_cycle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:54.417280+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technology-life-cycle-20260505-0
summary:
=== In the R&D phase === There are always smaller firms (SMEs) who are inadequately situated to finance the development of innovative R&D in the post-research and early technology phases. By sharing incipient technology under certain conditions, substantial risk financing can come from third parties. This is a form of quasi-licensing which takes different formats. Even large corporates may not wish to bear all costs of development in areas of significant and high risk (e.g. aircraft development) and may seek means of spreading it to the stage that proof-of-concept is obtained. In the case of small and medium firms, entities such as venture capitalists or business angels, can enter the scene and help to materialize technologies. Venture capitalists accept both the costs and uncertainties of R&D, and that of market acceptance, in reward for high returns when the technology proves itself. Apart from finance, they may provide networking, management and marketing support. Venture capital connotes financial as well as human capital. Larger firms may opt for Joint R&D or work in a consortium for the early phase of development. Such vehicles are called strategic alliances – strategic partnerships. With both venture capital funding and strategic (research) alliances, when business gains


id: technology-life-cycle-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_life_cycle-2.md
category: reference
title: Technology life cycle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_life_cycle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:54.417280+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technology-life-cycle-20260505-0
summary:
=== In the decline phase === After reaching a point such as D in the above diagram, the earnings from the technology begin to decline rather rapidly. To prolong the life cycle, owners of technology might try to license it out at some point L when it can still be attractive to firms in other markets. This, then, traces the lengthening path, LL'. Further, since the decline is the result of competing rising technologies in this space, licenses may be attracted to the general lower cost of the older technology (than what prevailed during its vital life). Licenses obtained in this phase are 'straight licenses'. They are free of direct control from the owner of the technology (as would otherwise apply, say, in the case of a joint-venture). Further, there may be fewer restrictions placed on the licensee in the employment of the technology. The utility, viability, and thus the cost of straight-licenses depends on the estimated 'balance life' of the technology. For instance, should the key patent on the technology have expired, or would expire in a short while, the residual viability of the technology may be limited, although balance life may be governed by other criteria such as


id: technology-trajectory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_trajectory-0.md
category: reference
title: Technology trajectory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_trajectory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:55.651469+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technology-trajectory-20260505-0
summary:
Technology trajectory refers to a single branch in the evolution of a technological design of a product/service, with nodes representing separate designs. With Technology trajectory referring to a single branch we do expect the development of new technologies to precede recent uses and advance future technologies. The development of future technologies allows for the innovation of new ideas, research, and much more. It also can be defined as the paths by which innovations in a given field occur. Movement along the technology trajectory is associated with research and development. Due to the institutionalization of ideas, markets, and professions, technology development can get 'stuck' (locked-in) within one trajectory, and firms and engineers are unable to adapt to ideas and innovation from the outside. Technological trajectory/development may break- out of trajectory and can cause three understandings 1. when technology will lock in into a trajectory, 2.) when technology may break out of lock-in, and 3.) when competing technologies may co-exist in a balance. A lock-in is when a certain technology develops along a certain trajectory allowing the development to get stuck due to certain circumstances. Not all trajectories are permanently locked into a trajectory. Let us take for example the Technological Advancement/Trajectory


id: technoscience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technoscience-0.md
category: reference
title: Technoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:56.853441+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technoscience-20260505-0
summary:
In common usage, technoscience refers to the entire long-standing and global human activity of technology, combined with the relatively recent scientific method that occurred primarily in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries. Technoscience is the study of how humans interact with technology using the scientific method. Technoscience thus comprises the history of human application of technology and modern scientific methods, ranging from the early development of basic technologies for hunting, agriculture, or husbandry (e.g. the well, the bow, the plow, the harness) and all the way through atomic applications, biotechnology, robotics, and computer sciences. This more common and comprehensive usage of the term technoscience can be found in general textbooks and lectures concerning the history of science. The relationship with the history of science is important in this subject and also underestimated, for example, by more modern sociologists of science. Instead, it is worth emphasizing the links that exist between books on the history of science and technology and the study of the relationship between science and technology within a framework of social developments. The generational leap between historical periods and scientific discoveries, the construction of machines, and the creation of tools in relation to the technological changes that


id: technoscience-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technoscience-1.md
category: reference
title: Technoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:56.853441+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technoscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Political === Science and technology are tools that continually change social structures and behaviors. Technoscience can be viewed as a form of government or having the power of government because of its impact on society. The impact extends to public health, safety, the environment, and beyond. Innovations create fundamental changes and drastically change the way people live. For example, C-SPAN and social media give American voters a near real-time view of Congress. This has allowed journalists and the people to hold their elected officials accountable in new ways. === Environmental === Chlorine chemists and their scientific knowledge helped set the agenda for many environmental problems: PCBs in the Hudson River are polychlorinated biphenols; DDT, dieldrin, and aldrin are chlorinated pesticides; CFCs that deplete the ozone layer are chlorofluorocarbons. Industry actually manufactured the chemicals and consumers purchased them. Therefore, one can determine that chemists are not the sole cause for these issues, but they are not blameless. == See also == Bernard Stiegler Feminist technoscience Technocriticism Technoethics == Notes == == References == Steven Lukes, Power (1974), A Radical View, London: Macmillan Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar (1979). Laboratory Life: the Social Construction of Scientific Facts. Princeton University Press. ISBN


id: the-measure-of-reality-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Measure_of_Reality-0.md
category: reference
title: The Measure of Reality
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Measure_of_Reality
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:58.050081+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-measure-of-reality-20260505-0
summary:
The Measure of Reality: Quantification in Western Europe, 1250-1600 is a 1997 nonfiction historiography and macrohistory book by Alfred W. Crosby, about the role of quantification in Western civilization. It is published by Cambridge University Press. == Content == The Measure of Reality examines the origins and effects of quantitative thinking in post-medieval European history', suggesting it as a major factor in the ensuing European colonial domination of much of the rest of the world. For Crosby, this was made possible by a shift in mindset and worldview that the author collectively calls mentalité (Bourdieu's habitus comes to mind) toward quantitative and visual thinking fostering a superior understanding of science and technology. To illustrate how Crosby describes the shift away from a qualitative and theological view of reality, philosopher Denis Dutton offers the example of geography: Geography was qualitative, holding that the peoples of the Indies, governed by slow-moving Saturn, were slow moving. Europeans, on the other hand, lived in the land of the seventh climate, that of the moon, which revolves around the earth faster than any other body. Therefore, Europeans are the most active people. Maps were designed not geometrically, but to show what was near and far,


id: theories-of-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: Theories of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:59.239982+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: theories-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Theories of technological change and innovation attempt to explain the factors that shape technological innovation as well as the impact of technology on society and culture. Some of the most contemporary theories of technological change reject two of the previous views: the linear model of technological innovation and other, the technological determinism. To challenge the linear model, some of today's theories of technological change and innovation point to the history of technology, where they find evidence that technological innovation often gives rise to new scientific fields, and emphasizes the important role that social networks and cultural values play in creating and shaping technological artifacts. To challenge the so-called "technological determinism", today's theories of technological change emphasize the scope of the need of technical choice, which they find to be greater than most laypeople can realize; as scientists in philosophy of science, and further science and technology often like to say about this "It could have been different." For this reason, theorists who take these positions often argue that a greater public involvement in technological decision-making is desired. == Sociological theories == Sociological theories and researches of the Society and the Social focus on how human and technology actually interact and


id: theories-of-technology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology-1.md
category: reference
title: Theories of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:59.239982+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: theories-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Approaches of the critical theory === Critical theory attempts, according to some, to go beyond the descriptiveness of one account that may show of how things are, the exam and question of why they have come to be that way and how they might otherwise be. Critical theory asks whose interests are being served by the questioned status quo and assesses the potentials of a future, that alternates and propose "to better" both the technological service, and even social justice. Here Geuss's definition is given, where "a critical theory, then, is a reflective theory which gives agents a kind of knowledge inherently productive of enlightenment and emancipation" (1964). Thus Marcuse argued that while technology matters and design are often presented as neutral technical choices, in fact, they manifest political or moral values. Critical theory is seen as a "form of archaeology" that attempt to get beneath common-sense understandings in order to reveal the power relationships and interests determining particular technological configuration and use. Perhaps the most developed contemporary critical theory of technology is contained in the works of Andrew Feenberg included in his book 'Transforming Technology' (2002). Values in Design asks how do we ensure a place for values


id: theories-of-technology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology-2.md
category: reference
title: Theories of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:12:59.239982+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: theories-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Other Stances === Additionally, many authors have posed technology so as to critique and or emphasize aspects of technology as addressed by the mainline theories. For example, Steve Woolgar (1991) considers technology as text in order to critique the sociology of scientific knowledge as applied to technology and to distinguish between three responses to that notion: the instrumental response (interpretive flexibility), the interpretivist response (environmental/organizational influences), the reflexive response (a double hermeneutic). Pfaffenberger (1992) treats technology as drama to argue that a recursive structuring of technological artifacts and their social structure discursively regulate the technological construction of political power. A technological drama is a discourse of technological "statements" and "counterstatements" within the processes of technological regularization, adjustment, and reconstitution. An important philosophical approach to technology has been taken by Bernard Stiegler, whose work has been influenced by other philosophers and historians of technology including Gilbert Simondon and André Leroi-Gourhan. In the Schumpeterian and Neo-Schumpeterian theories technologies are critical factors of economic growth (Carlota Perez). == Analytical theories == There are theories of technological change and innovation which are not defined or claimed by a proponent, but are used by authors in describing existing literature, in contrast to their own


id: trading-zones-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trading_zones-0.md
category: reference
title: Trading zones
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trading_zones
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:00.402632+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: trading-zones-20260505-0
summary:
The metaphor of a trading zone is being applied to collaborations in science and technology. The basis of the metaphor is anthropological studies of how different cultures are able to exchange goods, despite differences in language and culture. == Overview == Peter Galison produced the "trading zone" metaphor in order to explain how physicists from different paradigms went about collaborating with each other, and with engineers to develop particle detectors and radar. According to Galison, "Two groups can agree on rules of exchange even if they ascribe utterly different significance to the objects being exchanged; they may even disagree on the meaning of the exchange process itself. Nonetheless, the trading partners can hammer out a local coordination, despite vast global differences. In an even more sophisticated way, cultures in interaction frequently establish contact languages, systems of discourse that can vary from the most function-specific jargons, through semispecific pidgins, to full-fledged creoles rich enough to support activities as complex as poetry and metalinguistic reflection" (Galison 1997, p. 783) In the case of radar, for example, the physicists and engineers had to gradually develop what was effectively a pidgin or creole language involving shared concepts like ‘equivalent circuits’ that the physicists represented


id: trust-in-numbers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trust_in_Numbers-0.md
category: reference
title: Trust in Numbers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trust_in_Numbers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:01.565399+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: trust-in-numbers-20260505-0
summary:
Trust in Numbers: The Pursuit of Objectivity in Science and Public Life is a book by Theodore Porter, published in 1995 by Princeton University Press, that proposes that quantification in public life is driven by bureaucratic necessities to obtain legitimacy through objectivity. == Synopsis == In Trust in Numbers: The Pursuit of Objectivity in Science and Public Life, Theodore Porter reverses the classic notion that quantification descends from the successes of natural sciences being adopted by other disciplines, to investigate instead the opposite movement, whereby quantification is driven by political, administrative and bureaucratic necessities to standardize, communicate, and obtain legitimacy through objectivity.The appeal of numbers is especially compelling to bureaucratic officials who lack the mandate of a popular election, or divine right, p. 8.After noting how officials fear being criticized for arbitrariness and bias, he concludes:A decision made by the numbers (or by explicit rules of some other sort) has at least the appearance of being fair and impersonal, p. 8.Thus, "trust may sometimes be based less on the solidity of the numbers themselves than on the needs of expert and client communities". == Analysis == Defined as the book that comes closest to establishing a common theoretical language for


id: ucl-department-of-science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UCL_Department_of_Science_and_Technology_Studies-0.md
category: reference
title: UCL Department of Science and Technology Studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UCL_Department_of_Science_and_Technology_Studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:02.892283+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ucl-department-of-science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
The UCL Department of Science and Technology Studies (STS) is an academic department in University College London, London, England. It is part of UCL's Faculty of Mathematics and Physical Sciences. The department offers academic training at both undergraduate and graduate (MSc and MPhil/PhD) levels. The department received its current name in 1995. It had been the "Department of History and Philosophy of Science" from 1938 to 1995, and the "Department of History and Method of Science" from 1921 to 1938. University College London was the first UK university to offer single honours undergraduate degrees in this interdisciplinary subject, launching its BSc in history and philosophy of science in 1993. Two related BSc degrees followed shortly thereafter. At UCL, science and technology studies (abbreviated "STS") includes three specialist research clusters: "history of science," "philosophy of science," and "science, culture, and democracy". In 2022 STS accepted its first cohort for an MSc in Science Communication. The department offices are located on UCL's campus in Gordon Square, Bloomsbury, London. == References == == External links == UCL Department of Science and Technology Studies website


id: user-innovation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_innovation-0.md
category: reference
title: User innovation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_innovation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:04.078953+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: user-innovation-20260505-0
summary:
User innovation refers to innovation by intermediate users (e.g. user firms) or consumer users (individual end-users or user communities), rather than by suppliers (producers or manufacturers). This is a concept closely aligned to co-design and co-creation, and has been proven to result in more innovative solutions than traditional consultation methodologies. Eric von Hippel and others observed that many products and services are actually developed or at least refined, by users, at the site of implementation and use. These ideas are then moved back into the supply network. This is because products are developed to meet the widest possible need; when individual users face problems that the majority of consumers do not, they have no choice but to develop their own modifications to existing products, or entirely new products, to solve their issues. Often, user innovators will share their ideas with manufacturers in hopes of having them produce the product, a process called free revealing. However, user innovators also generate their own firms to commercialize their innovations and generate new markets, a process called "consumer-led market emergence." For example, research on how users innovated in multiple boardsports shows that some users capitalized on their innovations, founding firms in sports that became


id: the-world-in-the-model-how-economists-work-and-think-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_in_the_Model:_How_Economists_Work_and_Think-0.md
category: reference
title: The World in the Model: How Economists Work and Think
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_in_the_Model:_How_Economists_Work_and_Think
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:05.383725+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-world-in-the-model-how-economists-work-and-think-20260505-0
summary:
The World in the Model: How Economists Work and Think is a work by Mary S. Morgan published by Cambridge University Press in 2012. == Content == Mary S. Morgan, defined by Robert Sugden "a major philosopher and historian of economics", analyzes with examples how economists work and think using models. Her book reconstructs the path taken by models to become economists' "natural way of doing economics." For Morgan, both the "method of mathematical postulation and proof" and that of modelling have emerged in late 19th century, and models have become economists' main tools only from the 1930s, replacing classical economics relying on "universal laws". A concept stressed throughout this work is that: Economic modelling is not primarily a method of proof, but rather a method of inquiry. The pragmatic orientation of her work is stated right at the beginning, noting that "Science is messy", thus Asking: What qualities do models need to make them useful in a science? and What functions do models play in a science? are more fruitful than asking What are models? According to Morgan, who draws a parallel with physics, economists follow four general steps in their work with models: Step 1: Create a model


id: the-world-in-the-model-how-economists-work-and-think-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_in_the_Model:_How_Economists_Work_and_Think-1.md
category: reference
title: The World in the Model: How Economists Work and Think
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_in_the_Model:_How_Economists_Work_and_Think
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:05.383725+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-world-in-the-model-how-economists-work-and-think-20260505-0
summary:
== Reception == The book is praised by Verena Halsmayer and by Maxime Desmarais-Tremblay for showing the variety of tools mobilized by economists, such as the hydraulic system of the Newlyn–Philips Machine made of pipes, valves and tanks, graphs such as those of the Edgeworth box, pen and paper tabulated records such as Ricardo's ideal farm, conceptual games such as the Prisoner dilemma, and modern day equations. For François Claveau it is disappointing that Morgan, though author of The History of Econometric Ideas (1990) does not discuss econometric models, nor the distinction between these, embedded into real world data and statistical testing, and non-econometric models. Claveau also laments the absence of a discussion of the difference between theories and models. A limit of Morgan's work that is flagged by Verena Halsmayer is that in examining a selected set of successful models the book discounts alternative traditions, the "verbal economics" and other historical traditions, evading the strategic development leading to the dominance of (neoclassical) economic modeling, thus ignoring "what was lost by adopting modeling as the dominant mode of economic knowledge production". Robert Sugden praises Morgan's vivid portrait of Ricardo. Morgan details how the numerical examples of his model farm were


id: aceramic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aceramic-0.md
category: reference
title: Aceramic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aceramic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:06.971443+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aceramic-20260505-0
summary:
Aceramic is defined as "not producing pottery". In archaeology, the term means "without pottery". Aceramic societies usually used bark, basketry, gourds and leather for containers. "Aceramic" is used to describe a culture at any time prior to its development of pottery as well as cultures that lack pottery altogether. A preceramic period is traditionally regarded as occurring in the early stage of the Neolithic period of a culture, but recent findings in Japan and China have pushed the origin of ceramic technology there well back into the Paleolithic era. == West Asia == In Western Asian archaeology, Aceramic is used to refer to a specific early Neolithic period before the development of ceramics, the Middle Eastern Pre-Pottery Neolithic, in which case it is a synonym of preceramic or pre-pottery. The Western Asian Pre-Pottery Neolithic A began roughly around 8500 BC and can be identified with over a half a dozen sites. The period was most prominent in Western Asia in an economy based on the cultivation of crops or the rearing of animals or both. Outside Western Asia, Aceramic Neolithic groups are more rare. Aceramic Neolithic villages had many attributes of agricultural communities: large settlement size, substantial architecture, long settlement


id: action-tendency-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_tendency-0.md
category: reference
title: Action tendency
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_tendency
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:08.318647+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: action-tendency-20260505-0
summary:
Action tendency is a psychological term in behavioural science, which refers to an individual's urge to carry out a particular behaviour, particularly as a component of emotion. It represents a person’s initial compulsion for goal-directed behaviour in response to environmental stimuli, directly addressing the emotions experienced. Importantly, action tendencies do not guarantee that a behaviour will occur. Instead, they serve as effective predictors of how emotions guide actions, showcasing patterns of readiness to engage or avoid situations depending on the emotional context. In behavioural science, an individual's emotions direct their response to current circumstances or relationships; thus, the action tendency, as a constituent factor of the individual's overall emotional responsivity, is a temporary and immediate impulse. == Role of emotions == There are several distinct emotions - such as joy, sadness, fear, disgust, and anger – that form actions tendencies including approach, inaction, withdrawal, and attack. Emotional valence – whether the experienced emotion is positive or negative – arises from the measure of congruency between an individuals’ goals and their environment. Environments that support goal attainment typically elicit positive emotions and approach behaviours. Conversely, environments that limit resources necessary for goal achievement, activate negative emotions and avoidance behaviours. However, action


id: action-tendency-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_tendency-1.md
category: reference
title: Action tendency
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_tendency
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:08.318647+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: action-tendency-20260505-0
summary:
==== Two cognitive systems maintain action tendency activation ==== Source: The Behavioural Activation System (BAS): Responds to reward cues, predisposing individuals to approach behaviours. The Behavioural Inhibition System (BIS): Responds to punishment or novelty cues, predisposing individuals to avoidance or inhibiting behaviours. Neuroimaging studies show the left frontal cortex links to approach tendencies (BAS), while the right frontal cortex links to withdrawal tendencies (BIS). === Cognitive and social regulation === The activation, suppression, and regulation of action tendencies are influenced by cognitive, social, and contextual factors. One primary regulatory mechanism is cognitive reappraisal – the ability to reinterpret emotionally-inducing events to align with personal goals. This mechanism allows individuals to adjust emotional impulses prior to the full onset of a reaction. Studies show it effectively reduces negative emotions and promote positive emotions to generate more socially appropriate tendencies. Social environments and cultural norms also shape cognitive responses to emotional events. Social Identity Theory argues individuals internalise the beliefs and behaviours of their in-groups – groups they identify with – creating strong desires to perform actions that reinforce conformity to group norms. For instance, while anger may promote aggressive, confrontational urges, societal norms and law-compliance often inhibit these behaviours. This is


id: collective-action-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_action-0.md
category: reference
title: Collective action
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_action
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:09.558887+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: collective-action-20260505-0
summary:
Collective action refers to action taken together by a group of people whose goal is to enhance their condition and achieve a common objective. It is a term that has formulations and theories in many areas of the social sciences including psychology, sociology, anthropology, political science and economics. == The social identity model == Researchers Martijn van Zomeren, Tom Postmes, and Russell Spears conducted a meta-analysis of over 180 studies of collective action, in an attempt to integrate three dominant socio-psychological perspectives explaining antecedent conditions to this phenomenon – injustice, efficacy, and identity. In their resultant 2008 review article, an integrative Social Identity Model of Collective Action (SIMCA) was proposed which accounts for interrelationships among the three predictors as well as their predictive capacities for collective action. An important assumption of this approach is that people tend to respond to subjective states of disadvantage, which may or may not flow from objective physical and social reality. === Perceived injustice === Examining collective action through perceived injustice was initially guided by relative deprivation theory (RDT). RDT focuses on a subjective state of unjust disadvantage, proposing that engaging in fraternal (group-based) social comparisons with others may result in feelings of relative deprivation


id: collective-action-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_action-1.md
category: reference
title: Collective action
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_action
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:09.558887+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: collective-action-20260505-0
summary:
The term collective action problem describes the situation in which multiple individuals would all benefit from a certain action, but has an associated cost making it implausible that any individual can or will undertake and solve it alone. The ideal solution is then to undertake this as a collective action, the cost of which is shared. Situations like this include the prisoner's dilemma, a collective action problem in which no communication is allowed, the free rider problem, and the tragedy of the commons, also known as the problem with open access. An allegorical metaphor often used to describe the problem is "belling the cat". Solutions to collective action problems include mutually binding agreements, government regulation, privatisation, and assurance contracts, also known as crowdacting. === Exploitation of the great by the small === Mancur Olson made the claim that individual rational choice leads to situations where individuals with more resources will carry a higher burden in the provision of the public good than poorer ones. Poorer individuals will usually have little choice but to opt for the free rider strategy, i.e., they will attempt to benefit from the public good without contributing to its provision. This may also encourage the under-production


id: collective-action-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_action-2.md
category: reference
title: Collective action
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_action
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:09.558887+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: collective-action-20260505-0
summary:
== In philosophy == Since the late 20th century, analytic philosophers have been exploring the nature of collective action in the sense of acting together, as when people paint a house together, go for a walk together, or together execute a pass play. These particular examples have been central for three of the philosophers who have made well known contributions to this literature: Michael Bratman, Margaret Gilbert, and John Searle, respectively. In (Gilbert 1989) and subsequent articles and book chapters including Gilbert (2006, chapter 7), whom argues for an account of collective action according to which this rests on a special kind of interpersonal commitment, what Gilbert calls a "joint commitment". A joint commitment in Gilbert's sense is not a matter of a set of personal commitments independently created by each of the participants, as when each makes a personal decision to do something. Rather, it is a single commitment to whose creation each participant makes a contribution. Thus suppose that one person says "Shall we go for a walk?" and the other says "Yes, let's". Gilbert proposes that as a result of this exchange the parties are jointly committed to go for a walk, and thereby obligated to one


id: collective-action-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_action-3.md
category: reference
title: Collective action
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_action
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:09.558887+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: collective-action-20260505-0
summary:
=== Methods and techniques === Due to the interdisciplinary nature of both the mechanisms as well as the applications of spontaneous consensus, a variety of techniques have been developed to study the emergence and evolution of spontaneous cooperation. Two of the most widely used are game theory and social network analysis. ==== Game theory ==== Traditionally game theory has been used to study zero-sum games but has been extended to many different types of games. Relevant to the study of spontaneous consensus are cooperative and non-cooperative games. Since a consensus must be reached without the presence of any external authoritative institution for it to be considered spontaneous, non-cooperative games and Nash equilibrium have been the dominant paradigm for which to study its emergence. In the context of non-cooperative games, a consensus is a formal Nash equilibrium that all players tend towards through self-enforcing alliances or agreements. An important case study of the underlying mathematical dynamics is the coordination game. Even when coordination is desired, it can be difficult to achieve due to incomplete information and constrained time horizons. ==== Social network analysis ==== An alternative approach to studying the emergence of spontaneous consensus—that avoids many of the unnatural or overly


id: collective-action-problem-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_action_problem-0.md
category: reference
title: Collective action problem
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_action_problem
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:10.731395+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: collective-action-problem-20260505-0
summary:
A collective action problem or social dilemma is a situation in which all individuals would be better off cooperating but fail to do so because of conflicting interests between individuals that discourage joint action. The collective action problem has been addressed in political philosophy for centuries, but was more famously interpreted in 1965 in Mancur Olson's The Logic of Collective Action. Problems arise when too many group members choose to pursue individual profit and immediate satisfaction rather than behave in the group's best long-term interests. Social dilemmas can take many forms and are studied across disciplines such as psychology, economics, and political science. Examples of phenomena that can be explained using social dilemmas include resource depletion and low voter turnout. The collective action problem can be understood through the analysis of game theory and the free-rider problem, which results from the provision of public goods. Additionally, the collective problem can be applied to numerous public policy concerns that countries across the world currently face. == Prominent theorists == === Early thought === Although he never used the words "collective action problem", Thomas Hobbes was an early philosopher on the topic of human cooperation. Hobbes believed that people act purely out


id: collective-action-problem-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_action_problem-1.md
category: reference
title: Collective action problem
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_action_problem
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:10.731395+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: collective-action-problem-20260505-0
summary:
The prisoner's dilemma model, one of the most famous examples in game theory, is crucial to understanding the collective problem because it illustrates the consequences of individual interests that conflict with the interests of the group. In simple models such as this one, the problem would have been solved had the two prisoners been able to communicate. In more complex real world situations involving numerous individuals, however, the collective action problem often prevents groups from making decisions that are of collective economic interest. The prisoner's dilemma is a simple game that serves as the basis for research on social dilemmas. The premise of the game is that two partners in crime are imprisoned separately and each are offered leniency if they provide evidence against the other. As seen in the table below, the optimal individual outcome is to testify against the other without being testified against. However, the optimal group outcome is for the two prisoners to cooperate with each other. In iterated games, players may learn to trust one another, or develop strategies like tit-for-tat, cooperating unless the opponent has defected in the previous round. Asymmetric prisoner's dilemma games are those in which one prisoner has more to gain


id: collective-action-problem-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_action_problem-2.md
category: reference
title: Collective action problem
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_action_problem
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:10.731395+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: collective-action-problem-20260505-0
summary:
A public goods dilemma is a situation in which the whole group can benefit if some of the members give something for the common good but individuals benefit from "free riding" if enough others contribute. Public goods are defined by two characteristics: non-excludability and non-rivalry—meaning that anyone can benefit from them and one person's use of them does not hinder another person's use of them. An example is public broadcasting that relies on contributions from viewers. Since no single viewer is essential for providing the service, viewers can reap the benefits of the service without paying anything for it. If not enough people contribute, the service cannot be provided. In economics, the literature around public goods dilemmas refers to the phenomenon as the free-rider problem. The economic approach is broadly applicable and can refer to the free-riding that accompanies any sort of public good. In social psychology, the literature refers to this phenomenon as social loafing. Whereas free-riding is generally used to describe public goods, social loafing refers specifically to the tendency for people to exert less effort when in a group than when working alone. Public goods are goods that are nonrival and nonexcludable. A good is said to


id: collective-action-problem-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_action_problem-3.md
category: reference
title: Collective action problem
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_action_problem
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:10.731395+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: collective-action-problem-20260505-0
summary:
A social trap occurs when individuals or groups pursue immediate rewards that later prove to have negative or even lethal consequences. This type of dilemma arises when a behavior produces rewards initially but continuing the same behavior produces diminishing returns. Stimuli that cause social traps are called sliding reinforcers, since they reinforce the behavior in small doses and punish it in large doses. An example of a social trap is the use of vehicles and the resulting pollution. Viewed individually, vehicles are an adaptive technology that have revolutionized transportation and greatly improved quality of life. But their current widespread use produces high levels of pollution, directly from their energy source or over their lifespan. == Perceptual dilemma == A perceptual dilemma arises during conflict and is a product of outgroup bias. In this dilemma, the parties to the conflict prefer cooperation while simultaneously believing that the other side would take advantage of conciliatory gestures. === In conflict === The prevalence of perceptual dilemmas in conflict has led to the development of two distinct schools of thought on the subject. According to deterrence theory, the best strategy to take in conflict is to show signs of strength and willingness to use


id: collective-action-problem-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_action_problem-4.md
category: reference
title: Collective action problem
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_action_problem
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:10.731395+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: collective-action-problem-20260505-0
summary:
=== Motivational solutions === Motivational solutions assume that people have other-regarding preferences. There is a considerable literature on social value orientations which shows that people have stable preferences for how much they value outcomes for self versus others. Research has concentrated on three social motives: (1) individualism—maximizing own outcomes regardless of others; (2) competition—maximizing own outcomes relative to others; and (3) cooperation—maximizing joint outcomes. The first two orientations are referred to as proself orientations and the third as a prosocial orientation. There is much support for the idea that prosocial and proself individuals behave differently when confronted with a social dilemma in the laboratory as well as the field. People with prosocial orientations weigh the moral implications of their decisions more and see cooperation as the most preferable choice in a social dilemma. When there are conditions of scarcity, like a water shortage, prosocials harvest less from a common resource. Similarly prosocials are more concerned about the environmental consequences of, for example, taking the car or public transport. Research on the development of social value orientations suggest an influence of factors like family history (prosocials have more sibling sisters), age (older people are more prosocial), culture (more individualists in Western


id: collective-action-problem-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_action_problem-5.md
category: reference
title: Collective action problem
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_action_problem
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:10.731395+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: collective-action-problem-20260505-0
summary:
=== Structural solutions === Structural solutions change the rules of the game either through modifying the social dilemma or removing the dilemma altogether. Field research on conservation behaviour has shown that selective incentives in the form of monetary rewards are effective in decreasing domestic water and electricity use. Furthermore, numerous experimental and case studies show that cooperation is more likely based on a number of factors, including whether or not individuals have the ability to monitor the situation, to punish or "sanction" defectors, if they are legitimized by external political structures to cooperate and self-organize, can communicate with one another and share information, know one another, have effective arenas for conflict resolution, and are managing social and ecological systems that have well-defined boundaries or are easily monitorable. Yet implementation of reward and punishment systems can be problematic for various reasons. First, there are significant costs associated with creating and administering sanction systems. Providing selective rewards and punishments requires support institutions to monitor the activities of both cooperators and non-cooperators, which can be quite expensive to maintain. Second, these systems are themselves public goods because one can enjoy the benefits of a sanctioning system without contribution to its existence. The police,


id: filial-piety-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filial_piety-0.md
category: reference
title: Filial piety
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filial_piety
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:12.177574+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: filial-piety-20260505-0
summary:
Filial piety is the virtue of exhibiting love and respect for one's parents, elders, and ancestors within the context of Confucian, Chinese Buddhist, and Daoist ethics. The Confucian Classic of Filial Piety, thought to be written around the late Warring States-Qin-Han period, has historically been the authoritative source on the Confucian tenet of filial piety. The book—a purported dialogue between Confucius and his student Zengzi—is about how to set up a good society using the principle of filial piety. Filial piety is central to Confucian role ethics. In more general terms, filial piety means to be good to one's parents; to take care of one's parents; to engage in good conduct, not just towards parents but also outside the home so as to bring a good name to one's parents and ancestors; to show love, respect, and support; to display courtesy; to ensure male heirs; to uphold fraternity among brothers; to wisely advise one's parents, including dissuading them from moral unrighteousness; to display sorrow for their sickness and death; and to bury them and carry out sacrifices after their death. Filial piety is considered a key virtue in Chinese and other East Asian cultures, and it is the main subject


id: filial-piety-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filial_piety-1.md
category: reference
title: Filial piety
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filial_piety
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:12.177574+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: filial-piety-20260505-0
summary:
Confucian ethics does not regard filial piety as a choice, but rather as an unconditional obligation of the child. The relationship between parents and children is the most fundamental of the five cardinal relationships (五倫; wǔlún) described by Confucius in his role ethics. Filial piety, together with fraternal love, underlies this system. It is the fundamental principle of Confucian morality: Filial piety was seen as the basis for an orderly society, together with loyalty of the ministers toward the ruler, and servitude of the wife toward the husband. In short, filial piety is central to Confucian role ethics and is the cardinal virtue that defines, limits, or even overrides all other virtues. According to the traditional texts, filial piety consists of physical care, love, service, respect, and obedience. Children should attempt not to bring disgrace upon their parents. Confucian texts such as Book of Rites give details on how filial piety should be practiced. Respect is envisioned by detailed manners such as the way children salute their parents, speak to them (words and tone used), or enter and leave the room in which their parents are, as well as seating arrangements and gifts. Care means making sure parents are comfortable


id: filial-piety-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filial_piety-2.md
category: reference
title: Filial piety
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filial_piety
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:12.177574+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: filial-piety-20260505-0
summary:
Filial piety is regarded as a principle that ordered society, without which chaos would prevail. It is described as "an inevitable fact of nature", as opposed to mere convention, and it is seen to follow naturally out of the father-son relationship. In the Chinese tradition of patriarchy, roles are upheld to maintain the harmony of the whole. According to the Neo-Confucian philosopher Cheng Hao (1032–1085 CE), relationships and their corresponding roles "belong to the eternal principle of the cosmos from which there is no escape between heaven and earth". The idea of filial piety became popular in China because of the many functions it had and many roles it undertook, as the traditional Confucian scholars such as Mencius (4th century BCE) regarded the family as a fundamental unit that formed the root of the nation. Though the virtue of xiào was about respect by children toward their parents, it was meant to regulate how the young generation behaved toward elders in the extended family and in society in general. Furthermore, devotion to one's parents was often associated with one's devotion to the state, described as the "parallel conception of society" or the "Model of Two". The Classic of Filial Piety


id: filial-piety-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filial_piety-3.md
category: reference
title: Filial piety
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filial_piety
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:12.177574+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: filial-piety-20260505-0
summary:
Psychologists have found correlations between filial piety and lower socio-economic status, female gender, elders, minorities, and non-westernized cultures. Traditional filial piety beliefs have been connected with positive outcomes for the community and society, care for elder family members, positive family relationships, and solidarity. Filial piety has also been related to an orientation to the past, resistance to cognitive change, superstition and fatalism, dogmatism, authoritarianism, conformism, a belief in the superiority of one's culture, and a lack of active, critical, and creative learning attitudes. Ho connects the value of filial piety with authoritarian moralism and cognitive conservatism in Chinese patterns of socialization, basing this on findings among subjects in Hong Kong and Taiwan. He defines authoritarian moralism as hierarchical authority ranking in family and institutions, and pervasive use of moral precepts as criteria of measuring people. Cognitive moralism he derives from social psychologist Anthony Greenwald, and is a "disposition to preserve existing knowledge structures" and resistance to change. He concludes that filial piety appears to have a negative effect on psychological development, but at the same time, partly explains the high motivation of Chinese people to achieve academic results. In family counselling research, filial piety has been seen to help establish


id: filial-piety-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filial_piety-4.md
category: reference
title: Filial piety
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filial_piety
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:12.177574+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: filial-piety-20260505-0
summary:
Filial piety has been an important aspect of Buddhist ethics since early Buddhism, and was essential in the apologetics and texts of Chinese Buddhism. In the Early Buddhist Texts such as the Nikāyas and Āgamas, filial piety is prescribed and practiced in three ways: to repay the gratitude toward one's parents; as a good karma or merit; and as a way to contribute to and sustain the social order. Buddhist scriptures portray the Buddha and his disciples practicing filial piety toward their parents, based on the qualities of gratitude and reciprocity. Initially, scholars of Buddhism like Kenneth Ch'en saw Buddhist teachings on filial piety as a distinct feature of Chinese Buddhism. Later scholarship, led by people such as John Strong and Gregory Schopen, has come to believe that filial piety was part of Buddhist doctrine since early times. Strong and Schopen provided epigraphical and textual evidence to show that early Buddhist laypeople, monks, and nuns often displayed strong devotion to their parents, and concluded that filial piety was already an important part of the devotional life of early Buddhists. When Buddhism was introduced in China, it had no organized celibacy. Confucianism emphasized filial piety to parents and loyalty to the


id: filial-piety-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filial_piety-5.md
category: reference
title: Filial piety
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filial_piety
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:12.177574+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: filial-piety-20260505-0
summary:
=== 19th–20th century === During the rise of progressivism and communism in China in the early 20th century, Confucian values and family-centered living were discouraged by the state and intellectuals. During the New Culture Movement of 1911, Chinese intellectuals and foreign missionaries attacked the principle of filial piety, the latter considering it an obstruction of progress. In Japan, filial piety was not regarded as an obstacle to modernization, though scholars disagree about why this was so. Francis Hsu believed that "the human networks through which it found concrete expressions" were different in Japan, and there never was a movement against filial piety as there was in China. The late imperial trend of increased patriarchalism made it difficult for the Chinese to build strong patrimonial groups that went beyond kin. Though filial piety was practiced much in both China and Japan, the Chinese way was more limited to close kin than in Japan. When industrialization increased, filial piety was therefore criticized more in China than in Japan, because China felt it limited the way the country could meet the challenges from the West. For this reason, China developed a more critical stance towards filial piety and other aspects of Confucianism than


id: markedness-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markedness-0.md
category: reference
title: Markedness
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markedness
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:13.402808+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: markedness-20260505-0
summary:
In linguistics and social sciences, markedness is the state of standing out as nontypical or divergent as opposed to regular or common. In a marked–unmarked relation, one term of an opposition is the broader, dominant one. The dominant default or minimum-effort form is known as unmarked; the other, secondary one is marked. In other words, markedness involves the characterization of a "normal" linguistic unit against one or more of its possible "irregular" forms. In linguistics, markedness can apply to, among others, phonological, grammatical, and semantic oppositions, defining them in terms of marked and unmarked oppositions, such as honest (unmarked) as opposed to dishonest (marked). Marking may be purely semantic, or may be realized as extra morphology. The term derives from the marking of a grammatical role with a suffix or another element, and has been extended to situations where there is no morphological distinction. In social sciences more broadly, markedness is, among other things, used to distinguish two meanings of the same term, where one is common usage (unmarked sense) and the other is specialized to a certain cultural context (marked sense). In psychology, the social science concept of markedness is quantified as a measure of how much one variable


id: markedness-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markedness-1.md
category: reference
title: Markedness
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markedness
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:13.402808+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: markedness-20260505-0
summary:
== Cultural markedness and informedness == Since a main component of markedness is the information content and information value of an element, some studies have taken markedness as an encoding of that which is unusual or informative, and this is reflected in formal probabilistic definitions of markedness and informedness that, for dichotomous problems, correspond to the chance-correct unidirectional components of the Matthews correlation coefficient known as Δp and Δp'. Conceptual familiarity with cultural norms provided by familiar categories creates a ground against which marked categories provide a figure, opening the way for markedness to be applied to cultural and social categorization. As early as the 1930s Jakobson had already suggested applying markedness to all oppositions, explicitly mentioning such pairs as life/death, liberty/bondage, sin/virtue, and holiday/working day. Linda Waugh extended this to oppositions like male/female, white/black, sighted/blind, hearing/deaf, heterosexual/homosexual, right/left, fertility/barrenness, clothed/nude, and spoken language/written language. Battistella expanded this with the demonstration of how cultures align markedness values to create cohesive symbol systems, illustrating with examples based on Rodney Needham's work. Other work has applied markedness to stylistics, music, and myth. == Local markedness and markedness reversals == Markedness depends on context. What is more marked in some general contexts may


id: markedness-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markedness-2.md
category: reference
title: Markedness
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markedness
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:13.402808+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: markedness-20260505-0
summary:
We will assume that [Universal Grammar] is not an 'undifferentiated' system, but rather incorporates something analogous to a 'theory of markedness.' Specifically, there is a theory of core grammar with highly restricted options, limited expressive power, and a few parameters. Systems that fall within core grammar constitute 'the unmarked case'; we may think of them as optimal in terms of the evaluation metric. An actual language is determined by fixing the parameters of core grammar and then adding rules or conditions, using much richer resources, ... These added properties of grammars we may think of as the syntactic analogue of irregular verbs. A few years later, Chomsky describes it thus: The distinction between core and periphery leaves us with three notions of markedness: core versus periphery, internal to the core, and internal to the periphery. The second has to do with the way parameters are set in the absence of evidence. As for the third, there are, no doubt, significant regularities even in departures from the core principles (for example, in irregular verb morphology in English), and it may be that peripheral constructions are related to the core in systematic ways, say by relaxing certain conditions of core grammar. Some


id: microaggression-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microaggression-0.md
category: reference
title: Microaggression
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microaggression
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:14.791929+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: microaggression-20260505-0
summary:
Microaggression is a term used for commonplace verbal, behavioral or environmental slight, whether intentional or unintentional, that communicates hostile, derogatory, or negative attitudes toward members of marginalized groups. The term was coined by Harvard University psychiatrist Chester M. Pierce in 1970 to describe insults and dismissals which he regularly witnessed non-black Americans inflicting on African Americans. By the early 21st century, use of the term was applied to the casual disparagement of any socially marginalized group, including LGBT, poor, and disabled people. Psychologist Derald Wing Sue defines microaggressions as "brief, everyday exchanges that send denigrating messages to certain individuals because of their group membership". In contrast to aggression, in which there is usually an intent to cause harm, persons making microaggressive comments may be otherwise well-intentioned and unaware of the potential impact of their words. A number of scholars and social commentators have criticized the concept of microaggression for its lack of a scientific basis, over-reliance on subjective evidence, and promotion of psychological fragility. Critics argue that avoiding behaviors that one interprets as microaggressions restricts one's own freedom and causes emotional self-harm, and that employing authority figures to address microaggressions (i.e. call-out culture) can lead to an atrophy of those


id: microaggression-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microaggression-1.md
category: reference
title: Microaggression
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microaggression
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:14.791929+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: microaggression-20260505-0
summary:
Microassault: an explicit racial derogation; verbal/nonverbal; e.g. name-calling, avoidant behavior, purposeful discriminatory actions. Microinsult: communications that convey rudeness and insensitivity and demean a person's racial heritage or identity; subtle snubs; unknown to the perpetrator; hidden insulting message to the recipient. Microinvalidation: communications that exclude, negate, or nullify the psychological thoughts, feelings, or experiential reality of a person belonging to a particular group. Environmental Microaggressions (Macro-Level): Racial assaults, insults and invalidations which are manifested on systemic and environmental level. Some psychologists have criticized microaggression theory for assuming that all verbal, behavioral, or environmental indignities are due to bias. Thomas Schacht says that it is uncertain whether a behavior is due to racial bias or is a larger phenomenon that occurs regardless of identity conflict. However, Kanter and colleagues found that racial microaggressions were robustly correlated to five separate measures of bias. In reviewing the microaggression literature, Scott Lilienfeld suggested that microassaults should probably be struck from the taxonomy because the examples provided in the literature tend not to be "micro", but are outright assaults, intimidation, harassment and bigotry; in some cases, examples have included criminal acts. Others have pointed out that what could be perceived as subtle snubs could be due


id: microaggression-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microaggression-2.md
category: reference
title: Microaggression
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microaggression
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:14.791929+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: microaggression-20260505-0
summary:
=== Gender === Gender microaggressions may replace more blatant forms of sexism and gender discrimination when a society evolves sufficiently for those forms of outright prejudice to be deemed no longer acceptable. For instance, explicit sexism in the society of the US is on the decline, but still exists in a variety of subtle and non-subtle expressions. Women encounter microaggressions in which they are made to feel inferior, sexually objectified, and bound to restrictive gender roles, both in the workplace and in academia, as well as in athletics. Microaggressions against sexual and gender minority people and cisgender women share many common themes. Influential early studies on gender microaggressions documented common themes across incidents. The themes are sexual objectification, treatment as an invisible or second-class citizen, assuming inferiority, denying the reality of sexism, assuming traditional gender roles, using sexist language, denying one's own sexism, and systemic or environmental issues. As one example, when one employer paid women less than men for the same work, it sent the message that the company believed women were less smart or capable than men, fitting the themes of second-class citizen and environmental mistreatment. Researchers continue to draw out further themes for classifying gender microaggressions, like


id: microaggression-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microaggression-3.md
category: reference
title: Microaggression
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microaggression
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:14.791929+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: microaggression-20260505-0
summary:
Microaggressions about sexual orientation can be rooted in heterosexist language and heteronormativity; stereotyping, deriding, undersexualizing or exoticizing the LGBTQ experience; or denying that heterosexism exists. Documented sources of systemic microaggressions include the media, religious groups, governments and educational organizations. Systemic microaggressions can involve negative, discriminatory portrayals and policies that target people who aren't straight, or queer people more broadly. In some studies, researchers found that microaggressions affected queer targets' self-acceptance and self-esteem, increasing the potential for anxiety, stress, and PTSD symptoms. Microaggressions towards LGBTQ people are likely to cause less distress when the target has high levels of self-acceptance. K. L. Nadal and M. J. Corpus documented some microaggressions against LGBTQ people in a pair of 2013 studies. Example microassaults (explicit insults) include using heterosexist language, like saying "that's so gay" as a put-down. Microinsults (subtly rude messaging) include comments rooted in stereotypes. As an example, a joke that a gay man couldn't like sports implies that all gay men are feminine, or a comment that a woman is too pretty to be lesbian implies that all lesbians are masculine. An example microinvalidation (denial of someone's reality) might happen after a queer person speaks up about a time they felt


id: microaggression-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microaggression-4.md
category: reference
title: Microaggression
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microaggression
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:14.791929+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: microaggression-20260505-0
summary:
People with mental illness report receiving more overt forms of microaggression than subtle ones, coming from family and friends as well as from authority figures. In fact, family, friends, and healthcare workers are some of the most common reported sources of microaggressions towards people with mental illness. In a study involving college students and adults who were being treated in community care, five themes were identified: invalidation, assumption of inferiority, fear of mental illness, shaming of mental illness, and being treated as a second-class citizen. Invalidation would occur, for example, when friends and family members minimized mental health symptoms; one participant described others claiming "You can't be depressed, you're smiling." People would sometimes falsely assume that mental illness means lower intelligence; a participant reported that the hospital staff in a psych ward were speaking to mentally ill patients as if they could not understand instructions. Many documented mental health microaggressions have themes of stereotyping mental illness: whether the stereotype assumes people with mental illness are incapable, weak, dangerous, or cold, they share a negative association. Microaggressions also may involve treating people with mental illness differently than others: devaluing someone, patronizing them, or treating them like a child, speaking condescendingly or


id: microaggression-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microaggression-5.md
category: reference
title: Microaggression
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microaggression
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:14.791929+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: microaggression-20260505-0
summary:
== Effects == A 2013 scholarly review of the literature on microaggressions concluded that "the negative impact of racial microaggressions on psychological and physical health is beginning to be documented; however, these studies have been largely correlational and based on recall and self-report, making it difficult to determine whether racial microaggressions actually cause negative health outcomes and, if so, through what mechanisms". A 2017 review of microaggression research argued that as scholars try to understand the possible harm caused by microaggressions, they have not conducted much cognitive or behavioral research, nor much experimental testing, and they have overly relied on small collections of anecdotal testimonies from samples who are not representative of any particular population. These assertions were later argued against in that same journal in 2020, but the response was criticized for failing to address the findings of the systematic reviews and continuing to draw causal inferences from correlational data. A 2022 meta-analysis concluded that experienced microaggressions were associated with worse psychological and physical health, more use of coping mechanisms, and negative job impacts, across a broad range of environments and types of people. These associations demonstrate correlation but cannot prove a causal relationship between microaggressions and negative effects.


id: microaggression-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microaggression-6.md
category: reference
title: Microaggression
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microaggression
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:14.791929+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: microaggression-20260505-0
summary:
=== Emotional distress === In The Atlantic, Greg Lukianoff and Jonathan Haidt expressed concern that the focus on microaggressions can cause more emotional trauma than the experience of the microaggressions at the time of occurrence. They believe that self-policing by an individual of thoughts or actions in order to avoid committing microaggressions may cause emotional harm as a person seeks to avoid becoming a microaggressor, as such extreme self-policing may share some characteristics of pathological thinking. Referring especially to prevention programs at schools or universities, they say that the element of protectiveness, of which identifying microaggression allegations are a part, prepares students "poorly for professional life, which often demands intellectual engagement with people and ideas one might find uncongenial or wrong". They also said that it has become "unacceptable to question the reasonableness (let alone the sincerity) of someone's emotional state", resulting in adjudication of alleged microaggressions having characteristics of witch trials. Amitai Etzioni, writing in The Atlantic, suggested that attention to microaggressions distracts individuals and groups from dealing with much more serious acts. === Political correctness === According to Derald Wing Sue, whose works popularized the term, many critiques are based on the term being misunderstood or misused. He


id: off-the-verandah-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Off_the_verandah-0.md
category: reference
title: Off the verandah
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Off_the_verandah
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:16.159915+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: off-the-verandah-20260505-0
summary:
Off the verandah (alt. spelling off the veranda; longer, come down off the verandah) is a phrase often attributed to anthropologist Bronisław Malinowski, who stressed the need for fieldwork enabling the researcher to experience the everyday life of his subjects along with them. In this context, it is also interpreted as criticism of armchair theorizing. == Origin == While often used to describe Malinowski's message and occasionally attributed directly to him, the origins of the phrase are unclear, and it has also been attributed to Ian Jarvie's criticism of Malinowski's idea in his 1964 The Revolution in Anthropology, in which he paraphrased Malinowski's message to his followers: Soon the voices of the swelling mass of students could be heard ... "Father ... show us how we may come to do so" they beseeched Malinowski ... Malinowski heeded their plea. Back came the reply, the second slogan: "Come down off the verandah, come out of your studies and join the people". Translated this reads "do not sit spinning theories like spider webs on the verandah ... go down among the people, get to know them ..." == Significance == The phrase refers to the argument promoted by anthropologist Bronisław Malinowski who


id: therapy-speak-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therapy_speak-0.md
category: reference
title: Therapy speak
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therapy_speak
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:18.707219+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: therapy-speak-20260505-0
summary:
Therapy speak is the incorrect use of terminology which is frequently used in psychotherapy and mental health. It tends to be linguistically prescriptive and formal in tone. Therapy speak is related to psychobabble and buzzwords. It is vulnerable to miscommunication and relationship damage as a result of the speaker not fully understanding the terms they are using, as well as using the words in a weaponized or abusive manner. Therapy speak is not generally used by therapists during psychotherapy sessions. == Motivation == Although the use of therapy speak may be unintentional, a variety of different motivations have been identified in different situations. People use therapy speak because it makes them or their emotions sound more important or superior. In this sense, the use of therapy speak may be no different from academese, which is jargon needlessly used by university professors and other academics to make themselves sound educated. This can come across as the speaker being condescending and unkind. Therapy speak may be used in other ways to claim social status, e.g., by engaging in conspicuous consumption under the guise of self-care. The motivation may be to win an argument, or to prevent people from questioning why they have


id: therapy-speak-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therapy_speak-1.md
category: reference
title: Therapy speak
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therapy_speak
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:18.707219+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: therapy-speak-20260505-0
summary:
== Effects == Therapy speak can be associated with controlling behavior. It can be used as a weapon to shame people or to pathologize them by declaring the other person's behavior (e.g., accidentally hurting the other person's feelings) to be a mental illness, as well as a way to excuse or minimize the speaker's choices, for example, by blaming their attachment style on a conscious behavior like ghosting rather than working to change the behavior. Like other forms of pop psychology, therapy speak can result in miscommunication. When people use the same word to mean different things, they may have difficulty understanding each other. For example, someone might talk about trauma bonding, thinking that it's the emotional bond between survivors of a shared experience; the actual meaning is the emotional attachment of abuse victims to their abusers. Using the word to refer to a relationship between abuse survivors will confuse people who believe it refers to an abuser–victim relationship, and vice versa. In sessions, therapists may address this by asking the speaker to define the word or explain it in more detail. It also impairs communication by substituting a superficial judgement for clear communication. Therapy speak can prevent the person


id: therapy-speak-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therapy_speak-2.md
category: reference
title: Therapy speak
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therapy_speak
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:18.707219+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: therapy-speak-20260505-0
summary:
Trauma Many psychotherapists consider the term "trauma" to be overused to describe "anything bad". According to George Bonanno, psychological trauma is often defined to begin with a horrific "violent or life-threatening event that is outside the range of normal experience", such as rape, a natural disaster, or a mass shooting. Early symptoms may include shock and denial; later symptoms, for those who develop post-traumatic stress disorder, may include unpredictable labile mood (e.g., a normal comment provokes an obviously abnormal feeling), intense nightmares or flashbacks (feeling like the traumatic event is happening again), and other debilitating symptoms. However, other clinicians argue that another form of trauma isn't yet included in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), caused by experiences that may not be explicitly violent, but still mirror the effects of more "severe" trauma and affects people deeply. Trigger The term "trigger" is often used to say that the person is upset, or that a behavior caused the person to feel bad. However, a trauma trigger in clinical terms describes something that may be harmless (e.g., the sound of a motorcycle) that is mentally tied for that individual to a previous terrible event (e.g., witnessing gun violence). Gaslighting


id: unintended-consequences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unintended_consequences-0.md
category: reference
title: Unintended consequences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unintended_consequences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:20.047109+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: unintended-consequences-20260505-0
summary:
In the social sciences, unintended consequences (sometimes unanticipated consequences or unforeseen consequences, more colloquially called knock-on effects) are outcomes of a purposeful action that are not intended or foreseen. The term was popularized in the 20th century by American sociologist Robert K. Merton. Unintended consequences can be grouped into three types: Unexpected benefit: A positive unexpected benefit (also referred to as luck, serendipity, or a windfall). Unexpected drawback: An unexpected detriment occurring in addition to the desired effect of the policy (e.g., while irrigation schemes provide people with water for agriculture, they can increase waterborne diseases that have devastating health effects, such as schistosomiasis). Perverse result: A perverse effect contrary to what was originally intended (when an intended solution makes a problem worse). == History == === John Locke === The idea of unintended consequences dates back at least to John Locke who discussed the unintended consequences of interest rate regulation in his letter to Sir John Somers, Member of Parliament. === Adam Smith === The idea was also discussed by Adam Smith, the Scottish Enlightenment, and consequentialism (judging by results). The invisible hand theorem is an example of the unintended consequences of agents acting in their self-interest. As Andrew


id: unintended-consequences-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unintended_consequences-1.md
category: reference
title: Unintended consequences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unintended_consequences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:20.047109+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: unintended-consequences-20260505-0
summary:
==== Friedrich Hayek and Catallactics ==== Economist and philosopher Friedrich Hayek (1899 – 1992) is another key figure in the Austrian School of Economics who is notable for his comments on unintended consequences. In "The Use of Knowledge in Society" (1945) Hayek argues that a centrally planned economy cannot reach the level of efficiency of the free market economy because the necessary (and pertinent) information for decision-making is not concentrated but dispersed among a vast number of agents. Then, for Hayek, the price system in the free market allows the members of a society to anonymously coordinate for the most efficient use of resources, for example, in a situation of scarcity of a raw material, the price increase would coordinate the actions of an uncountable amount of individuals "in the right direction". The development of this system of interactions would allow the progress of society, and individuals would carry it out without knowing all its implications, given the dispersion (or lack of concentration) of information. The implication of this is that the social order (which derives from social progress, which in turn derives from the economy), would be result of a spontaneous cooperation and also an unintended consequence, being born


id: unintended-consequences-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unintended_consequences-2.md
category: reference
title: Unintended consequences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unintended_consequences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:20.047109+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: unintended-consequences-20260505-0
summary:
=== Unexpected drawbacks === The implementation of a profanity filter by AOL in 1996 had the unintended consequence of blocking residents of Scunthorpe, North Lincolnshire, England, from creating accounts because of a false positive. The accidental censorship of innocent language, known as the Scunthorpe problem, has been repeated and widely documented. In 1990, the Australian state of Victoria made safety helmets mandatory for all bicycle riders. While there was a reduction in the number of head injuries, there was also an unintended reduction in the number of juvenile cyclists—fewer cyclists obviously leads to fewer injuries, all else being equal. The risk of death and serious injury per cyclist seems to have increased, possibly because of risk compensation. Research by Vulcan et al. found that the reduction in juvenile cyclists was because the youths considered wearing a bicycle helmet unfashionable. A health-benefit model developed at Macquarie University in Sydney suggests that, while helmet use reduces "the risk of head or brain injury by approximately two-thirds or more", the decrease in exercise caused by reduced cycling as a result of helmet laws is counterproductive in terms of net health. Prohibition in the 1920s United States, originally enacted to suppress the alcohol trade,


id: unintended-consequences-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unintended_consequences-3.md
category: reference
title: Unintended consequences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unintended_consequences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:20.047109+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: unintended-consequences-20260505-0
summary:
In 2003, Barbra Streisand unsuccessfully sued Kenneth Adelman and Pictopia.com for posting a photograph of her home online. Before the lawsuit had been filed, only 6 people had downloaded the file, two of them Streisand's attorneys. The lawsuit drew attention to the image, resulting in 420,000 people visiting the site. The Streisand Effect was named after this incident, describing when an attempt to censor or remove a certain piece of information instead draws attention to the material being suppressed, resulting in the material instead becoming widely known, reported on, and distributed. Passenger-side airbags in motorcars were intended as a safety feature, but led to an increase in child fatalities in the mid-1990s because small children were being hit by airbags that deployed automatically during collisions. The supposed solution to this problem, moving the child seat to the back of the vehicle, led to an increase in the number of children forgotten in unattended vehicles, some of whom died under extreme temperature conditions. Risk compensation, or the Peltzman effect, occurs after implementation of safety measures intended to reduce injury or death (e.g. bike helmets, seatbelts, etc.). People may feel safer than they really are and take additional risks which they would


id: unintended-consequences-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unintended_consequences-4.md
category: reference
title: Unintended consequences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unintended_consequences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:20.047109+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: unintended-consequences-20260505-0
summary:
=== Other === According to Lynn White, the invention of the horse stirrup enabled new patterns of warfare that eventually led to the development of feudalism (see Stirrup Thesis). == Perverse consequences of environmental intervention == Almost all environmental problems, from chemical pollution to global warming, are the unexpected consequences of the application of modern technologies. Traffic congestion, deaths and injuries from car accidents, air pollution, and global warming are unintended consequences of the invention and large scale adoption of the automobile. Hospital infections are the unexpected side-effect of antibiotic resistance, and even human population growth leading to environmental degradation is the side effect of various technological (i.e., agricultural and industrial) revolutions. Because of the complexity of ecosystems, deliberate changes to an ecosystem or other environmental interventions will often have (usually negative) unintended consequences. Sometimes, these effects cause permanent irreversible changes. Examples include: During the Four Pests campaign, Maoist China ordered the killing of sparrows, as well as rats, flies, and mosquitoes. The campaign was successful in reducing the sparrow population; however, in their absence, locust populations previously kept in check by sparrow predation grew out of control and came to infest crops. Rice yields were substantially decreased; the campaign


id: wild-problem-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wild_problem-0.md
category: reference
title: Wild problem
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wild_problem
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:21.408700+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wild-problem-20260505-0
summary:
A wild problem is a class of problems where the various parts that specify the problem can change, or keep changing, and there is no single "right" outcome to aim for. Every move or intended solution reveals new complications, trade-offs have no well-defined end, and "success" depends more on judgment and values rather than a clear formula or finish line. The term has distinct uses in the domains of mathematics, and in social sciences and economics. == Mathematics == A wild problem in mathematics is an ill-posed or indeterminate problem lacking a clear, unique solution due to incomplete constraints or evolving parameters. In areas of linear algebra and representation theory, a problem is wild if it contains the problem of classifying pairs of square matrices up to simultaneous similarity. Examples of wild problems are classifying indecomposable representations of any quiver that is neither a Dynkin quiver (i.e. the underlying undirected graph of the quiver is a (finite) Dynkin diagram) nor a Euclidean quiver (i.e., the underlying undirected graph of the quiver is an affine Dynkin diagram). Necessary and sufficient conditions have been proposed to check the simultaneously block triangularization and diagonalization of a finite set of matrices under the assumption


id: international-scientific-vocabulary-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_scientific_vocabulary-0.md
category: reference
title: International scientific vocabulary
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_scientific_vocabulary
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:23.251826+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-scientific-vocabulary-20260505-0
summary:
International scientific vocabulary (ISV) is the set of scientific and specialized words that are in current use in several modern languages. Although the language of origin of ISV may or may not be certain, they are used translingually, whether in naturalized, loanword, or calque forms. The name "international scientific vocabulary" was first used by Philip Gove in Webster's Third New International Dictionary (1961). As noted by David Crystal, science is an especially productive field for new coinages. It is also especially predisposed to immediate translingual sharing of words owing to its very nature: scientists working in many countries and languages, reading each other's latest articles in scientific journals (via foreign language skills, translation help, or both), and eager to apply any reported advances to their own context. == Instances == According to Webster's Third, "some ISV words (like haploid) have been created by taking a word with a rather general and simple meaning from one of the languages of antiquity, usually Latin and Greek, and conferring upon it a very specific and complicated meaning for the purposes of modern scientific discourse." An ISV word is typically a classical compound or a derivative which "gets only its raw materials, so to


id: nomenclature-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomenclature-0.md
category: reference
title: Nomenclature
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomenclature
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:24.614245+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nomenclature-20260505-0
summary:
Nomenclature (UK: , US: ) is a system of names or terms, or the rules for forming these terms in a particular field of arts or sciences. The theoretical field studying nomenclature is sometimes referred to as onymology or taxonymy. The principles of naming vary from the relatively informal conventions of everyday speech to the internationally agreed principles, rules, and recommendations that govern the formation and use of the specialist terminology used in scientific and any other disciplines. Naming "things" is a part of general human communication using words and language: it is an aspect of everyday taxonomy as people distinguish the objects of their experience, together with their similarities and differences, which observers identify, name and classify. The use of names, as the many different kinds of nouns embedded in different languages, connects nomenclature to theoretical linguistics, while the way humans mentally structure the world in relation to word meanings and experience relates to the philosophy of language. Onomastics, the study of proper names and their origins, includes: anthroponymy (concerned with human names, including personal names, surnames and nicknames); toponymy (the study of place names); and etymology (the derivation, history and use of names) as revealed through comparative and


id: nomenclature-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomenclature-1.md
category: reference
title: Nomenclature
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomenclature
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:24.614245+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nomenclature-20260505-0
summary:
in all languages natural groups of organisms are distinguished (present-day taxa) these groups are arranged into more inclusive groups or ethnobiological categories in all languages there are about five or six ethnobiological categories of graded inclusiveness these groups (ethnobiological categories) are arranged hierarchically, generally into mutually exclusive ranks the ranks at which particular organisms are named and classified is often similar in different cultures The levels, moving from the most to least inclusive, are: "unique beginner" — e.g. plant or animal. A single all-inclusive name rarely used in folk taxonomies but loosely equivalent to an original living thing, a "common ancestor" "life form" — e.g. tree, bird, grass and fish. These are usually primary lexemes (basic linguistic units) loosely equivalent to a phylum or major biological division. "generic name" — e.g. oak, pine, robin, catfish. This is the most numerous and basic building block of all folk taxonomies, the most frequently referred to, the most important psychologically, and among the first learned by children. These names can usually be associated directly with a second level group. Like life-form names these are primary lexemes. "specific name" — e.g. white fir, post oak. More or less equivalent to species. A secondary lexeme


id: nomenclature-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomenclature-2.md
category: reference
title: Nomenclature
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomenclature
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:24.614245+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nomenclature-20260505-0
summary:
The distinction between proper names and common names is that proper names denote a unique entity e.g. London Bridge, while common names are used in a more general sense in reference to a class of objects e.g. bridge. Many proper names are obscure in meaning as they lack any apparent meaning in the way that ordinary words mean, probably for the practical reason that when they consist of Collective nouns, they refer to groups, even when they are inflected for the singular e.g. "committee". Concrete nouns like "cabbage" refer to physical bodies that can be observed by at least one of the senses while abstract nouns, like "love" and "hate" refer to abstract objects. In English, many abstract nouns are formed by adding noun-forming suffixes ('-ness', '-ity', '-tion') to adjectives or verbs e.g. "happiness", "serenity", "concentration." Pronouns like "he", "it", "which", and "those" stand in place of nouns in noun phrases. The capitalization of nouns varies with language and even the particular context: journals often have their own house styles for common names. === -onym nouns === Distinctions may be made between particular kinds of names simply by using the suffix -onym, from the Greek ónoma (ὄνομα, 'name'). So we


id: international-code-of-area-nomenclature-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Code_of_Area_Nomenclature-0.md
category: reference
title: International Code of Area Nomenclature
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Code_of_Area_Nomenclature
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:25.858217+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-code-of-area-nomenclature-20260505-0
summary:
The International Code of Area Nomenclature (ICAN) was proposed by a group of few biogeographers to provide a universal naming system or nomenclature for areas of endemism used in contemporary biogeography. There are other proposals to palaeobiogeographic areas. The ICAN also serves as the international standard rules for proposing and using "area of endemism" names. The ICAN was ratified by the Systematic and Evolutionary Biogeographical Association (SEBA) in Paris in the only meeting of the group, during July 2007. This community was created and maintained by the same group of biogeographers that proposed the ICAN. There is little agreement on the use of different methods and systems of nomenclature in Biogeography, and this proposal represents one of the various kinds of study in this science. == References == == External links == ICAN Website


id: nomenclator-nomenclature-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomenclator_(nomenclature)-0.md
category: reference
title: Nomenclator (nomenclature)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomenclator_(nomenclature)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:27.132624+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nomenclator-nomenclature-20260505-0
summary:
A nomenclator ( NOH-mən-KLAY-tər; English plural nomenclators, Latin plural nomenclatores; derived from the Latin nomen- name + calare – to call), in classical times, referred to a slave whose duty was to recall the names of persons his master met during a political campaign. Later, the scope was expanded to include names of people in any social context and also other socially important information about them. However, it has taken on several other meanings and also refers to a book containing collections or lists of words. It also denotes a person, generally a public official, who announces the names of guests at a party or other social gathering or ceremony. In more general terms still, it is a person who provides or creates the names for things, and this can apply to the application of names in a scientific or any other context, but especially in relation to specialist terminologies, glossaries etc. == Nomenclators in biology == Several nomenclators have been created in biology. They usually list the names of genera and sometimes species together with the origins (sources) of these names. Sometimes they also include additional information, such as the distribution. For instance, an entry in the Nomenclator Zoologicus


id: priority-biology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priority_(biology)-0.md
category: reference
title: Priority (biology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priority_(biology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:28.487963+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: priority-biology-20260505-0
summary:
Priority is a principle in biological taxonomy by which a valid scientific name is established based on the oldest available name. It is a decisive rule in botanical and zoological nomenclature to recognise the first binomial name (also called binominal name in zoology) given to an organism as the correct and acceptable name. The purpose is to select one scientific name as a stable one out of two or more alternate names that often exist for a single species. The International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN) defines it as: "A right to precedence established by the date of valid publication of a legitimate name or of an earlier homonym, or by the date of designation of a type." Basically, it is a scientific procedure to eliminate duplicate or multiple names for a species, for which Lucien Marcus Underwood called it "the principle of outlaw in nomenclature". == History == The principle of priority has not always been in place. When Carl Linnaeus laid the foundations of modern nomenclature, he offered no recognition of prior names. The botanists who followed him were just as willing to overturn Linnaeus's names. The first sign of recognition of priority came


id: priority-biology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priority_(biology)-1.md
category: reference
title: Priority (biology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priority_(biology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:28.487963+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: priority-biology-20260505-0
summary:
The first formal scientific name published for a plant or animal taxon shall be the name that is to be used, called the valid name in zoology and correct name in botany (principle of synonymy). Once a name has been used, no subsequent publication of that name for another taxon shall be valid (zoology) or validly published (botany) (principle of homonymy). Note that nomenclature for botany and zoology is independent, and the rules of priority regarding homonyms operate within each discipline but not between them. Thus, an animal and a plant can bear the same name, which is then called a hemihomonym. There are formal provisions for making exceptions to the principle of priority under each of the Codes. If an archaic or obscure prior name is discovered for an established taxon, the current name can be declared a nomen conservandum (botany) or conserved name (zoology), and so conserved against the prior name. Conservation may be avoided entirely in zoology, as these names may fall in the formal category of nomen oblitum. Similarly, if the current name for a taxon is found to have an archaic or obscure prior homonym, the current name can be declared a nomen protectum (zoology)


id: taxonomy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy-0.md
category: reference
title: Taxonomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:29.818243+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: taxonomy-20260505-0
summary:
Taxonomy is a practice and science concerned with classification or categorization. Typically, there are two parts to it: the development of an underlying scheme of classes (a taxonomy) and the allocation of things to the classes (classification). Originally, taxonomy referred only to the classification of organisms on the basis of shared characteristics. Today it also has a more general sense. It may refer to the classification of things or concepts, as well as to the principles underlying such work. Thus a taxonomy can be used to organize species, documents, videos or anything else. A taxonomy organizes taxonomic units known as "taxa" (singular "taxon"). Many are hierarchies. One function of a taxonomy is to help users more easily find what they are searching for. This may be effected in ways that include a library classification system and a search engine taxonomy. Though often used interchangeably, taxonomies are distinct from typologies in that the former are concerned with empirical and objective characteristics, while the latter are concerned with abstract or subjective criteria. == Etymology == The word was coined in 1813 by the Swiss botanist A. P. de Candolle and is irregularly compounded from the Greek τάξις, taxis 'order' and νόμος, nomos


id: taxonomy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy-1.md
category: reference
title: Taxonomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:29.818243+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: taxonomy-20260505-0
summary:
Corporate taxonomy, the hierarchical classification of entities of interest to an enterprise, organization or administration Economic taxonomy, a system of classification for economic activity Global Industry Classification Standard, an industry taxonomy developed by MSCI and Standard & Poor's (S&P) Industry Classification Benchmark, an industry classification taxonomy launched by Dow Jones and FTSE International Standard Industrial Classification (ISIC), a United Nations system for classifying economic data North American Industry Classification System (NAICS), used in Canada, Mexico, and the United States of America Pavitt's Taxonomy, classification of firms by their principal sources of innovation Standard Industrial Classification, a system for classifying industries by a four-digit code United Kingdom Standard Industrial Classification of Economic Activities, a Standard Industrial Classification by type of economic activity EU taxonomy for sustainable activities, a classification system established to clarify which investments are environmentally sustainable, in the context of the European Green Deal. Records management taxonomy, the representation of data, upon which the classification of unstructured content is based, within an organization. XBRL Taxonomy, eXtensible Business Reporting Language SRK taxonomy, in workplace user-interface design === Computing === ==== Software engineering ==== Vegas et al. make a compelling case to advance the knowledge in the field of software engineering


id: taxonomy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy-2.md
category: reference
title: Taxonomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:29.818243+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: taxonomy-20260505-0
summary:
Two of the predominant types of relationships in knowledge-representation systems are predication and the universally quantified conditional. Predication relationships express the notion that an individual entity is an example of a certain type (for example, John is a bachelor), while universally quantified conditionals express the notion that a type is a subtype of another type (for example, "A dog is a mammal", which means the same as "All dogs are mammals"). The "has-a" relationship is quite different: an elephant has a trunk; a trunk is a part, not a subtype of elephant. The study of part-whole relationships is mereology. Taxonomies are often represented as is-a hierarchies where each level is more specific than the level above it (in mathematical language is "a subset of" the level above). For example, a basic biology taxonomy would have concepts such as mammal, which is a subset of animal, and dogs and cats, which are subsets of mammal. This kind of taxonomy is called an is-a model because the specific objects are considered as instances of a concept. For example, Fido is-an instance of the concept dog and Fluffy is-a cat. In linguistics, is-a relations are called hyponymy. When one word describes a category,


id: taxonomy-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy-3.md
category: reference
title: Taxonomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:29.818243+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: taxonomy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Logical and rationalist approaches === Logical division, or logical partitioning (top-down classification or downward classification) is an approach that divides a class into subclasses and then divide subclasses into their subclasses, and so on, which finally forms a tree of classes. The root of the tree is the original class, and the leaves of the tree are the final classes. Plato advocated a method based on dichotomy, which was rejected by Aristotle and replaced by the method of definitions based on genus, species, and specific difference. The method of facet analysis (cf., faceted classification) is primarily based on logical division. This approach tends to classify according to "essential" characteristics, a widely discussed and criticized concept (cf., essentialism). These methods may overall be related to the rationalist theory of knowledge. Michelle Bunn notes that logical partitioning uses categories which are established a priori; data is then collected and used to test the extent to which the classification system can be sustained. === Empiricist approaches === "Empiricism alone is not enough: a healthy advance in taxonomy depends on a sound theoretical foundation" Phenetics or numerical taxonomy is by contrast bottom-up classification, where the starting point is a set of items or


id: taxonomy-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy-4.md
category: reference
title: Taxonomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:29.818243+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: taxonomy-20260505-0
summary:
John Stuart Mill explained the artificial nature of the Linnaean classification and suggested the following definition of a natural classification:"The Linnæan arrangement answers the purpose of making us think together of all those kinds of plants, which possess the same number of stamens and pistils; but to think of them in that manner is of little use, since we seldom have anything to affirm in common of the plants which have a given number of stamens and pistils.""The ends of scientific classification are best answered, when the objects are formed into groups respecting which a greater number of general propositions can be made, and those propositions more important, than could be made respecting any other groups into which the same things could be distributed." "A classification thus formed is properly scientific or philosophical, and is commonly called a Natural, in contradistinction to a Technical or Artificial, classification or arrangement."Ridley (1986) provided the following definitions: "artificial classification. The term (like its opposite, natural classification) has many meanings; in this book I have picked a phenetic meaning. A classificatory group will be defined by certain characters, called defining characters; in an artificial classification, the members of a group resemble one another in


id: taxonomy-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy-5.md
category: reference
title: Taxonomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:29.818243+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: taxonomy-20260505-0
summary:
Idiophones: instruments that rely on the body of the instrument to create and resonate sound. Membranophones: instruments that have a membrane that is stretched over a structure, often wood or metal, and struck or rubbed to produce a sound. The subcategories are largely determined by the shape of the structure that the membrane is stretched over. Chordophone: Instruments that use vibrating strings, which are most commonly stretched across a metal or wooden structure, to create sound. Aerophones Instruments that require air passing through, or across, them to create sound. Most commonly constructed of wood or metal. A fifth top category, Electrophones: Instruments that require electricity to be amplified and heard. This group was added by Sachs in 1940. Each top category is subdivided and Hornbostel-Sachs is a very comprehensive classification of musical instruments with wide applications. In Wikipedia, for example, all musical instruments are organized according to this classification. In opposition to, for example, the astronomical and biological classifications presented above, the Hornbostel-Sachs classification seems very little influenced by research in musicology and organology. It is based on huge collections of musical instruments, but seems rather as a system imposed upon the universe of instruments than as a system with


id: anatomical-terms-of-bone-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_bone-0.md
category: reference
title: Anatomical terms of bone
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_bone
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:32.882162+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anatomical-terms-of-bone-20260505-0
summary:
Many anatomical terms descriptive of bone are defined in anatomical terminology, and are often derived from Greek and Latin. Bone in the human body is categorized into long bone, short bone, flat bone, irregular bone and sesamoid bone. == Types of bone == === Long bones === A long bone is one that is cylindrical in shape, being longer than it is wide. However, the term describes the shape of a bone, not its size, which is relative. Long bones are found in the arms (humerus, ulna, radius) and legs (femur, tibia, fibula), as well as in the fingers (metacarpals, phalanges) and toes (metatarsals, phalanges). Long bones function as levers; they move when muscles contract. === Short bones === A short bone is one that is cube-like in shape, being approximately equal in length, width, and thickness. The only short bones in the human skeleton are in the carpals of the wrists and the tarsals of the ankles. Short bones provide stability and support as well as some limited motion. === Flat bones === The term “flat bone” is something of a misnomer because, although a flat bone is typically thin, it is also often curved. Examples include the cranial


id: anatomical-terms-of-bone-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_bone-1.md
category: reference
title: Anatomical terms of bone
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_bone
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:32.882162+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anatomical-terms-of-bone-20260505-0
summary:
=== Walls === The following terms are used to describe the walls of a cavity: A labyrinth refers to the bony labyrinth and membranous labyrinth, components of the inner ear, due to their fine and complex structure. A sinus refers to a bony cavity, usually within the skull. == Joints == A joint, or articulation is the region where adjacent bones contact each other, for example the elbow, shoulder, or costovertebral joint. Terms that refer to joints include: articular process, referring to a projection that contacts an adjacent bone. suture, referring to an articulation between cranial bones. == Features of long bones == === Gross features === Bones are commonly described with the terms head, neck, shaft, body and base. The head of a bone usually refers to the proximal end of a long bone, but also refers to the distal end of metacarpals, metatarsals, and the ulna. The shaft refers to the elongated sections of long bone, and the neck the segment between the head and shaft (or body). The end of the long bone opposite to the head is known as the base. === Internal regions === === Internal and external === The cortex of a bone is


id: anatomical-terms-of-microanatomy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_microanatomy-0.md
category: reference
title: Anatomical terms of microanatomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_microanatomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:34.068800+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anatomical-terms-of-microanatomy-20260505-0
summary:
A histological scope of anatomical terminology describes structure, layout and position more precisely and mitigates ambiguity. An internationally accepted lexicon is Terminologia Histologica. == Layout == === Epithelia and endothelia === Epithelial cells line body surfaces, and are described according to their shape, with three principal shapes: squamous, columnar, and cuboidal. Squamous epithelium has cells that are wider than their height (flat and scale-like). Cuboidal epithelium has cells whose height and width are approximately the same (cube shaped). Columnar epithelium has cells taller than they are wide (column-shaped). Endothelium refers to cells that line the interior surface of blood vessels and lymphatic vessels, forming an interface between circulating blood or lymph in the lumen and the rest of the vessel wall. It is a thin layer of simple, or single-layered, squamous cells called endothelial cells. Endothelial cells in direct contact with blood are called vascular endothelial cells, whereas those in direct contact with lymph are known as lymphatic endothelial cells. Epithelium can be arranged in a single layer of cells described as "simple", or more than one layer, described as "stratified". By layer, epithelium is classed as either simple epithelium, only one cell thick (unilayered) or stratified epithelium as stratified


id: anatomical-terms-of-muscle-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_muscle-0.md
category: reference
title: Anatomical terms of muscle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_muscle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:35.226075+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anatomical-terms-of-muscle-20260505-0
summary:
Anatomical terminology is used to uniquely describe aspects of skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle such as their actions, structure, size, and location. == Types == There are three types of muscle tissue in the body: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac. === Skeletal muscle === Skeletal muscle, or "voluntary muscle", is a striated muscle tissue that primarily joins to bone with tendons. Skeletal muscle enables movement of bones, and maintains posture. The widest part of a muscle that pulls on the tendons is known as the belly. ==== Muscle slip ==== A muscle slip is a slip of muscle that can either be an anatomical variant, or a branching of a muscle as in rib connections of the serratus anterior muscle. === Smooth muscle === Smooth muscle is involuntary and found in parts of the body where it conveys action without conscious intent. The majority of this type of muscle tissue is found in the digestive and urinary systems where it acts by propelling forward food, chyme, and feces in the former and urine in the latter. Other places smooth muscle can be found are within the uterus, where it helps facilitate birth, and the eye, where the pupillary sphincter


id: anatomical-terms-of-muscle-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_muscle-1.md
category: reference
title: Anatomical terms of muscle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_muscle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:13:35.226075+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anatomical-terms-of-muscle-20260505-0
summary:
Synergist muscles also called fixators, act around a joint to help the action of an agonist muscle. Synergist muscles can also act to counter or neutralize the force of an agonist and are also known as neutralizers when they do this. As neutralizers they help to cancel out or neutralize extra motion produced from the agonists to ensure that the force generated works within the desired plane of motion. Muscle fibers can only contract up to 40% of their fully stretched length. Thus the short fibers of pennate muscles are more suitable where power rather than range of contraction is required. This limitation in the range of contraction affects all muscles, and those that act over several joints may be unable to shorten sufficiently to produce the full range of movement at all of them simultaneously (active insufficiency, e.g., the fingers cannot be fully flexed when the wrist is also flexed). Likewise, the opposing muscles may be unable to stretch sufficiently to allow such movement to take place (passive insufficiency). For both these reasons, it is often essential to use other synergists, in this type of action to fix certain of the joints so that others can be moved effectively,


