# kb

id: history-of-geography-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_geography-6.md
category: reference
title: History of geography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_geography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:48.474424+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-geography-20260505-0
summary:
== Early modern period == Following the journeys of Marco Polo, interest in geography spread throughout Europe. From around c. 1400, the writings of Ptolemy and his successors provided a systematic framework to tie together and portray geographical information. This framework was used by academics for centuries to come, the positives being the lead-up to the geographical enlightenment, however, women and indigenous writings were largely excluded from the discourse. The European global conquests started in the early 15th century with the first Portuguese expeditions to Africa and India, as well as the conquest of America by Spain in 1492 and continued with a series of European naval expeditions across the Atlantic and later the Pacific and Russian expeditions to Siberia until the 18th century. European overseas expansion led to the rise of colonial empires, with the contact between the "Old" and "New World"s producing the Columbian Exchange: a wide transfer of plants, animals, foods, human populations (including slaves), communicable diseases and culture between the continents. These colonialist endeavours in 16th and 17th centuries revived a desire for both "accurate" geographic detail, and more solid theoretical foundations. The Geographia Generalis by Bernhardus Varenius, which was used in Newton's teaching of geography


id: history-of-geography-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_geography-7.md
category: reference
title: History of geography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_geography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:48.474424+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-geography-20260505-0
summary:
Geography as a science experiences excitement and exerts influence during the Scientific Revolution and Reformation. In the Victorian period, the oversea exploration gave it institutional identity and geography was "the science of imperialism par excellence."Imperialism is a crucial concept for the Europeans, as the institution become involved in geographical exploration and colonial project. Authority was questioned, and utility gained its importance. In the era of Enlightenment, geography generated knowledge and made it intellectually and practically possible as a university discipline. The natural theology required geography to investigate the world as a grand machine from the Divine. Scientific voyages and travels constructed geopolitical power from geographical knowledge, partly sponsored by Royal Society. The discourse of geographical history gave way to many new thoughts and theories, but the hegemony of the European male academia led to the exclusion of non-western theories, observations and knowledges. One such example is the interaction between humans and nature, with Marxist thought critiquing nature as a commodity within Capitalism, European thought seeing nature as either a romanticised or objective concept differing to human society, and Native American discourse, which saw nature and humans as within one category. The implied hierarchy of knowledge that perpetuated throughout these institutions


id: history-of-geography-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_geography-8.md
category: reference
title: History of geography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_geography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:48.474424+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-geography-20260505-0
summary:
Humboldt and Ritter are both regarded as the founders of modern geography as they later established it as an independent scientific discipline. Humboldt is admired as a great geographer, according to D. Livingstone that "modern geography was first and last a synthesizing science and as such, if Goetzmann is to be believed, 'it became the key scientific activity of the age'." In 1789, Humboldt met the geographer George Forster in Mainz, before travelling with him through parts of Western Europe the following year. Forster's travel accounts and writings influenced Humboldt. His Geognosia including the geography of rocks, animals, and plants is "an important model for modern geography". As a Prussian mining officer, Humboldt founded the Free Royal Mining School at Steben for miners, later regarded the prototype of such institutes. German Naturphilosophie, especially the work of Goethe and Herder, stimulated Humboldt's idea and research of a universal science. In his letter, he made observations while his "attention will never lose sight of the harmony of concurrent forces, the influence of the inanimate world on the animal and vegetable kingdom." His American travel stressed the geography of plants as his focus of science. Meanwhile, Humboldt used empirical method to study the


id: history-of-geography-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_geography-9.md
category: reference
title: History of geography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_geography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:48.474424+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-geography-20260505-0
summary:
== 19th century == By the 18th century, geography had become recognized as a discrete discipline and became part of a typical university curriculum in Europe (especially Paris and Berlin), although not in the United Kingdom where geography was generally taught as a sub-discipline of other subjects. A holistic view of geography and nature can be seen in the work by the 19th-century polymath Alexander von Humboldt. One of the great works of this time was Humboldt's Kosmos: a sketch of a physical description of the Universe, the first volume of which was published in German in 1845. Such was the power of this work that Dr Mary Somerville, of Cambridge University intended to scrap publication of her own Physical Geography on reading Kosmos. Von Humboldt himself persuaded her to publish (after the publisher sent him a copy). In 1877, Thomas Henry Huxley published his Physiography with the philosophy of universality presented as an integrated approach in the study of the natural environment. The philosophy of universality in geography was not a new one but can be seen as evolving from the works of Alexander von Humboldt and Immanuel Kant. The publication of Huxley physiography presented a new form of


id: history-of-geography-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_geography-10.md
category: reference
title: History of geography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_geography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:48.474424+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-geography-20260505-0
summary:
The term critical geography has been in use since at least 1749, when the book Geography reformed: a new system of general geography, according to an Accurate Analysis of the science in four parts dedicated a chapter to the topic titled "of Critical Geography." This chapter described critical geography as an approach geographers take to build upon the work of others, and make corrections to their maps based on new information. In the 1970s, the term saw a resurgence as so called "radical geographers" took on the framework of critical theory and Marxist philosophy, using critical geography as an umbrella uniting various theoretical frameworks in geography, including Marxist geography and feminist geography. Critical geography re-emerged within the discipline in part as a radical critique of positivist approaches that gained popularity during the quantitative revolution. The first strain of critical geography to emerge was humanistic geography. Drawing on the philosophies of existentialism and phenomenology, humanistic geographers (such as Yi-Fu Tuan) focused on people's sense of, and relationship with, places. More influential was Marxist geography, which applied the social theories of Karl Marx and his followers to geographic phenomena. David Harvey, Milton Santos and Richard Peet are well-known Marxist geographers. Feminist geography


id: history-of-glass-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_glass-0.md
category: reference
title: History of glass
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_glass
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:49.696073+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-glass-20260505-0
summary:
The history of glass-making dates back to at least 3,600 years ago in Mesopotamia. However, most writers claim that they may have been producing copies of glass objects from Egypt. Other archaeological evidence suggests that the first true glass was made in coastal east Syria, Mesopotamia or Egypt. The earliest known glass objects, of the mid 2,000 BCE, were beads, perhaps initially created as the accidental by-products of metal-working (slags) or during the production of faience, a pre-glass vitreous material made by a process similar to glazing. Glass products remained a luxury until the disasters that overtook the late Bronze Age civilizations seemingly brought glass-making to a halt. Development of glass technology in India may have begun in 1,730 BCE. From across the former Roman Empire, archaeologists have recovered glass objects that were used in domestic, industrial and funerary contexts. Anglo-Saxon glass has been found across England during archaeological excavations of both settlement and cemetery sites. Glass in the Anglo-Saxon period was used in the manufacture of a range of objects, including vessels, beads, windows, and was even used in jewellery. == Origins == Naturally occurring glass, especially the volcanic glass obsidian, has been used by many Stone Age societies


id: history-of-glass-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_glass-1.md
category: reference
title: History of glass
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_glass
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:49.696073+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-glass-20260505-0
summary:
The tradition is that a merchant ship laden with nitrum being moored at this place, the merchants were preparing their meal on the beach, and not having stones to prop up their pots, they used lumps of nitrum from the ship, which fused and mixed with the sands of the shore, and there flowed streams of a new translucent liquid, and thus was the origin of glass. This account is more a reflection of Roman experience of glass production, however, as white silica sand from this area was used in the production of glass within the Roman Empire due to its high purity levels. During the 1st century BCE, glass blowing was discovered on the Syro-Judean coast, revolutionizing the industry. The first evidence of the invention of glassblowing was found in the Jewish Quarter of Jerusalem, in a layer of fill inside a ritual bath that was overlain with the paving stones of the Herodian street. Several other site of producing "Judean Glass" were found in Galilee. Glass vessels were now inexpensive compared to pottery vessels. Growth of the use of glass products occurred throughout the Roman world. Glass became the Roman plastic, and glass containers produced in Alexandria spread


id: history-of-glass-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_glass-2.md
category: reference
title: History of glass
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_glass
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:49.696073+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-glass-20260505-0
summary:
In China, glass played a peripheral role in arts and crafts when compared to ceramics and metal work. The earliest glass items in China come from the Warring States period (475–221 BCE), although they are rare in number and limited in archaeological distribution. Glassmaking developed later in China compared to cultures in Mesopotamia, Egypt and India. Imported glass objects first reached China during the late Spring and Autumn period (early 5th century BCE), in the form of polychrome eye beads. These imports created the impetus for the production of indigenous glass beads. During the Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), the use of glass diversified. The introduction of glass casting in this period encouraged the production of moulded objects, such as bi disks and other ritual objects. Chinese glass objects from the Warring States and Han period vary greatly in chemical composition from the imported glass objects. The glasses from this period contain high levels of barium oxide and lead, distinguishing them from the soda–lime–silica glasses of Western Asia and Mesopotamia. At the end of the Han Dynasty (AD 220), the lead-barium glass tradition declined, with glass production only resuming during the 4th and 5th centuries AD. Literary sources also mention


id: history-of-glass-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_glass-3.md
category: reference
title: History of glass
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_glass
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:49.696073+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-glass-20260505-0
summary:
Anglo-Saxon glass has been found across England during archaeological excavations of both settlement and cemetery sites. Glass in the Anglo-Saxon period was used in the manufacture of a range of objects including vessels, beads, windows and was even used in jewelry. In the 5th century AD with the Roman departure from Britain, there were also considerable changes in the usage of glass. Excavation of Romano-British sites has revealed plentiful amounts of glass but, in contrast, the amount recovered from the 5th century and later Anglo-Saxon sites is minuscule. The majority of complete vessels and assemblages of beads come from the excavations of early Anglo-Saxon cemeteries, but a change in burial rites in the late 7th century affected the recovery of glass, as Christian Anglo-Saxons were buried with fewer grave goods, and glass is rarely found. From the late 7th century onwards, window glass is found more frequently. This is directly related to the introduction of Christianity and the construction of churches and monasteries. There are a few Anglo-Saxon ecclesiastical literary sources that mention the production and use of glass, although these relate to window glass used in ecclesiastical buildings. Glass was also used by the Anglo-Saxons in their jewelry, both


id: history-of-glass-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_glass-4.md
category: reference
title: History of glass
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_glass
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:49.696073+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-glass-20260505-0
summary:
The use of glass as a building material was heralded by The Crystal Palace of 1851, built by Joseph Paxton to house the Great Exhibition. Paxton's revolutionary new building inspired the public use of glass as a material for domestic and horticultural architecture. In 1832, the British Crown Glass Company (later Chance Brothers) became the first company to adopt the cylinder method to produce sheet glass with the expertise of Georges Bontemps, a famous French glassmaker. This glass was produced by blowing long cylinders of glass, which were then cut along the length and then flattened onto a cast-iron table, before being annealed. Plate glass involves the glass being ladled onto a cast-iron bed, where it is rolled into a sheet with an iron roller. The sheet, still soft, is pushed into the open mouth of an annealing tunnel or temperature-controlled oven called a lehr, down which it was carried by a system of rollers. James Hartley introduced the Rolled Plate method in 1847. This allowed a ribbed finish and was often used for extensive glass roofs such as within railway stations. An early advance in automating glass manufacturing was patented in 1821 by Henry Ricketts and in 1848 by


id: history-of-information-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_information_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: History of information theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_information_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:50.907833+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-information-theory-20260505-0
summary:
The study of information theory began with the publication of Claude E. Shannon's classic paper "A Mathematical Theory of Communication" in the Bell System Technical Journal in July and October 1948, although Shannon had substantially completed the paper at Bell Labs by the end of 1944, Shannon introduced the qualitative and quantitative model of communication as a statistical process, opening with the assertion that "The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point, either exactly or approximately, a message selected at another point." With it came the ideas of the information entropy and redundancy of a source, and its relevance through the source coding theorem; the mutual information, and the channel capacity of a noisy channel, including the promise of perfect loss-free communication given by the noisy-channel coding theorem; the practical result of the Shannon–Hartley law for the channel capacity of a Gaussian channel; and of course the bit - a new way of seeing the most fundamental unit of information. == Before 1948 == === Early telecommunications === Some of the oldest methods of telecommunications implicitly used some of the ideas that were later formalized by Shannon in the development of information theory. In telegraphy, starting


id: history-of-information-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_information_theory-1.md
category: reference
title: History of information theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_information_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:50.907833+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-information-theory-20260505-0
summary:
This (Gibbs) entropy, from statistical mechanics, can be found to directly correspond to the Clausius's classical thermodynamic definition. Shannon himself was apparently not particularly aware of the close similarity between his new measure and earlier work in thermodynamics, but John von Neumann was. It is said that, when Shannon was deciding what to call his new measure and fearing the term 'information' was already over-used, von Neumann told him firmly: "You should call it entropy, for two reasons. In the first place your uncertainty function has been used in statistical mechanics under that name, so it already has a name. In the second place, and more important, no one really knows what entropy really is, so in a debate you will always have the advantage." (Connections between information-theoretic entropy and thermodynamic entropy, including the important contributions by Rolf Landauer in the 1960s, are explored further in the article Entropy in thermodynamics and information theory). == Development since 1948 == The publication of Shannon's 1948 paper, "A Mathematical Theory of Communication", in the Bell System Technical Journal was the founding of information theory as we know it today. Many developments and applications of the theory have taken place since then, which


id: legal-history-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_history-0.md
category: reference
title: Legal history
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_history
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:52.199055+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: legal-history-20260505-0
summary:
Legal history or the history of law is the study of how law has evolved and why it has changed. Legal history is closely connected to the development of civilizations and operates in the wider context of social history. Certain jurists and historians of legal process have seen legal history as the recording of the evolution of laws and the technical explanation of how these laws have evolved, with the view of better understanding the origins of various legal concepts; some consider legal history a branch of intellectual history. Twentieth-century historians viewed legal history in a more contextualised manner – more in line with the thinking of social historians. They have looked at legal institutions as complex systems of rules, players and symbols and have seen these elements interact with society to change, adapt, resist or promote certain aspects of civil society. Such legal historians have tended to analyze case histories through the lens of social-science inquiry, using statistical methods to analyse class distinctions among litigants, petitioners, and other players in various legal processes. By analyzing case outcomes, transaction costs, and the number of settled cases, they have begun examining legal institutions, practices, procedures, and briefs, offering a more nuanced


id: legal-history-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_history-1.md
category: reference
title: Legal history
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_history
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:52.199055+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: legal-history-20260505-0
summary:
One of the major legal systems developed during the Middle Ages was Islamic law and jurisprudence. Some important legal institutions were developed by Islamic jurists during the classical period of Islamic law and jurisprudence. One such institution was the Hawala, an early informal value transfer system mentioned in texts of Islamic jurisprudence as early as the 8th century. Hawala itself later influenced the development of the Aval in French civil law and the Avallo in Italian law. == European laws == === Roman Empire === Roman law was heavily influenced by Greek teachings. It forms the bridge to the modern legal world, over the centuries between the rise and decline of the Roman Empire. Roman law, in the days of the Roman Republic and Empire, was heavily procedural, and there was no professional legal class. Instead a lay person, iudex, was chosen to adjudicate. Precedents were not reported, so any case law that developed was disguised and almost unrecognised. Each case was to be decided afresh from the laws of the state, which mirrors the (theoretical) unimportance of judges' decisions for future cases in civil law systems today. During the 6th century AD in the Eastern Roman Empire, the Emperor


id: legal-history-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_history-2.md
category: reference
title: Legal history
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_history
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:52.199055+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: legal-history-20260505-0
summary:
The African law system is based on common law and civilian law. Many legal systems in Africa were based on ethnic customs and traditions before colonization took over their original system. The people listened to their elders and relied on them as mediators during disputes. Several states didn't keep written records, as their laws were often passed orally. In the Mali Empire, the Kouroukan Fouga was proclaimed in 1222–1236 AD as the state's official constitution. It defined regulations in both constitutional and civil matters. The provisions of the constitution are still transmitted to this day by griots under oath. During colonization, authorities in Africa developed an official legal system called the Native Courts. After colonialism, the major faiths that stayed were Buddhism, Hinduism, and Judaism. == United States == The United States legal system developed primarily from the English common law system (except for the state of Louisiana, which continued to follow the French civil law system after being admitted to statehood). Some concepts from Spanish law, such as the prior appropriation doctrine and community property, persist in some US states, particularly those that were part of the Mexican Cession in 1848. Under the doctrine of federalism, each state has


id: history-of-linguistics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_linguistics-0.md
category: reference
title: History of linguistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_linguistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:53.401614+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-linguistics-20260505-0
summary:
Linguistics is the scientific study of language, involving analysis of language form, language meaning, and language in context. Language use was first systematically documented in Mesopotamia, with extant lexical lists of the 3rd to the 2nd Millennia BCE, offering glossaries on Sumerian cuneiform usage and meaning, and phonetical vocabularies of foreign languages. Later, Sanskrit would be systematically analysed, and its rules described, by Pāṇini (fl. 6-4th century BCE), in the Indus Valley. Beginning around the 4th century BCE, Warring States period China also developed its own grammatical traditions. Aristotle laid the foundation of Western linguistics as part of the study of rhetoric in his Poetics c. 335 BC. Traditions of Arabic grammar and Hebrew grammar developed during the Middle Ages in a religious context like Pānini's Sanskrit grammar. Modern approaches began to develop in the 18th century, eventually being regarded in the 19th century as belonging to the disciplines of psychology or biology, with such views establishing the foundation of mainstream Anglo-American linguistics, although in England philological approaches such as that of Henry Sweet tended to predominate. This was contested in the early 20th century by Ferdinand de Saussure, who established linguistics as an autonomous discipline within social sciences. Following


id: history-of-linguistics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_linguistics-1.md
category: reference
title: History of linguistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_linguistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:53.401614+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-linguistics-20260505-0
summary:
Map the semantics of verb argument structures into thematic roles Provide morphosyntactic rules for creating verb forms and nominal forms whose seven cases are called karaka (similar to case) that generate the morphology Take these morphological structures and consider phonological processes (e.g., root or stem modification) by which the final phonological form is obtained In addition, the Pāṇinian school also provides a list of 2000 verb roots which form the objects on which these rules are applied, a list of sounds (the so-called Shiva-sutras), and a list of 260 words not derivable by the rules. The extremely succinct specification of these rules and their complex interactions led to considerable commentary and extrapolation over the following centuries. The phonological structure includes defining a notion of sound universals similar to the modern phoneme, the systematization of consonants based on oral cavity constriction, and vowels based on height and duration. However, it is the ambition of mapping these from morpheme to semantics that is truly remarkable in modern terms. Grammarians following Pāṇini include Kātyāyana (c. 3rd century BCE), who wrote aphorisms on Pāṇini (the Varttika) and advanced mathematics; Patañjali (2nd century BCE), known for his commentary on selected topics in Pāṇini's grammar (the


id: history-of-linguistics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_linguistics-2.md
category: reference
title: History of linguistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_linguistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:53.401614+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-linguistics-20260505-0
summary:
Either simple, without composition or structure, such as "man," "horse," "fights," etc. Or having composition and structure, such as "a man fights," "the horse runs," etc. Next, he distinguishes between a subject of predication, namely that of which anything is affirmed or denied, and a subject of inhesion. A thing is said to be inherent in a subject, when, though it is not a part of the subject, it cannot possibly exist without the subject, e.g., shape in a thing having a shape. The categories are not abstract platonic entities but are found in speech, these are substance, quantity, quality, relation, place, time, position, state, action and affection. In de Interpretatione, Aristotle analyzes categoric propositions, and draws a series of basic conclusions on the routine issues of classifying and defining basic linguistic forms, such as simple terms and propositions, nouns and verbs, negation, the quantity of simple propositions (primitive roots of the quantifiers in modern symbolic logic), investigations on the excluded middle (which to Aristotle isn't applicable to future tense propositions — the Problem of future contingents), and on modal propositions. The Stoics made linguistics an important part of their system of the cosmos and the human. They played an


id: history-of-linguistics-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_linguistics-3.md
category: reference
title: History of linguistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_linguistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:53.401614+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-linguistics-20260505-0
summary:
=== China === Similar to the Indian tradition, Chinese philology (小學; xiǎoxué; 'elementary studies') emerged as an aid to understanding the Chinese classics c. the 3rd century BCE, during the Western Han dynasty. Philology came to be divided into three branches: exegesis (訓詁; xùngǔ), grammatology (文字; wénzì) and phonology (音韻; yīnyùn). The field reached its golden age in the 17th century, during the Qing dynasty. The Erya (c. 3rd century BCE), comparable to the Indian Nighantu, is regarded as the first linguistic work in China. Shuowen Jiezi (c. 100 CE), the first Chinese dictionary, classifies Chinese characters by radicals, a practice that would be followed by most subsequent lexicographers. Two more pioneering works produced during the Han dynasty are Fangyan, the first Chinese work concerning dialects, and Shiming, devoted to etymology. As in ancient Greece, early Chinese thinkers were concerned with the relationship between names and reality. Confucius (c. 551 – c. 479 BCE) famously emphasized the moral commitment implicit in a name, (zhengming) stating that the moral collapse of the pre-Qin was a result of the failure to rectify behaviour to meet the moral commitment inherent in names: "Good government consists in the ruler being a ruler, the minister


id: history-of-linguistics-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_linguistics-4.md
category: reference
title: History of linguistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_linguistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:53.401614+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-linguistics-20260505-0
summary:
=== European vernaculars === The Irish Sanas Cormaic 'Cormac's Glossary' (10th century) is Europe's first etymological and encyclopedic dictionary in any non-Classical language. The Auraicept na n-Éces, compiled over the course of several centuries — possibly starting as early as in the 8th century — is a treatise on that same language and the first instance of a philosophical defence of a spoken European vernacular over Latin. A milestone in the early history of Germanic linguistics, the First Grammatical Treatise (12th century) offers a wealth of information on Old Norse lexicon, grammar and phonology. In the 13th century, the Modistae or "speculative grammarians" introduced the notion of universal grammar. In the treatise De vulgari eloquentia ("On the Eloquence of Vernacular"), dating to 1303-1305, the Italian poet Dante presented a theory of language and discussed the origin of languages after the confusion of tongues following the events of the Tower of Babel. By recognizing the instrinsically human nature of language, Dante first recognized that — like customs and traditions — languages are bound to evolve over time and to differentiate in space giving birth to dialects. He argued that the wave of human populations migrating westward to Europe after the confusion


id: history-of-linguistics-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_linguistics-5.md
category: reference
title: History of linguistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_linguistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:53.401614+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-linguistics-20260505-0
summary:
In Europe there was a development of structural linguistics, initiated by Ferdinand de Saussure, a Swiss professor of Indo-European and general linguistics, whose lectures on general linguistics, published posthumously by his students, set the direction of European linguistic analysis from the 1920s on; his approach has been widely adopted in other fields under the broad term "Structuralism". By the 20th century, the attention shifted from language change to the structure, which is governed by rules and principles. This structure turned more into grammar and by the 1920s structural linguistic, was developing into sophisticated methods of grammatical analysis. === Descriptive linguistics === During the second World War, North American linguists Leonard Bloomfield, William Mandeville Austin and several of his students and colleagues developed teaching materials for a variety of languages whose knowledge was needed for the war effort. This work led to an increasing prominence of the field of linguistics, which became a recognized discipline in most American universities only after the war. In 1965, William Stokoe, Carl G. Croneberg, and Dorothy C. Casterline linguists from Gallaudet University published an analysis which proved that American Sign Language fits the criteria for a natural language. === Generative linguistics === Generative linguistics focuses


id: history-of-logic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_logic-0.md
category: reference
title: History of logic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_logic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:54.611600+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-logic-20260505-0
summary:
The history of logic deals with the study of the development of the science of valid inference (logic). Formal logics developed in ancient times in India, China, and Greece. Greek methods, particularly Aristotelian logic (or term logic) as found in the Organon, found wide application and acceptance in Western science and mathematics for millennia. The Stoics, especially Chrysippus, began the development of predicate logic. Christian and Islamic philosophers such as Boethius (died 524), Avicenna (died 1037), Thomas Aquinas (died 1274) and William of Ockham (died 1347) further developed Aristotle's logic in the Middle Ages, reaching a high point in the mid-fourteenth century, with Jean Buridan. The period between the fourteenth century and the beginning of the nineteenth century saw largely decline and neglect, and at least one historian of logic regards this time as barren. Empirical methods ruled the day, as evidenced by Sir Francis Bacon's Novum Organon of 1620. Logic revived in the mid-nineteenth century, at the beginning of a revolutionary period when the subject developed into a rigorous and formal discipline which took as its exemplar the exact method of proof used in mathematics, a hearkening back to the Greek tradition. The development of the modern "symbolic" or


id: history-of-logic-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_logic-1.md
category: reference
title: History of logic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_logic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:54.611600+00:00
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parent: history-of-logic-20260505-0
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=== Dignaga === However, Dignāga (c 480–540 AD) is sometimes said to have developed a formal syllogism, and it was through him and his successor, Dharmakirti, that Buddhist logic reached its height; it is contested whether their analysis actually constitutes a formal syllogistic system. In particular, their analysis centered on the definition of an inference-warranting relation, "vyapti", also known as invariable concomitance or pervasion. To this end, a doctrine known as "apoha" or differentiation was developed. This involved what might be called inclusion and exclusion of defining properties. Dignāga's famous "wheel of reason" (Hetucakra) is a method of indicating when one thing (such as smoke) can be taken as an invariable sign of another thing (like fire), but the inference is often inductive and based on past observation. Matilal remarks that Dignāga's analysis is much like John Stuart Mill's Joint Method of Agreement and Difference, which is inductive. == Logic in China == In China, a contemporary of Confucius, Mozi, "Master Mo", is credited with founding the Mohist school, whose canons dealt with issues relating to valid inference and the conditions of correct conclusions. In particular, one of the schools that grew out of Mohism, the Logicians, are credited by


id: history-of-logic-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_logic-2.md
category: reference
title: History of logic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_logic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:54.611600+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-logic-20260505-0
summary:
In contrast to Heraclitus, Parmenides held that all is one and nothing changes. He may have been a dissident Pythagorean, disagreeing that One (a number) produced the many. "X is not" must always be false or meaningless. What exists can in no way not exist. Our sense perceptions with its noticing of generation and destruction are in grievous error. Instead of sense perception, Parmenides advocated logos as the means to Truth. He has been called the discoverer of logic, For this view, that That Which Is Not exists, can never predominate. You must debar your thought from this way of search, nor let ordinary experience in its variety force you along this way, (namely, that of allowing) the eye, sightless as it is, and the ear, full of sound, and the tongue, to rule; but (you must) judge by means of the Reason (Logos) the much-contested proof which is expounded by me. Zeno of Elea, a pupil of Parmenides, had the idea of a standard argument pattern found in the method of proof known as reductio ad absurdum. This is the technique of drawing an obviously false (that is, "absurd") conclusion from an assumption, thus demonstrating that the assumption is


id: history-of-logic-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_logic-3.md
category: reference
title: History of logic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_logic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:54.611600+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-logic-20260505-0
summary:
The Stoics adopted the Megarian logic and systemized it. The most important member of the school was Chrysippus (c. 278 – c. 206 BC), who was its third head, and who formalized much of Stoic doctrine. He is supposed to have written over 700 works, including at least 300 on logic, almost none of which survive. Unlike with Aristotle, we have no complete works by the Megarians or the early Stoics, and have to rely mostly on accounts (sometimes hostile) by later sources, including prominently Diogenes Laërtius, Sextus Empiricus, Galen, Aulus Gellius, Alexander of Aphrodisias, and Cicero. Three significant contributions of the Stoic school were (i) their account of modality, (ii) their theory of the Material conditional, and (iii) their account of meaning and truth. Modality. According to Aristotle, the Megarians of his day claimed there was no distinction between potentiality and actuality. Diodorus Cronus defined the possible as that which either is or will be, the impossible as what will not be true, and the contingent as that which either is already, or will be false. Diodorus is also famous for what is known as his Master argument, which states that each pair of the following 3 propositions contradicts


id: history-of-logic-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_logic-4.md
category: reference
title: History of logic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_logic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:54.611600+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-logic-20260505-0
summary:
The works of Al-Kindi, Al-Farabi, Avicenna, Al-Ghazali, Averroes and other Muslim logicians were based on Aristotelian logic and were important in communicating the ideas of the ancient world to the medieval West. Al-Farabi (Alfarabi) (873–950) was an Aristotelian logician who discussed the topics of future contingents, the number and relation of the categories, the relation between logic and grammar, and non-Aristotelian forms of inference. Al-Farabi also considered the theories of conditional syllogisms and analogical inference, which were part of the Stoic tradition of logic rather than the Aristotelian. Maimonides (1138-1204) wrote a Treatise on Logic (Arabic: Maqala Fi-Sinat Al-Mantiq), referring to Al-Farabi as the "second master", the first being Aristotle. Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (980–1037) was the founder of Avicennian logic, which replaced Aristotelian logic as the dominant system of logic in the Islamic world, and also had an important influence on Western medieval writers such as Albertus Magnus. Avicenna wrote on the hypothetical syllogism and on the propositional calculus, which were both part of the Stoic logical tradition. He developed an original "temporally modalized" syllogistic theory, involving temporal logic and modal logic. He also made use of inductive logic, such as the methods of agreement, difference, and concomitant variation which


id: history-of-logic-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_logic-5.md
category: reference
title: History of logic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_logic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:54.611600+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-logic-20260505-0
summary:
The theory of supposition. Supposition theory deals with the way that predicates (e.g., 'man') range over a domain of individuals (e.g., all men). In the proposition 'every man is an animal', does the term 'man' range over or 'supposit for' men existing just in the present, or does the range include past and future men? Can a term supposit for a non-existing individual? Some medievalists have argued that this idea is a precursor of modern first-order logic. "The theory of supposition with the associated theories of copulatio (sign-capacity of adjectival terms), ampliatio (widening of referential domain), and distributio constitute one of the most original achievements of Western medieval logic". The theory of syncategoremata. Syncategoremata are terms which are necessary for logic, but which, unlike categorematic terms, do not signify on their own behalf, but 'co-signify' with other words. Examples of syncategoremata are 'and', 'not', 'every', 'if', and so on. The theory of consequences. A consequence is a hypothetical, conditional proposition: two propositions joined by the terms 'if ... then'. For example, 'if a man runs, then God exists' (Si homo currit, Deus est). A fully developed theory of consequences is given in Book III of William of Ockham's work Summa


id: history-of-logic-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_logic-6.md
category: reference
title: History of logic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_logic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:54.611600+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-logic-20260505-0
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=== Logic and psychology === Between the work of Mill and Frege stretched half a century during which logic was widely treated as a descriptive science, an empirical study of the structure of reasoning, and thus essentially as a branch of psychology. The German psychologist Wilhelm Wundt, for example, discussed deriving "the logical from the psychological laws of thought", emphasizing that "psychological thinking is always the more comprehensive form of thinking." This view was widespread among German philosophers of the period: Theodor Lipps described logic as "a specific discipline of psychology". Christoph von Sigwart understood logical necessity as grounded in the individual's compulsion to think in a certain way. Benno Erdmann argued that "logical laws only hold within the limits of our thinking". Such was the dominant view of logic in the years following Mill's work. This psychological approach to logic was rejected by Gottlob Frege. It was also subjected to an extended and destructive critique by Edmund Husserl in the first volume of his Logical Investigations (1900), an assault which has been described as "overwhelming". Husserl argued forcefully that grounding logic in psychological observations implied that all logical truths remained unproven, and that skepticism and relativism were unavoidable consequences.


id: history-of-logic-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_logic-7.md
category: reference
title: History of logic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_logic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:54.611600+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-logic-20260505-0
summary:
The idea that inference could be represented by a purely mechanical process is found as early as Raymond Llull, who proposed a (somewhat eccentric) method of drawing conclusions by a system of concentric rings. The work of logicians such as the Oxford Calculators led to a method of using letters instead of writing out logical calculations (calculationes) in words, a method used, for instance, in the Logica magna by Paul of Venice. Three hundred years after Llull, the English philosopher and logician Thomas Hobbes suggested that all logic and reasoning could be reduced to the mathematical operations of addition and subtraction. The same idea is found in the work of Leibniz, who had read both Llull and Hobbes, and who argued that logic can be represented through a combinatorial process or calculus. But, like Llull and Hobbes, he failed to develop a detailed or comprehensive system, and his work on this topic was not published until long after his death. Leibniz says that ordinary languages are subject to "countless ambiguities" and are unsuited for a calculus, whose task is to expose mistakes in inference arising from the forms and structures of words; hence, he proposed to identify an alphabet of


id: history-of-logic-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_logic-8.md
category: reference
title: History of logic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_logic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:54.611600+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-logic-20260505-0
summary:
The defects in Boole's system (such as the use of the letter v for existential propositions) were all remedied by his followers. Jevons published Pure Logic, or the Logic of Quality apart from Quantity in 1864, where he suggested a symbol to signify exclusive or, which allowed Boole's system to be greatly simplified. This was usefully exploited by Schröder when he set out theorems in parallel columns in his Vorlesungen (1890–1905). Peirce (1880) showed how all the Boolean elective functions could be expressed by the use of a single primitive binary operation, "neither ... nor ..." and equally well "not both ... and ...", however, like many of Peirce's innovations, this remained unknown or unnoticed until Sheffer rediscovered it in 1913. Boole's early work also lacks the idea of the logical sum which originates in Peirce (1867), Schröder (1877) and Jevons (1890), and the concept of inclusion, first suggested by Gergonne (1816) and clearly articulated by Peirce (1870). The success of Boole's algebraic system suggested that all logic must be capable of algebraic representation, and there were attempts to express a logic of relations in such form, of which the most ambitious was Schröder's monumental Vorlesungen über die Algebra der


id: history-of-logic-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_logic-9.md
category: reference
title: History of logic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_logic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:54.611600+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-logic-20260505-0
summary:
In English, "for all x, if Ax then Bx". Thus only singular propositions are of subject-predicate form, and they are irreducibly singular, i.e. not reducible to a general proposition. Universal and particular propositions, by contrast, are not of simple subject-predicate form at all. If "all mammals" were the logical subject of the sentence "all mammals are land-dwellers", then to negate the whole sentence we would have to negate the predicate to give "all mammals are not land-dwellers". But this is not the case. This functional analysis of ordinary-language sentences later had a great impact on philosophy and linguistics. This means that in Frege's calculus, Boole's "primary" propositions can be represented in a different way from "secondary" propositions. "All inhabitants are either men or women" is ∀ x ( I ( x ) → ( M ( x ) ∨ W ( x ) ) ) {\displaystyle \forall \;x{\Big (}I(x)\rightarrow {\big (}M(x)\lor W(x){\big )}{\Big )}} whereas "All the inhabitants are men or all the inhabitants are women" is ∀ x ( I ( x ) → M ( x ) ) ∨ ∀ x ( I ( x ) → W ( x ) ) {\displaystyle \forall \;x{\big (}I(x)\rightarrow M(x){\big )}\lor


id: history-of-logic-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_logic-10.md
category: reference
title: History of logic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_logic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:54.611600+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-logic-20260505-0
summary:
The names of Gödel and Tarski dominate the 1930s, a crucial period in the development of metamathematics—the study of mathematics using mathematical methods to produce metatheories, or mathematical theories about other mathematical theories. Early investigations into metamathematics had been driven by Hilbert's program. Work on metamathematics culminated in the work of Gödel, who in 1929 showed that a given first-order sentence is deducible if and only if it is logically valid—i.e. it is true in every structure for its language. This is known as Gödel's completeness theorem. A year later, he proved two important theorems, which showed Hibert's program to be unattainable in its original form. The first is that no consistent system of axioms whose theorems can be listed by an effective procedure such as an algorithm or computer program is capable of proving all facts about the natural numbers. For any such system, there will always be statements about the natural numbers that are true, but that are unprovable within the system. The second is that if such a system is also capable of proving certain basic facts about the natural numbers, then the system cannot prove the consistency of the system itself. These two results are known


id: history-of-logic-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_logic-11.md
category: reference
title: History of logic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_logic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:54.611600+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-logic-20260505-0
summary:
After World War II, mathematical logic branched into four inter-related but separate areas of research: model theory, proof theory, computability theory, and set theory. In set theory, the method of forcing revolutionized the field by providing a robust method for constructing models and obtaining independence results. Paul Cohen introduced this method in 1963 to prove the independence of the continuum hypothesis and the axiom of choice from Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory. His technique, which was simplified and extended soon after its introduction, has since been applied to many other problems in all areas of mathematical logic. Computability theory had its roots in the work of Turing, Church, Kleene, and Post in the 1930s and 40s. It developed into a study of abstract computability, which became known as recursion theory. The priority method, discovered independently by Albert Muchnik and Richard Friedberg in the 1950s, led to major advances in the understanding of the degrees of unsolvability and related structures. Research into higher-order computability theory demonstrated its connections to set theory. The fields of constructive analysis and computable analysis were developed to study the effective content of classical mathematical theorems; these in turn inspired the program of reverse mathematics. A separate branch of


id: history-of-logic-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_logic-12.md
category: reference
title: History of logic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_logic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:54.611600+00:00
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parent: history-of-logic-20260505-0
summary:
== References == Primary Sources Alexander of Aphrodisias, In Aristotelis An. Pr. Lib. I Commentarium, ed. Wallies, Berlin, C.I.A.G. vol. II/1, 1882. Avicenna, Avicennae Opera Venice 1508. Boethius Commentary on the Perihermenias, Secunda Editio, ed. Meiser, Leipzig, Teubner, 1880. Bolzano, Bernard Wissenschaftslehre, (1837) 4 Bde, Neudr., hrsg. W. Schultz, Leipzig I–II 1929, III 1930, IV 1931 (Theory of Science, four volumes, translated by Rolf George and Paul Rusnock, New York: Oxford University Press, 2014). Bolzano, Bernard Theory of Science (Edited, with an introduction, by Jan Berg. Translated from the German by Burnham Terrell – D. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht and Boston 1973). Boole, George (1847) The Mathematical Analysis of Logic (Cambridge and London); repr. in Studies in Logic and Probability, ed. R. Rhees (London 1952). Boole, George (1854) The Laws of Thought (London and Cambridge); repr. as Collected Logical Works. Vol. 2, (Chicago and London: Open Court, 1940). Epictetus, Epicteti Dissertationes ab Arriano digestae, edited by Heinrich Schenkl, Leipzig, Teubner. 1894. Frege, G., Boole's Logical Calculus and the Concept Script, 1882, in Posthumous Writings transl. P. Long and R. White 1969, pp. 9–46. Gergonne, Joseph Diaz, (1816) Essai de dialectique rationelle, in Annales de mathématiques pures et appliquées 7, 1816/1817,


id: a-man-of-misconceptions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Man_of_Misconceptions-0.md
category: reference
title: A Man of Misconceptions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Man_of_Misconceptions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:55.871806+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: a-man-of-misconceptions-20260505-0
summary:
A Man of Misconceptions: The Life of an Eccentric in an Age of Change is a biography written by John Glassie about Athanasius Kircher, a 17th-century German Jesuit scholar, scientist, author, and inventor. Published by Riverhead Books in 2012, it is regarded by The New York Times as the first general-interest biography of Kircher, who has experienced a resurgence of academic attention in recent decades. The book traces Kircher's life from his birth in 1602 in Germany through his rise as a scholar at the Jesuit Collegio Romano to the decline of his reputation and his death in Rome in 1680. After Kircher arrived in Rome in 1633, a few months after the Galileo trial, he pursued myriad interests, authoring more than thirty books on such subjects as optics, magnetism, music, medicine, and mathematics, and developing a collection of natural specimens and curiosities into a well known Cabinet of Curiosities or early modern museum. He also worked with Gianlorenzo Bernini on his Fountain of the Four Rivers in the Piazza Navona and labored for many years on the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs. The book places Kircher's work and his interest in natural magic and mysticism within the context of the


id: history-of-mathematics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_mathematics-0.md
category: reference
title: History of mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:57.304778+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
The history of mathematics deals with the origin of discoveries in mathematics and the mathematical methods and notation of the past. Before the modern age and worldwide spread of knowledge, written examples of new mathematical developments have come to light only in a few locales. From 3000 BC the Mesopotamian states of Sumer, Akkad and Assyria, followed closely by Ancient Egypt and the Levantine state of Ebla began using arithmetic, algebra and geometry for taxation, commerce, trade, and in astronomy, to record time and formulate calendars. The earliest mathematical texts available are from Mesopotamia and Egypt – Plimpton 322 (Babylonian c. 2000 – 1900 BC), the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus (Egyptian c. 1800 BC) and the Moscow Mathematical Papyrus (Egyptian c. 1890 BC). All these texts mention the so-called Pythagorean triples, so, by inference, the Pythagorean theorem seems to be the most ancient and widespread mathematical development, after basic arithmetic and geometry. The study of mathematics as a "demonstrative discipline" began in the 6th century BC with the Pythagoreans, who coined the term "mathematics" from the ancient Greek μάθημα (mathema), meaning "subject of instruction". Greek mathematics greatly refined the methods (especially through the introduction of deductive reasoning and mathematical rigor in


id: history-of-mathematics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_mathematics-1.md
category: reference
title: History of mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:57.304778+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
In contrast to the sparsity of sources in Egyptian mathematics, knowledge of Babylonian mathematics is derived from more than 400 clay tablets unearthed since the 1850s. Written in Cuneiform script, tablets were inscribed whilst the clay was moist, and baked hard in an oven or by the heat of the sun. Some of these appear to be graded homework. The earliest evidence of written mathematics dates back to the ancient Sumerians, who built the earliest civilization in Mesopotamia. They developed a complex system of metrology from 3000 BC that was chiefly concerned with administrative/financial counting, such as grain allotments, workers, weights of silver, or even liquids, among other things. From around 2500 BC onward, the Sumerians wrote multiplication tables on clay tablets and dealt with geometrical exercises and division problems. The earliest traces of the Babylonian numerals also date back to this period. Babylonian mathematics was written using a sexagesimal (base-60) numeral system. From this derives the modern-day usage of 60 seconds in a minute, 60 minutes in an hour, and 360 (60 × 6) degrees in a circle, as well as the use of seconds and minutes of arc to denote fractions of a degree. It is thought the


id: history-of-mathematics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_mathematics-2.md
category: reference
title: History of mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:57.304778+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
Greek mathematics refers to the mathematics written in the Greek language from the time of Thales of Miletus (~600 BC) to the closure of the Academy of Athens in 529 AD. Greek mathematicians lived in cities spread over the entire Eastern Mediterranean, from Italy to North Africa, but were united by culture and language. Greek mathematics of the period following Alexander the Great is sometimes called Hellenistic mathematics. Greek mathematics was much more sophisticated than the mathematics that had been developed by earlier cultures. All surviving records of pre-Greek mathematics show the use of inductive reasoning, that is, repeated observations used to establish rules of thumb. Greek mathematicians, by contrast, used deductive reasoning. The Greeks used logic to derive conclusions from definitions and axioms, and used mathematical rigor to prove them. Greek mathematics is thought to have begun with Thales of Miletus (c. 624 – c. 546 BC) and Pythagoras of Samos (c. 582 – c. 507 BC). Although the extent of the influence is disputed, they were probably inspired by Egyptian and Babylonian mathematics. According to legend, Pythagoras traveled to Egypt to learn mathematics, geometry, and astronomy from Egyptian priests. Thales used geometry to solve problems such as calculating


id: history-of-mathematics-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_mathematics-3.md
category: reference
title: History of mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:57.304778+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
Apollonius of Perga (c. 262–190 BC) made significant advances to the study of conic sections, showing that one can obtain all three varieties of conic section by varying the angle of the plane that cuts a double-napped cone. He also coined the terminology in use today for conic sections, namely parabola ("place beside" or "comparison"), "ellipse" ("deficiency"), and "hyperbola" ("a throw beyond"). His work Conics is one of the best known and preserved mathematical works from antiquity, and in it he derives many theorems concerning conic sections that would prove invaluable to later mathematicians and astronomers studying planetary motion, such as Isaac Newton. While neither Apollonius nor any other Greek mathematicians made the leap to coordinate geometry, Apollonius' treatment of curves is in some ways similar to the modern treatment, and some of his work seems to anticipate the development of analytical geometry by Descartes some 1800 years later. Around the same time, Eratosthenes of Cyrene (c. 276–194 BC) devised the Sieve of Eratosthenes for finding prime numbers. The 3rd century BC is generally regarded as the "Golden Age" of Greek mathematics, with advances in pure mathematics henceforth in relative decline. Nevertheless, in the centuries that followed significant advances were


id: history-of-mathematics-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_mathematics-4.md
category: reference
title: History of mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:57.304778+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
Although ethnic Greek mathematicians continued under the rule of the late Roman Republic and subsequent Roman Empire, there were no noteworthy native Latin mathematicians in comparison. Ancient Romans such as Cicero (106–43 BC), an influential Roman statesman who studied mathematics in Greece, believed that Roman surveyors and calculators were far more interested in applied mathematics than the theoretical mathematics and geometry that were prized by the Greeks. It is unclear if the Romans first derived their numerical system directly from the Greek precedent or from Etruscan numerals used by the Etruscan civilization centered in what is now Tuscany, central Italy. Using calculation, Romans were adept at both instigating and detecting financial fraud, as well as managing taxes for the treasury. Siculus Flaccus, one of the Roman gromatici (i.e. land surveyor), wrote the Categories of Fields, which aided Roman surveyors in measuring the surface areas of allotted lands and territories. Aside from managing trade and taxes, the Romans also regularly applied mathematics to solve problems in engineering, including the erection of architecture such as bridges, road-building, and preparation for military campaigns. Arts and crafts such as Roman mosaics, inspired by previous Greek designs, created illusionist geometric patterns and rich, detailed scenes


id: history-of-mathematics-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_mathematics-5.md
category: reference
title: History of mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:57.304778+00:00
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parent: history-of-mathematics-20260505-0
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In 212 BC, the Emperor Qin Shi Huang commanded all books in the Qin Empire other than officially sanctioned ones be burned. This decree was not universally obeyed, but as a consequence of this order little is known about ancient Chinese mathematics before this date. After the book burning of 212 BC, the Han dynasty (202 BC–220 AD) produced works of mathematics which presumably expanded on works that are now lost. The most important of these is The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, the full title of which appeared by AD 179, but existed in part under other titles beforehand. It consists of 246 word problems involving agriculture, business, employment of geometry to figure height spans and dimension ratios for Chinese pagoda towers, engineering, surveying, and includes material on right triangles. It created mathematical proof for the Pythagorean theorem, and a mathematical formula for Gaussian elimination. The treatise also provides values of π, which Chinese mathematicians originally approximated as 3 until Liu Xin (d. 23 AD) provided a figure of 3.1457 and subsequently Zhang Heng (78–139) approximated pi as 3.1724, as well as 3.162 by taking the square root of 10. Liu Hui commented on the Nine Chapters in


id: history-of-mathematics-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_mathematics-6.md
category: reference
title: History of mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:57.304778+00:00
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parent: history-of-mathematics-20260505-0
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Around 500 AD, Aryabhata wrote the Aryabhatiya, a slim volume, written in verse, intended to supplement the rules of calculation used in astronomy and mathematical mensuration, though with no feeling for logic or deductive methodology. It is in the Aryabhatiya that the decimal place-value system first appears. Several centuries later, the Muslim mathematician Abu Rayhan Biruni described the Aryabhatiya as a "mix of common pebbles and costly crystals". In the 7th century, Brahmagupta identified the Brahmagupta theorem, Brahmagupta's identity and Brahmagupta's formula, and for the first time, in Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta, he lucidly explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and decimal digit, and explained the Hindu–Arabic numeral system. It was from a translation of this Indian text on mathematics (c. 770) that Islamic mathematicians were introduced to this numeral system, which they adapted as Arabic numerals. Islamic scholars carried knowledge of this number system to Europe by the 12th century, and it has now displaced all older number systems throughout the world. Various symbol sets are used to represent numbers in the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, all of which evolved from the Brahmi numerals. Each of the roughly dozen major scripts of India has its own numeral glyphs. In the


id: history-of-mathematics-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_mathematics-7.md
category: reference
title: History of mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:57.304778+00:00
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parent: history-of-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
The Islamic Empire established across the Middle East, Central Asia, North Africa, Iberia, and in parts of India in the 8th century made significant contributions towards mathematics. Although most Islamic texts on mathematics were written in Arabic, they were not all written by Arabs, since much like the status of Greek in the Hellenistic world, Arabic was used as the written language of non-Arab scholars throughout the Islamic world at the time. In the 9th century, the Persian mathematician Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī wrote an important book on the Hindu–Arabic numerals and one on methods for solving equations. His book On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals, written about 825, along with the work of Al-Kindi, were instrumental in spreading Indian mathematics and Indian numerals to the West. The word algorithm is derived from the Latinization of his name, Algoritmi, and the word algebra from the title of one of his works, Al-Kitāb al-mukhtaṣar fī hīsāb al-ğabr wa’l-muqābala (The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing). He gave an exhaustive explanation for the algebraic solution of quadratic equations with positive roots, and he was the first to teach algebra in an elementary form and for its own sake. He also


id: history-of-mathematics-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_mathematics-8.md
category: reference
title: History of mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:57.304778+00:00
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parent: history-of-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
Medieval European interest in mathematics was driven by concerns quite different from those of modern mathematicians. One driving element was the belief that mathematics provided the key to understanding the created order of nature, frequently justified by Plato's Timaeus and the biblical passage (in the Book of Wisdom) that God had ordered all things in measure, and number, and weight. Boethius provided a place for mathematics in the curriculum in the 6th century when he coined the term quadrivium to describe the study of arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music. He wrote De institutione arithmetica, a free translation from the Greek of Nicomachus's Introduction to Arithmetic; De institutione musica, also derived from Greek sources; and a series of excerpts from Euclid's Elements. His works were theoretical, rather than practical, and were the basis of mathematical study until the recovery of Greek and Arabic mathematical works. In the 12th century, European scholars traveled to Spain and Sicily seeking scientific Arabic texts, including al-Khwārizmī's The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing, translated into Latin by Robert of Chester, and the complete text of Euclid's Elements, translated in various versions by Adelard of Bath, Herman of Carinthia, and Gerard of Cremona. These


id: history-of-mathematics-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_mathematics-9.md
category: reference
title: History of mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:57.304778+00:00
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parent: history-of-mathematics-20260505-0
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Luca Pacioli's Summa de Arithmetica, Geometria, Proportioni et Proportionalità (Italian: "Review of Arithmetic, Geometry, Ratio and Proportion") was first printed and published in Venice in 1494. It included a 27-page treatise on bookkeeping, "Particularis de Computis et Scripturis" (Italian: "Details of Calculation and Recording"). It was written primarily for, and sold mainly to, merchants who used the book as a reference text, as a source of pleasure from the mathematical puzzles it contained, and to aid the education of their sons. In Summa Arithmetica, Pacioli introduced symbols for plus and minus for the first time in a printed book, symbols that became standard notation in Italian Renaissance mathematics. Summa Arithmetica was also the first known book printed in Italy to contain algebra. Pacioli obtained many of his ideas from Piero Della Francesca whom he plagiarized. In Italy, during the first half of the 16th century, Scipione del Ferro and Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia discovered solutions for cubic equations. Gerolamo Cardano published them in his 1545 book Ars Magna, together with a solution for the quartic equations, discovered by his student Lodovico Ferrari. In 1572 Rafael Bombelli published his L'Algebra in which he showed how to deal with the imaginary quantities that


id: history-of-mathematics-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_mathematics-10.md
category: reference
title: History of mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:57.304778+00:00
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parent: history-of-mathematics-20260505-0
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This century saw the development of the two forms of non-Euclidean geometry, where the parallel postulate of Euclidean geometry no longer holds. The Russian mathematician Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky and his rival, the Hungarian mathematician János Bolyai, independently defined and studied hyperbolic geometry, where uniqueness of parallels no longer holds. In this geometry the sum of angles in a triangle add up to less than 180°. Elliptic geometry was developed later in the 19th century by the German mathematician Bernhard Riemann; here no parallel can be found and the angles in a triangle add up to more than 180°. Riemann also developed Riemannian geometry, which unifies and vastly generalizes the three types of geometry, and he defined the concept of a manifold, which generalizes the ideas of curves and surfaces, and set the mathematical foundations for the theory of general relativity. The 19th century saw the beginning of a great deal of abstract algebra. Hermann Grassmann in Germany gave a first version of vector spaces, William Rowan Hamilton in Ireland developed noncommutative algebra.The British mathematician George Boole devised an algebra that soon evolved into what is now called Boolean algebra, in which the only numbers were 0 and 1. Boolean algebra


id: history-of-mathematics-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_mathematics-11.md
category: reference
title: History of mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:57.304778+00:00
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parent: history-of-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
Differential geometry came into its own when Albert Einstein used it in general relativity. Entirely new areas of mathematics such as mathematical logic, topology, and John von Neumann's game theory changed the kinds of questions that could be answered by mathematical methods. All kinds of structures were abstracted using axioms and given names like metric spaces, topological spaces etc. The concept of an abstract structure was itself abstracted and led to category theory. Grothendieck and Serre recast algebraic geometry using sheaf theory. Large advances were made in the qualitative study of dynamical systems that Poincaré had begun in the 1890s. Measure theory was developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Applications of measures include the Lebesgue integral, Kolmogorov's axiomatisation of probability theory, and ergodic theory. Knot theory greatly expanded. Quantum mechanics aided the development of functional analysis, a branch of mathematics developed by Stefan Banach and his collaborators who formed the Lwów School of Mathematics. Other new areas include Laurent Schwartz's distribution theory, fixed point theory, singularity theory and René Thom's catastrophe theory, model theory, and Mandelbrot's fractals. Lie theory with its Lie groups and Lie algebras became one of the major areas of study. Nonstandard analysis, introduced


id: history-of-mathematics-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_mathematics-12.md
category: reference
title: History of mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:57.304778+00:00
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parent: history-of-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
In 2000, the Clay Mathematics Institute announced the seven Millennium Prize Problems. In 2003 the Poincaré conjecture was solved by Grigori Perelman (who declined to accept an award, as he was critical of the mathematics establishment). Most mathematical journals now have online versions as well as print versions, and many online-only journals are launched. There is an increasing drive toward open access publishing, first made popular by arXiv. Many other important problems have been solved in this century. Examples include the Green–Tao theorem (2004), existence of bounded gaps between arbitrarily large primes (2013), and the modularity theorem (2001). The AKS primality test was published in 2002, which is the first algorithm that can determine whether a number is prime or composite in polynomial time. A proof of Goldbach's weak conjecture was published by Harald Helfgott in 2013; as of 2025, the proof has not yet been fully reviewed. The first einstein was discovered in 2023. In addition, a lot of work has been done toward long-lasting projects which began in the twentieth century. For example, the classification of finite simple groups was completed in 2008. Similarly, work on the Langlands program has progressed significantly, and there have been proofs of


id: history-of-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_medicine-0.md
category: reference
title: History of medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:59.819880+00:00
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The history of medicine is both a study of medicine throughout history as well as a multidisciplinary field of study that seeks to explore and understand medical practices, both past and present, throughout human societies. The history of medicine is the study and documentation of the evolution of medical treatments, practices, and knowledge over time. Medical historians often draw from other humanities fields of study including economics, health sciences, sociology, and politics to better understand the institutions, practices, people, professions, and social systems that have shaped medicine. When a period which predates or lacks written sources regarding medicine, information is instead drawn from archaeological sources. This field tracks the evolution of human societies' approach to health, illness, and injury ranging from prehistory to the modern day, the events that shape these approaches, and their impact on populations. Early medical traditions include those of Babylon, Egypt, China and India. Invention of the microscope was a consequence of improved understanding, during the Renaissance. Prior to the 19th century, humorism (also known as humoralism) was thought to explain the cause of disease but it was gradually replaced by the germ theory of disease, leading to effective treatments and even cures for many infectious


id: history-of-medicine-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_medicine-1.md
category: reference
title: History of medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:59.819880+00:00
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=== Ancient Mesopotamian medicine === The Mesopotamian region, covering much of present-day Iraq, Kuwait, Syria, Iran, and Turkey, was dominated by a series of civilisations including Sumer, the earliest known civilisation in the Fertile Crescent region, alongside the Akkadians (including Assyrians and Babylonians). Overlapping ideas of what we now understand as medicine, science, magic, and religion characterised early Mesopotamian healing practices as a hybrid naturalistic and supernatural belief system. The Sumerians developed one of the earliest known writing systems in the 3rd millennium BCE, and created numerous cuneiform clay tablets regarding their civilisation. These included detailed accounts of drug prescriptions and operations, as well as exorcisms. These were administered and carried out by highly defined professionals including bârû (seers), âs[h]ipu (exorcists), and asû (physician-priests). An example of an early, prescription-like medication appeared in Sumerian during the Third Dynasty of Ur (c. 2112 BCE – c. 2004 BCE). Following the conquest of the Sumerian civilisation by the Akkadian Empire and the empire's eventual collapse from a number of social and environmental factors, the Babylonian civilisation began to dominate the region. Examples of Babylonian Medicine include the extensive Babylonian medical text, the Diagnostic Handbook, written by the ummânū, or chief scholar, Esagil-kin-apli


id: history-of-medicine-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_medicine-2.md
category: reference
title: History of medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:59.819880+00:00
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parent: history-of-medicine-20260505-0
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Medical and healing practices in early Chinese dynasties were heavily shaped by the practice of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). Starting around the Zhou dynasty, parts of this system were being developed and are demonstrated in early writings on herbs in Classic of Changes (Yi Jing) and Classic of Poetry (Shi Jing). China also developed a large body of traditional medicine. Much of the philosophy of traditional Chinese medicine derived from empirical observations of disease and illness by Taoist physicians and reflects the classical Chinese belief that individual human experiences express causative principles effective in the environment at all scales. These causative principles, whether material, essential, or mystical, correlate as the expression of the natural order of the universe. The foundational text of Chinese medicine is the Huangdi Neijing, (or Yellow Emperor's Inner Canon), written 5th century to 3rd century BCE. Near the end of the 2nd century CE, during the Han dynasty, Zhang Zhongjing, wrote a Treatise on Cold Damage, which contains the earliest known reference to the Neijing Suwen. The Jin dynasty practitioner and advocate of acupuncture and moxibustion, Huangfu Mi (215–282), also quotes the Yellow Emperor in his Jiayi jing, c. 265. During the Tang dynasty, the Suwen


id: history-of-medicine-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_medicine-3.md
category: reference
title: History of medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:59.819880+00:00
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parent: history-of-medicine-20260505-0
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==== Humors ==== The theory of humors was derived from ancient medical works, dominated Western medicine until the 19th century, and is credited to Greek philosopher and surgeon Galen of Pergamon (129 – c. 216 CE). In Greek medicine, there are thought to be four humors, or bodily fluids that are linked to illness: blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile. Early scientists believed that food is digested into blood, muscle, and bones, while the humors that were not blood were then formed by indigestible materials that are left over. An excess or shortage of any one of the four humors is theorized to cause an imbalance that results in sickness; the aforementioned statement was hypothesized by sources before Hippocrates. Hippocrates (c. 400 BCE) deduced that the four seasons of the year and four ages of man that affect the body in relation to the humors. The four ages of man are childhood, youth, prime age, and old age. Black bile is associated with autumn, phlegm with winter, blood with spring, and yellow bile with summer. In De temperamentis, Galen linked what he called temperaments, or personality characteristics, to a person's natural mixture of humors. He also said that the


id: history-of-medicine-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_medicine-4.md
category: reference
title: History of medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:59.819880+00:00
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parent: history-of-medicine-20260505-0
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Temples dedicated to the healer-god Asclepius, known as Asclepieia (Ancient Greek: Ἀσκληπιεῖα, sing. Ἀσκληπιεῖον, Asclepieion), functioned as centers of medical advice, prognosis, and healing. At these shrines, patients would enter a dream-like state of induced sleep known as enkoimesis (ἐγκοίμησις) not unlike anesthesia, in which they either received guidance from the deity in a dream or were cured by surgery. Asclepeia provided carefully controlled spaces conducive to healing and fulfilled several of the requirements of institutions created for healing. In the Asclepeion of Epidaurus, three large marble boards dated to 350 BCE preserve the names, case histories, complaints, and cures of about 70 patients who came to the temple with a problem and shed it there. Some of the surgical cures listed, such as the opening of an abdominal abscess or the removal of traumatic foreign material, are realistic enough to have taken place, but with the patient in a state of enkoimesis induced with the help of soporific substances such as opium. Alcmaeon of Croton wrote on medicine between 500 and 450 BCE. He argued that channels linked the sensory organs to the brain, and it is possible that he discovered one type of channel, the optic nerves, by


id: history-of-medicine-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_medicine-5.md
category: reference
title: History of medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:59.819880+00:00
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parent: history-of-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Two great Alexandrians laid the foundations for the scientific study of anatomy and physiology, Herophilus of Chalcedon and Erasistratus of Ceos. Other Alexandrian surgeons gave us ligature (hemostasis), lithotomy, hernia operations, ophthalmic surgery, plastic surgery, methods of reduction of dislocations and fractures, tracheotomy, and mandrake as an anaesthetic. Some of what we know of them comes from Celsus and Galen of Pergamum. Herophilus of Chalcedon, the renowned Alexandrian physician, was one of the pioneers of human anatomy. Though his knowledge of the anatomical structure of the human body was vast, he specialized in the aspects of neural anatomy. Thus, his experimentation was centered around the anatomical composition of the blood-vascular system and the pulsations that can be analyzed from the system. Furthermore, the surgical experimentation he administered caused him to become very prominent throughout the field of medicine, as he was one of the first physicians to initiate the exploration and dissection of the human body. The banned practice of human dissection was lifted during his time within the scholastic community. This brief moment in the history of Greek medicine allowed him to further study the brain, which he believed was the core of the nervous system. He also distinguished


id: history-of-medicine-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_medicine-6.md
category: reference
title: History of medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:59.819880+00:00
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parent: history-of-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Islamic medicine grew significantly when the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258 CE) overthrew the Umayyad Caliphate in 750 CE. This change in dynasty served as a turning point towards scientific and medical developments. A large contributor to this was that, under Abbasid rule, much of the Greek legacy was transmitted into Arabic which by then, was the main language of Islamic peoples. Many Islamic physicians were heavily influenced by the works of Greek scholars of Alexandria and Egypt and were able to expand on those texts to produce new medical knowledge. This period of time is known as the Islamic Golden Age where there was development and flourishment of technology, commerce and sciences, including medicine. The creation of the first Islamic Hospital in 805 CE by the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid in Baghdad was a significant development. This hospital provided educational opportunities for Islamic physicians. Muslims were influenced by ancient Indian, Persian, Greek, Roman and Byzantine medical practices, and helped them to develop it further. Galen & Hippocrates were pre-eminent authorities. The translation of 129 of Galen's works into Arabic by the Nestorian Christian Hunayn ibn Ishaq and his assistants, and in particular Galen's insistence on a rational systematic approach to medicine,


id: history-of-medicine-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_medicine-7.md
category: reference
title: History of medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:59.819880+00:00
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parent: history-of-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
After 400 CE, the study and practice of medicine in the Western Roman Empire went into deep decline. Medical services were provided, especially for the poor, in the thousands of monastic hospitals that sprang up across Europe, but the care was rudimentary and mainly palliative. Most of the writings of Galen and Hippocrates were lost to the West, with the summaries and compendia of St. Isidore of Seville being the primary channel for transmitting Greek medical ideas. The Carolingian Renaissance brought increased contact with Byzantium and a greater awareness of ancient medicine, but only with the Renaissance of the 12th century and the new translations coming from Muslim and Jewish sources in Spain, and the fifteenth-century flood of resources after the fall of Constantinople did the West fully recover its acquaintance with classical antiquity. The Carolingian Renaissance served as a starting point for incorporating ancient medicine into the early Middle Ages. One work which stands out in the historical timeline is the Lorscher Arzneibuch, a product of the scriptorium at the Lorsch monastery, copied between 784 through the early 9th century. To bolster confidence in medicine, the author of this apologetic work reasoned that medicines were created from earth materials,


id: history-of-medicine-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_medicine-8.md
category: reference
title: History of medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:59.819880+00:00
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parent: history-of-medicine-20260505-0
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==== England ==== In England, there were but three small hospitals after 1550. Pelling and Webster estimate that in London in the 1580 to 1600 period, out of a population of nearly 200,000 people, there were about 500 medical practitioners. Nurses and midwives are not included. There were about 50 physicians, 100 licensed surgeons, 100 apothecaries, and 250 additional unlicensed practitioners. In the last category about 25% were women. All across England—and indeed all of the world—the vast majority of the people in city, town or countryside depended for medical care on local amateurs with no professional training but with a reputation as wise healers who could diagnose problems and advise sick people what to do—and perhaps set broken bones, pull a tooth, give some traditional herbs or brews or perform magic to cure what ailed them. === People === === Europe === The Renaissance brought an intense focus on scholarship to Christian Europe. A major effort to translate the Arabic and Greek scientific works into Latin emerged. Europeans gradually became experts not only in the ancient writings of the Romans and Greeks, but in the contemporary writings of Islamic scientists. During the later centuries of the Renaissance came an


id: history-of-medicine-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_medicine-9.md
category: reference
title: History of medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:59.819880+00:00
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parent: history-of-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
==== India ==== Unani medicine, based on Avicenna's Canon of Medicine (ca. 1025), was developed in India throughout the medieval and Early Modern periods. Its use continued, especially in Muslim communities, during the Indian Sultanate and Mughal periods. Unani medicine is in some respects close to Ayurveda and to Early Modern European medicine. All share a theory of the presence of the elements (in Unani, as in Europe, they are considered to be fire, water, earth, and air) and humors in the human body. According to Unani physicians, these elements are present in different humoral fluids and their balance leads to health and their imbalance leads to illness. Sanskrit medical literature of the Early Modern period included innovative works such as the Compendium of Śārṅgadhara (Skt. Śārṅgadharasaṃhitā, ca. 1350) and especially The Illumination of Bhāva (Bhāvaprakāśa, by Bhāvamiśra, ca. 1550). The latter work also contained an extensive dictionary of materia medica, and became a standard textbook used widely by ayurvedic practitioners in north India up to the present day (2024). Medical innovations of this period included pulse diagnosis, urine diagnosis, the use of mercury and china root to treat syphilis, and the increasing use of metallic ingredients in drugs. By


id: history-of-medicine-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_medicine-10.md
category: reference
title: History of medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:59.819880+00:00
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parent: history-of-medicine-20260505-0
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===== Spanish Quest for Medicinal Spices ===== Botanical medicines also became popular during the 16th, 17th, and 18th Centuries. Spanish pharmaceutical books during this time contain medicinal recipes consisting of spices, herbs, and other botanical products. For example, nutmeg oil was documented for curing stomach ailments and cardamom oil was believed to relieve intestinal ailments. During the rise of the global trade market, spices and herbs, along with many other goods, that were indigenous to different territories began to appear in different locations across the globe. Herbs and spices were especially popular for their utility in cooking and medicines. As a result of this popularity and increased demand for spices, some areas in Asia, like China and Indonesia, became hubs for spice cultivation and trade. The Spanish Empire also wanted to benefit from the international spice trade, so they looked towards their American colonies. The Spanish American colonies became an area where the Spanish searched to discover new spices and indigenous American medicinal recipes. The Florentine Codex, a 16th-century ethnographic research study in Mesoamerica by the Spanish Franciscan friar Bernardino de Sahagún, is a major contribution to the history of Nahua medicine. The Spanish did discover many spices and herbs


id: history-of-medicine-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_medicine-11.md
category: reference
title: History of medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:59.819880+00:00
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parent: history-of-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
French scientist Louis Pasteur confirmed Schwann's fermentation experiments in 1857 and afterwards supported the hypothesis that yeast were microorganisms. Moreover, he suggested that such a process might also explain contagious disease. In 1860, Pasteur's report on bacterial fermentation of butyric acid motivated fellow Frenchman Casimir Davaine to identify a similar species (which he called bacteridia) as the pathogen of the deadly disease anthrax. Others dismissed "bacteridia" as a mere byproduct of the disease. British surgeon Joseph Lister, however, took these findings seriously and subsequently introduced antisepsis to wound treatment in 1865. German physician Robert Koch, noting fellow German Ferdinand Cohn's report of a spore stage of a certain bacterial species, traced the life cycle of Davaine's bacteridia, identified spores, inoculated laboratory animals with them, and reproduced anthrax—a breakthrough for experimental pathology and germ theory of disease. Pasteur's group added ecological investigations confirming spores' role in the natural setting, while Koch published a landmark treatise in 1878 on the bacterial pathology of wounds. In 1881, Koch reported discovery of the "tubercle bacillus", cementing germ theory and Koch's acclaim. Upon the outbreak of a cholera epidemic in Alexandria, Egypt, two medical missions went to investigate and attend the sick, one was sent


id: history-of-medicine-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_medicine-12.md
category: reference
title: History of medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:59.819880+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Until the nineteenth century, the care of the insane was largely a communal and family responsibility rather than a medical one. The vast majority of the mentally ill were treated in domestic contexts with only the most unmanageable or burdensome likely to be institutionally confined. This situation was transformed radically from the late eighteenth century as, amid changing cultural conceptions of madness, a new-found optimism in the curability of insanity within the asylum setting emerged. Increasingly, lunacy was perceived less as a physiological condition than as a mental and moral one to which the correct response was persuasion, aimed at inculcating internal restraint, rather than external coercion. This new therapeutic sensibility, referred to as moral treatment, was epitomised in French physician Philippe Pinel's quasi-mythological unchaining of the lunatics of the Bicêtre Hospital in Paris and realised in an institutional setting with the foundation in 1796 of the Quaker-run York Retreat in England. From the early nineteenth century, as lay-led lunacy reform movements gained influence, ever more state governments in the West extended their authority and responsibility over the mentally ill. Small-scale asylums, conceived as instruments to reshape both the mind and behaviour of the disturbed, proliferated across these regions. By


id: history-of-medicine-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_medicine-13.md
category: reference
title: History of medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:59.819880+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
European ideas of modern medicine were spread widely through the world by medical missionaries, and the dissemination of textbooks. Japanese elites enthusiastically embraced Western medicine after the Meiji Restoration of the 1860s. However they had been prepared by their knowledge of the Dutch and German medicine, for they had some contact with Europe through the Dutch. Highly influential was the 1765 edition of Hendrik van Deventer's pioneer work Nieuw Ligt ("A New Light") on Japanese obstetrics, especially on Katakura Kakuryo's publication in 1799 of Sanka Hatsumo ("Enlightenment of Obstetrics"). A cadre of Japanese physicians began to interact with Dutch doctors, who introduced smallpox vaccinations. By 1820 Japanese ranpô medical practitioners not only translated Dutch medical texts, they integrated their readings with clinical diagnoses. These men became leaders of the modernization of medicine in their country. They broke from Japanese traditions of closed medical fraternities and adopted the European approach of an open community of collaboration based on expertise in the latest scientific methods. Kitasato Shibasaburō (1853–1931) studied bacteriology in Germany under Robert Koch. In 1891 he founded the Institute of Infectious Diseases in Tokyo, which introduced the study of bacteriology to Japan. He and French researcher Alexandre Yersin went to


id: history-of-medicine-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_medicine-14.md
category: reference
title: History of medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:59.819880+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
===== Vienna ===== The First Viennese School of Medicine, 1750–1800, was led by the Dutchman Gerard van Swieten (1700–1772), who aimed to put medicine on new scientific foundations—promoting unprejudiced clinical observation, botanical and chemical research, and introducing simple but powerful remedies. When the Vienna General Hospital opened in 1784, it at once became the world's largest hospital and physicians acquired a facility that gradually developed into the most important research centre. Progress ended with the Napoleonic wars and the government shutdown in 1819 of all liberal journals and schools; this caused a general return to traditionalism and eclecticism in medicine. Vienna was the capital of a diverse empire and attracted not just Germans but Czechs, Hungarians, Jews, Poles and others to its world-class medical facilities. After 1820 the Second Viennese School of Medicine emerged with the contributions of physicians such as Carl Freiherr von Rokitansky, Josef Škoda, Ferdinand Ritter von Hebra, and Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis. Basic medical science expanded and specialization advanced. Furthermore, the first dermatology, eye, as well as ear, nose, and throat clinics in the world were founded in Vienna. The textbook Lehre von den Augenkrankheiten of ophthalmologist Georg Joseph Beer (1763–1821) combined practical research and philosophical speculations,


id: history-of-medicine-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_medicine-15.md
category: reference
title: History of medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:59.819880+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
=== Diagnosis === X-ray imaging was the first kind of medical imaging, and later ultrasonic imaging, CT scanning, MR scanning and other imaging methods became available. === Disabilities === Prosthetics have improved with lightweight materials as well as neural prosthetics emerging in the end of the 20th century. === Diseases === Oral rehydration therapy has been extensively used since the 1970s to treat cholera and other diarrhea-inducing infections. As infectious diseases have become less lethal, and the most common causes of death in developed countries are now tumors and cardiovascular diseases, these conditions have received increased attention in medical research. === Disease eradication === ==== Malaria eradication ==== Starting in World War II, DDT was used as insecticide to combat insect vectors carrying malaria, which was endemic in most tropical regions of the world. The first goal was to protect soldiers, but it was widely adopted as a public health device. In Liberia, for example, the United States had large military operations during the war and the U.S. Public Health Service began the use of DDT for indoor residual spraying (IRS) and as a larvicide, with the goal of controlling malaria in Monrovia, the Liberian capital. In the early 1950s,


id: history-of-medicine-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_medicine-16.md
category: reference
title: History of medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:40:59.819880+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
"By 1944 most casualties were receiving treatment within hours of wounding, due to the increased mobility of field hospitals and the extensive use of aeroplanes as ambulances. The care of the sick and wounded had also been revolutionized by new medical technologies, such as active immunization against tetanus, sulphonamide drugs, and penicillin." During the second World War, Alexis Carrel and Henry Dakin developed the Carrel-Dakin method of treating wounds with an irrigation, Dakin's solution, a germicide which helped prevent gangrene. The War spurred the usage of Roentgen's X-ray, and the electrocardiograph, for the monitoring of internal bodily functions. This was followed in the inter-war period by the development of the first anti-bacterial agents such as the sulpha antibiotics. ==== Nazi and Japanese medical research ==== Unethical human subject research, and killing of patients with disabilities, peaked during the Nazi era, with Nazi human experimentation and Aktion T4 during the Holocaust as the most significant examples. Many of the details of these and related events were the focus of the Doctors' Trial. Subsequently, principles of medical ethics, such as the Nuremberg Code, were introduced to prevent a recurrence of such atrocities. After 1937, the Japanese Army established programs of biological warfare


id: history-of-narcissism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_narcissism-0.md
category: reference
title: History of narcissism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_narcissism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:01.253726+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-narcissism-20260505-0
summary:
The concept of excessive selfishness has been recognized throughout history. The term "narcissism" is derived from the Greek mythology of Narcissus, but was only coined at the close of the nineteenth century. Since then, narcissism has become a household word; in analytic literature, given the great preoccupation with the subject, the term is used more than almost any other'. The meaning of narcissism has changed over time. Today narcissism "refers to an interest in or concern with the self along a broad continuum, from healthy to pathological ... including such concepts as self-esteem, self-system, and self-representation, and true or false self". == Before Freud == In Greek mythology, Narcissus was a handsome youth who rejected the desperate advances of the nymph Echo. As punishment, he was doomed to fall in love with his own reflection in a pool of water. Unable to consummate his love, Narcissus 'lay gazing enraptured into the pool, hour after hour', and finally pined away, changing into a flower that bears his name, the narcissus. The story was retold in Latin by Ovid in his Metamorphoses, in which form it would have great influence on medieval and Renaissance culture. 'Ovid's tale of Echo and Narcissus...weaves in


id: history-of-narcissism-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_narcissism-1.md
category: reference
title: History of narcissism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_narcissism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:01.253726+00:00
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parent: history-of-narcissism-20260505-0
summary:
== Later psychoanalysts == === Karen Horney === Karen Horney saw narcissism quite differently from Freud, Kohut and other mainstream psychoanalytic theorists in that she did not posit a primary narcissism but saw the narcissistic personality as the product of a certain kind of early environment acting on a certain kind of temperament. For her, narcissistic needs and tendencies are not inherent in human nature. Narcissism is different from Horney's other major defensive strategies or solutions in that it is not compensatory. Self-idealization is compensatory in her theory, but it differs from narcissism. All the defensive strategies involve self-idealization, but in the narcissistic solution it tends to be the product of indulgence rather than of deprivation. The narcissist's self-esteem is not strong, however, because it is not based on genuine accomplishments. === Heinz Kohut === Heinz Kohut explored further the implications of Freud's perception of narcissism. He maintained that a child will tend to fantasize about having a grandiose self and ideal parents. He claimed that deep down, all people retain a belief in their own perfection and the perfection of anything they are part of. As a person matures, grandiosity gives way to self-esteem, and the idealization of the


id: history-of-paleontology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_paleontology-0.md
category: reference
title: History of paleontology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_paleontology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:02.529558+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-paleontology-20260505-0
summary:
The history of paleontology traces the history of the effort to understand the history of life on Earth by studying the fossil record left behind by living organisms. Since it is concerned with understanding living organisms of the past, paleontology can be considered to be a field of biology, but its historical development has been closely tied to geology and the effort to understand the history of Earth itself. In ancient times, Xenophanes (570–480 BC), Herodotus (484–425 BC), Eratosthenes (276–194 BC), and Strabo (64 BC–24 AD) wrote about fossils of marine organisms, indicating that land was once under water. The ancient Chinese considered them to be dragon bones and documented them as such. During the Middle Ages, fossils were discussed by Persian naturalist Ibn Sina (known as Avicenna in Europe) in The Book of Healing (1027), which proposed a theory of petrifying fluids that Albert of Saxony would elaborate on in the 14th century. The Chinese naturalist Shen Kuo (1031–1095) would propose a theory of climate change based on evidence from petrified bamboo. In early modern Europe, the systematic study of fossils emerged as an integral part of the changes in natural philosophy that occurred during the Age of Reason.


id: history-of-paleontology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_paleontology-1.md
category: reference
title: History of paleontology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_paleontology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:02.529558+00:00
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parent: history-of-paleontology-20260505-0
summary:
== Prior to the 17th century == A San cave painting dating to prior to 1835 may be inspired by dicynodont remains. As early as the 6th century BC, the Greek philosopher Xenophanes of Colophon (570–480 BC) recognized that some fossil shells were remains of shellfish, which he used to argue that what was at the time dry land was once under the sea. Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519), in an unpublished notebook, also concluded that some fossil sea shells were the remains of shellfish. However, in both cases, the fossils were complete remains of shellfish species that closely resembled living species, and were therefore easy to classify. In 1027, the Persian naturalist Ibn Sina (known as Avicenna in Europe), proposed an explanation of how the stoniness of fossils was caused in The Book of Healing. He modified an idea of Aristotle's, which explained it in terms of vaporous exhalations. Ibn Sina modified this into the theory of petrifying fluids (succus lapidificatus), which was elaborated on by Albert of Saxony in the 14th century and was accepted in some form by most naturalists by the 16th century. Shen Kuo (Chinese: 沈括; 1031–1095) of the Song dynasty used marine fossils found in


id: history-of-paleontology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_paleontology-2.md
category: reference
title: History of paleontology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_paleontology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:02.529558+00:00
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parent: history-of-paleontology-20260505-0
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=== Leonardo da Vinci and the development of paleontology === Leonardo da Vinci established a line of continuity between the two main branches of paleontology: body fossil palaeontology and ichnology. In fact, Leonardo dealt with both major classes of fossils: (1) body fossils, e.g. fossilized shells; (2) ichnofossils (also known as trace fossils), i.e. the fossilized products of life-substrate interactions (e.g. burrows and borings). In folios 8 to 10 of the Leicester code, Leonardo examined the subject of body fossils, tackling one of the vexing issues of his contemporaries: why do we find petrified seashells on mountains? Leonardo answered this question by correctly interpreting the biogenic nature of fossil mollusks and their sedimentary matrix. The interpretation of Leonardo da Vinci appears extraordinarily innovative as he surpassed three centuries of scientific debate on the nature of body fossils. Da Vinci took into consideration invertebrate ichnofossils to prove his ideas on the nature of fossil objects. To da Vinci, ichnofossils played a central role in demonstrating: (1) the organic nature of petrified shells and (2) the sedimentary origin of the rock layers bearing fossil objects. Da Vinci described what are bioerosion ichnofossils: The hills around Parma and Piacenza show abundant mollusks and


id: history-of-paleontology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_paleontology-3.md
category: reference
title: History of paleontology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_paleontology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:02.529558+00:00
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parent: history-of-paleontology-20260505-0
summary:
Hooke was prepared to accept the possibility that some such fossils represented species that had become extinct, possibly in past geological catastrophes. In 1667 Nicholas Steno wrote a paper about a shark head he had dissected. He compared the teeth of the shark with the common fossil objects known as "tongue stones" or glossopetrae. He concluded that the fossils must have been shark teeth. Steno then took an interest in the question of fossils, and to address some of the objections to their organic origin he began studying rock strata. The result of this work was published in 1669 as Forerunner to a Dissertation on a solid naturally enclosed in a solid. In this book, Steno drew a clear distinction between objects such as rock crystals that really were formed within rocks and those such as fossil shells and shark teeth that were formed outside of those rocks. Steno realized that certain kinds of rock had been formed by the successive deposition of horizontal layers of sediment and that fossils were the remains of living organisms that had become buried in that sediment. Steno who, like almost all 17th-century natural philosophers, believed that the earth was only a few thousand


id: history-of-paleontology-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_paleontology-4.md
category: reference
title: History of paleontology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_paleontology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:02.529558+00:00
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parent: history-of-paleontology-20260505-0
summary:
The Smithsonian Libraries consider that the first edition of a work which laid the foundation to vertebrate paleontology was Georges Cuvier's Recherches sur les ossements fossiles de quadrupèdes (Researches on quadruped fossil bones), published in France in 1812. Referring to the second edition of this work (1821), Cuvier's disciple and editor of the scientific publication Journal de physique Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville published in January 1822, in the Journal de physique, an article titled "Analyse des principaux travaux dans les sciences physiques, publiés dans l'année 1821" ("Analysis of the main works in the physical sciences, published in the year 1821"). In this article Blainville unveiled for the first time the printed word palæontologie which later gave the English word "paleontology". Blainville had already coined the term paléozoologie in 1817 to refer to the work Cuvier and others were doing to reconstruct extinct animals from fossil bones. However, Blainville began looking for a term that could refer to the study of both fossil animal and plant remains. After trying some unsuccessful alternatives, he hit on "palaeontologie" in 1822. Blainville's term for the study of the fossilized organisms quickly became popular and was anglicized into "paleontology". In 1828 Alexandre Brongniart's son,


id: history-of-paleontology-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_paleontology-5.md
category: reference
title: History of paleontology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_paleontology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:02.529558+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-paleontology-20260505-0
summary:
In 1808, Cuvier identified a fossil found in Maastricht as a giant marine reptile that would later be named Mosasaurus. He also identified, from a drawing, another fossil found in Bavaria as a flying reptile and named it Pterodactylus. He speculated, based on the strata in which these fossils were found, that large reptiles had lived prior to what he was calling "the age of mammals". Cuvier's speculation would be supported by a series of finds that would be made in Great Britain over the course of the next two decades. Mary Anning, a professional fossil collector since age eleven, collected the fossils of a number of marine reptiles and prehistoric fish from the Jurassic marine strata at Lyme Regis. These included the first ichthyosaur skeleton to be recognized as such, which was collected in 1811, and the first two plesiosaur skeletons ever found in 1821 and 1823. Mary Anning was only 12 when she and her brother discovered the Ichthyosaurus skeleton. Many of her discoveries would be described scientifically by the geologists William Conybeare, Henry De la Beche, and William Buckland. It was Anning who observed that stony objects known as "bezoar stones" were often found in the abdominal


id: history-of-paleontology-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_paleontology-6.md
category: reference
title: History of paleontology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_paleontology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:02.529558+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-paleontology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Transmutation of species and the fossil record === In the early 19th century Jean Baptiste Lamarck used fossils to argue for his theory of the transmutation of species. Fossil finds, and the emerging evidence that life had changed over time, fueled speculation on this topic during the next few decades. Robert Chambers used fossil evidence in his 1844 popular science book Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, which advocated an evolutionary origin for the cosmos as well as for life on earth. Like Lamarck's theory it maintained that life had progressed from the simple to the complex. These early evolutionary ideas were widely discussed in scientific circles but were not accepted into the scientific mainstream. Many of the critics of transmutational ideas used fossil evidence in their arguments. In the same paper that coined the term dinosaur Richard Owen pointed out that dinosaurs were at least as sophisticated and complex as modern reptiles, which he claimed contradicted transmutational theories. Hugh Miller would make a similar argument, pointing out that the fossil fish found in the Old Red Sandstone formation were fully as complex as any later fish, and not the primitive forms alleged by Vestiges. While these early


id: history-of-paleontology-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_paleontology-7.md
category: reference
title: History of paleontology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_paleontology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:02.529558+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-paleontology-20260505-0
summary:
Charles Darwin's publication of the On the Origin of Species in 1859 was a watershed event in all the life sciences, especially paleontology. Fossils had played a role in the development of Darwin's theory. In particular he had been impressed by fossils he had collected in South America during the voyage of the Beagle of giant armadillos, giant sloths, and what at the time he thought were giant llamas that seemed to be related to species still living on the continent in modern times. The scientific debate that started immediately after the publication of Origin led to a concerted effort to look for transitional fossils and other evidence of evolution in the fossil record. There were two areas where early success attracted considerable public attention, the transition between reptiles and birds, and the evolution of the modern single-toed horse. In 1861 the first specimen of Archaeopteryx, an animal with both teeth and feathers and a mix of other reptilian and avian features, was discovered in a limestone quarry in Bavaria and described by Richard Owen. Another would be found in the late 1870s and put on display at the Natural History Museum, Berlin in 1881. Other primitive toothed birds were


id: history-of-paleontology-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_paleontology-8.md
category: reference
title: History of paleontology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_paleontology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:02.529558+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-paleontology-20260505-0
summary:
Throughout the 20th century new fossil finds continued to contribute to understanding the paths taken by evolution. Examples include major taxonomic transitions such as finds in Greenland, starting in the 1930s (with more major finds in the 1980s), of fossils illustrating the evolution of tetrapods from fish, and fossils in China during the 1990s that shed light on the dinosaur-bird relationship. Other events that have attracted considerable attention have included the discovery of a series of fossils in Pakistan that have shed light on whale evolution, and most famously of all a series of finds throughout the 20th century in Africa (starting with Taung child in 1924) and elsewhere have helped illuminate the course of human evolution. Increasingly, at the end of the 20th century, the results of paleontology and molecular biology were being brought together to reveal detailed phylogenetic trees. The results of paleontology have also contributed to the development of evolutionary theory. In 1944 George Gaylord Simpson published Tempo and Mode in Evolution, which used quantitative analysis to show that the fossil record was consistent with the branching, non-directional, patterns predicted by the advocates of evolution driven by natural selection and genetic drift rather than the linear trends


id: history-of-paleontology-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_paleontology-9.md
category: reference
title: History of paleontology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_paleontology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:02.529558+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-paleontology-20260505-0
summary:
== References == Bowler, Peter J. (2003). Evolution: The History of an Idea. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-23693-6. Bowler, Peter J. (1992). The Earth Encompassed: A History of the Environmental Sciences. W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-32080-0. Bowler, Peter J.; Iwan Rhys Morus (2005). Making Modern Science. The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-06861-9. Desmond, Adrian (1975). "The Discovery of Marine Transgressions and the Explanation of Fossils in Antiquity". American Journal of Science, Volume 275. Larson, Edward J. (2004). Evolution: the remarkable history of scientific theory. Modern Library. ISBN 978-0-679-64288-6. McGowan, Christopher (2001). The Dragon Seekers. Persus Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7382-0282-2. Everhart, Michael J. (2005). Oceans of Kansas: A Natural History of the Western Interior Sea. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-34547-9. Greene, Marjorie; David Depew (2004). The Philosophy of Biology: An Episodic History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-64371-9. Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth. Caves Books Ltd. ISBN 978-0-253-34547-9. Robert Hooke (1665) Micrographia The Royal Society. Palmer, Douglas (2005) Earth Time: Exploring the Deep Past from Victorian England to the Grand Canyon. Wiley, Chichester. ISBN 978-0-470-02221-4 Rudwick, Martin J.S. (1997). Georges Cuvier, Fossil Bones, and Geological Catastrophes.


id: history-of-photography-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_photography-0.md
category: reference
title: History of photography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_photography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:03.827937+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-photography-20260505-0
summary:
The history of photography began with the discovery of two critical principles: The first is camera obscura image projection; the second is the discovery that some substances are visibly altered by exposure to light. There are no artifacts or descriptions that indicate any attempt to capture images with light sensitive materials prior to the 18th century. Around 1717, Johann Heinrich Schulze used a light-sensitive slurry to capture images of cut-out letters on a bottle. However, he did not pursue making these results permanent. Around 1800, Thomas Wedgwood made the first reliably documented, although unsuccessful attempt at capturing camera images in permanent form. His experiments did produce detailed photograms, but Wedgwood and his associate Humphry Davy found no way to fix these images. In 1826, Nicéphore Niépce first managed to fix an image that was captured with a camera, but at least eight hours or even several days of exposure in the camera were required and the earliest results were very crude. Niépce's associate Louis Daguerre went on to develop the daguerreotype process, the first publicly announced and commercially viable photographic process. The daguerreotype required only minutes of exposure in the camera, and produced clear, finely detailed results. On August 2,


id: history-of-photography-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_photography-1.md
category: reference
title: History of photography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_photography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:03.827937+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-photography-20260505-0
summary:
=== Before 1700: Light-sensitive materials === The notion that light can affect various substances—for instance, the sun tanning of skin or fading of textile—must have been around since very early times. Ideas of fixing the images seen in mirrors or other ways of creating images automatically may also have been in people's minds long before anything like photography was developed. However, there seem to be no historical records of any ideas even remotely resembling photography before 1700, despite early knowledge of light-sensitive materials and the camera obscura. In 1614 Angelo Sala noted that sunlight will turn powdered silver nitrate black, and that paper wrapped around silver nitrate for a year will turn black. Wilhelm Homberg described how light darkened some chemicals in 1694. == 1700 to 1802: earliest concepts and fleeting photogram results == === Schulze's Scotophors: earliest fleeting letter photograms (circa 1717) === Around 1717, German polymath Johann Heinrich Schulze accidentally discovered that a slurry of chalk and nitric acid into which some silver particles had been dissolved was darkened by sunlight. After experiments with threads that had created lines on the bottled substance after he placed it in direct sunlight for a while, he applied stencils of words


id: history-of-photography-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_photography-2.md
category: reference
title: History of photography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_photography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:03.827937+00:00
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parent: history-of-photography-20260505-0
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=== Thomas Wedgwood and Humphry Davy: Fleeting detailed photograms (1790–1802) === English photographer and inventor Thomas Wedgwood is believed to have been the first person to have thought of creating permanent pictures by capturing camera images on material coated with a light-sensitive chemical. He originally wanted to capture the images of a camera obscura, but found they were too faint to have an effect upon the silver nitrate solution that was recommended to him as a light-sensitive substance. Wedgwood did manage to copy painted glass plates and captured shadows on white leather, as well as on paper moistened with a silver nitrate solution. Attempts to preserve the results with their "distinct tints of brown or black, sensibly differing in intensity" failed. It is unclear when Wedgwood's experiments took place. He may have started before 1790; James Watt wrote a letter to Thomas Wedgwood's father Josiah Wedgwood to thank him "for your instructions as to the Silver Pictures, about which, when at home, I will make some experiments". This letter (now lost) is believed to have been written in 1790, 1791 or 1799. In 1802, an account by Humphry Davy detailing Wedgwood's experiments was published in an early journal of the


id: history-of-photography-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_photography-3.md
category: reference
title: History of photography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_photography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:03.827937+00:00
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parent: history-of-photography-20260505-0
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Niépce died suddenly in 1833, leaving his notes to Daguerre. More interested in silver-based processes than Niépce had been, Daguerre experimented with photographing camera images directly onto a mirror-like silver-surfaced plate that had been fumed with iodine vapor, which reacted with the silver to form a coating of silver iodide. As with the bitumen process, the result appeared as a positive when it was suitably lit and viewed. Exposure times were still impractically long until Daguerre made the pivotal discovery that an invisibly slight or "latent" image produced on such a plate by a much shorter exposure could be "developed" to full visibility by mercury fumes. This brought the required exposure time down to a few minutes under optimum conditions. A strong hot solution of common salt served to stabilize or fix the image by removing the remaining silver iodide. On 7 January 1839, this first complete practical photographic process was announced at a meeting of the French Academy of Sciences, and the news quickly spread. At first, all details of the process were withheld and specimens were shown only at Daguerre's studio, under his close supervision, to Academy members and other distinguished guests. Arrangements were made for the French


id: history-of-photography-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_photography-4.md
category: reference
title: History of photography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_photography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:03.827937+00:00
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parent: history-of-photography-20260505-0
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== 1850 to 1900 == In 1851, English sculptor Frederick Scott Archer invented the collodion process. Photographer and children's author Lewis Carroll used this process. Carroll refers to the process as "Talbotype" in the story "A Photographer's Day Out". Herbert Bowyer Berkeley discovered that with his own addition of sulfite, to absorb the sulfur dioxide given off by the chemical dithionite in the developer, dithionite was not required in the developing process. In 1881, he published his discovery. Berkeley's formula contained pyrogallol, sulfite, and citric acid. Ammonia was added just before use to make the formula alkaline. The new formula was sold by the Platinotype Company in London as Sulphur-Pyrogallol Developer. Nineteenth-century experimentation with photographic processes frequently became proprietary. The German-born, New Orleans photographer Theodore Lilienthal successfully sought legal redress in an 1881 infringement case involving his "Lambert Process" in the Eastern District of Louisiana. == Popularization == The daguerreotype proved popular in response to the demand for portraiture that emerged from the middle classes during the Industrial Revolution. This demand, which could not be met in volume and in cost by oil painting, added to the push for the development of photography. Roger Fenton and Philip Henry Delamotte helped


id: history-of-photography-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_photography-5.md
category: reference
title: History of photography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_photography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:03.827937+00:00
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parent: history-of-photography-20260505-0
summary:
A practical means of color photography was sought from the very beginning. Results were demonstrated by Edmond Becquerel as early as the year of 1848, but exposures lasting for hours or days were required and the captured colors were so light-sensitive they would only bear very brief inspection in dim light. The first color photograph was a set of three black-and-white photographs taken through red, green, and blue color filters and shown superimposed by using three projectors with similar filters. It was taken by Thomas Sutton in 1861 for use in a lecture by the Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell, who had proposed the method in 1855. The photographic emulsions then in use were insensitive to most of the spectrum, so the result was very imperfect and the demonstration was soon forgotten. Maxwell's method is now most widely known through the early 20th century work of Sergei Prokudin-Gorskii. It was made practical by Hermann Wilhelm Vogel's 1873 discovery of a way to make emulsions sensitive to the rest of the spectrum, gradually introduced into commercial use beginning in the mid-1880s. Two French inventors, Louis Ducos du Hauron and Charles Cros, working unknown to each other during the 1860s, famously unveiled


id: history-of-photography-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_photography-6.md
category: reference
title: History of photography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_photography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:03.827937+00:00
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parent: history-of-photography-20260505-0
summary:
1973 – Fairchild Semiconductor releases the first large image-capturing CCD chip: 100 rows and 100 columns. 1975 – Bryce Bayer of Kodak develops the Bayer filter mosaic pattern for CCD color image sensors 1986 – Kodak scientists develop the world's first megapixel sensor. The web has been a popular medium for storing and sharing photos ever since the first photograph was published on the web by Tim Berners-Lee in 1992 (an image of the CERN house band Les Horribles Cernettes). Since then sites and apps such as Facebook, Flickr, Instagram, Picasa (discontinued in 2016), Imgur, Photobucket and Snapchat have been used by many millions of people to share their pictures. == Gallery of historical photos == == See also == History of the camera History of Photography (academic journal) Albumen print History of photographic lens design Timeline of photography technology Outline of photography List of photographs considered the most important Photography by indigenous peoples of the Americas Women photographers Movie camera Instant film == References == == Further reading == Hannavy, John. Encyclopedia of Nineteenth-Century Photography, 5 volumes Clerc, L.P. Photography Theory and Practice, being an English edition of "La Technique Photographique" Manitta, Guglielmo (2024). Storia e origini della fotografia.


id: history-of-physics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physics-0.md
category: reference
title: History of physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:05.139372+00:00
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parent: history-of-physics-20260505-0
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Physics is a branch of science in which the primary objects of study are matter and energy. These topics were discussed across many cultures in ancient times by philosophers, but they had no means to distinguish causes of natural phenomena from superstitions. The Scientific Revolution of the 17th century, especially the discovery of the law of gravity, began a process of knowledge accumulation and specialization that gave rise to the field of physics. Mathematical advances of the 18th century gave rise to classical mechanics, and the increased used of the experimental method led to new understanding of thermodynamics. In the 19th century, the basic laws of electromagnetism and statistical mechanics were discovered. At the beginning of the 20th century, physics was transformed by the discoveries of quantum mechanics, relativity, and atomic theory. Physics today may be divided loosely into classical physics and modern physics. == Ancient history == Elements of what became physics were drawn primarily from the fields of astronomy, optics, and mechanics, which were methodologically united through the study of geometry. These mathematical disciplines began in antiquity with the Babylonians and with Hellenistic writers such as Archimedes and Ptolemy. Ancient philosophy, meanwhile, included what was called "Physics". ===


id: history-of-physics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physics-1.md
category: reference
title: History of physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physics
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In the 3rd century BCE, the Greek mathematician Archimedes of Syracuse Greek: Ἀρχιμήδης (287–212 BCE) – generally considered to be the greatest mathematician of antiquity and one of the greatest of all time – laid the foundations of hydrostatics, statics and calculated the underlying mathematics of the lever. A scientist of classical antiquity, Archimedes also developed elaborate systems of pulleys to move large objects with a minimum of effort. The Archimedes' screw underpins modern hydroengineering, and his machines of war helped to hold back the armies of Rome in the First Punic War. Archimedes even tore apart the arguments of Aristotle and his metaphysics, pointing out that it was impossible to separate mathematics and nature and proved it by converting mathematical theories into practical inventions. Furthermore, in his work On Floating Bodies, around 250 BCE, Archimedes developed the law of buoyancy, also known as Archimedes' principle. In mathematics, Archimedes used the method of exhaustion to calculate the area under the arc of a parabola with the summation of an infinite series, and gave a remarkably accurate approximation of pi. He also defined the spiral bearing his name, formulae for the volumes of surfaces of revolution and an ingenious system for


id: history-of-physics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physics-2.md
category: reference
title: History of physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:05.139372+00:00
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parent: history-of-physics-20260505-0
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In the 7th to 15th centuries, scientific progress occurred in the Muslim world. Many classic works in Indian, Assyrian, Sassanian (Persian) and Greek, including the works of Aristotle, were translated into Arabic. Important contributions were made by Ibn al-Haytham (965–1040), an Arab or Persian scientist, considered to be a founder of modern optics. Ptolemy and Aristotle theorised that light either shone from the eye to illuminate objects or that "forms" emanated from objects themselves, whereas al-Haytham (known by the Latin name "Alhazen") suggested that light travels to the eye in rays from different points on an object. The works of Ibn al-Haytham and al-Biruni (973–1050), a Persian scientist, eventually passed on to Western Europe where they were studied by scholars such as Roger Bacon and Vitello. Ibn al-Haytham used controlled experiments in his work on optics, although to what extent it differed from Ptolemy is debated. Arabic mechanics like Bīrūnī and Al-Khazini developed sophisticated "science of weight", carrying out measurements of specific weights and volumes. Ibn Sīnā (980–1037), known as "Avicenna", was a polymath from Bukhara (in present-day Uzbekistan) responsible for important contributions to physics, optics, philosophy and medicine. He published his theory of motion in Book of Healing (1020),


id: history-of-physics-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physics-3.md
category: reference
title: History of physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physics
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== Scientific Revolution == During the 16th and 17th centuries, a large advancement of scientific progress known as the Scientific Revolution took place in Europe. Dissatisfaction with older philosophical approaches had begun earlier and had produced other changes in society, such as the Protestant Reformation, but the revolution in science began when natural philosophers began to mount a sustained attack on the Scholastic philosophical programme and supposed that mathematical descriptive schemes adopted from such fields as mechanics and astronomy could actually yield universally valid characterizations of motion and other concepts. === Nicolaus Copernicus === A breakthrough in astronomy was made by Renaissance astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) when, in 1543, he gave strong arguments for the heliocentric model of the Solar System, ostensibly as a means to render tables charting planetary motion more accurate and to simplify their production. In heliocentric models of the Solar system, the Earth orbits the Sun along with other bodies in Earth's galaxy, a contradiction according to the Greek-Egyptian astronomer Ptolemy (2nd century CE; see above), whose system placed the Earth at the center of the Universe and had been accepted for over 1,400 years. The Greek astronomer Aristarchus of Samos (c. 310 – c. 230


id: history-of-physics-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physics-4.md
category: reference
title: History of physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physics
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Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) was a German astronomer, mathematician, astrologer, natural philosopher and a key figure in the 17th century Scientific Revolution, best known for his laws of planetary motion, and his books Astronomia nova, Harmonice Mundi, and Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae, influencing among others Isaac Newton, providing one of the foundations for his theory of universal gravitation. The variety and impact of his work made Kepler one of the founders of modern astronomy, the scientific method, natural and modern science. Kepler was partly driven by his belief that there is an intelligible plan that is accessible through reason. Kepler described his new astronomy as "celestial physics", as "an excursion into Aristotle's Metaphysics", and as "a supplement to Aristotle's On the Heavens", treating astronomy as part of a universal mathematical physics. === René Descartes === The French philosopher René Descartes (1596–1650) was well-connected to, and influential within, experimental philosophy networks. Descartes had an agenda, however, which was geared toward replacing the Scholastic philosophical tradition. Questioning the reality interpreted through the senses, Descartes sought to re-establish philosophical explanations by reducing all phenomena to the motion of an invisible sea of "corpuscles". (Notably, he reserved human thought and God from his scheme, holding these


id: history-of-physics-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physics-5.md
category: reference
title: History of physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physics
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The Dutch physicist, mathematician, astronomer and inventor Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695) was the leading scientist in Europe between Galileo and Newton. Huygens came from a family of nobility that had an important position in the Dutch society of the 17th century; a time in which the Dutch Republic flourished economically and culturally. This period – roughly between 1588 and 1702 – of the history of the Netherlands is also referred to as the Dutch Golden Age, an era during the Scientific Revolution when Dutch science was among the most acclaimed in Europe. At this time, intellectuals and scientists like René Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, Pierre Bayle, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, John Locke and Hugo Grotius resided in the Netherlands. It was in this intellectual environment that Christiaan Huygens grew up. Christiaan's father, Constantijn Huygens, was, apart from an important poet, the secretary and diplomat for the Princes of Orange. He knew many scientists of his time because of his contacts and intellectual interests, including René Descartes and Marin Mersenne, and it was because of these contacts that Christiaan Huygens became aware of their work, especially Descartes, whose mechanistic philosophy was going to have a huge influence on Huygens' own work. Descartes was later


id: history-of-physics-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physics-6.md
category: reference
title: History of physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:05.139372+00:00
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parent: history-of-physics-20260505-0
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Newton's principles (but not his mathematical treatments) proved controversial with Continental philosophers, who found his lack of metaphysical explanation for movement and gravitation philosophically unacceptable. Beginning around 1700, a bitter rift opened between the Continental and British philosophical traditions, which were stoked by heated, ongoing, and viciously personal disputes between the followers of Newton and Leibniz concerning priority over the analytical techniques of calculus, which each had developed independently. Initially, the Cartesian and Leibnizian traditions prevailed on the Continent (leading to the dominance of the Leibnizian calculus notation everywhere except Britain). Newton himself remained privately disturbed at the lack of a philosophical understanding of gravitation while insisting in his writings that none was necessary to infer its reality. As the 18th century progressed, Continental natural philosophers increasingly accepted the Newtonians' willingness to forgo ontological metaphysical explanations for mathematically described motions. Newton built the first functioning reflecting telescope and developed a theory of color, published in Opticks, based on the observation that a prism decomposes white light into the many colours forming the visible spectrum. While Newton explained light as being composed of tiny particles, a rival theory of light which explained its behavior in terms of waves was presented in


id: history-of-physics-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physics-7.md
category: reference
title: History of physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physics
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A precursor of the engine was designed by the German scientist Otto von Guericke who, in 1650, designed and built the world's first vacuum pump to create a vacuum as demonstrated in the Magdeburg hemispheres experiment. He was driven to make a vacuum to disprove Aristotle's long-held supposition that 'Nature abhors a vacuum'. Shortly thereafter, Irish physicist and chemist Boyle had learned of Guericke's designs and in 1656, in coordination with English scientist Robert Hooke, built an air pump. Using this pump, Boyle and Hooke noticed the pressure-volume correlation for a gas: PV = k, where P is pressure, V is volume and k is a constant: this relationship is known as Boyle's law. In that time, air was assumed to be a system of motionless particles, and not interpreted as a system of moving molecules. The concept of thermal motion came two centuries later. Therefore, Boyle's publication in 1660 speaks about a mechanical concept: the air spring. Later, after the invention of the thermometer, the property temperature could be quantified. This tool gave Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac the opportunity to derive his law, which led shortly later to the ideal gas law. But, already before the establishment of the ideal


id: history-of-physics-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physics-8.md
category: reference
title: History of physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physics
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In 1714, Brook Taylor derived the fundamental frequency of a stretched vibrating string in terms of its tension and mass per unit length by solving a differential equation. The Swiss mathematician Daniel Bernoulli (1700–1782) made important mathematical studies of the behavior of gases, anticipating the kinetic theory of gases developed more than a century later, and has been referred to as the first mathematical physicist. In 1733, Daniel Bernoulli derived the fundamental frequency and harmonics of a hanging chain by solving a differential equation. In 1734, Bernoulli solved the differential equation for the vibrations of an elastic bar clamped at one end. Bernoulli's treatment of fluid dynamics and his examination of fluid flow was introduced in his 1738 work Hydrodynamica. Rational mechanics dealt primarily with the development of elaborate mathematical treatments of observed motions, using Newtonian principles as a basis, and emphasized improving the tractability of complex calculations and developing of legitimate means of analytical approximation. A representative contemporary textbook was published by Johann Baptiste Horvath. By the end of the century analytical treatments were rigorous enough to verify the stability of the Solar System solely on the basis of Newton's laws without reference to divine intervention – even as


id: history-of-physics-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physics-9.md
category: reference
title: History of physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physics
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During the 18th century, thermodynamics was developed through the theories of weightless "imponderable fluids", such as heat ("caloric"), electricity, and phlogiston (which was rapidly overthrown as a concept following Antoine Lavoisier's identification of oxygen gas late in the century). Assuming that these concepts were real fluids, their flow could be traced through a mechanical apparatus or chemical reactions. This tradition of experimentation led to the development of new kinds of experimental apparatus, such as the Leyden jar; and new kinds of measuring instruments, such as the calorimeter, and improved versions of old ones, such as the thermometer. Experiments also produced new concepts, such as the University of Glasgow experimenter Joseph Black's notion of latent heat and Philadelphia intellectual Benjamin Franklin's characterization of electrical fluid as flowing between places of excess and deficit (a concept later reinterpreted in terms of positive and negative charges). Franklin also showed that lightning is electricity in 1752. The accepted theory of heat in the 18th century viewed it as a kind of fluid, called caloric; although this theory was later shown to be erroneous, a number of scientists adhering to it nevertheless made important discoveries useful in developing the modern theory, including Joseph Black (1728–1799)


id: history-of-physics-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physics-10.md
category: reference
title: History of physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:05.139372+00:00
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parent: history-of-physics-20260505-0
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In the 19th century, the connection between heat and mechanical energy was established quantitatively by Julius Robert von Mayer and James Prescott Joule, who measured the mechanical equivalent of heat in the 1840s. In 1849, Joule published results from his series of experiments (including the paddlewheel experiment) which show that heat is a form of energy, a fact that was accepted in the 1850s. The relation between heat and energy was important for the development of steam engines, and in 1824 the experimental and theoretical work of Sadi Carnot was published. Carnot captured some of the ideas of thermodynamics in his discussion of the efficiency of an idealized engine. Sadi Carnot's work provided a basis for the formulation of the first law of thermodynamics – a restatement of the law of conservation of energy – which was stated around 1850 by William Thomson, later known as Lord Kelvin, and Rudolf Clausius. Lord Kelvin, who had extended the concept of absolute zero from gases to all substances in 1848, drew upon the engineering theory of Lazare Carnot, Sadi Carnot, and Émile Clapeyron as well as the experimentation of James Prescott Joule on the interchangeability of mechanical, chemical, thermal, and electrical forms


id: history-of-physics-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physics-11.md
category: reference
title: History of physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physics
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At the end of the 19th century, physics had evolved to the point at which classical mechanics could cope with highly complex problems involving macroscopic situations; thermodynamics and kinetic theory were well established; geometrical and physical optics could be understood in terms of electromagnetic waves; and the conservation laws for energy and momentum (and mass) were widely accepted. So profound were these and other developments that it was generally accepted that all the important laws of physics had been discovered and that, henceforth, research would be concerned with clearing up minor problems and particularly with improvements of method and measurement. However, around 1900 serious doubts arose about the completeness of the classical theories – the triumph of Maxwell's theories, for example, was undermined by inadequacies that had already begun to appear – and their inability to explain certain physical phenomena, such as the energy distribution in blackbody radiation and the photoelectric effect, while some of the theoretical formulations led to paradoxes when pushed to the limit. Prominent physicists such as Hendrik Lorentz, Emil Cohn, Ernst Wiechert and Wilhelm Wien believed that some modification of Maxwell's equations might provide the basis for all physical laws. These shortcomings of classical physics were


id: history-of-physics-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physics-12.md
category: reference
title: History of physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physics
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==== Special relativity ==== Einstein argued that the speed of light was a constant in all inertial reference frames and that electromagnetic laws should remain valid independent of reference frame – assertions which rendered the ether "superfluous" to physical theory, and that held that observations of time and length varied relative to how the observer was moving with respect to the object being measured (what came to be called the "special theory of relativity"). It also followed that mass and energy were interchangeable quantities according to the equation E=mc2. In another paper published the same year, Einstein asserted that electromagnetic radiation was transmitted in discrete quantities ("quanta"), according to a constant that the theoretical physicist Max Planck had posited in 1900 to arrive at an accurate theory for the distribution of blackbody radiation – an assumption that explained the strange properties of the photoelectric effect. The special theory of relativity is a formulation of the relationship between physical observations and the concepts of space and time. The theory arose out of contradictions between electromagnetism and Newtonian mechanics and had great impact on both those areas. The original historical issue was whether it was meaningful to discuss the electromagnetic wave-carrying "ether"


id: history-of-physics-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physics-13.md
category: reference
title: History of physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:05.139372+00:00
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parent: history-of-physics-20260505-0
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Although relativity resolved the electromagnetic phenomena conflict demonstrated by Michelson and Morley, a second theoretical problem was the explanation of the distribution of electromagnetic radiation emitted by a black body; experiment showed that at shorter wavelengths, toward the ultraviolet end of the spectrum, the energy approached zero, but classical theory predicted it should become infinite. This glaring discrepancy, known as the ultraviolet catastrophe, was solved by the new theory of quantum mechanics. Quantum mechanics is the theory of atoms and subatomic systems. Approximately the first 30 years of the 20th century represent the time of the conception and evolution of the theory. The basic ideas of quantum theory were introduced in 1900 by Max Planck (1858–1947), who was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1918 for his discovery of the quantified nature of energy. The quantum theory (which previously relied in the "correspondence" at large scales between the quantized world of the atom and the continuities of the "classical" world) was accepted when the Compton Effect established that light carries momentum and can scatter off particles, and when Louis de Broglie asserted that matter can be seen as behaving as a wave in much the same way as electromagnetic


id: history-of-physics-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physics-14.md
category: reference
title: History of physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:05.139372+00:00
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parent: history-of-physics-20260505-0
summary:
the invention of the laser (1964 Nobel Prize in Physics); the theoretical and experimental research of superconductivity, especially the invention of a quantum theory of superconductivity by Vitaly Ginzburg and Lev Landau (1962 Nobel Prize in Physics) and, later, its explanation via Cooper pairs (1972 Nobel Prize in Physics). The Cooper pair was an early example of quasiparticles. === Unified field theories === Einstein deemed that all fundamental interactions in nature can be explained in a single theory. Unified field theories were numerous attempts to "merge" several interactions. One of many formulations of such theories (as well as field theories in general) is a gauge theory, a generalization of the idea of symmetry. Eventually the Standard Model (see below) succeeded in unification of strong, weak, and electromagnetic interactions. All attempts to unify gravitation with something else failed. === Particle physics and the Standard Model === When parity was broken in weak interactions by Chien-Shiung Wu in her experiment, a series of discoveries were created thereafter. The interaction of these particles by scattering and decay provided a key to new fundamental quantum theories. Murray Gell-Mann and Yuval Ne'eman brought some order to these new particles by classifying them according to certain


id: history-of-physics-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physics-15.md
category: reference
title: History of physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:05.139372+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-physics-20260505-0
summary:
"This is a big moment for particle physics and a crossroads – will this be the high water mark or will it be the first of many discoveries that point us toward solving the really big questions that we have posed?" Peter Higgs was one of six physicists, working in three independent groups, who, in 1964, invented the notion of the Higgs field ("cosmic molasses"). The others were Tom Kibble of Imperial College, London; Carl Hagen of the University of Rochester; Gerald Guralnik of Brown University; and François Englert and Robert Brout, both of Université libre de Bruxelles. Although they have never been seen, Higgslike fields play an important role in theories of the universe and in string theory. Under certain conditions, according to the strange accounting of Einsteinian physics, they can become suffused with energy that exerts an antigravitational force. Such fields have been proposed as the source of an enormous burst of expansion, known as inflation, early in the universe and, possibly, as the secret of the dark energy that now seems to be accelerating the expansion of the universe. === Physical sciences === With increased accessibility to and elaboration upon advanced analytical techniques in the 19th century,


id: history-of-political-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_political_science-0.md
category: reference
title: History of political science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_political_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:06.422366+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-political-science-20260505-0
summary:
While the term "political science" as a separate field is a rather late arrival in terms of social sciences, analyzing political power and the impact that it had on history has been occurring for centuries. However, the term "political science" was not always distinguished from political philosophy, and the modern discipline has a clear set of antecedents including moral philosophy, political economy, political theology, history, and other fields concerned with normative determinations of what ought to be and with deducing the characteristics and functions of the realist political state and the ideal state. == Western == === Ancient === The antecedents of Western politics can be traced back to the Socratic political philosophers, such as Aristotle ("The Father of Political Science") (384–322 BC). Aristotle was one of the first people to give a working definition of political science. He believed that it was a powerful branch of science, and that it held special authority over other branches, such as military science. Political philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle began to analyze political thought in a way that placed more significance on the scientific aspect of political science, which was contrary to how it was portrayed by the Greek philosophers that


id: history-of-political-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_political_science-1.md
category: reference
title: History of political science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_political_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:06.422366+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-political-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Renaissance === During the Italian Renaissance, Niccolò Machiavelli established the emphasis of modern political science on direct empirical observation of political institutions and actors. In his treatise, The Prince, Machiavelli famously posited that at certain times in a prince's reign, controversial means should be considered if they help establish a prince royal authority. Machiavelli therefore also argues against the use of idealistic models in politics, and has been described as the father of the "politics model" of political science. In this work he expounds on how one should proceed in establishing and running a republic. However, some similar themes from The Prince can even be found in the Discourses as well. Later, the expansion of the scientific paradigm during the Enlightenment further pushed the study of politics beyond normative determinations. === Enlightenment === The works of the French philosophers Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot to name a few are paragon for political analysis, social science, social and political critic. Their influence leading to the French revolution has been enormous in the development of modern democracy throughout the world. Thomas Hobbes, well known for his theory of the social contract, believed that a strong central power, such as a monarchy, was necessary


id: history-of-political-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_political_science-2.md
category: reference
title: History of political science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_political_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:06.422366+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-political-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== Canada ==== Canadian universities until the 1950s were led by British trained scholars for whom political science was not a high priority. Canadians favoured the study of political economy. After 1950 younger scholars increasingly took American PhDs and Canadian departments promoted behavioralism and quantification. ==== Europe ==== Political science operates on a smaller scale in European universities compared to American ones. Traditionally political studies were handled by law professors or professors of philosophy. American impulses toward behavioralism have made the European Consortium for Political Research (ECPR) is a unifying force. It sponsors several scholarly journals including European Political Science (EPS) (since 2001), European Journal of Political Research (EJPR) and European Political Science Review (EPSR). ==== Soviet Union ==== In the Soviet Union, political studies were carried out under the guise of some other disciplines like theory of state and law, area studies, international relations, studies of labor movement, "critique of bourgeois theories", etc. Soviet scholars were represented at the International Political Science Association (IPSA) since 1955 (since 1960 by the Soviet Association of Political and State Studies). In 1979, the 11th World Congress of IPSA took place in Moscow. Until the late years of the Soviet Union, political science


id: history-of-political-thought-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_political_thought-0.md
category: reference
title: History of political thought
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_political_thought
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:07.654625+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-political-thought-20260505-0
summary:
The history of political thought encompasses the chronology and the substantive and methodological changes of human political thought. The study of the history of political thought represents an intersection of various academic disciplines, such as philosophy, law, history and political science. Many histories of Western political thought trace its origins to ancient Greece (specifically to Athenian democracy and Ancient Greek philosophy). The political philosophy of thinkers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle are traditionally elevated as exceptionally important and influential in such works. Non-Western traditions and histories of political thought have, by comparison, often been underrepresented in academic research. Such non-Western traditions of political thought have been identified, among others, in ancient China (specifically in the form of early Chinese philosophy), and in ancient India (where the Arthashastra represents an early treatise on governance and politics). Another notable non-Western school of political thought emerged in the 7th century, when the spread of Islam rapidly expanded the outreach of Islamic political philosophy. The study of the history of political thought has inspired academic journals, and has been furthered by university programs. == Ancient political thought == === China === From around 770 BCE, China began to experience a time of peace


id: history-of-political-thought-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_political_thought-1.md
category: reference
title: History of political thought
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_political_thought
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:07.654625+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-political-thought-20260505-0
summary:
=== Europe === Medieval political philosophy in Europe was heavily influenced by Christian thinking. It had much in common with the Mutazilite Islamic thinking in that the Roman Catholics thought subordinating philosophy to theology did not subject reason to revelation but in the case of contradictions, subordinated reason to faith as the Asharite of Islam. The Scholastics by combining the philosophy of Aristotle with the Christianity of St. Augustine emphasized the potential harmony inherent in reason and revelation. Scholastic political philosophy dominated European thought for centuries even unto the Renaissance. Some medieval political philosophers, such as Aquinas in his Summa Theologica, developed the idea that a king who is a tyrant is no king at all and could be overthrown. Others, like Nicole Oresme in his Livre de Politiques, categorically denied this right to overthrow an unjust ruler. Magna Carta, viewed by many as a cornerstone of Anglo-American political liberty, explicitly proposes the right to revolt against the ruler for justice's sake. Other documents similar to Magna Carta are found in other European countries such as Spain and Hungary. ==== Saint Augustine ==== The early Christian philosophy of Augustine of Hippo was heavily influenced by Plato. A key change brought


id: history-of-political-thought-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_political_thought-2.md
category: reference
title: History of political thought
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_political_thought
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:07.654625+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-political-thought-20260505-0
summary:
==== Ibn Khaldun ==== The 14th-century Arab scholar Ibn Khaldun is considered one of the greatest political theorists. The British philosopher-anthropologist Ernest Gellner considered Ibn Khaldun's definition of government, "...an institution which prevents injustice other than such as it commits itself", the best in the history of political theory. For Ibn Khaldun, government should be restrained to a minimum for as a necessary evil, it is the constraint of men by other men. == Modern political thought == === Renaissance === During the Renaissance secular political philosophy began to emerge after about a century of theological political thought in Europe. One of the most influential works during this burgeoning period was Niccolò Machiavelli's The Prince, written around 1513 and published posthumously in 1532, after Machiavelli's death. That work, as well as The Discourses, a rigorous analysis of classical antiquity, did much to influence modern political thought in the West. Though the work was written for the Medici family in order to perhaps influence them to free him from exile, Machiavelli supported the Republic of Florence rather than the principate of the Medici family. At any rate, Machiavelli presents a rather novel and controversial view of politics, whereby the acquisition and


id: history-of-political-thought-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_political_thought-3.md
category: reference
title: History of political thought
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_political_thought
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:07.654625+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-political-thought-20260505-0
summary:
During the Enlightenment period, new theories emerged about what the human was and is and about the definition of reality and the way it was perceived, along with the discovery of other societies in the Americas, and the changing needs of political societies (especially in the wake of the English Civil War, the American Revolution, the French Revolution, and the Haitian Revolution). These new theories led to new questions and insights by thinkers such as Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Benjamin Constant and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. These theorists were driven by two basic questions: one, by what right or need do people form states; and two, what the best form for a state could be. These fundamental questions involved a conceptual distinction between the concepts of "state" and "government." It was decided that "state" would refer to a set of enduring institutions through which power would be distributed and its use justified. The term "government" would refer to a specific group of people who occupied the institutions of the state, and create the laws and ordinances by which the people, themselves included, would be bound. This conceptual distinction continues to operate in political science, although some political scientists, philosophers, historians and cultural


id: history-of-political-thought-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_political_thought-4.md
category: reference
title: History of political thought
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_political_thought
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:07.654625+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-political-thought-20260505-0
summary:
==== Immanuel Kant ==== Immanuel Kant argued that participation in civil society is undertaken not for self-preservation, as per Thomas Hobbes, but as a moral duty. He was the first modern thinker who fully analyzed structure and meaning of obligation. He also argued that an international organization was needed to preserve world peace. ==== John Stuart Mill ==== John Stuart Mill's work on political philosophy begins in On Liberty, the most influential statement of his liberal principles. He begins by distinguishing old and new threats to liberty. The old threat to liberty is found in traditional societies in which there is rule by one (a monarchy) or a few (an aristocracy). Though one could be worried about restrictions on liberty by benevolent monarchs or aristocrats, the traditional worry is that when rulers are politically unaccountable to the governed they will rule in their own interests, rather than the interests of the governed. Mill's explicit theory of rights is introduced in Chapter V of Utilitarianism in the context of his sanction theory of duty, which is an indirect form of utilitarianism that identifies wrong actions as actions that it is useful to sanction. Mill then introduces justice as a proper part


id: history-of-political-thought-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_political_thought-5.md
category: reference
title: History of political thought
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_political_thought
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:07.654625+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-political-thought-20260505-0
summary:
==== Jean-Jacques Rousseau ==== Rousseau analyzed the social contract as an expression of the general will, and controversially argued in favor of absolute democracy where the people at large would act as sovereign. The Social Contract (1762) outlines the basis for a legitimate political order within a framework of classical republicanism, becoming one of the most influential works of political philosophy in the Western tradition. It developed some of the ideas mentioned in earlier work, the article Discours sur l'oeconomie politique (Discourse on Political Economy), featured in Diderot's Encyclopédie. The treatise begins with the dramatic opening lines, "Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains. Those who think themselves the masters of others are indeed greater slaves than they." Rousseau claimed that the state of nature was a primitive condition without law or morality, which human beings left for the benefits and necessity of cooperation. As society developed, the division of labor and private property required the human race to adopt institutions of law. In the degenerate phase of society, man is prone to be in frequent competition with his fellow men while also becoming increasingly dependent on them. This double pressure threatens both his survival and his


id: history-of-political-thought-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_political_thought-6.md
category: reference
title: History of political thought
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_political_thought
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:07.654625+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-political-thought-20260505-0
summary:
An Irish member of the British parliament, Edmund Burke is credited with the creation of conservative thought. Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France is the most popular of his writings where he denounced the French Revolution, although he supported the American Revolution. An exponent of liberal conservatism, French sociologist Alexis de Tocqueville is known for his works Democracy in America and The Old Regime and the Revolution. A German political theorist of the Conservative Revolution movement, Carl Schmitt developed the concepts of the friend/enemy distinction, the state of exception, and political theology. Though his most influential books were written in the 1920s, he continued to write prolifically until his death (in academic quasi-exile) in 1985. He heavily influenced 20th-century political philosophy. Leo Strauss famously rejected modernity, mostly on the grounds of what he perceived to be modern political philosophy's excessive self-sufficiency of reason and flawed philosophical grounds for moral and political normativity. He argued instead that we should return to pre-modern thinkers for answers to contemporary issues. His philosophy was influential on the formation of neoconservatism, and a number of his students later were members of the Bush administration. === Intersectionality === Colonialism and racism were important issues that


id: history-of-political-thought-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_political_thought-7.md
category: reference
title: History of political thought
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_political_thought
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:07.654625+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-political-thought-20260505-0
summary:
A pair of overlapping political perspectives arising toward the end of the 20th century are republicanism (or neo- or civic-republicanism) and the capability approach. The resurgent republican movement aims to provide an alternative definition of liberty from Isaiah Berlin's positive and negative forms of liberty, namely "liberty as non-domination." Unlike the American liberal movement which understands liberty as "non-interference", "non-domination" entails individuals not being subject to the arbitrary will of any other person. To a republican the mere status as a slave, regardless of how that slave is treated, is objectionable. Prominent republicans include historian Quentin Skinner, jurist Cass Sunstein, and political philosopher Philip Pettit. The capability approach, pioneered by economists Mahbub ul Haq and Amartya Sen and further developed by legal scholar Martha Nussbaum, understands freedom under allied lines: the real-world ability to act. Both the capability approach and republicanism treat choice as something which must be resourced. In other words, it is not enough to be legally able to do something, but to have the real option of doing it. === Social liberalism === In Anglo-American academic political philosophy, the publication of John Rawls's A Theory of Justice in 1971 is considered a milestone. Rawls used a thought


id: history-of-printing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_printing-0.md
category: reference
title: History of printing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_printing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:08.952923+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-printing-20260505-0
summary:
Printing emerged as early as the 4th millennium BCE in the form of cylinder seals used by the Proto-Elamite and Sumerian civilizations to certify documents written on clay tablets. Other early forms include block seals, hammered coinage, pottery imprints, and cloth printing. Initially a method of printing patterns on cloth such as silk, woodblock printing for texts on paper originated in Tang China by the 7th century, to the spread of book production and woodblock printing in other parts of Asia such as Korea and Japan. The Chinese Buddhist Diamond Sutra, printed by woodblock on 11 May 868, is the earliest known printed book with a precise publishing date. Movable type was invented in China during the 11th century by the Song dynasty artisan Bi Sheng, but it received limited use compared to woodblock printing. However, the use of copper movable types was documented in a Song-era book from 1193, and the earliest printed paper money using movable metal type to print the identifying codes were made in 1161. The technology also spread outside China, with the oldest extant printed book using metal movable type being the Jikji, printed in Korea in 1377 during the Goryeo era. Woodblock printing was


id: history-of-printing-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_printing-1.md
category: reference
title: History of printing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_printing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:08.952923+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-printing-20260505-0
summary:
== Woodblock printing == Woodblock printing, known as xylography today, was the first method of printing applied to a paper medium. It became widely used throughout East Asia both as a method for printing on textiles and later, under the influence of Buddhism, on paper. As a method of printing on cloth, the earliest surviving examples from China date to the Han dynasty (before 220 CE). Ukiyo-e is the best known type of Japanese woodblock art print. Most European uses of the technique on paper are covered by the term woodcut, except for the block books produced mainly in the 15th century. === Legendary origins === According to the Book of the Southern Qi, in the 480s, a man named Gong Xuanyi (龔玄宜) styled himself Gong the Sage and "said that a supernatural being had given him a 'jade seal jade block writing', which did not require a brush: one blew on the paper and characters formed." He then used his powers to mystify a local governor. Eventually he was dealt with by the governor's successor, who presumably executed Gong. Timothy Hugh Barrett postulates that Gong's magical jade block was actually a printing device, and Gong was one of the


id: history-of-printing-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_printing-2.md
category: reference
title: History of printing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_printing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:08.952923+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-printing-20260505-0
summary:
Carvers tended to congregate in centers of book production. By the mid-thirteenth century, thus, they worked in at least ninety-one prefectures in south China, but mainly in Hangzhou, Jianyang in northern Fujian, and Chengdu in Sichuan. In the Jin and Yuan dynasties, the centers of production were Pingyang prefecture in southern Shanxi Province and, once again for southeast China, Hangzhou and Jianyang. By the late Ming, the lower Yangzi delta, mainly Suzhou and Nanjing, would dominate along with Jianyang. By the early seventeenth century, carvers would also have found their way to provinces that, in the Song and Yuan, had produced only a few books (e.g., Hunan, Shaanxi, and Guangdong) but had recently started to print a fair number of imprints for the book market. In 989 Seongjong of Goryeo sent the monk Yeoga to request from the Song a copy of the complete Buddhist canon. The request was granted in 991 when Seongjong's official Han Eongong visited the Song court. In 1011, Hyeonjong of Goryeo issued the carving of their own set of the Buddhist canon, which would come to be known as the Goryeo Daejanggyeong. The project was suspended in 1031 after Heyongjong's death, but work resumed in


id: history-of-printing-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_printing-3.md
category: reference
title: History of printing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_printing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:08.952923+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-printing-20260505-0
summary:
The emperor went to the Directorate of Education to inspect the Publications Office. He asked Xing Bing how many woodblocks were kept there. Bing replied, "At the start of our dynasty, there were fewer than four thousand. Today, there are more than one hundred thousand. The classics and histories, together with standard commentaries, are all fully represented. When I was young and devoted myself to learning, there were only one or two scholars in every hundred who possessed copies of all the classics and commentaries. There was no way to copy so many works. Today, printed editions of these works are abundant, and officials and commoners alike have them in their homes. Scholars are fortunate indeed to have been born in such an era as ours! In 1076, the 39-year old Su Shi remarked upon the unforeseen effect an abundance of books had on examination candidates: I can recall meeting older scholars, long ago, who said that when they were young they had a hard time getting their hands on a copy of Shiji or Han shu. If they were lucky enough to get one, they thought nothing of copying the entire text out by hand, so they could recite


id: history-of-printing-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_printing-4.md
category: reference
title: History of printing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_printing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:08.952923+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-printing-20260505-0
summary:
=== Central Asia and Iran === Printing started appearing further west after its invention in China. The Uyghurs used wooden movable type by the 12th-13th centuries. In 1908, more than a thousand pieces of Uyghur type made of wood, engraved in Sogdian script, were discovered in Dunhuang. To date no manuscripts or fragments using Uyghur movable type have been identified, but traces of ink on the movable type have been found, confirming their use. The Uyghurs also made use of woodblock printing by the 14th century. Printed texts discovered in Turfan dating to around 1300 contained multiple languages such as Sogdian, Sanskrit, Uyghur, and Chinese. Some of them had titles and page numbers in Chinese which suggests that they were produced by Chinese craftsmen. Fragments of Buddhist texts were printed in both Uyghur and Chinese while bearing a red Chinese seal. A Mongolian calendar dated to 1324 with printed Uyghur text was discovered in Turfan. It is speculated that printing was spread further west by Uyghurs under the Mongol Empire. A large number of Uyghurs were recruited by the Mongol army and Uyghur culture played an important role in the empire. After the Mongols incorporated Persia under their dominion, woodblock


id: history-of-printing-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_printing-5.md
category: reference
title: History of printing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_printing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:08.952923+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-printing-20260505-0
summary:
Woodblock printing was used for textile patterns in Europe by the mid-14th century and for images on sheets by the end of the century. Block prints were produced in southern Germany and Venice and across central Europe between 1400 and 1450. They were all religious in nature and most of them are undated, but they are believed to have been produced in the late 14th and early 15th centuries. They were printed as outlines and filled in with color manually by hand or stencil. Block books appeared in Germany c. 1400. There is no conclusive evidence that Chinese printing technology spread to Europe. However a number of authors have advanced theories in favor of a Chinese origin for European printing based on early references and circumstantial evidence. Tsien suggests that woodblock printing may have spread from China to Europe due to communications during the Mongol Empire era and based on similarities between blockprints in both areas. Tsien suggests that European missionaries to China during the 14th century could have borrowed the practice of creating prints to be colored manually later on, which had been prevalent in China for a long time with Buddhist prints. The block books of Europe were


id: history-of-printing-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_printing-6.md
category: reference
title: History of printing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_printing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:08.952923+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-printing-20260505-0
summary:
=== Wooden movable type === Bi Sheng also developed wooden movable type, but it was abandoned in favor of ceramic types due to the presence of wood grains and the unevenness of the wooden type after being soaked in ink. However wooden movable type had evidently reached the Tangut Western Xia to the west by the 12th century. There, the Tanguts printed the Auspicious Tantra of All-Reaching Union, a 449-page text considered to be the earliest extant example of a text printed using the wooden movable type. The Auspicious Tantra texts were found in the ruins of the Baisigou Square Pagoda in the Helan Mountains, Ningxia. They feature traits of movable type texts such as identical length bar lines, some characters printed upside down, different shades of ink, and interlaced lines. Another Tangut text known as the Avatamsaka Sutra contains descriptions of the merits of wooden movable type such as a "vow to carve individual characters", "those engaged in typesetting are virtuous", and "those engaged in carving characters and printing are intelligent and can expect to have their wishes fulfilled". The text shows traits of movable type such as correcting mistakes by directly overlaying incorrect characters with the correct ones.


id: history-of-printing-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_printing-7.md
category: reference
title: History of printing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_printing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:08.952923+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-printing-20260505-0
summary:
=== China === During the Ming and Qing dynasties, both wooden and metal movable types were quite common, but the preferred printing method remained woodblock. During the Qing dynasty, the printing house inside the Forbidden City used movable copper type to print the Gujin tushu jicheng. The metal fonts were melted down for coins at the start of the Qianlong Emperor's reign in 1735. Later another set of movable type was created to print the Siku quanshu, but the material chosen was wood rather than metal to cut down on costs. In one case an entire set of wooden type numbering 250,000 pieces was used only for printing the emperor's rare book collection, and then used for firewood. Despite official patronage of movable type prints, the Forbidden City's printing house never used it for more than 10 percent of all printed materials while 90 percent of printed books used the older woodblock technology. Woodblocks remained the dominant printing method in China until the introduction of lithography in the late 19th century. ==== Korea ==== Metal movable type received most use among the East Asian countries in Korea where it was most widespread, but it still never replaced woodblock printing. The


id: history-of-printing-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_printing-8.md
category: reference
title: History of printing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_printing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:08.952923+00:00
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==== Movable type vs. woodblock printing ==== Traditionally it has been assumed that the prevalence of woodblock printing in East Asia as a result of Chinese characters led to the stagnation of printing culture and enterprise in that region. S. H. Steinberg describes woodblock printing in his Five Hundred Years of Printing as having "outlived their usefulness" and their printed material as "cheap tracts for the half-literate, ... which anyway had to be very brief because of the laborious process of cutting the letters." John Man's The Gutenberg Revolution makes a similar case: "wood-blocks were even more demanding than manuscript pages to make, and they wore out and broke, and then you had to carve another one – a whole page at a time." Recent commentaries on printing in China using contemporary European observers with first hand knowledge complicate the traditional narrative. T. H. Barrett points out that only Europeans who had never seen Chinese woodblock printing in action tended to dismiss it, perhaps due to the almost instantaneous arrival of both xylography and movable type in Europe. The early Jesuit missionaries of late 16th-century China, for instance, had a similar distaste for wood based printing for very different reasons.


id: history-of-printing-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_printing-9.md
category: reference
title: History of printing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_printing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:08.952923+00:00
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parent: history-of-printing-20260505-0
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== Theory of movable type transmission == According to a tradition in Feltre and Lombardy, an Italian engraver named Panfilo Castaldi (1398–1490) introduced movable type to Europe after having seen Chinese books brought by Marco Polo. Inspired by the Chinese prints, Castaldi started using wooden movable type and he printed several broadsides at Venice in 1426. The tradition tracing movable type to Castaldi also states that Johannes Gutenberg's wife saw Chinese printing blocks in Venice, which inspired their own invention of printing. This story was recorded by Robert Curzon citing a news article written by a doctor from Feltre dated 1843. Henry Yule (1820–1889), who translated Marco Polo's works, viewed the story with skepticism but believed that Chinese wood blocks could have been transferred via travelers. Guido Panciroli (1523–1599) disputed the theory of European movable type originating in China. Panciroli stated that Gutenberg's movable type was different from that of China and was a "modern thing" although he did not specify what the differences were. André Blum based the difference on the production of movable characters made from a fusible metal. This required three things: "a matrix or mould in which the letter is engraved in intaglio, an alloy cast


id: history-of-printing-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_printing-10.md
category: reference
title: History of printing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_printing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:08.952923+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-printing-20260505-0
summary:
It is traditionally surmised that Johannes Gutenberg, of the German city of Mainz, developed European movable type printing technology with the printing press around 1439 and in just over a decade, the European age of printing began. However, the evidence shows a more complex evolutionary process, spread over multiple locations. Also, Johann Fust and Peter Schöffer experimented with Gutenberg in Mainz. A finding in 2015 brought evidence of quires as claimed by extensive research, printed in 1444–1446 possibly assigned to Procopius Waldvogel. Compared to woodblock printing, movable type page-setting was quicker and more durable. The metal type pieces were more durable and the lettering was more uniform, leading to typography and fonts. The high quality and relatively low price of the Gutenberg Bible (1455) established the superiority of movable type, and printing presses rapidly spread across Europe, leading up to the Renaissance, and later all around the world. Today, practically all movable type printing ultimately derives from Gutenberg's movable type printing, which is often regarded as the most important invention of the second millennium. Gutenberg is also credited with the introduction of an oil-based ink which was more durable than previously used water-based inks. Having worked as a professional goldsmith,


id: history-of-printing-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_printing-11.md
category: reference
title: History of printing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_printing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:08.952923+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-printing-20260505-0
summary:
Print shop apprentices: Apprentices, usually between the ages of 15 and 20, worked for master printers. Apprentices were not required to be literate, and literacy rates at the time were very low, in comparison to today. Apprentices prepared ink, dampened sheets of paper, and assisted at the press. An apprentice who wished to learn to become a compositor had to learn Latin and spend time under the supervision of a journeyman. Journeyman printers: After completing their apprenticeships, journeyman printers were free to move employers. This facilitated the spread of printing to areas that were less print-centred. Compositors: Those who set the type for printing. Pressmen: the person who worked the press. This was physically labour-intensive. The earliest-known image of a European, Gutenberg-style print shop is the Dance of Death by Matthias Huss, at Lyon, 1499. This image depicts a compositor standing at a compositor's case being grabbed by a skeleton. The case is raised to facilitate his work. At the right of the printing house a bookshop is shown. ==== Financial aspects ==== According to court records from the city of Mainz, Johannes Fust was for some time Gutenberg's financial backer. By the 16th century jobs in printing were becoming


id: history-of-printing-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_printing-12.md
category: reference
title: History of printing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_printing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:08.952923+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-printing-20260505-0
summary:
Invented by Bavarian author Alois Senefelder in 1796, lithography is a method for printing on a smooth surface. Lithography is a printing process that uses chemical processes to create an image. For instance, the positive part of an image would be a hydrophobic chemical, while the negative image would be water. Thus, when the plate is introduced to a compatible ink and water mixture, the ink will adhere to the positive image and the water will clean the negative image. This allows for a relatively flat print plate which allows for much longer runs than the older physical methods of imaging (e.g., embossing or engraving). High-volume lithography is used today to produce posters, maps, books, newspapers, and packaging — just about any smooth, mass-produced item with print and graphics on it. Most books, indeed all types of high-volume text, are now printed using offset lithography. In offset lithography, which depends on photographic processes, flexible aluminum, polyester, mylar or paper printing plates are used in place of stone tablets. Modern printing plates have a brushed or roughened texture and are covered with a photosensitive emulsion. A photographic negative of the desired image is placed in contact with the emulsion and the


id: history-of-printing-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_printing-13.md
category: reference
title: History of printing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_printing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:08.952923+00:00
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parent: history-of-printing-20260505-0
summary:
A dot matrix printer or impact matrix printer is a type of computer printer with a print head that runs back and forth on the page and prints by impact, striking an ink-soaked cloth ribbon against the paper, much like a typewriter. Unlike a typewriter or daisy wheel printer, letters are drawn out of a dot matrix, and thus, varied fonts and arbitrary graphics can be produced. Because the printing involves mechanical pressure, these printers can create carbon copies and carbonless copies. Each dot is produced by a tiny metal rod, also called a "wire" or "pin", which is driven forward by the power of a tiny electromagnet or solenoid, either directly or through small levers (pawls). Facing the ribbon and the paper is a small guide plate (often made of an artificial jewel such as sapphire or ruby) pierced with holes to serve as guides for the pins. The moving portion of the printer is called the print head, and when running the printer as a generic text device generally prints one line of text at a time. Most dot matrix printers have a single vertical line of dot-making equipment on their print heads; others have a few interleaved


id: history-of-printing-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_printing-14.md
category: reference
title: History of printing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_printing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:08.952923+00:00
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parent: history-of-printing-20260505-0
summary:
Three-dimensional printing is a method of converting a virtual 3D model into a physical object. 3D printing is a category of rapid prototyping technology. 3D printers typically work by 'printing' successive layers on top of the previous to build up a three dimensional object. 3D printers are generally faster, more affordable and easier to use than other additive fabrication technologies. == Technological developments == === Woodcut === Woodcut is a relief printing artistic technique in printmaking in which an image is carved into the surface of a block of wood, with the printing parts remaining level with the surface while the non-printing parts are removed, typically with gouges. The areas to show 'white' are cut away with a knife or chisel, leaving the characters or image to show in 'black' at the original surface level. The block is cut along the grain of the wood (unlike wood engraving where the block is cut in the end-grain). In Europe beechwood was most commonly used; in Japan, a special type of cherry wood was popular. Woodcut first appeared in ancient China. From 6th century onward, woodcut icons became popular and especially flourished in Chinese Buddhism. Since the 10th century, woodcut pictures appeared


id: history-of-printing-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_printing-15.md
category: reference
title: History of printing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_printing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:08.952923+00:00
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parent: history-of-printing-20260505-0
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Halftone is the reprographic technique that simulates ones it is continuous tone imagery through the use of equally spaced dots of varying size. 'Halftone' can also be used to refer specifically to the image that is produced by this process. The idea of halftone printing originates from William Fox Talbot. In the early 1850s he suggested using "photographic screens or veils" in connection with a photographic intaglio process. Several different kinds of screens were proposed during the following decades, but the first half-tone photo-engraving process was invented by Canadians George-Édouard Desbarats and William Leggo Jr. On October 30, 1869, Desbarats published the Canadian Illustrated News which became the world's first periodical to successfully employ this photo-mechanical technique; featuring a full page half-tone image of His Royal Highness Prince Arthur, from a photograph by Notman. Ambitious to exploit a much larger circulation, Debarats and Leggo went to New York and launched the New York Daily Graphic in March 1873, which became the world's first illustrated daily. The first truly successful commercial method was patented by Frederic Ives of Philadelphia in 1881. But although he found a way of breaking up the image into dots of varying sizes he did not make


id: history-of-psychiatry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychiatry-0.md
category: reference
title: History of psychiatry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychiatry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:10.205887+00:00
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parent: history-of-psychiatry-20260505-0
summary:
History of psychiatry is the study of the history of and changes in psychiatry, a medical specialty which diagnoses, prevents and treats mental disorders. == Ancient == Specialty in psychiatry can be traced in Ancient India. The oldest texts on psychiatry include the ayurvedic text, Charaka Samhita. Some of the first hospitals for curing mental illness were established during the 3rd century BCE. During the 5th century BCE, mental disorders, especially those with psychotic traits, were considered supernatural in origin, a view which existed throughout ancient Greece and Rome. The beginning of psychiatry as a medical specialty is dated to the middle of the nineteenth century, although one may trace its germination to the late eighteenth century. Some of the early manuals about mental disorders were created by the Greeks. In the 4th century BCE, Hippocrates theorized that physiological abnormalities may be the root of mental disorders. In 4th- to 5th-century BCE Greece, Hippocrates wrote that he visited Democritus and found him in his garden cutting open animals. Democritus explained that he was attempting to discover the cause of madness and melancholy. Hippocrates praised his work. Democritus had with him a book on madness and melancholy. Religious leaders often turned


id: history-of-psychiatry-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychiatry-1.md
category: reference
title: History of psychiatry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychiatry
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parent: history-of-psychiatry-20260505-0
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== Humanitarian reform == In Saxony, a new social policy was implemented at the beginning of the 18th century in which criminals, prostitutes, vagrants, orphans, and the mentally ill were incarcerated and re-educated in the concepts of the Enlightenment. As a result, a variety of jails, approved schools, and insane asylums were constructed, including the hospital "Chur-Sachisches Zucht-Waysen und Armen-Haus" in Waldheim in 1716, which was the first governmental institution dedicated to the care of the mentally ill on the German territory. Attitudes towards the mentally ill began to change. It came to be viewed as a disorder that required compassionate treatment that would aid in the rehabilitation of the victim. In 1758, English physician William Battie wrote his Treatise on Madness on the management of mental disorder. It was a critique aimed particularly at the Bethlem Hospital, where a conservative regime continued to use barbaric custodial treatment. Battie argued for a tailored management of patients entailing cleanliness, good food, fresh air, and distraction from friends and family. He argued that mental disorder originated from dysfunction of the material brain and body rather than the internal workings of the mind. Thirty years later, then ruling monarch in England George III


id: history-of-psychiatry-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychiatry-2.md
category: reference
title: History of psychiatry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychiatry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:10.205887+00:00
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parent: history-of-psychiatry-20260505-0
summary:
The modern era of providing care for the mentally ill began in the early 19th century with a large state-led effort. Public mental asylums were established in Britain after the passing of the 1808 County Asylums Act. This empowered magistrates to build rate-supported asylums in every county to house the many 'pauper lunatics'. Nine counties first applied, and the first public asylum opened in 1812 in Nottinghamshire. Parliamentary Committees were established to investigate abuses at private madhouses like Bethlem Hospital - its officers were eventually dismissed and national attention was focused on the routine use of bars, chains and handcuffs and the filthy conditions the inmates lived in. However, it was not until 1828 that the newly appointed Commissioners in Lunacy were empowered to license and supervise private asylums. The Lunacy Act 1845 was an important landmark in the treatment of the mentally ill, as it explicitly changed the status of mentally ill people to patients who required treatment. The Act created the Lunacy Commission, headed by Lord Shaftesbury, to focus on lunacy legislation reform. The commission was made up of eleven Metropolitan Commissioners who were required to carry out the provisions of the Act; the compulsory construction of asylums


id: history-of-psychiatry-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychiatry-3.md
category: reference
title: History of psychiatry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychiatry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:10.205887+00:00
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parent: history-of-psychiatry-20260505-0
summary:
Biological psychiatry reemerged during this time. Psychopharmacology became an integral part of psychiatry starting with Otto Loewi's discovery of the neuromodulatory properties of acetylcholine; thus identifying it as the first-known neurotransmitter. Neuroimaging was first utilized as a tool for psychiatry in the 1980s. The discovery of chlorpromazine's effectiveness in treating schizophrenia in 1952 revolutionized treatment of the disorder, as did lithium carbonate's ability to stabilize mood highs and lows in bipolar disorder in 1948. Psychotherapy was still utilized, but as a treatment for psychosocial issues. In the 1920s and 1930s, most asylum and academic psychiatrists in Europe believed that manic depressive disorder and schizophrenia were inherited, but in the decades after World War II, the conflation of genetics with Nazi racist ideology thoroughly discredited genetics. Now, genetics are once again thought by some prominent researchers to play a large role in mental illness. The genetic and heritable proportion of the cause of five major psychiatric disorders found in family and twin studies is 81% for schizophrenia, 80% for autism spectrum disorder, 75% for bipolar disorder, 75% for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and 37% for major depressive disorder. Geneticist Müller-Hill is quoted as saying "Genes are not destiny, they may give


id: history-of-psychology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology-0.md
category: reference
title: History of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:11.543630+00:00
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Psychology is defined as "the scientific study of behavior and mental processes". Philosophical interest in the human mind and behavior dates back to the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Persia, Greece, China, and India. Psychology as a field of experimental study began in 1854 in the German city of Leipzig, when Gustav Fechner created the first theory of how judgments about sensory experiences are made and how to experiment on them. Fechner's theory, recognized today as Signal Detection Theory, foreshadowed the development of statistical theories of comparative judgment and thousands of experiments based on his ideas (Link, S. W. Psychological Science, 1995). In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt founded the first psychological laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research in Leipzig, Germany. Wundt was also the first person to refer to himself as a psychologist. A notable precursor to Wundt was Ferdinand Ueberwasser (1752–1812), who designated himself Professor of Empirical Psychology and Logic in 1783 and gave lectures on empirical psychology at the Old University of Münster, Germany. Other important early contributors to the field include Hermann Ebbinghaus (a pioneer in the study of memory), William James (the American father of pragmatism), and Ivan Pavlov (who developed the procedures associated with classical conditioning). Soon


id: history-of-psychology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology-1.md
category: reference
title: History of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:11.543630+00:00
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parent: history-of-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
Many cultures throughout history have speculated on the nature of the mind, heart, soul, spirit, brain, etc. For instance, in Ancient Egypt, the Edwin Smith Papyrus contains an early description of the brain, and some speculations on its functions (described in a medical/surgical context) and the descriptions could be related to Imhotep who was the first Egyptian physician who anatomized and discovered the body of the human being. Though other medical documents of ancient times were full of incantations and applications meant to turn away disease-causing demons and other superstition, the Edwin Smith Papyrus gives remedies to almost 50 conditions and only two contain incantations to ward off evil. Ancient Greek philosophers, from Thales (fl. 550 BC) through even to the Roman period, developed an elaborate theory of what they termed the psuchẽ (psyche) (from which the first half of "psychology" is derived), as well as other "psychological" terms – nous, thumos, logistikon, etc. Classical Greece (fifth century BC), philosophers taught "naturalism", the belief that laws of nature shape our world, as opposed to gods and demons determining human fate. Alcmaeon, for example, believed the brain, not the heart, was the "organ of thought. "He tracked the ascending sensory nerves


id: history-of-psychology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology-2.md
category: reference
title: History of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology
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parent: history-of-psychology-20260505-0
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Socrates of Athens (c. 470 – 399 BC). Emphasized virtue ethics. In epistemology, understood dialectic to be central to the pursuit of truth. As early as the 4th century BC, the Greek physician Hippocrates theorized that mental disorders had physical rather than supernatural causes. Plato's tripartite theory of the soul, Chariot Allegory and concepts such as eros defined the subsequent Western Philosophy views of the psyche and anticipated modern psychological proposals. Alcmaeon theorizes the brain in the seat of the mind. In 387 BC, Plato suggested that the brain is where mental processes take place. Boethius and his work represented an imaginary psychological dialogue between himself and philosophy, with philosophy personified as a woman, arguing that despite the apparent inequality of the world. In the 6th century AD, Lin Xie carried out an early psychological analysis experiment. It has been cited that this was the first psychology experiment. Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari, who developed al-‘ilaj al-nafs (sometimes translated as "psychotherapy"), Padmasambhava was the 8th-century medicine Buddha of Tibet, called from the then Buddhist India to tame the Tibetans, and was instrumental in developing Tibetan psychiatric medicine. Patanjali founded Yoga and the method of psychological balance and resilience through breathing


id: history-of-psychology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology-3.md
category: reference
title: History of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:11.543630+00:00
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parent: history-of-psychology-20260505-0
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=== Enlightenment psychological thought === Early psychology was regarded as the study of the soul (in the Christian sense of the term). The modern philosophical form of psychology was heavily influenced by the works of René Descartes (1596–1650), and the debates that he generated, of which the most relevant were the objections to his Meditations on First Philosophy (1641), published with the text. Also important to the later development of psychology were his Passions of the Soul (1649) and Treatise on Man (completed in 1632 but, along with the rest of The World, withheld from publication after Descartes heard of the Catholic Church's condemnation of Galileo; it was eventually published posthumously, in 1664). Although not educated as a physician, Descartes did extensive anatomical studies of bulls' hearts and was considered important enough that William Harvey responded to him. Descartes was one of the first to endorse Harvey's model of the circulation of the blood, but disagreed with his metaphysical framework to explain it. Descartes dissected animals and human cadavers and as a result was familiar with the research on the flow of blood leading to the conclusion that the body is a complex device that is capable of moving without


id: history-of-psychology-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology-4.md
category: reference
title: History of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:11.543630+00:00
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=== Transition to contemporary psychology === Also influential on the emerging discipline of psychology were debates surrounding the efficacy of Mesmerism (a precursor to hypnosis) and the value of phrenology. The former was developed in the 1770s by Austrian physician Franz Mesmer (1734–1815) who claimed to use the power of gravity, and later of "animal magnetism", to cure various physical and mental ills. As Mesmer and his treatment became increasingly fashionable in both Vienna and Paris, it also began to come under the scrutiny of suspicious officials. In 1784, an investigation was commissioned in Paris by King Louis XVI which included American ambassador Benjamin Franklin, chemist Antoine Lavoisier and physician Joseph-Ignace Guillotin (later the popularizer of the guillotine). They concluded that Mesmer's method was useless. Abbé Faria, an Indo-Portuguese priest, revived public attention in animal magnetism. Unlike Mesmer, Faria claimed that the effect was 'generated from within the mind' by the power of expectancy and cooperation of the patient. Although disputed, the "magnetic" tradition continued among Mesmer's students and others, resurfacing in England in the 19th century in the work of the physician John Elliotson (1791–1868), and the surgeons James Esdaile (1808–1859), and James Braid (1795–1860) (who reconceptualized it as


id: history-of-psychology-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology-5.md
category: reference
title: History of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:11.543630+00:00
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parent: history-of-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
== Emergence of German experimental psychology == Until the middle of the 19th century, psychology was widely regarded as a branch of philosophy. Whether it could become an independent scientific discipline was questioned already earlier on: Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) declared in his Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science (1786) that psychology might perhaps never become a "proper" natural science because its phenomena cannot be quantified, among other reasons. Kant proposed an alternative conception of an empirical investigation of human thought, feeling, desire, and action, and lectured on these topics for over twenty years (1772/73–1795/96). His Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View (1798), which resulted from these lectures, looks like an empirical psychology in many respects. Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776–1841) took issue with what he viewed as Kant's conclusion and attempted to develop a mathematical basis for a scientific psychology. Although he was unable to empirically realize the terms of his psychological theory, his efforts did lead scientists such as Ernst Heinrich Weber (1795–1878) and Gustav Theodor Fechner (1801–1887) to attempt to measure the mathematical relationships between the physical magnitudes of external stimuli and the psychological intensities of the resulting sensations. Fechner (1860) is the originator of the term psychophysics. Meanwhile,


id: history-of-psychology-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology-6.md
category: reference
title: History of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:11.543630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
Experimentation was not the only approach to psychology in the German-speaking world at this time. Starting in the 1890s, employing the case study technique, the Viennese physician Sigmund Freud developed and applied the methods of hypnosis, free association, and dream interpretation to reveal putatively unconscious beliefs and desires that he argued were the underlying causes of his patients' "hysteria". He dubbed this approach psychoanalysis. Freudian psychoanalysis is particularly notable for the emphasis it places on the course of an individual's sexual development in pathogenesis. Psychoanalytic concepts have had a strong and lasting influence on Western culture, particularly on the arts. Although its scientific contribution is still a matter of debate, both Freudian and Jungian psychology revealed the existence of compartmentalized thinking, in which some behavior and thoughts are hidden from consciousness – yet operative as part of the complete personality. Hidden agendas, a bad conscience, or a sense of guilt, are examples of the existence of mental processes in which the individual is not conscious, through choice or lack of understanding, of some aspects of their personality and subsequent behavior. Psychoanalysis examines mental processes which affect the ego. An understanding of these theoretically allows the individual greater choice and consciousness


id: history-of-psychology-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology-7.md
category: reference
title: History of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:11.543630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
== Early American == Around 1875 the Harvard physiology instructor (as he then was), William James, opened a small experimental psychology demonstration laboratory for use with his courses. The laboratory was never used, at that time, for original research, and so controversy remains as to whether it is to be regarded as the "first" experimental psychology laboratory or not. In 1878, James gave a series of lectures at Johns Hopkins University entitled "The Senses and the Brain and their Relation to Thought" in which he argued, contra Thomas Henry Huxley, that consciousness is not epiphenomenal, but must have an evolutionary function, or it would not have been naturally selected in humans. The same year James was contracted by Henry Holt to write a textbook on the "new" experimental psychology. If he had written it quickly, it would have been the first English-language textbook on the topic. It was twelve years, however, before his two-volume The Principles of Psychology would be published. In the meantime textbooks were published by George Trumbull Ladd of Yale (1887) and James Mark Baldwin then of Lake Forest College (1889). William James was one of the founders of the American Society for Psychical Research in 1885,


id: history-of-psychology-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology-8.md
category: reference
title: History of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:11.543630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
Thorndike, and Robert S. Woodworth, was often regarded as a second (after Chicago) "school" of American Functionalism (see, e.g., Heidbredder, 1933), although they never used that term themselves, because their research focused on the applied areas of mental testing, learning, and education. Dewey was elected president of the APA in 1899, while Titchener dropped his membership in the association. (In 1904, Titchener formed his own group, eventually known as the Society of Experimental Psychologists.) Jastrow promoted the functionalist approach in his APA presidential address of 1900, and Angell adopted Titchener's label explicitly in his influential textbook of 1904 and his APA presidential address of 1906. In reality, Structuralism was, more or less, confined to Titchener and his students. (It was Titchener's former student E. G. Boring, writing A History of Experimental Psychology [1929/1950, the most influential textbook of the 20th century about the discipline], who launched the common idea that the structuralism/functionalism debate was the primary fault line in American psychology at the turn of the 20th century.) Functionalism, broadly speaking, with its more practical emphasis on action and application, better suited the American cultural "style" and, perhaps more important, was more appealing to pragmatic university trustees and private funding


id: history-of-psychology-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology-9.md
category: reference
title: History of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:11.543630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
== Early French == Jules Baillarger founded the Société Médico-Psychologique in 1847, one of the first associations of its kind and which published the Annales Medico-Psychologiques. France already had a pioneering tradition in psychological study, and it was relevant the publication of Précis d'un cours de psychologie ("Summary of a Psychology Course") in 1831 by Adolphe Garnier, who also published the Traité des facultés de l'âme, comprenant l'histoire des principales théories psychologiques ("Treatise of the Faculties of the Soul, comprising the history of major psychological theories") in 1852. Garnier was called "the best monument of psychological science of our time" by Revue des Deux Mondes in 1864. In no small measure because of the conservatism of the reign of Louis Napoléon (president, 1848–1852; emperor as "Napoléon III", 1852–1870), academic philosophy in France through the middle part of the 19th century was controlled by members of the eclectic and spiritualist schools, led by figures such as Victor Cousin (1792–1867), Thédodore Jouffroy (1796–1842), and Paul Janet (1823–1899). These were traditional metaphysical schools, opposed to regarding psychology as a natural science. With the ouster of Napoléon III after the débacle of the Franco-Prussian War, new paths, both political and intellectual, became possible. From


id: history-of-psychology-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology-10.md
category: reference
title: History of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:11.543630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
== Early British == Although the British had the first scholarly journal dedicated to the topic of psychology – Mind, founded in 1876 by Alexander Bain and edited by George Croom Robertson – it was quite a long while before experimental psychology developed there to challenge the strong tradition of "mental philosophy". The experimental reports that appeared in Mind in the first two decades of its existence were almost entirely authored by Americans, especially G. Stanley Hall and his students (notably Henry Herbert Donaldson) and James McKeen Cattell. Francis Galton's (1822–1911) anthropometric laboratory opened in 1884. There people were tested on a wide variety of physical (e.g., strength of blow) and perceptual (e.g., visual acuity) attributes. In 1886 Galton was visited by James McKeen Cattell who would later adapt Galton's techniques in developing his own mental testing research program in the United States. Galton was not primarily a psychologist, however. The data he accumulated in the anthropometric laboratory primarily went toward supporting his case for eugenics. To help interpret the mounds of data he accumulated, Galton developed a number of important statistical techniques, including the precursors to the scatterplot and the product-moment correlation coefficient (later perfected by Karl Pearson, 1857–1936).


id: history-of-psychology-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology-11.md
category: reference
title: History of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:11.543630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Würzburg School === In 1896, one of Wilhelm Wundt's former Leipzig laboratory assistants, Oswald Külpe (1862–1915), founded a new laboratory in Würzburg. Külpe soon surrounded himself with a number of younger psychologists, the so-called Würzburg School, most notably Narziß Ach (1871–1946), Karl Bühler (1879–1963), Ernst Dürr (1878–1913), Karl Marbe (1869–1953), and Henry Jackson Watt (1879–1925). Collectively, they developed a new approach to psychological experimentation that flew in the face of many of Wundt's restrictions. Wundt had drawn a distinction between the old philosophical style of self-observation (Selbstbeobachtung) in which one introspected for extended durations on higher thought processes, and inner perception (innere Wahrnehmung) in which one could be immediately aware of a momentary sensation, feeling, or image (Vorstellung). The former was declared to be impossible by Wundt, who argued that higher thought could not be studied experimentally through extended introspection, but only humanistically through Völkerpsychologie (folk psychology). Only the latter was a proper subject for experimentation. The Würzburgers, by contrast, designed experiments in which the experimental subject was presented with a complex stimulus (for example a Nietzschean aphorism or a logical problem) and after processing it for a time (for example interpreting the aphorism or solving the problem), retrospectively


id: history-of-psychology-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology-12.md
category: reference
title: History of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:11.543630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
Whereas the Würzburgers debated with Wundt mainly on matters of method, another German movement, centered in Berlin, took issue with the widespread assumption that the aim of psychology should be to break consciousness down into putative basic elements. Instead, they argued that the psychological "whole" has priority and that the "parts" are defined by the structure of the whole, rather than vice versa. Thus, the school was named Gestalt, a German term meaning approximately "form" or "configuration". It was led by Max Wertheimer (1880–1943), Wolfgang Köhler (1887–1967), and Kurt Koffka (1886–1941). Wertheimer had been a student of Austrian philosopher, Christian von Ehrenfels (1859–1932), who claimed that in addition to the sensory elements of a perceived object, there is an extra element which, though in some sense derived from the organization of the standard sensory elements, is also to be regarded as an element in its own right. He called this extra element Gestalt-qualität or "form-quality". For instance, when one hears a melody, one hears the notes plus something in addition to them which binds them together into a tune – the Gestalt-qualität. It is the presence of this Gestalt-qualität which, according to Ehrenfels, allows a tune to be transposed to


id: history-of-psychology-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology-13.md
category: reference
title: History of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:11.543630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
As a result of the conjunction of a number of events in the early 20th century, behaviorism gradually emerged as the dominant school in American psychology. First among these was the increasing skepticism with which many viewed the concept of consciousness: although still considered to be the essential element separating psychology from physiology, its subjective nature and the unreliable introspective method it seemed to require, troubled many. William James' 1904 Journal of Philosophy.... article "Does Consciousness Exist?", laid out the worries explicitly. Second was the gradual rise of a rigorous animal psychology. In addition to Edward Lee Thorndike's work with cats in puzzle boxes in 1898, the start of research in which rats learn to navigate mazes was begun by Willard Small (1900, 1901 in American Journal of Psychology). Robert M. Yerkes's 1905 Journal of Philosophy... article "Animal Psychology and the Criteria of the Psychic" raised the general question of when one is entitled to attribute consciousness to an organism. The following few years saw the emergence of John Broadus Watson (1878–1959) as a major player, publishing his dissertation on the relation between neurological development and learning in the white rat (1907, Psychological Review Monograph Supplement; Carr & Watson, 1908,


id: history-of-psychology-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology-14.md
category: reference
title: History of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:11.543630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
== Soviet Marxist psychology == In the early twentieth century, Ivan Pavlov's behavioral and conditioning experiments became the most internationally recognized Russian achievements. With the creation of the Soviet Union in 1922, Marxism was introduced as an overall philosophical and methodological framework in scientific research. In 1920s, state ideology promoted a tendency to the psychology of Bekhterev's reflexologist reductionism in its Marxist interpretation and to historical materialism, while idealistic philosophers and psychologists were harshly criticized. Another variation of Marxist version of psychology that got popularity mostly in Moscow and centered in the local Institute of Psychology was Konstantin Kornilov's (the Director of this Institute) reactology that became the main view, besides a small group of the members of the Vygotsky-Luria Circle that, besides its namesakes Lev Vygotsky, and Alexander Luria, included Bluma Zeigarnik, Alexei Leontiev and others, and in 1920s embraced a deterministic "instrumental psychology" version of Cultural-historical psychology. Many works by Vygotsky were not published chronologically because of Soviet censorship but primarily because of Vygotsky's failure to build a consistent psychological theory of consciousness, A few attempts were made in 1920s at formulating the core of theoretical framework of the "genuinely Marxist" psychology, but all these failed and were


id: history-of-psychology-discipline-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology_(discipline)-0.md
category: reference
title: History of psychology (discipline)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychology_(discipline)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:12.826187+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-psychology-discipline-20260505-0
summary:
History of psychology is the academic discipline concerned with studying the history of the study of psychology. Another term would be historiography of psychology. Postsecondary course titles and textbooks often combine history and systems of psychology; one chapter may address the history and tenets of structuralism, a subsequent chapter functionalism, a subsequent chapter behaviorism, etc. The discipline is related to the history of human science, the history of emotions, and the history of psychiatry. These must be considered separately, however, as they have their own disciplinary norms. == The new history of psychology == It is now common practice, when teaching advanced courses in the history of psychology, to follow Laurel Furumoto in making a distinction between old and new history. This label was intended to recognize a shift in disciplinary norms that first became apparent, in retrospect, in the 1970s. Before that, the history of psychology was harshly criticized by specialist historians of science for being celebratory and Whiggish. In other words, the contemporary history of psychology is broadly describable as post-Kuhnian. As a result, it shares traits with contemporary historiography of science, science and technology studies, and the sociology of scientific knowledge. Kurt Danziger's book, Constructing the Subject:


id: history-of-psychopathy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychopathy-0.md
category: reference
title: History of psychopathy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychopathy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:14.169215+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-psychopathy-20260505-0
summary:
Psychopathy, from psych (soul or mind) and pathy (suffering or disease), was coined by German psychiatrists in the 19th century and originally just meant what would today be called mental disorder, the study of which is still known as psychopathology. By the turn of the century 'psychopathic inferiority' referred to the type of mental disorder that might now be termed personality disorder, along with a wide variety of other conditions now otherwise classified. Through the early 20th century this and other terms such as 'constitutional (inborn) psychopaths' or 'psychopathic personalities', were used very broadly to cover anyone who violated legal or moral expectations or was considered inherently socially undesirable in some way. The term sociopathy was popularized from 1929/30 by the American psychologist George E. Partridge and was originally intended as an alternative term to indicate that the defining feature was a pervasive failure to adhere to societal norms in a way that could harm others. The term psychopathy also gradually narrowed to the latter sense, based on interpretations of the work of a Scottish psychiatrist and especially checklists popularized by an American psychiatrist and later a Canadian psychologist. Psychopathy became defined in these quarters as a constellation of personality


id: history-of-psychopathy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychopathy-1.md
category: reference
title: History of psychopathy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychopathy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:14.169215+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-psychopathy-20260505-0
summary:
== First uses of term == Initially physicians who specialised in mental disorders might be referred to as psychopaths (e.g. the American Journal of the Medical Sciences in 1864) and their hospitals as psychopathic institutions (compare to the etymologically similar use of the term homeopathic). Treatments of physical conditions by psychological or spiritualist methods might be referred to as psychopathic. Up until the 1840s, the term psychopathy was also used in a way consistent with its etymology to refer to any illness of the mind. German psychiatrist von Feuchtersleben's (1845) The Principles of Medical Psychology, which was translated into English, used it in this sense, as well as the roughly equivalent new term psychosis, now traced back to Karl Friedrich Canstatt's Handbuch der Medicinischen Klinik (1841). William Griesinger (1868) and Krafft-Ebing (1886) also notably employed the term in distinct ways. The use of the term in a criminological context was popularised by a high-profile legal case in Russia between 1883 and 1885, concerning the murder of a girl who had previously lived in Britain for some time, Sarah Becker (Sarra Bekker). The owner of the pawnbroker shop in which she worked and where her body was found, a retired military


id: history-of-psychopathy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychopathy-2.md
category: reference
title: History of psychopathy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychopathy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:14.169215+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-psychopathy-20260505-0
summary:
== Early 20th century == Some writers would still use psychopathy in the general sense of mental illness, such as Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud in Psychopathic Characters on Stage. By contrast influential German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin, who had previously included a section on moral insanity in his psychiatric classification scheme, was by 1904 referring to specific psychopathic subtypes all involving antisocial, criminal or dissocial behaviour, including: born criminals (inborn delinquents), liars and swindlers, querulous persons, and driven persons (including vagabonds, spendthrifts, and dipsomaniacs). The influential Adolf Meyer (psychiatrist) spread the concept of constitutional psychopathy when he emigrated to the US, though unlike Koch he separated out cases of what was termed psychoneurosis. After World War I German psychiatrists dropped the term inferiors/defectives (Minderwertigkeiten) and used psychopathic (psychopathisch) and its derivatives instead, at that time a more neutral term covering a wide range of conditions. Emil Kraepelin, Kurt Schneider and Karl Birnbaum developed categorisation schemes under the heading 'psychopathic personality', only some subtypes of which were thought to have particular links to antisocial behaviour. Schneider in particular advanced the term and tried to formulate it in less judgemental terms than Kraepelin, though infamously defining it as ‘those abnormal personalities who suffer


id: history-of-psychopathy-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychopathy-3.md
category: reference
title: History of psychopathy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychopathy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:14.169215+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-psychopathy-20260505-0
summary:
== Mid-20th century == The Mask of Sanity by American psychiatrist Hervey M. Cleckley, first published in 1941 and with revised editions for several decades, is considered a seminal work which provided a vivid series of case studies of individuals described as psychopaths. Cleckley proposed 16 characteristics of psychopathy, derived mainly from his work with male psychiatric patients in a locked institution. The title refers to the "mask" of normal functioning that Cleckley thought concealed the disorganization, amorality and disorder of the psychopathic personality. This marked the start in America of the current clinical and popularist conception of psychopathy as a particular type of antisocial, emotionless and criminal character. Cleckley would produce five editions of the book over subsequent decades, including a substantial revision in 1950, expanding his case studies and theories to more non-prisoners and non-criminals. In Nazi Germany, especially during World War II, psychiatrists and others in programmes such as Action T4 and Action 14f13 systematically deported, sterilised, interned and euthanised patients and prisoners who could be classed as mentally ill, feebleminded, psychopathic, criminally insane or just asocial. In the aftermath of the war, therefore, concepts of antisocial psychopathic personalities fell out of favour in Europe to some


id: history-of-psychopathy-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychopathy-4.md
category: reference
title: History of psychopathy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychopathy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:14.169215+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-psychopathy-20260505-0
summary:
== Late 20th century == In 1968 the second edition of the DSM, in place of the antisocial subtype of sociopathic personality disturbance, listed "antisocial personality" as one of ten personality disorders. This was still described in similar terms as the DSM-I's category, for individuals who are "basically unsocialized", in repeated conflicts with society, incapable of significant loyalty, selfish, irresponsible, unable to feel guilt or learn from prior experiences, and tend to blame others and rationalise. It warned that a history of legal or social offenses was not by itself enough to justify the diagnosis and that a 'group delinquent reaction' of childhood or adolescence or 'social maladjustment without manifest psychiatric disorder' should be ruled out first. The dyssocial type from the DSM-I was relegated, though would resurface as the main diagnosis in the ICD manual of the World Health Organization. In 1974 (and republished in 1984) clinical psychologist Bobby E. Wright wrote about 'The Psychopathic Racial Personality', in which he suggested that negative aspects of the overall behavior of white peoples towards non-white peoples could be understood by seeing the former as displaying psychopathic traits – involving predatory behavior and senseless destruction combined with ability to persuade. There remained


id: history-of-psychopathy-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychopathy-5.md
category: reference
title: History of psychopathy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_psychopathy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:14.169215+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-psychopathy-20260505-0
summary:
== Overall trends == One exhaustive analysis by a Canadian psychologist describes the various lines of work as 'a psychopathy project' attempting to establish psychopathy as an object of science. Overall this was found to have suffered from 'a number of serious logical confusions and deliberate mischaracterizations of its scientific merits' - including its early basis in degeneration theory, tautological definitions and associated neuroscience findings, routinely unclarified assumptions and shifting levels of explanation about the core concept, and exaggerated statistical claims such as based on Hare's use of factor analysis. It was noted, however, that some of the limited research findings may prove useful in a better explanatory framework (i.e. not necessarily under the umbrella of 'psychopathy'). Swedish sociologist Roland Paulsen has further placed the more recent resurgence in popular coverage of psychopathy in the context of "the Enlightenment project" to use rationality and technology to deal with problems in human life and society. A Scottish sociologist of biomedical ethics has suggested that the DSM's attempt to develop different standards for Antisocial Personality Disorder have been limited and modified by path dependence on the concept of psychopathy/sociopathy, due to the latter being embedded in diverse sociotechnological networks and thereby demanded


id: history-of-sociology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology-0.md
category: reference
title: History of sociology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:15.550712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-sociology-20260505-0
summary:
Sociology as a scholarly discipline emerged, primarily out of Enlightenment thought, as a positivist science of society shortly after the French Revolution. Its genesis owed to various key movements in the philosophy of science and the philosophy of knowledge, arising in reaction to such issues as modernity, capitalism, urbanization, rationalization, secularization, colonization and imperialism. During its nascent stages, within the late 19th century, sociological deliberations took particular interest in the emergence of the modern nation state, including its constituent institutions, units of socialization, and its means of surveillance. As such, an emphasis on the concept of modernity, rather than the Enlightenment, often distinguishes sociological discourse from that of classical political philosophy. Likewise, social analysis in a broader sense has origins in the common stock of philosophy, therefore pre-dating the sociological field. Various quantitative social research techniques have become common tools for governments, businesses, and organizations, and have also found use in the other social sciences. Divorced from theoretical explanations of social dynamics, this has given social research a degree of autonomy from the discipline of sociology. Similarly, "social science" has come to be appropriated as an umbrella term to refer to various disciplines which study humans, interaction, society or culture.


id: history-of-sociology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology-1.md
category: reference
title: History of sociology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:15.550712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-sociology-20260505-0
summary:
==== Henri de Saint-Simon ==== Henri de Saint-Simon published Physiologie sociale in 1813, devoting much of his time to the prospect that human society could be steered toward progress if scientists would form an international assembly to influence its course. He argued that scientists could distract groups from war and strife, by focusing their attention to generally improving their societies living conditions. In turn, this would bring multiple cultures and societies together and prevent conflict. Saint-Simon took the idea that everyone had encouraged from the Enlightenment, which was the belief in science, and spun it to be more practical and hands-on for the society. Saint-Simon's main idea was that industrialism would create a new launch in history. He saw that people had been seeing progress as an approach for science, but he wanted them to see it as an approach to all aspects of life. Society was making a crucial change at the time since it was growing out of a declining feudalism. This new path could provide the basis for solving all the old problems society had previously encountered. He was more concerned with the participation of man in the workforce instead of which workforce man choose. His slogan


id: history-of-sociology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology-2.md
category: reference
title: History of sociology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:15.550712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-sociology-20260505-0
summary:
To have given clear and unified answers in familiar empirical terms to those theoretical questions which most occupied men's minds at the time, and to have deduced from them clear practical directives without creating obviously artificial links between the two, was the principal achievement of Marx's theory.… The sociological treatment of historical and moral problems, which Comte and after him, Spencer and Taine, had discussed and mapped, became a precise and concrete study only when the attack of militant Marxism made its conclusions a burning issue, and so made the search for evidence more zealous and the attention to method more intense. In the 1830s, Karl Marx was part of the Young Hegelians in Berlin, which discussed and wrote about the legacy of the philosopher, George W. F. Hegel (whose seminal tome, Science of Logic was published in 1816). Although, at first sympathetic with the group's strategy of attacking Christianity to undermine the Prussian establishment, he later formed divergent ideas and broke with the Young Hegelians, attacking their views in works such as The German Ideology. Witnessing the struggles of the laborers during the Industrial Revolution, Marx concluded that religion (or the "ideal") is not the basis of the establishment's


id: history-of-sociology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology-3.md
category: reference
title: History of sociology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:15.550712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-sociology-20260505-0
summary:
Ferdinand Tönnies argued that Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft were the two normal types of human association. The former was the traditional kind of community with strong social bonds and shared beliefs, while the latter was the modern society in which individualism and rationality had become more dominant. He also drew a sharp line between the realm of conceptuality and the reality of social action: the first must be treated axiomatically and in a deductive way ('pure' sociology), whereas the second empirically and in an inductive way ('applied' sociology). His ideas were further developed by Max Weber, another early German sociologist. Weber argued for the study of social action through interpretive (rather than purely empiricist) means, based on understanding the purpose and meaning that individuals attach to their own actions. Unlike Durkheim, he did not believe in monocausal explanations and rather proposed that for any outcome there can be multiple causes. Weber's main intellectual concern was understanding the processes of rationalisation, secularisation, and "disenchantment", which he associated with the rise of capitalism and modernity. Weber is also known for his thesis combining economic sociology and the sociology of religion, elaborated in his book The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, in


id: history-of-sociology-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology-4.md
category: reference
title: History of sociology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:15.550712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-sociology-20260505-0
summary:
Herbert Spencer (1820–1903), the English philosopher, was one of the most popular and influential 19th-century sociologists, although his work has largely fallen out of favor in contemporary sociology. The early sociology of Spencer came about broadly as a reaction to Comte and Marx; writing before and after the Darwinian revolution in biology, Spencer attempted to reformulate the discipline in socially Darwinistic terms. In fact, his early writings show a coherent theory of general evolution several years before Darwin published anything on the subject. Encouraged by his friend and follower Edward L. Youmans, Spencer published The Study of Sociology in 1874, which was the first book with the term "sociology" in the title. It is estimated that he sold one million books in his lifetime, far more than any other sociologist at the time. So strong was his influence that many other 19th-century thinkers, including Émile Durkheim, defined their ideas in relation to his. Durkheim's Division of Labour in Society is to a large extent an extended debate with Spencer from whose sociology Durkheim borrowed extensively. Also a notable biologist, Spencer coined the term "survival of the fittest" as a basic mechanism by which more effective socio-cultural forms progressed. This means


id: history-of-sociology-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology-5.md
category: reference
title: History of sociology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:15.550712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-sociology-20260505-0
summary:
==== Europe ==== Formal institutionalization of sociology as an academic discipline began when Emile Durkheim founded the first French department of sociology at the University of Bordeaux in 1895. In 1896, he established the journal L'Année Sociologique. A course entitled "sociology" was taught for the first time in the United States in 1875 by William Graham Sumner, drawing upon the thought of Comte and Herbert Spencer rather than the work of Durkheim. In 1890, the oldest continuing sociology course in the United States began at the University of Kansas, lectured by Frank Blackmar. The Department of History and Sociology at the University of Kansas was established in 1891 and the first full-fledged independent university department of sociology was established in 1892 at the University of Chicago by Albion W. Small (1854–1926), who in 1895 founded the American Journal of Sociology. American sociology arose on a broadly independent trajectory to European sociology. George Herbert Mead and Charles H. Cooley were influential in the development of symbolic interactionism and social psychology at the University of Chicago, while Lester Ward emphasized the central importance of the scientific method with the publication of Dynamic Sociology in 1883. The first sociology department in the United


id: history-of-sociology-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology-6.md
category: reference
title: History of sociology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:15.550712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-sociology-20260505-0
summary:
In 1905 the American Sociological Association, the world's largest association of professional sociologists, was founded, and Lester F. Ward was selected to serve as the first President of the new society. The University of Chicago developed the major sociologists at the time. It brought them together, and even gave them a hub and a network to link all the leading sociologists. In 1925, a third of all sociology graduate students attended the University of Chicago. Chicago was very good at not isolating their students from other schools. They encouraged them to blend with other sociologists, and to not spend more time in the class room than studying the society around them. This would teach them real life application of the classroom teachings. The first teachings at the University of Chicago were focused on the social problems that the world had been dealt. At this time, academia was not concerned with theory; especially not to the point that academia is today. Many people were still hesitant of sociology at this time, especially with the recent controversial theories of Weber and Marx. The University of Chicago decided to go into an entirely different direction and their sociology department directed their attention to


id: history-of-sociology-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology-7.md
category: reference
title: History of sociology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:15.550712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-sociology-20260505-0
summary:
== 19th century: from positivism to anti-positivism == The methodological approach toward sociology by early theorists was to treat the discipline in broadly the same manner as natural science. An emphasis on empiricism and the scientific method was sought to provide an incontestable foundation for any sociological claims or findings, and to distinguish sociology from less empirical fields such as philosophy. This perspective, termed positivism, was first developed by theorist Auguste Comte. Positivism was founded on the theory that the only true, factual knowledge is scientific knowledge. Comte had very vigorous guidelines for a theory to be considered positivism. He thought that this authentic knowledge can only be derived from positive confirmation of theories through strict continuously tested methods, that are not only scientifically but also quantitatively based. Émile Durkheim was a major proponent of theoretically grounded empirical research, seeking correlations to reveal structural laws, or "social facts". Durkheim proved that concepts that had been attributed to the individual were actually socially determined. These occurrences are things such as suicide, crime, moral outrage, a person's personality, time, space, and God. He brought to light that society had influence on all aspects of a person, far more than had been previously


id: history-of-sociology-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology-8.md
category: reference
title: History of sociology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:15.550712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-sociology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Mid 20th century === In some countries, sociology was undermined by totalitarian governments for reasons of ostensible political control. After the Russian Revolution, sociology was gradually "politicized, Bolshevisized and eventually, Stalinized" until it virtually ceased to exist in the Soviet Union. In China, the discipline was banned with semiotics, comparative linguistics and cybernetics as "Bourgeois pseudoscience" in 1952, not to return until 1979. During the same period, however, sociology was also undermined by conservative universities in the West. This was due, in part, to perceptions of the subject as possessing an inherent tendency, through its own aims and remit, toward liberal or left wing thought. Given that the subject was founded by structural functionalists; concerned with organic cohesion and social solidarity, this view was somewhat groundless (though it was Parsons who had introduced Durkheim to American audiences, and his interpretation has been criticized for a latent conservatism). In the mid-20th century Robert K. Merton released his Social Theory and Social Structure (1949). Around the same time, C. Wright Mills continued Weber's work of understanding how modernity was undermining tradition, with a critique of the dehumanizing impact this had on people. Also using the Weberian notion of class, he found


id: history-of-sociology-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology-9.md
category: reference
title: History of sociology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:15.550712+00:00
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parent: history-of-sociology-20260505-0
summary:
==== Dependency theory ==== In Latin America Dependency theory, a structuralist theory, emerged arguing that poor states are impoverished and rich ones enriched by the way poor states are integrated into the "world system". This theory was officially developed in the late 1960s following World War II, as scholars searched for the root issue in the lack of development in Latin America. The theory was popular in the 1960s and 1970s as a criticism of modernization theory, which was falling increasingly out of favor because of continued widespread poverty in much of the world. At that time the assumptions of liberal theories of development were under attack. It was used to explain the causes of overurbanization, a theory that urbanization rates outpaced industrial growth in several developing countries. Influenced by Dependency theory, World-systems theory emerged as a macro-scale approach to world history and social change which emphasizes the world-system (and not nation states) as the primary (but not exclusive) unit of social analysis. Immanuel Wallerstein has developed the best-known version of world-systems analysis, beginning in the 1970s. Wallerstein traces the rise of the capitalist world-economy from the "long" 16th century (c. 1450–1640). The rise of capitalism, in his view, was


id: history-of-sociology-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology-10.md
category: reference
title: History of sociology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:15.550712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-sociology-20260505-0
summary:
== 21st century sociology == The increase in the size of data sets produced by the new survey methods was followed by the invention of new statistical techniques for analyzing this data. Analysis of this sort is usually performed with statistical software packages such as R, SAS, Stata, or SPSS. Social network analysis is an example of a new paradigm in the positivist tradition. The influence of social network analysis is pervasive in many sociological sub fields such as economic sociology (see the work of J. Clyde Mitchell, Harrison White, or Mark Granovetter, for example), organizational behavior, historical sociology, political sociology, or the sociology of education. There is also a minor revival of a more independent, empirical sociology in the spirit of C. Wright Mills, and his studies of the Power Elite in the United States of America, according to Stanley Aronowitz. Critical realism is a philosophical approach to understanding science developed by Roy Bhaskar (1944–2014). It combines a general philosophy of science (transcendental realism) with a philosophy of social science (critical naturalism). It specifically opposes forms of empiricism and positivism by viewing science as concerned with identifying causal mechanisms. Also, in the context of social science it argues that


id: history-of-sport-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sport-0.md
category: reference
title: History of sport
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sport
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:16.748992+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-sport-20260505-0
summary:
The history of sports extends back to the Ancient world in 7000 BC. The physical activity that developed into sports had early links with warfare and entertainment. The study of the history of sport provides insights into social change and the evolution of sport itself, as sporting activities have often been linked to the development of basic human skills (see also play). However, the further one traces back into history, the scarcer the evidence becomes, making it increasingly difficult to support theories about the origins and purposes of sport. As far back as the beginnings of sport, it was related to military training. For example, competition was used as a mean to determine whether individuals were fit and useful for service. Team sports were used to train and to prove the capability to fight in the military and also to work together as a team (military unit). == Ancient era == === Sports in pre-history === Cave paintings found in the Lascaux caves in France appear to depict sprinting in the Upper Paleolithic around 15,300 years ago. Cave paintings in the Bayankhongor Province of Mongolia dating back to the Neolithic Age (c. 7000 BC) show a wrestling match surrounded by


id: history-of-sport-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sport-1.md
category: reference
title: History of sport
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sport
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:16.748992+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-sport-20260505-0
summary:
A polished bone implement found at Eva in Tennessee, United States and dated to around 5000 BCE has been construed as a possible sporting device used in a "ring and pin" game. There are artifacts and structures that suggest the Chinese engaged in sporting activities as early as 2000 BCE. Gymnastics appears to have been a popular sport in China's ancient past. The Mesoamerican ballgame originated over three thousand years ago. The Mayan ballgame, known as Pitz, is believed to be the first ball sport, as it was played around 1200 BCE. Sports that are at least two and a half thousand years old include hurling in Ancient Ireland, shinty in Scotland, harpastum (similar to rugby) in Rome, cuju (similar to association football) in China, and polo in Persia. Ancient Persian sports include the traditional Iranian martial art of Zourkhaneh. Among other sports that originated in Persia are chovgan (polo) and jousting. Various traditional sports of India are believed to be thousands of years old, with kho-kho having been played since at least the fourth century BCE, aspects of kabaddi having potentially been mentioned in the Mahabharata, and atya-patya having been described in the Naṟṟiṇai, around 300 AD. == Middle


id: history-of-sport-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sport-2.md
category: reference
title: History of sport
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sport
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:16.748992+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-sport-20260505-0
summary:
After the late middle ages, early modern sports became less of a violent or military training activity and more of an activity done for recreational benefit in Europe. During the Renaissance, educators, and medical surgeons promoted playing sports because of their numerous physical and psychological benefits to the human body. During this era, there was also support for moderating sports, as it was viewed as more for leisure than a strict procedure. Open-air sporting events became an attraction for many and people of all different social hierarchies were involved in this new culture. These new radical ideas about sports made their way into books, and films, and eventually became part of the social culture during the Renaissance. As mentioned by Mike Huggins, Gargantua and Pantagruel written by François Rabelais was a well-known novel published in 1534 that mentioned sports and games as a unit, like many other renowned works of literature. All different types of sports became a functional unit in many people's routines and it brought refreshment into people's lives. As the popularity and involvement of sports increased, rules began to form and sports became more regulated so they could be fair. Sports clubs and associations which provided a


id: history-of-sport-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sport-3.md
category: reference
title: History of sport
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sport
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:16.748992+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-sport-20260505-0
summary:
Writing about cricket in particular, John Leach has explained the role of Puritan power, the English Civil War, and the Restoration of the monarchy in England. The Long Parliament in 1642 "banned theatres, which had met with Puritan disapproval. Although similar action would be taken against certain sports, it is not clear if cricket was in any way prohibited, except that players must not break the Sabbath". In 1660, "the Restoration of the monarchy in England was immediately followed by the reopening of the theaters and so any sanctions that had been imposed by the Puritans on cricket would also have been lifted." He goes on to make the key point that political, social and economic conditions in the aftermath of the Restoration encouraged excessive gambling, so much so that a Gambling Act was deemed necessary in 1664. It is certain that cricket, horse racing and boxing (i.e., prizefighting) were financed by gambling interests. Leech explains that it was the habit of cricket patrons, all of whom were gamblers, to form strong teams through the 18th century to represent their interests. He defines a strong team as one representative of more than one parish and he is certain that such


id: history-of-sport-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sport-4.md
category: reference
title: History of sport
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sport
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:16.748992+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-sport-20260505-0
summary:
Most sports in the United States evolved out of European practices. However, basketball, volleyball, skateboarding, water skiing, and snowboarding are North American inventions, some of which have become popular in other countries. However, lacrosse and surfing in particular arose from Native American and Native Hawaiian activities that predate Western contact. During the colonial era, baseball (closely related to English rounders and French la soule, and less clearly connected to cricket) became established in the urban Northeastern United States, with the first rules being codified in the 1840s, while American football was very popular in the south-east, with baseball spreading to the south, and American football spreading to the north after the Civil War. There is documented evidence of baseball in England. An extract from an 18th-century diary containing the oldest known reference to baseball is among the items on display in a new exhibition in London exploring the English origins and cricketing connections of America's national sport. While baseball was once claimed to have been invented in the U.S. in the mid-19th century, recent findings suggest a sport of the same name may have evolved decades earlier alongside cricket, crossing the Atlantic with English settlers to the American colonies. One


id: history-of-sport-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sport-5.md
category: reference
title: History of sport
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sport
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:16.748992+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-sport-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == S. Battente, The idea of sport in western culture from antiquity to the contemporary era, Vernon press, 2020. Crawford Scott, A. G. M. Serious Aport: J. A. Mangan's Contribution to the History of Sport, Portland, Oregon: Frank Cass (2004) Guttmann, Allen. Women's Sports: A History, Columbia University Press (1992) Guttmann, Allen. Games and Empires: Modern Sports and Cultural Imperialism, Columbia University Press, 1996 Guttmann, Allen. The Olympics: A History of the Modern Games (2002) Holt, Richard. Sport and Society in Modern France (1981). Holt, Richard. Sport and the British: A Modern History (1990) excerpt Howell, Colin. Blood, Sweat, and Cheers: Sport and the Making of Modern Canada (2001) Mangan, J. A. (1996). Militarism, Sport, Europe: War Without Weapons. Routledge. Mann, Christian (2025). Griechische Athleten. Eine Sozialgeschichte [Greek athletes. A social history]. Stuttgart: Steiner, ISBN 978-3-515-13956-4. Maurer, Michael. "Vom Mutterland des Sports zum Kontinent: Der Transfer des englischen Sports im 19. Jahrhundert", Mainz: European History Online (2011), retrieved: 25 February 2012. Morrow, Don; Wamsley, Kevin B. Sport in Canada: A History (2009) Murray, Bill. The World's Game: A History of Soccer (1998) Polley, Martin. Sports History: A Practical Guide, Palgrave, 2007. Journals online article from The Sports


id: history-of-statistics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_statistics-0.md
category: reference
title: History of statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:18.016028+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
Statistics, in the modern sense of the word, began evolving in the 18th century in response to the novel needs of industrializing sovereign states. In early times, the meaning was restricted to information about states, particularly demographics such as population. This was later extended to include all collections of information of all types, and later still it was extended to include the analysis and interpretation of such data. In modern terms, "statistics" means both sets of collected information, as in national accounts and temperature record, and analytical work which requires statistical inference. Statistical activities are often associated with models expressed using probabilities, hence the connection with probability theory. The large requirements of data processing have made statistics a key application of computing. A number of statistical concepts have an important impact on a wide range of sciences. These include the design of experiments and approaches to statistical inference such as Bayesian inference, each of which can be considered to have their own sequence in the development of the ideas underlying modern statistics. == Introduction == By the 18th century, the term "statistics" designated the systematic collection of demographic and economic data by states. For at least two millennia, these data


id: history-of-statistics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_statistics-1.md
category: reference
title: History of statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:18.016028+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
Basic forms of statistics have been used since the beginning of civilization. Early empires often collated censuses of the population or recorded the trade in various commodities. The Han dynasty and the Roman Empire were some of the first states to extensively gather data on the size of the empire's population, geographical area and wealth. The use of statistical methods dates back to at least the 5th century BCE. The historian Thucydides in his History of the Peloponnesian War describes how the Athenians calculated the height of the wall of Platea by counting the number of bricks in an unplastered section of the wall sufficiently near them to be able to count them. The count was repeated several times by a number of soldiers. The most frequent value (in modern terminology – the mode) so determined was taken to be the most likely value of the number of bricks. Multiplying this value by the height of the bricks used in the wall allowed the Athenians to determine the height of the ladders necessary to scale the walls. The Trial of the Pyx is a test of the purity of the coinage of the Royal Mint which has been held on


id: history-of-statistics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_statistics-2.md
category: reference
title: History of statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:18.016028+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
The term 'statistic' was introduced by the Italian scholar Girolamo Ghilini in 1589 with reference to this science. The birth of statistics is often dated to 1662, when John Graunt, along with William Petty, developed early human statistical and census methods that provided a framework for modern demography. He produced the first life table, giving probabilities of survival to each age. His book Natural and Political Observations Made upon the Bills of Mortality used analysis of the mortality rolls to make the first statistically based estimation of the population of London. He knew that there were around 13,000 funerals per year in London and that three people died per eleven families per year. He estimated from the parish records that the average family size was 8 and calculated that the population of London was about 384,000; this is the first known use of a ratio estimator. Laplace in 1802 estimated the population of France with a similar method; see Ratio estimator § History for details. Although the original scope of statistics was limited to data useful for governance, the approach was extended to many fields of a scientific or commercial nature during the 19th century. The mathematical foundations for the


id: history-of-statistics-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_statistics-3.md
category: reference
title: History of statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:18.016028+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
Pierre-Simon Laplace (1774) made the first attempt to deduce a rule for the combination of observations from the principles of the theory of probabilities. He represented the law of probability of errors by a curve and deduced a formula for the mean of three observations. Laplace in 1774 noted that the frequency of an error could be expressed as an exponential function of its magnitude once its sign was disregarded. This distribution is now known as the Laplace distribution. Lagrange proposed a parabolic fractal distribution of errors in 1776. Laplace in 1778 published his second law of errors wherein he noted that the frequency of an error was proportional to the exponential of the square of its magnitude. This was subsequently rediscovered by Gauss (possibly in 1795) and is now best known as the normal distribution which is of central importance in statistics. This distribution was first referred to as the normal distribution by C. S. Peirce in 1873 who was studying measurement errors when an object was dropped onto a wooden base. He chose the term normal because of its frequent occurrence in naturally occurring variables. Lagrange also suggested in 1781 two other distributions for errors – a raised


id: history-of-statistics-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_statistics-4.md
category: reference
title: History of statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:18.016028+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
The first statistical bodies were established in the early 19th century. The Royal Statistical Society was founded in 1834 and Florence Nightingale, its first female member, pioneered the application of statistical analysis to health problems for the furtherance of epidemiological understanding and public health practice. However, the methods then used would not be considered as modern statistics today. The Oxford scholar Francis Ysidro Edgeworth's book, Metretike: or The Method of Measuring Probability and Utility (1887) dealt with probability as the basis of inductive reasoning, and his later works focused on the 'philosophy of chance'. His first paper on statistics (1883) explored the law of error (normal distribution), and his Methods of Statistics (1885) introduced an early version of the t distribution, the Edgeworth expansion, the Edgeworth series, the method of variate transformation and the asymptotic theory of maximum likelihood estimates. The Norwegian Anders Nicolai Kiær introduced the concept of stratified sampling in 1895. Arthur Lyon Bowley introduced new methods of data sampling in 1906 when working on social statistics. Although statistical surveys of social conditions had started with Charles Booth's "Life and Labour of the People in London" (1889–1903) and Seebohm Rowntree's "Poverty, A Study of Town Life" (1901), Bowley's


id: history-of-statistics-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_statistics-5.md
category: reference
title: History of statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:18.016028+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
Galton's publication of Natural Inheritance in 1889 sparked the interest of a brilliant mathematician, Karl Pearson, then working at University College London, and he went on to found the discipline of mathematical statistics. He emphasised the statistical foundation of scientific laws and promoted its study and his laboratory attracted students from around the world attracted by his new methods of analysis, including Udny Yule. His work grew to encompass the fields of biology, epidemiology, anthropometry, medicine and social history. In 1901, with Walter Weldon, founder of biometry, and Galton, he founded the journal Biometrika as the first journal of mathematical statistics and biometry. His work, and that of Galton, underpins many of the 'classical' statistical methods which are in common use today, including the Correlation coefficient, defined as a product-moment; the method of moments for the fitting of distributions to samples; Pearson's system of continuous curves that forms the basis of the now conventional continuous probability distributions; Chi distance a precursor and special case of the Mahalanobis distance and P-value, defined as the probability measure of the complement of the ball with the hypothesized value as center point and chi distance as radius. He also introduced the term 'standard deviation'.


id: history-of-statistics-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_statistics-6.md
category: reference
title: History of statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:18.016028+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
In 1747, while serving as surgeon on HM Bark Salisbury, James Lind carried out a controlled experiment to develop a cure for scurvy. In this study his subjects' cases "were as similar as I could have them", that is he provided strict entry requirements to reduce extraneous variation. The men were paired, which provided blocking. From a modern perspective, the main thing that is missing is randomized allocation of subjects to treatments. Lind is today often described as a one-factor-at-a-time experimenter. Similar one-factor-at-a-time (OFAT) experimentation was performed at the Rothamsted Research Station in the 1840s by Sir John Lawes to determine the optimal inorganic fertilizer for use on wheat. A theory of statistical inference was developed by Charles S. Peirce in "Illustrations of the Logic of Science" (1877–1878) and "A Theory of Probable Inference" (1883), two publications that emphasized the importance of randomization-based inference in statistics. In another study, Peirce randomly assigned volunteers to a blinded, repeated-measures design to evaluate their ability to discriminate weights. Peirce's experiment inspired other researchers in psychology and education, which developed a research tradition of randomized experiments in laboratories and specialized textbooks in the 1800s. Peirce also contributed the first English-language publication on an optimal


id: history-of-statistics-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_statistics-7.md
category: reference
title: History of statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:18.016028+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
The term Bayesian refers to Thomas Bayes (1702–1761), who proved that probabilistic limits could be placed on an unknown event. However it was Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749–1827) who introduced (as principle VI) what is now called Bayes' theorem and applied it to celestial mechanics, medical statistics, reliability, and jurisprudence. When insufficient knowledge was available to specify an informed prior, Laplace used uniform priors, according to his "principle of insufficient reason". Laplace assumed uniform priors for mathematical simplicity rather than for philosophical reasons. Laplace also introduced primitive versions of conjugate priors and the theorem of von Mises and Bernstein, according to which the posteriors corresponding to initially differing priors ultimately agree, as the number of observations increases. This early Bayesian inference, which used uniform priors following Laplace's principle of insufficient reason, was called "inverse probability" (because it infers backwards from observations to parameters, or from effects to causes). After the 1920s, inverse probability was largely supplanted by a collection of methods that were developed by Ronald A. Fisher, Jerzy Neyman and Egon Pearson. Their methods came to be called frequentist statistics. Fisher rejected the Bayesian view, writing that "the theory of inverse probability is founded upon an error, and must be wholly


id: history-of-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: History of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:19.335250+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
The history of technology is the history of human invention of tools and techniques. Technology includes methods ranging from simple stone tools to the complex genetic engineering and information technology that has emerged since the 1980s. The term technology comes from the Greek words techne, meaning art and craft, and logos, meaning word and speech. It was first used to describe applied arts, but it is now used to describe advancements and changes that affect the environment around us. New knowledge has enabled people to create new tools. Conversely, many scientific endeavors are made possible by new technologies, such as scientific instruments that allow us to study nature in greater detail than our natural senses can. Since much of technology is applied science, technical history is connected to the history of science. Since technology uses resources, technical history is tightly connected to economic history. From those resources, technology produces other resources, including technological artifacts used in everyday life. Technological change affects, and is affected by, a society's cultural traditions. It is a force for economic growth and a means of developing and projecting economic, political, and military power and wealth. == Measuring technological progress == Many sociologists and anthropologists have


id: history-of-technology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology-1.md
category: reference
title: History of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:19.335250+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
During most of the Paleolithic – the bulk of the Stone Age – all humans lived with limited tools and few permanent settlements. The first major technologies were tied to survival, hunting, and food preparation. Stone tools and weapons, fire, and clothing were major technological developments during this period. Human ancestors have been using stone and other tools since long before the emergence of Homo sapiens approximately 300,000 years ago. The earliest direct evidence of tool usage was found in Ethiopia within the Great Rift Valley, dating back to 2.5 million years ago. The earliest methods of stone tool making, known as the Oldowan "industry", date back to at least 2.3 million years ago. This era of stone tool use is called the Paleolithic, or "Old stone age", and spans all of human history up to the development of agriculture approximately 12,000 years ago. To make a stone tool, a "core" of hard stone with specific flaking properties (such as flint) was struck with a hammerstone. This flaking produced sharp edges which could be used as tools, primarily in the form of choppers or scrapers. These tools greatly aided the early humans in their hunter-gatherer lifestyle to perform a variety


id: history-of-technology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology-2.md
category: reference
title: History of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:19.335250+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Before iron smelting was developed, the only iron obtained was from meteorites, which are usually identified by having nickel content. Meteoric iron was rare and valuable, but was sometimes used to make tools and other implements, such as fish hooks. The Iron Age involved the adoption of iron smelting technology. It generally replaced bronze and enabled the production of tools that were stronger, lighter, and cheaper to make than their bronze equivalents. The raw materials to make iron, such as ore and limestone, are far more abundant than copper and especially tin ores. Consequently, iron was produced in many areas. It was not possible to mass-manufacture steel or pure iron because of the high temperatures required. Furnaces could reach melting temperature, but the crucibles and molds needed for melting and casting had not been developed. Steel could be produced by forging bloomery iron to reduce the carbon content in a somewhat controllable way, but steel produced by this method was not homogeneous. In many Eurasian cultures, the Iron Age was the last major step before the development of writing, though this was not universally the case. In Europe, large hill forts were built either as refuges in times of war


id: history-of-technology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology-3.md
category: reference
title: History of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:19.335250+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
==== Egypt ==== The Egyptians, known for building pyramids centuries before the advent of modern tools, invented and used many simple machines, such as the ramp, to aid construction. Historians and archaeologists have found evidence that the pyramids were built using three of the Six Simple Machines, from which all machines are based. These machines are the inclined plane, the wedge, and the lever, which allowed the ancient Egyptians to move millions of limestone blocks which weighed approximately 3.5 tons (7,000 lbs.) each into place to create structures like the Great Pyramid of Giza, which is 481 feet (147 meters) high. They also made writing medium similar to paper from papyrus, which Joshua Mark states is the foundation for modern paper. Papyrus is a plant (Cyperus papyrus) that grew in plentiful amounts in the Egyptian Delta and throughout the Nile River Valley during ancient times. The papyrus was harvested by field workers and brought to processing centers, where it was cut into thin strips. The strips were then laid out side by side and covered in plant resin. The second layer of strips was laid perpendicular to the first, then both were pressed together until the sheet was dry. The


id: history-of-technology-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology-4.md
category: reference
title: History of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:19.335250+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
==== Hellenistic Mediterranean ==== The Hellenistic period of Mediterranean history began in the 4th century BC with Alexander's conquests, which led to the emergence of a Hellenistic civilization representing a synthesis of Greek and Near-Eastern cultures in the Eastern Mediterranean region, including the Balkans, Levant and Egypt. With Ptolemaic Egypt as its intellectual center and Greek as the lingua franca, the Hellenistic civilization included Greek, Egyptian, Jewish, Persian, and Phoenician scholars and engineers who wrote in Greek. Hellenistic engineers of the Eastern Mediterranean were responsible for several inventions and improvements to existing technology. The Hellenistic period saw a sharp increase in technological advancement, fostered by a climate of openness to new ideas, the blossoming of a mechanistic philosophy, and the establishment of the Library of Alexandria in Ptolemaic Egypt and its close association with the adjacent museion. In contrast to the typically anonymous inventors of earlier ages, ingenious minds such as Archimedes, Philo of Byzantium, Heron, Ctesibius, and Archytas remain known by name to posterity. Ancient agriculture, as in any period before the modern age the primary mode of production and subsistence, and its irrigation methods, were considerably advanced by the invention and widespread application of several previously unknown water-lifting


id: history-of-technology-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology-5.md
category: reference
title: History of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:19.335250+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
==== East Asia ==== ==== Indian subcontinent ==== ==== Islamic world ==== The Muslim caliphates united large areas that had previously traded little with one another, including the Middle East, North Africa, Central Asia, the Iberian Peninsula, and parts of the Indian subcontinent. The science and technology of earlier empires in the region, including the Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman empires, were inherited by the Muslim world, where Arabic replaced Syriac, Persian, and Greek as the region's lingua franca. Significant advances were made in the region during the Islamic Golden Age (8th–16th centuries). The Arab Agricultural Revolution occurred during this period. It was a transformation in agriculture from the 8th to the 13th century in the Islamic region of the Old World. The economy established by Arab and other Muslim traders across the Old World enabled the diffusion of many crops and farming techniques throughout the Islamic world, as well as the adaptation of crops and techniques from and to regions outside it. Advances were made in animal husbandry, irrigation, and farming, with the help of new technology such as the windmill. These changes made agriculture much more productive, supporting population growth, urbanisation, and greater social stratification. Muslim engineers


id: history-of-technology-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology-6.md
category: reference
title: History of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:19.335250+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Before the development of modern engineering, mathematics was used by artisans and craftsmen, such as millwrights, clock makers, instrument makers, and surveyors. Aside from these professions, universities were not believed to have had much practical significance to technology. A standard reference for the state of the mechanical arts during the Renaissance is the mining engineering treatise De re metallica (1556), which also contains sections on geology, mining, and chemistry. De re metallica was the standard chemistry reference for the next 180 years. Among the water-powered mechanical devices in use were ore stamping mills, forge hammers, blast bellows, and suction pumps. Due to the casting of cannon, the blast furnace came into widespread use in France in the mid-15th century. The blast furnace had been used in China since the 4th century BC. The invention of the movable cast metal type printing press, whose pressing mechanism was adapted from an olive screw press, (c. 1441) lead to a tremendous increase in the number of books and the number of titles published. Movable ceramic type had been used in China for a few centuries and woodblock printing dated back even further. The era is marked by such profound technical advancements as linear


id: history-of-technology-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology-7.md
category: reference
title: History of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:19.335250+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
The steam engine helped drain the mines, allowing access to more coal reserves and increasing coal output. The development of the high-pressure steam engine made locomotives possible; a transport revolution followed. The steam engine which had existed since the early 18th century, was practically applied to both steamboat and railway transportation. The Liverpool and Manchester Railway, the first purpose-built railway line, opened in 1830, with the Rocket locomotive of Robert Stephenson among its first working locomotives. Manufacture of ships' pulley blocks by all-metal machines at the Portsmouth Block Mills in 1803 instigated the age of sustained mass production. Machine tools used by engineers to manufacture parts began in the first decade of the century, notably by Richard Roberts and Joseph Whitworth. The development of interchangeable parts through what is now called the American system of manufacturing began in the firearms industry at the U.S. Federal arsenals in the early 19th century; it became widely used by the end of the century. Until the Enlightenment era, little progress was made in water supply and sanitation, and the engineering skills of the Romans were largely neglected throughout Europe. The first documented use of sand filters to purify the water supply dates to


id: history-of-technology-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology-8.md
category: reference
title: History of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:19.335250+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Mass production brought automobiles and other high-tech goods to the masses of consumers. Military research and development sped advances including electronic computing and jet engines. Radio and telephony greatly improved and expanded their reach to larger user populations. However, near-universal access would not be possible until mobile phones became affordable to residents of the developing world in the late 2000s and early 2010s. Energy and engine technology improvements included nuclear power, developed after the Manhattan Project, which heralded the new Atomic Age. Rocket development led to long range missiles and the first space age that lasted from the 1950s with the launch of Sputnik to the mid-1980s. Electrification spread rapidly in the 20th century. At the beginning of the century, electric power was, for the most part, only available to wealthy people in a few major cities. By 2019, an estimated 87 percent of the world's population had access to electricity. Birth control also became widespread during the 20th century. Electron microscopes were very powerful by the late 1970s, and genetic theory and knowledge were expanding, leading to developments in genetic engineering. The first "test tube baby" Louise Brown was born in 1978, which led to the first successful gestational


id: history-of-technology-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology-9.md
category: reference
title: History of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:19.335250+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Biotechnology === Timeline of agriculture and food technology Timeline of biotechnology === Civil engineering === Civil engineering Architecture and building construction Bridges, harbors, tunnels, dams Surveying, instruments and maps, cartography, urban engineering, water supply and sewerage === Communication === === Computing === === Consumer technology === === Electrical engineering === Timeline of electrical and electronic engineering === Energy === === Materials science === Timeline of materials technology Metallurgy === Measurement === History of time in the United States History of timekeeping devices === Medicine === === Military === Military history#Technological evolution Category:Military history – articles on history of specific technologies === Nuclear === Manhattan Project Atomic Age Nuclear testing Nuclear arms race === Science and technology === === Transport === == See also == === Related history === === Related disciplines === === Related subjects === == References == == Further reading == == External links == Electropaedia on the History of Technology Archived 2011-05-12 at the Wayback Machine MIT 6.933J – The Structure of Engineering Revolutions. From MIT OpenCourseWare, course materials (graduate level) for a course on the history of technology through a Thomas Kuhn-ian lens. Concept of Civilization Events. From Jaroslaw Kessler, a chronology of "civilizing events".


id: history-of-telecommunication-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_telecommunication-0.md
category: reference
title: History of telecommunication
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_telecommunication
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:20.539553+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-telecommunication-20260505-0
summary:
The history of telecommunication began with the use of smoke signals and drums in Africa, Asia, and the Americas. In the 1790s, the first fixed semaphore systems emerged in Europe. However, it was not until the 1830s that electrical telecommunication systems started to appear. This article details the history of telecommunication and the individuals who helped make telecommunication systems what they are today. The history of telecommunication is an important part of the larger history of communication. == Ancient systems and optical telegraphy == Early telecommunications included smoke signals and drums. Talking drums were used by natives in Africa, and smoke signals in North America and China. These systems were often used to do more than announce the presence of a military camp. In Rabbinical Judaism a signal was given by means of kerchiefs or flags at intervals along the way back to the high priest to indicate the goat "for Azazel" had been pushed from the cliff. Homing pigeons have occasionally been used throughout history by different cultures. Pigeon post had Persian roots, and was later used by the Romans to aid their military. Greek hydraulic semaphore systems were used as early as the 4th century BC. The hydraulic


id: history-of-telecommunication-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_telecommunication-1.md
category: reference
title: History of telecommunication
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_telecommunication
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:20.539553+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-telecommunication-20260505-0
summary:
Experiments on communication with electricity, initially unsuccessful, started in about 1726. Scientists including Laplace, Ampère, and Gauss were involved. An early experiment in electrical telegraphy was an 'electrochemical' telegraph created by the German physician, anatomist and inventor Samuel Thomas von Sömmerring in 1809, based on an earlier, less robust design of 1804 by Spanish polymath and scientist Francisco Salva Campillo. Both their designs employed multiple wires (up to 35) in order to visually represent almost all Latin letters and numerals. Thus, messages could be conveyed electrically up to a few kilometers (in von Sömmerring's design), with each of the telegraph receiver's wires immersed in a separate glass tube of acid. An electric current was sequentially applied by the sender through the various wires representing each digit of a message; at the recipient's end the currents electrolysed the acid in the tubes in sequence, releasing streams of hydrogen bubbles next to each associated letter or numeral. The telegraph receiver's operator would visually observe the bubbles and could then record the transmitted message, albeit at a very low baud rate. The principal disadvantage to the system was its prohibitive cost, due to having to manufacture and string-up the multiple wire circuits it


id: history-of-telecommunication-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_telecommunication-2.md
category: reference
title: History of telecommunication
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_telecommunication
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:20.539553+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-telecommunication-20260505-0
summary:
Over several years starting in 1894, the Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi worked on adapting the newly discovered phenomenon of radio waves to telecommunication, building the first wireless telegraphy system using them. In December 1901, he established wireless communication between St. John's, Newfoundland and Poldhu, Cornwall (England), earning him a Nobel Prize in Physics (which he shared with Karl Braun) in 1909. In 1900, Reginald Fessenden was able to wirelessly transmit a human voice. Millimetre wave communication was first investigated by Bengali physicist Jagadish Chandra Bose during 1894–1896, when he reached an extremely high frequency of up to 60 GHz in his experiments. He also introduced the use of semiconductor junctions to detect radio waves, when he patented the radio crystal detector in 1901. In 1924, Japanese engineer Kenjiro Takayanagi began a research program on electronic television. In 1925, he demonstrated a cathode-ray tube (CRT) television with thermal electron emission. In 1926, he demonstrated a CRT television with 40-line resolution, the first working example of a fully electronic television receiver. In 1927, he increased the television resolution to 100 lines, which was unrivaled until 1931. In 1928, he was the first to transmit human faces in half-tones on television, influencing the


id: history-of-telecommunication-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_telecommunication-3.md
category: reference
title: History of telecommunication
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_telecommunication
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:20.539553+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-telecommunication-20260505-0
summary:
The first U.S. satellite to relay communications was Project SCORE in 1958, which used a tape recorder to store and forward voice messages. It was used to send a Christmas greeting to the world from U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower. In 1960 NASA launched an Echo satellite; the 100-foot (30 m) aluminized PET film balloon served as a passive reflector for radio communications. Courier 1B, built by Philco, also launched in 1960, was the world's first active repeater satellite. Satellites these days are used for many applications such as GPS, television, internet and telephone. Telstar was the first active, direct relay commercial communications satellite. Belonging to AT&T as part of a multi-national agreement between AT&T, Bell Telephone Laboratories, NASA, the British General Post Office, and the French National PTT (Post Office) to develop satellite communications, it was launched by NASA from Cape Canaveral on July 10, 1962, the first privately sponsored space launch. Relay 1 was launched on December 13, 1962, and became the first satellite to broadcast across the Pacific on November 22, 1963. The first and historically most important application for communication satellites was in intercontinental long-distance telephony. The fixed Public Switched Telephone Network relays telephone calls from


id: history-of-telecommunication-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_telecommunication-4.md
category: reference
title: History of telecommunication
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_telecommunication
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:20.539553+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-telecommunication-20260505-0
summary:
MOS technology was initially overlooked by Bell because they did not find it practical for analog telephone applications. MOS technology eventually became practical for telephone applications with the MOS mixed-signal integrated circuit, which combines analog and digital signal processing on a single chip, developed by former Bell engineer David A. Hodges with Paul R. Gray at UC Berkeley in the early 1970s. In 1974, Hodges and Gray worked with R.E. Suarez to develop MOS switched capacitor (SC) circuit technology, which they used to develop the digital-to-analog converter (DAC) chip, using MOSFETs and MOS capacitors for data conversion. This was followed by the analog-to-digital converter (ADC) chip, developed by Gray and J. McCreary in 1975. MOS SC circuits led to the development of PCM codec-filter chips in the late 1970s. The silicon-gate CMOS (complementary MOS) PCM codec-filter chip, developed by Hodges and W.C. Black in 1980, has since been the industry standard for digital telephony. By the 1990s, telecommunication networks such as the public switched telephone network (PSTN) had been largely digitized with very-large-scale integration (VLSI) CMOS PCM codec-filters, widely used in electronic switching systems for telephone exchanges and data transmission applications. === Wireless revolution === The wireless revolution began in


id: philosophy-of-archaeology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_archaeology-0.md
category: reference
title: Philosophy of archaeology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_archaeology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:22.311748+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophy-of-archaeology-20260505-0
summary:
The philosophy of archaeology seeks to investigate the foundations, methods and implications of the discipline of archaeology in order to further understand the human past and present. Core questions address the definition of archaeology, its theoretical foundations, and the ways in which the discipline conceptualizes time. They also examine the purposes of archaeology, including why it is conducted and for whose benefit, as well as the nature and reality of the materials and processes that constitute archaeological inquiry. Analytic philosophy of archaeology explores the conceptual structure underlying terms such as artefact, site, archaeological record, and archaeological culture. These issues represent part of the broader metaphysical, aesthetic, epistemological, ethical, and theoretical concerns central to archaeological practice. In addition to these general questions, the philosophy of archaeology is also concerned with fieldwork methodology, integration of theory and collaboration with other disciplines, theories of measurement and data representation. Philosophy of archaeology can also denote a certain approach or attitude applied to the discipline, such as feminist, Marxist, humanist or processual for example. These approaches are generally referred to as "theory" by archaeologists and are sometimes conflated with, but are not the same as, analytic philosophy of archaeology. See Archeological theory for a full


id: philosophy-of-archaeology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_archaeology-1.md
category: reference
title: Philosophy of archaeology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_archaeology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:22.311748+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophy-of-archaeology-20260505-0
summary:
== Ontology == The ontology of archaeology is concerned with what archaeological entities exist, can be said to exist, and what their relations to each other might be. For example, what is an artefact, a site or a culture and do they exist as separate entities? If entities are agreed to exist how should they be categorised or recorded. A branch of research in archaeological ontology is known as typology which attempts to sort objects into classes based on physical characteristics. The existence and nature of time is also of concern in archaeological ontology. For example, what effect does periodisation, e.g. the three age model, have on archaeological theory and practice. Questions of the ontological nature of both time and objects are of great importance in the design of archaeological databases and are of increasing importance as the computerisation of archaeological processes and data increases. == Theory == The philosophy of archaeology is also concerned with the construction of theories within the discipline. Archaeology is a theoretically fragmented field with no generally applied interpretative theory underpinning the discipline. A multitude of different theoretical approaches have developed over the last 50 years and exist in parallel across the discipline. These range


id: philosophy-of-ecology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_ecology-0.md
category: reference
title: Philosophy of ecology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_ecology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:23.548532+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophy-of-ecology-20260505-0
summary:
Philosophy of ecology is a concept under the philosophy of science, which is a subfield of philosophy. Its main concerns centre on the practice and application of ecology, its moral issues, and the intersectionality between the position of humans and other entities. This topic also overlaps with metaphysics, ontology, and epistemology, for example, as it attempts to answer metaphysical, epistemic and moral issues surrounding environmental ethics and public policy. The aim of the philosophy of ecology is to clarify and critique the 'first principles’, which are the fundamental assumptions present in science and the natural sciences. Although there has yet to be a consensus about what presupposes philosophy of ecology, and the definition for ecology is up for debate, there are some central issues that philosophers of ecology consider when examining the role and purpose of what ecologists practice. For example, this field considers the 'nature of nature', the methodological and conceptual issues surrounding ecological research, and the problems associated with these studies within its contextual environment. Philosophy addresses the questions that make up ecological studies, and presents a different perspective into the history of ecology, environmental ethics in ecological science, and the application of mathematical models. == Background ==


id: philosophy-of-ecology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_ecology-1.md
category: reference
title: Philosophy of ecology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_ecology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:23.548532+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophy-of-ecology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Contemporary ecology === Defining contemporary ecology requires looking at certain fundamental principles, namely principles of system and evolution. System entails understanding the processes, of which interconnected sections establish a holistic identity, not separated or predictable from their components. Evolution results from the ‘generation of variety’ as a means to produce change. Certain entities that interact with their environments create evolution through survival, and it is the production of changes that shape ecological systems. This evolutionary process is central to ecology and biology. There are three main concerns that ecologists generally concur with: naturalism, scientific realism, and the comprehensive scope of ecology. Philosopher Frederick Ferre defines two different primary meanings for nature in Being and Value: Toward a Constructive Postmodern Metaphysics (1996). The first definition does not consider nature as 'artifacts of human manipulation’, and nature, in this sense, comprises those not of artificial origins. The second definition establishes natures as those not of supernatural conceptions, which includes artefacts of human manipulation in this case. However, there is confusion of meaning as both connotations are used interchangeably in its application in different contexts by different ecologists. ==== Naturalism ==== There is yet to be a defined explanation of naturalism within


id: philosophy-of-ecology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_ecology-2.md
category: reference
title: Philosophy of ecology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_ecology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:23.548532+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophy-of-ecology-20260505-0
summary:
== Mathematical models == Mathematical models play a role in questioning the issues presented in ecology and conservation biology. There are mainly two types of models used to explore the relationship between applications of mathematics and practice within ecology. The first are descriptive models, which details single-species population growth, for example, and multi-species models like Lotka-Volterra predator-prey models or Nicholson-Baily host-parasitoid model. These models explain behavioural activity through the idealisation of the intended target. The second type are normative models, which describe the current state of variables and how certain variables should behave. In ecology, complicated biological interactions require explanation, which is where the models are used to investigate hypotheses. For example, identification and explanations of certain organisms and population abundance is essential for understanding the role of ecology and biodiversity. Applications of equations provide an inclination towards a prediction, or a model to suggest an answer for these questions that come up. Mathematical model in particular also provide contextual supporting information regarding factors on a wider, more global scale as well. The purpose of these models and the differences in normative models and scientific models is that the differences in their standards entail different applications. These models aid in


id: philosophy-and-economics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics-0.md
category: reference
title: Philosophy and economics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:24.877786+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophy-and-economics-20260505-0
summary:
Philosophy and economics studies topics such as public economics, behavioural economics, rationality, justice, history of economic thought, rational choice, the appraisal of economic outcomes, institutions and processes, the status of highly idealized economic models, the ontology of economic phenomena and the possibilities of acquiring knowledge of them. It is useful to divide philosophy of economics in this way into three subject matters which can be regarded respectively as branches of action theory, ethics (or normative social and political philosophy), and philosophy of science. Economic theories of rationality, welfare, and social choice defend substantive philosophical theses often informed by relevant philosophical literature and of evident interest to those interested in action theory, philosophical psychology, and social and political philosophy. Economics is of special interest to those interested in epistemology and philosophy of science both because of its detailed peculiarities and because it has many of the overt features of the natural sciences, while its object consists of social phenomena. In any empirical setting, the epistemic assumptions of financial economics (and related applied financial disciplines) are relevant, and are further discussed under the Epistemology of finance. == Scope == === Definition and ontology of economics === The question usually addressed in any


id: philosophy-and-economics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics-1.md
category: reference
title: Philosophy and economics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:24.877786+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophy-and-economics-20260505-0
summary:
Praxeology: a deductive theory of human action based on premises presumed to be philosophically true (following the analytic–synthetic distinction of Immanuel Kant). Developed by Ludwig von Mises within the Austrian School, is a self-conscious opposition to the mathematical modeling and hypothesis-testing to validate neoclassical economics. Cross-cultural perspectives on economics, and economic anthropology: an example is the Buddhist-inspired Bhutanese "Gross National Happiness" concept (suggested as a better development measure than GNI/GDP). Amartya Sen is a renowned advocate for the integration of cross-cultural phenomena into economic thinking. Feminist perspectives on economics, or feminist economics. == Scholars cited in the literature == == Related disciplines == The ethics of economic systems is an area of overlap between business ethics and the philosophy of economics. People who write on the ethics of economic systems are more likely to call themselves political philosophers than business ethicists or economic philosophers. There is significant overlap between theoretical issues in economics and the philosophy of economics. As economics is generally accepted to have its origins in philosophy, the history of economics overlaps with the philosophy of economics. == Degrees == Some universities offer joint degrees that combine philosophy, politics and economics. These degrees cover many of the problems


id: web-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Web science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:27.676574+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: web-science-20260505-0
summary:
Web science is an emerging interdisciplinary field concerned with the study of large-scale socio-technical systems, particularly the World Wide Web. It considers the relationship between people and technology, the ways that society and technology co-constitute one another and the impact of this co-constitution on broader society. Web Science combines research from disciplines as diverse as sociology, computer science, economics, and mathematics. An earlier definition was given by American computer scientist Ben Shneiderman: "Web Science" is processing the information available on the web in similar terms to those applied to natural environment. The Web Science Institute describes Web Science as focusing "the analytical power of researchers from disciplines as diverse as mathematics, sociology, economics, psychology, law and computer science to understand and explain the Web. It is necessarily interdisciplinary – as much about social and organizational behaviour as about the underpinning technology." A central pillar of Web science development is Artificial Intelligence or "AI". The current artificial intelligence that in development at the moment is Human-Centered, with goals to further professional development courses as well as influencing public policy. Artificial intelligence developers are focused on the most impactful uses of this technology, while also hoping to expedite the growth and development


id: digital-enterprise-research-institute-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Enterprise_Research_Institute-0.md
category: reference
title: Digital Enterprise Research Institute
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Enterprise_Research_Institute
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:30.092999+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: digital-enterprise-research-institute-20260505-0
summary:
The Digital Enterprise Research Institute (DERI) is a former research institute at NUI Galway. It is now part of the Insight Centre for Data Analytics. Insight was established in 2013 by Science Foundation Ireland with funding of €75m. DERI's focus is research into the Semantic Web and linked data. It was originally established as a Centre for Science, Engineering and Technology (CSET) in 2003 with funding from Science Foundation Ireland. Additional funding sources were EU Framework Programs, Enterprise Ireland, IRCSET, and industry. == History == DERI was opened in 2003 with funding from Science Foundation Ireland. In addition projects from the European Commission and Enterprise Ireland extended the research program. As scientific director Dieter Fensel was hired from the University of Innsbruck. As executive director Christoph Bussler was hired from Oracle. Additional leadership was provided by Stefan Decker (Information Sciences Institute, University of Southern California) and David O'Sullivan (National University of Ireland). In 2006 Stefan Decker took over the Director position, and Michael Turley took over the Chief Executive Position. Manfred Hauswirth became deputy director. DERI grew rapidly from 2 persons in 2003 to about 40 in 2006, and then to about 100 in 2008. In 2008 DERI secured a


id: web-science-trust-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_Science_Trust-0.md
category: reference
title: Web Science Trust
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_Science_Trust
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:31.359736+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: web-science-trust-20260505-0
summary:
The Web Science Trust (WST) is a UK Charitable Trust with the aim of supporting the global development of Web science. It was originally started in 2006 as a joint effort between MIT and University of Southampton to formalise the social and technical aspects of the World Wide Web. The trust coordinates a set of international "WSTNet Laboratories" that include academic research groups in the emerging area of Web science. It was first announced at MIT on 2 November 2006 as the Web Science Research Initiative (WSRI), changing its name in 2009 to the Web Science Trust. Tim Berners-Lee originally led this program, now run by a Board of Trustees, which aims to attract government and private funds to support their many activities. The Web Science Trust supports curriculum development in universities and research institutions to train future generations of Web Scientists. Given the similarities between Web Science and Information Science, Web Science overlaps with the interests of the ISchool movement, particularly in the United States, but focuses more specifically on the Web itself. The annual Web Science conference brings together participants from many fields including those studying both the social and the computational aspects of the World Wide Web.


id: list-of-people-considered-father-or-mother-of-a-scientific-field-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_people_considered_father_or_mother_of_a_scientific_field-0.md
category: reference
title: List of people considered father or mother of a scientific field
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_people_considered_father_or_mother_of_a_scientific_field
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:35.599783+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-people-considered-father-or-mother-of-a-scientific-field-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of people who are considered a "father" or "mother" (or "founding father" or "founding mother") of a scientific field. Such people are generally regarded to have made the first significant contributions to and/or delineation of that field; they may also be seen as "a" rather than "the" father or mother of the field. Debate over who merits the title can be perennial. == Science as a whole == == Natural sciences == === Biology === === Chemistry === === Earth sciences === === Medicine and physiology === === Physics and astronomy === == Formal sciences == === Mathematics === === Systems theory === == Social sciences == === Economics === ==== Schools of thought ==== ==== Theories ==== == See also == Founders of statistics == Notes == == References ==


id: list-of-the-72-names-on-the-eiffel-tower-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_the_72_names_on_the_Eiffel_Tower-0.md
category: reference
title: List of the 72 names on the Eiffel Tower
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_the_72_names_on_the_Eiffel_Tower
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:36.823770+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-the-72-names-on-the-eiffel-tower-20260505-0
summary:
On the Eiffel Tower, 72 names of French male scientists, engineers, and mathematicians are engraved in recognition of their contributions. Gustave Eiffel chose this "invocation of science" because of his concern over the protests against the tower, and chose names of those who had distinguished themselves since 1789. The engravings are found on the sides of the tower under the first balcony, in letters about 60 cm (24 in) tall, and were originally painted in gold. The engraving was painted over at the beginning of the 20th century and restored in 1986–87 by Société Nouvelle d'exploitation de la Tour Eiffel, the company that the city of Paris contracts to operate the Tower. The repainting of 2010–11 restored the letters to their original gold colour. There are also names of the engineers who helped build the Tower and design its architecture on a plaque on the top of the Tower, where a laboratory was built as well. It has been proposed to add the names of 72 leading women to the tower and a list for agreement with the Mayor of Paris was presented in 2026. == List == === Location === The list is split in four parts (one for


id: list-of-chemical-elements-named-after-people-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_elements_named_after_people-0.md
category: reference
title: List of chemical elements named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_elements_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:37.997013+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemical-elements-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
This list of chemical elements named after people includes elements named for people both directly and indirectly. Of the 118 elements, 19 are connected with the names of 20 people. 15 elements were named to honor 16 scientists (as curium honours both Marie and Pierre Curie). Four others have indirect connection to the names of non-scientists. Only gadolinium and samarium occur in nature; the rest are man-made. == List == These 19 elements are connected to the names of people. Seaborg and Oganessian were the only living persons honored by having elements named after them; Oganessian is the only one still alive. Names were proposed to honor Einstein and Fermi while they were still alive, but they had both died by the time those names became official. The four elements associated with non-scientists were not named in their honor but named for something else bearing their name: samarium for the mineral samarskite from which it was isolated; and americium, berkelium and livermorium after places named for them. The cities of Berkeley, California and Livermore, California are the locations of the University of California Radiation Laboratory and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, respectively. Six elements have only an indirect namesake: samarium, gadolinium,


id: list-of-computer-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of computer scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:39.316484+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-computer-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of computer scientists, people who do work in computer science, in particular researchers and authors. Some persons notable as programmers are included here because they work in research as well as program. A few of these people pre-date the invention of the digital computer; they are now regarded as computer scientists because their work can be seen as leading to the invention of the computer. Others are mathematicians whose work falls within what would now be called theoretical computer science, such as complexity theory and algorithmic information theory. == A == Wil van der Aalst – business process management, process mining, Petri nets Scott Aaronson – quantum computing and complexity theory Rediet Abebe – algorithms, artificial intelligence Hal Abelson – intersection of computing and teaching Serge Abiteboul – database theory Samson Abramsky – game semantics Leonard Adleman – RSA, DNA computing Manindra Agrawal – polynomial-time primality testing Luis von Ahn – human-based computation Alfred Aho – compilers book, the 'a' in AWK Frances E. Allen – compiler optimization Gene Amdahl – supercomputer developer, Amdahl Corporation founder David P. Anderson – volunteer computing Lisa Anthony – natural user interfaces Andrew Appel – compiler of text books Cecilia


id: list-of-computer-scientists-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_scientists-1.md
category: reference
title: List of computer scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:39.316484+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-computer-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
== C == Pino Caballero Gil – cryptography Tracy Camp – wireless computing Martin Campbell-Kelly – history of computing Rosemary Candlin Rod Canion – cofounder of Compaq Computer Corporation Bryan Cantrill – invented DTrace Luca Cardelli John Carmack – codeveloped Doom Michael Caspersen – programming methodology, education in OO programming, leadership in developing informatics education Edwin Catmull – computer graphics Vint Cerf – Internet, TCP/IP Gregory Chaitin Robert Cailliau – Belgian computer scientist Zhou Chaochen – duration calculus Peter Chen – entity-relationship model, data modeling, conceptual model Leonardo Chiariglione – founder of MPEG Tracy Chou – computer scientist and activist Alonzo Church – mathematics of combinators, lambda calculus Alberto Ciaramella – speech recognition, patent informatics Edmund M. Clarke – model checking John Cocke – reduced instruction set computer (RISC) Edgar F. Codd (1923–2003) – formulated the database relational model Jacques Cohen – computer science professor Ian Coldwater – computer security Simon Colton – computational creativity Alain Colmerauer – Prolog Douglas Comer – Xinu Paul Justin Compton – Ripple-down rules Richard W. Conway – CORC, CUPL, and PL/C languages and dialects; programming textbooks Stephen Cook – NP-completeness James Cooley – Fast Fourier transform (FFT) Steven Anson Coons – conic section analyses,


id: list-of-computer-scientists-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_scientists-2.md
category: reference
title: List of computer scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:39.316484+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-computer-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
== G == Richard P. Gabriel – Maclisp, Common Lisp, Worse is Better, League for Programming Freedom, Lucid Inc., XEmacs Zvi Galil Bernard Galler – MAD (programming language) Hector Garcia-Molina Michael Garey – NP-completeness Hugo de Garis Bill Gates – cofounder of Microsoft David Gelernter Lisa Gelobter – was the Chief Digital Service Officer for the U.S. Department of Education, founder of teQuitable Charles Geschke Zoubin Ghahramani Sanjay Ghemawat Jeremy Gibbons – generic programming, functional programming, formal methods, computational biology, bioinformatics Juan E. Gilbert – human-centered computing Lee Giles – CiteSeer Seymour Ginsburg – formal languages, automata theory, AFL theory, database theory Robert L. Glass Kurt Gödel – computability; not a computer scientist per se, but his work was invaluable in the field Ashok Goel Joseph Goguen E. Mark Gold – Language identification in the limit Adele Goldberg – Smalltalk Andrew V. Goldberg – algorithms, algorithm engineering Ian Goldberg – cryptographer, off-the-record messaging Judy Goldsmith – computational complexity theory, decision theory, and computer ethics Oded Goldreich – cryptography, computational complexity theory Shafi Goldwasser – cryptography, computational complexity theory Gene Golub – Matrix computation Martin Charles Golumbic – algorithmic graph theory Gastón Gonnet – cofounder of Waterloo Maple Inc. Ian Goodfellow


id: list-of-computer-scientists-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_scientists-3.md
category: reference
title: List of computer scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:39.316484+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-computer-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
== K == William Kahan – numerical analysis Robert E. Kahn – TCP/IP Avinash Kak – digital image processing Poul-Henning Kamp – invented GBDE, FreeBSD Jails, Varnish cache David Karger Richard Karp – NP-completeness Narendra Karmarkar – Karmarkar's algorithm Marek Karpinski – NP optimization problems Ted Kaehler – Smalltalk, Squeak, HyperCard Alan Kay – Dynabook, Smalltalk, overlapping windows Neeraj Kayal – AKS primality test Manolis Kellis – computational biology John George Kemeny – the language BASIC Ken Kennedy – compiling for parallel and vector machines Brian Kernighan (born 1942) – Unix, the 'k' in AWK Carl Kesselman – grid computing Gregor Kiczales – CLOS, reflective programming, aspect-oriented programming Logan Kilpatrick Peter T. Kirstein – Internet Stephen Cole Kleene – Kleene closure, recursion theory Dan Klein – Natural language processing, Machine translation Leonard Kleinrock – ARPANET, queueing theory, packet switching, hierarchical routing Donald Knuth – The Art of Computer Programming, MIX/MMIX, TeX, literate programming Andrew Koenig – C++ Daphne Koller – Artificial intelligence, bayesian network Michael Kölling – BlueJ Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov – algorithmic complexity theory Janet L. Kolodner – case-based reasoning David Korn – KornShell Kees Koster – ALGOL 68 Robert Kowalski – logic programming John Koza – genetic programming


id: list-of-computer-scientists-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_scientists-4.md
category: reference
title: List of computer scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:39.316484+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-computer-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
== N == Mihai Nadin – anticipation research Makoto Nagao – machine translation, natural language processing, digital library Frieder Nake – pioneered computer arts Bonnie Nardi – human–computer interaction Peter Naur (1928–2016) – Backus–Naur form (BNF), ALGOL 60, IFIP WG 2.1 member Roger Needham – computer security James G. Nell – Generalised Enterprise Reference Architecture and Methodology (GERAM) Greg Nelson (1953–2015) – satisfiability modulo theories, extended static checking, program verification, Modula-3 committee, Simplify theorem prover in ESC/Java Bernard de Neumann – massively parallel autonomous cellular processor, software engineering research Klara Dan von Neumann (1911–1963) – early computers, ENIAC programmer and control designer John von Neumann (1903–1957) – early computers, von Neumann machine, set theory, functional analysis, mathematics pioneer, linear programming, quantum mechanics Allen Newell – artificial intelligence, Computer Structures Max Newman – Colossus computer, MADM Andrew Ng – artificial intelligence, machine learning, robotics Nils John Nilsson (1933–2019) – artificial intelligence G.M. Nijssen – Nijssen's Information Analysis Methodology (NIAM) object–role modeling Tobias Nipkow – proof assistance Maurice Nivat – theoretical computer science, Theoretical Computer Science journal, ALGOL, IFIP WG 2.1 member Jerre Noe – computerized banking Peter Nordin – artificial intelligence, genetic programming, evolutionary robotics Donald Norman – user interfaces, usability


id: list-of-computer-scientists-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_scientists-5.md
category: reference
title: List of computer scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:39.316484+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-computer-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
== S == George Sadowsky Mehrnoosh Sadrzadeh – compositional models of meaning, machine learning Umar Saif Gerard Salton – information retrieval Jean E. Sammet – programming languages Claude Sammut – artificial intelligence researcher Carl Sassenrath – operating systems, programming languages, Amiga, REBOL Mahadev Satyanarayanan – file systems, distributed systems, mobile computing, pervasive computing Walter Savitch – discovery of complexity class NL, Savitch's theorem, natural language processing, mathematical linguistics Nitin Saxena – AKS Primality test for polynomial time primality testing, computational complexity theory Jonathan Schaeffer Heidi Schelhowe Wilhelm Schickard – one of the first calculating machines Jürgen Schmidhuber – artificial intelligence, deep learning, artificial neural networks, recurrent neural networks, Gödel machine, artificial curiosity, meta-learning Steve Schneider – formal methods, security Bruce Schneier – cryptography, security Fred B. Schneider – concurrent and distributed computing Sarita Schoenebeck – human–computer interaction Glenda Schroeder – command-line shell, e-mail Bernhard Schölkopf – machine learning, artificial intelligence Dana Scott – domain theory Michael L. Scott – programming languages, algorithms, distributed computing Robert Sedgewick – algorithms, data structures Ravi Sethi – compilers, 2nd Dragon Book Nigel Shadbolt Adi Shamir – RSA, cryptanalysis Claude Shannon – information theory David E. Shaw – computational finance, computational biochemistry, parallel architectures Cliff


id: list-of-computer-scientists-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_scientists-6.md
category: reference
title: List of computer scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:39.316484+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-computer-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
== W == Eiiti Wada – ALGOL N, IFIP WG 2.1 member, Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS) X 0208, 0212, Happy Hacking Keyboard David Wagner – security, cryptography David Waltz James Z. Wang Steve Ward Manfred K. Warmuth – computational learning theory David H. D. Warren – AI, logic programming, Prolog, Warren Abstract Machine (WAM) Kevin Warwick – artificial intelligence Jan Weglarz Philip Wadler – functional programming, Haskell, Monad, Java, logic Peter Wegner – object-oriented programming, interaction (computer science) Joseph Henry Wegstein – ALGOL 58, ALGOL 60, IFIP WG 2.1 member, data processing technical standards, fingerprint analysis Peter J. Weinberger – programming language design, the 'w' in AWK Mark Weiser – ubiquitous computing Joseph Weizenbaum – artificial intelligence, ELIZA David Wheeler – EDSAC, subroutines Franklin H. Westervelt – use of computers in engineering education, conversational use of computers, Michigan Terminal System (MTS), ARPANET, distance learning Steve Whittaker – human computer interaction, computer support for cooperative work, social media Jennifer Widom – nontraditional data management Gio Wiederhold – database management systems Norbert Wiener – Cybernetics Adriaan van Wijngaarden – Dutch pioneer; ARRA, ALGOL, IFIP WG 2.1 member Mary Allen Wilkes – LINC developer, assembler-linker designer Maurice Vincent Wilkes – microprogramming, EDSAC Yorick


id: german-zoological-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Zoological_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: German Zoological Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Zoological_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:42.809985+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: german-zoological-society-20260505-0
summary:
The German Zoological Society (German: Deutsche Zoologische Gesellschaft; abbr. DZG) is a learned society in Germany, founded in 1890 at Frankfurt am Main. It is registered as a non-profit organisation (German: eingetragene Verein) based in Munich. == Activities == The DZG represents German-speaking zoologists and corresponds with other regional and national zoological societies. It represents the interests of zoology among the scientific learned societies and can be consulted by politicians for advice. Membership is open to any zoologist or student of zoology; the DZG currently has about 1500 members. It organises an annual meeting, which until 2004 was held during the week of Pentecost. However, as many universities no longer have a recess during that period, since 2005 the date of the meeting has been decided by the host university. The DZG publishes its own scientific journal, Frontiers in Zoology, founded in 2004. It is published in cooperation with the online publisher BioMed Central. The DZG formerly published the Zoologische Anzeiger and Zoologische Jahrbücher, since discontinued. The DZG awards several prizes to support or recognise scientific work. == Karl Ritter von Frisch Medal == The Karl Ritter von Frisch Medal is a scientific prize of the DZG. The Medal has


id: list-of-network-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_network_scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of network scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_network_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:44.011015+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-network-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of notable individuals who research complex networks, including social networks, biological networks, and semantic networks, among others. Individuals are categorized based on their background and training, or their area of focus. == Social and behavioral sciences == Peter Bearman Ulrik Brandes Ronald S. Burt Noshir Contractor James Fowler Mark Granovetter Dirk Helbing Matthew O. Jackson Helen Hall Jennings Frigyes Karinthy David Lazer Zeev Maoz John Levi Martin James D. Montgomery Anna Nagurney Kim Rossmo Tom Snijders Duncan Watts Barry Wellman Douglas R. White Harrison White == Computer and information sciences == Lada Adamic Vladimir Batagelj Randy Bush Aaron Clauset Anuška Ferligoj Jon Kleinberg Jure Leskovec Filippo Menczer Cristopher Moore Aleš Žiberna == Physics == Réka Albert Luís A. N. Amaral Albert-László Barabási Kevin E. Bassler Dirk Brockmann Kim Christensen Raissa D'Souza Ernesto Estrada Michelle Girvan Shlomo Havlin César Hidalgo Vito Latora José Fernando Ferreira Mendes Yamir Moreno Adilson E. Motter Mark Newman H. Eugene Stanley Alessandro Vespignani Lenka Zdeborová == Biology == Uri Alon Danielle Bassett Caroline Buckee Paulien Hogeweg Trey Ideker Jukka-Pekka Onnela Bernhard Palsson John Quackenbush Olaf Sporns == Mathematics == Vincent Blondel Béla Bollobás Chris Danforth Peter Sheridan Dodds Pául Erdős Frank Harary


id: list-of-nominees-for-the-nobel-prize-in-chemistry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nominees_for_the_Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry-0.md
category: reference
title: List of nominees for the Nobel Prize in Chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nominees_for_the_Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:45.392419+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-nominees-for-the-nobel-prize-in-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
The Nobel Prize in Chemistry (Swedish: Nobelpriset i kemi) is awarded annually by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences to scientists who have made outstanding contributions in chemistry. It is one of the five Nobel Prizes which were established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895. Every year, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences sends out forms, which amount to a personal and exclusive invitation, to about three thousand selected individuals to invite them to submit nominations. The names of the nominees are never publicly announced, and neither are they told that they have been considered for the Prize. Nomination records are strictly sealed for fifty years. Currently, the nominations for the years 1901 to 1974 are publicly available. Despite the annual sending of invitations, the prize was not awarded in eight years (1916, 1917, 1919, 1924, 1933, 1940–42) and was delayed for a year nine times (1914, 1918, 1920, 1921, 1925, 1927, 1938, 1943, 1944). From 1901 to 1974, there were 760 scientists nominated for the prize, 87 of whom were awarded the prize either jointly or individually. 14 more scientists from these nominees were awarded the prize after 1974, and Frederick Sanger received a second award in


id: list-of-political-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of political scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:46.675601+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-political-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of notable political scientists. Political science is the scientific study of politics, a social science dealing with systems of governance and power. == A == Robert Abelson – Yale University psychologist and political scientist with special interests in statistics and logic Henry J. Abraham – American scholar on the judiciary and constitutional law and James Hart Professor of Government Emeritus at the University of Virginia Alan Abramowitz – expert in American politics, political parties, ideological realignment, elections, and voting behavior; professor at Emory University Paul R. Abramson – American political scientist known for his research and writing on American, European, and Israeli elections and professor of political science at Michigan State University Ibrahim Abu-Lughod – Palestinian-American academic and professor for political science at Northwestern University for 34 years As'ad AbuKhalil – Lebanese-American professor of political science at California State University, Stanislaus Martha Ackelsberg – American political scientist and women's studies scholar at Smith College Brooke Ackerly – expert on grounded normative theory, feminist theory, feminist international relations, and scholar activism, professor at Vanderbilt University David Adamany – public law specialist and president of Temple University Charles R. Adrian – American professor of political science who


id: list-of-political-scientists-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_scientists-1.md
category: reference
title: List of political scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:46.675601+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-political-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
== B == Andrew Bacevich – American historian specializing in international relations, security studies, American foreign policy, and American diplomatic and military history Gawdat Bahgat – professor of political science at the National Defense University Kathleen Cordelia Bailey Fatih Baja – Gar Yunis University teacher and member of the National Transitional Council in charge of political affairs Susan Baker – Irish scholar of environmental governance in the European Union and ecofeminism, gender and the environment at Cardiff University Lisa Baldez – American political scientist and scholar of Latin American Studies Michel Balinski – American and French applied mathematician, economist, operations research analyst and political scientist Tijjani Muhammad Bande – Nigerian political scientist permanent representative of Nigeria to the UN and former president of UNGA Moniz Bandeira – Brazilian writer, professor, political scientist, historian and poet Mary Jo Bane – Thornton Bradshaw Professor at Harvard Kennedy School; former the Malcolm Wiener Professor of Social Policy and director of the Malcolm Wiener Center for Social Policy Edward C. Banfield Benjamin Barber – proponent of participatory democracy and local governance teaching at the University of Maryland School of Public Policy James David Barber – developed a classification system of the personality types of


id: list-of-political-scientists-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_scientists-2.md
category: reference
title: List of political scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:46.675601+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-political-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
Betts – prize-winning author in a number of political science areas Mark Bevir – professor of political science and director of the Center for British Studies at the University of California, Berkeley Seweryn Bialer (1926–2019) – political scientist specializing in Soviet and Russian studies; professor at Columbia University; published seminal works on Soviet political elites, including Stalin's Successors (1980) and The Soviet Paradox (1986) Thomas J. Biersteker – professor at the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies in Geneva, Biersteker is known for his work on international political economy, particularly regarding the impact of international sanctions on state behavior Leonard Binder – professor at the University of Chicago; known for his studies on Middle Eastern politics, especially in Egypt, and his influential work The Ideology of Arab Politics Sarah Binder – professor at George Washington University; recognized for her research on legislative politics, including U.S. Congress; has published on political parties, policymaking, and gridlock Sarah Birch – professor in comparative politics at King's College London Thomas A. Birkland – professor at North Carolina State University; known for his work on public policy, mainly the study of disaster policy and how crises affect policy decisions; author of Lessons of Disaster


id: list-of-political-scientists-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_scientists-3.md
category: reference
title: List of political scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:46.675601+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-political-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
== C == William A. Callahan Melani Cammett – Clarence Dillon Professor of International Affairs and director of the Weatherhead Center for International Affairs, Harvard University Linda Cardinal – University Professor, Canada Research Chair in Canadian Francophonie and Public Policies at the University of Ottawa Ira Carmen – co-founder of the social science subdiscipline of genetics and politics Edward Hallett Carr – international relations theorist Niambi Carter – political scientist and author Alfredo Castillero Hoyos – democracy and human rights; former member of the United Nations's Human Rights Committee George Catlin (1896–1979) – English political scientist and philosopher; strong proponent of Anglo-America cooperation; worked for many years as a professor at Cornell University Jocelyne Cesari – French political scientist Pamela Chasek – international environmental policy expert Partha Chatterjee – Indian postcolonial critic, political and social scientist Rumman Chowdhury – Bengali-American political scientist and data scientist at Accenture Satyabrata Rai Chowdhuri – international relations, Indology at Institute of Commonwealth Studies Walter C. Clemens – associate at Harvard Davis Center for Russian and European Studies and professor emeritus of Political Science, Boston University, author of books on US relations with Russia, China and North Korea, and science and world affairs Cathryn Clüver


id: list-of-political-scientists-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_scientists-4.md
category: reference
title: List of political scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:46.675601+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-political-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
== F == C. Christine Fair – American political scientist who studies counter-terrorism and South Asian topics James D. Fearon – American political scientist focusing on theory of civil wars, international bargaining, war's inefficiency puzzle and audience costs Peter D. Feaver – international security expert Dafydd Fell – British political scientist David Fellman – Constitutional scholar Richard Fenno – Congress scholar, author of Home Style: House Members in their Districts Thomas Ferguson – politics and economics Joel S. Fetzer – comparative politics specialist; distinguished professor at Pepperdine University Samuel Finer – academic and author on political science and history of government Norman Finkelstein – author on political science, notable for The Holocaust Industry Martha Finnemore – international relations and international organizations scholar Morris P. Fiorina – American politics; proposed retrospective vote theory Peter Fishburn – operations analysis and probability theory expert Keith Fitzgerald – immigration politics expert Naika Foroutan – German political scientist studying immigration and integration James H. Fowler – expert on political participation, the evolution of cooperation, and social network theory (UCSD) Annette Baker Fox – international relations scholar William T. R. Fox – international relations theorist, coiner of the term "superpower" Ernst Fraenkel – German political scientist


id: list-of-political-scientists-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_scientists-5.md
category: reference
title: List of political scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:46.675601+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-political-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
== H == Michael Haas – emeritus professor of Political Science, University of Hawai'i Jacob Hacker – professor of Political Science at Yale University Henrike Hahn – German political scientist and politician; member of the European Parliament Paul Y. Hammond – American foreign policy and national security specialist at University of Pittsburgh and elsewhere Roger D. Hansen – American political scientist and professor Harry Harding – China specialist Thomas Hare – devised single transferable vote (also known as Hare's method) Jeremy Harris – American politics specialist Michael Hart – British twentieth-century politics specialist Louis Hartz – American author of The Liberal Tradition in America Mary Hawkesworth – American political scientist and Distinguished Professor of Political Science and Women's and Gender Studies at Rutgers University Colin Hay – influential British political scientist Katharine Hayhoe – atmospheric scientist and professor of political science at Texas Tech University and director of the Climate Science Center Clarissa Rile Hayward – professor at Washington University in St. Louis studying the theory of political power and political identities Susan Hekman – professor of political science and director of the graduate humanities program at the University of Texas at Arlington Marc Hetherington – author of Why Trust


id: list-of-political-scientists-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_scientists-6.md
category: reference
title: List of political scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:46.675601+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-political-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
== L == Guy Laforest – liberalism (John Locke) scholar; Quebec and Canadian politics specialist Celinda Lake – American survey methodologist, pollster, and political strategist Enid Lakeman – British political reformer, writer and politician, noted for her long-standing championship of the single transferable vote system of elections Laura Langbein – American quantitative methodologist and professor of public administration and policy at American University Harold Lasswell – political communications, pioneered early efforts to establish the policy sciences and influential contributor to the stages heuristic Adria Lawrence – American political scientist and the Aronson Associate Professor of International Studies and Political Science at Johns Hopkins University Jack Layton – former leader of the New Democratic Party of Canada, Ph.D. in Political Science Richard Ned Lebow – constructivist, Cold War expert, author of Tragic Vision of Politics Noémi Lefebvre – French political scientist at the Instituts d'études politiques of Grenoble II Michael Leifer – international relations, South Asian Studies, London School of Economics Amy E. Lerman – scholar of public opinion, race, and political behaviour; Michelle Schwartz Professor of Public Policy at the University of California Berkeley Margaret Levi – scholar of comparative political economy, labor politics, democratic theory, former American Political Science


id: list-of-political-scientists-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_scientists-7.md
category: reference
title: List of political scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:46.675601+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-political-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
== N == Brigitte L. Nacos – professor in political science at Columbia University Arthur Naftalin – specialist in American politics and former mayor of Minneapolis, Minnesota Amrita Narlikar – president of the German Institute of Global and Area Studies and former director of the University of Cambridge Centre for Rising Powers Antonio Negri Franz Leopold Neumann – known for analysis of National Socialism Kalypso Nicolaïdis – professor of International Relations and director of the Center for International Studies at Oxford University David Nolan – founder of the United States Libertarian Party Farish A. Noor – Malaysian historian and political scientist Pippa Norris – Harvard comparative political scientist Douglass North – Nobel laureate Philip Norton – British politics expert Julie Novkov – American political scientist at SUNY Albany studying the history of American law, American political development, and subordinated identities Joseph Nye – "soft power" international security specialist; Kennedy School dean == O == Karen O'Conner – political science professor at American University in Washington, D.C.; founder and director emerita of the Women & Politics Institute Guillermo O'Donnell – democracy specialist Aloysius-Michaels Nnabugwu Okolie – professor at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka Brendan O'Leary – ethnic conflict specialist Cornelius O'Leary


id: list-of-political-scientists-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_scientists-8.md
category: reference
title: List of political scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:46.675601+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-political-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
== S == Larry Sabato – University of Virginia professor, director of the University of Virginia Center for Politics, and popular political analyst Scott Sagan – Stanford professor and notable critic of deterrence theory Slobodan Samardžić – research includes political ideas and institutions, federalism, constitutionalism, and European Union David Samuels – comparativist scholar of Brazilian politics and political institutions Eliz Sanasarian – professor of political science at the University of Southern California Emanuele Santi – Italian development economist, political scientist and author Virginia Sapiro – American political psychologist Austin Sarat – public law specialist Giovanni Sartori – comparativist, expert on constitutional theory and party systems E.E. Schattschneider – early political parties expert, author of Party Government and The Semisovereign People: A Realist's View of Democracy in America Steven Schier – specialist in American politics Warner R. Schilling – specialist in international relations and military technology Kay Lehman Schlozman – J. Joseph Moakley Professor of political science at Boston College; expert in American political participation and gender and politics Vivien A. Schmidt – Jean Monnet Chair of European Integration Professor of International Relations in the Pardee School of Global Studies and professor of political science at Boston University Carsten Q. Schneider


id: list-of-political-scientists-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_scientists-9.md
category: reference
title: List of political scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:46.675601+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-political-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
== V == Stephen Van Evera – MIT international relations expert, known for proposing the offense-defense theory Tatu Vanhanen – democratization and ethnic nepotism Sarojini Varadappan – Indian social worker who earned her PhD at the age of 80 Sidney Verba – American political scientist, librarian and library administrator Mieke Verloo – professor of comparative politics and inequality issues at Radboud University Eric Voegelin – in his major work, Order and History in five volumes, he rejected the notion that political science should become a positivistic social science Margaret Vogt – Nigerian diplomat and political scientist who served as special representative and head of the United Nations Integrated Peace-building Office in the Central African Republic Leah Vosko – professor at York University == W == Helen Wallace – international relations specialist Denise Walsh – studies the relationship between women's rights and political inclusion and level of democracy Stephen Walt – international relations specialist Kenneth N. Waltz – founder of the neorealist international relations school Michael Walzer – international relations, just war theory John Wanna – Sir John Bunting Chair of Public Administration at the Australia and New Zealand School of Government Georgina Waylen – comparative politics, political economy, and gender


id: list-of-scientists-whose-names-are-used-in-physical-constants-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientists_whose_names_are_used_in_physical_constants-0.md
category: reference
title: List of scientists whose names are used in physical constants
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientists_whose_names_are_used_in_physical_constants
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:49.143096+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientists-whose-names-are-used-in-physical-constants-20260505-0
summary:
Some of the constants used in science are named after scientists. Below is the list of the scientists whose names are used in physical constants. == List of the scientists and the physical constants == == See also == List of scientists whose names are used as units List of chemical elements named after people Unit of measurement == Notes == == References ==


id: list-of-things-named-after-max-born-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Max_Born-0.md
category: reference
title: List of things named after Max Born
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Max_Born
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:50.815292+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-things-named-after-max-born-20260505-0
summary:
Max Born was a scientist who worked in many fields. Below is a list of things named in his honour. == Chemistry == Born–Haber cycle Born–Landé equation Born–Mayer equation Born equation == Physics == BBGKY hierarchy (Bogoliubov–Born–Green–Kirkwood–Yvon hierarchy) Born–Oppenheimer approximation Born–Huang approximation Born–Infeld model Born–von Karman boundary condition Born approximation, see Born series Born coordinates Born equation Born law, see Born rule Born probability Born reciprocity Born rigidity Born rule Born series Born square Cauchy-Born rule == Astronomical objects == Born (crater) 13954 Born, asteroid == Others == Max Born Medal and Prize of the German Physical Society and the British Institute of Physics, created in 1972. Max Born Award, given by The Optical Society. Max-Born Institut für Nichtlineare Optik und Kurzzeitspektroskopie im Forschungsverbund Berlin e.V. - Institute named in his honour. == Citations ==


id: list-of-things-named-after-charles-darwin-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Charles_Darwin-0.md
category: reference
title: List of things named after Charles Darwin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Charles_Darwin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:52.071960+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-things-named-after-charles-darwin-20260505-0
summary:
Several places, concepts, institutions, and things are namesakes of the English biologist Charles Darwin: == Places == Charles Darwin National Park Charles Darwin Foundation Charles Darwin Research Station Charles Darwin School Charles Darwin University Darwin College, Cambridge Darwin, Falkland Islands Darwin, Northern Territory Darwin Glacier (California) Darwin Guyot, a seamount in the Pacific Ocean Darwin Island, Galapagos Islands Darwin Island (Antarctica) Darwin Nature Reserve Darwin Sound (Canada) Darwin's Arch Mount Darwin (Antarctica) Mount Darwin (California) Mount Darwin (Tasmania) Mount Darwin (Zimbabwe) == Things named after Darwin in relation to his Beagle voyage == Cordillera Darwin Darwin's finches Darwin's frog Darwin's rhea Darwin Sound Mount Darwin (Andes) == Scientific names of organisms == Some 250 species and several higher groups bear Darwin's name; most are insects. Darwinilus, a rove beetle Darwinius, an extinct primate Darwinopterus, a genus of pterosaur Darwinula, a genus of seed shrimp Darwinivelia, a water treader genus Darwinysius, a seed bug Darwinomya, a genus of flies Darwinella, a sponge genus Darwinsaurus, a dinosaur Darwinhydrus, a diving beetle darwini (multiple species) darwinii (multiple species) Minervarya charlesdarwini, a frog Ramalina darwiniana, lichen == Philosophies == Darwinism Social Darwinism == Other == Darwin, a unit of evolutionary change Darwin, an operating


id: list-of-things-named-after-peter-debye-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Peter_Debye-0.md
category: reference
title: List of things named after Peter Debye
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Peter_Debye
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:53.343840+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-things-named-after-peter-debye-20260505-0
summary:
The article is a list of things named after the Dutchman P. J. W. Debye. Debye – a unit of electric dipole moment Debye–Falkenhagen effect Debye–Hückel equation Debye–Hückel limiting law, see Debye–Hückel equation Debye–Hückel theory, see Debye–Hückel equation Debye scattering equation Debye–Scherrer method, see Powder diffraction Debye–Scherrer rings, see Debye–Scherrer method Debye–Sears method Debye–Waller factor Debye force Debye frequency, see also Debye model Debye function, see also Debye model Debye length Debye model Debye relaxation Debye sheath Debye shielding Debye temperature, see also Debye model Lorenz–Mie–Debye theory Rayleigh–Gans–Debye approximation == Astronomical objects == 30852 Debye Debye (crater) == Others == Debye Institute for Nanomaterial(s) Science, at the University of Utrecht Debye Street and Debye Square, in Maastricht. Peter Debye Award == See also == Debye (disambiguation) All pages with titles containing Debye


id: list-of-things-named-after-ren-descartes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_René_Descartes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of things named after René Descartes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_René_Descartes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:54.559195+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-things-named-after-ren-descartes-20260505-0
summary:
This is the list of things named after René Descartes (1596–1650), a French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist. == Computer science == Cartesian genetic programming Cartesian tree == Mathematics == Cartesian closed category Cartesian geometry Cartesian coordinate system Cartesian equations Cartesian plane Cartesian tensor Cartesian monoid Cartesian monoidal category Cartesian closed category Cartesian oval Cartesian product Cartesian product of graphs Cartesian square Cartesian morphisms Descartes number Descartes' rule of signs Descartes snark Descartes' theorem Descartes' theorem on total angular defect Folium of Descartes == Physics == Cartesian diver Cartesian vortex theory Snell–Descartes law == Philosophy == Cartesian anxiety Cartesian circle Cartesian doubt Cartesian dualism Cartesian materialism Cartesian theater Cartesian Method Descartes' demon == Robotics == Cartesian coordinate robot Cartesian parallel manipulators == Other == Blanche Descartes Cartesian linguistics Cartesian Meditations Cartesian Reflections Descartes (crater) Descartes-class cruiser Descartes' Error Descartes-Huygens Prize Descartes Island (Antarctica) Descartes on Polyhedra Descartes Prize Lycée René Descartes (Champs-sur-Marne)


id: list-of-forms-of-electricity-named-after-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_forms_of_electricity_named_after_scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of forms of electricity named after scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_forms_of_electricity_named_after_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:55.752632+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-forms-of-electricity-named-after-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of forms of electricity named after scientists. The terms in this list are mostly archaic usages but are found in many 19th and early 20th-century publications. == Adjectives == faradic Of electricity that is alternating, especially when obtained from an induction coil. Named after Michael Faraday who built the first electromagnetic generator. galvanic Of electricity that is not alternating. Named after Luigi Galvani. voltaic Of electricity derived from an electrochemical cell or battery. Named after Alessandro Volta who built the first battery, the voltaic pile. In most contexts it can be considered a synonym of galvanic. == Nouns (applications) == Faradization Electrotherapy treatment of a person with faradic electricity. Coined by Duchenne de Boulogne and named after Michael Faraday. Franklinization Electrotherapy by charging a person to high voltage with static electricity. Named after Benjamin Franklin. d'Arsonvalization Electrotherapy treatment of a person with high frequency electricity. Named after Jacques-Arsène d'Arsonval. == Nouns (forms) == Faradism Faradic electricity Franklinism High voltage static electricity as used in Franklinization Galvanism Originally, voltaic electricity, but can also be used to distinguish Galvani's animal electricity from Volta's chemical/metal contact electricity == References == == Bibliography == Borck, Cornelius, Brainwaves: A Cultural History


id: list-of-scientific-equations-named-after-people-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_equations_named_after_people-0.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific equations named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_equations_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:56.967484+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-equations-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of scientific equations named after people (eponymous equations). == See also == Eponym List of eponymous laws List of laws in science List of equations Scientific constants named after people Scientific phenomena named after people Scientific laws named after people == References ==


id: list-of-things-named-after-michael-faraday-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Michael_Faraday-0.md
category: reference
title: List of things named after Michael Faraday
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Michael_Faraday
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:58.167229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-things-named-after-michael-faraday-20260505-0
summary:
Here is a list of things named in honour of scientist Michael Faraday: == Science == Faraday (unit), or just faraday – An obsolete unit of charge that has been superseded by the coulomb farad, SI unit of capacitance Faraday balance – Device for measuring magnetism of an object Faraday cage – Enclosure of conductive mesh used to block electric fields Faraday constant – The amount of electric charge per mole of electrons Faraday cup – Charged particle catcher Faraday cup electrometer – Form of an electrical aerosol instrument used in aerosol studies Faraday dark space – The dark area in front of a cathode in a vacuum tube Homopolar generator, aka Faraday disc or Faraday wheel Faraday effect – Physical magneto-optical phenomenon Faraday filter, aka atomic line filter – Optical band-pass filter used in the physical sciences Inverse Faraday effect – Magnetization by polarized light Faraday rotation (see Faraday effect) Faraday efficiency – Efficiency of charge transfer in an electrochemical reaction Faraday-efficiency effect – Cause of data interpretation errors in electrochemistry Faraday flashlight, aka mechanically powered flashlight Faraday's ice pail experiment Faraday Institute for Science and Religion – Research institute in the UK The Faraday Institution – Nonprofit organization


id: list-of-things-named-after-hermann-von-helmholtz-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Hermann_von_Helmholtz-0.md
category: reference
title: List of things named after Hermann von Helmholtz
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Hermann_von_Helmholtz
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:41:59.418698+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-things-named-after-hermann-von-helmholtz-20260505-0
summary:
Hermann von Helmholtz (1821 – 1894), German physician and physicist who made significant contributions to several widely varied areas of modern science, is the eponym of the topics listed below. == Astronomy == 11573 Helmholtz Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism Helmholtz (lunar crater) == Mathematics, physics and chemistry == Gibbs–Helmholtz equation Helmholtz coil Helmholtz condition Helmholtz decomposition Helmholtz–Hodge decomposition Helmholtz–Leray decomposition Helmholtz equation Kirchhoff–Helmholtz integral Helmholtz flow Helmholtz free energy Helmholtz free entropy Kelvin–Helmholtz instability Helmholtz layer Helmholtz minimum dissipation theorem Helmholtz motion Helmholtz reciprocity Helmholtz resonance Helmholtz theorem (classical mechanics) Generalized Helmholtz theorem Helmholtz's theorems Helmholtz–Kohlrausch effect Helmholtz-Smoluchowski equation Smith-Helmholtz invariant == Music == Helmholtz pitch notation Helmholtz temperament Helmholtz-Ellis notation == Other == Helmholtz Association of German Research Centres Helmholtz machine Helmholtz–Thévenin theorem Helmholtz Watson, a character in Brave New World == Physiology == Young–Helmholtz theory


id: list-of-things-named-after-irving-langmuir-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Irving_Langmuir-0.md
category: reference
title: List of things named after Irving Langmuir
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Irving_Langmuir
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:00.728052+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-things-named-after-irving-langmuir-20260505-0
summary:
Irving Langmuir (1881–1957), American chemist and physicist who made significant contributions to several widely varied areas of modern science, is the eponym of the topics listed below. == Science == Child–Langmuir law Hill–Langmuir equation Langmuir adsorption model Langmuir–Blodgett film Langmuir wave Langmuir–Blodgett trough Langmuir's examples Langmuir–Hinshelwood kinetics Langmuir isotherm Langmuir lattice Langmuir–McLean theory Langmuir monolayer Langmuir probe Dual segmented Langmuir probe Langmuir–Taylor detector Langmuir torch Langmuir turbulence Langmuir circulation Langmuir equation Langmuir wave Langmuir states Lewis–Langmuir theory Knudsen-Langmuir equation Saha–Langmuir equation == Other == Irving Langmuir House Langmuir (journal) Langmuir (crater) Langmuir (unit) Langmuir Laboratory for Atmospheric Research Irving Langmuir Award Langmuir Cove Langmuir Hall, Stony Brook University


id: list-of-things-named-after-leonardo-da-vinci-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Leonardo_da_Vinci-0.md
category: reference
title: List of things named after Leonardo da Vinci
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Leonardo_da_Vinci
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:01.943371+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-things-named-after-leonardo-da-vinci-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of things named after Leonardo da Vinci. == Places == Leonardo da Vinci–Fiumicino Airport, Rome, Italy Museo della Scienza e della Tecnologia "Leonardo da Vinci", Milan, Italy Da Vinci, a crater on the Moon Da Vinci-Broen (Da Vinci Bridge), a small-scale replica of the bridge Leonardo designed to span the Golden Horn, in Ås, Viken, Norway Da Vinci, a Michelin-starred restaurant in Maasbracht, Netherlands Da Vinci Tower, a proposed 420-metre (1,378 ft), 80-floor tower in Dubai, United Arab Emirates === Schools and colleges === Colégio Anglo Leonardo da Vinci, São Paulo, Brazil DaVinci Academy of Science and the Arts, a charter high school in Ogden, Utah Leonardo da Vinci Art Institute, Cairo, Egypt Leonardo da Vinci Art School, formerly in New York City Leonardo da Vinci Gymnasium, Neckargemünd, Germany Leonardo da Vinci High School, Davis, California Leonardo da Vinci High School, Buffalo, New York da Vinci Arts Middle School, Portland, Oregon == Ships == Leonardo da Vinci, a Conte di Cavour class battleship of the Italian navy. (1910–1923) Italian submarine Leonardo da Vinci (1939), a Marconi-class submarine launched in 1939 and sunk in 1943. Italian submarine Leonardo da Vinci (S 510), a Gato-class submarine launched in


id: list-of-scientific-laws-named-after-people-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_laws_named_after_people-0.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific laws named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_laws_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:03.214440+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-laws-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of scientific laws named after people (eponymous laws). For other lists of eponyms, see eponym. == See also == Eponym Fields of science List of eponymous laws (overlaps with this list but includes non-scientific laws such as Murphy's law) List of legislation named for a person List of laws in science Lists of etymologies Scientific constants named after people Scientific phenomena named after people Stigler's law of eponymy == Further reading == Ballentyne, D. W. G.; Lovett, D. R. (1980). A dictionary of named effects and laws in chemistry, physics, and mathematics (4th ed.). Chapman and Hall. ISBN 978-0-412-22380-8.


id: list-of-things-named-after-john-von-neumann-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_John_von_Neumann-0.md
category: reference
title: List of things named after John von Neumann
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_John_von_Neumann
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:04.537828+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-things-named-after-john-von-neumann-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of things named after John von Neumann. John von Neumann (1903–1957), a mathematician, is the eponym of all of the things (and topics) listed below. Birkhoff–von Neumann algorithm Birkhoff–von Neumann theorem Birkhoff–von Neumann decomposition Dirac–von Neumann axioms Jordan–von Neumann theorems Koopman–von Neumann classical mechanics Schatten–von Neumann norm Stone–von Neumann theorem Taylor–von Neumann–Sedov blast wave von Neumann algebra Abelian von Neumann algebra Enveloping von Neumann algebra Finite-dimensional von Neumann algebra von Neumann architecture von Neumann bicommutant theorem von Neumann bounded set Von Neumann bottleneck von Neumann cardinal assignment von Neumann cellular automaton von Neumann conjecture Murray–von Neumann coupling constant Jordan–von Neumann constant Von Neumann–Richtmyer method von Neumann's elephant von Neumann entropy von Neumann entanglement entropy von Neumann equation von Neumann extractor von Neumann-Wigner interpretation von Neumann–Wigner theorem von Neumann measurement scheme von Neumann mutual information von Neumann machines Von Neumann's mean ergodic theorem von Neumann neighborhood Von Neumann's no hidden variables proof von Neumann ordinal von Neumann paradox von Neumann probe von Neumann programming languages von Neumann regular ring von Neumann spectral theorem von Neumann stability analysis von Neumann universal constructor von Neumann universe von Neumann–Bernays–Gödel set theory von Neumann’s minimax theorem von Neumann–Morgenstern utility theorem von


id: list-of-things-named-after-isaac-newton-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Isaac_Newton-0.md
category: reference
title: List of things named after Isaac Newton
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Isaac_Newton
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:05.803776+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-things-named-after-isaac-newton-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of things named after Sir Isaac Newton. == Science and mathematics == Newtonianism, the philosophical principle of applying Newton's methods in a variety of fields === Mathematics === === Physics === == Places == == Schools == == Artwork == == Other == == See also == Newtonian (disambiguation)


id: list-of-things-named-after-louis-pasteur-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Louis_Pasteur-0.md
category: reference
title: List of things named after Louis Pasteur
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Louis_Pasteur
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:07.005429+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-things-named-after-louis-pasteur-20260505-0
summary:
This article is a list of things named after the French scientist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895). == Science == Pasteurization Pasteur effect Pasteur point Pasteur pipette Pasteur–Chamberland filter == Institut Pasteur == Institut Pasteur Institut Pasteur in Ho Chi Minh City (Vietnam) Institut Pasteur de Dalat (Vietnam) Institut Pasteur Korea Pasteur Institute of Lille (France) Pasteur Institute of Iran Pasteur Institute of Algiers (Algeria) UNESCO/Institut Pasteur Medal Musée Pasteur == Others == === Astronomical features === Pasteur (lunar crater) Pasteur (Martian crater) 4804 Pasteur, asteroid === Educational === ==== Elementary schools ==== Louis Pasteur Elementary School in Detroit, Michigan (United States) Louis Pasteur Elementary School in Chicago, Illinois (United States) ==== Middle school ==== ==== High schools ==== Lycée Pasteur in Neuilly-sur-Seine (France) Lycée Pasteur de São Paulo (Brazil) Lycée français Louis-Pasteur de Bogotá (Colombia) Lycée Français Louis Pasteur de Lagos (Nigeria) Lycée Louis Pasteur in Calgary (Canada) ==== Universities ==== Louis Pasteur University, Strasbourg (France) Louis Pasteur University Hospital in Košice (Slovakia) === Hospitals === Centre hospitalier Louis Pasteur, Dole (France). Louis Pasteur Private Hospital in Pretoria (South Africa). Life Louis Pasteur Private Hospital, Bloemfontein (South Africa). === Stations === Pasteur (Milan Metro) (Italy) Pasteur station (Paris Metro) (France) Pasteur


id: list-of-things-named-after-roger-penrose-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Roger_Penrose-0.md
category: reference
title: List of things named after Roger Penrose
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_Roger_Penrose
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:42:08.221998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-things-named-after-roger-penrose-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of things named for the British scientist Roger Penrose: == Mathematics == Moore–Penrose inverse, the most widely known generalization of the inverse matrix in particular linear algebra Penrose graphical notation, a visual depiction of multilinear functions or tensors Penrose stairs, impossible object (co-created with his father Lionel Penrose) Penrose tiling, an example of an aperiodic tiling Penrose triangle, impossible object (co-created with his father Lionel Penrose) Penrose unilluminable room, first solution to the illumination problem == Physics == Diósi–Penrose model, possible solution to the measurement problem Geroch–Held–Penrose formalism Newman–Penrose formalism, a set of notation for general relativity Penrose diagram, a two-dimensional diagram capturing the causal relations between different points in spacetime Penrose inequality, estimation of the mass of a spacetime Penrose conjecture Penrose interpretation, speculation about the relationship between quantum mechanics and general relativity Penrose process, or Penrose mechanism, a theoretical means whereby energy can be extracted from a rotating black hole Penrose singularity theorem in general relativity Penrose transform, a complex analogue of the Radon transform in theoretical physics Penrose–Terrell effect, visual distortion according to the special theory of relativity Penrose–Ward correspondence Rietdijk–Putnam–Penrose argument, version of Rietdijk–Putnam argument == Other == Penrose–Lucas argument, a logical


