# kb

id: list-of-commonly-used-taxonomic-affixes-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_commonly_used_taxonomic_affixes-3.md
category: reference
title: List of commonly used taxonomic affixes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_commonly_used_taxonomic_affixes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:20:49.524905+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-commonly-used-taxonomic-affixes-20260505-0
summary:
Examples: Dilophosaurus ('two-crested lizard'); Brachylophosaurus ('short-crested lizard'); Saurolophus ('lizard crest'); Teinolophos ('extended crest'); Lophoceros ('crest horn') lyco-: Pronunciation: /lɪkoʊ/. Origin: Ancient Greek: λύκος (lýkos). Meaning: wolf. Examples: Lycopodium ('wolf foot'); Lycodon ('wolf tooth'); Lycoperdon ('wolf fart') macro-: Pronunciation: /mækroʊ/. Origin: Ancient Greek: μακρός (makrós). Meaning: (correctly) long; (usually) large. Examples: macropod ('big foot'); Macrodontophion ('big tooth snake'); Macrogryphosaurus ('big enigmatic lizard') -maia, maia-: Pronunciation: /meiə/ Origin: Ancient Greek: Μαῖα (Maîa). Meaning: Originally the mother of Hermes in Greek mythology and the goddess of growth in Roman mythology, alternatively spelled Maja. Frequently used to indicate maternal roles, this word should not be construed as translating directly to 'mother' (Latin māter; Ancient Greek μήτηρ mḗtēr); aside from being a proper name, in Ancient Greek 'maîa' can translate to 'midwife' or 'foster mother' and was used as an honorific address for older women, typically translated into English as 'Good Mother'. Examples: Maiasaura ('Good Mother/Maia's lizard'); Eomaia ('dawn Maia'); Juramaia ('Jurassic Maia'); Maiacetus ('mother whale') mega-, megalo-: Pronunciation: /mɛga/, /mɛgaloʊ̯/. Origin: Ancient Greek: μέγας, μεγάλη (mégas, megálē). Meaning: big/great. Examples: Megarachne ('great spider'); Megalosaurus ('great lizard'); megalodon ('great tooth'); Megaloceros ('great horn') micro-: Pronunciation: /maɪkroʊ̯/. Origin: Ancient Greek: μικρός (mikrós). Meaning: 'small'. Examples: Microraptor


id: list-of-commonly-used-taxonomic-affixes-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_commonly_used_taxonomic_affixes-4.md
category: reference
title: List of commonly used taxonomic affixes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_commonly_used_taxonomic_affixes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:20:49.524905+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-commonly-used-taxonomic-affixes-20260505-0
summary:
Used for early appearances in the fossil record. Examples: Protoceratops ('first horned face'); Protognathosaurus ('first jaw lizard'); Protohadros ('first hadrosaur') psittaco-, -psitta: Pronunciation: /sitɑːkoʊ/, /psitə/. Origin: Ancient Greek ψιττακός (psittakós). Meaning: parrot. 'Psittaco-' is used for parrot-like creatures, while the suffix 'psitta' is used for parrots. Examples: Psittacosaurus ('parrot lizard'); Cyclopsitta ('Cyclops parrot'); Xenopsitta ('strange parrot'); Psittaciformes ('parrot form') pter-, ptero-, -pterus, pteryg-, -ptera, -pteryx. Pronunciation: /ter/, /teroʊ/, /pterəs/, /terɪg/, /pterə/, /pterɪx/. Origin: Ancient Greek πτέρυξ, πτέρυγος (pterux, ptérugos). Meaning: wing, of a wing, respectively. Used for many winged creatures, but also expanded to mean 'fin', and used for many undersea arthropods. The suffix '-ptera' is also used in orders of winged insects. Examples: Brachypterygius ('short finned'); Brachyptera ('short wing'); Pteranodon ('toothless wing'); Pterodactylus ('winged finger'); Eurypterus ('wide wing' or fin); Pterygotus ('winged' or finned); Coleoptera ('sheathed wing'); Camaroptera ('arched wing'); Archaeopteryx ('ancient wing'); Stenopterygius ('narrow finned'); Lepidoptera ('scaled wing'); Chiroptera ('hand wing'); Dermoptera ('skin wing'); Raphidioptera ('needle wing'); Rhomboptera ('rhombus wing'); Orthoptera ('straight wing'); Mecoptera ('long wing'); Delphinapterus ('dolphin fin'); Megaloptera ('great wing'); Megaptera ('great fin'); Neopterygii ('new fin'); Titanoptera ('Titan wing'); Sarcopterygii ('flesh fin'); Actinopterygii ('ray fin'); Neuroptera ('net wing') -pus: see -pod, -podo-, -pus. -raptor, raptor-: Pronunciation:


id: list-of-commonly-used-taxonomic-affixes-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_commonly_used_taxonomic_affixes-5.md
category: reference
title: List of commonly used taxonomic affixes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_commonly_used_taxonomic_affixes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:20:49.524905+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-commonly-used-taxonomic-affixes-20260505-0
summary:
Examples: Xenosmilus ('strange knife'); Xenotarsosaurus ('strange ankled lizard'); Xenopsitta ('strange parrot'); Xenocyon ('strange dog'); Xenokeryx ('strange horn'); Xenostega ('strange roof'); Xenozancla ('strange animal'); Xenodermus ('strange skin'); Xenopus ('strange foot'); Xenops ('strange face') -zoon, -zoa: Pronunciation: /zoʊɑːn/, /zoʊə/. Origin: Ancient Greek ζῷον (zōion). Meaning: animal. Used for broad categories of animals, or in certain names of animals. Examples: Metazoa ('encompassing animals'); Parazoa ('near animals'); Ecdysozoa ('moulting animals'); Yunnanozoon ('animal from Yunnan'); Yuyuanozoon ('animal from Yu Yuan'); Hydrozoa ('water animals'); Spermatozoon ('seed animal'); Echinozoa ('hedgehog animals'); Asterozoa ('star animals'); Trilobozoa ('three-lobed animals'); Placozoa ('plate animals'); Amoebozoa ('amoeba animals') == References == == See also == List of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names List of Greek and Latin roots in English List of Latin words with English derivatives List of medical roots, suffixes and prefixes


id: list-of-u-s-state-fossils-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_fossils-0.md
category: reference
title: List of U.S. state fossils
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_fossils
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:20:50.696926+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-u-s-state-fossils-20260505-0
summary:
Most states in the US have designated a state fossil, many during the 1980s. It is common to designate a fossilized species, rather than a single specimen or a category of fossils. State fossils are distinct from other state emblems like state dinosaurs, state stones, state minerals, state gemstones or state rocks and a state may designate one, a few, or all of those. For example, in Arizona, the state stone is turquoise and the state dinosaur is Sonorasaurus thompsoni yet the state fossil is petrified wood. The two first states to designate a state fossil were Nebraska and North Dakota, both in 1967. Six states and the District of Columbia as of March 10th, 2026 still lack an explicit state fossil: Arkansas: There is no state fossil in Arkansas, though the state designated Arkansaurus as its state dinosaur. District of Columbia: Capitalsaurus is the state dinosaur of Washington D.C., but the District has not chosen a state fossil. Florida: There is no state fossil in Florida, though agatised coral, which is a fossil, is the state stone. Hawaii: In history, Hawaii is too young to have many fossils, and its igneous composition makes fossils harder to find. The government


id: white-river-fauna-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_River_Fauna-0.md
category: reference
title: White River Fauna
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_River_Fauna
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:20:52.012385+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: white-river-fauna-20260505-0
summary:
The White River Fauna are fossil animals found in the White River Group of South Dakota, North Dakota, Wyoming, Colorado and Nebraska in the United States. In southwest South Dakota and northwest Nebraska, these fossils are characteristic of the White River Badlands (including Badlands National Park), though they can be found far beyond the limits of the White River watershed. In Wyoming, the White River Group is undifferentiated, and is more commonly known as the White River Formation. Further east in Nebraska and South Dakota, the group is divided into the Chadron Formation (lower part) and Brule Formation (upper part). Exposures are less well-investigated in northeast Colorado and scattered sites across western North Dakota. The White River Group is overlain by the Sharps Formation in Badlands National Park and the Arikaree Group in northwest Nebraska. Animals from the White River Group date from the Eocene and Oligocene epochs. The fauna is representative of four North American Land Mammal Ages (NALMAs): Arikareean (late Oligocene - early Miocene, 29.5 - 18.5 million years ago) Whitneyan (mid-Oligocene, 31.8 - 29.5 million years ago) Orellan (early Oligocene, 33.9 - 31.8 million years ago) Chadronian (late Eocene, 37 - 33.9 million years ago) == Birds


id: list-of-philosophical-organizations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophical_organizations-0.md
category: reference
title: List of philosophical organizations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophical_organizations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:20:54.796861+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-philosophical-organizations-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of philosophical organizations and societies. Academia Analitica American Association of Philosophy Teachers American Catholic Philosophical Association American Ethical Union American Philosophical Association American Philosophical Society American Society for Aesthetics American Society for Political and Legal Philosophy Animal Rights Cambridge Arché (research center) Aristotelian Society Association for Logic, Language and Information Association for Symbolic Logic Association for the Scientific Study of Consciousness Australasian Association of Philosophy Batavian Society for Experimental Philosophy British Philosophical Association British Society for Ethical Theory British Society of Aesthetics Café Philosophique Cambridge Philosophical Society Canadian House of Commons Standing Committee on Access to Information, Privacy and Ethics Canadian Philosophical Association Canadian Society for History and Philosophy of Mathematics Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs Center for Ethics at Yeshiva University Center for Religion, Ethics and Social Policy Center for the Study of Ethics in the Professions Centre de Recherche en Epistémologie Appliquée Centre for Applied Ethics Centre for Applied Philosophy and Public Ethics (CAPPE) Centre for History and Philosophy of Science, University of Leeds Charity International Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington Commission on Federal Ethics Law Reform Committee on Publication Ethics Computer Ethics Institute Concerned Philosophers for Peace Conscious enterprise


id: list-of-philosophies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophies-0.md
category: reference
title: List of philosophies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:20:56.166227+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-philosophies-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of philosophies, schools of thought and philosophical movements. == A == Absurdism – Academic skepticism – Accelerationism - Achintya Bheda Abheda – Action, philosophy of – Actual idealism – Actualism – Advaita Vedanta – Aesthetic Realism – Aesthetics – African philosophy – Afrocentrism – Agential realism – Agnosticism – Agnostic theism – Ajātivāda – Ājīvika – Ajñana – Alexandrian school – Alexandrists – Ambedkarism – American philosophy – Analytical Thomism – Analytic philosophy – Anarchism – Ancient philosophy – Animism – Anomalous monism – Anthropocentrism – Antinatalism – Antinomianism – Antipositivism – Anti-psychiatry – Anti-realism – Antireductionism – Applied ethics – Archaeology, philosophy of – Aristotelianism – Arithmetic, philosophy of – Artificial intelligence, philosophy of – Art, philosophy of – Asceticism – Atheism – Atomism – Augustinianism – Australian realism – Authoritarianism – Averroism – Avicennism – Axiology – Aztec philosophy == B == Baptists – Bayesianism – Behaviorism – Bioconservatism – Biology, philosophy of – Biosophy – Bluestocking – Brahmoism – British idealism – Budapest School – Buddhist atomism – Buddhist philosophy – Business philosophy == C == Cambridge Platonists – Cambridge Ritualists – Capitalism – Carlyleanism – Carolingian Renaissance – Cartesianism – Categorical


id: list-of-philosophies-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophies-1.md
category: reference
title: List of philosophies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:20:56.166227+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-philosophies-20260505-0
summary:
== N == Naïve realism – Naturalism – Natural Science, philosophy of – Natural Supernaturalism – Nature, philosophy of – Nazism – Negative utilitarianism – Neo-Confucianism – Neoconservatism – Neo-Hegelianism – Neohumanism – Neoliberalism – Neo-Luddism – Neo-Kantianism – Neo-Marxism – Neo-medievalism – Neoplatonism – Neopositivism – Neopragmatism – Neopythagoreanism – Neoromanticism – Neo-Scholasticism – Neostoicism – Neotaoism – Neo Vedanta – Neuroethics – Neurophilosophy – Neuroscience, philosophy of – Neurotheology – Neutral monism – New Age – New Criticism – New Culture Movement – New Formalism – New humanism (literature) – New Life Movement – New realism – New Thought – Nichiren Buddhism – Nihilism – Nominalism – Non-cognitivism – Nondualism – Non-philosophy – Non-theism – Nyaya == O == Objective idealism – Objectivism – Occamism – Occasionalism – Olympism – Ontology – Ontotheology – Open individualism – Organicism – Oxford Calculators – Oxford Franciscan school == P == Paganism – Pakistani philosophy – Panbabylonism – Pancasila – Pancritical rationalism – Pandeism – Panentheism – Panpsychism – Pantheism – Pataphysics – Perception, philosophy of – Perennial philosophy – Perfectionism – Peripatetic school – Personalism – Perspectivism – Pessimism – Phenomenalism – Phenomenology – Philosophes – Philosophical anthropology – Philosophy,


id: the-void-in-art-and-media-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Void_in_art_and_media-0.md
category: reference
title: The Void in art and media
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Void_in_art_and_media
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:20:57.417985+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-void-in-art-and-media-20260505-0
summary:
Representation or portrayals of the notion of The Void can be found in popular culture: including visual art, performance art, music, literature and film and video games. In 2011, the Tate Museum in London presented an exhibition titled, Nothing Works: The Void, examining works that spanned over a century, including early 20th century works such as a 1918 work by the painter Kasimir Malevich, and a 1919 work by Marcel Duchamp, mid-century works by conceptual artist, Michael Asher, as well as late 20th century and early 21st-century contemporary artworks. In 2013, the Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago hosted the exhibition, Destroy the Picture: Painting The Void, 1949-1962, featuring paintings that represented or referred to "the void." The exhibition included the work of 100 artists; the curatorial premise defined the concept of the void as "one of the most significant developments in contemporary abstract painting." The curators posit that artists were attracted to the subject as a result of an existential crisis after the use of the first atomic weapons in Japan during WWII. In 2020, the Museum of Modern Art, New York further developed the theme in the exhibition, Touching the Void, curated with works from the museum's permanent collection


id: index-of-physics-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_physics_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of physics articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_physics_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:20:58.869214+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-physics-articles-20260505-0
summary:
Physics (Greek: physis–φύσις meaning "nature") is the natural science which examines basic concepts such as mass, charge, matter and its motion and all that derives from these, such as energy, force and spacetime. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the world and universe behave. The index of physics articles is split into multiple pages due to its size. To navigate by individual letter use the table of contents below. == See also == List of basic physics topics == References ==


id: outline-of-physics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_physics-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:00.100277+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-physics-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to physics: Physics – natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion through spacetime, along with related concepts such as energy and force. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves. == What type of subject is physics? == Physics can be described as all of the following: An academic discipline – one with academic departments, curricula and degrees; national and international societies; and specialized journals. A scientific field (a branch of science) – widely recognized category of specialized expertise within science, and typically embodies its own terminology and nomenclature. Such a field will usually be represented by one or more scientific journals, where peer-reviewed research is published. A natural science – one that seeks to elucidate the rules that govern the natural world using empirical and scientific methods. A physical science – one that studies non-living systems. A biological science – one that studies the role of physical processes in living organisms. See Outline of biophysics. == Branches == Astronomy – studies the universe beyond Earth, including its formation and development, and the evolution,


id: outline-of-physics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_physics-1.md
category: reference
title: Outline of physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:00.100277+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-physics-20260505-0
summary:
== History == History of physics – history of the physical science that studies matter and its motion through space-time, and related concepts such as energy and force Physics in the medieval Islamic world European science in the Middle Ages History of science and technology in China History of Indian science and technology === History of fields of physics === History of acoustics – history of the study of mechanical waves in solids, liquids, and gases (such as vibration and sound) History of agrophysics – history of the study of physics applied to agroecosystems History of astrophysics – history of the study of the physical aspects of celestial objects History of astronomy – history of the studies the universe beyond Earth, including its formation and development, and the evolution, physics, chemistry, meteorology, and motion of celestial objects (such as galaxies, planets, etc.) and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth (such as the cosmic background radiation). History of astrodynamics – history of the application of ballistics and celestial mechanics to the practical problems concerning the motion of rockets and other spacecraft. History of astrometry – history of the branch of astronomy that involves precise measurements of the positions and


id: outline-of-physics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_physics-2.md
category: reference
title: Outline of physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:00.100277+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-physics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Ingredients === physical system - a collection of objects under study, physical observation - the study physical quantity - a quantified property of an object unit of measure - a standard quantity used to compare observations mathematical model - an abstract description of a system physical experiment - an intervention designed to test a model physical constant - a quantified property with no known model physical law - a broadly and thoroughly tested model === Basic principles === Physics – branch of science that studies matter and its motion through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. Physics is one of the "fundamental sciences" because the other natural sciences (like biology, geology etc.) deal with systems that seem to obey the laws of physics. According to physics, the physical laws of matter, energy and the fundamental forces of nature govern the interactions between particles and physical entities (such as planets, molecules, atoms or the subatomic particles). Some of the basic pursuits of physics, which include some of the most prominent developments in modern science in the last millennium, include: Describing the nature, measuring and quantifying of bodies and their motion, dynamics etc. Newton's laws


id: list-of-accelerators-in-particle-physics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_accelerators_in_particle_physics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of accelerators in particle physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_accelerators_in_particle_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:01.364848+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-accelerators-in-particle-physics-20260505-0
summary:
A list of particle accelerators used for particle physics experiments. Some early particle accelerators that more properly did nuclear physics, but existed prior to the separation of particle physics from that field, are also included. Although a modern accelerator complex usually has several stages of accelerators, only accelerators whose output has been used directly for experiments are listed. == Early accelerators == These all used single beams with fixed targets. They tended to have very briefly run, inexpensive, and unnamed experiments. === Cyclotrons === [1] The magnetic pole pieces and return yoke from the 60-inch cyclotron were later moved to UC Davis and incorporated into a 76-inch isochronous cyclotron which is still in use today === Other early accelerator types === === Synchrotrons === == Fixed-target accelerators == More modern accelerators that were also run in fixed target mode; often, they will also have been run as colliders, or accelerated particles for use in subsequently built colliders. === High intensity hadron accelerators (Meson and neutron sources) === === Electron and low intensity hadron accelerators === == Colliders == === Electron–positron colliders === === Hadron colliders === === Electron–proton colliders === == Light sources == == Hypothetical accelerators == Besides the


id: list-of-american-physical-society-prizes-and-awards-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_American_Physical_Society_prizes_and_awards-0.md
category: reference
title: List of American Physical Society prizes and awards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_American_Physical_Society_prizes_and_awards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:02.547027+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-american-physical-society-prizes-and-awards-20260505-0
summary:
The American Physical Society gives out a number of awards for research excellence and conduct; topics include outstanding leadership, computational physics, lasers, mathematics, and more. == Prizes == === David Adler Lectureship Award in the Field of Materials Physics === The David Adler Lectureship Award in the Field of Materials Physics is a prize that has been awarded annually by the American Physical Society since 1988. The recipient is chosen for being "an outstanding contributor to the field of materials physics, who is noted for the quality of his/her research, review articles and lecturing." The prize is named after physicist David Adler with contributions to the endowment by friends of David Adler and Energy Conversion Devices, Inc. The winner receives a $5,000 honorarium. === Will Allis Prize for the Study of Ionized Gases === Will Allis Prize for the Study of Ionized Gases is awarded biannually "for outstanding contributions to understanding the physics of partially ionized plasmas and gases" in honour of Will Allis. The $10000 prize was founded in 1989 by contributions from AT&T, General Electric, GTE, International Business Machines, and Xerox Corporations. === Early Career Award for Soft Matter Research === This award recognizes outstanding and sustained contributions


id: list-of-american-physical-society-prizes-and-awards-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_American_Physical_Society_prizes_and_awards-1.md
category: reference
title: List of American Physical Society prizes and awards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_American_Physical_Society_prizes_and_awards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:02.547027+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-american-physical-society-prizes-and-awards-20260505-0
summary:
=== Mildred Dresselhaus Prize in Nanoscience or Nanomaterials === Mildred Dresselhaus Prize in Nanoscience or Nanomaterials was first awarded in 2023. It honours the legacy of Mildred Dresselhaus, and is awarded for an "outstanding scientist in the areas of nanoscience or nanomaterials". The first recipient of the price was Eva Andrei. === George E. Duvall Shock Compression Science Award === George E. Duvall Shock Compression Science Award was established in 1987 "to recognize contributions to understanding condensed matter and non-linear physics through shock compression." It is awarded biannually. === Einstein Prize === The Einstein Prize was established in 1999 to recognize outstanding accomplishments in the field of gravitational physics. It is awarded in odd-numbered years. === Prize for a Faculty Member for Research in an Undergraduate Institution === Prize for a Faculty Member for Research in an Undergraduate Institution is awarded annually since 1986 to a "physicist whose research in an undergraduate setting has achieved wide recognition and contributed significantly to physics and who has contributed substantially to the professional development of undergraduate physics students". === Herman Feshbach Prize in Theoretical Nuclear Physics === The Herman Feshbach Prize in Theoretical Nuclear Physics was inaugurated in 2014 and is awarded annually


id: list-of-american-physical-society-prizes-and-awards-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_American_Physical_Society_prizes_and_awards-2.md
category: reference
title: List of American Physical Society prizes and awards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_American_Physical_Society_prizes_and_awards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:02.547027+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-american-physical-society-prizes-and-awards-20260505-0
summary:
=== Lars Onsager Prize in Statistical Physics === The Lars Onsager Prize recognizes outstanding research in theoretical statistical physics including the quantum fluids. The prize consists of $10,000 as well as a certificate citing the contribution made by the recipient. It is presented annually, beginning in 1997. The prize was endowed in 1993 by Drs. Russell and Marian Donnelly in memory of Lars Onsager and his passion for analytical results. === Abraham Pais Prize for History of Physics === The Abraham Pais Prize for History of Physics is given jointly by the American Physical Society and the American Institute of Physics for "outstanding scholarly achievements in the history of physics". The prize, named after physicist and historian Abraham Pais, has been awarded annually since 2005. === George E. Pake Prize === The George E. Pake Prize was established in 1983 to recognize outstanding work by physicists combining original research accomplishments with leadership in the management of research or development in industry. The prize is presented biennially in even-numbered years. === Panofsky Prize in Experimental Particle Physics === The Panofsky Prize is an annual prize, established in 1985, given to recognize and encourage outstanding achievements in experimental particle physics. === Francis


id: list-of-second-moments-of-area-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_second_moments_of_area-0.md
category: reference
title: List of second moments of area
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_second_moments_of_area
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:03.792918+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-second-moments-of-area-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of second moments of area of some shapes. The second moment of area, also known as area moment of inertia, is a geometrical property of an area which reflects how its points are distributed with respect to an arbitrary axis. The unit of dimension of the second moment of area is length to fourth power, L4, and should not be confused with the mass moment of inertia. If the piece is thin, however, the mass moment of inertia equals the area density times the area moment of inertia. == Second moments of area == Please note that for the second moment of area equations in the below table: I x = ∬ A y 2 d x d y {\displaystyle I_{x}=\iint _{A}y^{2}\,dx\,dy} and I y = ∬ A x 2 d x d y . {\displaystyle I_{y}=\iint _{A}x^{2}\,dx\,dy.} == Parallel axis theorem == The parallel axis theorem can be used to determine the second moment of area of a rigid body about any axis, given the body's second moment of area about a parallel axis through the body's centroid, the area of the cross section, and the perpendicular distance (d) between the axes. I x


id: list-of-atmospheric-optical-phenomena-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_atmospheric_optical_phenomena-0.md
category: reference
title: List of atmospheric optical phenomena
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_atmospheric_optical_phenomena
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:05.078924+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-atmospheric-optical-phenomena-20260505-0
summary:
Atmospheric optical phenomena include: Afterglow Airglow Alexander's band, the dark region between the two bows of a double rainbow. Alpenglow Anthelion Anticrepuscular rays Aurora (northern and southern lights, aurora borealis and aurora australis) Belt of Venus Brocken Spectre Circumhorizontal arc Circumzenithal arc Cloud iridescence Crepuscular rays Earth's shadow Earthquake lights Glories Green flash Halos, of Sun or Moon, including sun dogs Haze Heiligenschein or halo effect, partly caused by the opposition effect Ice blink Light pillar Lightning Mirages (including Fata Morgana) Monochrome Rainbow Moon dog Moonbow Nacreous cloud/Polar stratospheric cloud Rainbow Sprite (lightning) Subsun Sun dog Tangent arc Tyndall effect Upper-atmospheric lightning, including red sprites, Blue jets, and ELVES Water sky == See also == == References ==


id: list-of-baryons-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_baryons-0.md
category: reference
title: List of baryons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_baryons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:06.625794+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-baryons-20260505-0
summary:
Baryons are composite particles made of three quarks, as opposed to mesons, which are composite particles made of an equal number of quarks and antiquarks. Baryons and mesons are both hadrons, which are particles composed solely of quarks or both quarks and antiquarks. The term baryon is derived from the Greek "βαρύς" (barys), meaning "heavy", because, at the time of their naming, it was believed that baryons were characterized by having greater masses than other particles that were classed as matter. Pentaquarks are exotic baryons composed of four quarks and one antiquark. In 2015, the LHCb collaboration at CERN definitively reported the observation of pentaquark states in the decay of bottom lambda baryons (Λ0b). Since then, additional pentaquark states have been discovered, including new observations in 2019 and 2022. While primarily created in laboratory conditions, pentaquarks might also form naturally during neutron star formation. Since baryons are composed of quarks, they participate in the strong interaction. Leptons, on the other hand, are not composed of quarks and as such do not participate in the strong interaction. The best known baryons are protons and neutrons, which make up most of the mass of the visible matter in the universe, whereas electrons,


id: list-of-books-on-popular-physics-concepts-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_books_on_popular_physics_concepts-0.md
category: reference
title: List of books on popular physics concepts
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_books_on_popular_physics_concepts
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:07.857060+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-books-on-popular-physics-concepts-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of books which talk about things related to current day physics or physics as it would be in the future. There a number of books that have been penned about specific physics concepts, e.g. quantum mechanics or kinematics, and many other books which discuss physics in general, i.e. not focussing on a single topic. There are also books that encourage beginners to enjoy physics by making them look at it from different angles. Capra, Fritjof (1999). The Tao of physics : an exploration of the parallels between modern physics and Eastern mysticism (4th, updated ed.). Boston: Shambhala. ISBN 1-57062-519-0. Chandrasekhar, S. (1958). An introduction to the study of stellar structure. [Republication]. New York: Dover. ISBN 978-0486604138. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) Feynman, Richard P.; Leighton, Robert B.; Sands, Matthew (2009). The Feynman lectures on physics : the definitive and extended edition (2nd ed.). San Francisco, Calif.: Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0805390452. — (1997). "Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman!" : adventures of a curious character (1st Norton pbk. ed.). New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 978-0393316049. Greene, Brian (2000). The Elegant Universe: Superstrings, Hidden Dimensions, and the Quest for the Ultimate Theory (1. Vintage Books ed.). New York:


id: list-of-centroids-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_centroids-0.md
category: reference
title: List of centroids
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_centroids
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:09.084865+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-centroids-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of centroids of various two-dimensional and three-dimensional objects. The centroid of an object X {\displaystyle X} in n {\displaystyle n} -dimensional space is the intersection of all hyperplanes that divide X {\displaystyle X} into two parts of equal moment about the hyperplane. Informally, it is the "average" of all points of X {\displaystyle X} . For an object of uniform composition, or in other words, has the same density at all points, the centroid of a body is also its center of mass. In the case of two-dimensional objects shown below, the hyperplanes are simply lines. == 2-D Centroids == For each two-dimensional shape below, the area and the centroid coordinates ( x ¯ , y ¯ ) {\displaystyle ({\bar {x}},{\bar {y}})} are given: Where the centroid coordinates are marked as zero, the coordinates are at the origin, and the equations to get those points are the lengths of the included axes divided by two, in order to reach the center which in these cases are the origin and thus zero. == 3-D Centroids == For each three-dimensional body below, the volume and the centroid coordinates ( x ¯ , y ¯ , z ¯


id: list-of-cern-scientific-committees-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_CERN_Scientific_Committees-0.md
category: reference
title: List of CERN Scientific Committees
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_CERN_Scientific_Committees
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:10.368207+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cern-scientific-committees-20260505-0
summary:
Proposals for experiments are made at CERN and have to go through the correct channels in order to be approved. One of the last steps in the process is to submit the proposal to an appropriate CERN Scientific Committee. The committees will discuss the proposal and then pass on their recommendations to the Research Board (previously the Nuclear Physics Research Committee) for the final decision. Proposals approved become part of the CERN experimental programme. In 1960, John Adams, the Director General, created three committees to manage experiments for each bubble chamber experimental technique used at CERN. These replaced the previous Advisory and Bubble Chamber committees. At the end of the bubble chamber period, the system was again changed and based on machine, rather than experimental technique. The committees were changed and merged in order to accommodate to this. Since then, the committees have changed based on the creation and decommissioning of facilities and accelerators. == Current committees == == Past committees == == References ==


id: list-of-textbooks-on-classical-mechanics-and-quantum-mechanics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_textbooks_on_classical_mechanics_and_quantum_mechanics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of textbooks on classical mechanics and quantum mechanics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_textbooks_on_classical_mechanics_and_quantum_mechanics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:11.578852+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-textbooks-on-classical-mechanics-and-quantum-mechanics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of notable textbooks on classical mechanics and quantum mechanics arranged according to level and surnames of the authors in alphabetical order. == Undergraduate == === Classical mechanics === Feynman, Richard P. (2005). The Feynman Lectures on Physics. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0-8053-9065-0. Halliday, David; Resnick, Robert (1970). Fundamentals of Physics. John Wiley & Sons. Chapters 1–21. Numerous subsequent editions. Hamill, Patrick (2014). A Student's Guide to Lagrangians and Hamiltonians. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1107617520. Hand, Louis; Finch, Janet (1998). Analytical Mechanics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521573270. Kibble, T. W.; Berkshire, F. H. (2004). Classical Mechanics. Imperial College Press. ISBN 1860944248. Kleppner, Daniel; Kolenkow, Robert (1973). An Introduction to Mechanics. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-035048-5. Marion, Jerry; Thornton, Stephen (2003). Classical Dynamics of Particles and Systems (5th ed.). Brooks Cole. ISBN 0534408966. Morin, David (2005). Introduction to Classical Mechanics: With Problems and Solutions. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521876223. Müller-Kirsten, Harald J.W. (2024). Classical Mechanics and Relativity (2nd ed.). World Scientific. ISBN 9789811287114. Taylor, John (2005). Classical Mechanics. University Science Books. ISBN 978-981-12-8711-4. Young, Hugh D.; Freedman, Roger A. (2019). University Physics with Modern Physics (15th ed.). Pearson. ISBN 978-0135159552. === Quantum mechanics === Eisberg, Robert; Resnick, Robert


id: list-of-common-physics-notations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_physics_notations-0.md
category: reference
title: List of common physics notations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_physics_notations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:12.855715+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-physics-notations-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of common physical constants and variables, and their notations. Note that bold text indicates that the quantity is a vector. == Latin characters == == Greek characters == == Other characters == == See also == List of letters used in mathematics and science Glossary of mathematical symbols List of mathematical uses of Latin letters Greek letters used in mathematics, science, and engineering Physical constant Physical quantity International System of Units ISO 31 == References ==


id: constant-resistance-network-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constant-resistance_network-0.md
category: reference
title: Constant-resistance network
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constant-resistance_network
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:14.149375+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: constant-resistance-network-20260505-0
summary:
A constant-resistance network in electrical engineering is a network whose input resistance does not change with frequency when correctly terminated. Examples of constant resistance networks include: Zobel network Lattice phase equaliser Boucherot cell Bridged T delay equaliser == References ==


id: list-of-physical-constants-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physical_constants-0.md
category: reference
title: List of physical constants
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physical_constants
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:15.339487+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-physical-constants-20260505-0
summary:
The constants listed here are known values of physical constants expressed in SI units; that is, physical quantities that are generally believed to be universal in nature and thus are independent of the unit system in which they are measured. Many of these are redundant, in the sense that they obey a known relationship with other physical constants and can be determined from them. == Table of physical constants == == Uncertainties == While the values of the physical constants are independent of the system of units in use, each uncertainty as stated reflects our lack of knowledge of the corresponding value as expressed in SI units, and is strongly dependent on how those units are defined. For example, the atomic mass constant m u {\displaystyle m_{\text{u}}} is exactly known when expressed using the dalton (its value is exactly 1 Da), but the kilogram is not exactly known when using these units, the opposite of when expressing the same quantities using the kilogram. == Technical constants == Some of these constants are of a technical nature and do not give any true physical property, but they are included for convenience. Such a constant gives the correspondence ratio of a technical


id: list-of-contributors-to-general-relativity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_contributors_to_general_relativity-0.md
category: reference
title: List of contributors to general relativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_contributors_to_general_relativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:16.610349+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-contributors-to-general-relativity-20260505-0
summary:
This is a dynamic list of persons who have made major contributions to the (mainstream) development of general relativity, as acknowledged by standard texts on the subject. Some related lists are mentioned at the bottom of the page. == A == Peter C. Aichelburg (Aichelburg–Sexl ultraboost, generalized symmetries), Miguel Alcubierre (numerical relativity, Alcubierre drives), Richard L. Arnowitt (ADM formalism), Abhay Ashtekar (Ashtekar variables, dynamical horizons) == B == Robert M L Baker, Jr. (high-frequency gravitational waves), James M. Bardeen (Bardeen vacuum, black hole mechanics, gauge-invariant linear perturbations of Friedmann-Lemaître cosmologies), Barry Barish (LIGO builder, gravitational-waves observation), Robert Bartnik (existence of ADM mass for asymptotically flat vacuums, quasilocal mass), Jacob Bekenstein (black hole entropy), Vladimir A. Belinsky (BKL conjecture, inverse scattering transform solution generating methods), Peter G. Bergmann (constrained Hamiltonian dynamics), Bruno Bertotti (Bertotti–Robinson electrovacuum, post-Minskowskian expansions), Jiří Bičák (exact solutions of the Einstein field equations), Heinz Billing (prototype of laser interferometric gravitational-wave detector), George David Birkhoff (Birkhoff's theorem), Hermann Bondi (gravitational radiation, Bondi radiation chart, Bondi mass–energy–momentum, LTB dust, maverick models), William B. Bonnor (Bonnor beam solution), Robert H. Boyer (Boyer–Lindquist coordinates), Vladimir Braginsky (gravitational-wave detector, quantum nondemolition (QND) measurement) Carl H. Brans (Brans–Dicke theory), Hubert Bray (Riemannian Penrose inequality),


id: list-of-contributors-to-general-relativity-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_contributors_to_general_relativity-1.md
category: reference
title: List of contributors to general relativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_contributors_to_general_relativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:16.610349+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-contributors-to-general-relativity-20260505-0
summary:
== N == Gernot Neugebauer (Neugebauer–Meinel dust disk solution), Ezra Ted Newman (Newman–Penrose formalism, Kerr–Newman black hole solution, Janis–Newman–Winicour solution, NUT vacuum, RT spacetimes, relation of lensing to Weyl tensor), Gunnar Nordström (Reissner–Nordström metric), Kenneth Nordtvedt (Nordtvedt effect, PPN formalism), Igor D. Novikov (Novikov chart in Schwarzschild vacuum, no-hair theorem, accretion disks around black holes, monograph) Yavuz Nutku Nutku-Halil solution for colliding waves, On the Nutku—Halil solution for colliding impulsive gravitational waves == O == Robert Oppenheimer (gravitational collapse, Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit, Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff equation, Oppenheimer–Snyder model), Amos Ori (black hole interiors, mass inflation, shock singularity, time machines, radiation reaction, gravitational collapse) == P == Achilles Papapetrou (chart for Ernst vacuum family, Majumdar–Papapetrou electrovacuums, Dixon–Papapetrou equations), Paul Painlevé (Gullstrand–Painlevé coordinates), Roger Penrose (Hawking–Penrose singularity theorems, Penrose diagrams, techniques from algebraic geometry and differential topology, Penrose limits, cosmic censorship hypotheses, Penrose inequalities, geometry of gravitational plane waves, impulsive waves, Penrose–Khan colliding plane wave, Newman–Penrose formalism, Weyl curvature hypothesis, highly influential monograph), Alexei Zinovievich Petrov (Petrov classification of algebraic properties of Weyl curvature tensor), Tsvi Piran (gravitational collapse), Felix A. E. Pirani (gravitational radiation, Petrov–Pirani classification of algebraic properties of Weyl curvature tensor), Jerzy F. Plebański (Plebanski vacuum, Plebanski action), Eric Poisson (black hole


id: contributors-to-the-mathematical-background-for-general-relativity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contributors_to_the_mathematical_background_for_general_relativity-0.md
category: reference
title: Contributors to the mathematical background for general relativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contributors_to_the_mathematical_background_for_general_relativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:17.881640+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: contributors-to-the-mathematical-background-for-general-relativity-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of contributors to the mathematical background for general relativity. For ease of readability, the contributions (in brackets) are unlinked but can be found in the contributors' article. == B == Luigi Bianchi (Bianchi identities, Bianchi groups, differential geometry) == C == Élie Cartan (curvature computation, early extensions of GTR, Cartan geometries) Elwin Bruno Christoffel (connections, tensor calculus, Riemannian geometry) Clarissa-Marie Claudel (Geometry of photon surfaces) == D == Tevian Dray (The Geometry of General Relativity) == E == Luther P. Eisenhart (semi-Riemannian geometries) Frank B. Estabrook (Wahlquist-Estabrook approach to solving PDEs; see also parent list) Leonhard Euler (Euler-Lagrange equation, from which the geodesic equation is obtained) == G == Carl Friedrich Gauss (curvature, theory of surfaces, intrinsic vs. extrinsic) == K == Martin Kruskal (inverse scattering transform; see also parent list) == L == Joseph Louis Lagrange (Lagrangian mechanics, Euler-Lagrange equation) Tullio Levi-Civita (tensor calculus, Riemannian geometry; see also parent list) André Lichnerowicz (tensor calculus, transformation groups) == M == Alexander Macfarlane (space analysis and Algebra of Physics) Jerrold E. Marsden (linear stability) == N == Isaac Newton (Newton's identities for characteristic of Einstein tensor) == R == Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro (Ricci tensor, differential geometry) Georg Bernhard


id: list-of-conversion-factors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_conversion_factors-0.md
category: reference
title: List of conversion factors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_conversion_factors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:19.219007+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-conversion-factors-20260505-0
summary:
This article gives a list of conversion factors for several physical quantities. A number of different units (some only of historical interest) are shown and expressed in terms of the corresponding SI unit. Conversions between units in the metric system are defined by their prefixes (for example, 1 kilogram = 1000 grams, 1 milligram = 0.001 grams) and are thus not listed in this article. Exceptions are made if the unit is commonly known by another name (for example, 1 micron = 10−6 metre). Within each table, the units are listed alphabetically, and the SI units (base or derived) are highlighted. The following quantities are considered: length, area, volume, plane angle, solid angle, mass, density, time, frequency, velocity, volumetric flow rate, acceleration, force, pressure (or mechanical stress), torque (or moment of force), energy, power (or heat flow rate), action, dynamic viscosity, kinematic viscosity, electric current, electric charge, electric dipole, electromotive force (or electric potential difference), electrical resistance, capacitance, magnetic flux, magnetic flux density, inductance, temperature, information entropy, luminous intensity, luminance, luminous flux, illuminance, radiation. == Length == == Area == == Volume == == Plane angle == == Solid angle == == Mass == Notes: See Weight for detail of


id: list-of-dualities-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_dualities-0.md
category: reference
title: List of dualities
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_dualities
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:20.415568+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-dualities-20260505-0
summary:
== Mathematics == In mathematics, a duality, generally speaking, translates concepts, theorems or mathematical structures into other concepts, theorems or structures, in a one-to-one fashion, often (but not always) by means of an involution operation: if the dual of A is B, then the dual of B is A. Alexander duality Alvis–Curtis duality Artin–Verdier duality Beta-dual space Coherent duality Conjugate hyperbola De Groot dual Dual abelian variety Dual basis in a field extension Dual bundle Dual curve Dual (category theory) Dual graph Dual group Dual object Dual pair Dual polygon Dual polyhedron Dual problem Dual representation Dual q-Hahn polynomials Dual q-Krawtchouk polynomials Dual space Dual topology Dual wavelet Duality (optimization) Duality (order theory) Duality of stereotype spaces Duality (projective geometry) Duality theory for distributive lattices Dualizing complex Dualizing sheaf Eckmann–Hilton duality Esakia duality Fenchel's duality theorem Grothendieck local duality Hodge dual Isbell duality Jónsson–Tarski duality Lagrange duality Langlands dual Lefschetz duality Local Tate duality Opposite category Poincaré duality Twisted Poincaré duality Poitou–Tate duality Pontryagin duality S-duality (homotopy theory) Schur–Weyl duality Series-parallel duality Serre duality Spanier–Whitehead duality Stone's duality Tannaka–Krein duality Verdier duality == Philosophy and religion == Dualism (philosophy of mind) Dualistic cosmology Epistemological dualism Soul dualism Yin and yang


id: lists-of-physics-equations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_physics_equations-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of physics equations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_physics_equations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:21.604017+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-physics-equations-20260505-0
summary:
In physics, there are equations in every field to relate physical quantities to each other and perform calculations. Entire handbooks of equations can only summarize most of the full subject, else are highly specialized within a certain field. Physics is derived of formulae only. == General scope == Variables commonly used in physics Continuity equation Constitutive equation == Specific scope == Defining equation (physical chemistry) List of equations in classical mechanics Table of thermodynamic equations List of equations in wave theory List of relativistic equations List of equations in fluid mechanics List of electromagnetism equations List of equations in gravitation List of photonics equations List of equations in quantum mechanics List of equations in nuclear and particle physics == See also == List of equations Operator (physics) Laws of science == Units and nomenclature == Physical constant Physical quantity SI units SI derived unit SI electromagnetism units List of common physics notations


id: list-of-experiments-in-physics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_experiments_in_physics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of experiments in physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_experiments_in_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:22.807305+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-experiments-in-physics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of notable experiments in physics. The list includes only experiments with Wikipedia articles. For hypothetical experiments, see thought experiment. == Historical experiments == == Articles on several experiments == Bell tests BICEP and Keck Array Coincidence method Discovery of the neutron Large Hadron Collider experiments List of Super Proton Synchrotron experiments Precision tests of QED Tests of special relativity Tests of relativistic energy and momentum Modern searches for Lorentz violation Measurements of neutrino speed Tests of general relativity Experimental testing of time dilation == On-going experiments == Collider Detector at Fermilab China Dark Matter Experiment Cosmic Ray Energetics and Mass Experiment General antiparticle spectrometer GlueX The E and B Experiment VIP2 experiment VITO experiment == See also == List of accelerators in particle physics


id: list-of-feynman-diagrams-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Feynman_diagrams-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Feynman diagrams
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Feynman_diagrams
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:23.975916+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-feynman-diagrams-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of common Feynman diagrams. His first published diagram appeared in Physical Review in 1949. Unless otherwise specified, the shown diagrams can assumed to be the leading order representation of the interaction. == Standard model diagrams == == Speculative or hypothetical diagrams == == References ==


id: list-of-foucault-pendulums-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Foucault_pendulums-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Foucault pendulums
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Foucault_pendulums
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:25.827958+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-foucault-pendulums-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of Foucault pendulums in the world. == Europe == == Africa == == North America == == South America == == Asia == == Oceania, Antarctic == == General Sources == === Books === Baker, Gregory L. (2005). The Pendulum: A Case Study in Physics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198567545. Crease, Robert P. (2004). The Prism and the Pendulum: The Ten Most Beautiful Experiments in Science. ISBN 978-0812970623. === Web === "Academy Pendulum Sales（Academy Pendulums）". Archived from the original on 2025-02-24. Retrieved 2025-07-09. "Foucault-féle ingakísérletek Szombathelyen 1880–2014" (PDF). Retrieved 2025-07-09. "Entierra Gobierno el proyecto educativo del Centro de Ciencias; será museo". Retrieved 2025-07-09. "Yale Peabody Museum:Facebook". Retrieved 2025-12-10. "Pendule Foucault în România și Republica Moldov" (pdf). Retrieved 2025-07-09. "展示装置納入実績（木下製作所）". Archived from the original on 2019-08-24. Retrieved 2019-07-09.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) == References ==


id: list-of-gravitational-wave-observations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gravitational_wave_observations-0.md
category: reference
title: List of gravitational wave observations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gravitational_wave_observations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:27.083461+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-gravitational-wave-observations-20260505-0
summary:
This page contains a list of observed and candidate gravitational wave events. == Origin and nomenclature == Direct observation of gravitational waves, which commenced with the detection of an event by LIGO in 2015, plays a key role in gravitational wave astronomy. LIGO has been involved in all subsequent detections to date, with Virgo joining in August 2017. Joint observation runs of LIGO and Virgo, designated "O1, O2, etc." span many months, with months of maintenance and upgrades in-between designed to increase the instruments sensitivity and range. Within these run periods, the instruments are capable of detecting gravitational waves. The first run, O1, ran from September 12, 2015, to January 19, 2016, and succeeded in its first gravitational wave detection. O2 ran for a greater duration, from November 30, 2016, to August 25, 2017. O3 began on April 1, 2019. The observing run was split in two, designated "O3a" and "O3b" with the first part suspended on September 30, 2019, for maintenance and upgrades. O3b began on November 1, 2019. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic O3 was forced to end prematurely. The early end meant that KAGRA did not have chance to participate in joint observations with LIGO and Virgo,


id: list-of-gravitational-wave-observations-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gravitational_wave_observations-1.md
category: reference
title: List of gravitational wave observations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gravitational_wave_observations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:27.083461+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-gravitational-wave-observations-20260505-0
summary:
=== Observation candidates from O4/2023 === On 15 June 2022, LIGO announced to start the O4 observing run in March 2023. As the date got closer, engineering challenges delayed the observing run to May 2023. An engineering run to assess the sensitivity of LIGO, Virgo, and KAGRA began in April, with the Hanford detector's first operations beginning on April 29, and the Livingston and Virgo detectors' first operations beginning on May 5. On March 7, 2023, a gamma-ray burst compatible with a neutron star merger was detected by the Fermi telescope and named GRB 230307A. The burst, identified as being from a host galaxy approximately 296 Mpc away, would likely have only been marginally detected at best by LIGO if it had been operating at the time, as the detectors would only later achieve a sensitivity of 160 Mpc for neutron star mergers by O4's beginning, 3 months later. Near the end of the engineering run on 15 May 2023, LIGO announced that O4 would be beginning on 24 May 2023, running for 20 months with up to 2 months of maintenance. The LIGO detectors initially failed to achieve the hoped for 160–190 Mpc sensitivity for neutron star mergers, but


id: list-of-heliophysics-missions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_heliophysics_missions-0.md
category: reference
title: List of heliophysics missions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_heliophysics_missions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:28.406475+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-heliophysics-missions-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of missions supporting heliophysics, including solar observatory missions, solar orbiters, and spacecraft studying the solar wind. == Past and current missions == == Planned missions == == Proposed missions == == Cancelled missions == == Graphic == == See also == List of solar telescopes == References == == External links == NASA - Heliophysics missions


id: list-of-types-of-interferometers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_interferometers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of types of interferometers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_interferometers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:29.608857+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-types-of-interferometers-20260505-0
summary:
An interferometer is a device for extracting information from the superposition of multiple waves. == Field and linear interferometers == Air-wedge shearing interferometer Astronomical interferometer / Michelson stellar interferometer Classical interference microscopy Bath interferometer (common path) Cyclic interferometer Diffraction-grating interferometer (white light) Double-slit interferometer Dual-polarization interferometry Fabry–Pérot interferometer Fizeau interferometer Fourier-transform interferometer Fresnel interferometer (e.g. Fresnel biprism, Fresnel mirror or Lloyd's mirror) Fringes of Equal Chromatic Order interferometer (FECO) Gabor hologram Gires–Tournois etalon Heterodyne interferometer (see heterodyne) Holographic interferometer Jamin interferometer Laser Doppler vibrometer Linnik interferometer (microscopy) LUPI variant of Michelson Lummer–Gehrcke interferometer Mach–Zehnder interferometer Martin–Puplett interferometer Michelson interferometer Mirau interferometer (also known as a Mirau objective) (microscopy) Moiré interferometer (see moiré pattern) Multi-beam interferometer (microscopy) Near-field interferometer Newton interferometer (see Newton's rings) Nomarski interferometer Nonlinear Michelson interferometer / Step-phase Michelson interferometer N-slit interferometer Phase-shifting interferometer Planar lightwave circuit interferometer (PLC) Photon Doppler velocimeter interferometer (PDV) Polarization interferometer (see also Babinet–Soleil compensator) Point diffraction interferometer Rayleigh interferometer Sagnac interferometer Schlieren interferometer (phase-shifting) Shearing interferometer (lateral and radial) Twyman–Green interferometer Talbot–Lau interferometer Watson interferometer (microscopy) White-light interferometer (see also Optical coherence tomography, White light interferometry, and Coherence Scanning Interferometry) White-light scatterplate interferometer (white-light) (microscopy) Young's double-slit interferometer Zernike phase-contrast microscopy ZWF


id: list-of-physics-journals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physics_journals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of physics journals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physics_journals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:30.911563+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-physics-journals-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of physics journals with existing articles on Wikipedia. The list is organized by subfields of physics. == By subject == === General === === Astrophysics === === Atomic, molecular, and optical physics === European Physical Journal D Journal of Physics B Laser Physics Molecular Physics Physical Review A International Journal of Modern Physics B Modern Physics Letters B Physics Letters A === Plasmas === === Measurement === Measurement Science and Technology Metrologia Review of Scientific Instruments === Nuclear and particle physics === === Optics === === Computational physics === Computational Materials Science Computer Physics Communications International Journal of Modern Physics C (computational physics, physical computations) Journal of Computational Physics Physical Review E, section E13 === Condensed matter and materials science === === Low temperature physics === Journal of Low Temperature Physics Low Temperature Physics === Chemical physics === Chemical Physics Letters Journal of Chemical Physics Journal of Physical Chemistry A Journal of Physical Chemistry B Journal of Physical Chemistry C Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics === Soft matter physics === European Physical Journal E Journal of Polymer Science Part B Soft Matter === Medical physics === Australasian Physical & Engineering Sciences in


id: list-of-laser-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: List of laser articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:32.200147+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-laser-articles-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of laser topics. == A == == B == == C == == D == == E == == F == == G == == H == == I == Ion laser == J == Janus laser == K == KALI (laser) Kerr-lens modelocking Kerr effect Keyence Krasnopol (Weapon) Krypton fluoride laser == L == == M == == N == == O == == P == == Q == == R == == S == == T == == U == == V == == W == == X == X-ray X-ray laser Xenon chloride laser Xerox == Y == Yb:LuVO4 == Z == ZETA (fusion reactor) ZEUS-HLONS (HMMWV Laser Ordnance Neutralization System) Zeeman slower Zerona == References ==


id: list-of-letters-used-in-mathematics-science-and-engineering-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_letters_used_in_mathematics,_science,_and_engineering-0.md
category: reference
title: List of letters used in mathematics, science, and engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_letters_used_in_mathematics,_science,_and_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:33.417347+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-letters-used-in-mathematics-science-and-engineering-20260505-0
summary:
Latin and Greek letters are used in mathematics, science, engineering, and other areas where mathematical notation is used as symbols for constants, special functions, and also conventionally for variables representing certain quantities. == Hindu-Arabic numerals == == Latin == == Greek == == Other scripts == === Hebrew === === Cyrillic === === Japanese === === Modified Latin === === Modified Greek === == References ==


id: list-of-automobile-drag-coefficients-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_automobile_drag_coefficients-0.md
category: reference
title: List of automobile drag coefficients
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_automobile_drag_coefficients
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:34.846816+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-automobile-drag-coefficients-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of automobile drag coefficients (Cd) and drag areas (CdA) for production, limited-production, and concept or experimental vehicles. The drag coefficient is a dimensionless measure of aerodynamic resistance used in automotive design; a lower value indicates a more streamlined vehicle that passes through the air with less resistance. The drag area (CdA) is the product of the drag coefficient and the vehicle's frontal reference area, and represents the total aerodynamic drag force per unit of dynamic pressure — making it a more complete measure of real-world aerodynamic performance than the drag coefficient alone. Entries are grouped first by drag coefficient and then by drag area. Within each grouping, production vehicles and concept or experimental vehicles are listed separately. Unless otherwise noted, figures given are for the base model of a vehicle in a standard configuration. Measurements can vary by up to 5% depending on the wind tunnel and test methodology used. == Drag coefficients == The average modern automobile achieves a drag coefficient of between 0.25 and 0.3. Sport utility vehicles (SUVs), with their typically boxy shapes, typically achieve a Cd=0.35–0.45. The drag coefficient of a vehicle is affected by the shape of body of the vehicle.


id: list-of-computational-physics-software-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computational_physics_software-0.md
category: reference
title: List of computational physics software
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computational_physics_software
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:36.006023+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-computational-physics-software-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of computational physics software which includes programs used to model, simulate, and analyze physical systems across electromagnetics, fluid dynamics, astrophysics, particle physics, and Monte Carlo simulations. == Computational electromagnetics == == Computational fluid dynamics == == Computational particle physics == == Computational astrophysics == == Monte Carlo simulation == == Others == == See also == High-performance computing List of computational chemistry software List of computer simulation software List of computer physics engines and List of open-source physics engines List of computational materials science software List of computational physics journals List of computer-aided engineering software List of finite element software packages List of mathematical software List of physicists List of plasma physics software List of quantum chemistry and solid-state physics software List of software for astronomy research and education List of software for nanostructures modeling List of software for nuclear engineering Multiphysics simulation == References == == External links == "Best Open Source Physics Software 2025". sourceforge.net. Retrieved December 17, 2025. "GitHub - wbierbower/awesome-physics: 🌌 A collaborative list of awesome software for exploring Physics concepts". github.com. Retrieved December 17, 2025. "Top Multiphysics Simulation Software in 2025". slashdot.org. Retrieved December 17, 2025. WIPL-D


id: list-of-mathematical-physics-journals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mathematical_physics_journals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of mathematical physics journals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mathematical_physics_journals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:38.366967+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mathematical-physics-journals-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of peer-reviewed scientific journals published in the field of Mathematical Physics. Advances in Theoretical and Mathematical Physics Annales Henri Poincaré Archive for Rational Mechanics and Analysis Communications in Mathematical Physics General Relativity and Gravitation International Journal of Geometric Methods in Modern Physics Journal of Geometry and Physics Journal of Mathematical Physics Journal of Mathematical Physics, Analysis, Geometry Journal of Modern Dynamics Journal of Nonlinear Mathematical Physics Journal of Physics A: Mathematical and Theoretical Journal of Statistical Physics Letters in Mathematical Physics Mathematics and Mechanics of Complex Systems Open Communications in Nonlinear Mathematical Physics Probability and Mathematical Physics Reports on Mathematical Physics Reviews in Mathematical Physics The Quarterly Journal of Mechanics and Applied Mathematics Középiskolai Matematikai és Fizikai Lapok SIGMA (Symmetry, Integrability and Geometry: Methods and Applications) Teoreticheskaya i Matematicheskaya Fizika (Theoretical and Mathematical Physics), Steklov Mathematical Institute == References == == See also == List of mathematics journals List of physics journals List of scientific journals List of statistics journals


id: list-of-textbooks-in-electromagnetism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_textbooks_in_electromagnetism-0.md
category: reference
title: List of textbooks in electromagnetism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_textbooks_in_electromagnetism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:40.196660+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-textbooks-in-electromagnetism-20260505-0
summary:
The study of electromagnetism in higher education, as a fundamental part of both physics and electrical engineering, is typically accompanied by textbooks devoted to the subject. The American Physical Society and the American Association of Physics Teachers recommend a full year of graduate study in electromagnetism for all physics graduate students. A joint task force by those organizations in 2006 found that in 76 of the 80 US physics departments surveyed, a course using John Jackson's Classical Electrodynamics was required for all first year graduate students. For undergraduates, there are several widely used textbooks, including David Griffiths' Introduction to Electrodynamics and Electricity and Magnetism by Edward Purcell and David Morin. Also at an undergraduate level, Richard Feynman's classic Lectures on Physics is available online to read for free. == Physics == === Undergraduate (introductory and intermediate) === There are several widely used undergraduate textbooks in electromagnetism, including David Griffiths' Introduction to Electrodynamics as well as Electricity and Magnetism by Edward Purcell and David Morin. Richard Feynman's Lectures on Physics also include a volume on electromagnetism that is available to read online for free, through the California Institute of Technology. In addition, there are popular physics textbooks that include electricity and


id: list-of-textbooks-in-electromagnetism-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_textbooks_in_electromagnetism-1.md
category: reference
title: List of textbooks in electromagnetism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_textbooks_in_electromagnetism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:40.196660+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-textbooks-in-electromagnetism-20260505-0
summary:
Barut AO, Electrodynamics and Classical Theory of Fields and Particles, Dover, 1980. Baylis WE, Electrodynamics: A Modern Geometric Approach, Birkhäuser, 1999. Böttcher CJF, Bordewijk P, Van Belle OC, Rip A, Theory of Electric Polarization, 2nd ed, 2 vols, Elsevier, 1973, 1978. Clemmow PC, Dougherty JP, Electrodynamics of Particles and Plasmas, CRC, 2018. Cullity DB, Stock SR, Elements of X-Ray Diffraction, 3rd ed, Pearson, 2014. Eringen AC, Maugin GA, Electrodynamics of Continua, 2 vols, Springer, 1990. Ginzburg VL, The Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves in Plasmas, 2nd ed, Pergamon, 1970. Hehl FW, Obukhov YN, Foundations of Classical Electrodynamics: Charge, Flux, and Metric, Springer, 2003. Landau LD, Lifshitz EM, The Classical Theory of Fields, 4th ed, Pergamon, 1975. Lechner K, Classical Electrodynamics: A Modern Perspective, Springer, 2018. Oppenheimer JR, Lectures on Electrodynamics, Gordon & Breach, 1970. Post EJ, Formal Structure of Electromagnetics: General Covariance and Electromagnetics, Dover, 1997. Rohrlich F, Classical Charged Particles, 3rd ed, World Scientific, 2007. Rybicki GB, Lightman AP, Radiative Processes in Astrophysics, Wiley, 1979. == Electrical engineering == According to a 2011 review of analytical and computational textbooks in electromagnetism by David Davidson, Julius Stratton's Electromagnetic Theory remains the classic text in electromagnetism and is still regularly cited. Davidson


id: list-of-textbooks-in-electromagnetism-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_textbooks_in_electromagnetism-2.md
category: reference
title: List of textbooks in electromagnetism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_textbooks_in_electromagnetism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:40.196660+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-textbooks-in-electromagnetism-20260505-0
summary:
=== Metamaterials === Caloz C, Itoh T, Electromagnetic Metamaterials: Transmission Line Theory and Microwave Applications (The Engineering Approach), Wiley-IEEE, 2006. Capolino F, (Ed), Metamaterials Handbook, 2 vols, CRC, 2009. Cui TJ, Smith DR, Liu R, (Eds), Metamaterials: Theory, Design, and Applications, Springer, 2010. Eleftheriades GV, Balmain KG, (Eds), Negative-Refraction Metamaterials: Fundamental Principles and Applications, Wiley-IEEE, 2005. Engheta N, Ziolkowski RW, (Eds), Metamaterials: Physics and Engineering Explorations, Wiley-IEEE, 2006. Marqués R, Martín F, Sorolla M, Metamaterials with Negative Parameters: Theory, Design, and Microwave Applications, Wiley, 2008. Munk BA, Frequency Selective Surfaces: Theory and Design, Wiley, 2000. Munk BA, Metamaterials: Critique and Alternatives, Wiley, 2009. Ramakrishna SA, Grzegorczyk TM, Physics and Applications of Negative Refractive Index Materials, CRC, 2008. Sarychev AK, Shalaev VM, Electrodynamics of Metamaterials, World Scientific, 2007. Tretyakov S, Analytical Modeling in Applied Electromagnetics, Artech House, 2003. Yang F, Rahmat-Samii Y, Electromagnetic Band Gap Structures in Antenna Engineering, Cambridge University, 2009. === Computational === Booton RC, Computational Methods for Electromagnetics and Microwaves, Wiley, 1992. Chew WC, Jin JM, Michielssen E, Song J, (Eds), Fast and Efficient Algorithms in Computational Electromagnetics, Artech House, 2001. Gibson WC, The Method of Moments in Electromagnetics, 3rd ed, CRC, 2022. Harrington RF, Field Computation by


id: list-of-textbooks-in-electromagnetism-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_textbooks_in_electromagnetism-3.md
category: reference
title: List of textbooks in electromagnetism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_textbooks_in_electromagnetism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:40.196660+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-textbooks-in-electromagnetism-20260505-0
summary:
== Magnetohydrodynamics == Magnetohydrodynamics is an interdisciplinary branch of physics that uses continuum mechanics to describe the interaction of electromagnetic fields with fluids that are conductive. It combines classical electromagnetism with fluid mechanics by combination of Maxwell equations with Navier-Stokes equations. This relatively new branch of physics was first developed by Hannes Alfvén in a 1942 paper published in Nature titled Existence of Electromagnetic-Hydrodynamic Waves. In 1950 Alfvén published a textbook titled Cosmical Electrodynamics which considered as the seminal work in the field of magnetohydrodynamics. There are also two closely related fields to the traditional field of magnetohydrodynamics which are called electrohydrodynamics and ferrohydrodynamics. Electrohydrodynamics deals with interaction of electromagnetic fields with weakly conductive fluids and ferrohydrodynamics deals with interaction of electromagnetic fields with magnetic fluids. Today magnetohydrodynamics and its related fields have many applications in plasma physics, electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, astrophysics, geophysics and many other scientific branches. Here is the list of some important textbooks in different areas of electro-magneto-ferro-hydrodynamics. Alfvén H, Fälthammar CG, Cosmical Electrodynamics: Fundamental Principles, 2nd ed, Oxford University, 1963. Biskamp D, Magnetohydrodynamic Turbulence, Cambridge University, 2003. Biskamp D, Nonlinear Magnetohydrodynamics, Cambridge University, 1993. Blums E, Cebers A, Maiorov MM, Magnetic Fluids, De Gruyter, 1996.


id: list-of-mesons-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mesons-0.md
category: reference
title: List of mesons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mesons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:41.487001+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mesons-20260505-0
summary:
This list is of all known and predicted scalar, pseudoscalar and vector mesons. See list of particles for a more detailed list of particles found in particle physics. This article contains a list of mesons, unstable subatomic particles composed of one quark and one antiquark. They are part of the hadron particle family—particles made of quarks. The other members of the hadron family are the baryons—subatomic particles composed of three quarks. The main difference between mesons and baryons is that mesons have integer spin (thus are bosons) while baryons are fermions (half-integer spin). Because mesons are bosons, the Pauli exclusion principle does not apply to them. Because of this, they can act as force mediating particles on short distances, and thus play a part in processes such as the nuclear interaction. Since mesons are composed of quarks, they participate in both the weak and strong interactions. Mesons with net electric charge also participate in the electromagnetic interaction. They are classified according to their quark content, total angular momentum, parity, and various other properties such as C-parity and G-parity. While no meson is stable, those of lower mass are nonetheless more stable than the most massive mesons, and are easier to


id: list-of-physics-mnemonics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physics_mnemonics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of physics mnemonics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physics_mnemonics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:43.935223+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-physics-mnemonics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a categorized list of physics mnemonics. == Mechanics == === Work: formula === "Lots of Work makes me Mad!": Work = Mad: M=Mass a=acceleration d=distance == Thermodynamics == === Ideal gas law === "Pure Virgins Never Really Tire": PV=nRT The equation PV = nRT represents the ideal gas law, where P is the pressure of the gas, V is the volume, n is the number of moles, R is the universal gas constant, and T is the temperature. === Gibbs's free energy formula === "Good Honey Tastes Sweet": (delta)G = H - T(delta)S. Gibbs free energy is a thermodynamic state function that measures the energy available for a system to do work, and is given by the formula G = H – TS, where H is enthalpy, T is temperature, and S is entropy. == Electrodynamics == === Ohm's law === "Virgins Are Rare": Volts = Amps x Resistance === Relation between Resistance and Resistivity === REPLAY Resistance = ρ (Length/Area) === Inductive and Capacitive circuits === Once upon a time, the symbol E (for electromotive force) was used to designate voltages. Then, every student learned the phrase ELI the ICE man as a reminder that: For an


id: list-of-moments-of-inertia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_moments_of_inertia-0.md
category: reference
title: List of moments of inertia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_moments_of_inertia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:45.115428+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-moments-of-inertia-20260505-0
summary:
The moment of inertia, denoted by I, measures the extent to which an object resists rotational acceleration about a particular axis; it is the rotational analogue to mass (which determines an object's resistance to linear acceleration). The moments of inertia of a mass have units of dimension ML2 ([mass] × [length]2). It should not be confused with the second moment of area, which has units of dimension L4 ([length]4) and is used in beam calculations. The mass moment of inertia is often also known as the rotational inertia or sometimes as the angular mass. For simple objects with geometric symmetry, one can often determine the moment of inertia in an exact closed-form expression. Typically this occurs when the mass density is constant, but in some cases, the density can vary throughout the object as well. In general, it may not be straightforward to symbolically express the moment of inertia of shapes with more complicated mass distributions and lacking symmetry. In calculating moments of inertia, it is useful to remember that it is an additive function and exploit the parallel axis and the perpendicular axis theorems. This article considers mainly symmetric mass distributions, with constant density throughout the object, and the


id: optical-properties-of-water-and-ice-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_properties_of_water_and_ice-0.md
category: reference
title: Optical properties of water and ice
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_properties_of_water_and_ice
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:46.430867+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: optical-properties-of-water-and-ice-20260505-0
summary:
The refractive index of water at 20 °C for visible light is 1.33. The refractive index of normal ice is 1.31 (from List of refractive indices). In general, an index of refraction is a complex number with real and imaginary parts, where the latter indicates the strength of absorption loss at a particular wavelength. In the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum, the imaginary part of the refractive index is very small. However, water and ice absorb in infrared and close the infrared atmospheric window, thereby contributing to the greenhouse effect. The absorption spectrum of pure water is used in numerous applications, including light scattering and absorption by ice crystals and cloud water droplets, theories of the rainbow, determination of the single-scattering albedo, ocean color, and many others. == Quantitative description of the refraction index == Over the wavelengths from 0.2 to 1.2 μm, and over temperatures from −12 to 500 °C (261 to 773 K), the real part of the index of refraction of water can be calculated from the following empirical expression: n 2 − 1 n 2 + 2 1 ρ ¯ = a 0 + a 1 ρ ¯ + a 2 T ¯ + a


id: index-of-optics-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_optics_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of optics articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_optics_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:47.646232+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-optics-articles-20260505-0
summary:
Optics is the branch of physics which involves the behavior and properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the construction of instruments that use or detect it. Optics usually describes the behavior of visible, ultraviolet, and infrared light. Because light is an electromagnetic wave, other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as X-rays, microwaves, and radio waves exhibit similar properties. == A == == B == == C == == D == == E == == F == == G == == H == == I == == J == == K == == L == == M == == N == == O == == P == == Q == == R == == S == == T == == U == == W == == Z == == See also == Category:Optical components Category:Optical materials == References == == External links ==


id: list-of-hypothetical-particles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hypothetical_particles-0.md
category: reference
title: List of hypothetical particles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hypothetical_particles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:48.926351+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-hypothetical-particles-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of hypothetical particles. Hypothetical particles are proposed subatomic or composite entities arising in theoretical particle physics and cosmology that have not been experimentally confirmed. They are typically introduced to address limitations of the Standard Model, unify fundamental interactions, or explain unresolved observations such as dark matter, neutrino masses, baryon asymmetry, or cosmic inflation. Many are mathematically well defined within quantum field theory or its extensions and serve as mediators or constituents in speculative but testable frameworks beyond the Standard Model. Prominent classes include gauge or symmetry-related particles such as the graviton or graviphoton in quantum gravity and extra-dimensional theories, and supersymmetric partners (e.g., neutralinos or charginos) predicted by supersymmetry. Others address specific phenomena, including hidden-sector bosons such as dark photons or light force carriers proposed to explain nuclear anomalies. Hypothetical particles also encompass predicted bound states (e.g., glueballs), topological objects such as magnetic monopoles, and unconventional statistical entities such as anyons or tachyons. Collectively, they form a central component of theoretical model building, guiding experimental searches for physics beyond currently known particles. == Elementary particles == Some theories predict the existence of additional elementary bosons and fermions that are not found in the Standard Model. ===


