# kb

id: list-of-iso-standards-8000-9999-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_8000–9999-5.md
category: reference
title: List of ISO standards 8000–9999
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_8000–9999
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:36.234521+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iso-standards-8000-9999-20260505-0
summary:
coli in surface and waste water ISO 9314 Information processing systems Fibre Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) ISO 9314-1:1989 Part 1: Token Ring Physical Layer Protocol (PHY) ISO 9314-2:1989 Part 2: Token Ring Media Access Control (MAC) ISO/IEC 9314-3:1990 Part 3: Physical Layer Medium Dependent (PMD) ISO/IEC 9314-4:1999 Part 4: Single Mode Fibre Physical Layer Medium Dependent (SMF-PMD) ISO/IEC 9314-5:1995 Part 5: Hybrid Ring Control (HRC) ISO/IEC 9314-6:1998 Part 6: Station Management (SMT) ISO/IEC 9314-7:1998 Part 7: Physical layer Protocol (PHY-2) ISO/IEC 9314-8:1998 Part 8: Media Access Control-2 (MAC-2) ISO/IEC 9314-9:2000 Part 9: Low-cost fibre physical layer medium dependent (LCF-PMD) ISO/IEC 9314-13:1998 Part 13: Conformance Test Protocol Implementation Conformance Statement (CT-PICS) Proforma ISO/IEC 9314-20:2001 Part 20: Abstract test suite for FDDI physical medium dependent conformance testing (FDDI PMD ATS) ISO/IEC 9314-21:2000 Part 21: Abstract test suite for FDDI physical layer protocol conformance testing (FDDI PHY ATS) ISO/IEC 9314-25:1998 Part 25: Abstract test suite for FDDI - Station Management Conformance Testing (SMT-ATS) ISO/IEC 9314-26:2001 Part 26: Media Access Control Conformance Testing (MAC-ATS) ISO 9315:1989 Information processing systems - Interface between flexible disk cartridge drives and their host controllers ISO/IEC 9316:1995 Information technology - Small Computer System Interface-2 ISO/IEC 9316-2:2000 Information technology -


id: list-of-iso-standards-10000-11999-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_10000–11999-1.md
category: reference
title: List of ISO standards 10000–11999
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_10000–11999
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:37.652260+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iso-standards-10000-11999-20260505-0
summary:
== ISO 10000 – ISO 10999 == ISO/IEC TR 10000 Information technology – Framework and taxonomy of International Standardized Profiles ISO/IEC TR 10000-1:1998 Part 1: General principles and documentation framework ISO/IEC TR 10000-2:1998 Part 2: Principles and Taxonomy for OSI Profiles ISO/IEC TR 10000-3:1998 Part 3: Principles and Taxonomy for Open System Environment Profiles ISO 10001:2007 Quality management – Customer satisfaction – Guidelines for codes of conduct for organizations ISO 10002:2014 Quality management – Customer satisfaction – Guidelines for complaints handling in organizations ISO 10003:2007 Quality management – Customer satisfaction – Guidelines for dispute resolution external to organizations ISO 10004:2008 Quality management – Customer satisfaction – Guidelines for monitoring and measuring ISO 10005:2005 Quality management systems – Guidelines for quality plans ISO 10006:2003 Quality management systems – Guidelines for quality management in projects ISO 10007:2017 Quality management systems – Guidelines for configuration management ISO 10008:2013 Quality management – Customer satisfaction – Guidelines for business-to-consumer electronic commerce transactions ISO 10012:2003 Measurement management systems – Requirements for measurement processes and measuring equipment ISO/TR 10013:2001 Guidelines for quality management system documentation ISO 10014:2006 Quality management – Guidelines for realizing financial and economic benefits ISO 10015:1999 Quality management – Guidelines for training ISO/TR 10017:2003


id: list-of-iso-standards-10000-11999-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_10000–11999-2.md
category: reference
title: List of ISO standards 10000–11999
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_10000–11999
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:37.652260+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iso-standards-10000-11999-20260505-0
summary:
ISO 10272-1:2017 Part 1: Detection method ISO 10272-2:2017 Part 2: Colony-count technique ISO 10273:2017 Microbiology of the food chain - Horizontal method for the detection of pathogenic Yersinia enterocolitica ISO/IEC 10279:1991 Information technology – Programming languages – Full BASIC ISO 10284:1997 Cinematography - Graphical symbols - Description ISO 10286:2015 Gas cylinders - Terminology ISO 10302 Acoustics – Measurement of airborne noise emitted and structure-borne vibration induced by small air-moving devices ISO 10302-1:2011 Part 1: Airborne noise measurement ISO 10302-2:2011 Part 2: Structure-borne vibration measurements ISO 10303 Industrial automation systems and integration – Product data representation and exchange ISO 10316:1990 Shipbuilding — Class B magnetic compasses — Tests and certification [Withdrawn: replaced by ISO 25862] ISO 10318 Geosynthetics ISO 10318-1:2015 Part 1: Terms and definitions ISO 10318-2:2015 Part 2: Symbols and pictograms ISO 10322 Ophthalmic optics – Semi-finished spectacle lens blanks ISO 10322-1:2016 Part 1: Specifications for single-vision and multifocal lens blanks ISO 10322-2:2016 Part 2: Specifications for progressive-power and degressive-power lens blanks ISO 10324:1997 Information and documentation - Holdings statements - Summary level ISO 10328:2016 Prosthetics – Structural testing of lower-limb prostheses – Requirements and test methods ISO 10334:1994 Implants for surgery – Malleable wires for use as sutures and


id: list-of-iso-standards-10000-11999-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_10000–11999-3.md
category: reference
title: List of ISO standards 10000–11999
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_10000–11999
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:37.652260+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iso-standards-10000-11999-20260505-0
summary:
== ISO 11000 – ISO 11999 == ISO/IEC 11002:2008 Information technology - Multipath management API ISO 11005:2010 Technical product documentation – Use of main documents ISO 11011:2013 Compressed air - Energy efficiency - Assessment ISO 11014:2009 Safety data sheet for chemical products - Content and order of sections ISO/IEC TR 11017:1998 Information technology - Framework for internationalization ISO 11040 Prefilled syringes ISO 11040-1:2015 Part 1: Glass cylinders for dental local anaesthetic cartridges ISO 11040-2:2011 Part 2: Plunger stoppers for dental local anaesthetic cartridges ISO 11040-3:2012 Part 3: Seals for dental local anaesthetic cartridges ISO 11040-4:2015 Part 4: Glass barrels for injectables and sterilized subassembled syringes ready for filling ISO 11040-5:2012 Part 5: Plunger stoppers for injectables ISO 11040-6:2012 Part 6: Plastic barrels for injectables ISO 11040-7:2015 Part 7: Packaging systems for sterilized subassembled syringes ready for filling ISO 11040-8:2016 Part 8: Requirements and test methods for finished prefilled syringes ISO 11064 Ergonomic design of control centres ISO 11064-1:2000 Principles for the design of control centres ISO 11064-2:2000 Principles for the arrangement of control suites ISO 11064-3:1999 Control room layout ISO 11064-3:1999/Cor 1:2002 ISO 11064-4:2013 Layout and dimensions of workstations ISO 11064-5:2008 Displays and controls ISO 11064-6:2005 Environmental requirements for control


id: list-of-iso-standards-10000-11999-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_10000–11999-4.md
category: reference
title: List of ISO standards 10000–11999
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_10000–11999
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:37.652260+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iso-standards-10000-11999-20260505-0
summary:
ISO 11290-1:2017 Part 1: Detection method ISO 11290-2:2017 Part 2: Enumeration method ISO/TS 11308:2011 Nanotechnologies – Characterization of single-wall carbon nanotubes using thermogravimetric analysis ISO 11318:2002 Cardiac defibrillators – Connector assembly DF-1 for implantable defibrillators – Dimensions and test requirements ISO/IEC 11319:1993 Information technology – 8 mm wide magnetic tape cartridge for information interchange – Helical scan recording ISO/IEC 11321:1992 Information technology – 3,81 mm wide magnetic tape cartridge for information interchange – Helical scan recording – DATA/DAT format ISO 11323:2010 Iron ore and direct reduced iron – Vocabulary ISO/TR 11328:1994 Measurement of liquid flow in open channels – Equipment for the measurement of discharge under ice conditions ISO 11329:2001 Hydrometric determinations – Measurement of suspended sediment transport in tidal channels ISO 11357 Plastics – Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) ISO 11357-1:2009 General principles ISO 11357-2:2013 Determination of glass transition temperature and glass transition step height ISO 11357-3:2011 Determination of temperature and enthalpy of melting and crystallization ISO 11357-4:2005 Determination of specific heat capacity ISO 11357-5:2013 Determination of characteristic reaction-curve temperatures and times, enthalpy of reaction and degree of conversion ISO 11357-6:2008 Determination of oxidation induction time (isothermal OIT) and oxidation induction temperature (dynamic OIT) ISO 11357-7:2002 Determination of crystallization kinetics


id: list-of-iso-standards-10000-11999-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_10000–11999-6.md
category: reference
title: List of ISO standards 10000–11999
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_10000–11999
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:37.652260+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iso-standards-10000-11999-20260505-0
summary:
ISO 11615:2012 Health informatics – Identification of medicinal products – Data elements and structures for the unique identification and exchange of regulated medicinal product information ISO 11616:2012 Health informatics – Identification of medicinal products – Data elements and structures for the unique identification and exchange of regulated pharmaceutical product information ISO 11620:2014 Information and documentation - Library performance indicators ISO 11631:1998 Measurement of fluid flow – Methods of specifying flowmeter performance ISO/TR 11633 Health informatics – Information security management for remote maintenance of medical devices and medical information systems ISO/TR 11633-1:2009 Part 1: Requirements and risk analysis ISO/TR 11633-2:2009 Part 2: Implementation of an information security management system (ISMS) ISO/TR 11636:2009 Health Informatics – Dynamic on-demand virtual private network for health information infrastructure ISO 11648 Statistical aspects of sampling from bulk materials ISO 11648-1:2003 Part 1: General principles ISO 11648-2:2001 Part 2: Sampling of particulate materials ISO 11649:2009 Financial services – Core banking – Structured creditor reference to remittance information ISO/TR 11651:2015 Estimation of sediment deposition in reservoirs using one dimensional simulation models ISO 11655:1995 Measurement of liquid flow in open channels – Method of specifying performance of hydrometric equipment ISO 11657:2014 Hydrometry – Suspended sediment in streams and canals


id: list-of-iso-standards-12000-13999-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_12000–13999-1.md
category: reference
title: List of ISO standards 12000–13999
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_12000–13999
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:39.155992+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iso-standards-12000-13999-20260505-0
summary:
== ISO 12000 – ISO 12999 == ISO 12001:1996 Acoustics – Noise emitted by machinery and equipment – Rules for the drafting and presentation of a noise test code ISO 12005:2003 Lasers and laser-related equipment – Test methods for laser beam parameters – Polarization ISO 12006 Building construction – Organization of information about construction works ISO 12013:2012 Paints and varnishes — Determination of curing characteristics using a free damped oscillation method — ISO/TS 12025:2012 Nano materials – Quantification of nano-object release from powders by generation of aerosols ISO/IEC 12042:1993 Information technology – Data compression for information interchange – Binary arithmetic coding algorithm ISO 12052:2017 Health informatics – Digital imaging and communication in medicine (DICOM) including workflow and data management ISO 12083:1994 Information and documentation - Electronic manuscript preparation and markup ISO 12085:1996 Geometrical Product Specifications (GPS) - Surface texture: Profile method - Motif parameters ISO/IEC 12087 Information technology - Computer graphics and image processing - Image Processing and Interchange (IPI) - Functional specification ISO/IEC 12087-1:1995 Part 1: Common architecture for imaging ISO/IEC 12087-2:1994 Part 2: Programmer's imaging kernel system application programme interface ISO/IEC 12087-3:1995 Part 3: Image Interchange Facility (IIF) ISO/IEC 12087-5:1998 Part 5: Basic Image Interchange Format (BIIF) ISO/IEC


id: list-of-iso-standards-12000-13999-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_12000–13999-2.md
category: reference
title: List of ISO standards 12000–13999
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_12000–13999
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:39.155992+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iso-standards-12000-13999-20260505-0
summary:
and/or Legionella pneumophila by concentration and genic amplification by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) ISO 12870:2016 Ophthalmic optics – Spectacle frames – Requirements and test methods ISO/TR 12885:2008 Nanotechnologies – Health and safety practices in occupational settings relevant to nanotechnologies ISO/TR 12888:2011 Selected illustrations of gauge repeatability and reproducibility studies ISO 12891 Retrieval and analysis of surgical implants ISO 12891-1:2015 Part 1: Retrieval and handling ISO 12891-2:2014 Part 2: Analysis of retrieved surgical implants ISO/TS 12901 Nanotechnologies – Occupational risk management applied to engineered nanomaterials ISO/TS 12901-1:2012 Part 1: Principles and approaches ISO/TS 12901-2:2014 Part 2: Use of the control banding approach ISO/IEC 12905:2011 Integrated circuit cards – Enhanced terminal accessibility using cardholder preference interface ISO 12912:2014 Circular knitting machines – Vocabulary ISO 12913 Acoustics – Soundscape ISO 12913-1:2014 Part 1: Definition and conceptual framework ISO 12931:2012 Performance criteria for authentication solutions used to combat counterfeiting of material goods ISO 12944 Paints and varnishes – Corrosion protection of steel structures by protective paint systems ISO 12967 Health informatics – Service architecture ISO 12967-1:2009 Part 1: Enterprise viewpoint ISO 12967-2:2009 Part 2: Information viewpoint ISO 12967-3:2009 Part 3: Computational viewpoint ISO 12999 Acoustics – Determination and application of measurement uncertainties in


id: list-of-iso-standards-12000-13999-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_12000–13999-3.md
category: reference
title: List of ISO standards 12000–13999
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_12000–13999
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:39.155992+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iso-standards-12000-13999-20260505-0
summary:
== ISO 13000 – ISO 13999 == ISO 13006:2012 Ceramic tiles – Definitions, classification, characteristics and marking ISO 13007 Ceramic tiles – Grouts and adhesives ISO 13007-1:2014 Terms, definitions and specifications for adhesives ISO 13007-2:2010 Test methods for adhesives ISO 13007-3:2010 Terms, definitions and specifications for grouts ISO 13007-4:2013 Test methods for grouts ISO 13008:2012 Information and documentation - Digital records conversion and migration process ISO 13009:2015 Tourism and related services – Requirements and recommendations for beach operation ISO/TR 13014:2012 Nanotechnologies – Guidance on physico-chemical characterization of engineered nanoscale materials for toxicologic assessment ISO/TR 13028:2010 Information and documentation - Implementation guidelines for digitization of records ISO 13053 Quantitative methods in process improvement - Lean and Six Sigma ISO 13053-1:2011 Part 1: DMAIC methodology ISO 13053-2:2011 Part 2: Tools and techniques ISO/TR 13054:2012 Knowledge management of health information standards ISO/TR 13062:2015 Electric mopeds and motorcycles – Terminology and classification ISO/IEC 13066 Information technology - Interoperability with assistive technology (AT) ISO/IEC 13066-1:2011 Part 1: Requirements and recommendations for interoperability ISO/IEC TR 13066-2:2016 Part 2: Windows accessibility application programming interface (API) ISO/IEC TR 13066-3:2012 Part 3: IAccessible2 accessibility application programming interface (API) ISO/IEC TR 13066-4:2015 Part 4: Linux/UNIX graphical environments accessibility API ISO/IEC


id: list-of-iso-standards-12000-13999-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_12000–13999-4.md
category: reference
title: List of ISO standards 12000–13999
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_12000–13999
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:39.155992+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iso-standards-12000-13999-20260505-0
summary:
ISO 13722:2017 Microbiology of the food chain – Enumeration of Brochothrix spp. – Colony-count technique ISO 13731:2001 Ergonomics of the thermal environment - Vocabulary and symbols ISO 13732 Ergonomics of the thermal environment – Methods for the assessment of human responses to contact with surfaces ISO 13732-1:2006 Part 1: Hot surfaces ISO/TS 13732-2:2001 Part 2: Human contact with surfaces at moderate temperature ISO/IEC 13751:2001 Information technology - Programming languages, their environments and system software interfaces - Programming language Extended APL ISO 13766:2006 Earth-moving machinery – Electromagnetic compatibility ISO 13779 Implants for surgery – Hydroxyapatite ISO 13779-2:2008 Part 2: Coatings of hydroxyapatite ISO 13779-3:2008 Part 3: Chemical analysis and characterization of crystallinity and phase purity ISO 13779-4:2002 Part 4: Determination of coating adhesion strength ISO 13779-6:2015 Part 6: Powders ISO 13781:2017 Implants for surgery – Homopolymers, copolymers and blends on poly(lactide) – In vitro degradation testing ISO 13782:1996 Implants for surgery – Metallic materials – Unalloyed tantalum for surgical implant applications ISO/IEC 13800:1996 Information technology - Procedure for the registration of identifiers and attributes for volume and file structure ISO 13810:2015 Tourism services – Industrial tourism – Service provision ISO/TS 13811:2015 Tourism and related services – Guidelines on developing environmental specifications


id: list-of-iso-standards-14000-15999-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_14000–15999-1.md
category: reference
title: List of ISO standards 14000–15999
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_14000–15999
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:40.641373+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iso-standards-14000-15999-20260505-0
summary:
== ISO 14000 – ISO 14999 == ISO 14000 Environmental management systems (This is a set of standards, rather than a single standard) ISO 14001:2015 Environmental management systems – Requirements with guidance for use ISO 14004:2016 Environmental management systems – General guidelines on implementation ISO 14005:2010 Environmental management systems – Guidelines for the phased implementation of an environmental management system, including the use of environmental performance evaluation ISO 14006:2011 Environmental management systems – Guidelines for incorporating ecodesign ISO 14015:2022 Environmental management — Guidelines for environmental due diligence assessment ISO 14020:2000 Environmental labels and declarations – General principles ISO 14031 Environmental management - Environmental performance evaluation – Guidelines ISO 14045:2012 describes the principles, requirements and guidelines for eco-efficiency assessment for product systems ISO 14046:2014 - Environmental management — Water footprint — Principles, requirements and guidelines ISO 14050:2009 Environmental management – Vocabulary ISO 14051 Environmental management – Material flow cost accounting - General framework ISO 14064 Greenhouse gases ISO/TR 14073:2017 Environmental management - Water footprint - Illustrative examples on how to apply ISO 14046 ISO 14084 Process diagrams for power plants ISO 14084-1:2015 Part 1: Specification for diagrams ISO 14084-2:2015 Part 2: Graphical symbols ISO/TS 14101:2012 Surface characterization of gold nanoparticles for


id: list-of-iso-standards-14000-15999-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_14000–15999-2.md
category: reference
title: List of ISO standards 14000–15999
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_14000–15999
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:40.641373+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iso-standards-14000-15999-20260505-0
summary:
== ISO 15000 – ISO 15999 == ISO/TS 15000 Electronic business eXtensible Markup Language ebXML ISO 15000-5:2014 Part 5: Core Components Specification (CCS) ISO 15001:2010 Anaesthetic and respiratory equipment – Compatibility with oxygen ISO 15002:2008 Flow-metering devices for connection to terminal units of medical gas pipeline systems ISO 15003:2019 Agricultural engineering — Electrical and electronic equipment — Testing resistance to environmental conditions ISO 15004 Ophthalmic instruments – Fundamental requirements and test methods ISO 15005:2017 Road vehicles — Ergonomic aspects of transportation and control systems — Dialogue management principles and compliance procedures ISO 15004-1:2006 Part 1: General requirements applicable to all ophthalmic instruments ISO 15004-2:2007 Part 2: Light hazard protection ISO 15006:2011 Road vehicles – Ergonomic aspects of transport information and control systems – Specifications for in-vehicle auditory presentation ISO 15007:2020 Road vehicles — Measurement and analysis of driver visual behaviour with respect to transport information and control systems ISO 15008:2017 Road vehicles — Ergonomic aspects of transport information and control systems — Specifications and test procedures for in-vehicle visual presentation ISO 15009:2016 Soil quality — Gas chromatographic determination of the content of volatile aromatic hydrocarbons, naphthalene and volatile halogenated hydrocarbons — Purge-and-trap method with thermal desorption ISO 15010:1998 Disposable hanging


id: list-of-iso-standards-14000-15999-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_14000–15999-3.md
category: reference
title: List of ISO standards 14000–15999
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_14000–15999
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:40.641373+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iso-standards-14000-15999-20260505-0
summary:
ISO/IEC 15898:1998 Information technology - Data interchange on 356 mm optical disk cartridges - WORM, using phase change technology - Capacity: 14.8 GB and 25 GB per cartridge ISO/IEC 15899:1998 Information technology – Telecommunications and information exchange between systems – Broadband Private Integrated Services Network – Service description – Broadband connection oriented bearer services ISO 15901-2:2022 Pore size distribution and porosity of solid materials by mercury porosimetry and gas adsorption — Part 2: Analysis of nanopores by gas adsorption ISO 15902:2004 Optics and photonics - Diffractive optics - Vocabulary ISO/IEC 15909 Systems and software engineering - High-level Petri nets ISO/IEC 15909-1:2004 Part 1: Concepts, definitions and graphical notation ISO/IEC 15909-2:2011 Part 2: Transfer format ISO 15919:2001 Information and documentation - Transliteration of Devanagari and related Indic scripts into Latin characters ISO 15924:2004 Information and documentation – Codes for the representation of names of scripts ISO 15926 - Integration of Life-cycle Data for Process Plants including Oil and Gas Production Facilities ISO 15927 Hygrothermal performance of buildings – Calculation and presentation of climatic data ISO 15927-1:2003 Part 1: Monthly means of single meteorological elements ISO 15927-2:2009 Part 2: Hourly data for design cooling load ISO 15927-3:2009 Part 3: Calculation of a


id: list-of-iso-standards-16000-17999-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_16000–17999-1.md
category: reference
title: List of ISO standards 16000–17999
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_16000–17999
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:41.853676+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iso-standards-16000-17999-20260505-0
summary:
== ISO 16000 – ISO 16999 == ISO/TR 16015:2003 Geometrical product specifications (GPS) - Systematic errors and contributions to measurement uncertainty of length measurement due to thermal influences ISO 16016:2016 Technical product documentation – Protection notices for restricting the use of documents and products ISO 16020:2005 Steel for the reinforcement and prestressing of concrete – Vocabulary ISO/IEC 16022:2006 Information technology - Automatic identification and data capture techniques - Data Matrix bar code symbology specification ISO/IEC 16023:2000 Information technology - International symbology specification - MaxiCode ISO 16032:2004 Acoustics – Measurement of sound pressure level from service equipment in buildings – Engineering method ISO 16034:2002 Ophthalmic optics – Specifications for single-vision ready-to-wear near- vision spectacles ISO 16039:2004 Road construction and maintenance equipment – Slipform pavers – Definitions and commercial specifications ISO 16054:2000 Implants for surgery – Minimum data sets for surgical implants ISO/TR 16056 Health informatics - Interoperability of telehealth systems and networks ISO/TR 16056-1:2004 Part 1: Introduction and definitions ISO/TR 16056-2:2004 Part 2: Real-time systems ISO/TS 16058:2004 Health informatics – Interoperability of telelearning systems ISO 16059:2007 Dentistry - Required elements for codification used in data exchange ISO 16061:2015 Instrumentation for use in association with non-active surgical implants – General requirements ISO


id: list-of-iso-standards-16000-17999-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_16000–17999-2.md
category: reference
title: List of ISO standards 16000–17999
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_16000–17999
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:41.853676+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iso-standards-16000-17999-20260505-0
summary:
== ISO 17000 – ISO 17999 == ISO/IEC 17000:2004 Conformity assessment - Vocabulary and general principles ISO/IEC 17007:2009 Conformity assessment – Guidance for drafting normative documents suitable for use for conformity assessment ISO/IEC 17011:2017 Conformity assessment – Requirements for accreditation bodies accrediting conformity assessment bodies ISO/IEC 17020:2012 Conformity assessment—Requirements for the operation of various types of bodies performing inspection ISO/IEC 17021:2011 Conformity assessment—Requirements for bodies providing audit and certification of management systems ISO/IEC 17021-1:2015 Part 1: Requirements ISO/IEC 17021-2:2016 Part 2: Competence requirements for auditing and certification of environmental management systems ISO/IEC 17021-3:2017 Part 3: Competence requirements for auditing and certification of quality management systems ISO/IEC TS 17021-4:2013 Part 4: Competence requirements for auditing and certification of event sustainability management systems ISO/IEC TS 17021-5:2014 Part 5: Competence requirements for auditing and certification of asset management systems ISO/IEC TS 17021-6:2014 Part 6: Competence requirements for auditing and certification of business continuity management systems ISO/IEC TS 17021-7:2014 Part 7: Competence requirements for auditing and certification of road traffic safety management systems ISO/IEC TS 17021-9:2016 Part 9: Competence requirements for auditing and certification of anti-bribery management systems ISO/IEC TS 17022:2012 Conformity assessment—Requirements and recommendations for content of a third-party audit report on management


id: list-of-iso-standards-16000-17999-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_16000–17999-3.md
category: reference
title: List of ISO standards 16000–17999
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_16000–17999
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:41.853676+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iso-standards-16000-17999-20260505-0
summary:
Supported by C-TPAT (the use of "H" class seals is required). ISO 17713 Meteorology – Wind measurements ISO 17713-1:2007 Part 1: Wind tunnel test methods for rotating anemometer performance ISO 17714:2007 Meteorology – Air temperature measurements – Test methods for comparing the performance of thermometer shields/screens and defining important characteristics ISO 17717:2017 Meteorological balloons – Specification ISO 17724:2003 Graphical symbols - Vocabulary ISO/TS 17728:2015 Microbiology of the food chain – Sampling techniques for microbiological analysis of food and feed samples ISO 17740 Building construction machinery and equipment – Concrete placing systems for stationary equipment ISO 17740-1:2015 Part 1: Terminology and commercial specifications ISO/IEC 17760 Information technology - AT Attachment ISO/IEC 17760-101:2015 Part 101: ATA/ATAPI Command Set (ATA8-ACS) ISO/IEC 17760-102:2016 Part 102: ATA/ATAPI Command set - 2 (ACS-2) ISO 17772 Energy performance of buildings - Indoor environmental quality ISO 17772-1:2017 Part 1: Indoor environmental input parameters for the design and assessment of energy performance of buildings ISO 17776 Petroleum and natural gas industries – Offshore production installations – Guidelines on tools and techniques for hazard identification and risk assessment ISO/IEC 17788:2014 Information technology - Cloud computing - Overview and vocabulary ISO/IEC 17789:2014 Information technology - Cloud computing - Reference architecture ISO/TR


id: list-of-iso-standards-18000-19999-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_18000–19999-0.md
category: reference
title: List of ISO standards 18000–19999
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_18000–19999
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:43.059276+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iso-standards-18000-19999-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of published International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standards and other deliverables. For a complete and up-to-date list of all the ISO standards, see the ISO catalogue. The standards are protected by copyright and most of them must be purchased. However, about 300 of the standards produced by ISO and IEC's Joint Technical Committee 1 (JTC 1) have been made freely and publicly available. == ISO 18000 – ISO 18999 == === ISO 18000 – ISO 18099 === ISO/IEC 18000 Information technology – Radio frequency identification for item management ISO/IEC 18004:2015 Information technology – Automatic identification and data capture techniques – QR Code bar code symbology specification ISO/IEC 18009:1999 Information technology – Programming languages – Ada: Conformity assessment of a language processor ISO/IEC 18010:2002 Information technology - Pathways and spaces for customer premises cabling ISO/IEC 18012 Information technology - Home Electronic System - Guidelines for product interoperability ISO/IEC 18012-1:2004 Part 1: Introduction ISO/IEC 18012-2:2012 Part 2: Taxonomy and application interoperability model ISO/IEC 18013 Information technology – Personal identification – ISO-compliant driving license ISO/IEC 18013-1:2005 Part 1: Physical characteristics and basic data set ISO/IEC 18013-2:2008 Part 2: Machine-readable technologies ISO/IEC 18013-3:2017 Part 3: Access control, authentication and integrity


id: list-of-iso-standards-18000-19999-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_18000–19999-1.md
category: reference
title: List of ISO standards 18000–19999
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_18000–19999
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:43.059276+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iso-standards-18000-19999-20260505-0
summary:
=== ISO 18100 – ISO 18199 === ISO 18104:2014 Health informatics – Categorial structures for representation of nursing diagnoses and nursing actions in terminological systems ISO/TS 18110:2015 Nanotechnologies - Vocabularies for science, technology and innovation indicators ISO 18115 Surface chemical analysis – Vocabulary ISO 18115-1:2013 Part 1: General terms and terms used in spectroscopy ISO 18115-2:2013 Part 2: Terms used in scanning-probe microscopy ISO 18117:2009 Surface chemical analysis – Handling of specimens prior to analysis ISO 18118:2004 Surface chemical analysis - Auger electron spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy - Guide to the use of experimentally determined relative sensitivity factors for the quantitative analysis of homogeneous materials ISO/IEC TR 18120:2016 Information technology - Learning, education, and training - Requirements for e-textbooks in education ISO/IEC TR 18121:2015 Information technology - Learning, education and training - Virtual experiment framework ISO/TR 18128:2014 Information and documentation - Risk assessment for records processes and systems ISO 18129:2015 Condition monitoring and diagnostics of machines – Approaches for performance diagnosis ISO/TS 18152 Ergonomics of human-system interaction – Specification for the process assessment of human-system issues ISO 18158:2016 Workplace air - Terminology ISO/TS 18173:2005 Non-destructive testing - General terms and definitions ISO/IEC 18180:2013 Information technology - Specification for the


id: list-of-iso-standards-18000-19999-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_18000–19999-2.md
category: reference
title: List of ISO standards 18000–19999
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_18000–19999
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:43.059276+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iso-standards-18000-19999-20260505-0
summary:
=== ISO 18300 – ISO 18399 === ISO/IEC 18305:2016 Information technology - Real time locating systems - Test and evaluation of localization and tracking systems ISO/TR 18307:2001 Health informatics – Interoperability and compatibility in messaging and communication standards – Key characteristics ISO 18308:2011 Health informatics – Requirements for an electronic health record architecture ISO 18312 Mechanical vibration and shock – Measurement of vibration power flow from machines into connected support structures ISO 18312-1:2012 Part 1: Direct method ISO 18312-2:2012 Part 2: Indirect method ISO/TR 18317:2017 Intelligent transport systems – Pre-emption of ITS communication networks for disaster and emergency communication – Use case scenarios ISO 18322:2017 Space systems – General management requirements for space test centres ISO/IEC 18328 Identification cards – ICC-managed devices ISO/IEC 18328-1:2015 Part 1: General framework ISO/IEC 18328-2:2015 Part 2: Physical characteristics and test methods for cards with devices ISO/IEC 18328-3:2016 Part 3: Organization, security and commands for interchange ISO/TS 18339:2015 Endotherapy devices – Eyepiece cap and light guide connector ISO/TS 18340:2015 Endoscopes – Trocar pins, trocar sleeves and endotherapy devices for use with trocar sleeves ISO/TS 18344:2016 Effectiveness of paper deacidification processes ISO 18365:2013 Hydrometry – Selection, establishment and operation of a gauging station ISO/IEC 18367:2016 Information


id: list-of-iso-standards-18000-19999-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_18000–19999-3.md
category: reference
title: List of ISO standards 18000–19999
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_18000–19999
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:43.059276+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iso-standards-18000-19999-20260505-0
summary:
=== ISO 18500 – ISO 18599 === ISO/IEC TS 18508:2015 Information technology - Additional Parallel Features in Fortran ISO 18513:2003 Tourism services - Hotels and other types of tourism accommodation - Terminology ISO/TR 18529:2000 Ergonomics – Ergonomics of human-system interaction – Human-centred lifecycle process descriptions ISO/TS 18530:2014 Health Informatics – Automatic identification and data capture marking and labelling – Subject of care and individual provider identification ISO/TR 18532:2009 Guidance on the application of statistical methods to quality and to industrial standardization ISO 18541 Road vehicles – Standardized access to automotive repair and maintenance information (RMI) ISO 18542 Road vehicles – Standardized repair and maintenance information (RMI) terminology ISO 18542-1:2012 Part 1: General information and use case definition ISO 18542-2:2014 Part 2: Standardized process implementation requirements, Registration Authority ISO 18562 Biocompatibility evaluation of breathing gas pathways in healthcare applications ISO 18562-1:2017 Part 1: Evaluation and testing within a risk management process ISO 18562-2:2017 Part 2: Tests for emissions of particulate matter ISO 18562-3:2017 Part 3: Tests for emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) ISO 18562-4:2017 Part 4: Tests for leachables in condensate ISO 18564:2016 Machinery for forestry – Noise test code ISO/IEC 18584:2015 Information technology – Identification cards – Conformance test


id: list-of-iso-standards-18000-19999-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_18000–19999-4.md
category: reference
title: List of ISO standards 18000–19999
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_18000–19999
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:43.059276+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iso-standards-18000-19999-20260505-0
summary:
=== ISO 18800 – ISO 18899 === ISO/IEC 18809:2000 Information technology – 8 mm wide magnetic tape cartridge for information interchange – Helical scan recording AIT-1 with MIC format ISO/IEC 18810:2001 Information technology – 8 mm wide magnetic tape cartridge for information interchange – Helical scan recording AIT-2 with MIC format ISO 18812:2003 Health informatics – Clinical analyser interfaces to laboratory information systems – Use profiles ISO/IEC TS 18822:2015 Programming languages - C++ - File System Technical Specification ISO/TS 18827:2017 Nanotechnologies – Electron spin resonance (ESR) as a method for measuring reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated by metal oxide nanomaterials ISO 18829:2017 Document management - Assessing ECM/EDRM implementations - Trustworthiness ISO 18831:2016 Clothing – Digital fittings – Attributes of virtual garments ISO 18835:2015 Inhalational anaesthesia systems – Draw-over anaesthetic systems ISO/IEC 18836:2001 Information technology – 8 mm wide magnetic tape cartridge for information interchange – Helical scan recording – MammothTape-2 format ISO 18841:2018 Interpreting services — General requirements and recommendations ISO/TR 18845:2017 Dentistry - Test methods for machining accuracy of computer-aided milling machines ISO/TS 18867:2015 Microbiology of the food chain – Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for the detection of food-borne pathogens – Detection of pathogenic Yersinia enterocolitica and Yersinia pseudotuberculosis


id: list-of-iso-standards-18000-19999-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_18000–19999-5.md
category: reference
title: List of ISO standards 18000–19999
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_18000–19999
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:43.059276+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iso-standards-18000-19999-20260505-0
summary:
=== ISO 19100 – ISO 19199 === ISO 19101 Geographic information – Reference model ISO 19101-1:2014 Part 1: Fundamentals ISO/TS 19101-2:2008 Part 2: Imagery ISO/TS 19103:2015 Geographic information – Conceptual schema language ISO/TS 19104:2016 Geographic information – Terminology ISO 19105:2000 Geographic information – Conformance and testing ISO 19106:2004 Geographic information – Profiles ISO 19107:2003 Geographic information – Spatial schema ISO 19108:2002 Geographic information – Temporal schema ISO 19109:2015 Geographic information – Rules for application schema ISO 19110:2016 Geographic information – Methodology for feature cataloguing ISO 19111:2007 Geographic information – Spatial referencing by coordinates ISO 19111-2:2009 Part 2: Extension for parametric values ISO 19112:2003 Geographic information – Spatial referencing by geographic identifiers ISO 19113:2002 Geographic information – Quality principles [Withdrawn: replaced by ISO 19157:2013] ISO 19114:2003 Geographic information – Quality evaluation procedures [Withdrawn: replaced by ISO 19157:2013] ISO 19115 Geographic information – Metadata ISO 19115-1:2014 Part 1: Fundamentals ISO 19115-2:2009 Part 2: Extensions for imagery and gridded data ISO/TS 19115-3:2016 Part 3: XML schema implementation for fundamental concepts ISO 19116:2004 Geographic information – Positioning services ISO 19117:2012 Geographic information – Portrayal ISO 19118:2011 Geographic information – Encoding ISO 19119:2016 Geographic information – Services ISO/TR 19120:2001 Geographic information – Functional standards ISO/TR


id: list-of-iso-standards-18000-19999-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_18000–19999-6.md
category: reference
title: List of ISO standards 18000–19999
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_18000–19999
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:43.059276+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iso-standards-18000-19999-20260505-0
summary:
=== ISO 19300 – ISO 19399 === ISO/TR 19300:2015 Graphic technology – Guidelines for the use of standards for print media production ISO/TS 19321:2015 Intelligent transport systems – Cooperative ITS – Dictionary of in-vehicle information (IVI) data structures ISO/TS 19337:2016 Nanotechnologies – Characteristics of working suspensions of nano-objects for in vitro assays to evaluate inherent nano-object toxicity ISO 19343:2017 Microbiology of the food chain – Detection and quantification of histamine in fish and fishery products – HPLC method ISO 19361:2017 Measurement of radioactivity - Determination of beta emitters activities - Test method using liquid scintillation counting ISO/IEC 19369:2014 Information technology – Telecommunications and information exchange between systems – NFCIP-2 test methods ISO/IEC 19395:2015 Information technology - Sustainability for and by information technology - Smart data centre resource monitoring and control === ISO 19400 – ISO 19499 === ISO 19403 Paints and varnishes – Wettability ISO 19403-1:2017 Part 1: Terminology and general principles ISO 19403-2:2017 Part 2: Determination of the surface free energy of solid surfaces by measuring the contact angle ISO 19403-3:2017 Part 3: Determination of the surface tension of liquids using the pendant drop method ISO 19403-4:2017 Part 4: Determination of the polar and dispersive fractions of the surface


id: list-of-iso-standards-18000-19999-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_18000–19999-7.md
category: reference
title: List of ISO standards 18000–19999
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_18000–19999
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:43.059276+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iso-standards-18000-19999-20260505-0
summary:
=== ISO 19600 – ISO 19699 === ISO 19600 Compliance management systems - Guidelines ISO/TR 19601:2017 Nanotechnologies – Aerosol generation for air exposure studies of nano-objects and their aggregates and agglomerates (NOAA) ISO 19611:2017 Traditional Chinese medicine – Air extraction cupping device ISO 19614:2017 Traditional Chinese medicine – Pulse graph force transducer ISO/IEC 19637:2016 Information technology – Sensor network testing framework ISO/TR 19639:2015 Electronic fee collection – Investigation of EFC standards for common payment schemes for multi-modal transport services ISO 19649:2017 Mobile robots - Vocabulary ISO 19650 Organization and digitization of information about buildings and civil engineering works, including building information modelling (BIM) — Information management using building information modelling Part 1:2018 Concepts and principles Part 2:2018 Delivery phase of the assets Part 3:2020 Operational phase of the assets Part 4:2022 Information exchange Part 5:2020 Security-minded approach to information management Part 6:2025 Health and safety information ISO/TR 19664:2017 Human response to vibration – Guidance and terminology for instrumentation and equipment for the assessment of daily vibration exposure at the workplace according to the requirements of health and safety ISO/IEC 19678:2015 Information Technology - BIOS Protection Guidelines === ISO 19700 – ISO 19799 === ISO 19709 Transport packaging - Small load


id: list-of-iso-standards-18000-19999-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_18000–19999-8.md
category: reference
title: List of ISO standards 18000–19999
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_18000–19999
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:43.059276+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iso-standards-18000-19999-20260505-0
summary:
=== ISO 19800 – ISO 19899 === ISO/TR 19814:2017 Information and documentation - Collections management for archives and libraries ISO/IEC 19831:2015 Cloud Infrastructure Management Interface (CIMI) Model and RESTful HTTP-based Protocol – An Interface for Managing Cloud Infrastructure ISO/TR 19838:2016 Microbiology – Cosmetics – Guidelines for the application of ISO standards on Cosmetic Microbiology ISO/IEC TS 19841:2015 Technical Specification for C++ Extensions for Transactional Memory ISO/TS 19844:2016 Health informatics – Identification of medicinal products – Implementation guidelines for data elements and structures for the unique identification and exchange of regulated information on substances ISO/IEC 19845:2015 Information technology - Universal business language version 2.1 (UBL v2.1) ISO 19859:2016 Gas turbine applications – Requirements for power generation ISO 19891 Ships and marine technology - Specifications for gas detectors intended for use on board ships ISO 19891-1:2017 Part 1: Portable gas detectors for atmosphere testing of enclosed spaces === ISO 19900 – ISO 19999 === ISO/TR 19948:2016 Earth-moving machinery – Conformity assessment and certification process ISO 19952:2005 Footwear – Vocabulary ISO/TS 19979:2014 Ophthalmic optics – Contact lenses – Hygienic management of multipatient use trial contact lenses ISO 19980:2012 Ophthalmic instruments – Corneal topographers ISO/IEC 19987:2015 Information technology - EPC Information services - Specification


id: list-of-iso-standards-20000-21999-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_20000–21999-1.md
category: reference
title: List of ISO standards 20000–21999
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_20000–21999
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:44.384368+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iso-standards-20000-21999-20260505-0
summary:
== ISO 20000 – ISO 20999 == ISO/IEC 20000 Information technology – Service management ISO/IEC TR 20002:2012 Information technology – Telecommunications and information exchange between systems – Managed P2P: Framework ISO/IEC TR 20004:2015 Information technology - Security techniques - Refining software vulnerability analysis under ISO/IEC 15408 and ISO/IEC 18045 ISO/IEC 20005:2013 Information technology - Sensor networks - Services and interfaces supporting collaborative information processing in intelligent sensor networks ISO/IEC 20006 Information technology for learning, education and training - Information model for competency ISO/IEC 20006-1:2014 Part 1: Competency general framework and information model ISO/IEC 20006-2:2015 Part 2: Proficiency level information model ISO/IEC TR 20007:2014 Information technology - Cultural and linguistic interoperability - Definitions and relationship between symbols, icons, animated icons, pictograms, characters and glyphs ISO/IEC 20008 Information technology - Security techniques - Anonymous digital signatures ISO/IEC 20008-1:2013 Part 1: General ISO/IEC 20008-2:2013 Part 2: Mechanisms using a group public key ISO/IEC 20009 Information technology - Security techniques - Anonymous entity authentication ISO/IEC 20009-1:2013 Part 1: General ISO/IEC 20009-2:2013 Part 2: Mechanisms based on signatures using a group public key ISO/IEC 20009-3:2022 Part 3: Mechanisms based on blind signatures ISO/IEC 20009-4:2017 Part 4: Mechanisms based on weak secrets ISO/IEC TS 20013:2015 Information


id: list-of-iso-standards-20000-21999-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_20000–21999-2.md
category: reference
title: List of ISO standards 20000–21999
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_20000–21999
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:44.384368+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iso-standards-20000-21999-20260505-0
summary:
== ISO 21000 – ISO 21999 == ISO/IEC 21000 Information technology – Multimedia framework (MPEG-21) ISO 21001:2018 Educational organizations - Management systems for educational organizations - Requirements with guidance for use (EOMS) ISO 21047:2009 Information and documentation - International Standard Text Code (ISTC) ISO 21063:2017 Prosthetics and orthotics – Soft orthoses – Uses, functions, classification and description ISO 21064:2017 Prosthetics and orthotics – Foot orthotics – Uses, functions classification and description ISO 21065:2017 Prosthetics and orthotics – Terms relating to the treatment and rehabilitation of persons having a lower limb amputation ISO 21067 Packaging - Vocabulary ISO 21067-1:2016 Part 1: General terms ISO 21067-2:2015 Part 2: Packaging and the environment terms ISO/TR 21074:2016 Application of ISO 5725 for the determination of repeatability and reproducibility of precision tests performed in standardization work for chemical analysis of steel ISO/TR 21089:2004 Health informatics – Trusted end-to-end information flows ISO 21090:2011 Health informatics – Harmonized data types for information interchange ISO 21091:2013 Health informatics – Directory services for healthcare providers, subjects of care and other entities ISO 21101:2014 Adventure tourism – Safety management systems – Requirements ISO/TR 21102:2013 Adventure tourism – Leaders – Personnel competence ISO 21103:2014 Adventure tourism – Information for participants ISO/IEC


id: list-of-iso-standards-20000-21999-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_20000–21999-3.md
category: reference
title: List of ISO standards 20000–21999
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_20000–21999
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:44.384368+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iso-standards-20000-21999-20260505-0
summary:
ISO/TS 21609:2014 Road vehicles – (EMC) guidelines for installation of aftermarket radio frequency transmitting equipment ISO 21649:2006 Needle-free injectors for medical use – Requirements and test methods ISO 21667:2010 Health informatics – Health indicators conceptual framework ISO/TR 21707:2008 Intelligent transport systems – Integrated transport information, management and control – Data quality in ITS systems ISO/TR 21730:2007 Health informatics – Use of mobile wireless communication and computing technology in healthcare facilities – Recommendations for electromagnetic compatibility (management of unintentional electromagnetic interference) with medical devices ISO/HL7 21731:2014 Health informatics – HL7 version 3 – Reference information model – Release 4 ISO 21748:2017 Guidance for the use of repeatability, reproducibility and trueness estimates in measurement uncertainty evaluation ISO/TS 21749:2005 Measurement uncertainty for metrological applications - Repeated measurements and nested experiments ISO 21807:2004 Microbiology of food and animal feeding stuffs – Determination of water activity ISO/IEC 21827:2008 Information technology - Security techniques - Systems Security Engineering - Capability Maturity Model® (SSE-CMM®) ISO 21849:2006 Aircraft and space - Industrial data - Product identification and traceability ISO 21871:2006 Microbiology of food and animal feeding stuffs – Horizontal method for the determination of low numbers of presumptive Bacillus cereus – Most probable number technique and detection method


id: list-of-iso-standards-22000-23999-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_22000–23999-1.md
category: reference
title: List of ISO standards 22000–23999
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_22000–23999
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:45.670541+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iso-standards-22000-23999-20260505-0
summary:
== ISO 22000 – ISO 22999 == ISO 22000:2018 Food safety management systems – Requirements for any organization in the food chain ISO/TS 22002 Prerequisite programmes on food safety ISO/TS 22002-1:2009 Part 1: Food manufacturing ISO/TS 22002-2:2013 Part 2: Catering ISO/TS 22002-3:2011 Part 3: Farming ISO/TS 22002-4:2013 Part 4: Food packaging manufacturing ISO/TS 22002-5:2019 Part 5: Transport and storage ISO/TS 22002-6:2016 Part 6: Feed and animal food production ISO/TS 22003:2013 Food safety management systems – Requirements for bodies providing audit and certification of food safety management systems ISO 22004:2014 Food safety management systems – Guidance on the application of ISO 22000 ISO 22005:2007 Traceability in the feed and food chain – General principles and basic requirements for system design and implementation ISO 22006:2009 Quality management systems - Guidelines for the application of ISO 9001:2008 to crop production) ISO/IEC 22050:2002 Information technology – Data interchange on 12,7 mm, 384-track magnetic tape cartridges – Ultrium-1 format ISO/IEC 22051:2002 Information technology – Data interchange on 12,7 mm, 448-track magnetic tape cartridges – SDLT1 format ISO 22077 Health informatics – Medical waveform format ISO 22077-1:2015 Part 1: Encoding rules ISO/TS 22077-2:2015 Part 2: Electrocardiography ISO/TS 22077-3:2015 Part 3: Long term electrocardiography ISO/IEC 22091:2002 Information


id: list-of-iso-standards-22000-23999-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_22000–23999-2.md
category: reference
title: List of ISO standards 22000–23999
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_22000–23999
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:45.670541+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iso-standards-22000-23999-20260505-0
summary:
ISO/TR 22971:2005 Accuracy (trueness and precision) of measurement methods and results - Practical guidance for the use of ISO 5725-2:1994 in designing, implementing and statistically analysing interlaboratory repeatability and reproducibility results ISO/TR 22979:2017 Ophthalmic implants – Intraocular lenses – Guidance on assessment of the need for clinical investigation of intraocular lens design modifications


id: list-of-iso-standards-22000-23999-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_22000–23999-3.md
category: reference
title: List of ISO standards 22000–23999
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_22000–23999
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:45.670541+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iso-standards-22000-23999-20260505-0
summary:
== ISO 23000 – ISO 23999 == ISO/IEC 23000 Information technology - Multimedia application format (MPEG-A) ISO/IEC 23001 Information technology – MPEG systems technologies ISO/IEC 23001-1:2006 Part 1: Binary MPEG format for XML ISO/IEC 23001-2:2008 Part 2: Fragment request units ISO/IEC 23001-3:2008 Part 3: XML IPMP messages ISO/IEC 23001-4:2017 Part 4: Codec configuration representation ISO/IEC 23001-5:2008 Part 5: Bitstream Syntax Description Language (BSDL) ISO/IEC 23001-7:2016 Part 7: Common encryption in ISO base media file format ISO/IEC 23001-8:2016 Part 8: Coding-independent code points ISO/IEC 23001-9:2016 Part 9: Common encryption of MPEG-2 transport streams ISO/IEC 23001-10:2015 Part 10: Carriage of timed metadata metrics of media in ISO base media file format ISO/IEC 23001-12:2015 Part 12: Sample Variants in the ISO base media file format ISO/IEC 23002 Information technology – MPEG video technologies ISO/IEC 23003 Information technology – MPEG audio technologies ISO/IEC 23003-1:2007 Part 1: MPEG Surround ISO/IEC 23003-2:2010 Part 2: Spatial Audio Object Coding (SAOC) ISO/IEC 23003-3:2012 Part 3: Unified speech and audio coding ISO/IEC 23003-4:2015 Part 4: Dynamic Range Control ISO/IEC 23004 Information technology - Multimedia Middleware ISO/IEC 23004-1:2007 Part 1: Architecture ISO/IEC 23004-2:2007 Part 2: Multimedia application programming interface (API) ISO/IEC 23004-3:2007 Part 3: Component model ISO/IEC 23004-4:2007 Part 4:


id: list-of-iso-standards-24000-25999-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_24000–25999-1.md
category: reference
title: List of ISO standards 24000–25999
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_24000–25999
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:46.806770+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iso-standards-24000-25999-20260505-0
summary:
== ISO 24000 – ISO 24999 == ISO 24013:2006 Optics and photonics – Lasers and laser-related equipment – Measurement of phase retardation of optical components for polarized laser radiation ISO 24014 Public transport – Interoperable fare management system ISO 24014-1:2015 Part 1: Architecture ISO/TR 24014-2:2013 Part 2: Business practices ISO/TR 24014-3:2013 Part 3: Complementary concepts to Part 1 for multi-application media ISO 24097 Intelligent transport systems – Using web services (machine-machine delivery) for ITS service delivery ISO 24097-1:2017 Part 1: Realization of interoperable web services ISO/TR 24097-2:2015 Part 2: Elaboration of interoperable web services' interfaces ISO/TR 24098:2007 Intelligent transport systems – System architecture, taxonomy and terminology – Procedures for developing ITS deployment plans utilizing ITS system architecture ISO 24099:2011 Navigation data delivery structures and protocols ISO 24100:2010 Intelligent transport systems – Basic principles for personal data protection in probe vehicle information services ISO 24101 Intelligent transport systems – Communications access for land mobiles (CALM) – Application management ISO 24101-1:2008 Part 1: General requirements ISO 24101-2:2010 Part 2: Conformance test ISO 24102 Intelligent transport systems – Communications access for land mobiles (CALM) – ITS station management ISO 24102-1:2013 Part 1: Local management ISO 24102-2:2015 Part 2: Remote management of ITS-SCUs ISO


id: list-of-iso-standards-24000-25999-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_24000–25999-2.md
category: reference
title: List of ISO standards 24000–25999
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_24000–25999
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:46.806770+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iso-standards-24000-25999-20260505-0
summary:
== ISO 25000 – ISO 25999 == ISO/IEC 25000:2014 Systems and software engineering - Systems and software Quality Requirements and Evaluation (SQuaRE) - Guide to SQuaRE ISO/IEC 25001:2014 Systems and software engineering - Systems and software Quality Requirements and Evaluation (SQuaRE) - Planning and management ISO/IEC 25002:development Systems and software engineering - Systems and software Quality Requirements and Evaluation (SQuaRE) - Quality models overview and usage ISO/IEC 25010:2011 Systems and software engineering - Systems and software Quality Requirements and Evaluation (SQuaRE) - System and software quality models ISO/IEC TS 25011:2017 Information technology - Systems and software quality requirements and evaluation (SQuaRE) - Service quality models ISO/IEC 25012:2008 Software engineering - Software product Quality Requirements and Evaluation (SQuaRE) - Data quality model ISO/IEC 25020:2007 Software engineering - Software product Quality Requirements and Evaluation (SQuaRE) - Measurement reference model and guide ISO/IEC 25021:2012 Systems and software engineering - Systems and software Quality Requirements and Evaluation (SQuaRE) - Quality measure elements ISO/IEC 25022:2016 Systems and software engineering - Systems and software quality requirements and evaluation (SQuaRE) - Measurement of quality in use ISO/IEC 25023:2016 Systems and software engineering - Systems and software Quality Requirements and Evaluation (SQuaRE) - Measurement of system and software


id: list-of-iso-standards-26000-27999-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_26000–27999-0.md
category: reference
title: List of ISO standards 26000–27999
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_26000–27999
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:48.061041+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iso-standards-26000-27999-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of published International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standards and other deliverables. For a complete and up-to-date list of all the ISO standards, see the ISO catalogue. The standards are protected by copyright and most of them must be purchased. However, about 300 of the standards produced by ISO and IEC's Joint Technical Committee 1 (JTC 1) have been made freely and publicly available. == ISO 26000 – ISO 26999 == ISO 26000:2010 Guidance on social responsibility ISO 26101:2017 Acoustics – Test methods for the qualification of free-field environments ISO/TR 26122:2008 Information and documentation - Work process analysis for records ISO 26162 Management of terminology resources — Terminology databases ISO 26162-1:2019 Part 1: Design ISO 26162-2:2019 Part 2: Software ISO 26243:2007 Cards for staple fibres spinning – Vocabulary and principles of construction ISO 26261 Fireworks – Category 4 ISO 26261-1:2017 Part 1: Terminology ISO 26262 Road Vehicles - Functional Safety ISO 26322 Tractors for agriculture and forestry - Safety ISO 26322-1:2008 Part 1: Standard tractors ISO 26322-2:2010 Part 2: Narrow-track and small tractors ISO/IEC 26300:2006 Information technology – Open Document Format for Office Applications (OpenDocument) v1.0 ISO 26324:2012 Information and documentation - Digital object identifier system ISO


id: list-of-iso-standards-26000-27999-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_26000–27999-1.md
category: reference
title: List of ISO standards 26000–27999
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_26000–27999
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:48.061041+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iso-standards-26000-27999-20260505-0
summary:
ISO/IEC 27000:2016 Information technology – Security techniques – Information security management systems – Overview and vocabulary ISO/IEC 27001:2022 Information technology – Security techniques – Information security management systems – Requirements ISO/IEC 27002:2022 Information technology – Security techniques – Code of practice for information security controls ISO/IEC 27003:2017 Information technology – Security techniques – Information security management systems – Guidance ISO/IEC 27004:2016 Information technology – Security techniques – Information security management – Monitoring, measurement, analysis and evaluation ISO/IEC 27005:2018 Information technology – Security techniques – Information security risk management ISO/IEC 27006:2015 Information technology – Security techniques – Requirements for bodies providing audit and certification of information security management systems ISO/IEC 27007:2017 Information technology – Security techniques – Guidelines for information security management systems auditing ISO/IEC TR 27008:2011 Information technology – Security techniques – Guidelines for auditors on information security controls ISO/IEC 27009:2016 Information technology – Security techniques – Sector-specific application of ISO/IEC 27001 – Requirements ISO/IEC 27010:2015 Information technology – Security techniques – Information security management for inter-sector and inter-organizational communications ISO/IEC 27011:2016 Information technology – Security techniques – Code of practice for Information security controls based on ISO/IEC 27002 for telecommunications organizations ISO/IEC 27013:2015 Information technology - Security techniques -


id: list-of-iso-standards-28000-29999-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_28000–29999-0.md
category: reference
title: List of ISO standards 28000–29999
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_28000–29999
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:49.377554+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iso-standards-28000-29999-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of published International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standards and other deliverables. For a complete and up-to-date list of all the ISO standards, see the ISO catalogue. The standards are protected by copyright and most of them must be purchased. However, about 300 of the standards produced by ISO and IEC's Joint Technical Committee 1 (JTC 1) have been made freely and publicly available. == ISO 28000 – ISO 28999 == ISO 28000:2007 Specification for security management systems for the supply chain ISO 28001:2007 Security management systems for the supply chain – Best practices for implementing supply chain security, assessments and plans – Requirements and guidance ISO 28002:2011 Security management systems for the supply chain – Development of resilience in the supply chain – Requirements with guidance for use ISO 28003:2007 Security management systems for the supply chain – Requirements for bodies providing audit and certification of supply chain security management systems ISO 28004 Security management systems for the supply chain – Guidelines for the implementation of ISO 28000 ISO 28004-1:2007 Part 1: General principles ISO 28004-2:2014 Part 2: Guidelines for adopting ISO 28000 for use in medium and small seaport operations ISO 28004-3:2014 Part 3: Additional


id: list-of-iso-standards-28000-29999-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_28000–29999-1.md
category: reference
title: List of ISO standards 28000–29999
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_28000–29999
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:49.377554+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iso-standards-28000-29999-20260505-0
summary:
== ISO 29000 – ISO 29999 == ISO/TS 29001:2010 Petroleum, petrochemical and natural gas industries – Sector-specific quality management systems – Requirements for product and service supply organizations ISO/IEC 29100:2011 Information technology - Security techniques - Privacy framework ISO/IEC 29101:2013 Information technology - Security techniques - Privacy architecture framework ISO/IEC TR 29106:2007 Information technology - Generic cabling - Introduction to the MICE environmental classification ISO/IEC TR 29107 Information technology - Intelligent homes - Taxonomy of specifications ISO/IEC TR 29107-1:2010 Part 1: The scheme ISO/IEC TR 29108:2013 Information technology - Terminology for intelligent homes ISO/IEC 29109 Information technology – Conformance testing methodology for biometric data interchange formats defined in ISO/IEC 19794 ISO/IEC 29109-1:2009 Part 1: Generalized conformance testing methodology ISO/IEC 29109-2:2010 Part 2: Finger minutiae data ISO/IEC 29109-4:2010 Part 4: Finger image data ISO/IEC 29109-5:2014 Part 5: Face image data ISO/IEC 29109-6:2011 Part 6: Iris image data ISO/IEC 29109-7:2011 Part 7: Signature/sign time series data ISO/IEC 29109-8:2011 Part 8: Finger pattern skeletal data ISO/IEC 29109-9:2011 Part 9: Vascular image data ISO/IEC 29109-10:2010 Part 10: Hand geometry silhouette data ISO/IEC 29110 Systems and software engineering - Lifecycle profiles for Very Small Entities (VSEs) ISO/IEC TR 29110-1:2016 Part 1: Overview ISO/IEC 29110-2-1:2015 Part


id: list-of-iso-standards-28000-29999-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_28000–29999-2.md
category: reference
title: List of ISO standards 28000–29999
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_28000–29999
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:49.377554+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iso-standards-28000-29999-20260505-0
summary:
ISO/IEC 29192 Information technology - Security techniques - Lightweight cryptography ISO/IEC 29192-1:2012 Part 1: General ISO/IEC 29192-2:2012 Part 2: Block ciphers ISO/IEC 29192-3:2012 Part 3: Stream ciphers ISO/IEC 29192-4:2013 Part 4: Mechanisms using asymmetric techniques ISO/IEC 29192-5:2016 Part 5: Hash-functions ISO/IEC 29192-6:2016 Part 6: Message authentication codes (MACs) ISO/IEC 29192-7:2016 Part 7: Broadcast authentication protocols ISO/IEC TR 29194:2015 Information Technology – Biometrics – Guide on designing accessible and inclusive biometric systems ISO/IEC TR 29195:2015 Traveller processes for biometric recognition in automated border control systems ISO/IEC TR 29196:2015 Guidance for biometric enrolment ISO/IEC 29197:2015 Information technology - Evaluation methodology for environmental influence in biometric system performance ISO/IEC TR 29198:2013 Information technology – Biometrics – Characterization and measurement of difficulty for fingerprint databases for technology evaluation ISO/IEC 29199 Information technology - JPEG XR image coding system ISO/IEC TR 29199-1:2011 Part 1: System architecture ISO/IEC 29199-2:2012 Part 2: Image coding specification ISO/IEC 29199-3:2010 Part 3: Motion JPEG XR ISO/IEC 29199-4:2010 Part 4: Conformance testing ISO/IEC 29199-5:2012 Part 5: Reference software ISO 29281 Intelligent transport systems – Communication access for land mobiles (CALM) – Non-IP networking ISO 29281-1:2013 Part 1: Fast networking & transport layer protocol (FNTP) ISO 29281-2:2013 Part 2: Legacy system support


id: list-of-iso-standards-28000-29999-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_28000–29999-3.md
category: reference
title: List of ISO standards 28000–29999
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_28000–29999
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:49.377554+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iso-standards-28000-29999-20260505-0
summary:
== Notes == == References == == External links == International Organization for Standardization ISO Certification Provider


id: list-of-iso-standards-30000-99999-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_30000–99999-1.md
category: reference
title: List of ISO standards 30000–99999
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_30000–99999
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:50.528213+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iso-standards-30000-99999-20260505-0
summary:
== ISO 30000 – ISO 39999 == ISO 30000:2009 Ships and marine technology – Ship recycling management systems – Specifications for management systems for safe and environmentally sound ship recycling facilities ISO 30002:2012 Ships and marine technology – Ship recycling management systems – Guidelines for selection of ship recyclers (and pro forma contract) ISO 30003:2009 Ships and marine technology – Ship recycling management systems – Requirements for bodies providing audit and certification of ship recycling management ISO 30004:2012 Ships and marine technology – Ship recycling management systems – Guidelines for the implementation of ISO 30000 ISO 30005:2012 Ships and marine technology – Ship recycling management systems – Information control for hazardous materials in the manufacturing chain of shipbuilding and ship operations ISO 30006:2010 Ship recycling management systems – Diagrams to show the location of hazardous materials on board ships ISO 30007:2010 Ships and marine technology – Measures to prevent asbestos emission and exposure during ship recycling ISO 30042:2019 Management of terminology resources — TermBase eXchange (TBX) ISO/IEC 30071 Information technology — Development of user interface accessibility ISO/IEC 30071-1:2019 Part 1: Code of practice for creating accessible ICT products and services ISO/IEC 30100 Information technology – Home network resource management ISO/IEC


id: list-of-iso-standards-30000-99999-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_30000–99999-2.md
category: reference
title: List of ISO standards 30000–99999
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_30000–99999
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:50.528213+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iso-standards-30000-99999-20260505-0
summary:
== ISO 40000 – ISO 49999 == ISO/IEC 40180:2017 Information technology – Quality for learning, education and training – Fundamentals and reference framework ISO/IEC 40210:2011 Information technology – W3C SOAP Version 1.2 Part 1: Messaging Framework (Second Edition) ISO/IEC 40220:2011 Information technology – W3C SOAP Version 1.2 Part 2: Adjuncts (Second Edition) ISO/IEC 40230:2011 Information technology – W3C SOAP Message Transmission Optimization Mechanism ISO/IEC 40240:2011 Information technology – W3C Web Services Addressing 1.0 – Core ISO/IEC 40250:2011 Information technology – W3C Web Services Addressing 1.0 – SOAP Binding ISO/IEC 40260:2011 Information technology – W3C Web Services Addressing 1.0 – Metadata ISO/IEC 40270:2011 Information technology – W3C Web Services Policy 1.5 – Framework ISO/IEC 40280:2011 Information technology – W3C Web Services Policy 1.5 – Attachment ISO/IEC 40314:2016 Information technology – Mathematical Markup Language (MathML) Version 3.0 2nd Edition ISO/IEC 40500:2012 Information technology – W3C Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 2.0 ISO 41011:2024 Facility management – Vocabulary ISO 41012:2017 Facility management – Guidance on strategic sourcing and the development of agreements ISO/TR 41013:2017 Facility management – Scope, key concepts and benefits ISO/IEC 42001:2023 Information technology — Artificial intelligence — Management system ISO/IEC 42005:2025 Information technology — Artificial intelligence (AI) — AI system


id: list-of-iso-standards-30000-99999-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_30000–99999-3.md
category: reference
title: List of ISO standards 30000–99999
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISO_standards_30000–99999
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:50.528213+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iso-standards-30000-99999-20260505-0
summary:
ISO/IEC 80000 Quantities and units ISO/IEC 80001 Application of risk management for IT-networks incorporating medical devices IEC 80001-1:2010 Part 1: Roles, responsibilities and activities IEC/TR 80001-2-1:2012 Part 2-1: Step by Step Risk Management of Medical IT-Networks; Practical Applications and Examples IEC/TR 80001-2-2:2012 Part 2-2: Guidance for the communication of medical device security needs, risks and controls IEC/TR 80001-2-3:2012 Part 2-3: Guidance for wireless networks IEC/TR 80001-2-4:2012 Part 2-4: General implementation guidance for Healthcare Delivery Organizations IEC/TR 80001-2-5:2014 Part 2-5: Application guidance – Guidance for distributed alarm systems ISO/TR 80001-2-6:2014 Part 2-6: Application guidance – Guidance for responsibility agreements ISO/TR 80001-2-7:2015 Part 2-7: Guidance for healthcare delivery organizations (HDOs) on how to self-assess their conformance with IEC 80001-1 IEC/TR 80001-2-8:2016 Part 2-8: Application guidance – Guidance on standards for establishing the security capabilities identified in IEC 80001-2-2 IEC/TR 80001-2-9:2017 Part 2-9: Application guidance – Guidance for use of security assurance cases to demonstrate confidence in IEC/TR 80001-2-2 security capabilities IEC/TR 80002 Medical device software IEC/TR 80002-1:2009 Part 1: Guidance on the application of ISO 14971 to medical device software ISO/TR 80002-2:2017 Part 2: Validation of software for medical device quality systems IEC/TR 80002-3:2014 Part 3: Process reference model of medical device


id: list-of-isiri-standards-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISIRI_standards-0.md
category: reference
title: List of ISIRI standards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ISIRI_standards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:51.712976+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-isiri-standards-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of Iran National Standards Organization (INSO) standards. For a complete and up-to-date list of all the INSO standards (more than 14,000, as of February 2011), see the ISIRI Search Index. == The National Committees (of) == There are separate national committees for developing standards. === Power and Electricity === === Civil Engineering, Building Materials, and products === === Food and Agricultural Products === === Clothing, Fiber, and Textile Products === === Chemical and Polymer Industries === ISIRI 2115 === Wood, Packed Paper, and Cellulose Products === === Mineral Materials === === Motor Vehicles === ISIRI 4243 Permissible sound level and the exhaust system of motor vehicles ISIRI 6482 Audible warning devices for motor vehicles ISIRI 6484 Speed limitation devices or similar speed limitation on-board systems of certain categories of motor vehicles ISIRI 6494 Retro-reflectors for motor vehicles and their trailers ISIRI 6505 Direction indicator lamps for motor vehicles and their trailers ISIRI 6603 Two-wheeled motorcycles – parking stability of side and center stands ISIRI 6651 The end-outline marker lamps, front position (side) lamps, rear position (side) lamps and stop lamps for motor vehicles and their trailers ISIRI 6653 motorcycles' engine test code and net power ISIRI


id: list-of-itu-t-v-series-recommendations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ITU-T_V-series_recommendations-0.md
category: reference
title: List of ITU-T V-series recommendations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ITU-T_V-series_recommendations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:52.916958+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-itu-t-v-series-recommendations-20260505-0
summary:
The ITU-T V-Series Recommendations on Data communication over the telephone network specify the protocols that govern approved modem communication standards and interfaces. Note: the bis and ter suffixes are ITU-T standard designators of successive iterations of a standard (bis and ter are the Latin words for "twice" and "thrice"). == General standards == Applies to V.1–V.9 V.1 is an ITU-T recommendation, entitled Equivalence between binary notation symbols and the significant conditions of a two-condition code. V.2 is an ITU-T recommendation, approved in November 1988, titled Power levels for data transmission over telephone lines. V.4 is an ITU-T recommendation, approved in November 1988, titled General structure of signals of International Alphabet No. 5 code for character oriented data transmission over public telephone networks. V.5 was an ITU-T recommendation, approved in November 1988, titled Standardization of data signalling rates for synchronous data transmission in the general switched telephone network. It has been withdrawn since. V.6 was an ITU-T recommendation, approved in November 1988, titled Standardization of data signalling rates for synchronous data transmission on leased telephone-type circuits. It has been withdrawn since. V.7 is an ITU-T recommendation, approved in November 1988, titled Definitions of terms concerning data communication over the telephone network.


id: list-of-itu-t-v-series-recommendations-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ITU-T_V-series_recommendations-1.md
category: reference
title: List of ITU-T V-series recommendations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ITU-T_V-series_recommendations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:52.916958+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-itu-t-v-series-recommendations-20260505-0
summary:
V.32terbo, or V.32ter for short, was a 19.2 kbit/s standard introduced by AT&T Paradyne. It was based on V.32bis and did little other than increase the data rate. V.32ter is compatible with V.32bis at speeds of 14.4 kbit/s and lower, but it is not compatible with V.34 at 19.2. V.FC, short for V.Fast Class and sometimes referred to as V.FAST, was developed by Hayes and Rockwell to introduce a 28.8 kbit/s standard while the V.34 efforts dragged on. V.FC was not compatible with V.34, although most V.34 modems could support V.FC, notably, those using Rockwell chipsets. == Wideband modems == Applies to V.35–V.39 V.35 is an ITU-T standard located on layer 1 on the OSI model. Max speed is 2 Mbit/s and synchronous only. Withdrawn ITU-T recommendation for 48 kbit/s data transmission over wideband circuits. The physical and electrical characteristics of this interface are now specified in ITU-T recommendation V.11. V.36 is an ITU-T standard located on layer 2 on the OSI model called Modems For Synchronous Data Transmission Using 60–108 kHz Group Band Circuits. == Error control and data compression == Applies to V.40–V.49 V.41 is a code-independent error control system. It defines the ITU-T standard CRC-16 polynomial as


id: list-of-thread-standards-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_thread_standards-0.md
category: reference
title: List of thread standards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_thread_standards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:55.503096+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-thread-standards-20260505-0
summary:
A screw thread, often shortened to thread, is a helical structure used to convert between rotational and linear movement or force. A screw thread is an inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder or cone in the form of a helix, with the former being called a straight thread and the latter called a tapered thread. More screw threads are produced each year than any other machine element. Threads are generally produced according to one of the many standards of thread systems. Standards Development Organizations such as the American National Standards Institute, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, SAE International, International Organization for Standardization, Deutsches Institut für Normung (German Institute for Standardization), British Association and others produce these standards for manufacturers to follow when producing threaded components. == Currently used thread standards == == Obsolete thread standards == == See also == ISO metric screw thread "History of standardization" section of the screw thread article National pipe thread == Notes == == References == Degarmo, E. Paul; Black, J T.; Kohser, Ronald A. (2003), Materials and Processes in Manufacturing (9th ed.), Wiley, ISBN 0-471-65653-4.


id: list-of-welding-codes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_welding_codes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of welding codes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_welding_codes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:56.733523+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-welding-codes-20260505-0
summary:
This page lists published welding codes, procedures, and specifications. == American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Codes == The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC) covers all aspects of design and manufacture of boilers and pressure vessels. All sections contain welding specifications, however most relevant information is contained in the following: == American Welding Society (AWS) Standards == The American Welding Society (AWS) publishes over 240 AWS-developed codes, recommended practices and guides which are written in accordance with American National Standards Institute (ANSI) practices. The following is a partial list of the more common publications: == American Petroleum Institute (API) Standards == The American Petroleum Institute (API) oldest and most successful programs is in the development of API standards which started with its first standard in 1924. API maintains over 500 standards covering the oil and gas field. The following is a partial list specific to welding: == Australian / New Zealand (AS/NZS) Standards == Standards Australia is the body responsible for the development, maintenance and publication of Australian Standards. The following is a partial list specific to welding: == Canadian Standards Association (CSA) Standards == The Canadian Standards Association (CSA) is responsible for


id: workplace-safety-standards-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workplace_safety_standards-0.md
category: reference
title: Workplace safety standards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workplace_safety_standards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:58.005481+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: workplace-safety-standards-20260505-0
summary:
Workplace safety standards are sets of standards developed with the goal of reducing risk from occupational hazards. == History == The Russian scientist Mikhail Lomonosov in 1763 first describes the dangers of mining in his book The First Foundations of Metallurgy, or Ore Affairs (Russian: Первыя основанiя Металлургiи, или Рудныхъ Делъ). The history of human safety in the workplace began in 1802 with the Health and Morals of Apprentices Act. In 1893 in the United States, Railroad Safety Appliance Act was formed. In 1911 were introduced Coal Mines Act. In 1947, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was signed and published by a collaborative group of 23 countries working to establish smooth international trade. In the United States the first Federal Safety Standards for cars become effective 1 January 1968. These new standards help protect drivers against unreasonable risk of crashes occurring as a result of the design, construction or performance of motor vehicles. In 2015 was created EFM scientist against EMF radiation. On 11 May 2015, Dr. Martin Blank in a three-minute video makes an appeal to pay attention for dangerous magnetic fields from our communication devices. == Human safety organizations == United Nations International Non-Ionizing Radiation


id: workplace-safety-standards-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workplace_safety_standards-1.md
category: reference
title: Workplace safety standards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workplace_safety_standards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:58.005481+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: workplace-safety-standards-20260505-0
summary:
GEO საშიში ქიმიური ნივთიერებების შესახებ 1420 EU DIRECTIVE 2005/69/EC IND IS 1446: Classification of Dangerous Goods POL PN-EN 589 RUS ГОСТ 30333-95 ПАСПОРТ БЕЗОПАСНОСТИ ВЕЩЕСТВА (МАТЕРИАЛА) SWI CC 813.11 Ordinance on Protection against Dangerous Substances and Preparations === Welding safety === The following standards include safety and sanitary regulations for welding, cutting, and surface machining, as well as industrial process steps and guidelines on hazardous aerosols or other airborne particulates generated in these processes. ARM ԳՕՍՏ ԵՆ 439-2002 Գազեր պաշտպանական աղեղային եռակցման և կտրման համար. Դասակարգում CHN AQ 4214-2011 焊接工艺防尘防毒技术规范 ESP NTP 494: Soldadura eléctrica al arco: normas de seguridad FRA NF An 85-002 GER DIN EN 1011-1 GEO შემდუღებელი 041272 პროფესიული სტანდარტი IND Is 818 Code of Practice for Safety and Health for Welding POL PN-EN 1598:2004 Norma wycofana i zastąpiona przez RUS ГОСТ 12.3.003-86 Система стандартов безопасности труда (ССБТ). Работы электросварочные. Требования безопасности USA AWS D17.1/D17.1M:2017 === Vibration safety === ARM ԳՕՍՏ ԵՆ 792-1-2012 Ձեռքի էլեկտրական մեքենաներ. Անվտանգության պահանջներ. Մաս 1. Առանց պարուրակի մասերի ամրացման համար մեքենաներ BUL БДС 12.1.012:1980 Охрана на труда. Вибрации. Общи изисквания за безопасност на труда ESP NTP 839 Notas Técnicas de Prevención 839 Exposición a vibraciones mecánicas. Evaluación del riesgo FRA NF EN


id: list-of-statistics-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_statistics_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: List of statistics articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_statistics_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:25:59.541835+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-statistics-articles-20260505-0
summary:
== 0–9 == 1.96 2SLS (two-stage least squares) – redirects to instrumental variable 3SLS – see three-stage least squares 68–95–99.7 rule 100-year flood == A == == B == == C == == D == == E == == F == == G == == H == == I == == J == == K == == L == == M == == N == == O == == P == == Q == == R == == S == == T == == U == == V == == W == == Y == Yamartino method Yates analysis Yates's correction for continuity Youden's J statistic Yule–Simon distribution == Z == == See also == Supplementary lists These lists include items which are somehow related to statistics however are not included in this index: List of statisticians List of important publications in statistics List of scientific journals in statistics Topic lists Outline of statistics List of probability topics Glossary of probability and statistics Glossary of experimental design Notation in probability and statistics List of probability distributions List of graphical methods List of fields of application of statistics List of stochastic processes topics Lists of statistics topics List of statistical packages


id: lists-of-statistics-topics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_statistics_topics-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of statistics topics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_statistics_topics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:00.728408+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-statistics-topics-20260505-0
summary:
This article itemizes the various lists of statistics topics. == Statistics == Outline of statistics Outline of regression analysis Index of statistics articles List of scientific method topics List of analyses of categorical data List of fields of application of statistics List of graphical methods List of statistical software Comparison of statistical packages List of graphing software Comparison of Gaussian process software List of statistical tests Test statistic List of stochastic processes topics List of matrices used in statistics Timeline of probability and statistics List of unsolved problems in statistics == Probability == Topic outline of probability List of probability topics Catalog of articles in probability theory List of probability distributions List of convolutions of probability distributions == Glossaries and notations == Glossary of experimental design Glossary of probability and statistics Notation in probability and statistics == People == List of actuaries List of statisticians List of mathematical probabilists Founders of statistics == Publications == List of publications in statistics List of probability journals List of statistics journals == Organizations == List of academic statistical associations List of national and international statistical services == See also == Lists of mathematics topics


id: outline-of-statistics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_statistics-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:01.982983+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to statistics: Statistics is a field of inquiry that studies the collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of data. It is applicable to a wide variety of academic disciplines, from the physical and social sciences to the humanities; it is also used and misused for making informed decisions in all areas of business and government. == Nature of statistics == Statistics can be described as all of the following: An academic discipline: one with academic departments, curricula and degrees; national and international societies; and specialized journals. A scientific field (a branch of science) – widely recognized category of specialized expertise within science, and typically embodies its own terminology and nomenclature. Such a field will usually be represented by one or more scientific journals, where peer reviewed research is published. A formal science – branch of knowledge concerned with formal systems. A mathematical science – field of science that is primarily mathematical in nature but may not be universally considered subfields of mathematics proper. Statistics, for example, is mathematical in its methods but grew out of political arithmetic which merged with inverse probability and grew through applications in the social


id: list-of-academic-statistical-associations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_academic_statistical_associations-0.md
category: reference
title: List of academic statistical associations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_academic_statistical_associations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:03.212185+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-academic-statistical-associations-20260505-0
summary:
Statistics is the study of the collection, organization, analysis, and interpretation of data. It deals with all aspects of this, including the planning of data collection in terms of the design of surveys and experiments. This is a list of academic statistical associations. == International statistical societies == Calcutta Statistical Association Institute of Mathematical Statistics International Biometric Society International Society for Bayesian Analysis International Statistical Institute (ISI) Statisticians in the Pharmaceutical Industry (PSI) == National statistical societies == American Statistical Association Indian Statistical Institute Irish Statistical Association Italian society of economics demography and statistics (SIEDS) Royal Statistical Society (RSS of London) Statistical Society of Australia Statistical Society of Canada == Regional societies == University Statisticians of the Southern Experiment Stations (USA) == Statistical honor societies == Mu Sigma Rho (USA) == See also == Official statistics Statistics List of statistical topics List of national and international statistical services List of mathematical societies == External links == International Statistical Agencies (list by US Census Bureau) List of scholarly societies - Statistics


id: list-of-actuaries-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_actuaries-0.md
category: reference
title: List of actuaries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_actuaries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:04.327096+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-actuaries-20260505-0
summary:
An actuary is a business professional who deals with a financial situation of risk and uncertainty. This is a list of notable actuaries and others who have influenced the profession. == Born in the 17th century == John Graunt (1620–1674), English, constructed one of the first life tables William Petty (1623–1687), English, much early writing on life tables Johan de Witt (1625–1672), Dutch, early pioneering work on life annuities Edmond Halley (1656–1742), English, constructed one of the first life tables == Born in the 18th century == James Dodson (1705–1751), English, developed statistical mortality tables Alexander Webster (1708–1784), Scottish, developed a scheme for providing pensions to widows of church ministers Richard Price (1723–1791), Welsh, introduced correct methods for values of contingent reversions Edward Rowe Mores (1731–1778), English, founder of The Society for Equitable Assurances on Lives and Survivorships and the first person to use the professional title "actuary" William Morgan (1750–1833), Welsh George Barrett (1752–1821), English Nathaniel Bowditch (1773–1838), probably the second American insurance actuary; Essex Fire and Marine Joshua Milne (1776–1851), English Benjamin Gompertz (1779–1865), English, developed the Gompertz-Makeham law of mortality and the Gompertz function John Finlaison (1783–1860), Scottish, first president of the Institute of Actuaries Griffith Davies


id: basketball-statistics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basketball_statistics-0.md
category: reference
title: Basketball statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basketball_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:05.485270+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: basketball-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
Statistics in basketball are kept to evaluate a player's or a team's performance. == Examples == Examples of basketball statistics include: Averages per game are denoted by *PG, e.g. PPG (points), BLKPG or BPG (blocks), STPG or SPG (steals), APG (assists), RPG (rebounds) and MPG (minutes). Sometime the players statistics are divided by minutes played and multiplied by 48 minutes (had he played the entire game), denoted by * per 48 min. or *48M. A player who makes double digits in a game in any two of the PTS, REB, AST, STL, and BLK statistics is said to make a double double; in three statistics, a triple double; in four statistics, a quadruple double. A quadruple double is extremely rare (and has only occurred four times in the NBA). There is also a 5x5, when a player records at least a 5 in each of the 5 statistics. The NBA also posts to the statistics section of its website a simple composite efficiency statistic, denoted EFF and derived by the formula, ((Points + Rebounds + Assists + Steals + Blocks) − ((Field Goals Attempted − Field Goals Made) + (Free Throws Attempted − Free Throws Made) + Turnovers)). While conveniently


id: catalog-of-articles-in-probability-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalog_of_articles_in_probability_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Catalog of articles in probability theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalog_of_articles_in_probability_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:06.672877+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: catalog-of-articles-in-probability-theory-20260505-0
summary:
This page lists articles related to probability theory. In particular, it lists many articles corresponding to specific probability distributions. Such articles are marked here by a code of the form (X:Y), which refers to number of random variables involved and the type of the distribution. For example (2:DC) indicates a distribution with two random variables, discrete or continuous. Other codes are just abbreviations for topics. The list of codes can be found in the table of contents. == Core probability: selected topics == Probability theory === Basic notions (bsc) === === Instructive examples (paradoxes) (iex) === === Moments (mnt) === === Inequalities (inq) === === Markov chains, processes, fields, networks (Mar) === === Gaussian random variables, vectors, functions (Gau) === === Conditioning (cnd) === === Specific distributions (spd) === === Empirical measure (emm) === === Limit theorems (lmt) === === Large deviations (lrd) === === Random graphs (rgr) === === Random matrices (rmt) === === Stochastic calculus (scl) === === Malliavin calculus (Mal) === === Random dynamical systems (rds) === Random dynamical system / scl Absorbing set Base flow Pullback attractor === Analytic aspects (including measure theoretic) (anl) === == Core probability: other articles, by number and type of random


id: list-of-analyses-of-categorical-data-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_analyses_of_categorical_data-0.md
category: reference
title: List of analyses of categorical data
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_analyses_of_categorical_data
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:07.812186+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-analyses-of-categorical-data-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of statistical procedures which can be used for the analysis of categorical data, also known as data on the nominal scale and as categorical variables. == General tests == Bowker's test of symmetry Categorical distribution, general model Chi-squared test Cochran–Armitage test for trend Cochran–Mantel–Haenszel statistics Correspondence analysis Cronbach's alpha Diagnostic odds ratio G-test Generalized estimating equations Generalized linear models Krichevsky–Trofimov estimator Kuder–Richardson Formula 20 Linear discriminant analysis Multinomial distribution Multinomial logit Multinomial probit Multiple correspondence analysis Odds ratio Poisson regression Powered partial least squares discriminant analysis Qualitative variation Randomization test for goodness of fit Relative risk Stratified analysis Tetrachoric correlation Uncertainty coefficient Wald test == Binomial data == Bernstein inequalities (probability theory) Binomial regression Binomial proportion confidence interval Chebyshev's inequality Chernoff bound Gauss's inequality Markov's inequality Rule of succession Rule of three (medicine) Vysochanskiï–Petunin inequality == 2 × 2 tables == Chi-squared test Diagnostic odds ratio Fisher's exact test G-test Odds ratio Relative risk McNemar's test Yates's correction for continuity == Measures of association == Aickin's α Andres and Marzo's delta Bangdiwala's B Bennett, Alpert, and Goldstein’s S Brennan and Prediger's κ Coefficient of colligation - Yule's Y Coefficient of consistency Coefficient of raw agreement Conger's


id: comparison-of-gaussian-process-software-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_Gaussian_process_software-0.md
category: reference
title: Comparison of Gaussian process software
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_Gaussian_process_software
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:08.937625+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: comparison-of-gaussian-process-software-20260505-0
summary:
This is a comparison of statistical analysis software that allows doing inference with Gaussian processes often using approximations. This article is written from the point of view of Bayesian statistics, which may use a terminology different from the one commonly used in kriging. The next section should clarify the mathematical/computational meaning of the information provided in the table independently of contextual terminology. == Description of columns == This section details the meaning of the columns in the table below. === Solvers === These columns are about the algorithms used to solve the linear system defined by the prior covariance matrix, i.e., the matrix built by evaluating the kernel. Exact: whether generic exact algorithms are implemented. These algorithms are usually appropriate only up to some thousands of datapoints. Specialized: whether specialized exact algorithms for specific classes of problems are implemented. Supported specialized algorithms may be indicated as: Kronecker: algorithms for separable kernels on grid data. Toeplitz: algorithms for stationary kernels on uniformly spaced data. Semisep.: algorithms for semiseparable covariance matrices. Sparse: algorithms optimized for sparse covariance matrices. Block: algorithms optimized for block diagonal covariance matrices. Markov: algorithms for kernels which represent (or can be formulated as) a Markov process. Approximate: whether


id: comparison-of-statistical-packages-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_statistical_packages-0.md
category: reference
title: Comparison of statistical packages
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_statistical_packages
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:10.068725+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: comparison-of-statistical-packages-20260505-0
summary:
The following tables compare general and technical information for many statistical analysis software packages. == General information == == Operating system support == == ANOVA == Support for various ANOVA methods == Regression == Support for various regression methods. == Time series analysis == Support for various time series analysis methods. == Charts and diagrams == Support for various statistical charts and diagrams. == Other abilities == == See also == Comparison of computer algebra systems Comparison of deep learning software Comparison of survey software Comparison of Gaussian process software List of scientific journals in statistics List of statistical packages == Footnotes == == References == == Further reading == McCullough, B. D. (1999). "Econometric software reliability: EViews, LIMDEP, Shazam, and TSP". Journal of Applied Econometrics. 14 (2): 191–202. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-1255(199903/04)14:2<191::AID-JAE524>3.0.CO;2-K. McCullough, B. D.; Vinod, H. D. (1999). "The Numerical Reliability of Econometric Software". Journal of Economic Literature. 37 (2): 633–665. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.136.9939. doi:10.1257/jel.37.2.633. JSTOR 2565215. Ooms, Marius (2009). "Trends in Applied Econometrics Software Development 1985–2008: An Analysis of Journal of Applied Econometrics Research Articles, Software Reviews, Data and Code". Palgrave Handbook of Econometrics. Vol. 2: Applied Econometrics. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 1321–1348. ISBN 978-1-4039-1800-0. Renfro, Charles G. (2004). Computational Econometrics: Its


id: economic-statistics-of-singapore-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_statistics_of_Singapore-0.md
category: reference
title: Economic statistics of Singapore
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_statistics_of_Singapore
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:11.247180+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: economic-statistics-of-singapore-20260505-0
summary:
This article contains economic statistics of the country Singapore. The GDP, GDP Per Capita, GNI Per Capita, Total Trade, Total Imports, Total Exports, Foreign Reserves, Current Account Balance, Average Exchange Rate, Operating Revenue and Total Expenditure are mentioned in the table below for years 1965 through 2018. == 1965 to 2014 == == 2014 to 2018 == == See also == Economy of Singapore == References ==


id: economic-statistics-of-the-united-states-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_statistics_of_the_United_States-0.md
category: reference
title: Economic statistics of the United States
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_statistics_of_the_United_States
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:12.357362+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: economic-statistics-of-the-united-states-20260505-0
summary:
This article contains economic statistics for the United States dating back to 1929. Included are relevant statistics about GDP, personal income, household wealth, international trade, government finance, labor, industry and agriculture. == Main indicators == The following table shows the development of the different important indicators of the US economy over time, including nominal and real GDP. Green and red arrows in the table are showing decreasing/increasing values or positive/negative values. Inflation over 2% is shown in red. == Government financial indicators == The following table shows the development of the different important indicators of the US Government, including government debt and the budget balance. Green and red arrows in the table are showing decreasing/increasing values or positive/negative values == External transaction statistics == The following table shows the development of the different important indicators of external economic transactions, including international trade. Green and red arrows in the table are showing decreasing/increasing values or positive/negative values == Private sector business statistics == The following table shows the development of the different important indicators of the private sector, including corporate profits, bankruptcies and domestic net investment. Green and red arrows in the table are showing decreasing/increasing values or positive/negative values ==


id: list-of-fellows-of-the-american-statistical-association-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fellows_of_the_American_Statistical_Association-0.md
category: reference
title: List of fellows of the American Statistical Association
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fellows_of_the_American_Statistical_Association
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:13.460533+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fellows-of-the-american-statistical-association-20260505-0
summary:
Like many other academic professional societies, the American Statistical Association (ASA) uses the title of Fellow of the American Statistical Association as its highest honorary grade of membership. The designation of ASA Fellow has been a significant honor for nearly 100 years. The number of new fellows per year is limited to one third of one percent of the membership of the ASA. To be selected, nominees must have an established reputation and have made outstanding contributions to statistical science. People named as Fellows are listed below. == Fellows == === 1914 === === 1916 === === 1917 === === 1918 === === 1920 === === 1921 === === 1922 === === 1923 === === 1924 === === 1926 === === 1927 === === 1928 === === 1930 === === 1931 === === 1932 === === 1933 === === 1934 === === 1935 === === 1936 === === 1937 === === 1939 === === 1940 === === 1941 === === 1942 === === 1943 === === 1944 === === 1945 === === 1946 === === 1947 === === 1948 === === 1949 === === 1950 === === 1951 === === 1952 === === 1953 === === 1954 === === 1955


id: list-of-fields-of-application-of-statistics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fields_of_application_of_statistics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of fields of application of statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fields_of_application_of_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:14.624996+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fields-of-application-of-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
Statistics is the mathematical science involving the collection, analysis and interpretation of data. A number of specialties have evolved to apply statistical and methods to various disciplines. Certain topics have "statistical" in their name but relate to manipulations of probability distributions rather than to statistical analysis. Actuarial science is the discipline that applies mathematical and statistical methods to assess risk in the insurance and finance industries. Astrostatistics is the discipline that applies statistical analysis to the understanding of astronomical data. Biostatistics is a branch of biology that studies biological phenomena and observations by means of statistical analysis, and includes medical statistics. Business analytics is a rapidly developing business process that applies statistical methods to data sets (often very large) to develop new insights and understanding of business performance & opportunities Chemometrics is the science of relating measurements made on a chemical system or process to the state of the system via application of mathematical or statistical methods. Demography is the statistical study of all populations. It can be a very general science that can be applied to any kind of dynamic population, that is, one that changes over time or space. Econometrics is a branch of economics that applies statistical


id: founders-of-statistics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Founders_of_statistics-0.md
category: reference
title: Founders of statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Founders_of_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:15.775338+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: founders-of-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
Statistics is the theory and application of mathematics to the scientific method including hypothesis generation, experimental design, sampling, data collection, data summarization, estimation, prediction and inference from those results to the population from which the experimental sample was drawn. Statisticians are skilled people who thus apply statistical methods. Hundreds of statisticians are notable. This article lists statisticians who have been especially instrumental in the development of theoretical and applied statistics. == Founders of departments of statistics == The role of a department of statistics is discussed in a 1949 article by Harold Hotelling, which helped to spur the creation of many departments of statistics. == See also == List of statisticians History of statistics Timeline of probability and statistics List of people considered father or mother of a scientific field == References == == External links == "Statisticians in History". American Statistical Association. 30 November 2016. "Life and Work of Statisticians". Department of Mathematics, University of York. "Portraits of Statisticians". Department of Mathematics, University of York. John Aldrich. "Figures from the History of Probability and Statistics". University of Southampton. Lawrence H. Riddle. "Biographies of Women Mathematicians". Agnes Scott College. StatProb – peer-reviewed encyclopedia sponsored by statistics and probability societies


id: glossary-of-probability-and-statistics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_probability_and_statistics-0.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of probability and statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_probability_and_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:16.979723+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-probability-and-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
This glossary of statistics and probability is a list of definitions of terms and concepts used in the mathematical sciences of statistics and probability, their sub-disciplines, and related fields. For additional related terms, see Glossary of mathematics and Glossary of experimental design. == A == admissible decision rule algebra of random variables alternative hypothesis analysis of variance atomic event Another name for elementary event. == B == bar chart Bayes' theorem Bayes estimator Bayes factor Bayesian inference bias 1. Any feature of a sample that is not representative of the larger population. 2. The difference between the expected value of an estimator and the true value. binary data Data that can take only two values, usually represented by the binary digits 0 and 1. binomial distribution bivariate analysis A type of quantitative statistical analysis in which exactly two variables are analyzed, for the purpose of determining the empirical relationship between them. Contrast multivariate analysis. blocking In experimental design, the arranging of experimental units in groups ("blocks") that are similar to one another. Blocking is often used to manage the problem of pseudoreplication. Box–Jenkins method box plot == C == causal study A statistical study in which the objective is to


id: glossary-of-probability-and-statistics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_probability_and_statistics-1.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of probability and statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_probability_and_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:16.979723+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-probability-and-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
data point A typed measurement — it can be a Boolean value, a real number, a vector (in which case it is also called a data vector), etc. decision rule decision theory degrees of freedom density estimation dependence dependent variable descriptive statistics design of experiments deviation discrete variable dot plot double counting == E == elementary event An event which contains only a single outcome in the sample space; in a set of possibilities, a possibility that can occur in precisely one way. For example, when pulling a card from a standard deck of playing cards, 'pulling the jack of spades' is an elementary event (because there is only one jack of spades in the entire deck), while 'pulling a king or an ace' is not (because there are a combined four kings and four aces in the deck). estimation theory The branch of statistics concerned with estimating the values of parameters based on measured empirical data with a random component. The parameters describe an underlying physical setting in such a way that their values affect the distribution of the measured data; an estimator attempts to use the measurements to approximate the unknown parameters. estimator A function of the known


id: glossary-of-probability-and-statistics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_probability_and_statistics-2.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of probability and statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_probability_and_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:16.979723+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-probability-and-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
marginal probability The probability of a given event, ignoring any information about other events. The marginal probability of A is written P(A). Contrast conditional probability. Markov chain Monte Carlo mathematical statistics maximum likelihood estimation mean 1. The expected value of a random variable. 2. The arithmetic mean, i.e. the mathematical average of a set of numerical values, calculated by dividing the sum of the values by the number of values. median median absolute deviation mode moving average Also moving mean and rolling mean. A series of mathematical averages or means of different subsets of a larger data set, usually computed so as to understand trends in the data set over time. multimodal distribution multivariate analysis multivariate kernel density estimation multivariate random variable A vector whose components are random variables on the same probability space. mutual exclusivity mutual independence A collection of events is said to be mutually independent if for any subset of the collection, the joint probability of all events occurring is equal to the product of the joint probabilities of the individual events. Think of the result of a series of coin-flips. This is a stronger condition than pairwise independence. == N == nonparametric regression nonparametric statistics non-sampling


id: glossary-of-probability-and-statistics-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_probability_and_statistics-3.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of probability and statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_probability_and_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:16.979723+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-probability-and-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
regression analysis A data analysis or statistical model that employs a set of statistical methods which estimate the relationships between a dependent variable and one or more error-free independent variables. The most common example of such a model is a linear regression, in which the equation of a line that most closely fits a set of data points according to a specific mathematical criterion is calculated and plotted on a graph of the data points; other forms of regression use related methods to estimate alternative parameters or to estimate conditional expectations from various non-linear models. repeated measures design response variable Any variable whose value is or is expected to be affected by an experimental treatment, or by changes in one or more other variables; e.g. cholesterol levels after following a particular diet for six months. Response variables are those that change or respond to some phenomenon under study. The term is often used interchangeably with dependent variable. restricted randomization robust statistics round-off error == S == sample That part of a population which is actually observed or measured. sample covariance sample mean The arithmetic mean of a sample of values drawn from a population, commonly denoted by x ¯ {\displaystyle


id: list-of-graphical-methods-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_graphical_methods-0.md
category: reference
title: List of graphical methods
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_graphical_methods
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:18.172517+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-graphical-methods-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of graphical methods with a mathematical basis. Included are diagram techniques, chart techniques, plot techniques, and other forms of visualization. There is also a list of computer graphics and descriptive geometry topics. == Simple displays == Area chart Bar chart Histogram Variable-width bar chart Box plot Dispersion fan diagram Graph of a function Logarithmic graph paper Heatmap Line chart Pie chart Variable-radius pie chart Plotting Radar chart Scatterplot Sparkline Spiral graphic Stemplot Stripe graphic Tape diagram == Set theory == Venn diagram Karnaugh diagram == Descriptive geometry == Isometric projection Orthographic projection Perspective (graphical) == Engineering drawing == Technical drawing Graphical projection Mohr's circle Pantograph Circuit diagram Smith chart Sankey diagram == Systems analysis == Binary decision diagram Control-flow graph Functional flow block diagram Information flow diagram IDEF N2 chart Sankey diagram State diagram System context diagram Data-flow diagram == Cartography == Map projection Orthographic projection (cartography) Robinson projection Stereographic projection Dymaxion map Topographic map Craig retroazimuthal projection Hammer retroazimuthal projection == Biological sciences == Cladogram Punnett square Systems Biology Graphical Notation == Physical sciences == Free body diagram Greninger chart Phase diagram Wavenumber-frequency diagram Bode plot Nyquist plot Dalitz plot Feynman diagram Carnot Plot ==


id: heights-distribution-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heights_distribution-0.md
category: reference
title: Heights distribution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heights_distribution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:19.540365+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: heights-distribution-20260505-0
summary:
Below is a table which reports the average adult human height by country or geographical region. With regard to the table, original studies and sources should be consulted for details on methodology and the exact populations measured, surveyed, or considered. == Individual surveys and studies == === Accuracy === As with any statistical data, the accuracy of the findings may be challenged. In this case, for the following reasons: Some studies may allow subjects to self-report values. Generally speaking, self-reported height tends to be taller than measured height, although the overestimation of height depends on the reporting subject's height, age, gender and region. Test subjects may have been invited instead of random sampling, resulting in sampling bias. Some countries may have significant height gaps between different regions. For instance, one survey shows there is 10.8 centimetres (4.3 in) difference in mean height between the tallest state and the shortest state in Germany. Under such circumstances, the mean height may not represent the total population unless sample subjects are appropriately taken from all regions with using weighted average of the different regional groups. Different social groups can show different mean height. According to a study in France, executives and professionals are


id: list-of-information-graphics-software-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_information_graphics_software-0.md
category: reference
title: List of information graphics software
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_information_graphics_software
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:20.652156+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-information-graphics-software-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of notable software to create any kind of information graphics: either includes the ability to create one or more infographics from a provided data set either it is provided specifically for information visualization == Vector graphics == Vector graphics software can be used for manual graphing or for editing the output of another program; see: Category:Vector graphics editors Comparison of vector graphics editors Some online editors using vector graphics for specific needs exist. These creative interfaces work well together with data visualization tools like the ones above. == See also == Category:Diagramming software List of graphical methods PGF/TikZ – Graphics languages == References ==


id: list-of-probability-journals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_probability_journals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of probability journals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_probability_journals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:21.783649+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-probability-journals-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of peer-reviewed scientific journals published in the field of probability. Advances in Applied Probability ALEA - Latin American Journal of Probability and Mathematical Statistics Annales de l’Institut Henri Poincaré Annals of Applied Probability Annals of Probability Bernoulli Brazilian Journal of Probability and Statistics Combinatorics, Probability and Computing Communications on Stochastic Analysis Electronic Communications in Probability Electronic Journal of Probability ESAIM: Probability and Statistics Finance and Stochastics Journal of Applied Probability Journal of Theoretical Probability Markov Processes and Related Fields Methodology and Computing in Applied Probability Modern Stochastics: Theory and Applications Probability and Mathematical Statistics Probability in the Engineering and Informational Sciences Probability Surveys Probability Theory and Related Fields Queueing Systems Random Matrices: Theory and Applications Random Operators and Stochastic Equations Random Structures & Algorithms Stochastics: An International Journal of Probability and Stochastic Processes Statistics & Probability Letters Stochastic Analysis and Applications Stochastics and Dynamics Stochastic Models Stochastic Processes and their Applications Stochastic Systems Theory of Probability and Its Applications Theory of Probability and Mathematical Statistics Theory of Stochastic Processes == See also == List of scientific journals List of statistics journals List of mathematics journals


id: list-of-statistics-journals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_statistics_journals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of statistics journals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_statistics_journals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:23.003486+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-statistics-journals-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of scientific journals published in the field of statistics. == Introductory and outreach == The American Statistician Significance == General theory and methodology == Annals of the Institute of Statistical Mathematics Annals of Statistics AStA Wirtschafts- und Sozialstatistisches Archiv Biometrika The Canadian Journal of Statistics Communications in Statistics International Statistical Review Journal of the American Statistical Association Journal of Multivariate Analysis Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Probability and Mathematical Statistics Sankhyā: The Indian Journal of Statistics Scandinavian Journal of Statistics Statistica Neerlandica Statistica Sinica Statistical Science Stochastic Processes and their Applications == Applications == The Annals of Applied Statistics Journal of Applied Statistics The Journal of Risk Model Validation Journal of Statistical Software Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series C: Applied Statistics Statistical Modelling Statistics and its Interface The R Journal Stata Journal == Statistics education == Journal of Statistics and Data Science Education == Specialized journals in various areas of statistics == === Biostatistics === Biometrical Journal Biometrics Biometrika Biostatistics The International Journal of Biostatistics Pharmaceutical Statistics Statistical Applications in Genetics and Molecular Biology Statistical Methods in Medical Research Statistics in Medicine (journal) === Computational statistics === Communications in Statistics - Simulation and


id: list-of-guidances-for-statistics-in-regulatory-affairs-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Guidances_for_Statistics_in_Regulatory_Affairs-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Guidances for Statistics in Regulatory Affairs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Guidances_for_Statistics_in_Regulatory_Affairs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:24.198231+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-guidances-for-statistics-in-regulatory-affairs-20260505-0
summary:
This List of Guidances for Statistics in Regulatory Affairs presents a source of references for statistical guidance documents and related articles that are relevant to regulatory affairs for those statisticians that work on clinical studies. == Abbreviations == EMA = European Medicines Agency EU-HTA = European Commission Health Technology Assessment FDA = U.S. Food and Drug Administration ICH = International Council for Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Pharmaceuticals for Human Use IQWiG = Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care UK-NICE = National Institute for Health and Care Excellence == Drugs == == Medical Devices == == Health Technology Assessment (HTA) == == See also == Guidances for statistics in regulatory affairs Clinical trials Medical statistics Epidemiological method Epidemiology Medicine == References == == External links == ICH Efficacy Guidelines European Medicines Agency's (EMA) scientific guidelines on biostatistics Archived 2016-06-21 at the Wayback Machine FDA Regulatory Information - Guidances


id: list-of-statistical-tests-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_statistical_tests-0.md
category: reference
title: List of statistical tests
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_statistical_tests
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:25.381553+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-statistical-tests-20260505-0
summary:
Statistical tests are used to test the fit between a hypothesis and the data. Choosing the right statistical test is not a trivial task. The choice of the test depends on many properties of the research question. The vast majority of studies can be addressed by 30 of the 100 or so statistical tests in use. == Explanation of properties == Scaling of data: One of the properties of the tests is the scale of the data, which can be interval-based, ordinal or nominal. Nominal scale is also known as categorical. Interval scale is also known as numerical. When categorical data has only two possibilities, it is called binary or dichotomous. Assumptions, parametric and non-parametric: There are two groups of statistical tests, parametric and non-parametric. The choice between these two groups needs to be justified. Parametric tests assume that the data follow a particular distribution, typically a normal distribution, while non-parametric tests make no assumptions about the distribution. Non-parametric tests have the advantage of being more resistant to misbehaviour of the data, such as outliers. They also have the disadvantage of being less certain in the statistical estimate. Type of data: Statistical tests use different types of data. Some tests


id: lukacs-distinguished-professor-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lukacs_Distinguished_Professor-0.md
category: reference
title: Lukacs Distinguished Professor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lukacs_Distinguished_Professor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:26.498685+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lukacs-distinguished-professor-20260505-0
summary:
The Lukacs Distinguished Professor chair was established in 1989 by the Department of Mathematics and Statistics at Bowling Green State University in honor of Eugene Lukacs, who came to Bowling Green with his colleagues Radha Laha and Vijay Rohatgi in 1972 to establish the doctoral program in statistics. Eugene Lukacs was Bowling Green's first Distinguished University Professor. Each year an outstanding senior researcher in probability or statistics is invited to serve as the Eugene Lukacs Distinguished Visiting Professor during the academic year or a semester. The Lukacs Professors are invited based on their distinguished record of research in the application or theory of probability or statistics. The Lukacs professor typically collaborates with current faculty on research, participates in seminars and colloquia, and typically gives a graduate course or presents a series of related seminars. Lukacs Professors have organized Lukacs Symposia on a variety of topics in probability and statistics. == Lukacs Distinguished Visiting Professors == == See also == List of statisticians History of statistics == References == == External links == Statistics for the 21st Century, 1998 Lukacs Symposium, organized by C. R. Rao. Frontiers of Environmental and Ecological Statistics for the 21st Century: Synergistic Challenges, Opportunities and Directions


id: list-of-mathematical-probabilists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mathematical_probabilists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of mathematical probabilists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mathematical_probabilists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:27.704385+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mathematical-probabilists-20260505-0
summary:
See probabilism for the followers of such a theory in theology or philosophy. This list contains only probabilists in the sense of mathematicians specializing in probability theory. David Aldous (born 1952) Siva Athreya (born 1971) Thomas Bayes (1702–1761) - British mathematician and Presbyterian minister, known for Bayes' theorem Gerard Ben-Arous (born 1957) Itai Benjamini Jakob Bernoulli (1654–1705) - Switzerland, known for Bernoulli trials Jean Bertoin (born 1961) Joseph Louis François Bertrand (1822–1900) Patrick Billingsley (1925–2011) Robert Blumenthal (1931–2012) Erwin Bolthausen (born 1945) Carlo Emilio Bonferroni (1892–1960) Émile Borel (1871–1956) Sourav Chatterjee (born 1979) Kai Lai Chung (1917–2009) Erhan Çınlar (born 1941) Harald Cramér (1893–1985) Miklós Csörgő (born 1932) Sándor Csörgő (1947–2008) Amir Dembo (born 1958) Persi Diaconis (born 1945) Catherine Doléans-Dade (1942–2004) Joseph Leo Doob (1910–2004) Lester Dubins (1920–2010) Richard M. Dudley (1938–2020) Hugo Duminil-Copin (born 1985) Eugene Dynkin (1924–2014) Robert J. Elliott (born 1940) Paul Erdős (1913–1996) Alison Etheridge (born 1964) Steve Evans (born 1960) William Feller (1906–1970) Bruno de Finetti (1906–1985) Hans Föllmer (born 1941) Iosif Gikhman (1918–1985) Igor Girsanov (1934–1967) Boris Gnedenko (1912–1995) Geoffrey Grimmett (born 1950) Alice Guionnet (born 1969) Ian Hacking (1936–2023) Paul Halmos (1916–2006) Joseph Halpern (born 1953) David Heath (c.1943–2011) Wassily Hoeffding (1914–1991)


id: list-of-presidents-of-the-american-statistical-association-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_American_Statistical_Association-0.md
category: reference
title: List of presidents of the American Statistical Association
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_American_Statistical_Association
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:28.905060+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-presidents-of-the-american-statistical-association-20260505-0
summary:
The president of the American Statistical Association is the head of the American Statistical Association (ASA). According to the association's bylaws, the president is an officer, and a member of the board of directors and of the executive committee. Elections for the position are held annually, in which all full members are eligible to vote. The term in office is typically three years, as president-elect and past president are also official positions. == List of presidents == === 19th century === === 20th century === === 21st century === == References == == External links == Bylaws and constitution ASA Presidential Papers


id: list-of-presidents-of-the-institute-of-mathematical-statistics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_Institute_of_Mathematical_Statistics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of presidents of the Institute of Mathematical Statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_Institute_of_Mathematical_Statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:30.038823+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-presidents-of-the-institute-of-mathematical-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
The president of the Institute of Mathematical Statistics is the highest officer of the Institute of Mathematical Statistics (IMS), and, together with the president-elect and past president, sets the directions for IMS during his or her term of office. == Duties == According to the IMS Handbook for Officers, Editors, Council Members and Committee Chairs (2003), the president makes appointments to IMS committee vacancies, represents the Society to other organizations such as the Committee of Presidents of Statistical Societies (COPSS) and the Conference Board of the Mathematical Sciences (CBMS). In addition, the president is an ex officio member of the corporation of the National Institute for Statistical Sciences (NISS), and is responsible for appointing another member of the corporation and a member of the NISS Board of Trustees. == List of presidents == === 20th century === === 21st century === == External links == Past Executive Committee Members == References == IMS Handbook for Officers, Editors, Council Members and Committee Chairs


id: list-of-presidents-of-the-royal-statistical-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_Royal_Statistical_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: List of presidents of the Royal Statistical Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_Royal_Statistical_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:31.216046+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-presidents-of-the-royal-statistical-society-20260505-0
summary:
The president of the Royal Statistical Society is the head of the Royal Statistical Society (RSS), elected biennially by the Fellows of the Society. The time-period between elections has varied in the past. The president oversees the running of the Society and chairs its council meetings. The president gives a presidential address at some point in their tenure, which is published in the longest running journal of the society, Series A, setting out personal views on the future of discipline and the role of the society. In recent years, almost all presidents have been nominated following many years' service to the Society, although some have been nominated to mark their eminence in society generally, such as Harold Wilson. Nominations for president are received by the society's Nominating Committee. The committee recommends at least one fellow to Council who, at a meeting, agree a preferred candidate or candidates. If only one preferred candidate is selected, the Fellowship are given four weeks to offer an alternate candidate. There has only been one contested election in the Society's history, in 1977. Many fellows objected to the nomination by the Council of Campbell Adamson because he was not a statistician, was said to have


id: list-of-presidents-of-the-statistical-society-of-canada-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_Statistical_Society_of_Canada-0.md
category: reference
title: List of presidents of the Statistical Society of Canada
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_Statistical_Society_of_Canada
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:32.436217+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-presidents-of-the-statistical-society-of-canada-20260505-0
summary:
The President of the Statistical Society of Canada is the highest officer of the Statistical Society of Canada (SSC). == List of presidents == === 20th Century === 1972–1974 Norm Shklov 1974–1975 Pierre Robillard 1975–1976 Charles S. Carter 1976–1978 David F. Bray 1979 Donald G. Watts 1980 Urs R. Maag 1981 Ivan P. Fellegi 1982 Charles Dunnett 1983 Michael A. Stephens 1984 James G. Kalbfleisch 1985 David F. Andrews 1986–1987 Martin B. Wilk 1987–1988 James V. Zidek 1988–1989 Robert Cléroux 1989–1990 Geoffrey J.C. Hole 1990–1991 Peter D.M. Macdonald 1991–1992 Agnes M. Herzberg 1992–1993 Christopher A. Field 1993–1994 Jerald F. Lawless 1994–1995 R. James Tomkins 1995–1996 Marc Moore 1996–1997 Richard A. Lockhart 1997–1998 Jane F. Gentleman 1998–1999 David R. Bellhouse 1999–2000 John D. (Jack) Kalbfleisch === 21st Century === 2000–2001 Louis-Paul Rivest 2001–2002 David R. Brillinger 2002–2003 James O. Ramsay 2003–2004 Mary E. Thompson 2004–2005 Nancy M. Reid 2005–2006 David A. Binder 2006–2007 Charmaine Dean 2007–2008 Christian Genest 2008–2009 Román Viveros-Aguilera 2009–2010 Bovas Abraham 2010–2011 Donald L. McLeish 2011–2012 John F. Brewster 2012–2013 Christian Léger 2013–2014 Michael J. Evans 2014–2015 A. John Petkau 2015–2016 O. Brian Allen 2016–2017 Jack Gambino 2017–2018 Hugh Chipman 2018–2019 Robert Platt 2019–2020 Bruce Smith 2020–2021 Wendy


id: list-of-probability-topics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_probability_topics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of probability topics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_probability_topics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:33.632091+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-probability-topics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of probability topics. It overlaps with the (alphabetical) list of statistical topics. There are also the outline of probability and catalog of articles in probability theory. For distributions, see List of probability distributions. For journals, see list of probability journals. For contributors to the field, see list of mathematical probabilists and list of statisticians. == General aspects == Probability Randomness, Pseudorandomness, Quasirandomness Randomization, hardware random number generator Random number generation Random sequence Uncertainty Statistical dispersion Observational error Equiprobable Equipossible Average Probability interpretations Markovian Statistical regularity Central tendency Bean machine Relative frequency Frequency probability Maximum likelihood Bayesian probability Principle of indifference Credal set Cox's theorem Principle of maximum entropy Information entropy Urn problems Extractor Free probability Exotic probability Schrödinger method Empirical measure Glivenko–Cantelli theorem Zero–one law Kolmogorov's zero–one law Hewitt–Savage zero–one law Law of truly large numbers Littlewood's law Infinite monkey theorem Littlewood–Offord problem Inclusion–exclusion principle Impossible event Information geometry Talagrand's concentration inequality == Foundations of probability theory == Probability theory Probability space Sample space Standard probability space Random element Random compact set Dynkin system Probability axioms Normalizing constant Event (probability theory) Complementary event Elementary event Mutually exclusive Boole's inequality Probability density function Cumulative distribution function Law


id: outline-of-probability-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_probability-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of probability
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_probability
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:34.801336+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-probability-20260505-0
summary:
Probability is a measure of the likeliness that an event will occur. Probability is used to quantify an attitude of mind towards some proposition whose truth is not certain. The proposition of interest is usually of the form "A specific event will occur." The attitude of mind is of the form "How certain is it that the event will occur?" The certainty that is adopted can be described in terms of a numerical measure, and this number, between 0 and 1 (where 0 indicates impossibility and 1 indicates certainty) is called the probability. Probability theory is used extensively in statistics, mathematics, science and philosophy to draw conclusions about the likelihood of potential events and the underlying mechanics of complex systems. == Introduction == Probability and randomness. == Basic probability == (Related topics: set theory, simple theorems in the algebra of sets) === Events === Events in probability theory Elementary events, sample spaces, Venn diagrams Mutual exclusivity === Elementary probability === The axioms of probability Boole's inequality === Meaning of probability === Probability interpretations Bayesian probability Frequency probability === Calculating with probabilities === Conditional probability The law of total probability Bayes' theorem === Independence === Independence (probability theory) == Probability theory


id: list-of-probability-distributions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_probability_distributions-0.md
category: reference
title: List of probability distributions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_probability_distributions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:36.046814+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-probability-distributions-20260505-0
summary:
Many probability distributions that are important in theory or applications have been given specific names. == Discrete distributions == === With finite support === The Bernoulli distribution, which takes value 1 with probability p and value 0 with probability q = 1 − p. The Rademacher distribution, which takes value 1 with probability 1/2 and value −1 with probability 1/2. The binomial distribution, which describes the number of successes in a series of independent Yes/No experiments all with the same probability of success. The beta-binomial distribution, which describes the number of successes in a series of independent Yes/No experiments with heterogeneity in the success probability. The degenerate distribution at x0, where X is certain to take the value x0. This does not look random, but it satisfies the definition of random variable. This is useful because it puts deterministic variables and random variables in the same formalism. The discrete uniform distribution, where all elements of a finite set are equally likely. This is the theoretical distribution model for a balanced coin, an unbiased die, a casino roulette, or the first card of a well-shuffled deck. The hypergeometric distribution, which describes the number of successes in the first m of a


id: list-of-probability-distributions-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_probability_distributions-1.md
category: reference
title: List of probability distributions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_probability_distributions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:36.046814+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-probability-distributions-20260505-0
summary:
=== Supported on a bounded interval === The Beta distribution on [0,1], a family of two-parameter distributions with one mode, of which the uniform distribution is a special case, and which is useful in estimating success probabilities. The four-parameter Beta distribution, a straight-forward generalization of the Beta distribution to arbitrary bounded intervals [ a , b ] {\displaystyle [a,b]} . The arcsine distribution on [a,b], which is a special case of the Beta distribution if α = β = 1/2, a = 0, and b = 1. The PERT distribution is a special case of the four-parameter beta distribution. The uniform distribution or rectangular distribution on [a,b], where all points in a finite interval are equally likely, is a special case of the four-parameter Beta distribution. The Irwin–Hall distribution is the distribution of the sum of n independent random variables, each of which having the uniform distribution on [0,1]. The Bates distribution is the distribution of the mean of n independent random variables, each of which having the uniform distribution on [0,1]. The logit-normal distribution on (0,1). The Dirac delta function, although not strictly a probability distribution, is a limiting form of many continuous probability functions. It represents a discrete


id: list-of-probability-distributions-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_probability_distributions-2.md
category: reference
title: List of probability distributions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_probability_distributions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:36.046814+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-probability-distributions-20260505-0
summary:
=== Supported on the whole real line === The Behrens–Fisher distribution, which arises in the Behrens–Fisher problem. The Cauchy distribution, an example of a distribution which does not have an expected value or a variance. In physics it is usually called a Lorentzian profile, and is associated with many processes, including resonance energy distribution, impact and natural spectral line broadening and quadratic stark line broadening. The centralized inverse-Fano distribution, which is the distribution representing the ratio of independent normal and gamma-difference random variables. Chernoff's distribution The exponentially modified Gaussian distribution, a convolution of a normal distribution with an exponential distribution, and the Gaussian minus exponential distribution, a convolution of a normal distribution with the negative of an exponential distribution. The expectile distribution, which nests the Gaussian distribution in the symmetric case. The Fisher–Tippett, extreme value, or log-Weibull distribution Fisher's z-distribution The skewed generalized t distribution The gamma-difference distribution, which is the distribution of the difference of independent gamma random variables. The generalized logistic distribution The generalized normal distribution The geometric stable distribution The Gumbel distribution The Holtsmark distribution, an example of a distribution that has a finite expected value but infinite variance. The hyperbolic distribution The hyperbolic secant distribution The


id: list-of-convolutions-of-probability-distributions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_convolutions_of_probability_distributions-0.md
category: reference
title: List of convolutions of probability distributions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_convolutions_of_probability_distributions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:37.331297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-convolutions-of-probability-distributions-20260505-0
summary:
In probability theory, the probability distribution of the sum of two or more independent random variables is the convolution of their individual distributions. The term is motivated by the fact that the probability mass function or probability density function of a sum of independent random variables is the convolution of their corresponding probability mass functions or probability density functions respectively. Many well known distributions have simple convolutions. The following is a list of these convolutions. Each statement is of the form ∑ i = 1 n X i ∼ Y {\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^{n}X_{i}\sim Y} where X 1 , X 2 , … , X n {\displaystyle X_{1},X_{2},\dots ,X_{n}} are independent random variables, and Y {\displaystyle Y} is the distribution that results from the convolution of X 1 , X 2 , … , X n {\displaystyle X_{1},X_{2},\dots ,X_{n}} . In place of X i {\displaystyle X_{i}} and Y {\displaystyle Y} the names of the corresponding distributions and their parameters have been indicated. == Discrete distributions == ∑ i = 1 n B e r n o u l l i ( p ) ∼ B i n o m i a l ( n , p ) 0 < p


id: list-of-convolutions-of-probability-distributions-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_convolutions_of_probability_distributions-1.md
category: reference
title: List of convolutions of probability distributions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_convolutions_of_probability_distributions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:37.331297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-convolutions-of-probability-distributions-20260505-0
summary:
∑ i = 1 n VarianceGamma ⁡ ( μ i , α , β , λ i ) ∼ VarianceGamma ⁡ ( ∑ i = 1 n μ i , α , β , ∑ i = 1 n λ i ) − ∞ < μ i < ∞ λ i > 0 α 2 − β 2 > 0 {\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^{n}\operatorname {VarianceGamma} (\mu _{i},\alpha ,\beta ,\lambda _{i})\sim \operatorname {VarianceGamma} \left(\sum _{i=1}^{n}\mu _{i},\alpha ,\beta ,\sum _{i=1}^{n}\lambda _{i}\right)\qquad -\infty <\mu _{i}<\infty \quad \lambda _{i}>0\quad {\sqrt {\alpha ^{2}-\beta ^{2}}}>0} ∑ i = 1 n Exponential ⁡ ( θ ) ∼ Erlang ⁡ ( n , θ ) θ > 0 n = 1 , 2 , … {\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^{n}\operatorname {Exponential} (\theta )\sim \operatorname {Erlang} (n,\theta )\qquad \theta >0\quad n=1,2,\dots } ∑ i = 1 n Exponential ⁡ ( λ i ) ∼ Hypoexponential ⁡ ( λ 1 , … , λ n ) λ i > 0 {\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^{n}\operatorname {Exponential} (\lambda _{i})\sim \operatorname {Hypoexponential} (\lambda _{1},\dots ,\lambda _{n})\qquad \lambda _{i}>0} ∑ i = 1 n χ 2 ( r i ) ∼ χ 2 ( ∑ i = 1 n r i ) r i = 1 , 2


id: list-of-publications-in-statistics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_statistics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of publications in statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:38.489811+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-publications-in-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of publications in statistics, organized by field. Some reasons why a particular publication might be regarded as important: Topic creator – A publication that created a new topic Breakthrough – A publication that changed scientific knowledge significantly Influence – A publication which has significantly influenced the world or has had a massive impact on the teaching of statistics. == Probability == Théorie analytique des probabilités Author: Pierre-Simon Laplace Publication data: 1820 (3rd ed.) Online version: Internet Archive; CNRS, with more accurate character recognition; Gallica-Math, complete PDF and PDFs by section Description: Introduced the Laplace transform, exponential families, and conjugate priors in Bayesian statistics. Pioneering asymptotic statistics, proved an early version of the Bernstein–von Mises theorem on the irrelevance of the (regular) prior distribution on the limiting posterior distribution, highlighting the asymptotic role of the Fisher information. Studies the influence of median and skewness in regression analysis. Inspired the field of robust regression, proposed the Laplace distribution and was the first to provide alternatives to Carl Friedrich Gauss's work on statistics. Importance: Topic creator, Breakthrough, Influence == Mathematical statistics == Mathematical Methods of Statistics Author: Harald Cramér Publication data: Princeton Mathematical Series, vol. 9. Princeton University Press,


id: list-of-publications-in-statistics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_statistics-1.md
category: reference
title: List of publications in statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:38.489811+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-publications-in-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
Authors: George E.P. Box and Gwilym M. Jenkins Publication data: Holden-Day, 1970 Description: Systematic approach to ARIMA and ARMAX modelling Importance: This book introduces ARIMA and associated input-output models, studies how to fit them and develops a methodology for time series forecasting and control. It has changed econometrics, process control and forecasting. == Applied statistics == Statistical Methods for Research Workers Author: R.A. Fisher Publication data: Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd, 1925 (1st edition); London: Macmillan, 1970 (15th edition) Online version: http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Fisher/Methods/ Description: The original manual for researchers, especially biologists, on how to statistically evaluate numerical data. Importance: Hugely influential text by the father of modern statistics that remained in print for more than 50 years. Responsible for the widespread use of tests of statistical significance. Statistical Methods Author: George W. Snedecor Publication data: 1937, Collegiate Press Description: One of the first comprehensive texts on statistical methods. Reissued as Statistical Methods Applied to Experiments in Agriculture and Biology in 1940 and then again as Statistical Methods with Cochran, WG in 1967. A classic text. Importance: Influence Principles and Procedures of Statistics with Special Reference to the Biological Sciences. Authors: Steel, R.G.D, and Torrie, J. H. Publication data: McGraw Hill (1960) 481


id: list-of-publications-in-statistics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_statistics-2.md
category: reference
title: List of publications in statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:38.489811+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-publications-in-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
Author: Charles Sanders Peirce and Joseph Jastrow Publication data: Peirce, Charles Sanders; Jastrow, Joseph (1885). "On Small Differences in Sensation". Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences. 3: 73–83. Online version: http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Peirce/small-diffs.htm Description: Peirce and Jastrow use logistic regression to estimate subjective probabilities of subjects's judgments of the heavier of two measurements, following a randomized controlled repeated measures design. Importance: The first randomized experiment, which also used blinding; it seems also to have been the first experiment for estimating subjective probabilities. The Design of Experiments Author: Fisher, RA Publication data: 1935, Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh Description: The first textbook on experimental design Importance: Influence The Design and Analysis of Experiments Author: Oscar Kempthorne Publication data: 1950, John Wiley & Sons, New York (Reprinted with corrections in 1979 by Robert E. Krieger) Description: Early exposition of the general linear model using matrix algebra (following lecture notes of George W. Brown). Bases inference on the randomization distribution objectively defined by the experimental protocol, rather than a so-called "statistical model" expressing the subjective beliefs of a statistician: The normal model is regarded as a convenient approximation to the randomization-distribution, whose quality is assessed by theorems about moments and simulation experiments. Importance: The first


id: list-of-schools-for-quantitative-psychology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_schools_for_quantitative_psychology-0.md
category: reference
title: List of schools for quantitative psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_schools_for_quantitative_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:39.635041+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-schools-for-quantitative-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
This is a nonexhaustive list of schools that offer degrees in quantitative psychology or related fields such as psychometrics or research methodology. Programs are typically offered in departments of psychology, educational psychology, or human development. Various organizations, including the American Psychological Association's Division 5, the Canadian Psychological Association, the National Council for Measurement in Education, and the Society of Multivariate Experimental Psychology have compiled lists of programs. == Graduate degree programs == === Structure === Records are listed alphabetically by university in descending order. Within a given university, records are sorted by degree (doctorate, then master's). Inclusion criteria are described on the talk page. University section University – The university listed is the primary institution/organization which grants the degree. The link provided links to the Wikipedia page for the university. Department – The department listed is the primary department which grants the degree. The link provided links to the department's website. Program section Terminal degree – This is the final degree granted to the student within that degree track. Many doctoral programs in the US have joint MA/Ph.D programs. Those degrees are listed within the same record under the final degree granted (e.g., Doctorate of Philosophy). The link provided directs


id: outline-of-regression-analysis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_regression_analysis-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of regression analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_regression_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:40.870622+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-regression-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to regression analysis: Regression analysis – use of statistical techniques for learning about the relationship between one or more dependent variables (Y) and one or more independent variables (X). == Overview articles == Regression analysis Linear regression == Non-statistical articles related to regression == Least squares Linear least squares (mathematics) Non-linear least squares Least absolute deviations Curve fitting Smoothing Cross-sectional study == Basic statistical ideas related to regression == Conditional expectation Correlation Correlation coefficient Mean square error Residual sum of squares Explained sum of squares Total sum of squares == Visualization == Scatterplot == Linear regression based on least squares == General linear model Ordinary least squares Generalized least squares Simple linear regression Trend estimation Ridge regression Polynomial regression Segmented regression Nonlinear regression == Generalized linear models == Generalized linear models Logistic regression Multinomial logit Ordered logit Probit model Multinomial probit Ordered probit Poisson regression Maximum likelihood Cochrane–Orcutt estimation == Computation == Numerical methods for linear least squares == Inference for regression models == F-test t-test Lack-of-fit sum of squares Confidence band Coefficient of determination Multiple correlation Scheffé's method == Challenges to regression modeling == Autocorrelation Cointegration Multicollinearity


id: list-of-statistical-software-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_statistical_software-0.md
category: reference
title: List of statistical software
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_statistical_software
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:42.042794+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-statistical-software-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of statistical software. == Open-source == ADaMSoft – a generalized statistical software with data mining algorithms and methods for data management ADMB – a software suite for non-linear statistical modeling based on C++ which uses automatic differentiation Chronux – for neurobiological time series data DAP – free replacement for SAS Environment for DeveLoping KDD-Applications Supported by Index-Structures (ELKI) a software framework for developing data mining algorithms in Java Epi Info – statistical software for epidemiology developed by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Apache 2 licensed Fityk – nonlinear regression software (GUI and command line) GNU Octave – programming language very similar to MATLAB with statistical features gretl – gnu regression, econometrics and time-series library intrinsic Noise Analyzer (iNA) – For analyzing intrinsic fluctuations in biochemical systems jamovi – A free GUI and library for R JASP – A free software alternative to IBM SPSS Statistics with additional option for Bayesian methods JMulTi – For econometric analysis, specialised in univariate and multivariate time series analysis Just another Gibbs sampler (JAGS) – a program for analyzing Bayesian hierarchical models using Markov chain Monte Carlo developed by Martyn Plummer. It is similar to WinBUGS KNIME –


id: list-of-statistical-software-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_statistical_software-1.md
category: reference
title: List of statistical software
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_statistical_software
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:42.042794+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-statistical-software-20260505-0
summary:
== Proprietary == Alteryx – analytics platform with drag and drop statistical models; R and Python integration Analytica – visual analytics and statistics package Angoss – products KnowledgeSEEKER and KnowledgeSTUDIO incorporate several data mining algorithms ASReml – for restricted maximum likelihood analyses BMDP – general statistics package DataGraph – online statistical software DB Lytix – 800+ in-database models EViews – for econometric analysis FAME (database) – a system for managing time-series databases GAUSS – programming language for statistics Genedata – software for integration and interpretation of experimental data in the life science R&D GenStat – general statistics package GLIM – early package for fitting generalized linear models GraphPad InStat – very simple with much guidance and explanations GraphPad Prism – biostatistics and nonlinear regression with clear explanations Igor Pro - programming language with statistical features and numerical analysis IMSL Numerical Libraries – software library with statistical algorithms JMP – visual analysis and statistics package LIMDEP – comprehensive statistics and econometrics package LISREL – statistics package used in structural equation modeling Maple – programming language with statistical features Mathematica – a software package with statistical particularly ŋ features MATLAB – programming language with statistical features MedCalc – for biomedical sciences Microfit


id: list-of-national-and-international-statistical-services-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_national_and_international_statistical_services-0.md
category: reference
title: List of national and international statistical services
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_national_and_international_statistical_services
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:43.166964+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-national-and-international-statistical-services-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of national and international statistical services. == Central national statistical services == Nearly every country in the world has set a central public sector unit entirely devoted to the production, harmonisation and dissemination of official statistics that the public sector and the national community need to run, monitor and evaluate their operations and policies. This central statistical organisation does not produce every official statistic as other public sector organisations, like the national central bank or ministries in charge of agriculture, education or health, may be charged with producing and disseminating sector policy oriented statistical data. The statistical legislation and regulation generally attribute responsibilities and authorities according to statistical domains or functions in addition to those of the central unit. The table below lists these central statistical organisations by country. The United States has no central producing unit, but several units (also listed below) have been given responsibility over various federal statistics domains (see also: Federal Statistical System of the United States). === Africa === === Americas === === Asia === === Europe === (Institutions from countries marked with * are members of Eurostat's European Statistical System (ESS).) === Oceania === == Autonomous statistical services at


id: list-of-statisticians-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_statisticians-0.md
category: reference
title: List of statisticians
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_statisticians
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:44.303512+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-statisticians-20260505-0
summary:
This list of statisticians lists people who have made notable contributions to the theories or application of statistics, or to the related fields of probability or machine learning. It includes the founders of statistics and others. It includes some 17th- and 18th-century mathematicians and polymaths whose work is regarded as influential in shaping the later discipline of statistics. Also included are various actuaries, economists, and demographers known for providing leadership in applying statistics to their fields. == A == Aalen, Odd Olai Abbey, Helen (1915–2001) Abbott, Edith (1876–1957) Abelson, Robert P. (1928–2005) Abramovitz, Moses (1912–2000) Achenwall, Gottfried (1719–1772) Adelstein, Abraham Manie (1916–1992) Adkins, Dorothy (1912–1975) Ahsan, Riaz (1951–2008) Ahtime, Laura Aitchison, Beatrice (1908–1997) Aitchison, John (1926–2016) Aitken, Alexander (1895–1967) Akaike, Hirotsugu (1927–2009) Aliaga, Martha (1937–2011) Allan, Betty (1905–1952) Allen, R. G. D. (1906–1983) Allison, David B. Altman, Doug (1948–2018) Altman, Naomi Amemiya, Takeshi (1935–2026) Anderson, Oskar (1887–1960) Anderson, Theodore Wilbur Anderson-Cook, Christine (1966–) de Andrade, Mariza Anscombe, Francis (1918–2001) Anselin, Luc Antonovska, Svetlana (1952–2016) Armitage, Peter (1924–2024) Armstrong, Margaret Arrow, Kenneth Ash, Arlene Ashby, Deborah (1959–) Asher, Jana Ashley-Cooper, Anthony Austin, Oscar Phelps Ayres, Leonard Porter == B == Backer, Julie E. (1890–1977) Bahadur, Raghu Raj (1924–1997) Bahn, Anita K.


id: list-of-statisticians-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_statisticians-1.md
category: reference
title: List of statisticians
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_statisticians
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:44.303512+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-statisticians-20260505-0
summary:
== F == Fabri, Johann Ernst Fallati, Johannes Fan, Jianqing Farr, William (1807–1883) Farrer, Thomas Fechner, Gustav (1801–1887) Federer, Walter T. (1915-2008) Fellegi, Ivan (1935–) Feller, William Fernique, Xavier Fienberg, Stephen Finetti, Bruno de (1906–1985) Finlaison, John Finney, D. J. (1917–2018) Fisher, Irving (1867–1947) Fisher, Sir Ronald A. (1890–1962) Fitz-Gibbon, Carol (1938–2017) Fix, Evelyn (1904–1965) Fleetwood, William (1656–1723) Fleiss, Joseph L. (1937–2003) Flournoy, Nancy (1947–) Flux, A. William Foot, David Fowler, Henry Fox, John (1945–) Frankel, Lester Franscini, Stefano Freedman, David A. Freedman, Ronald Friedman, Milton Frigessi, Arnoldo di Rattalma (1959–) Frühwirth-Schnatter, Sylvia (1959–) Fu, Rongwei Fuentes, Montserrat Furlong, Cathy == G == Gage, Linda Gain, Anil Kumar (1919–1978) Gallant, A. Ronald Gallup, George (1901–1984) Galton, Francis (1822–1911) Gantert, Nina Gardner, Martha M. Garfield, Joan Gauquelin, Michel Gauss, Johann Carl Friedrich (1777–1855) Geary, Roy C. Geer, Sara van de (1958–) Geiringer, Hilda (1893–1973) Geisser, Seymour (1929–2004) Gel, Yulia Geller, Nancy (1944–) Gelman, Andrew (1965–) Geman, Donald (1943–) Genest, Christian (1957–) Geppert, Maria-Pia (1907–1997) Ghazzali, Nadia (1961–) Ghosh, Jayanta Kumar Ghysels, Eric Gibbons, Jean D. (1938–) Giblin, Lyndhurst (1872–1951) Giffen, Robert (1837–1910) Gijbels, Irène Gilbert, Ethel Gile, Krista Gilford, Dorothy M. (1919–2014) Gill, Richard D. (1951–) Gini, Corrado (1884–1965) Girolami, Mark


id: list-of-statisticians-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_statisticians-2.md
category: reference
title: List of statisticians
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_statisticians
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:44.303512+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-statisticians-20260505-0
summary:
== N == Nair, Vijayan N. Nason, Guy Neill, Charles P. Nelder, John (1924–2010) Nesbitt, Cecil J. Newmarch, William (1820–1882) Neyman, Jerzy (1894–1981) Nightingale, Florence (1820–1910) Niyogi, Partha (1967–2010) Noether, Gottfried E. Nordling, Carl O. Norwood, Janet L. (1923–2015) Notestein, Frank W. == O == Ogburn, William Fielding Olshansky, S. Jay Onicescu, Octav Onslow, William Orshansky, Mollie == P == Paine, George Pakington, John Panaretos, John Parzen, Emanuel (1929–2016) Pearl, Raymond Pearson, Egon (1895–1980) Pearson, Karl (1857–1936) Peirce, Charles Sanders Pereira, Basilio de Bragança Pena, Daniel Peto, Julian Peto, Richard Petty, William (1623–1687) Petty-Fitzmaurice, Henry Piekałkiewicz, Jan Pillai, K. C. Sreedharan Pillai, Vijayan K Pink, Brian Pitman, E. J. G. (1897–1993) Plackett, Robin Playfair, William (1759–1823) Pleszczyńska, Elżbieta Pocock, Stuart Poisson, Siméon Denis (1781–1840) Pollak, Henry O. Polson, Nicholas Preston, Samuel H. Price, Richard Priestley, Maurice Princet, Maurice Proschan, Frank (1921–2003) Punnett, Reginald Pólya, George (1887–1985) Puri, Madan Lal (1929–) == Q == Quetelet, Adolphe (1796–1874) Qazi Motahar Hossain (1897–1981) == R == Chand Rattan (1955–) Raftery, Adrian Raghavarao, D. Raiffa, Howard Ralescu, Stefan (1952–) Rao, C.R. (1920–2023) Rasch, Georg (1901–1980) Redington, Frank Reid, Nancy Reiersøl, Olav (1908–2001) Rhodes, E. C. Rice, Thomas Spring Richardson, Sylvia Rickman, John Ripley, Brian


id: list-of-stochastic-processes-topics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_stochastic_processes_topics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of stochastic processes topics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_stochastic_processes_topics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:45.551061+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-stochastic-processes-topics-20260505-0
summary:
In the mathematics of probability, a stochastic process is a random function. In practical applications, the domain over which the function is defined is a time interval (time series) or a region of space (random field). Familiar examples of time series include stock market and exchange rate fluctuations, signals such as speech, audio and video; medical data such as a patient's EKG, EEG, blood pressure or temperature; and random movement such as Brownian motion or random walks. Examples of random fields include static images, random topographies (landscapes), or composition variations of an inhomogeneous material. == Stochastic processes topics == This list is currently incomplete. See also Category:Stochastic processes Basic affine jump diffusion Bernoulli process: discrete-time processes with two possible states. Bernoulli schemes: discrete-time processes with N possible states; every stationary process in N outcomes is a Bernoulli scheme, and vice versa. Bessel process Birth–death process Branching process Branching random walk Brownian bridge Brownian motion Chinese restaurant process CIR process Continuous stochastic process Cox process Dirichlet processes Finite-dimensional distribution First passage time Galton–Watson process Gamma process Gaussian process – a process where all linear combinations of coordinates are normally distributed random variables. Gauss–Markov process (cf. below) GenI process Girsanov's theorem Hawkes


id: list-of-global-sustainability-statistics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_global_sustainability_statistics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of global sustainability statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_global_sustainability_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:46.742395+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-global-sustainability-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
Global sustainability statistics are benchmarks for measuring the status of sustainability parameters. The following agencies provide baseline data for sustainability governance. They are just one form of data used for sustainability accounting and are valuable for assessing trends and measuring progress. This list provides sources of statistics at the global level of governance only. General lists Meadows, D.H., Randers, J. & Meadows, D.L. 2004. Limits to growth: the 30-year update. Chelsea Green Publishing Company, White River Junction, USA. The CIAs World Fact Book World Data Center United Nations Environmental Indicators Also publications on environmental statistics and statistical methods. Water (water resources, water supply industry, waste water) Air pollution (SO2 & NOx), Climate change (greenhouse gas emissions; by sector(absolute & percentage); CO2 emissions; CH4 & N2O emissions) Waste (municipal waste collection, treatment, hazardous waste) Land use (total land area by country, forest area by country, agricultural area by country). European Commission (Eurostat) Biodiversity Groombridge, B & Jenkins, M.D. 2002. World Atlas of Biodiversity. UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre Energy BP Statistical Review of World Energy The International Energy Agency. Key World Energy Statistics UN Energy Statistics Database Fisheries UN Food and Agriculture Organization Forests UN Food and Agriculture Organization Fertilizer International


id: list-of-textbooks-in-thermodynamics-and-statistical-mechanics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_textbooks_in_thermodynamics_and_statistical_mechanics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of textbooks in thermodynamics and statistical mechanics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_textbooks_in_thermodynamics_and_statistical_mechanics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:47.896132+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-textbooks-in-thermodynamics-and-statistical-mechanics-20260505-0
summary:
A list of notable textbooks in thermodynamics and statistical mechanics, arranged by category and date. == Only or mainly thermodynamics == Fermi, Enrico (1956). Thermodynamics (New ed.). Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0486603612. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) Van Ness, H. C. (1983). Understanding Thermodynamics. Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0486632773. Callen, Herbert (1985). Thermodynamics and an Introduction to Thermostatistics (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-86256-8. Finn, C. B. P. (1993). Thermal Physics (2nd ed.). United States of America: CRC Press. ISBN 0-7487-4379-0. Zemansky, Mark W.; Dittman, Richard (1997). Heat and Thermodynamics: An Intermediate Textbook (7th ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-070-17059-9. Hanson, Robert M.; Green, Susan (2008). Introduction to Molecular Thermodynamics. University Science Books. ISBN 978-1891389498, 978-1-938787-63-8. Pokrovskii, Vladimir (2020). Thermodynamics of Complex Systems: Principles and applications. IOP Publishing, Bristol, UK. ISBN 978-0-7503-3451-8. == Both thermodynamics and statistical mechanics == Reif, Frederick (1965). Fundamentals of Statistical and Thermal Physics. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-051800-9. Sears, Francis W. (1975). Thermodynamics, Kinetic Theory, and Statistical Thermodynamics. Addison Wesley. ISBN 020106894X. Kittel, Charles (1969). Thermal Physics. Chichester: Wiley. ISBN 0-471-49030-X. 2e Kittel, Charles; and Kroemer, Herbert (1980) New York: W.H. Freeman ISBN 0-7167-1088-9 Mandl, Franz (1971). Statistical physics. Chichester: Wiley. ISBN 0-471-56658-6. 2e (1988)


id: timeline-of-probability-and-statistics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_probability_and_statistics-0.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of probability and statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_probability_and_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:49.098176+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-probability-and-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a timeline of probability and statistics. == Before 1600 == 8th century – Al-Khalil, an Arab mathematician studying cryptology, wrote the Book of Cryptographic Messages. The work has been lost, but based on the reports of later authors, it contained the first use of permutations and combinations to list all possible Arabic words with and without vowels. 9th century - Al-Kindi was the first to use frequency analysis to decipher encrypted messages and developed the first code breaking algorithm. He wrote a book entitled Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages, containing detailed discussions on statistics and cryptanalysis. Al-Kindi also made the earliest known use of statistical inference. 13th century – An important contribution of Ibn Adlan was on sample size for use of frequency analysis. 13th century – the first known calculation of the probability for throwing 3 dices is published in the Latin poem De vetula. 1560s (published 1663) – Cardano's Liber de ludo aleae attempts to calculate probabilities of dice throws. He demonstrates the efficacy of defining odds as the ratio of favourable to unfavourable outcomes (which implies that the probability of an event is given by the ratio of favourable outcomes to the total number


id: list-of-symbols-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_symbols-0.md
category: reference
title: List of symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:51.720779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
Many (but not all) graphemes that are part of a writing system that encodes a full spoken language are included in the Unicode standard, which also includes graphical symbols. See: Language code List of Unicode characters List of writing systems Punctuation List of typographical symbols and punctuation marks The remainder of this list focuses on graphemes not part of spoken language-encoding systems. == Basic communication == ⃠ — No symbol Character Circled dot Emoji ☺ — Smiley ✓ — checkmark (UK: tick) Harvey balls – Graphic symbols used to compare quality ☆ — Star (polygon) I - signal 0 - lack of signal, hence: [I]/[0] == Scientific and engineering symbols == Alchemical symbols Astronomical symbols Planet symbols Chemical symbols Electronic symbol (for circuit diagrams, etc.) Engineering drawing symbols Energy Systems Language Hazard symbols List of mathematical constants (typically letters and compound symbols) Glossary of mathematical symbols List of physical constants (typically letters and compound symbols) List of common physics notations (typically letters used as variable names in equations) Rod of Asclepius / Caduceus as a symbol of medicine == Consumer symbols == Various currency signs (sublist) === Navigational symbols === Traffic signs, including warning signs contain many specialized symbols (see


id: list-of-symbols-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_symbols-1.md
category: reference
title: List of symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:51.720779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
=== S === Sacred Chao Sacred Heart Saint symbolism Scientology symbols Shield of the Trinity Sigil Sigillum Dei Sigil of Baphomet Sigils of demons Skull and crossbones, Jolly Roger Solar symbols Radiate crown Sunburst Sun of May Vergina Sun Winged sun Soyombo symbol Star Star and crescent Star of David Starburst Star polygon Five-pointed star Arabic star Sun cross Swastika Square and Compasses === T === Taiji Taegeuk Taijitu Tanit symbol Tarot iconography Tattva symbols Tetractys Thor's Hammer Tilaka Tomoe Torii Three hares Tree of Life Tree of Peace Trefoil Trimurti Triple Goddess Triple spiral Triquetra Triratna/Three Jewels Triskelion Tudor Rose Tursaansydän Turtle === U === Unicursal hexagram Urantia symbols === V === Vajra Valknut Vande matram Vesica piscis === W === White buffalo White Rose of York White stag Wreath === Y === Yantra Yin-yang Yoni == Heraldic symbols == Charge (heraldry) Coat of arms List of coats of arms Mon (emblem) Mullet Monogram Flag Vexillology / Glossary of vexillology Maritime flag Insignia == Historical == Gediminid House mark Pūloʻuloʻu Rurikid Tamga == Sports and games == Chess symbols in Unicode Olympic symbols Paralympic symbols == Political symbols == Anarchist symbolism Communist symbolism Fascist symbolism Flash and circle Francoist


id: alchemical-symbol-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemical_symbol-0.md
category: reference
title: Alchemical symbol
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemical_symbol
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:52.883968+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alchemical-symbol-20260505-0
summary:
Alchemical symbols were used to denote chemical elements and compounds, as well as alchemical apparatus and processes, until the 18th century. Although notation was partly standardized, style and symbol varied between alchemists. Lüdy-Tenger published an inventory of 3,695 symbols and variants, and that was not exhaustive, omitting for example many of the symbols used by Isaac Newton. This page therefore lists only the most common symbols. == Three primes == According to Paracelsus (1493–1541), the three primes or tria prima – of which material substances are immediately composed – are: Sulfur or soul, the principle of combustibility: 🜍 () Mercury or spirit, the principle of fusibility and volatility: ☿ () Salt or body, the principle of non-combustibility and non-volatility: 🜔 () == Four basic elements == Western alchemy makes use of the four classical elements. The symbols used for these are: Air 🜁 () Earth 🜃 () Fire 🜂 () Water 🜄 () == Seven planetary metals == The seven metals known since Classical times in Europe were associated with the seven classical planets; this figured heavily in alchemical symbolism. The exact correlation varied over time, and in early centuries bronze or electrum were sometimes found instead of mercury, or


id: list-of-animals-representing-first-level-administrative-country-subdivisions-20260505-0
category: reference
title: List of animals representing first-level administrative country subdivisions
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:54.128835+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-animals-representing-first-level-administrative-country-subdivisions-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_animals_representing_first-level_administrative_country_subdivisions-0.md

summary:
This is a list of animals that represent first-level administrative country subdivisions. == List by country == === Australia === === Canada === === People's Republic of China === === India === === Indonesia === === Italy === === Japan === === Netherlands === === Malaysia === === Mexico === === Pakistan === === Philippines === === Romania === === South Korea === === Spain === === Sweden === === Taiwan === === United Kingdom === === United States === == See also == Floral emblem List of national birds National emblem == References ==

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_animals_representing_first-level_administrative_country_subdivisions


id: astronomical-symbols-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_symbols-0.md
category: reference
title: Astronomical symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:55.281815+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronomical-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
Astronomical symbols are abstract pictorial symbols used to represent astronomical objects, theoretical constructs and observational events in European astronomy. The earliest forms of these symbols appear in Greek papyrus texts of late antiquity. The Byzantine codices in which many Greek papyrus texts were preserved continued and extended the inventory of astronomical symbols. New symbols have been invented to represent many planets and minor planets discovered in the 18th to the 21st centuries. These symbols were once commonly used by professional astronomers, amateur astronomers, alchemists, and astrologers. While they are still commonly used in almanacs and astrological publications, their occurrence in published research and texts on astronomy is relatively infrequent, with some exceptions such as the Sun and Earth symbols appearing in astronomical constants, and certain zodiacal signs used to represent the solstices and equinoxes. Unicode has encoded many of these symbols, mainly in the Miscellaneous Symbols, Miscellaneous Symbols and Arrows, Miscellaneous Symbols and Pictographs, Alchemical Symbols, and Miscellaneous Symbols Supplement blocks. == Sun and Moon == The use of astronomical symbols for the Sun and Moon dates to antiquity. The forms of the symbols that appear in the original papyrus texts of Greek horoscopes are a circle with one ray


id: astronomical-symbols-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_symbols-1.md
category: reference
title: Astronomical symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:55.281815+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronomical-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
Following the discovery of Ceres in 1801 by the astronomer and Catholic priest Giuseppe Piazzi, a group of astronomers ratified the name, which Piazzi had proposed. At that time, the sickle was chosen as a symbol of the planet. The symbol for 2 Pallas, the spear of Pallas Athena, was invented by Baron Franz Xaver von Zach, who organized a group of twenty-four astronomers to search for a planet between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. The symbol was introduced by von Zach in 1802. In a letter to von Zach, discoverer Heinrich Wilhelm Matthäus Olbers (who had discovered and named Pallas) expressed his approval of the proposed symbol, but wished that the handle of the sickle of Ceres had been adorned with a pommel instead of a crossbar, to better differentiate it from the sign of Venus. German astronomer Karl Ludwig Harding created the symbol for 3 Juno. Harding, who discovered this asteroid in 1804, proposed the name Juno and the use of a scepter topped with a star as its astronomical symbol. The symbol for 4 Vesta was invented by German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss. Olbers, having previously discovered and named 2 Pallas, gave Gauss the honor of


id: astronomical-symbols-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_symbols-2.md
category: reference
title: Astronomical symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:55.281815+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronomical-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
All these symbols are rare or obsolete in modern astronomy, though NASA has used Ceres' symbol when describing the dwarf planets, and Psyche's symbol may have influenced the design of the insignia for the Psyche mission. The major use of symbols for minor planets today is by astrologers, who have invented symbols for many more objects, though they sometimes use symbols that differ from the historical symbols for the same bodies. The symbol for 99942 Apophis, a near-Earth asteroid discovered in 2004 that attracted interest when initial observations suggested a significant probability of an Earth impact in 2029 (a possibility since eliminated), is much later. It was designed by Denis Moskowitz, who also designed many of the dwarf-planet symbols, at a time when asteroid symbols had become extremely rare in astronomy. Nonetheless, its inclusion of a star is meant to recall the 19th-century asteroid symbols. === Asteroid table === == Trans-Neptunian objects == Pluto's name and symbol were announced by the discoverers on May 1, 1930. The symbol, a monogram of the letters PL, could be interpreted to stand for Pluto or for Percival Lowell, the astronomer who initiated Lowell Observatory's search for a planet beyond the orbit of Neptune.


id: list-of-common-astronomy-symbols-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_astronomy_symbols-0.md
category: reference
title: List of common astronomy symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_astronomy_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:56.445064+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-astronomy-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
This is a compilation of symbols commonly used in astronomy, particularly professional astronomy. == Age (stellar) == τ - age == Astrometry parameters == Astrometry parameters Rv - radial velocity cz - apparent radial velocity z - Redshift μ - proper motion π - parallax J - epoch α - Right Ascension δ - Declination λ - Ecliptic longitude β - Ecliptic latitude l - Galactic longitude b - Galactic latitude Δ - Distance from Earth ø - Geographical or astronomical latitude == Cosmological parameters == Cosmological parameters h - dimensionless Hubble parameter H0 - Hubble constant Λ - cosmological constant Ω - density parameter ρ - density ρc - critical density z - redshift == Distance description == Distance description for orbital and non-orbital parameters: d - distance d - in km = kilometer d - in mi = mile d - in AU = astronomical unit d - in ly = light-year d - in pc = parsec d - in kpc = kiloparsec (1000 pc) DL - luminosity distance, obtaining an objects distance using only visual aspects == Galaxy comparison == Galaxy type and spectral comparison: see galaxy morphological classification == Luminosity comparison == Luminosity comparison: LS,


id: list-of-symbols-of-states-and-territories-of-australia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_symbols_of_states_and_territories_of_Australia-0.md
category: reference
title: List of symbols of states and territories of Australia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_symbols_of_states_and_territories_of_Australia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:57.640457+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-symbols-of-states-and-territories-of-australia-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of the symbols of the states and territories of Australia. Each state and territory has a unique set of official symbols, as well as the national symbols of Australia. == States == == See also == Australian state colours National colours of Australia National symbols of Australia List of Australian bird emblems List of Australian mammal emblems States and territories of Australia == Notes == == References ==


id: list-of-canadian-provincial-and-territorial-symbols-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Canadian_provincial_and_territorial_symbols-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Canadian provincial and territorial symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Canadian_provincial_and_territorial_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:26:58.889270+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-canadian-provincial-and-territorial-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of the symbols of the provinces and territories of Canada. Each province and territory has a unique set of official symbols. == Provinces and territories == == See also == Canada portal Coat of arms of Canada List of Canadian flags National symbols of Canada Canadian Red Ensign Regional tartans of Canada == References ==


id: symbols-of-alberta-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_Alberta-0.md
category: reference
title: Symbols of Alberta
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_Alberta
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:00.046109+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: symbols-of-alberta-20260505-0
summary:
Alberta is one of Canada's provinces, and has established several official emblems that reflect the province's history, its natural and diverse landscapes, and its people. == Official symbols of Alberta == == De facto symbols == While not officially adopted through legislation as emblems by the government of Alberta, these places and things are popularly associated with (hence could be considered symbols of) the province. == See also == List of Canadian provincial and territorial symbols Canadian royal symbols == References ==


id: symbols-of-british-columbia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_British_Columbia-0.md
category: reference
title: Symbols of British Columbia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_British_Columbia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:01.216813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: symbols-of-british-columbia-20260505-0
summary:
British Columbia is Canada's westernmost province, and has established several provincial symbols. == Official symbols == == Other symbols == == References ==


id: symbols-of-manitoba-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_Manitoba-0.md
category: reference
title: Symbols of Manitoba
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_Manitoba
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:02.508272+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: symbols-of-manitoba-20260505-0
summary:
There are several symbols of Manitoba, one of the ten provinces of Canada. These symbols are designated by The Coat of Arms, Emblems and the Manitoba Tartan Act, which came into force on Feb 1, 1988. == Symbols == == References ==


id: symbols-of-new-brunswick-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_New_Brunswick-0.md
category: reference
title: Symbols of New Brunswick
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_New_Brunswick
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:03.700055+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: symbols-of-new-brunswick-20260505-0
summary:
New Brunswick is one of Canada's provinces, and has established several provincial symbols. == Official symbols == == References ==


id: symbols-of-newfoundland-and-labrador-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_Newfoundland_and_Labrador-0.md
category: reference
title: Symbols of Newfoundland and Labrador
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_Newfoundland_and_Labrador
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:04.844297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: symbols-of-newfoundland-and-labrador-20260505-0
summary:
Newfoundland and Labrador is one of Canada's provinces, and has established several official symbols. Labrador, the mainland portion of the province, has its own distinct cultural identity and has established several unofficial symbols for itself. == Official symbols of Newfoundland and Labrador == == Unofficial symbols of Labrador == == References ==


id: symbols-of-nova-scotia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_Nova_Scotia-0.md
category: reference
title: Symbols of Nova Scotia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_Nova_Scotia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:06.005297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: symbols-of-nova-scotia-20260505-0
summary:
Nova Scotia is one of Canada's provinces, and has established several provincial symbols. == Symbols == == References ==


id: symbols-of-ontario-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_Ontario-0.md
category: reference
title: Symbols of Ontario
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_Ontario
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:07.259234+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: symbols-of-ontario-20260505-0
summary:
Ontario is a province of Canada that has established several official emblems and symbols to reflect the province's history, natural resources, and its people. In addition to official symbols, several other emblems and symbols exist that are commonly associated with the province. == Official symbols == Several emblems and symbols are used to officially represent the province, established through royal warrant or through the Legislative Assembly of Ontario. They include: == Other symbols == Several emblems and symbols exist that are commonly associated with province. They include: === Symbols of the lieutenant governor of Ontario === There exists several official emblems and symbols to represent the lieutenant governor of Ontario. == References ==


id: symbols-of-prince-edward-island-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_Prince_Edward_Island-0.md
category: reference
title: Symbols of Prince Edward Island
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_Prince_Edward_Island
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:08.386957+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: symbols-of-prince-edward-island-20260505-0
summary:
Prince Edward Island is one of Canada's provinces, and has established several provincial symbols. == Symbols == == References ==


id: symbols-of-quebec-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_Quebec-0.md
category: reference
title: Symbols of Quebec
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_Quebec
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:09.542252+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: symbols-of-quebec-20260505-0
summary:
The people and province of Quebec have created and established several symbols throughout Quebec's history to represent the collective identity of its residents. Many of Quebec's symbols are related to its history, to Catholicism, to Quebec's winters and/or the flora and fauna of Quebec. The motif most commonly seen in Quebec's various symbols is the fleur de lys, which is associated with the French language and New France. == Symbols == The fleur-de-lis, one of Quebec's most common symbols, is an ancient symbol of the French monarchy and was first shown in Quebec on the shores of Gaspésie in 1534 when Jacques Cartier arrived in Quebec for the first time. Saint-Jean-Baptiste, the patron saint of Canadiens, is honoured every 24 June during Saint-Jean-Baptiste Day. The expression La belle province is still used as a nickname for the province. Finally, the Great Seal of Quebec is used to authenticate documents issued by the government of Quebec. === Coat of arms === The coat of arms of Quebec dates back to 1868, shortly after the creation of Quebec as a province of Canada. The arms were granted by a royal warrant issued by Queen Victoria. The arms were adopted in their current


id: symbols-of-saskatchewan-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_Saskatchewan-0.md
category: reference
title: Symbols of Saskatchewan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_Saskatchewan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:10.719385+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: symbols-of-saskatchewan-20260505-0
summary:
Saskatchewan is one of Canada's provinces, and has established several provincial symbols. == Symbols == == References ==


id: symbols-of-the-northwest-territories-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_the_Northwest_Territories-0.md
category: reference
title: Symbols of the Northwest Territories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_the_Northwest_Territories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:11.883322+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: symbols-of-the-northwest-territories-20260505-0
summary:
The Northwest Territories, one of Canada's territories, has established several territorial symbols. == Symbols == == References ==


id: symbols-of-yukon-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_Yukon-0.md
category: reference
title: Symbols of Yukon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_Yukon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:13.027601+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: symbols-of-yukon-20260505-0
summary:
Yukon is one of Canada's territories, and has established several territorial symbols. == Official symbols == == Great Seal == Like Nunavut, Yukon does not have an official Great Seal. == References ==


id: chess-annotation-symbols-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chess_annotation_symbols-0.md
category: reference
title: Chess annotation symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chess_annotation_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:14.184479+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chess-annotation-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
When annotating chess games, commentators frequently use widely recognized annotation symbols. Question marks and exclamation points that denote a move as bad or good are ubiquitous in chess literature. Some publications intended for an international audience, such as the Chess Informant, have a wide range of additional symbols that transcend language barriers. The common symbols for evaluating the merits of a move are "??", "?", "?!", "!?", "!", and "!!". The chosen symbol is appended to the text describing the move (e.g. Re7? or Kh1!?); see Algebraic chess notation. Use of these annotation symbols is subjective, as different annotators use the same symbols differently or for a different reason. == Evaluation symbols == === Moves === Move evaluation symbols, by decreasing severity or increasing effectiveness of the move: ==== ?? (Blunder) ==== The double question mark "??" indicates a blunder, a critically bad mistake. Typical moves that receive double question marks are those that overlook a tactic that wins substantial material, overlook a checkmate, or miss a winning move after a severe mistake by the opponent. A "??"-worthy move may result in an immediately lost position, turn a won position into a draw, lose an important piece or otherwise severely


id: chess-annotation-symbols-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chess_annotation_symbols-1.md
category: reference
title: Chess annotation symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chess_annotation_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:14.184479+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chess-annotation-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
==== Parentheses ==== Sometimes annotation symbols are put in parentheses, e.g. "(?)", "(!)". Different writers have used these in different ways. Ludek Pachman used "(?)" to indicate a move that he considered inferior but that he did not wish to comment on further; Simon Webb used it to indicate a move that is objectively sound, but was in his opinion a poor psychological choice; and Robert Hübner (see below) used it to indicate a move that is inaccurate and makes the player's task more difficult. When put in parentheses, "(!)" usually indicates a subtlety which demonstrates the player's skill rather than a spectacular move. == Formalized definitions == Some writers choose to take a less subjective or more formalized approach to these symbols. === Nunn's convention === In his 1992 book Secrets of Rook Endings and other books in the series (Secrets of Minor-Piece Endings and Secrets of Pawnless Endings), John Nunn uses these symbols in a more specific way in the context of endgames where the optimal line of play can be determined with certainty: This convention has been used in some later works, such as Fundamental Chess Endings and Secrets of Pawn Endings by Karsten Müller and Frank


id: chess-symbols-in-unicode-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chess_symbols_in_Unicode-0.md
category: reference
title: Chess symbols in Unicode
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chess_symbols_in_Unicode
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:15.379486+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chess-symbols-in-unicode-20260505-0
summary:
Unicode has text representations of chess pieces. These allow to produce the symbols using plain text without the need of a graphics interface. The inclusion of the chess symbols enables the use of figurine algebraic notation, which replaces the letter that stands for a piece by its symbol, e.g. ♛f1 instead of Qf1. This also allows the play of chess games in text-only environments, such as the terminal. == Unicode blocks == Unicode 15.1 specifies a total of 110 spread across two blocks. The standard set of chess pieces—king, queen, rook, bishop, knight, or pawn, with white and black variants—were included in the block Miscellaneous Symbols. In Unicode 12.0, the Chess Symbols block (U+1FA00–U+1FA6F) was allocated for inclusion of extra chess piece representations. This includes fairy chess pieces, such as rotated pieces, neutral (neither white nor black) pieces, knighted pieces, equihoppers, as well as xiangqi pieces. In 2024, four shatranj pieces were provisionally assigned for a future version in the range U+1FA54–U+1FA57. This was completed in Unicode 17.0. === Miscellaneous symbols === === Chess symbols === == Emoji == In Unicode 11.0, an emojified representation of the character U+265F ♟ BLACK CHESS PAWN was added. As of Unicode 15.1, only


id: county-flowers-of-the-united-kingdom-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_flowers_of_the_United_Kingdom-0.md
category: reference
title: County flowers of the United Kingdom
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_flowers_of_the_United_Kingdom
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:16.650902+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: county-flowers-of-the-united-kingdom-20260505-0
summary:
In 2002 Plantlife conducted a "County Flowers" public survey to assign flowers to each of the counties of the United Kingdom and the Isle of Man. The results of this campaign designated a single plant species to a "county or metropolitan area" in the UK and Isle of Man. Some English counties already had flowers traditionally associated with them before 2002, and which were different from those assigned to them by Plantlife, including the white rose for Yorkshire (assigned the harebell), the poppy for Norfolk (assigned the Alexanders), and the cowslip for Essex (assigned the poppy). Some flowers were assigned to multiple counties. == England == == Isle of Man == == Northern Ireland == == Scotland == == Wales == == Notes == == References == === Bibliography === The list of county flowers above is taken from the county flowers pages at Plantlife's website. County statuses are taken from: Stace, C. A., R. G. Ellis, D. H. Kent and D. J. McCosh (2003) Vice-county Census Catalogue of the Vascular Plants of Great Britain Botanical Society of the British Isles (for British counties) Source to be determined for Northern Ireland


id: esperanto-symbols-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esperanto_symbols-0.md
category: reference
title: Esperanto symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esperanto_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:18.850252+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: esperanto-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
Esperanto symbols, primarily the Esperanto flag, have seen much consistency over the time of Esperanto's existence (namely in the consistent usage of the colour green), though a few variations in exact flag patterning and symbology exist. The main flag of Esperanto, featuring the Verda Stelo ('Green Star'), was adopted in 1905 for use as a symbol of mutual recognition among Esperantists, and is used by most Esperantists. As an alternative to the flag, the jubilea simbolo ('jubilee symbol') was proposed in 1987. == History == === Verda Stelo === Since the earliest days of Esperanto, the colour green has been used as a symbol of mutual recognition, and it appears prominently in all Esperanto symbols. In a letter to The British Esperantist in 1911, L. L. Zamenhof, the creator of Esperanto, wrote: "It seems to me, that my attention was drawn to the color green by Mr. Richard H. Geoghegan and from that time I began to publish all of my works with green covers . . . Looking at one of my pamphlets that I had entirely by chance printed with a green cover, he pointed out that this was the color of his homeland, Ireland; at that time


id: european-hazard-symbols-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_hazard_symbols-0.md
category: reference
title: European hazard symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_hazard_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:20.093948+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: european-hazard-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
European hazard symbols for chemicals are pictograms defined by the European Union for labelling chemical packaging (for storage and workplace) and containers (for transportation). They are standardised currently by the CLP/GHS classification. == GHS hazard pictograms == The European Union CLP Regulation (for "Classification, Labelling and Packaging") was introduced as EC Regulation 1272/2008. It is based on the GHS system, to secure for "physical, health and environment hazards". The European Agreement concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road (ADR) fixed harmonised pictograms for transportation. Vehicles carrying dangerous goods have to be fitted with orange signs, where the lower number identifies the substance, while the upper number is a key for the threat it may pose. == Chemical warning signage == Directive 92/58/EEC provides several safety signs for identifying dangerous materials and areas where they are handled and stored. == Former hazard pictograms (1967–2017) == The previous hazard symbols for chemicals, were introduced in the Directive Directive 67/548/EEC, in 1967, and required to be adopted no later than 1 January 1970. The symbols were also included as a part of Directive 1999/45/EC. The symbols were replaced from 1 December 2010 to 1 June 2017, via a gradual phaseout. After


id: list-of-symbols-designated-by-the-adl-as-hate-symbols-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_symbols_designated_by_the_ADL_as_hate_symbols-0.md
category: reference
title: List of symbols designated by the ADL as hate symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_symbols_designated_by_the_ADL_as_hate_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:21.308857+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-symbols-designated-by-the-adl-as-hate-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of hate symbols, including acronyms, numbers, phrases, logos, flags, gestures and other miscellaneous symbols used for hateful purposes, according to the Anti-Defamation League in their "Hate on Display" database. Some of these items have been appropriated by hate groups and may have other, non-hate-group-related meanings, including anti-racist meanings. == Acronyms == == Numerical == == Phrases == == Hate group logos == == Flags == == Gestures == == Miscellaneous symbols == == See also == Armanen runes Cross burning Far-right subcultures Fascist symbolism List of fascist movements List of Ku Klux Klan organizations List of neo-Nazi organizations List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as hate groups List of white nationalist organizations Nazi symbolism The modern Federal Republic of Germany's Strafgesetzbuch section 86a == References == Informational notes a.^^^^This symbol, while sometimes used as a hate symbol, is also used as a religious symbol for many pagans, and should not be assumed to be a hate symbol in all contexts. Citations


id: list-of-oldest-heraldry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_oldest_heraldry-0.md
category: reference
title: List of oldest heraldry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_oldest_heraldry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:22.514906+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-oldest-heraldry-20260505-0
summary:
Heraldry developed in the High Middle Ages based on earlier traditions of visual identification by means of seals, field signs, emblems used on coins, etc. Notably, lions that would subsequently appear in 12th-century coats of arms of European nobility have pre-figurations in the animal style of ancient art (specifically the style of Scythian art as it developed from c. the 7th century BC). The origin of the term heraldry itself (Middle English heraldy, Old French hiraudie) can be placed in the context of the early forms of the knightly tournaments in the 12th century. Combatants wore full armour, and identified themselves by wearing their emblems on their shields. A herald (Old French heraut, from a Frankish *hariwald "commander of an army") was an officer who would announce the competitors. The display of heraldic emblems on shields is an innovation of the 12th century. The kite shields shown in the Bayeux Tapestry (c. 1070) sometimes show simple cross or spiral ornaments, but no heraldic emblems. Similarly, Frankish or German round shields of the 11th century (Ottonian, Salian) are sometimes depicted with simple geometric ornamentation, but not with figurative emblems. Early mention of heraldic shields in Middle High German literature likewise dates


id: list-of-japanese-map-symbols-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Japanese_map_symbols-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Japanese map symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Japanese_map_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:23.725757+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-japanese-map-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of symbols appearing on Japanese maps. These symbols are called chizukigou (地図記号) in the Japanese language. They are standardized by the Geospatial Information Authority of Japan (GSI) and the Association of Radio Industries and Businesses (ARIB). These two sources generally agree, but they have alternative forms for a few symbols. Because these symbols were developed within a specifically Japanese cultural setting, alternative symbols have been developed for some meanings that are more consistent with worldwide symbol usage or more obvious in what they depict. == Partial list of symbols for users with visual impairment == Official symbols according to the conventions of the Geographical Survey Institute of Japan appear with a circle below. == See also == Key (map) – Graphic depiction of a geographic phenomenonPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets List of Japanese typographic symbols Geospatial Information Authority of Japan – Institution responsible for surveying and mapping the national land of Japan (GSI) == References == == External links == Japanese map symbols List of symbols (in Japanese) (Translate to English: Google, Bing, Yandex) Children's list from the GSI (in Japanese) (Translate to English: Google, Bing, Yandex) This is a very good reference, it


id: list-of-japanese-typographic-symbols-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Japanese_typographic_symbols-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Japanese typographic symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Japanese_typographic_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:38.635191+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-japanese-typographic-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
This article lists Japanese typographic symbols that are not included in kana or kanji groupings. == Repetition marks == == Brackets and quotation marks == == Phonetic marks == == Punctuation marks == == Other special marks == == Organization-specific symbols == == See also == Japanese map symbols Japanese punctuation Emoji, which originated in Japanese mobile phone culture == References ==


id: lgbtq-symbols-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_symbols-0.md
category: reference
title: LGBTQ symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:39.994516+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lgbtq-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
Over the course of its history, the LGBTQ community has adopted certain symbols for self-identification to demonstrate unity, pride, shared values, and allegiance to one another. These symbols communicate ideas, concepts, and identity both within their communities and to mainstream culture. The two symbols most recognized internationally are the pink triangle and the rainbow flag. == Letters and glyphs == === Gender symbols === The female and male gender symbols are derived from the astronomical symbols for the planets Venus and Mars respectively. Following Linnaeus, biologists use the planetary symbol for Venus to represent the female sex, and the planetary symbol for Mars to represent the male sex. Two interlocking female symbols (⚢) represent a lesbian or the lesbian community, and two interlocking male symbols (⚣) a gay male or the gay male community. These symbols first appeared in the 1970s. The combined male-female symbol (⚦) is used to represent androgyne or transgender people; when additionally combined with the female (♀) and male (♂) symbols (⚧) it indicates gender inclusivity, though it is also used as a transgender symbol. === Lambda === In 1970, graphic designer Tom Doerr selected the lower-case Greek letter lambda (λ) to be the symbol of


id: lgbtq-symbols-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_symbols-1.md
category: reference
title: LGBTQ symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:39.994516+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lgbtq-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
The color lavender and the eponymous plant are symbols of LGBTQ identity. This has led to the naming of terms such as the "Lavender Scare" and "lavender marriage". In 19th-century England, green indicated homosexual affiliations, as popularized by homosexual author Oscar Wilde, who often wore a green carnation on his lapel, and used with the book The Green Carnation and Noël Coward's song, "We All Wear a Green Carnation" in his operetta, Bitter Sweet. According to some interpretations, American poet Walt Whitman used the sweet flag plant to represent homoerotic male love because of its phallic connotations. The term bara (薔薇), "rose" in Japanese, has historically been used in Japan as a pejorative for men who love men, roughly equivalent to the English language term "pansy". Beginning in the 1960s, the term was reappropriated by Japanese gay media: notably with the 1961 anthology Ba-ra-kei: Ordeal by Roses, a collection of semi-nude photographs of homosexual writer Yukio Mishima by photographer Eikoh Hosoe, and later with Barazoku (薔薇族; lit. "rose tribe") in 1971, the first commercially produced gay magazine in Asia. The use of the rose as a prominent symbol of love between males is supposedly derived from the Greek myth of


id: lgbtq-symbols-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_symbols-2.md
category: reference
title: LGBTQ symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:39.994516+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lgbtq-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
Daniel Thaxton and Bernie Toale created a lavender rhinoceros symbol for a public ad campaign to increase visibility for gay people in Boston helmed by Gay Media Action-Advertising; Toale said they chose a rhinoceros because "it is a much maligned and misunderstood animal" and that it was lavender because that is a mix of pink and blue, making it a symbolic merger of the feminine and masculine. (Lavender had already been used to represent LGBTQ people in other contexts). However, in May 1974, Metro Transit Advertising said its lawyers could not "determine eligibility of the public service rate" for the lavender rhinoceros ads, which tripled the cost of the ad campaign. Gay Media Action challenged this but were unsuccessful. The lavender rhinoceros symbol was seen on signs, pins, and t-shirts at the Boston Pride Parade later in 1974, and a life-sized papier-mâché lavender rhinoceros was part of the parade. Money was raised for the ads, and they began running on the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority's Green Line by December 3, 1974, and ran there until February 1975. The lavender rhinoceros continued as a symbol of the gay community, appearing at the 1976 Boston Pride Parade and on a flag that


id: lgbtq-symbols-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_symbols-3.md
category: reference
title: LGBTQ symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:39.994516+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lgbtq-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
=== Asexual and aromantic symbols === The ace ring, a black ring worn on the middle finger of one's right hand, is a way asexual people signify their asexuality. The ring is deliberately worn in a similar manner as one would a wedding ring to symbolize marriage. Use of the symbol began in 2005. The aro ring, a white ring, worn on the middle finger on one's left hand is a way aromantic people signify their identity on the aromantic spectrum. Use of the symbol began in 2015. This was chosen as the opposite of the ace ring which is a black ring worn on the right hand. Another symbol often used by aromantic people is arrows or an arrow as the word arrow is a homophone to the shortened word aro used by aromantic people to refer to themselves. ==== Ace playing cards representing asexuality ==== Ace playing cards, due to the phonetic shortening from asexual to ace, are sometimes used to represent asexuality. The ace of hearts and ace of spades are used to symbolize romantic asexuality and aromantic asexuality respectively. Also, the ace of clubs is used to symbolize gray asexuality and grayromanticism, and the ace of


id: lgbtq-symbols-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_symbols-4.md
category: reference
title: LGBTQ symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:39.994516+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lgbtq-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
In the 1950s, some lesbians in Buffalo, New York wore a blue five-pointed star tattoo on the wrist, a location that could be covered by a watch. People getting tattoos to reflect this history may choose a nautical-style star. === White knot === The white knot is a symbol of support for same-sex marriage in the United States. The white knot combines two symbols of marriage, the color white and "tying the knot," to represent support for same-sex marriage. The white knot has been worn publicly by many celebrities as a means of demonstrating solidarity with that cause. The white knot was created by Frank Voci in November 2008, in response to the passage of Proposition 8 in California and bans on same-sex marriage and denial of other civil rights for LGBTQ persons across the nation. == Flags == == Gallery == === Symbols === === Simple icons === === Flags === == Encoding == Many of these symbols have unrelated meanings in other fields, notably as alchemical symbols and planetary symbols. == See also == LGBTQ slang LGBTQ slogans Pride flag == Notes == == References == == External links == LGBTQIA+ Glossary Archived 2021-12-18 at the Wayback Machine


id: list-of-lucky-symbols-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_lucky_symbols-0.md
category: reference
title: List of lucky symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_lucky_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:41.244191+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-lucky-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
A good luck charm is an amulet or other item that is believed to bring good luck. Almost any object can be used as a charm. Coins, horseshoes and buttons are examples, as are small objects given as gifts, due to the favorable associations they make. Many souvenir shops have a range of tiny items that may be used as good luck charms. Good luck charms are often worn on the body, but not necessarily. == History == The mojo is a charm originating in African culture. It is used in voodoo ceremonies to carry several lucky objects or spells and intended to cause a specific effect. The concept is that particular objects placed in the bag and charged will create a supernatural effect for the bearer. Even today, mojo bags are still used. Europe also contributed to the concept of lucky charms. Adherents of St. Patrick (the patron saint of Ireland) adopted the four-leaf clover as a symbol of Irish luck because clovers are abundant in the hills of Ireland. == List == Luck is symbolized by a wide array of objects, numbers, symbols, plant and animal life which vary significantly in different cultures globally. The significance of each


id: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols-0.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of mathematical symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:42.516578+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
A mathematical symbol is a figure or a combination of figures that is used to represent a mathematical object, an action on mathematical objects, a relation between mathematical objects, or for structuring the other symbols that occur in a formula or a mathematical expression. More formally, a mathematical symbol is any grapheme used in mathematical formulas and expressions. As formulas and expressions are entirely constituted with symbols of various types, many symbols are needed for expressing all mathematics. The most basic symbols are the decimal digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9), and the letters of the Latin alphabet. The decimal digits are used for representing numbers through the Hindu–Arabic numeral system. Historically, upper-case letters were used for representing points in geometry, and lower-case letters were used for variables and constants. Letters are used for representing many other types of mathematical object. As the number of these types has increased, the Greek alphabet and some Hebrew letters have also come to be used. For more symbols, other typefaces are also used, mainly boldface ⁠ a {\displaystyle \mathbf {a} } ⁠, ⁠ A {\displaystyle \mathbf {A} } ⁠, ⁠ b {\displaystyle \mathbf {b} } ⁠, ⁠ B


id: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols-1.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of mathematical symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:42.516578+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
+ (plus sign) 1. Denotes addition and is read as plus; for example, 3 + 2. 2. Denotes that a number is positive and is read as plus. Redundant, but sometimes used for emphasizing that a number is positive, specially when other numbers in the context are or may be negative; for example, +2. 3. Sometimes used instead of ⊔ {\displaystyle \sqcup } for a disjoint union of sets. − (minus sign) 1. Denotes subtraction and is read as minus; for example, 3 − 2. 2. Denotes the additive inverse and is read as minus, the negative of, or the opposite of; for example, −2. 3. Also used in place of \ for denoting the set-theoretic complement; see \ in § Set theory. × (multiplication sign) 1. In elementary arithmetic, denotes multiplication, and is read as times; for example, 3 × 2. 2. In geometry and linear algebra, denotes the cross product. 3. In set theory and category theory, denotes the Cartesian product and the direct product. See also × in § Set theory. · (dot) 1. Denotes multiplication and is read as times; for example, 3 ⋅ 2. 2. In geometry and linear algebra, denotes the dot product. 3.


id: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols-2.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of mathematical symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:42.516578+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
> (greater-than sign) 1. Strict inequality between two numbers; means and is read as "greater than". 2. Commonly used for denoting any strict order. 3. Between two groups, may mean that the second one is a proper subgroup of the first one. ≤ 1. Means "less than or equal to". That is, whatever A and B are, A ≤ B is equivalent to A < B or A = B. 2. Between two groups, may mean that the first one is a subgroup of the second one. ≥ 1. Means "greater than or equal to". That is, whatever A and B are, A ≥ B is equivalent to A > B or A = B. 2. Between two groups, may mean that the second one is a subgroup of the first one. ≪ and ≫ {\displaystyle \ll {\text{ and }}\gg } 1. Means "much less than" and "much greater than". Generally, much is not formally defined, but means that the lesser quantity can be neglected with respect to the other. This is generally the case when the lesser quantity is smaller than the other by one or several orders of magnitude. 2. In measure theory, μ ≪ ν {\displaystyle \mu


id: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols-3.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of mathematical symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:42.516578+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
1. With a subscript, denotes a set complement: that is, if ⁠ B ⊆ A {\displaystyle B\subseteq A} ⁠, then ⁠ ∁ A B = A ∖ B {\displaystyle \complement _{A}B=A\setminus B} ⁠. 2. Without a subscript, denotes the absolute complement; that is, ⁠ ∁ A = ∁ U A {\displaystyle \complement A=\complement _{U}A} ⁠, where U is a set which contains all possible sets currently under consideration, implicitly defined by the context. This set U is sometimes called the universe of discourse. 3. Used as a superscript on a set symbol, denotes the complement of that set; that is, A ∁ = U ∖ A , {\displaystyle \ A^{\complement }=U\ \backslash \ A\ ,} where U is the universal set, as in definition 2. × (multiplication sign) See also × in § Arithmetic operators. 1. Denotes the Cartesian product of two sets. That is, A × B {\displaystyle A\times B} is the set formed by all pairs of an element of A and an element of B. 2. Denotes the direct product of two mathematical structures of the same type, which is the Cartesian product of the underlying sets, equipped with a structure of the same type. For example,


id: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols-4.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of mathematical symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:42.516578+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
⊥ (up tack) 1. ⊥ {\displaystyle \bot } denotes the logical predicate always false. 2. Denotes also the truth value false. 3. Sometimes denotes the bottom element of a bounded lattice (previous meanings are specific examples). 4. In cryptography often denotes an error in place of a regular value. 5. For the use as a superscript, see □⊥. 6. For the similar symbol, see ⊥ {\displaystyle \perp } . == Blackboard bold == The blackboard bold typeface is widely used for denoting the basic number systems. These systems are often also denoted by the corresponding uppercase bold letter. A clear advantage of blackboard bold is that these symbols cannot be confused with anything else. This allows using them in any area of mathematics, without having to recall their definition. For example, if one encounters R {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} } in combinatorics, one should immediately know that this denotes the real numbers, although combinatorics does not study the real numbers (but it uses them for many proofs). N {\displaystyle \mathbb {N} } Denotes the set of natural numbers { 1 , 2 , … } , {\displaystyle \{1,2,\ldots \},} or sometimes { 0 , 1 , 2 , … } .


id: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols-5.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of mathematical symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:42.516578+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
⁠∂□/∂□⁠ Partial derivative: If f ( x 1 , … , x n ) {\displaystyle f(x_{1},\ldots ,x_{n})} is a function of several variables, ∂ f ∂ x i {\displaystyle \textstyle {\frac {\partial f}{\partial x_{i}}}} is the derivative with respect to the ith variable considered as an independent variable, the other variables being considered as constants. ⁠𝛿□/𝛿□⁠ Functional derivative: If f ( y 1 , … , y n ) {\displaystyle f(y_{1},\ldots ,y_{n})} is a functional of several functions, δ f δ y i {\displaystyle \textstyle {\frac {\delta f}{\delta y_{i}}}} is the functional derivative with respect to the nth function considered as an independent variable, the other functions being considered constant. ◻ ¯ {\displaystyle {\overline {\Box }}} 1. Complex conjugate: If z is a complex number, then z ¯ {\displaystyle {\overline {z}}} is its complex conjugate. For example, a + b i ¯ = a − b i . {\displaystyle {\overline {a+bi}}=a-b\ i~.} 2. Topological closure: If S is a subset of a topological space T, then S ¯ {\displaystyle {\overline {S}}} is its topological closure, that is, the smallest closed subset of T that contains S. 3. Algebraic closure: If F is a field, then F ¯ {\displaystyle {\overline {F}}}


id: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols-6.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of mathematical symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:42.516578+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
∇2 or ∇⋅∇ Laplace operator or Laplacian: ⁠ ∂ 2 ∂ x 2 + ∂ 2 ∂ y 2 + ∂ 2 ∂ z 2 {\displaystyle \textstyle {\frac {\partial ^{2}}{\partial x^{2}}}+{\frac {\partial ^{2}}{\partial y^{2}}}+{\frac {\partial ^{2}}{\partial z^{2}}}} ⁠. The forms ∇ 2 {\displaystyle \nabla ^{2}} and ∇ ⋅ ∇ {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\nabla }}\cdot {\boldsymbol {\nabla }}} represents the dot product of the gradient ( ∇ {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\nabla }}} or ⁠ ∇ → {\displaystyle {\vec {\nabla }}} ⁠) with itself. Also notated Δ (next item). Δ (Capital Greek letter delta—not to be confused with ⁠ △ {\displaystyle \triangle } ⁠, which may denote a geometric triangle or, alternatively, the symmetric difference of two sets.) 1. Another notation for the Laplacian (see above). 2. Operator of finite difference. ∂ {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\partial }}} or ∂ μ {\displaystyle \partial _{\mu }} (Note: Although ◻ → {\displaystyle \ {\vec {\Box }}\ } may be used unambiguously, the notation ◻ {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\Box }}} is not recommended for the four-gradient since both ◻ {\displaystyle \Box } and ◻ 2 {\displaystyle {\Box }^{2}} are used to denote the d'Alembertian; see below.) Quad, the 4-vector gradient operator or four-gradient, ( ∂ ∂ t , ∂ ∂


id: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols-7.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of mathematical symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:42.516578+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
□⊥ 1. Orthogonal complement: If W is a linear subspace of an inner product space V, then W⊥ denotes its orthogonal complement, that is, the linear space of the elements of V whose inner products with the elements of W are all zero. 2. Orthogonal subspace in the dual space: If W is a linear subspace (or a submodule) of a vector space (or of a module) V, then W⊥ may denote the orthogonal subspace of W, that is, the set of all linear forms that map W to zero. 3. For inline uses of the symbol, see ⊥. == Advanced group theory == ⊲⊴ Normal subgroup of and normal subgroup of including equality, respectively. If N and G are groups such that N is a normal subgroup of (including equality) G, this is written ⁠ N ⊴ G {\displaystyle N\trianglelefteq G} ⁠. ⋉⋊ 1. Inner semidirect product: if N and H are subgroups of a group G, such that N is a normal subgroup of G, then G = N ⋊ H {\displaystyle G=N\rtimes H} and G = H ⋉ N {\displaystyle G=H\ltimes N} mean that G is the semidirect product of N and H, that is, that every


id: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols-8.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of mathematical symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:42.516578+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
(□, □) 1. Denotes an ordered pair of mathematical objects, for example, ( π , 0 ) {\displaystyle (\pi ,0)} . 2. If a and b are real numbers, − ∞ {\displaystyle -\infty } , or + ∞ {\displaystyle +\infty } , and a < b, then ( a , b ) {\displaystyle (a,b)} denotes the open interval delimited by a and b. See ]□, □[ for an alternative notation. 3. If a and b are integers, ( a , b ) {\displaystyle (a,b)} may denote the greatest common divisor of a and b. Notation gcd ( a , b ) {\displaystyle \gcd(a,b)} is often used instead. (□, □, □) If x, y, z are vectors in R 3 {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{3}} , then ( x , y , z ) {\displaystyle (x,y,z)} may denote the scalar triple product. See also [□,□,□] in § Square brackets. (□, ..., □) Denotes a tuple. If there are n objects separated by commas, it is an n-tuple. (□, □, ...)(□, ..., □, ...) Denotes an infinite sequence. ( ◻ ⋯ ◻ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ◻ ⋯ ◻ ) {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}\Box &\cdots &\Box \\\vdots &\ddots &\vdots \\\Box &\cdots &\Box \end{pmatrix}}} Denotes a matrix.


id: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols-9.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of mathematical symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:42.516578+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
{□ : □} {□ | □} Set-builder notation: if P ( x ) {\displaystyle P(x)} is a predicate depending on a variable x, then both { x : P ( x ) } {\displaystyle \{x:P(x)\}} and { x ∣ P ( x ) } {\displaystyle \{x\mid P(x)\}} denote the set formed by the values of x for which P ( x ) {\displaystyle P(x)} is true. Single brace 1. Used for emphasizing that several equations have to be considered as simultaneous equations; for example, { 2 x + y = 1 3 x − y = 1 {\displaystyle \textstyle {\begin{cases}2x+y=1\\3x-y=1\end{cases}}} . 2. Piecewise definition; for example, | x | = { x if x ≥ 0 − x if x < 0 {\displaystyle \textstyle |x|={\begin{cases}x&{\text{if }}x\geq 0\\-x&{\text{if }}x<0\end{cases}}} . 3. Used for grouped annotation of elements in a formula; for example, ( a , b , … , z ) ⏟ 26 {\displaystyle \textstyle \underbrace {(a,b,\ldots ,z)} _{26}} , 1 + 2 + ⋯ + 100 ⏞ = 5050 {\displaystyle \textstyle \overbrace {1+2+\cdots +100} ^{=5050}} , [ A B ] } m + n rows {\displaystyle \textstyle \left.{\begin{bmatrix}A\\B\end{bmatrix}}\right\}m+n{\text{ rows}}} === Other brackets === |□| 1. Absolute value: if x is


id: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols-10.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of mathematical symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:42.516578+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-mathematical-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
■ , □ Used for marking the end of a proof and separating it from the current text. The initialism Q.E.D. or QED (Latin: quod erat demonstrandum, "as was to be shown") is often used for the same purpose, either in its upper-case form or in lower case. ☡ Bourbaki dangerous bend symbol: Sometimes used in the margin to forewarn readers against serious errors, where they risk falling, or to mark a passage that is tricky on a first reading because of an especially subtle argument. ∴ Abbreviation of "therefore". Placed between two assertions, it means that the first one implies the second one. For example: "All humans are mortal, and Socrates is a human. ∴ Socrates is mortal." ∵ Abbreviation of "because" or "since". Placed between two assertions, it means that the first one is implied by the second one. For example: "11 is prime ∵ it has no positive integer factors other than itself and one." ∋ 1. Abbreviation of "such that". For example, x ∋ x > 3 {\displaystyle x\ni x>3} is normally printed "x such that x > 3 {\displaystyle x>3} ". 2. Sometimes used for reversing the operands of ∈ {\displaystyle \in } ; that


id: symbols-of-nunavut-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_Nunavut-0.md
category: reference
title: Symbols of Nunavut
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols_of_Nunavut
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:43.661757+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: symbols-of-nunavut-20260505-0
summary:
Nunavut is one of Canada's territories, and has established several territorial symbols. == Symbols of Nunavut == == Great Seal == Like Yukon, Nunavut does not have an official Great Seal. == Notes == == References ==


id: list-of-occult-symbols-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_occult_symbols-0.md
category: reference
title: List of occult symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_occult_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:44.843337+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-occult-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of symbols associated with the occult. == List == == See also == Iconography List of occult terms List of sigils of demons Planet symbols Alchemical symbols == References == === Works cited === == Further reading ==


id: list-of-ideological-symbols-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ideological_symbols-0.md
category: reference
title: List of ideological symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ideological_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:46.204908+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ideological-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
This is a partial list of symbols and labels used by political parties, groups or movements around the world. Some symbols are associated with one or more worldwide ideologies and used by many parties that support a particular ideology. Others are region or country-specific. == Colours == === Worldwide === === Armenia === === Australia === === Brazil === === Bangladesh === === Canada === === Chile === === Finland === Blue-and-Black Movement Finns Party Freedom Alliance New Communist Party of Finland Truth Party === France === === Georgia === === Guatemala === === Hungary === === Italy === === India === === Ireland === === Japan === === Lebanon === === Mexico === === The Netherlands === === New Zealand === === Norway === Conservative Industry and Business Party Liberalistene Nasjonal Samling === Peru === Orange – Fujimorism === Portugal === === Russia === === Rwanda === === Serbia === === Slovakia === === South Africa === Orange, white, blue, and green – Afrikaner Volksfront Red, white and black – Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging Orange, white and blue – Herstigte Nasionale Party Red, black and yellow – South African Communist Party === Sweden === === Syria === === Turkey === ===


id: religious-symbol-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_symbol-0.md
category: reference
title: Religious symbol
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_symbol
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:47.330093+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: religious-symbol-20260505-0
summary:
A religious symbol is an iconic representation intended to represent a specific religion, or a specific concept within a given religion. Religious symbols have been used in the military in many countries, such as the United States military chaplain symbols. Similarly, the United States Department of Veterans Affairs emblems for headstones and markers recognize 57 symbols (including a number of symbols expressing non-religiosity). == Symbols representing a specific religion == Symbolic representation of a specific religious tradition is useful in a society with religious pluralism, as was the case in the Roman Empire, and again in modern multiculturalism. == Religious symbolism == === African Indigenous religions === In some African Indigenous religions, there are graphical and pictorial symbols representing the actual religion or faith just like the Abrahamic faith. Each indigenous religion however, has symbolisms which are religious or spiritual in nature. Some of these may be graphical, numerological (as in Serer numerology - see Serer creation myth) or a combination of both. However, these graphical images represent the actual religion practice and elements within the faith. The Ìṣẹ̀ṣe religion of the yoruba people indigenous religion as an example has it graphical and pictorial symbol representing the religion, the symbol


id: list-of-saint-patrick-s-crosses-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Saint_Patrick's_crosses-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Saint Patrick's crosses
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Saint_Patrick's_crosses
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:48.448985+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-saint-patrick-s-crosses-20260505-0
summary:
A variety of crosses, both designs and physical objects, have been associated with Saint Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland. Traditionally, the cross pattée has been associated with him, but in more recent times, the Saint Patrick's Saltire has also been linked to him. Some authors have stated, however, that Patrick is not entitled to have a cross as a symbol since he was not a martyr, unlike Saints George and Andrew. == Celtic Cross == It is popularly believed that St. Patrick introduced the Celtic Cross in Ireland, during his conversion of the provincial kings from paganism to Christianity. St Patrick is said to have taken the symbol of the sun and extended one of the lengths to form a melding of the Christian Cross and the sun. == Saltire == Saint Patrick's Saltire is a red saltire on a white field. It is used in the insignia of the Order of Saint Patrick, established in 1783, and after the Acts of Union 1800 it was combined with the Saint George's Cross of England and the Saint Andrew's Cross of Scotland to form the Union Flag of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. A saltire was intermittently


id: list-of-symbols-of-scientology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_symbols_of_Scientology-0.md
category: reference
title: List of symbols of Scientology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_symbols_of_Scientology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:49.666162+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-symbols-of-scientology-20260505-0
summary:
Scientology symbols include graphic emblems, diagrams, and visual devices used by the Church of Scientology and affiliated organizations. Many were created or approved by L. Ron Hubbard and are used to represent key concepts such as the ARC and KRC triangles, the eight dynamics, the Scientology cross, and the S-and-double-triangle emblem. These symbols appear throughout Scientology literature, training materials, uniforms, and buildings, and visually express elements of Scientology beliefs and practices. Scholars of new religious movements have noted that Scientology employs distinctive symbols that reinforce insider identity, and encode Hubbard's conceptual system. Some researchers have connected Scientology's symbolic system to Hubbard's emphasis on mystery, games conditions, and the mechanisms by which a thetan becomes stuck or entrapped. Mikael Rothstein states that Scientology's symbols imprint on the participant, help structure the believer's understanding of spiritual progression and organizational hierarchy, and suggests that "Hubbard is symbolically embedded in the [e-meter] and is symbolically manifested during its use". All official symbols of Scientology are trademarks held by the Religious Technology Center (RTC). RTC says they are to be used "on Scientology religious materials to signify their authenticity ... and provide a legal mechanism to ensure the spiritual technologies are orthodox and ministered according


id: list-of-symbols-of-scientology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_symbols_of_Scientology-1.md
category: reference
title: List of symbols of Scientology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_symbols_of_Scientology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:49.666162+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-symbols-of-scientology-20260505-0
summary:
The symbol of the Sea Organization is colored gold and consists of two crossed laurel branches with a five-pointed star above. The Sea Org is the senior-most group of staff within the Church of Scientology network. At one point Hubbard said the star symbolized the spirit and the laurel wreath represented victory, though in a 1968 lecture he said the star was the galactic confederation and the 26 leaves were the number of stars in the confederation. The symbol appears on uniforms, uniform insignia, flags, and Sea Org materials. === L. Ron Hubbard hallmark === The L. Ron Hubbard hallmark is a stylized monogram combining the letters L, R, and H. Designed to resemble an assay office hallmark, it is used to authenticate Hubbard's writings, lectures, and approved Scientology materials. The symbol appears on books, devices, jewelry, and other official items. === Church of Spiritual Technology symbol === The Church of Spiritual Technology (CST) uses a symbol consisting of two overlapping circles, each containing a lozenge shape. Large versions of this symbol are carved into the landscape at CST archival sites, including the Trementina Base in New Mexico, where they are visible from the air. CST maintains archival copies of


id: list-of-sigils-of-demons-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sigils_of_demons-0.md
category: reference
title: List of sigils of demons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sigils_of_demons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:50.843438+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-sigils-of-demons-20260505-0
summary:
In demonology, sigils are pictorial signatures attributed to demons, angels, or other beings. In the ceremonial magic of the Middle Ages, sigils were used in the summoning of these beings and were the pictorial equivalent to their true name. == See also == List of theological demons List of demons in the Ars Goetia List of occult symbols == References == == External links == Media related to Sigils of demons at Wikimedia Commons


id: solar-symbol-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_symbol-0.md
category: reference
title: Solar symbol
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_symbol
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:52.043832+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: solar-symbol-20260505-0
summary:
A solar symbol is a symbol representing the Sun. Common solar symbols include circles (with or without rays), crosses, and spirals. In religious iconography, personifications of the Sun or solar attributes are often indicated by means of a halo or a radiate crown. When the systematic study of comparative mythology first became popular in the 19th century, scholarly opinion tended to over-interpret historical myths and iconography in terms of "solar symbolism". This was especially the case with Max Müller and his followers beginning in the 1860s in the context of Indo-European studies. Many "solar symbols" claimed in the 19th century, such as the swastika, triskele, Sun cross, etc. have tended to be interpreted more conservatively in scholarship since the later 20th century. == Solar disk == The basic element of most solar symbols is the circular solar disk. The disk can be modified in various ways, notably by adding rays (found in the Bronze Age in Egyptian depictions of Aten) or a cross. In the ancient Near East, the solar disk could also be modified by addition of the Uraeus (rearing cobra), and in ancient Mesopotamia it was shown with wings. === Bronze Age writing === Egyptian hieroglyphs have a


id: solar-symbol-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_symbol-1.md
category: reference
title: Solar symbol
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_symbol
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:52.043832+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: solar-symbol-20260505-0
summary:
== Modern flags and emblems == Official insignia which incorporate rayed solar symbols include the flag of Uruguay, the flag of Kiribati, some versions of the flag of Argentina, the Irish Defence Forces cap badge, and the 1959–1965 coat of arms of Iraq. The depictions of the sun on the flags of the Republic of China (Taiwan), Kazakhstan, Kurdistan, the Brazilian state of Pernambuco, and Nepal have only straight (triangular) rays; that of Kyrgyzstan has only curvy rays; while that of the Philippines has short diverging rays grouped into threes. Another rayed form of the sun has simple radial lines dividing the background into two colors, as in the military flags of Japan and the flag of North Macedonia, and in the top parts of the flags of Tibet and Arizona. The flag of New Mexico is based on the Zia sun symbol which has four groups of four parallel rays emanating symmetrically from a central circle. == Code points in Unicode == U+2609 ☉ SUN U+2600 ☀ BLACK SUN WITH RAYS (A more accurate term might be "solid colour". The actual colour is an implementation choice, for example ☀, ☀.) U+263C ☼ WHITE SUN WITH RAYS (A more accurate


id: list-of-provincial-trees-of-thailand-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_provincial_trees_of_Thailand-0.md
category: reference
title: List of provincial trees of Thailand
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_provincial_trees_of_Thailand
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:53.243447+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-provincial-trees-of-thailand-20260505-0
summary:
List of official trees of the provinces of Thailand: == List == == See also == Seals of the provinces of Thailand List of trees of northern Thailand List of U.S. state and territory trees == References == == Bibliography == ราชบัณฑิตยสถาน. พจนานุกรม ฉบับราชบัณฑิตยสถาน พ.ศ. ๒๕๕๔ เฉลิมพระเกียรติพระบาทสมเด็จพระเจ้าอยู่หัว เนื่องในโอกาสพระราชพิธีมหามงคลเฉลิมพระชนมพรรษา ๗ รอบ ๕ ธันวาคม ๒๕๕๔. กรุงเทพฯ : ราชบัณฑิตยสถาน, 2556. (in Thai) ราชบัณฑิตยสถาน. หนังสืออนุกรมวิธานพืช อักษร ก. พิมพ์ครั้งที่ 2. กรุงเทพฯ : ราชบัณฑิตยสถาน, 2547. (in Thai) ราชบัณฑิตยสถาน. หนังสืออนุกรมวิธานพืช อักษร ข. กรุงเทพฯ : ราชบัณฑิตยสถาน, 2547. (in Thai) ราชันย์ ภู่มา และสมราน สุดดี, บรรณาธิการ. ชื่อพรรณไม้แห่งประเทศไทย เต็ม สมิตินันทน์ ฉบับแก้ไขเพิ่มเติม พ.ศ. 2557. กรุงเทพฯ : สำนักงานหอพรรณไม้ สำนักวิจัยการอนุรักษ์ป่าไม้และพันธุ์พืช กรมอุทยานแห่งชาติ สัตว์ป่า และพันธุ์พืช กระทรวงทรัพยากรธรรมชาติและสิ่งแวดล้อม, 2557. (in Thai) ส่วนเพาะชำกล้าไม้. สำนักส่งเสริมการปลูกป่า. กรมป่าไม้. พันธุ์ไม้มงคลพระราชทาน. กรุงเทพฯ : มูลนิธิสถาบันราชพฤกษ์, 2540. (in Thai)


id: list-of-unicode-characters-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Unicode_characters-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Unicode characters
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Unicode_characters
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:55.297388+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unicode-characters-20260505-0
summary:
As of Unicode version 17.0, there are 297,334 assigned characters with code points, covering 172 modern and historical scripts, as well as multiple symbol sets. As it is not technically possible to list all of these characters in a single page, this list is limited to a subset of the most important characters for English-language readers, with links to other pages which list the supplementary characters. Accordingly, this article lists the 1,062 characters in the Multilingual European Character Set 2 (MES-2) subset, and some additional related characters. (The term Unicode character was coined to categorise characters that do not also have ASCII code points.) == Character reference overview == HTML and XML provide ways to reference Unicode characters when the characters themselves either cannot or should not be used. A numeric character reference refers to a character by its Universal Character Set/Unicode code point, and a character entity reference refers to a character by a predefined name. A numeric character reference uses the format &#nnnn; or &#xhhhh; where nnnn is the code point in decimal form, and hhhh is the code point in hexadecimal form. The x must be lowercase in XML documents. The nnnn or hhhh may be any


id: list-of-unicode-characters-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Unicode_characters-1.md
category: reference
title: List of Unicode characters
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Unicode_characters
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:55.297388+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unicode-characters-20260505-0
summary:
=== Tamil === === Telugu === === Kannada === === Malayalam === === Sinhala === === Other Brahmic scripts === Other Brahmic and Indic scripts in Unicode include: == Other South and Central Asian writing systems == Gunjala Gondi (Unicode block) Masaram Gondi (Unicode block) Mro (Unicode block) Nag Mundari (Unicode block) Ol Chiki (Unicode block) Ol Onal (Unicode block) Sora Sompeng (Unicode block) Sunuwar (Unicode block) Tangsa (Unicode block) Tolong Siki (Unicode block) Toto (Unicode block) Warang Citi (Unicode block) == Southeast Asian writing systems == Hanifi Rohingya (Unicode block) Kayah Li (Unicode block) Pahawh Hmong (Unicode block) Pau Cin Hau (Unicode block) == Georgian == == African scripts == === Ge'ez/Ethiopic script === === Other African scripts === Adlam (Unicode block) Bamum (Unicode block) Bamum Supplement (Unicode block) Beria Erfe (Unicode block) Bassa Vah (Unicode block) Garay (Unicode block) Medefaidrin (Unicode block) Mende Kikakui (Unicode block) NKo (Unicode block) Osmanya (Unicode block) Ottoman Siyaq Numbers Tifinagh (Unicode block) Vai (Unicode block) == American scripts == === Unified Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics === === Other American scripts === Cherokee (Unicode block) Cherokee Supplement (Unicode block) Deseret (Unicode block) Kaktovik Numerals (Unicode block) Osage (Unicode block) == Mongolian == == Unicode


id: united-states-department-of-veterans-affairs-emblems-for-headstones-and-markers-20260505-0
category: reference
title: United States Department of Veterans Affairs emblems for headstones and markers
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:56.475655+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: united-states-department-of-veterans-affairs-emblems-for-headstones-and-markers-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Veterans_Affairs_emblems_for_headstones_and_markers-0.md

summary:
The United States Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) maintains many cemeteries specifically devoted to veterans. Most have various rules regarding what must take place in order to be interred there. == Procedure == The VA only permits graphics on government-furnished headstones or markers that are approved emblems of belief, the Civil War Union Shield (including those who served in the U.S. military through the Spanish–American War), the Civil War Confederate Southern Cross of Honor, and the Medal of Honor insignia. Arlington National Cemetery has similar restrictions on headstones, though it is maintained by US Department of the Army. The religious symbols are rendered as simple inscriptions without sculptural relief or coloring other than black. The emblem of belief is an optional feature. Generally the VA adds a new symbol a few months after receiving a petition from a faith group. However, the Wiccan symbol was only added in 2007 to settle a lawsuit filed on behalf of several families by Americans United for the Separation of Church and State in November 2006. A separate parallel lawsuit was filed on behalf of two Wiccan churches and three families by the American Civil Liberties Union in September 2006, which was resolved by

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Veterans_Affairs_emblems_for_headstones_and_markers


id: list-of-bad-luck-signs-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_bad_luck_signs-0.md
category: reference
title: List of bad luck signs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_bad_luck_signs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:57.647315+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-bad-luck-signs-20260505-0
summary:
Bad luck is an unpredictable outcome that is unfortunate. This is a list of signs believed to bring bad luck according to superstitions. == List == Breaking a mirror is said to bring seven years of bad luck A bird or flock of birds going from left to right (Auspicia) (Paganism) Certain numbers: The number 4. Fear of the number 4 is known as tetraphobia; in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean languages, the number sounds like the word for "death". The number 9. Fear of the number 9 is known as enneaphobia, in Japanese culture; this is because it sounds like the Japanese word for "suffering". The number 13. Fear of the number 13 is known as triskaidekaphobia. The number 17. Fear of the number 17 is known as heptadecaphobia and is prominent in Italian culture. The number 39. Fear of the number 39 is known as the curse of 39, especially in Afghan culture. The number 43. In Japanese culture, maternity wards numbered 43 are considered taboo, as the word for the number means "stillbirth". The number 666. Fear of the number 666 is known as hexakosioihexekontahexaphobia. Per Biblical prophecy, the "Number of The Beast", signifies the return of the


id: variations-of-the-ichthys-symbol-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variations_of_the_ichthys_symbol-0.md
category: reference
title: Variations of the ichthys symbol
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variations_of_the_ichthys_symbol
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:58.800947+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: variations-of-the-ichthys-symbol-20260505-0
summary:
The ichthys symbol (or "Jesus fish") is a sign typically used to proclaim an affiliation with or affinity for Christianity. The fish was originally adopted by early Christians as a secret symbol, but the many variations known today first appeared in the 1980s. Some of these are made by Christians in order to promote a specific doctrine or theological perspective, such as evolutionary creation. Both the traditional ichthys and its variations are found at religious goods stores and are used to adorn the bumpers or trunks of automobiles, often in the form of adhesive badges made of chrome-colored plastic. Other variations are intended for the purpose of satire by non-Christian groups. == Christian ichthys symbol == An ancient Hellenistic Christian slogan espoused the Greek acronym/acrostic ΙΧΘΥΣ (ichthys) for Ἰησοῦς Χριστός, Θεοῦ Υἱός, Σωτήρ (Iēsous Christos, Theou Yios, Sōtēr), which translates into English as 'Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour'; the Greek word ichthys translating to 'fish' in English. The first appearances of fish symbols as adopted in Christian art and literature date to the 2nd century AD. Some fish symbol variations, called the Jesus fish, contain the English word Jesus in the center, or are empty entirely. Jeroen Temperman, with


id: vegetarian-and-vegan-symbolism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetarian_and_vegan_symbolism-0.md
category: reference
title: Vegetarian and vegan symbolism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetarian_and_vegan_symbolism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:59.963720+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vegetarian-and-vegan-symbolism-20260505-0
summary:
Multiple symbols have been developed to represent lacto-vegetarianism and veganism. Several are used on food packaging, including voluntary labels such as The Vegan Society trademark or the V-Label (with support of the European Vegetarian Union) as well as the vegetarian and non-vegetarian marks mandated by the Indian government. Symbols may also be used by members of the vegetarian and vegan communities to represent their identities, and in the course of animal rights activism. == Vegetarian symbols == === Indian vegetarian mark === Packaged food and toothpaste products sold in India are required to be labelled with a mark in order to be distinguished between lacto-vegetarian and non-vegetarian. The symbol is in effect following the Food Safety and Standards (Packaging and Labelling) Act of 2006, and received a mandatory status after the framing of the respective regulations (Food Safety and Standards (Packaging and Labelling) Regulation) in 2011. According to the law, vegetarian food should be identified by a green symbol and non-vegetarian food with a brown symbol. They are defined as: "Vegetarian food must have a symbol of a green color-filled circle inside a square with a green outline prominently displayed on the package, contrasting against the background on the principal


id: vegetarian-and-vegan-symbolism-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetarian_and_vegan_symbolism-1.md
category: reference
title: Vegetarian and vegan symbolism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetarian_and_vegan_symbolism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:27:59.963720+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vegetarian-and-vegan-symbolism-20260505-0
summary:
The vegan flag was designed in 2017 by a network group of graphic designers and activists from several countries. The group was opened by Gad Hakimi, a vegan activist and designer from Israel. who intended it to be a Civil flag to represent veganism. The flag consists of three blue and green triangles forming the letter V, the first letter in the word "vegan". Originally, some members of the group suggested that animals should be featured on the flag, with red colours featuring prominently to symbolize the blood of slaughtered animals. However, the group eventually chose to make the flag about human–animal respect, not about animals themselves. Inspired by the LGBT rainbow flag, the flag was created in hopes of uniting animal rights organizations and activists. The colours white, green, and blue were chosen to represent the natural habitats of animals: sky, land, and sea. The letter V stands for Vegan, and is an inverted pyramid intended to symbolize the ability to do the impossible. V-Label The international V-Label supported by the European Vegetarian Union is an internationally recognised and protected trademark for the labelling of vegetarian and vegan products. === Vegetarian Society Approved vegan trademark === The Vegetarian Society


id: yiddish-symbols-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_symbols-0.md
category: reference
title: Yiddish symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yiddish_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:01.093888+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: yiddish-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
A number of Yiddish symbols have emerged to represent the language and the Yiddishist movement over history. Lacking a central authority, however, they have not had the prominence of those of the Hebrew revival and the Zionist symbols of Israel. Several of the Yiddish symbols are drawn from Yiddish songs in the klezmer tradition. == Yiddish symbols == === The Golden Peacock === The Golden Peacock (Yiddish: די גאָלדענע פּאַווע) has historically been a common symbol in Yiddish literature, popularized by Di Goldene Pave. It has often been a subject of Yiddish poetry, including a collection under that title from Moyshe-Leyb Halpern. Yiddishpiel uses a logo of golden peacock plumage surrounding its theatre building, while The Forward has used gold in its masthead (also recalling Di Goldene Medine) since 2015, A variation of this symbol has been used as the logo of the Yiddish cafe Pink Peacock in Glasgow. === The Little Goat === The traditional Jewish lullaby "Raisins and Almonds" popularized the little goat (Yiddish: ציגעלע, romanized: tsigele) as a Yiddish symbol, echoing that in Chad Gadya, a traditional Passover song. The Yiddish Book Center has adopted a golden goat (a recoloring of the lullaby's white goat after the


id: lists-of-problems-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_problems-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of problems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_problems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:02.692165+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-problems-20260505-0
summary:
The following articles contain lists of problems. This includes unsolved problems, which may refer to several notable conjectures or open problems in various academic fields: == Natural sciences, engineering and medicine == List of unsolved problems in astronomy List of unsolved problems in biology List of unsolved problems in chemistry List of unsolved problems in geoscience Unsolved problems in medicine List of unsolved problems in neuroscience List of unsolved problems in physics == Mathematics == List of unsolved problems in mathematics List of undecidable problems List of NP-complete problems List of PSPACE-complete problems List of problems in loop theory and quasigroup theory == Social sciences, statistics, and information sciences == List of unsolved problems in economics List of unsolved problems in fair division List of unsolved problems in statistics List of unsolved problems in computer science List of unsolved problems in information theory == Other == List of philosophical problems List of unsolved deaths == See also == Cold case List of ciphertexts List of hypothetical technologies List of paradoxes Unknowability


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-astronomy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_astronomy-0.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in astronomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_astronomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:03.931725+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-astronomy-20260505-0
summary:
This article is a list of notable unsolved problems in astronomy. Problems may be theoretical or experimental. Theoretical problems result from inability of current theories to explain observed phenomena or experimental results. Experimental problems result from inability to test or investigate a proposed theory. Other problems involve unique events or occurrences that have not repeated themselves with unclear causes. == Planetary astronomy == === The Solar System === Orbiting bodies and rotation: Are there any non-dwarf planets beyond Neptune? Why do extreme trans-Neptunian objects have elongated orbits? The rotation rate of Saturn: Why does the magnetosphere of Saturn rotate at a rate close to that at which the planet's clouds rotate? What is the rotation rate of Saturn's deep interior? Satellite geomorphology: What is the origin of the chain of high mountains that closely follows the equator of Saturn's moon, Iapetus? Are the mountains the remnant of hot and fast-rotating young Iapetus? Are the mountains the result of material (either from the rings of Saturn or its ring) that over time collected upon the surface? === Extra-solar === How common are Solar System-like planetary systems? (Some observed planetary systems contain Super-Earths and Hot Jupiters that orbit very close to their


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-astronomy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_astronomy-1.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in astronomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_astronomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:03.931725+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-astronomy-20260505-0
summary:
== Cosmology == Cosmological principle: Is the universe homogeneous and isotropic at sufficiently large scales, as claimed by the cosmological principle and assumed by all models that use the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker (FLRW) metric, including the current version of the ΛCDM model, or is the universe inhomogeneous or anisotropic? Is the CMB dipole purely kinematic, or does it signal anisotropy of the universe, resulting in the breakdown of the FLRW metric and the cosmological principle? Is the Hubble tension evidence that the cosmological principle is false? If the cosmological principle is correct, is the FLRW metric the correct metric describing the universe? Are the observations interpreted as the accelerating expansion of the universe correctly interpreted, or are they instead evidence that the cosmological principle is false? Copernican principle: Are cosmological observations made from Earth representative of observations from the other positions in the universe? Dark matter: What is the identity and composition of dark matter? Is dark matter a particle? If so, is it a WIMP, an axion, the lightest superpartner (LSP), or something else? Do the phenomena attributed to dark matter point to an extension of gravity instead of some other type of matter? Dark energy: What causes the observed accelerating


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-biology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology-0.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:05.105952+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-biology-20260505-0
summary:
This article lists notable unsolved problems in biology. == General biology == === Evolution and origins of life === Origin of life. Exactly how, where, and when did life on Earth originate? Which, if any, of the many hypotheses is correct? What were the metabolic pathways used by the earliest life forms? How did genetic code originate? What was the molecular mechanism that allows the association of the amino acids with their triplet codons? What were the biochemical paths from individual bio-building blocks like amino acids or nucleic acids to functional polymers such as proteins and DNA? Origin of sexual reproduction. What were the fundamental selective forces responsible for the origin of sexual reproduction? Maintenance of sexual reproduction. What are the fundamental selective forces maintaining sexual reproduction? Origins of viruses (Virus World). Exactly how and when did different groups of viruses originate? Morphology problem. How are neural tissues formed in specific ways in different species? The formation of neural tissues in a certain way is necessary for the formation of certain goal-directed behavior for certain species. Developmental psychobiology posed this question since the lack of knowledge about the precise coordination of all cells, even those not related anatomically, in space


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-biology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology-1.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:05.105952+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-biology-20260505-0
summary:
Biological homochirality. What is the origin of homochirality in living organisms? In biological organisms, amino acids appear almost exclusively in the left-handed form and sugars in the right-handed form. Homochirality is an obvious characteristic of life on Earth, yet extraterrestrial samples contain largely racemic compounds. It is not known whether homochirality existed before life, whether the building blocks of life must have this particular chirality, or whether life must be homochiral at all. What do all the unknown proteins do? Two decades since the first eukaryotes were sequenced, the "biological role" of around 20% of proteins are still unknown. Many of these proteins are conserved across most eukaryotic species and some are conserved in bacteria, indicating a role fundamental for life. Determinants of cell size. How do cells determine what size to grow to before dividing? Golgi apparatus. In cell theory, what is the exact transport mechanism by which proteins travel through the Golgi apparatus? Mechanism of action of drugs. The mechanisms of action of many drugs including lithium, thalidomide, and ketamine are not completely understood. Protein folding. What is the folding code? What is the folding mechanism? Can the native structure of a protein be predicted from its amino


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-biology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology-2.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:05.105952+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-biology-20260505-0
summary:
== Human biology == Handedness: It is unclear how handedness develops, what purpose it serves, why right-handedness is far more common, and why left-handedness exists. Laughter: While it is generally accepted that laughing evolved as a form of social communication, the exact neurobiological process that leads humans to laugh is not well understood. Yawning: It is yet to be established what the biological or social purpose of yawning is. Heritable components of homosexuality: How to reconcile evolution with the heritable components of human homosexuality? Homosexuality is prevalent across human societies, past and present. These facts constitute an evolutionary puzzle. Decline in average human body temperature since the 19th century: Medical data suggests that the average body temperature has declined 0.6 °C since the 19th century. The cause is unclear although it has been suggested that it has some relation with reduced inflammation from reduced exposure to microorganisms. Why are there blood types? It is unclear what the origin and purpose of having blood types is. It is thought that O blood may be an adaptation to malaria and that different blood types respond to different diseases but this hypothesis has yet to be proven. Why did these antigens develop in


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-biology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology-3.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:05.105952+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-biology-20260505-0
summary:
Paradox of the plankton. The high diversity of phytoplankton seems to violate the competitive exclusion principle. Ediacaran biota. How should Ediacaran biota be classified? Even what kingdom they belong to is unclear. Why were they so decisively displaced by Cambrian biota? Cambrian explosion. What is the cause of the apparent rapid diversification of multicellular animal life around the beginning of the Cambrian, resulting in the emergence of almost all modern animal phyla? Darwin's abominable mystery of botany/plants. What is the exact evolutionary history of flowers and what is the cause of the apparently sudden appearance of nearly modern flowers in the fossil record? Adult form of Facetotecta. The adult form of this animal has never been encountered in the water, and it remains a mystery what it grows into. Origin of snakes. Did snakes evolve from burrowing lizards or aquatic lizards? There is evidence for both hypotheses. Origin of turtles. Did turtles evolve from anapsids or diapsids? There is evidence for both hypotheses. Paleodictyon: What is the origin of this trace fossil and its modern counterparts? Despite many theories proposed, no evidence has been found to confirm any of them. Francevillian biota: were they early multicellular organisms? Snowball Earth: what


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-chemistry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_chemistry-0.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:06.291916+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of unsolved problems in chemistry. Problems in chemistry are considered unsolved when an expert in the field considers it unsolved or when several experts in the field disagree about a solution to a problem. == Physical chemistry problems == Can the transition temperature of high-temperature superconductors be brought up to room temperature? How do the spin–orbit coupling, other relativistic corrections, and inter-electron effects modify the chemistry of the trans-actinides? Is it possible to create a practically useful lithium–air battery? == Organic chemistry problems == What is the origin of homochirality in biomolecules? Why are accelerated kinetics observed for some organic reactions at the water-organic interface? Do replacement reactions of aryl diazonium salts (dediazotizations) predominantly undergo SN1 or a radical mechanism? Can an electrochemical cell reliably perform organic redox reactions? Which "classic organic chemistry" reactions admit chiral catalysts? Is it possible to construct a quaternary carbon atom with arbitrary (distinguishable) substituents and stereochemistry? Can artificial enzymes replace the need for protecting groups when modifying sensitive compounds? == Inorganic chemistry problems == Are there any molecules that certainly contain a phi bond? Is there a less labor- or energy-intensive technique for titanium refinement than the Kroll process? Does


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-computer-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_computer_science-0.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in computer science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_computer_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:07.458238+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-computer-science-20260505-0
summary:
This article is a list of notable unsolved problems in computer science. A problem in computer science is considered unsolved when no solution is known or when experts in the field disagree about proposed solutions. == Computational complexity == P versus NP problem – The P vs NP problem is a major unsolved question in computer science that asks whether every problem whose solution can be quickly verified by a computer (NP) can also be quickly solved by a computer (P). This question has profound implications for fields such as cryptography, algorithm design, and computational theory. What is the relationship between BQP and NP? NC = P problem NP = co-NP problem P = BPP problem P = PSPACE problem L = NL problem PH = PSPACE problem L = P problem L = RL problem Unique games conjecture Is the exponential time hypothesis true? Is the strong exponential time hypothesis (SETH) true? Do one-way functions exist? Is public-key cryptography possible? Log-rank conjecture Hartmanis–Stearns conjecture == Polynomial versus nondeterministic-polynomial time for specific algorithmic problems == Can integer factorization be done in polynomial time on a classical (non-quantum) computer? Can the discrete logarithm be computed in polynomial time on a classical


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-economics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_economics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in economics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_economics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:08.644071+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-economics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of some of the major unsolved problems, puzzles, or questions in economics. Some of these are theoretical in origin and some of them concern the inability of orthodox economic theory to explain an empirical observation. == Capital theory == Cambridge capital controversy: The Cambridge capital controversy is a dispute in economics that started in the 1950s. The debate concerned the nature and role of capital goods and a critique of the neoclassical vision of aggregate production and distribution. The question of whether the natural growth rate is exogenous, or endogenous to demand (and whether it is input growth that causes output growth, or vice versa), lies at the heart of the debate. The resolution of the debate has not been agreed upon by economists. Transformation problem: The transformation problem is the problem specific to Marxist economics, and not to economics in general, of finding a general rule by which to transform the values of commodities based on socially necessary labour time into the competitive prices of the marketplace. The essential difficulty is how to reconcile profit in the form of surplus value from direct labour inputs and the ratio of direct labour input to capital input


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-economics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_economics-1.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in economics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_economics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:08.644071+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-economics-20260505-0
summary:
Home bias in trade puzzle: The home bias in trade puzzle is an empirical observation that even when factors such as economic size of trading partners and the distance between them are considered, trade between regions within a given country is substantially greater than trade between regions in different countries, even when there are no substantial legal barriers. There is currently no framework to explain this observation. Equity home bias puzzle: This puzzle concerns the observation that individuals and institutions in many countries only hold modest amounts of foreign equity, despite the ability for vast diversification of their portfolios in the global economy. While some explanations do exist, such as that local individuals and firms have greater access to information about local firms and economic conditions, these explanations are not accepted by the majority of economists and have been mostly refuted. Backus–Kehoe–Kydland puzzle: The Backus–Kehoe–Kydland consumption correlation puzzle is the empirical observation that consumption is much less correlated across countries than output. Standard economic theory suggests that country-specific output risks should be collective and domestic consumption growth should not depend strongly on country-specific income shocks. Thus, we should not see the observation that consumption is much less correlated across countries


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-fair-division-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_fair_division-0.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in fair division
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_fair_division
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:09.846628+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-fair-division-20260505-0
summary:
This page lists notable open problems related to fair division - a field in the intersection of mathematics, computer science, political science and economics. == Open problems in fair cake-cutting == === Query complexity of envy-free cake-cutting === In the problem of envy-free cake-cutting, there is a cake modeled as an interval, and n {\displaystyle n} agents with different value measures over the cake. The value measures are accessible only via queries of the form "evaluate a given piece of cake" or "mark a piece of cake with a given value". With n = 2 {\displaystyle n=2} agents, an envy-free division can be found using two queries, via divide and choose. With n > 2 {\displaystyle n>2} agents, there are several open problems regarding the number of required queries. 1. First, assume that the entire cake must be allocated (i.e., there is no disposal), and pieces may be disconnected. How many queries are required? Lower bound: Ω ( n 2 ) {\displaystyle \Omega (n^{2})} ; Upper bound: O ( n n n n n n ) {\displaystyle O\left(n^{n^{n^{n^{n^{n}}}}}\right)} . 2. Next, assume that some cake may be left unallocated (i.e., there is free disposal), but the allocation must be proportional


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-fair-division-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_fair_division-1.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in fair division
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_fair_division
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:09.846628+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-fair-division-20260505-0
summary:
=== Approximate maximin-share fairness === The 1-of- n {\displaystyle n} maximin share (MMS) of an agent is the largest utility the agent can secure by partitioning the items into n {\displaystyle n} bundles and receiving the worst bundle. For two agents, divide and choose gives each agent at least his/her 1-of-2 MMS. For n > 2 {\displaystyle n>2} agents, it is almost always, but not always, possible to give each agent his/her 1-of- n {\displaystyle n} MMS. This raises several kinds of questions. ==== 1. Computational complexity ==== What is the runtime complexity of deciding whether a given instance admits a 1-of- n {\displaystyle n} MMS allocation? Upper bound: N P N P {\displaystyle {NP}^{NP}} (which is Σ 2 P {\displaystyle \Sigma _{2}^{P}} - level 2 in the polynomial hierarchy) Lower bound: none (so it may be level 2 or 1 or even 0 of the hierarchy). NOTE: the following related problems are known to be computationally hard: Calculating the 1-of- n {\displaystyle n} MMS of a given agent is NP-hard even if all agents have additive preferences (reduction from partition problem). Deciding whether a given allocation is 1-of- n {\displaystyle n} MMS is co-NP complete for agents with additive


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-fair-division-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_fair_division-2.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in fair division
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_fair_division
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:09.846628+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-fair-division-20260505-0
summary:
==== Price of fairness ==== The price of fairness is the ratio between the maximum social welfare (sum of utilities) in any allocation, and the maximum social welfare in a fair allocation. What is the price of EF1 fairness? The upper bound is O ( n ) {\displaystyle O(n)} - by either Round-robin or maximum Nash welfare. The lower bound is O ( n ) {\displaystyle O({\sqrt {n}})} . === Existence of EFx allocation === An allocation is called EFx ("envy-free up to any good") if, for any two agents i {\displaystyle i} and j {\displaystyle j} , and for any good in the bundle of j {\displaystyle j} , if we remove that good from j {\displaystyle j} 's bundle then i {\displaystyle i} does not envy. For three agents with additive valuations, does there always exist an EFx allocation? For n {\displaystyle n} agents with general monotone valuations, can we prove that there does not exist an EFx allocation? Known cases: If at least n − 1 {\displaystyle n-1} valuations are identical: yes. Hence, for two agents: yes. This is true even for general monotone valuations. For three agents: yes, by a recent working paper. === Existence of


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-geoscience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_geoscience-0.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in geoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_geoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:11.045396+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-geoscience-20260505-0
summary:
This list provides references to notable unsolved problems in geoscience. == Early Earth and the Solar System == Was there ever a collision of Earth with the hypothesized planet of Theia, which gave birth to the Moon? There is compelling evidence, such as measures of a shorter duration of the Earth's rotation and lunar month in the past, that suggests the possibility that Earth's Moon was much closer to Earth during the early stages of Solar System formation. What is the long-term heat balance of Earth? How did its internal temperature decay since it formed by accretion of chondrites? How abundant are radiogenic elements in the interior? Did a "faint young Sun" ever warm a "snowball Earth"? and that is cause it formed on one of the earths langrage sharing it's orbit line == Topography and environment == Can the now widely available topographic data be used to derive past tectonic and climatic conditions (in the multi-million year scale)? Do we know enough about the erosion and transport processes? Does the stochasticity of meteorological and tectonic events reflect in the landscape? How much has life contributed to shape the Earth's surface? Can classical geomorphological concepts such as peneplanation or retrogressive


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-information-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_information_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in information theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_information_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:12.210120+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-information-theory-20260505-0
summary:
This article lists notable unsolved problems in information theory. These are separated into source coding and channel coding. There are also related unsolved problems in philosophy. == Channel coding == Capacity of a network: The capacity of a general wireless network is not known. There are some specific cases for which the capacity is known, such as the AWGN channel and fading channel. Capacity of the broadcast channel: The capacity of the broadcast channel, or the case in which a single transmitter is sending information to many receivers, is unknown in general, though it is known for several specific cases. Capacity of the interference channel (Two User): The capacity of the interference channel, in the case where there are two transmitter and receiver pairs that interfere among each other, is unknown in general. Capacity is known in special cases: strong interference regime, injective-deterministic. Capacity is known in approximate sense or within a range for: injective-semi-deterministic, additive white Gaussian noise with per block power constraint. Capacity of the two-way channel: The capacity of the two-way channel (a channel in which information is sent in both directions simultaneously) is unknown. Capacity of Aloha: The ALOHAnet used a very simple access scheme for


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:13.399347+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
Many mathematical problems have been stated but not yet solved. These problems come from many areas of mathematics, such as theoretical physics, computer science, algebra, analysis, combinatorics, algebraic, differential, discrete and Euclidean geometries, graph theory, group theory, mathematical logic, number theory, set theory, Ramsey theory, dynamical systems, and partial differential equations. Some problems belong to more than one discipline and are studied using techniques from different areas. Prizes are often awarded for the solution to a long-standing problem, and some lists of unsolved problems, such as the Millennium Prize Problems, receive considerable attention. This list is a composite of notable unsolved problems mentioned in previously published lists, including but not limited to lists considered authoritative, and the problems listed here vary widely in both difficulty and importance. == Notable lists == Various mathematicians and organizations have published and promoted lists of unsolved mathematical problems. In some cases, the lists have been associated with prizes for the discoverers of solutions. === Millennium Prize Problems === Of the original seven Millennium Prize Problems listed by the Clay Mathematics Institute in 2000, six remain unsolved to date: Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture Hodge conjecture Navier–Stokes existence and smoothness P versus NP Riemann hypothesis Yang–Mills


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics-1.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:13.399347+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
Birch–Tate conjecture on the relation between the order of the center of the Steinberg group of the ring of integers of a number field to the field's Dedekind zeta function. Casas-Alvero conjecture: if a polynomial of degree d {\displaystyle d} defined over a field K {\displaystyle K} of characteristic 0 {\displaystyle 0} has a factor in common with its first through d − 1 {\displaystyle d-1} -th derivative, then must f {\displaystyle f} be the d {\displaystyle d} -th power of a linear polynomial? Connes embedding problem in Von Neumann algebra theory Crouzeix's conjecture: the matrix norm of a complex function f {\displaystyle f} applied to a complex matrix A {\displaystyle A} is at most twice the supremum of | f ( z ) | {\displaystyle |f(z)|} over the field of values of A {\displaystyle A} . Determinantal conjecture on the determinant of the sum of two normal matrices. Eilenberg–Ganea conjecture: a group with cohomological dimension 2 also has a 2-dimensional Eilenberg–MacLane space K ( G , 1 ) {\displaystyle K(G,1)} . Farrell–Jones conjecture on whether certain assembly maps are isomorphisms. Bost conjecture: a specific case of the Farrell–Jones conjecture Finite lattice representation problem: is every finite lattice isomorphic to


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics-2.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:13.399347+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
The Brennan conjecture: estimating the integral powers of the moduli of the derivative of conformal maps into the open unit disk, on certain subsets of C {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} } Fuglede's conjecture on whether nonconvex sets in R {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} } and R 2 {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}} are spectral if and only if they tile by translation. Goodman's conjecture on the coefficients of multivalued functions Invariant subspace problem – does every bounded operator on a complex Banach space send some non-trivial closed subspace to itself? Kung–Traub conjecture on the optimal order of a multipoint iteration without memory Lehmer's conjecture on the Mahler measure of non-cyclotomic polynomials The mean value problem: given a complex polynomial f {\displaystyle f} of degree d ≥ 2 {\displaystyle d\geq 2} and a complex number z {\displaystyle z} , is there a critical point c {\displaystyle c} of f {\displaystyle f} such that | f ( z ) − f ( c ) | ≤ | f ′ ( z ) | | z − c | {\displaystyle |f(z)-f(c)|\leq |f'(z)||z-c|} ? The Pompeiu problem on the topology of domains for which some nonzero function has integrals that vanish over every congruent copy Sendov's conjecture:


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics-3.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:13.399347+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
Sudoku: How many puzzles have exactly one solution? How many puzzles with exactly one solution are minimal? What is the maximum number of givens for a minimal puzzle? Tic-tac-toe variants: Given the width of a tic-tac-toe board, what is the smallest dimension such that X is guaranteed to have a winning strategy? (See also Hales–Jewett theorem and nd game) Chess: What is the outcome of a perfectly played game of chess? (See also first-move advantage in chess) Go: What is the perfect value of Komi? Set: What is the largest possible cap set, as a function of n {\displaystyle n} in the n {\displaystyle n} -dimensional affine space over the three-element field? Are the nim-sequences of all finite octal games eventually periodic? Is the nim-sequence of Grundy's game eventually periodic? ==== Games with imperfect information ==== Rendezvous problem === Geometry === ==== Algebraic geometry ==== Abundance conjecture: if the canonical bundle of a projective variety with Kawamata log terminal singularities is nef, then it is semiample. Bass conjecture on the finite generation of certain algebraic K-groups. Bass–Quillen conjecture relating vector bundles over a regular Noetherian ring and over the polynomial ring A [ t 1 , … , t n


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics-4.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:13.399347+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
The spherical Bernstein's problem, a generalization of Bernstein's problem Carathéodory conjecture: any convex, closed, and twice-differentiable surface in three-dimensional Euclidean space admits at least two umbilical points. Cartan–Hadamard conjecture: can the classical isoperimetric inequality for subsets of Euclidean space be extended to spaces of nonpositive curvature, known as Cartan–Hadamard manifolds? Chern's conjecture (affine geometry) that the Euler characteristic of a compact affine manifold vanishes. Chern's conjecture for hypersurfaces in spheres, a number of closely related conjectures. Closed curve problem: find (explicit) necessary and sufficient conditions that determine when, given two periodic functions with the same period, the integral curve is closed. The filling area conjecture, that a hemisphere has the minimum area among shortcut-free surfaces in Euclidean space whose boundary forms a closed curve of given length The Hopf conjectures relating the curvature and Euler characteristic of higher-dimensional Riemannian manifolds Osserman conjecture: that every Osserman manifold is either flat or locally isometric to a rank-one symmetric space Yau's conjecture on the first eigenvalue that the first eigenvalue for the Laplace–Beltrami operator on an embedded minimal hypersurface of S n + 1 {\displaystyle S^{n+1}} is n {\displaystyle n} . ==== Discrete geometry ==== The big-line-big-clique conjecture on the existence of either


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics-5.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:13.399347+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
Falconer's conjecture: sets of Hausdorff dimension greater than d / 2 {\displaystyle d/2} in R d {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{d}} must have a distance set of nonzero Lebesgue measure The values of the Hermite constants for dimensions other than 1–8 and 24 What is the lowest number of faces possible for a holyhedron? Inscribed square problem, also known as Toeplitz' conjecture and the square peg problem – does every Jordan curve have an inscribed square? The Kakeya conjecture – do n {\displaystyle n} -dimensional sets that contain a unit line segment in every direction necessarily have Hausdorff dimension and Minkowski dimension equal to n {\displaystyle n} ? The Kelvin problem on minimum-surface-area partitions of space into equal-volume cells, and the optimality of the Weaire–Phelan structure as a solution to the Kelvin problem Lebesgue's universal covering problem on the minimum-area convex shape in the plane that can cover any shape of diameter one Mahler's conjecture on the product of the volumes of a centrally symmetric convex body and its polar. In Meissner body): Are the two Meissner tetrahedra the minimum-volume three-dimensional shapes of constant width? Moser's worm problem – what is the smallest area of a shape that can cover every


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics-6.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:13.399347+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
==== Graph drawing and embedding ==== The Albertson conjecture: the crossing number can be lower-bounded by the crossing number of a complete graph with the same chromatic number Conway's thrackle conjecture that thrackles cannot have more edges than vertices The GNRS conjecture on whether minor-closed graph families have ℓ 1 {\displaystyle \ell _{1}} embeddings with bounded distortion Harborth's conjecture: every planar graph can be drawn with integer edge lengths Negami's conjecture on projective-plane embeddings of graphs with planar covers The strong Papadimitriou–Ratajczak conjecture: every polyhedral graph has a convex greedy embedding Turán's brick factory problem – Is there a drawing of any complete bipartite graph with fewer crossings than the number given by Zarankiewicz? Guy's conjecture on the crossing number for complete graphs – Is there a drawing of any complete graph with fewer crossings than the number given by his upper bound? Universal point sets of subquadratic size for planar graphs ==== Restriction of graph parameters ==== Does there exist a conference graph for every number of vertices v > 1 {\displaystyle v>1} where v ≡ 1 mod 4 {\displaystyle v\equiv 1{\bmod {4}}} and v {\displaystyle v} is an odd sum of two squares? Conway's 99-graph problem: does there


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics-7.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:13.399347+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
==== Miscellaneous graph theory ==== Delta-conjecture (1978): consider a complete graph ( V ; E 1 , … , E d ) {\displaystyle (V;E_{1},\dots ,E_{d})} each edge of which is colored by one of d {\displaystyle d} colors such that there exists a triangle Δ {\displaystyle \Delta } colored in three pairwise distinct colors. Then, in each chromatic component ( V , E i ) , i = 1 , … , d {\displaystyle (V,E_{i}),i=1,\dots ,d} , one can choose a maximal independent vertex-set such that the intersection of the obtained d {\displaystyle d} sets is empty. The imbalance conjecture: If the imbalance for each edge of a graph is at least 1, is the multiset of all edge imbalances always graphic? The implicit graph conjecture on the existence of implicit representations for slowly-growing hereditary families of graphs Ryser's conjecture relating the maximum matching size and minimum transversal size in hypergraphs The second neighborhood problem: does every oriented graph contain a vertex for which there are at least as many other vertices at distance two as at distance one? Sidorenko's conjecture on homomorphism densities of graphs in graphons Teschner's bondage number conjecture: is the bondage number of a graph always


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics-8.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:13.399347+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
Büchi's problem on sufficiently large sequences of square numbers with constant second difference. Carmichael's totient function conjecture: do all values of Euler's totient function have multiplicity greater than 1 {\displaystyle 1} ? Catalan–Dickson conjecture on aliquot sequences: no aliquot sequences are infinite but non-repeating. Exponent pair conjecture: for all ε > 0 {\displaystyle \varepsilon >0} , is the pair ( ε , 1 / 2 + ε ) {\displaystyle (\varepsilon ,1/2+\varepsilon )} an exponent pair? The Gauss circle problem: how far can the number of integer points in a circle centered at the origin be from the area of the circle? Grimm's conjecture: each element of a set of consecutive composite numbers can be assigned a distinct prime number that divides it. Hall's conjecture: for any ε > 0 {\displaystyle \varepsilon >0} , there is some constant c ( ε ) {\displaystyle c(\varepsilon )} such that either y 2 = x 3 {\displaystyle y^{2}=x^{3}} or | y 2 − x 3 | > c ( ε ) x 1 / 2 − ε {\displaystyle |y^{2}-x^{3}|>c(\varepsilon )x^{1/2-\varepsilon }} . Lehmer's totient problem: if ϕ ( n ) {\displaystyle \phi (n)} divides n − 1 {\displaystyle n-1} , must n {\displaystyle n}


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics-9.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:13.399347+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
Leopoldt's conjecture: a p-adic analogue of the regulator of an algebraic number field does not vanish. Stark conjectures (including Brumer–Stark conjecture) Characterize all algebraic number fields that have some power basis. ==== Analytic number theory ==== Beilinson's conjectures about special values of L-functions. Do Siegel zeros exist? Find the value of the De Bruijn–Newman constant. Is Selberg class of Dirichlet series equal to class of automorphic L-functions? Hardy–Littlewood zeta function conjectures Keating–Snaith conjecture concerning the asymptotics of an integral involving the Riemann zeta function Hilbert–Pólya conjecture: the nontrivial zeros of the Riemann zeta function correspond to eigenvalues of a self-adjoint operator. Lindelöf hypothesis that for all ε > 0 {\displaystyle \varepsilon >0} , ζ ( 1 / 2 + i t ) = o ( t ε ) {\displaystyle \zeta (1/2+it)=o(t^{\varepsilon })} The density hypothesis for zeroes of the Riemann zeta function. Location of nontrivial zeros of L-functions, especially conjectures concerning their critical lines: Grand Riemann hypothesis: do the nontrivial zeros of all automorphic L-functions lie on the critical line 1 / 2 + i t {\displaystyle 1/2+it} with real t {\displaystyle t} ? Generalized Riemann hypothesis for Selberg class: do the nontrivial zeros of all functions in Selberg class


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics-10.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:13.399347+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
Littlewood conjecture: for any two real numbers α , β {\displaystyle \alpha ,\beta } , lim inf n → ∞ n ‖ n α ‖ ‖ n β ‖ = 0 {\displaystyle \liminf _{n\rightarrow \infty }n\,\Vert n\alpha \Vert \,\Vert n\beta \Vert =0} , where ‖ x ‖ {\displaystyle \Vert x\Vert } is the distance from x {\displaystyle x} to the nearest integer. Schanuel's conjecture on the transcendence degree of certain field extensions of the rational numbers. In particular: Are π {\displaystyle \pi } and e {\displaystyle e} algebraically independent? Which nontrivial combinations of transcendental numbers (such as e + π , e π , π e , π π , e e {\displaystyle e+\pi ,e\pi ,\pi ^{e},\pi ^{\pi },e^{e}} ) are themselves transcendental? The four exponentials conjecture: the transcendence of at least one of four exponentials of combinations of irrationals Are Euler's constant γ {\displaystyle \gamma } and Catalan's constant G {\displaystyle G} irrational? Are they transcendental? Is Apéry's constant ζ ( 3 ) {\displaystyle \zeta (3)} transcendental? Which transcendental numbers are (exponential) periods? How well can non-quadratic irrational numbers be approximated? What is the irrationality measure of specific (suspected) transcendental numbers such as π {\displaystyle \pi } and γ


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics-11.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:13.399347+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
Fortune's conjecture that no Fortunate number is composite. The Gaussian moat problem: is it possible to find an infinite sequence of distinct Gaussian prime numbers such that the difference between consecutive numbers in the sequence is bounded? Gillies' conjecture on the distribution of prime divisors of Mersenne numbers. Landau's problems Goldbach conjecture: all even natural numbers greater than 2 {\displaystyle 2} are the sum of two prime numbers. Legendre's conjecture: for every positive integer n {\displaystyle n} , there is a prime between n 2 {\displaystyle n^{2}} and ( n + 1 ) 2 {\displaystyle (n+1)^{2}} . Twin prime conjecture: there are infinitely many twin primes. Are there infinitely many primes of the form n 2 + 1 {\displaystyle n^{2}+1} ? Problems associated to Linnik's theorem New Mersenne conjecture: for any odd natural number p {\displaystyle p} , if any two of the three conditions p = 2 k ± 1 {\displaystyle p=2^{k}\pm 1} or p = 4 k ± 3 {\displaystyle p=4^{k}\pm 3} , 2 p − 1 {\displaystyle 2^{p}-1} is prime, and ( 2 p + 1 ) / 3 {\displaystyle (2^{p}+1)/3} is prime are true, then the third condition is also true. Polignac's conjecture: for all positive


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics-12.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:13.399347+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
Does the partition principle (PP) imply the axiom of choice (AC)? (Woodin) Does the generalized continuum hypothesis below a strongly compact cardinal imply the generalized continuum hypothesis everywhere? Does the generalized continuum hypothesis entail ♢ ( E cf ⁡ ( λ ) λ + ) {\displaystyle {\diamondsuit (E_{\operatorname {cf} (\lambda )}^{\lambda ^{+}}})} for every singular cardinal λ {\displaystyle \lambda } ? Does the generalized continuum hypothesis imply the existence of an ℵ2-Suslin tree? If ℵω is a strong limit cardinal, is 2 ℵ ω < ℵ ω 1 {\displaystyle 2^{\aleph _{\omega }}<\aleph _{\omega _{1}}} (see Singular cardinals hypothesis)? The best bound, ℵω4, was obtained by Shelah using his PCF theory. The problem of finding the ultimate core model, one that contains all large cardinals. Woodin's Ω-conjecture: if there is a proper class of Woodin cardinals, then Ω-logic satisfies an analogue of Gödel's completeness theorem. Does the consistency of the existence of a strongly compact cardinal imply the consistent existence of a supercompact cardinal? Does there exist a Jónsson algebra on ℵω? Is OCA (the open coloring axiom) consistent with 2 ℵ 0 > ℵ 2 {\displaystyle 2^{\aleph _{0}}>\aleph _{2}} ? Reinhardt cardinals: Without assuming the axiom of choice, can a


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics-13.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:13.399347+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Graph theory === Kahn–Kalai conjecture (Jinyoung Park and Huy Tuan Pham, 2022) Blankenship–Oporowski conjecture on the book thickness of subdivisions (Vida Dujmović, David Eppstein, Robert Hickingbotham, Pat Morin, and David Wood, 2021) Ringel's conjecture that the complete graph K 2 n + 1 {\displaystyle K_{2n+1}} can be decomposed into 2 n + 1 {\displaystyle 2n+1} copies of any tree with n {\displaystyle n} edges (Richard Montgomery, Benny Sudakov, Alexey Pokrovskiy, 2020) Disproof of Hedetniemi's conjecture on the chromatic number of tensor products of graphs (Yaroslav Shitov, 2019) Kelmans–Seymour conjecture (Dawei He, Yan Wang, and Xingxing Yu, 2020) Goldberg–Seymour conjecture (Guantao Chen, Guangming Jing, and Wenan Zang, 2019) Babai's problem (Alireza Abdollahi, Maysam Zallaghi, 2015) Alspach's conjecture (Darryn Bryant, Daniel Horsley, William Pettersson, 2014) Alon–Saks–Seymour conjecture (Hao Huang, Benny Sudakov, 2012) Read–Hoggar conjecture (June Huh, 2009) Scheinerman's conjecture (Jeremie Chalopin and Daniel Gonçalves, 2009) Erdős–Menger conjecture (Ron Aharoni, Eli Berger 2007) Road coloring conjecture (Avraham Trahtman, 2007) Robertson–Seymour theorem (Neil Robertson, Paul Seymour, 2004) Strong perfect graph conjecture (Maria Chudnovsky, Neil Robertson, Paul Seymour and Robin Thomas, 2002) Toida's conjecture (Mikhail Muzychuk, Mikhail Klin, and Reinhard Pöschel, 2001) Harary's conjecture on the integral sum number of complete graphs (Zhibo Chen,


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics-14.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:13.399347+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Books discussing unsolved problems === Chung, Fan; Graham, Ron (1999). Erdös on Graphs: His Legacy of Unsolved Problems. AK Peters. ISBN 978-1-56881-111-6. Croft, Hallard T.; Falconer, Kenneth J.; Guy, Richard K. (1994). Unsolved Problems in Geometry. Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-97506-1. Guy, Richard K. (2004). Unsolved Problems in Number Theory. Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-20860-2. Klee, Victor; Wagon, Stan (1996). Old and New Unsolved Problems in Plane Geometry and Number Theory. The Mathematical Association of America. ISBN 978-0-88385-315-3. du Sautoy, Marcus (2003). The Music of the Primes: Searching to Solve the Greatest Mystery in Mathematics. Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-06-093558-0. Derbyshire, John (2003). Prime Obsession: Bernhard Riemann and the Greatest Unsolved Problem in Mathematics. Joseph Henry Press. ISBN 978-0-309-08549-6. Devlin, Keith (2006). The Millennium Problems – The Seven Greatest Unsolved* Mathematical Puzzles Of Our Time. Barnes & Noble. ISBN 978-0-7607-8659-8. Blondel, Vincent D.; Megrestski, Alexandre (2004). Unsolved problems in mathematical systems and control theory. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-11748-5. Ji, Lizhen; Poon, Yat-Sun; Yau, Shing-Tung (2013). Open Problems and Surveys of Contemporary Mathematics (volume 6 in the Surveys in Modern Mathematics series) (Surveys of Modern Mathematics). International Press of Boston. ISBN 978-1-57146-278-7. Waldschmidt, Michel (2004). "Open Diophantine Problems" (PDF). Moscow Mathematical Journal. 4 (1):


id: unsolved-problems-in-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unsolved_problems_in_medicine-0.md
category: reference
title: Unsolved problems in medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unsolved_problems_in_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:14.566300+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: unsolved-problems-in-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
This article discusses notable unsolved problems in medicine. Many of the problems relate to how drugs work (the so-called mechanism of action), and to diseases with an unknown cause, the so-called idiopathic diseases. == Definition of "disease" == There is no overarching, clear definition of what a disease is. On one hand, there is a scientific definition which is tied to a physiological process, and on the other hand, there is the subjective suffering of a patient and the loss of their life quality. Both approaches do not need to match, and they can even be contradictory. For example, when a patient seeks medical help because of a severe flu, the doctor will not care about the specific virological and immunological process behind the clearly visible suffering. This is contrasted by many hemochromatosis patients who will neither see suffering nor a change in their life quality, while the disease-causing process is severe and often deadly if left untreated. Similarly, many cancers in their very early stages are asymptomatic (e.g. pancreatic cancer) and the patient still feels healthy, which delays seeking treatment. Sometimes, cultural factors also play a role in defining "disease". Erectile dysfunction was long seen as a negative but


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-neuroscience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_neuroscience-0.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in neuroscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_neuroscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:15.768254+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-neuroscience-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of notable unsolved problems in neuroscience. A problem is considered unsolved if no answer is known or if there is significant disagreement among experts about a proposed solution. == Consciousness == Consciousness: How can consciousness be defined? What is the neural basis of subjective experience, cognition, wakefulness, alertness, arousal, and attention? Binding problem: How exactly is it that objects, background, and abstract or emotional features are combined into a single experience? What is the neural basis of self? Quantum mind: Do quantum mechanical phenomena, such as entanglement and superposition, play an important part in the brain's function and can it explain critical aspects of consciousness? Is there a "hard problem of consciousness"? If so, how is it solved? Vertiginous question: Why is it that a specific subject of experience is "live" from a given perspective? What, if anything, is the function of consciousness? Problem of mental causation: How exactly do mental states cause intentional actions to happen? What is the nature and mechanism behind near-death experiences? How can death be defined? Can consciousness exist after death? If consciousness is generated by brain activity, then how do some patients with physically deteriorated brains suddenly gain a


id: list-of-philosophical-problems-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophical_problems-0.md
category: reference
title: List of philosophical problems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophical_problems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:16.929670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-philosophical-problems-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of some of the major problems in philosophy. == Philosophy of language == === Counterfactuals === A counterfactual statement is a conditional statement with a false antecedent. For example, the statement "If Joseph Swan had not invented the modern incandescent light bulb, then someone else would have invented it anyway" is a counterfactual, because, in fact, Joseph Swan invented the modern incandescent light bulb. The most immediate task concerning counterfactuals is that of explaining their truth-conditions. As a start, one might assert that background information is assumed when stating and interpreting counterfactual conditionals and that this background information is just every true statement about the world as it is (pre-counterfactual). In the case of the Swan statement, we have certain trends in the history of technology, the utility of artificial light, the discovery of electricity, and so on. We quickly encounter an error with this initial account: among the true statements will be "Joseph Swan did invent the modern incandescent light bulb." From the conjunction of this statement (call it "S") and the antecedent of the counterfactual ("¬S"), we can derive any conclusion, and we have the unwelcome result that any statement follows from any counterfactual


id: list-of-philosophical-problems-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophical_problems-1.md
category: reference
title: List of philosophical problems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophical_problems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:16.929670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-philosophical-problems-20260505-0
summary:
Foundationalism, which posits certain basic beliefs as self-justifying, thus halting the regress. Coherentism, which argues that beliefs are justified by their coherence with other beliefs. Susan Haack's foundherentism is a notable hybrid approach. Infinitism, proposed by Peter D. Klein, which views the infinite regress as unproblematic. Among contemporary epistemologists, reliabilism has emerged as the most widely accepted approach to addressing the problem of the criterion. Developed by philosophers like Alvin Goldman, reliabilism suggests that beliefs can be justified if they are produced by reliable cognitive processes, potentially avoiding the need for infinite justification. This view aligns well with naturalistic approaches to epistemology and has gained significant traction in recent decades. In practice, many philosophers find that there is often a discernible line between sufficient justification and excessive inquiry, allowing for practical epistemological investigations despite the theoretical challenges posed by the problem of the criterion. The debate surrounding this problem remains active, with various approaches offering different insights into the nature of knowledge and justification. === Problem of induction === Scottish philosopher David Hume first formulated the problem of induction, arguing there is no non-circular way to justify inductive reasoning. That is, reasoning based on inferring general conclusions from specific observations.


id: list-of-philosophical-problems-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophical_problems-2.md
category: reference
title: List of philosophical problems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophical_problems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:16.929670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-philosophical-problems-20260505-0
summary:
The problem of universals refers to the question of whether properties exist, and if so, what they are. Properties are qualities or relations or names that two or more entities have in common. The various kinds of properties, such as qualities and relations, are referred to as universals. For instance, one can imagine three cup holders on a table that have in common the quality of being circular or exemplifying circularity, or bear the same name, "circular cup" or two daughters that have in common being the female offsprings of Frank. There are many such properties, such as being human, red, male or female, liquid, big or small, taller than, father of, etc. While philosophers agree that human beings talk and think about properties, they disagree on whether these universals exist in reality or merely in thought, speech and sight. === Principle of individuation === Related to the problem of universals, the principle of individuation is what individuates universals. === Sorites paradox === Otherwise known as the "paradox of the heap", the question regards how one defines a "thing." Is a bale of hay still a bale of hay if you remove one straw? If so, is it still a


id: list-of-philosophical-problems-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophical_problems-3.md
category: reference
title: List of philosophical problems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophical_problems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:16.929670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-philosophical-problems-20260505-0
summary:
The question hinges on whether color is a product of the mind or an inherent property of objects. Whilst most philosophers will agree that color assignment corresponds to spectra of light frequencies, it is not at all clear whether the particular psychological phenomena of color are imposed on these visual signals by the mind, or whether such qualia are somehow naturally associated with their noumena. Another way to look at this question is to assume two people ("Fred" and "George" for the sake of convenience) see colors differently. That is, when Fred sees the sky, his mind interprets this light signal as blue. He calls the sky "blue." However, when George sees the sky, his mind assigns green to that light frequency. If Fred were able to step into George's mind, he would be amazed that George saw green skies. However, George has learned to associate the word "blue" with what his mind sees as green, and so he calls the sky "blue", because for him the color green has the name "blue." The question is whether blue must be blue for all people, or whether the perception of that particular color is assigned by the mind. This extends to


id: list-of-philosophical-problems-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophical_problems-4.md
category: reference
title: List of philosophical problems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophical_problems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:16.929670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-philosophical-problems-20260505-0
summary:
=== Cognition and AI === The philosophy of artificial intelligence and cognition examines the nature and possibility of machine intelligence and consciousness. It intersects with cognitive science, philosophy of mind, and computer science. Major debates concern whether artificial systems can possess genuine understanding, how intelligence should be operationally defined, and whether computational processes can replicate or instantiate mental states. The main question this field confronts is whether an AI is capable of intentionality, or "the capacity to have a mental representation of or about a thing or a state of affairs". The potential answers to these questions have changed as artificial intelligence has advanced much throughout the past decade alone. Artificial intelligence in image recognition began as training the program to search for specific features and separate images into categories. More recently, AI has been developed to "learn" via artificial machine learning (AML), which receives visual data from various photos and then reconstructs an idea of what something looks like based on those original images. If the program itself determines its own idea of what something looks like due to the data it is given, one must consider if this is emblematic of intelligence. The first explorations into these questions


id: list-of-philosophical-problems-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophical_problems-5.md
category: reference
title: List of philosophical problems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophical_problems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:16.929670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-philosophical-problems-20260505-0
summary:
In philosophy, the problem of personal identity is concerned with how one is able to identify a single person over a time interval, dealing with such questions as, "What makes it true that a person at one time is the same thing as a person at another time?" or "What kinds of things are we persons?" A question related to the problem of personal identity is Benj Hellie's vertiginous question. The vertiginous question asks why, of all the subjects of experience out there, this one—the one corresponding to the human being referred to as Benj Hellie—is the one whose experiences are live? (The reader is supposed to substitute their own case for Hellie's.) Hellie's argument is closely related to Caspar Hare's theories of egocentric presentism and perspectival realism, of which several other philosophers have written reviews. Similar questions are also asked repeatedly by J. J. Valberg in justifying his horizonal view of the self. Tim S. Roberts refers to the question of why a particular organism out of all the organisms that happen to exist happens to be you as the "Even Harder Problem of Consciousness". The philosophical issues with personal identity have been extensively discussed by Thomas Nagel in


id: list-of-philosophical-problems-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophical_problems-6.md
category: reference
title: List of philosophical problems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophical_problems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:16.929670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-philosophical-problems-20260505-0
summary:
'The problem of demarcation' is an expression introduced by Karl Popper to refer to 'the problem of finding a criterion which would enable us to distinguish between the empirical sciences on the one hand, and mathematics and logic as well as "metaphysical" systems on the other'. Popper attributes this problem to Kant. Although Popper mentions mathematics and logic, other writers focus on distinguishing science from metaphysics. A prominent question in meta-philosophy is that of whether or not philosophical progress occurs and more so, whether such progress in philosophy is even possible. It has even been disputed, most notably by Ludwig Wittgenstein, whether genuine philosophical problems actually exist. The opposite has also been claimed, for example by Karl Popper, who held that such problems do exist, that they are solvable, and that he had actually found definite solutions to some of them. David Chalmers divides inquiry into philosophical progress in meta-philosophy into three questions. The Existence Question: is there progress in philosophy? The Comparison Question: is there as much progress in philosophy as in science? The Explanation Question: why isn't there more progress in philosophy? === Realism === Does a world independent of human beliefs and representations exist? Is such a


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-physics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:18.131755+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-physics-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of notable unsolved problems grouped into broad areas of physics. Some of the major unsolved problems in physics are theoretical, meaning that existing theories are currently unable to explain certain observed phenomena or experimental results. Others are experimental, involving challenges in creating experiments to test proposed theories or to investigate specific phenomena in greater detail. A number of important questions remain open in the area of physics beyond the Standard Model, such as the strong CP problem, determining the absolute mass of neutrinos, understanding matter–antimatter asymmetry, and identifying the nature of dark matter and dark energy. Another significant problem lies within the mathematical framework of the Standard Model itself, which remains inconsistent with general relativity. This incompatibility causes both theories to break down under extreme conditions, such as within known spacetime gravitational singularities like those at the Big Bang and at the centers of black holes beyond their event horizons. == Historical problems and lists == Isaac Newton in his book Opticks (first edition 1704), published a list of 31 queries about light. In 1900, Lord Kelvin in a speech identified two main issues in classical physics that represented "two clouds" for the physics of


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-physics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics-1.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:18.131755+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-physics-20260505-0
summary:
== Quantum gravity == Quantum gravity: Can quantum mechanics and general relativity be realized as a fully consistent theory (perhaps as a quantum field theory)? Is spacetime fundamentally continuous or discrete? Would a consistent theory involve a force mediated by a hypothetical graviton, or be a product of a discrete structure of spacetime itself (as in loop quantum gravity)? Are there deviations from the predictions of general relativity at very small or very large scales or in other extreme circumstances that flow from a quantum gravity mechanism? Black holes, black hole information paradox, and black hole radiation: Do black holes produce thermal radiation, as expected on theoretical grounds? Does this radiation contain information about their inner structure, as suggested by gauge–gravity duality, or not, as implied by Hawking's original calculation? If not, and black holes can evaporate away, what happens to the information stored in them (since quantum mechanics does not provide for the destruction of information)? Or does the radiation stop at some point, leaving black hole remnants? Is there another way to probe their internal structure somehow, if such a structure even exists? The cosmic censorship hypothesis and the chronology protection conjecture: Can singularities not hidden behind an


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-physics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics-2.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:18.131755+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-physics-20260505-0
summary:
Dark matter: What is the identity of dark matter? Is it a particle? If so, is it a WIMP, axion, the lightest superpartner (LSP), or some other particle? Or, are the phenomena attributed to dark matter the result of an alternate theory of gravity separate from general relativity altogether? Despite extensive research, the exact composition of dark matter remains unknown. It is inferred from gravitational effects on visible matter, radiation, and the universe's large-scale structure. Understanding its properties is crucial for a comprehensive understanding of the universe. Dark energy: What is the cause of the observed accelerating expansion of the universe (the de Sitter phase)? Are the observations rightly interpreted as the accelerating expansion of the universe, or are they evidence that the cosmological principle is false? Why is the energy density of the dark energy component of the same magnitude as the density of matter at present when the two evolve quite differently over time; could it be simply that we are observing at exactly the right time? Is dark energy a pure cosmological constant or are models of quintessence such as phantom energy applicable? Dark flow: Is a non-spherically-symmetric gravitational pull from outside the observable universe responsible for


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-physics-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics-3.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:18.131755+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-physics-20260505-0
summary:
The QCD vacuum: Many of the equations in non-perturbative QCD are currently unsolved. These energies are the energies sufficient for the formation and description of atomic nuclei. How thus does low energy /non-pertubative QCD give rise to the formation of complex nuclei and nuclear constituents? Generations of matter: Why are there three generations of quarks and leptons? Is there a theory that can explain the masses of particular quarks and leptons in particular generations from first principles (a theory of Yukawa couplings)? Neutrino mass: What is the absolute mass of neutrinos? Are they Dirac or Majorana fermions? Is the mass hierarchy normal or inverted? Is the CP violating phase equal to 0? Reactor antineutrino anomaly: There is an anomaly in the existing body of data regarding the antineutrino flux from nuclear reactors around the world. Measured values of this flux appears to be only 94% of the value expected from theory. It is unknown whether this is due to unknown physics (such as sterile neutrinos), experimental error in the measurements, or errors in the theoretical flux calculations. Strong CP problem and axions: Why is the strong nuclear interaction invariant to parity and charge conjugation? Is Peccei–Quinn theory the solution to


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-physics-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics-4.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:18.131755+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-physics-20260505-0
summary:
Solar cycle: How does the Sun generate its periodically reversing large-scale magnetic field? How do other solar-like stars generate their magnetic fields, and what are the similarities and differences between stellar activity cycles and that of the Sun? What caused the Maunder Minimum and other grand minima, and how does the solar cycle recover from a minima state? Coronal heating problem: Why is the Sun's corona (atmosphere layer) so much hotter than the Sun's surface? Why is the magnetic reconnection effect many orders of magnitude faster than predicted by standard models? Astrophysical jet: Why do only certain accretion discs surrounding certain astronomical objects emit relativistic jets along their polar axes? Why are there quasi-periodic oscillations in many accretion discs? Why does the period of these oscillations scale as the inverse of the mass of the central object? Why are there sometimes overtones, and why do these appear at different frequency ratios in different objects? Diffuse interstellar bands: What is responsible for the numerous interstellar absorption lines detected in astronomical spectra? Are they molecular in origin, and if so which molecules are responsible for them? How do they form? Supermassive black holes: What is the origin of the M–sigma relation between


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-physics-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics-5.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:18.131755+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-physics-20260505-0
summary:
Quantum chromodynamics: What are the phases of strongly interacting matter, and what roles do they play in the evolution of the cosmos? What is the detailed partonic structure of the nucleons? What does QCD predict for the properties of strongly interacting matter? What determines the key features of QCD, and what is their relation to the nature of gravity and spacetime? Does QCD truly lack CP violations? Quark–gluon plasma: Where is the onset of deconfinement: 1) as a function of temperature and chemical potentials? 2) as a function of relativistic heavy-ion collision energy and system size? What is the mechanism of energy and baryon-number stopping leading to creation of quark-gluon plasma in relativistic heavy-ion collisions? Why is sudden hadronization and the statistical-hadronization model a near-to-perfect description of hadron production from quark–gluon plasma? Is quark flavor conserved in quark–gluon plasma? Are strangeness and charm in chemical equilibrium in quark–gluon plasma? Does strangeness in quark–gluon plasma flow at the same speed as up and down quark flavours? Why does deconfined matter show ideal flow? Specific models of quark–gluon plasma formation: Do gluons saturate when their occupation number is large? Do gluons form a dense system called colour glass condensate? What are the


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-physics-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics-6.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:18.131755+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-physics-20260505-0
summary:
== Plasma physics == Plasma physics and fusion power: Fusion energy may potentially provide power from an abundant resource (e.g. hydrogen) without the type of radioactive waste that fission energy currently produces. However, can ionized gases (plasma) be confined long enough and at a high enough temperature to create fusion power? What is the physical origin of H-mode? The injection problem: Fermi acceleration is thought to be the primary mechanism that accelerates astrophysical particles to high energy. However, it is unclear what mechanism causes those particles to initially have energies high enough for Fermi acceleration to work on them. Alfvénic turbulence: In the solar wind and the turbulence in solar flares, coronal mass ejections, and magnetospheric substorms are major unsolved problems in space plasma physics. Ball lightning: the exact physical nature of this mystery in atmospheric electricity. == Biophysics == Abiogenesis: can life be created from physical processes alone? Stochasticity and robustness to noise in gene expression: How do genes govern our body, withstanding different external pressures and internal stochasticity? Certain models exist for genetic processes, but we are far from understanding the whole picture, in particular in development where gene expression must be tightly regulated. Quantitative study of the


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-physics-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics-7.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:18.131755+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-physics-20260505-0
summary:
=== High-energy physics/particle physics === Existence of pentaquarks (1964–2015): In July 2015, the LHCb collaboration at CERN identified pentaquarks in the Λ0b→J/ψK−p channel, which represents the decay of the bottom lambda baryon (Λ0b) into a J/ψ meson (J/ψ), a kaon (K−) and a proton (p). The results showed that sometimes, instead of decaying directly into mesons and baryons, the Λ0b decayed via intermediate pentaquark states. The two states, named P+c(4380) and P+c(4450), had individual statistical significances of 9 σ and 12 σ, respectively, and a combined significance of 15 σ—enough to claim a formal discovery. The two pentaquark states were both observed decaying strongly to J/ψp, hence must have a valence quark content of two up quarks, a down quark, a charm quark, and an anti-charm quark (uudcc), making them charmonium-pentaquarks. Existence of quark-gluon plasma, a new phase of matter was discovered and confirmed in experiments at CERN-SPS (2000), BNL-RHIC (2005) and CERN-LHC (2010). Higgs boson and electroweak symmetry breaking (1963–2012): The mechanism responsible for breaking the electroweak gauge symmetry, giving mass to the W and Z bosons, was solved with the discovery of the Higgs boson of the Standard Model, with the expected couplings to the weak bosons. No


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-statistics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_statistics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in statistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_statistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:19.361016+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
There are many longstanding unsolved problems in mathematics for which a solution has still not yet been found. The notable unsolved problems in statistics are generally of a different flavor; according to John Tukey, "difficulties in identifying problems have delayed statistics far more than difficulties in solving problems." A list of "one or two open problems" (in fact 22 of them) was given by David Cox. == Inference and testing == How to detect and correct for systematic errors, especially in sciences where random errors are large (a situation Tukey termed uncomfortable science). The Graybill–Deal estimator is often used to estimate the common mean of two normal populations with unknown and possibly unequal variances. Though this estimator is generally unbiased, its admissibility remains to be shown. Meta-analysis: Though independent p-values can be combined using Fisher's method, techniques are still being developed to handle the case of dependent p-values. Behrens–Fisher problem: Yuri Linnik showed in 1966 that there is no uniformly most powerful test for the difference of two means when the variances are unknown and possibly unequal. That is, there is no exact test (meaning that, if the means are in fact equal, one that rejects the null hypothesis with


id: list-of-hypothetical-technologies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hypothetical_technologies-0.md
category: reference
title: List of hypothetical technologies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hypothetical_technologies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:20.536514+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-hypothetical-technologies-20260505-0
summary:
Hypothetical technologies are technologies that do not exist yet, but that could exist in the future. They are distinct from emerging technologies, which have achieved some developmental success. Emerging technologies as of 2018 include 3-D metal printing and artificial embryos. Many hypothetical technologies have been the subject of science fiction. The criteria for this list are that the technology: Must not exist yet Is credibly proposed to exist in the future (e.g. no perpetual motion machines) If the technology does not have an existing article (i.e. it is "redlinked"), a reference must be provided for it == Biology == == Engineering and manufacturing == === Computing and robotics === === Megastructures === === Nanotechnology === === Transport === == Minds and psychology == == Physics == === Nuclear energy and weaponry === === Space === == See also == == References ==


id: above-and-beyond-the-encyclopedia-of-aviation-and-space-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Above_and_Beyond:_The_Encyclopedia_of_Aviation_and_Space_Sciences-0.md
category: reference
title: Above and Beyond: The Encyclopedia of Aviation and Space Sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Above_and_Beyond:_The_Encyclopedia_of_Aviation_and_Space_Sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:22.035663+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: above-and-beyond-the-encyclopedia-of-aviation-and-space-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
Above and Beyond: The Encyclopedia of Aviation and Space Sciences was the first attempt at creating an encyclopedia of all matters related to the history, technology and aims of the aerospace industry as it existed in the late 1960s. Published in 1967 by New Horizons Publishers, Inc., of Chicago, this fourteen-volume collection was aimed primarily at teens and young adults. == References ==


id: aluminium-the-thirteenth-element-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium:_The_Thirteenth_Element-0.md
category: reference
title: Aluminium: The Thirteenth Element
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium:_The_Thirteenth_Element
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:23.208203+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aluminium-the-thirteenth-element-20260505-0
summary:
Aluminium: The Thirteenth Element (Russian: Алюминий. Тринадцатый элемент) is a Russian encyclopedia completely devoted to aluminium. The encyclopedia is published by United Company RUSAL, at the end of 2007, in both Russian and English. Four thousand copies were printed (240 pages). The encyclopedia covers various areas of aluminium application, starting from car engineering and architecture to jewellery and fashion, recounts how this metal was discovered, and describes technologies of its production, its properties and benefits for various spheres of life. The book consists of 9 chapters, with an index/glossary and name index enclosed at the end. The encyclopedia contains diversified illustrative materials stemming from Russia and from overseas photo archives, museums and private collections. == Contents == Chapter 1. The History of Aluminium Before the 19th Century. Historical background of aluminium in ancient times; archeological findings containing aluminium; first historic mentions of aluminium articles; information about 'alum' – compound substances with chemical structures containing aluminium; production technologies alum and areas of their application in the Ancient Times and Middle Ages. Chapter 2. How the Metal Was Discovered. Scientists and technologies associated with the first attempts to produce pure aluminium; the beginning of the industrial production of the metal and birth


id: american-beetles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Beetles-0.md
category: reference
title: American Beetles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Beetles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:24.383527+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-beetles-20260505-0
summary:
American Beetles is a comprehensive description of the beetles of North America north of the tropical area of Mexico. It was started by Ross H. Arnett, Jr. as an update of his classic The Beetles of the United States; along with Michael C. Thomas, he enlisted more than 60 specialists to write treatments of each family. The work outlived Arnett, and was published by CRC Press in 2001 (vol. 1) and 2002 (vol. 2). This is a highly technical book, with extensive references to the literature. The introduction includes a section on beetle anatomy that introduces all the technical terms used later. The bulk of the content consists of treatments of the 130-odd families known to occur in North America (a couple dozen are not known from North America, and are not described); the descriptive material applies worldwide, and there are brief notes about non-North American family members. A family treatment consists of a morphological description, including the larvae if known, habits and habitats, status of the classification, a key to the Nearctic genera (and sometimes species, if the family is small), and short treatments of the subtaxa. Every family gets at least one drawing of a member, and larger


id: encyclopedia-of-anthropology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Anthropology-0.md
category: reference
title: Encyclopedia of Anthropology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Anthropology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:25.512305+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: encyclopedia-of-anthropology-20260505-0
summary:
The Encyclopedia of Anthropology is an encyclopedia of anthropology edited by H. James Birx of Canisius College and SUNY Geneseo. The encyclopedia, published in 2006 by SAGE Publications, is in five volumes, and contains over 1,200 articles by more than 300 contributors. Entries include the main people, concepts, and theories, in anthropology, but also relevant topics from other disciplines, such as politics, psychology, linguistics, philosophy, and archaeology. == Sources and external links == H. James Birx [ed.] Encyclopedia of Anthropology (2006, SAGE Publications; ISBN 0-7619-3029-9) Reader's Guide — list of entries (PDF)


id: the-ants-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ants-0.md
category: reference
title: The Ants
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ants
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:26.641033+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-ants-20260505-0
summary:
The Ants is a zoology textbook by the German entomologist Bert Hölldobler and the American entomologist E. O. Wilson, first published in 1990. It won the Pulitzer Prize for General Nonfiction in 1991. == Contents == This book is primarily aimed at academics as a reference work, detailing the ants' anatomy, physiology, social organization including their caste system, altruistic behaviour, and chemical communication with pheromones, their ecology (vital for turning the soil and controlling insect pests), and natural history. An account of some of Hölldobler and Wilson's most interesting findings, popularized for the layman, can be found in their 1994 book Journey to the Ants. == Reception == The Science magazine reviewer described the book as a "mighty tome" and commented that it would "surely take its place among the greatest of all entomology books", as it was "a wonderful exploration of almost every ramification of evolutionary biology, from developmental biology to the structure of ecological communities". The illustrations are praised as lavish and extremely detailed, with monochrome drawings and 24 colour plates. All the 297 extant genera are illustrated and identifiable with the supplied keys. But "The Ants, like every great book and every ant colony, is much more


id: atlas-of-the-prehistoric-world-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlas_of_the_Prehistoric_World-0.md
category: reference
title: Atlas of the Prehistoric World
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlas_of_the_Prehistoric_World
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:27.837231+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: atlas-of-the-prehistoric-world-20260505-0
summary:
Atlas of the Prehistoric World is a book written by Douglas Palmer. It was published in 1999 by Random House, Inc. It covers the last 620 million years. == References ==


id: bibliography-of-encyclopedias-biology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_encyclopedias:_biology-0.md
category: reference
title: Bibliography of encyclopedias: biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_encyclopedias:_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:29.061385+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bibliography-of-encyclopedias-biology-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of encyclopedias as well as encyclopedic and biographical dictionaries published on the subject of biology in any language. Entries are in the English language unless specifically stated as otherwise. == General biology == Becher, Anne, Joseph Richey. American environmental leaders: From colonial times to the present. Grey House, 2008. ISBN 9781592371198. Butcher, Russell D., Stephen E. Adair, Lynn A. Greenwalt. America's national wildlife refuges: A complete guide. Roberts Rinehart Publishers in cooperation with Ducks Unlimited, 2003. ISBN 1570983798. Cullen, Katherine E. (2009). Encyclopedia of Life Science. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-7008-4. Ecological Internet, Inc. EcoEarth.info: Environment portal and search engine. Ecological Internet, Inc. [1]. Encyclopedia of Life Sciences. John Wiley & Sons. 25 May 2007. ISBN 978-0-470-06651-5. Encyclopedia of Life Sciences. Groves Dictionaries Incorporated. 1 November 2001. ISBN 978-1-56159-238-8. Friday, Adrian & Davis S. Ingram. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Life Sciences. Cambridge, 1985. Gaither, Carl C., Alma E. Cavazos-Gaither, Andrew Slocombe. Naturally speaking: A dictionary of quotations on biology, botany, nature and zoology. Institute of Physics, 2001. ISBN 0750306815. Gibson, Daniel, National Audubon Society. Audubon guide to the national wildlife refuges. Southwest: Arizona, Nevada, New Mexico, Texas. St. Martin's Griffin, 2000. ISBN 0312207778. Goudie, Andrew, David J.


id: bibliography-of-encyclopedias-biology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_encyclopedias:_biology-1.md
category: reference
title: Bibliography of encyclopedias: biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_encyclopedias:_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:29.061385+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bibliography-of-encyclopedias-biology-20260505-0
summary:
==== Animals ==== Audubon Society Encyclopedia of Animal Life. Clarkson N. Potter, 1982. Bekoff, Marc, Jane Goodall. Encyclopedia of animal behavior. Greenwood Press, 2004. ISBN 0313327459. Bruce, Jenni. The encyclopedia of animals: A complete visual guide. University of California Press, 2004. ISBN 0520244060. Burton, Maurice, Robert Burton. International wildlife encyclopedia. Marshall Cavendish, 2002. ISBN 0761472665. Encyclopedia of Animal Behavior. Facts on File, 1987. Encyclopedia of Animal Biology. Facts on File, 1987. Encyclopedia of Animal Ecology. Facts on File, 1987. Encyclopedia of Animal Evolution. Facts on File, 1987. Grzimek, Bernhard. Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia. Van Nostrand, 1972–1975. Grzimek's Encyclopedia of Ethology. Van Nostrand, 1972–1977. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Wildlife. Grey Castle Press, 1991. Knobil, Ernst and Jimmy D. Neill. Encyclopedia of reproduction. Academic Press, 1998. ISBN 0122270207. Macmillan Illustrated Animal Encyclopedia. Macmillan, 1984. Marshall Cavendish International Wildlife Encyclopedia. Marshall Cavendish, 1990. Nowak, Ronald M., David W. Macdonald, Roland W. Kays. Walker's carnivores of the world. Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005. ISBN 0801880335. The Oxford Companion to Animal Behaviour. Oxford, 1987. World Nature Encyclopedia. Raintree/Steck-Vaughn, 1989. ===== Aquatic ===== Banister, Keith & Andrew Campbell. The Encyclopedia of Aquatic Life. Facts on File, 1985. Dakin, Nick. Macmillan Book of the Marine Aquarium. Macmillan,


id: bibliography-of-encyclopedias-biology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_encyclopedias:_biology-2.md
category: reference
title: Bibliography of encyclopedias: biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_encyclopedias:_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:29.061385+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bibliography-of-encyclopedias-biology-20260505-0
summary:
===== Mammals ===== Beacham, Walton, Kirk H. Beetz. Beacham's guide to international endangered species. Beacham, 1998–2001. ISBN 0933833342. Elbroch, Mark. Mammal tracks and sign: A guide to North American species. Stackpole Books, 2003. ISBN 0811726266. Folkens, Pieter A., Randall R. Reeves, National Audubon Society. Guide to marine mammals of the world. A. A. Knopf, 2002. ISBN 0375411410. Grzimek, Bernhard. Grzimek's Encyclopedia of Mammals. McGraw-Hill, 2nd ed., 1990. ISBN 0079095089. Macdonald, David. Encyclopedia of Mammals. Facts on File, 2006. ISBN 0816064946. Mammals: A Multimedia Encyclopedia. National Geographic Society/IBM, 1990. Nowak, Ronald. Walker's Mammals of the World. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991. ISBN 0801857899. Reid, Fiona, National Audubon Society. A field guide to mammals of North America, north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin, 2006. ISBN 0395935962. Whitaker, John O., National Audubon Society. National Audubon Society field guide to North American mammals. Knopf, 1996. ISBN 0679446311. Wilson, Don E., Sue Ruff, American Society of Mammalogists. The Smithsonian book of North American mammals. Smithsonian Institution Press, 1999. ISBN 1560988452. ====== Canines ====== Alderton, David (September 2008). Encyclopedia of Dogs (Hardcover). Bath: Parragon Inc. p. 384. ISBN 978-1-4075-2438-2. American Kennel Club. The complete dog book: Official publication of the American Kennel Club. Ballantine Books, 2006. ISBN


id: bibliography-of-encyclopedias-biology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_encyclopedias:_biology-3.md
category: reference
title: Bibliography of encyclopedias: biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_encyclopedias:_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:29.061385+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bibliography-of-encyclopedias-biology-20260505-0
summary:
==== Plants ==== Bailey, Liberty Hyde & Ethel Zoe Bailey. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. Macmillan, 3rd ed., 1976. Barker, Joan. The encyclopedia of North American wild flowers. Parragon, 2004. ISBN 1405430354. Beckett, Kenneth A. The RHS Encyclopedia of House Plants Including Greenhouse Plants. Salem House, 1987. Brickell, Christopher. The American Horticultural Society Encyclopedia of Garden Plants. Macmillan, 1989. Brickell, Christopher, Trevor J. Cole, American Horticultural Society. American Horticultural Society encyclopedia of plants and flowers. DK Publishing, 2002. ISBN 0789489937. Burrows, George E. Toxic plants of North America. Wiley-Blackwell, 2012. ISBN 978-0-8138-2034-7, doi:10.1002/9781118413425. Dirr, Michael. Dirr's hardy trees and shrubs: An illustrated encyclopedia. Timber Press, 1997. ISBN 0881924040. Flora of North America Association. Flora of North America. Flora of North America Association. [17]. Flora of North America Editorial Committee. Flora of North America North of Mexico. Oxford University Press, 1993–2006. ISBN 0195057139. Gerard, John, Thomas Johnson. The herbal; or, General history of plants. Dover Publications, 1975. ISBN 048623147X. Graf, Alfred Byrd. Exotica Series 4 International: Pictorial Cyclopedia of Exotic Plants from Tropical and Near-Tropical Regions. Scribner's, 12th ed., 1985. Graf, Alfred Byrd. Hortica: A Color Cyclopedia of Garden Flora in All


id: bibliography-of-encyclopedias-biology-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_encyclopedias:_biology-4.md
category: reference
title: Bibliography of encyclopedias: biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_encyclopedias:_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:29.061385+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bibliography-of-encyclopedias-biology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Biochemistry === Scott, Thomas A. & Mary Brewer. Concise Encyclopedia of Biochemistry. Walter de Gruyter, 2nd ed., 1988. === Bioethics === Post, Stephen Garrard. Encyclopedia of bioethics. Third edition. Macmillan Reference USA, 2003. ISBN 0028657748. ISSN 0950-4125; DOI:10.1108/09504120510573477. (5-Volume Set; 3062 pages). Reich, Warren Thomas Encyclopedia of Bioethics. First edition. New York: Free Press, 1978. ISBN 0029261805. ISBN 978-0029261804. (4-Volume Set; 1933 pages) Reich, Warren Thomas Encyclopedia of Bioethics. Second edition. New York: Free Press, 1982. (5-Volume Set; 2950 pages) Reich, Warren Thomas Encyclopedia of Bioethics. Third edition. New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan, 1995; London: Simon and Schuster and Prentice Hall International, c1995. Rev. ed. (5-Volume Set; 2950 pages; 464 articles) ISBN 0028973550. ISBN 978-0028973555. === Food, nutrition, and agriculture === ==== Agriculture ==== American Veterinary Medical Association. AVMA: American Veterinary Medical Association. American Veterinary Medical Association, 2006-.[21]. Arntzen, Charles J. and Ellen M. Ritter. Encyclopedia of agricultural science. Academic Press, 1994. ISBN 0122266706. Bailey, Liberty Hyde. Cyclopedia of American agriculture. Macmillan, 1909. Bailey, L. H., Ethel Zoe Bailey, Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium. Hortus third: A concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United States and Canada. Macmillan, 1976. ISBN 0025054708. Bains, William. Biotechnology from A to Z.


id: bibliography-of-encyclopedias-biology-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_encyclopedias:_biology-5.md
category: reference
title: Bibliography of encyclopedias: biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_encyclopedias:_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:29.061385+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bibliography-of-encyclopedias-biology-20260505-0
summary:
===== Nutrition ===== Ensminger, Audrey H. Foods and Nutrition Encyclopedia. Pegus Press, 1983. Food for Health: A Nutrition Encyclopedia. Pegus Press, 1986. Margen, Sheldon. The Wellness Encyclopedia of Food and Nutrition: How to Buy, Store, and Prepare Every Variety of Fresh Food. Rebus, 1992. Mount Sinai School of Medicine Complete Book of Nutrition. St. Martin's Press, 1990. Tver, David F. and Percy Russell. Nutrition and Health Encyclopedia. 2nd ed., Van Nostrand, 1989. Winick, Myron. The Columbia Encyclopedia of Nutrition. Putnam, 1988. Yudin, John. Penguin Encyclopedia of Nutrition. Viking, 1985. ===== Wines, beers, and spirits ===== Alexis Lichine's New Encyclopedia of Wines and Spirits. 5th ed., Knopf, 1987. Grossman's Guide to Wines, Beers, & Spirits. 7th ed., Scribner's, 1983. Hugh Johnson's Modern Encyclopedia of Wine. 3rd ed., Simon & Schuster, 1991. Hugh Johnson's World Atlas of Wine. 3rd ed., Simon & Schuster, 1985. Robinson, Jancis. The Oxford companion to wine. Oxford University Press, 1999. ISBN 019866236X. Schoonmaker, Frank. The New Frank Schoonmaker Encyclopedia of Wine. Rev. ed., Morrow, 1988. === Health, medicine, and drugs === Adelman, George. Encyclopedia of Neuroscience. Birkhauser Boston, 1987. Fishbein, Morris. Fishbein's Illustrated Medical and Health Encyclopedia. H. S. Struttman, 1983. Who's who in medicine and healthcare.


id: bibliography-of-encyclopedias-biology-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_encyclopedias:_biology-6.md
category: reference
title: Bibliography of encyclopedias: biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_encyclopedias:_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:29.061385+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bibliography-of-encyclopedias-biology-20260505-0
summary:
==== Medicine ==== Bailey, Hamilton, W. J. Bishop, Harold Ellis. Bailey and Bishop's notable names in medicine and surgery. Lewis, 1983. ISBN 0718604660. Bendiner, Jessica, Elmer Bendiner. Biographical dictionary of medicine. Facts on File, 1990. ISBN 0816018642. Berkow, Robert. The Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy. 16th ed., Merck, 1992. Bremer, Sydney, Jeffrey H. Miller, William Broughton. Encyclopedia of genetics. Academic Press, 2002. ISBN 0122270800. Bynum, W. F., Helen Bynum. Dictionary of medical biography. Greenwood Press, 2006. ISBN 0313328773. Clayman, Charles B. The American Medical Association Encyclopedia of Medicine. Random House, 1989. Delves, Peter J., Ivan M. Roitt. Encyclopedia of immunology. Academic Press, 1998. ISBN 0122267656. Fischer, Isidor. Biographisches Lexikon der hervorragenden Ärzte der letzten 50 Jahre. 1932–33. Ganten, Detlev, Klaus Ruckpaul. Encyclopedic reference of genomics and proteomics in molecular medicine. Springer, 2005. ISBN 3540442448. Gomez, Joan. Dictionary of Symptoms. Rev. ed., Stein & Day, 1985. Griffith, H. Winter. Complete Guide to Symptoms, Illness & Surgery. 2nd ed., Price Stern Sloan, 1989. Hafner, Arthur Wayne, Fred W. Hunter, B. Michael Tarpey. Directory of deceased American physicians, 1804–1929: A genealogical guide to over 149,000 medical practitioners providing brief biographical sketches drawn from the American Medical Association's Deceased Physician Masterfile. American Medical


id: birds-of-north-america-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birds_of_North_America_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Birds of North America (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birds_of_North_America_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:40.826773+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: birds-of-north-america-book-20260505-0
summary:
Birds of North America is a comprehensive encyclopedia of bird species in the United States and Canada, with substantial articles about each species. It was first published as a series of 716 printed booklets, prepared by 863 authors, and made available as the booklets were completed from 1992 through 2003. The project was overseen by the American Ornithologists' Union in partnership with the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. In 2004, an online version of the encyclopedia, including audio and video resources, was produced and released by the Cornell Lab of Ornithology. Access is by personal or institutional subscription. == References ==


id: brehms-tierleben-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brehms_Tierleben-0.md
category: reference
title: Brehms Tierleben
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brehms_Tierleben
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:41.985437+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: brehms-tierleben-20260505-0
summary:
Brehms Tierleben (English title: Brehm's Animal Life) is a scientific reference book, first published in the 1860s by Alfred Edmund Brehm (1829–1884). It was one of the first modern popular zoological treatises. First published in German as a six volume work that was completed in 1869 it was published by the Bibliographisches Institut of Herrmann Julius Meyer with illustration directed by Robert Kretschmer. The second edition, completed in 1879 had ten volumes. It was translated into several European languages. == Publishing history == As a freelance writer, Brehm furnished popular-scientific magazines with essays and travelogues. Because of his success in doing this, in 1860 he was commissioned to write a six-volume zoological encyclopedia. Journeys to Abyssinia, Scandinavia and Siberia both interrupted and enriched the work. The first six volumes of the encyclopedia, published under the title Illustrirtes Thierleben, appeared from 1864 to 1869, published by the Bibliographisches Institut under Herrmann Julius Meyer. Illustrated under the direction of Robert Kretschmer (1818–1872), they met with wide approval from the educated bourgeoisie. As of the second edition, which consisted of ten volumes published from 1876 to 1879, the work was already titled Brehms Tierleben. The work made Brehm famous around the world and


id: the-complete-guide-to-prehistoric-life-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Complete_Guide_to_Prehistoric_Life-0.md
category: reference
title: The Complete Guide to Prehistoric Life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Complete_Guide_to_Prehistoric_Life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:43.116492+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-complete-guide-to-prehistoric-life-20260505-0
summary:
The Complete Guide to Prehistoric Life is a 2005 encyclopedia featuring 111 of the prehistoric animals from the Walking with... series, as well as an additional one (Homo floresiensis). It was published in 2005 by Firefly Books, and written by Tim Haines with Paul Chambers. It accompanies all of the main programs in the Walking with... series, including specials The Ballad of Big Al, The Giant Claw and Land of Giants but excluding Walking with Cavemen. == Contents == The book opens with an introduction by the authors reflecting on the making of the TV series. The book is then divided into three parts by era, first of which is The Rise of Life, which covers the Precambrian and the Paleozoic Era. The second part, The Age of Reptiles, covers the Mesozoic Era. The third and final part, The Age of Beasts, covers the Cenozoic Era. The book concludes with a timescale of life on earth, tree of life diagrams. == Reception == Stuart Sumida, writing in The Quarterly Review of Biology, stated that "The authors make a valiant attempt to clear locality and phylogenetic perspectives, but it is a mixed bag. They are properly up to date on the


id: dell-arcano-del-mare-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell'Arcano_del_Mare-0.md
category: reference
title: Dell'Arcano del Mare
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell'Arcano_del_Mare
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:46.654953+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dell-arcano-del-mare-20260505-0
summary:
Dell'Arcano del Mare by Sir Robert Dudley is a 17th-century maritime encyclopaedia, the sixth part of which comprises a maritime atlas of the entire world, which is the first such in print, the first made by an Englishman, and the first to use the Mercator projection. The work was first published in Italian at Florence in 1645 and 1646 in three folio volumes. Among other things, it is remarkable for its inclusion of a proposal for the construction of a navy in five rates (sizes) which Dudley designed and described. It was reprinted in Florence in a two volume folio edition in 1661 without the charts of the first edition. The seventh map is dedicated to Dudley's patrons, Ferdinando II de' Medici, the Grand Duke of Tuscany and the Grand Duchess of Tuscany Vittoria della Rovere. The map covers the northeast coast of South America, which Dudley had visited in 1594. The area depicted covers modern French Guiana, Guyana, and a small portion of Brazil. The map also depicts "Monoa", the area otherwise known as El Dorado. == Scope == The six-part work covered navigation, shipbuilding and astronomy, with 130 maps in two volumes (nos. 2 and 6) . Unlike


id: the-dinosauria-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dinosauria-0.md
category: reference
title: The Dinosauria
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dinosauria
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:47.839493+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-dinosauria-20260505-0
summary:
The Dinosauria is an encyclopedia on dinosaurs, edited by paleontologists David B. Weishampel, Peter Dodson, and Halszka Osmólska. It has been published in two editions by the University of California Press, with the first edition in 1990 and the second edition in 2004. The book is a single comprehensive text on dinosaurs, with the second edition revised and reorganized to reflect the substantial growth in dinosaur research over the elapsed time. == Content == The first edition of The Dinosauria includes 29 chapters organized into two sections, the first on "Dinosaur Relationships, Biology, and Distribution" and the second on "Dinosaur Taxonomy". This organization separates the book into a first section dedicated to topics that encompass Dinosauria as a whole, while the second focuses on individual taxa, organized by evolutionary group with a comprehensive description of anatomy, relationships, paleoecology, and other aspects of their biology. Each chapter is written by a paleontologist knowledgeable about the topic of group, edited and coordinated by American paleontologists David B. Weishampel and Peter Dodson, and Polish paleontologist Halszka Osmólska. Combined, 23 paleontologists from nine countries contributed to the first edition. The second edition of The Dinosauria revised and reorganized into 30 chapters organized into two


id: dinosaurs-holtz-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinosaurs_(Holtz_book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Dinosaurs (Holtz book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinosaurs_(Holtz_book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:48.989904+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dinosaurs-holtz-book-20260505-0
summary:
Dinosaurs (The Most Complete, Up-to-Date Encyclopedia for Dinosaur Lovers of All Ages) is a book by Thomas R. Holtz, Jr., with illustrations by Luis Rey. It was published in 2007 by Random House. The book received generally positive reviews upon release and garnered the nickname "The Dinosaur Bible". Holtz set up a companion website, which shares updates on new dinosaur discoveries. == References == == External links == Supplementary Information to Dinosaurs: The Most Complete, Up-to-Date Encyclopedia for Dinosaur Lovers of All Ages by Thomas R. Holtz, Jr., illustrations by Luis Rey Review in School Library Journal, November 21, 2007 Review in Science News, January 12, 2008 Listing in "Outstanding Science Trade Books for Students K–12: 2008 (Books published in 2007)" Archived 2010-08-10 at the Wayback Machine, National Science Teachers Association Parent's Choice Recommendation for Non-Fiction 2008 Archived 2009-03-09 at the Wayback Machine Listing in "Science Books for Fun and Learning — Some Recommendations from 2008" in Science magazine


id: encyclopaedia-of-the-social-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopaedia_of_the_Social_Sciences-0.md
category: reference
title: Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopaedia_of_the_Social_Sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:51.306967+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: encyclopaedia-of-the-social-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
The Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences is a specialized fifteen-volume Encyclopedia first published in 1930 and last published in 1967. It was envisaged in the 1920s by scholars working in disciplines which increasingly were coming to be known as "human sciences" or "social sciences". The goal was to create a comprehensive synthesis of the study of human affairs as undertaken by practitioners of all fields involved in such study. The parameters of what would come to be known as "social science" were in many ways initially established and defined by this publication. The Encyclopaedia's founding organizations included the American Anthropological Association, the American Association of Social Workers, the American Economic Association, the American Historical Association, the American Political Science Association, the American Psychological Association, the American Sociological Society, the American Statistical Association, the Association of American Law Schools, and the National Education Association. It was edited by American economists Edwin Robert Anderson Seligman and Alvin Saunders Johnson. Seligman and Johnson solicited contributions from many of the most known and respected scholars in their fields, and established many links with European scholars in the process. The Rockefeller Foundation, Carnegie Foundation, and Russell Sage Foundation provided initial financial support, and Macmillan was


id: encyclopedia-of-conifers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Conifers-0.md
category: reference
title: Encyclopedia of Conifers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Conifers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:53.591586+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: encyclopedia-of-conifers-20260505-0
summary:
Encyclopedia of Conifers. A Comprehensive Guide to Conifer Cultivars and Species is an encyclopedia written by Aris G. Auders and Derek P. Spicer, published in 2012. The two-volume, illustrated encyclopedia is a complete reference book covering all recognised conifer cultivars and species, both hardy and tropical. The 1,500-page work features names, synonyms, and brief descriptions, as well as information about height and spread after 10 years, where known, for over 8,000 cultivars and all 615 conifer species, plus their subspecies and varieties. Apart from the descriptive text, it is illustrated with more than 5,000 photographs. == Publication history == The Encyclopedia of Conifers was written by Aris G. Auders, a conifer collector and photographer from Latvia, and Derek P. Spicer, Chairman of the British Conifer Society. The authors have been assisted by Lawrie Springate, RHS International Conifer Cultivar Registrar (2004–2009) and Victoria Matthews, RHS International Registrar. The publisher is Kingsblue Publishing Limited. == Illustration and design == Photography by the authors shows the general appearance of the plants, and in many cases detail special features. Many were photographed in summer and winter to show colour and texture changes through the seasons. == References == == External links == Official website


id: encyclopedia-of-cybernetics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Cybernetics-0.md
category: reference
title: Encyclopedia of Cybernetics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Cybernetics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:54.774293+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: encyclopedia-of-cybernetics-20260505-0
summary:
The Encyclopedia of Cybernetics (Ukrainian: Енциклопедія кібернетики) is a Ukrainian language encyclopedia of computer science first published in Kyiv in 1973, with Victor Glushkov serving as its chief editor. The encyclopedia comprises two volumes containing over 1700 articles, primarily on topics in theoretical computer science, systems science, information theory, optimization and control theory. The articles were composed by some 600 scientists from various disciplines, affiliated with 102 educational and industrial institutions located throughout the Soviet Union. In 1974 the encyclopedia was translated into Russian. == Authors == About 600 scientists and specialists in various fields of knowledge from 102 scientific and industrial institutions of the Soviet Union took part in the creation of encyclopedia. Among them are such well-known scientists as: Alexey Ivakhnenko Anatoliy Skorokhod Kateryna Yuschenko Eduard Skorokhodko == See also == International Encyclopedia of Systems and Cybernetics Ukrainian Soviet Encyclopedia Science and technology in Ukraine == Links == cyberua.info/novyny/persha-encyklopedija-kibernetyky-2t-ukr-red-vhlushkov-1973/ online (accessed 26.04.2016) (in Ukrainian) Myroslav Kratko The creation of the Ukrainian-language Encyclopedia of Cybernetics, www.istpravda.com.ua/digest/2011/02/7/22204/view_print/ online (accessed 26.04.2016) (in Ukrainian) == References ==


id: encyclopedia-of-earth-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Earth-0.md
category: reference
title: Encyclopedia of Earth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Earth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:55.948063+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: encyclopedia-of-earth-20260505-0
summary:
The Encyclopedia of Earth (EoE) is an electronic reference about the Earth, its natural environments, and their interaction with society. The Encyclopedia is described as a free, fully searchable collection of articles written by scholars, professionals, educators, and other approved experts, who collaborate and review each other's work. The articles are written in non-technical language and are intended to be useful to students, educators, scholars, and professionals, as well as to the general public. The authors, editors, and even copy editors are attributed on the articles with links to biographical pages on those individuals. The Encyclopedia of Earth is a component of the larger Earth Portal (part of the Digital Universe project), which is a constellation of subject-specific information portals that contain news services, structured metadata, a federated environmental search engine, and other information resources. The technology platform for the Encyclopedia of Earth is a modified version of MediaWiki, which is closed to all but approved users. Once an article is reviewed and approved it is published to a public site. The EoE was launched in September 2006 with about 360 articles, growing to 2,300 articles by mid-2007, and as of 30 November 2010, it had 7,678 articles. There are


id: encyclopedia-of-earth-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Earth-1.md
category: reference
title: Encyclopedia of Earth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Earth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:28:55.948063+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: encyclopedia-of-earth-20260505-0
summary:
== Organization and people == The Encyclopedia of Earth is being created by the Environmental Information Coalition (EIC), an open membership group of scientists, educators, and organizations. The EIC defines the roles and responsibilities for individuals and institutions involved in the Coalition, as well as the editorial guidelines for the Encyclopedia. An EIC Stewardship Committee functions as the primary working group that develops and enforces policies and guidelines for the Encyclopedia, with input from Topic Editors and Authors. The Secretariat for the EIC is the National Council for Science and the Environment (NCSE), based in Washington D.C., USA. NCSE is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization with a mission "to improve the scientific basis for environmental decisionmaking" and "specializes in programs that foster collaboration between diverse institutions, communities and individuals. We work closely with those creating and using environmental knowledge, including research, education, environmental, and business organizations, as well as governmental bodies at all levels." The Stewardship Committee comprises: Arnold Bloom, University of California at Davis Nancy Golubiewski, Auckland Council Jennifer Hammock, Smithsonian/Encyclopedia of Life Andy Jorgensen, University of Toledo Ida Kubiszewski, Australian National University Mark McGinley, Lingnan University Emily Monosson Michael Pidwirny, University of British Columbia Okanagan The International Advisory Board


