# kb

id: idiopathic-disease-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idiopathic_disease-0.md
category: reference
title: Idiopathic disease
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idiopathic_disease
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:28.918087+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: idiopathic-disease-20260505-0
summary:
An idiopathic disease is any disease with an unknown cause or mechanism of apparent spontaneous origin. For some medical conditions, one or more causes are somewhat understood, but in a certain percentage of instances, the cause may not be readily apparent or characterized. In these cases, the origin of the condition is said to be idiopathic. With some other medical conditions, the root cause for a large percentage of all cases has not been established—for example, focal segmental glomerulosclerosis or ankylosing spondylitis; the majority of these cases are deemed idiopathic. Certain medical conditions, when idiopathic, notably some forms of epilepsy and stroke, are preferentially described by the synonymous term of cryptogenic. == Derivation == The term 'idiopathic' derives from Greek ἴδιος idios "one's own" and πάθος pathos "suffering", so idiopathy means approximately "a disease of its own kind". == Examples == Diseases where the cause is seen as wholly or partly idiopathic include: Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis Idiopathic pulmonary haemosiderosis Idiopathic intracranial hypertension Idiopathic chronic fatigue Granulomatous prostatitis == Medical advances and this term == Advances in medical science improve the understanding of causes of diseases and the classification of diseases; thus, regarding any particular condition or disease, as more root


id: idiosyncrasy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idiosyncrasy-0.md
category: reference
title: Idiosyncrasy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idiosyncrasy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:30.459804+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: idiosyncrasy-20260505-0
summary:
An idiosyncrasy is a unique feature of something. The term is often used to express peculiarity. == Etymology == The term "idiosyncrasy" originates from Greek ἰδιοσυγκρασία idiosynkrasía, "a peculiar temperament, habit of body" (from ἴδιος idios, "one's own", σύν syn, "with" and κρᾶσις krasis, "blend of the four humors" (temperament) or literally "particular mingling". Idiosyncrasy is sometimes used as a synonym for eccentricity, as these terms "are not always clearly distinguished when they denote an act, a practice, or a characteristic that impresses the observer as strange or singular." Eccentricity, however, "emphasizes the idea of divergence from the usual or customary; idiosyncrasy implies a following of one's particular temperament or bent especially in trait, trick, or habit; the former often suggests mental aberration, the latter, strong individuality and independence of action". == Linguistics == The term can also be applied to symbols or words. Idiosyncratic symbols mean one thing for a particular person, as a blade could mean war, but to someone else, it could symbolize a surgery. === Idiosyncratic property === In phonology, an idiosyncratic property contrasts with a systematic regularity. While systematic regularities in the sound system of a language are useful for identifying phonological rules during analysis


id: idiosyncratic-drug-reaction-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idiosyncratic_drug_reaction-0.md
category: reference
title: Idiosyncratic drug reaction
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idiosyncratic_drug_reaction
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:31.620982+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: idiosyncratic-drug-reaction-20260505-0
summary:
Idiosyncratic drug reactions, also known as type B reactions, are drug reactions that occur rarely and unpredictably amongst the population. This is not to be mistaken with idiopathic, which implies that the cause is not known. They frequently occur with exposure to new drugs, as they have not been fully tested and the full range of possible side-effects have not been discovered; they may also be listed as an adverse drug reaction with a drug, but are extremely rare. Some patients have multiple-drug intolerance. Patients who have multiple idiopathic effects that are nonspecific are more likely to have anxiety and depression. Idiosyncratic drug reactions appear to not be concentration dependent. A minimal amount of drug will cause an immune response, but it is suspected that at a low enough concentration, a drug will be less likely to initiate an immune response. == Mechanism == In adverse drug reactions involving overdoses, the toxic effect is simply an extension of the pharmacological effect (Type A adverse drug reactions). On the other hand, clinical symptoms of idiosyncratic drug reactions (Type B adverse drug reactions) are different from the pharmacological effect of the drug. The proposed mechanism of most idiosyncratic drug reactions is immune-mediated


id: imaging-biomarker-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imaging_biomarker-0.md
category: reference
title: Imaging biomarker
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imaging_biomarker
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:33.011316+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: imaging-biomarker-20260505-0
summary:
An imaging biomarker, is a biologic feature, or biomarker detectable in an image. In medicine, an imaging biomarker is a feature of an image relevant to a patient's diagnosis. It is also referred to as radiomics in medical diagnostics. For example, a number of biomarkers are frequently used to determine risk of a lung nodule for lung cancer. First, a simple lesion in the lung detected by X-ray, CT, or MRI can lead to the suspicion of a neoplasm. The lesion itself serves as a biomarker, but the minute details of the lesion serve as biomarkers as well, and can collectively be used to assess the risk of neoplasm. Some of the imaging biomarkers used in lung nodule assessment include size, spiculation, calcification, cavitation, location within the lung, rate of growth, and rate of metabolism. Each piece of information from the image represents a probability. Spiculation increases the probability of the lesion being cancer. A slow rate of growth indicates benignity. These variables can be added to the patient's history, physical exam, laboratory tests, and pathology to reach a proposed diagnosis. Imaging biomarkers can be measured using several techniques, such as CT, PET, SPECT, ultrasound, electroencephalography, magnetoencephalography, and MRI. ==


id: imaging-biomarker-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imaging_biomarker-1.md
category: reference
title: Imaging biomarker
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imaging_biomarker
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:33.011316+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: imaging-biomarker-20260505-0
summary:
== Qualification and validation == Developing an understanding of clinical significance for specific biomarkers can be a difficult process. There are two steps of certification for a surrogate endpoint to be fully established: Qualification and Validation. For a biomarker to become qualified it must go through a somewhat formal qualification process. A request must be submitted to IPRG to qualify an imaging biomarker for a specific use. The Biomarker Qualification Review Team, recruited from nonclinical and clinical review divisions, assesses the context and available data regarding the biomarker. They also evaluate the qualification study strategy methods and results and ultimately make a decision to accept or reject. After qualification, a biomarker may have limited use as a surrogate endpoint. They may be used in phase I and II clinical trials, but can only be used in phase III trials for early futility analyses. There are two steps to validation, probable validation and known validation. "Probable validation" requires widespread agreement in the medical or scientific community as to its efficacy. "Known validation" requires a scientific framework or body of evidence that appears to elucidate the marker's efficacy. For full validation, a biomarker must demonstrate that the treatment versus control differences are


id: immune-dysregulation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_dysregulation-0.md
category: reference
title: Immune dysregulation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_dysregulation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:34.278736+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: immune-dysregulation-20260505-0
summary:
Immune dysregulation is any proposed or confirmed breakdown or maladaptive change in molecular control of immune system processes. For example, dysregulation is a component in the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases and some cancers. Immune system dysfunction, as seen in IPEX syndrome leads to immune dysfunction, polyendocrinopathy, enteropathy, X-linked (IPEX). IPEX typically presents during the first few months of life with diabetes mellitus, intractable diarrhea, failure to thrive, eczema, and hemolytic anemia. unrestrained or unregulated immune response. == IPEX syndrome == IPEX (Immune dysregulation, polyendocrinopathy, enteropathy, X-linked syndrome) is a syndrome caused by a genetic mutation in the FOXP3 gene, which encodes a major transcription factor of regulatory T cells (Tregs). Such a mutation leads to dysfunctional Tregs and, as a result, autoimmune diseases. The classic clinical manifestations are enteropathy, type I diabetes mellitus and eczema. Various other autoimmune diseases or hypersensitivity are common in other individuals with IPEX syndrome. In addition to autoimmune diseases, individuals experience higher immune reactivity (e.g. chronic dermatitis) and susceptibility to infections. Individuals also develop autoimmune diseases at a young age. == Other genetic syndromes associated with immune dysregulation == === APECED === Autoimmune polyendocrinopathy-candidiasis-endodermal dystrophy (APECED) is a syndrome caused by a mutation in AIRE


id: immune-dysregulation-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_dysregulation-1.md
category: reference
title: Immune dysregulation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_dysregulation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:34.278736+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: immune-dysregulation-20260505-0
summary:
== Aging of the immune system == Dysregulation of the immune system is also associated with immunosenescence, which arises due to aging. Immunosenescence is manifested by a decrease in reactivity to vaccination or infection, an impaired ability of T and B lymphocytes to activate and proliferate, or a lower ability of antigen presentation by dendritic cells. In immunosenescence, memory and effector T cells accumulate at the expense of naïve T cells. The lack of naïve T lymphocytes is the cause of low plasticity of the immune system in the elderly. In aging of the immune system is also a decrease in central tolerance and an increase in the number of autoreactive T cells. B cells also have a decreased repertoire of naïve cells and an increase in memory B cells. They also have reduced the production of antibodies against antigens. In immunosenescence, here is a change in the individual subtypes of immunoglobulins. IgM and IgD levels decrease while IgG1, IgG2, and IgG3 levels increase. IgA is higher in the form of monomers in serum but lower as a dimer on the mucosal surface. The overall accumulation of both effector T and B cells is due to the presence of chronic


id: immune-dysregulation-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_dysregulation-2.md
category: reference
title: Immune dysregulation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_dysregulation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:34.278736+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: immune-dysregulation-20260505-0
summary:
== Allergy == Allergic reactions are misdirected reactions of the immune system to substances commonly found in the environment. Allergens elicit a The immune response, including the involvement of IgE, mast cells, Innate lymphoid cells 2 (ILC2), eosinophils, and basophils. Allergy symptoms are often related to the body's efforts to expel the allergen from the body and to protect it from further exposure to the allergen. Allergic reactions increase the production of mucus by goblet cells on the mucosa. The production of mucus is promoted by IL-13 from ILC2 and Th2 cells. Higher mucus production then creates stronger barrier protection and supports runny nose, coughing, or sneezing. Removal of the allergen from the body by sneezing, coughing, vomiting, or diarrhea is enabled by the activation of peristalsis and contractions of the smooth muscles of the digestive and respiratory systems. Activation of smooth muscles occurs after the action of histamine, which is released by mast cells. Manifestations of allergies generally aim to eliminate the body's allergen. This is also related to hearing the flushing of antigens in the eyes or to attempts to achieve mechanical removal of the surface of the organism. Allergies can be caused by genetic and environmental factors.


id: implementability-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implementability_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Implementability (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implementability_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:35.410890+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: implementability-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, implementability is a property of clinical practice guidelines. It refers to a set of characteristics that predict ease of (and obstacles to) guideline adaptations by clinicians. There is a journal Implementation Science, which "aims to publish research relevant to the scientific study of methods to promote the uptake of research findings into routine healthcare in clinical, organisational or policy contexts". == See also == Implementation == References ==


id: incidental-medical-findings-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incidental_medical_findings-0.md
category: reference
title: Incidental medical findings
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incidental_medical_findings
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:36.664763+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: incidental-medical-findings-20260505-0
summary:
Incidental medical findings are previously undiagnosed medical or psychiatric conditions that are discovered unintentionally and during evaluation for a medical or psychiatric condition. Such findings may occur in a variety of settings, including routine medical care, during biomedical research, during post-mortem autopsy, or during genetic testing. == Medical imaging == An incidentaloma is a tumor found by coincidence which is often benign and does not cause any clinically significant symptoms; however a small percentage do turn out to be malignant. Incidentalomas are common, with up to 7% of all patients over 60 harboring a benign growth, often of the adrenal gland, which is detected when diagnostic imaging is used for the analysis of unrelated symptoms. As 37% of patients receiving whole-body CT scan may have abnormal findings that need further evaluation and with the increase of "whole-body CT scanning" as part of health screening programs, the chance of finding incidentalomas is expected to increase. === Neuroimaging === Incidental findings in neuroimaging are common, with the prevalence of neoplastic incidental brain findings increasing with age. Even in healthy subjects acting as controls in research incidental findings are not rare. As most neuroimaging studies are performed in adults, less is known about


id: indication-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indication_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Indication (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indication_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:37.986964+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: indication-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, an indication is a valid reason to use a certain test, medication, procedure, or surgery. There can be multiple indications to use a procedure or medication. An indication can commonly be confused with the term diagnosis. A diagnosis is the assessment that a particular medical condition is present while an indication is a reason for use. The opposite of an indication is a contraindication, a reason to withhold a certain medical treatment because the risks of treatment clearly outweigh the benefits. In the US, indications for prescription drugs are approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Indications are included in the Indications and Usage section of the Prescribing Information. The primary role of this section of labeling is to enable health care practitioners to readily identify appropriate therapies for patients by clearly communicating the drug's approved indication(s). The Indications and Usage section states the disease or condition, or manifestation or symptoms thereof, for which the drug is approved, as well as whether the drug is indicated for the treatment, prevention, mitigation, cure, relief, or diagnosis of that disease or condition. Additionally, the Indications and Usage section should contain the approved age groups as well as other information


id: indication-medicine-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indication_(medicine)-1.md
category: reference
title: Indication (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indication_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:37.986964+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: indication-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
=== Effect on drug pricing === Indications can impact the pricing of medications through Value-based Pricing, also known as indication specific pricing or indication value-based pricing. Since drugs can be used for different indications, this form of pricing would set different prices for each indication based on the value the drug offers for whatever it is being used to treat. This pricing scheme is often discussed in relation to oncology drugs, which are costly. Oncology drugs can be used for multiple different types of cancers so by applying indication-specific pricing, the drug would be priced based on how effective it is for treating each type of cancer. If the drug is more effective for Cancer A than Cancer B, then the patient taking the drug to treat Cancer A will pay more than the person using it for Cancer B because they receive more value from it. Currently, most medications in the United States are priced the same regardless of what they're being used for or how effective they are at improving outcomes. Concerns were therefore raised that patients and insurers may be paying too high prices for indications with a relatively low clinical value. Thereby pharmaceutical companies could realize


id: indirect-agonist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indirect_agonist-0.md
category: reference
title: Indirect agonist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indirect_agonist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:39.159830+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: indirect-agonist-20260505-0
summary:
In pharmacology, an indirect agonist or indirect-acting agonist is a substance that enhances the release or action of an endogenous neurotransmitter but has no specific agonist activity at the neurotransmitter receptor itself. Indirect agonists work through varying mechanisms to achieve their effects, including transporter blockade, induction of transmitter release, and inhibition of transmitter breakdown. == Mechanisms of indirect agonism == === Reuptake inhibition === Cocaine is a monoamine transporter blocker and, thus, an indirect agonist of dopamine receptors. Cocaine binds the dopamine transporter (DAT), blocking the protein's ability to uptake dopamine from the synaptic cleft and also blocking DAT from terminating dopamine signaling. Blockage of DAT increases the extracellular concentration of dopamine, therefore increasing the amount of dopamine receptor binding and signaling. Dipyridamole inhibits reuptake of adenosine, resulting in greater extracellular concentrations of adenosine. Dipyridamole also inhibits the enzyme adenosine deaminase, the enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of adenosine. === Evoking transmitter release === Fenfluramine is an indirect agonist of serotonin receptors. Fenfluramine binds to the serotonin transporter, blocking serotonin reuptake. However, fenfluramine also acts to induce non-exocytotic serotonin release; in a mechanism similar to that of methamphetamine in dopamine neurons, fenfluramine binds to VMAT2, disrupting the compartmentalization of serotonin


id: individualized-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individualized_medicine-0.md
category: reference
title: Individualized medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individualized_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:40.475433+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: individualized-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Individualized medicine tailors treatment to a single patient. The term refers to an individual, truly personalized medicine that strives to treat each patient on the basis of his own individual biology. Individualized medicine represents a further individualization of personalized medicine. While the latter is aimed at a specific group of patients, individualized medicine deals with the individual circumstances of a single person. Thus, individualized medicine goes one step further and can be considered as an increase in personalized medicine. Individualized medicine seeks to derive tailored therapies for individuals by taking into account a person's genes as well as the full range of that person's unique nature, including biological, physiological and anatomical information. == Background == Individualized medicine was first mentioned in the literature in 2003 and described the individual drug metabolism in pharmacogenomics. Subsequently, the term was used to improve diagnosis based on genetic differences and physiological information and to better tailor the treatment to the needs of a single patient. More recently, a second context has been introduced that relates to therapeutic approaches that use a person's own cell material to develop a treatment that is unique to the patient from whom the material originated. Examples are stem-cell therapies


id: ineffective-erythropoiesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ineffective_erythropoiesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Ineffective erythropoiesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ineffective_erythropoiesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:41.755016+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ineffective-erythropoiesis-20260505-0
summary:
Ineffective erythropoiesis a condition in which the bone marrow produces red blood cells (erythrocytes) that are unable to mature properly and are pre-maturely destroyed due to various causes. Erythropoiesis is the overall process that the body goes through to produce red blood cells. The red blood cell's main function is to carry and transport oxygen from the lungs to tissues throughout the body. If the red blood cells are unable to mature properly or are destroyed pre-maturely, this can lead to anemia. This mechanism is principally responsible for the anemia seen in acquired conditions such as certain subtypes of myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) and inherited disorders such as β-thalassemia, inherited sideroblastic anemias, as well as congenital dyserythropoietic anemias. == See also == Congenital dyserythropoietic anemias List of hematologic conditions == References == == Further reading == Ribeil, Jean-Antoine; Arlet, Jean-Benoit; Dussiot, Michael; Cruz Moura, Ivan; Courtois, Geneviève; Hermine, Olivier (28 March 2013). "Ineffective Erythropoiesis in β-Thalassemia". The Scientific World Journal. 2013 e394295. doi:10.1155/2013/394295. ISSN 2356-6140. PMC 3628659. PMID 23606813. Tanno, Toshihiko; Miller, Jeffery L. (11 May 2010). "Iron Loading and Overloading due to Ineffective Erythropoiesis". Advances in Hematology. 2010 e358283. doi:10.1155/2010/358283. ISSN 1687-9104. PMC 2868182. PMID 20467559. Rivella, Stefano (2013). "Ineffective


id: infiltration-medical-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infiltration_(medical)-0.md
category: reference
title: Infiltration (medical)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infiltration_(medical)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:43.013528+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: infiltration-medical-20260505-0
summary:
Infiltration in a medical context is the process of cells or substances moving across a barrier, typically a tissue barrier, into a place they are not normally found, or in which they are typically found in lower concentrations. Infiltration may refer to normal physiological processes, such as the infiltration of certain immune cells into peripheral tissues. Infiltration may also refer to infiltrative disorders, pathological processes such as malignant tumor cells infiltrating new areas of the human body, or small particles infiltrating tissues, where they may cause damage or inflammation. == Types of Infiltration == The term 'infiltration' is frequently used to describe various pathologic and physiologic processes, including but not limited to: === Immune Infiltration === This occurs when immune cells like lymphocytes and macrophages migrate into tissues in response to infection, injury, or inflammation, aiding in defense and healing but potentially contributing to autoimmune diseases if misdirected. Immune cells (especially lymphocytes) also infiltrate into malignant tumors and other neoplasms. === Malignant Infiltration === Malignant infiltration involves cancerous cells invading surrounding healthy tissues by breaching normal cellular boundaries, which allows tumors to grow locally and facilitates metastasis to distant organs. This is especially relevant for cancers that cross the blood-brain


id: insufflation-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insufflation_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Insufflation (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insufflation_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:44.313706+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: insufflation-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Insufflation (Latin: insufflare, lit. 'to blow into') is the act of blowing something (such as a gas, powder, or vapor) into a body cavity. Insufflation has many medical uses, most notably as a route of administration for various drugs. == Medical uses == === Surgery === Gases are often insufflated into a body cavity to inflate the cavity for more workroom, e.g. during laparoscopic surgery. The most common gas used in this manner is carbon dioxide, because it is inexpensive, non-flammable, colorless, and dissolves readily in blood. === Diagnostics === Gases can be insufflated into parts of the body to enhance radiological imaging or to gain access to areas for visual inspection (e.g. during colonoscopy). === Respiratory assistance === Oxygen can be insufflated into the nose by nasal cannulae to assist in respiration. Mechanical insufflation-exsufflation simulates a cough and assists airway mucus clearance. It is used with patients with neuromuscular disease and muscle weakness due to central nervous system injury. Glossopharyngeal insufflation is a breathing technique that consists of gulping boluses of air into the lungs. It is also used by breath-hold divers to increase their lung volumes. Positive airway pressure is a mode of mechanical or artificial ventilation based


id: insult-medical-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insult_(medical)-0.md
category: reference
title: Insult (medical)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insult_(medical)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:45.452002+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: insult-medical-20260505-0
summary:
In medical terms, an insult is the cause of some kind of physical or mental injury. For example, a burn on the skin (the injury) may be the result of a thermal, chemical, radioactive, or electrical event (the insult). Likewise, sepsis and trauma are examples of foreign insults, and encephalitis, multiple sclerosis, and brain tumors are examples of insults to the brain. Clinicians may use the term cerebrovascular insult (CVI) as a synonym for a stroke. Insults may be categorized as either genetic or environmental. == References ==


id: integumentary-system-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integumentary_system-0.md
category: reference
title: Integumentary system
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integumentary_system
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:47.772667+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: integumentary-system-20260505-0
summary:
The integumentary system is the set of organs forming the outermost layer of an animal's body, comprising the skin, hair, scales, feathers, hooves, claws, and nails. It acts as a protective physical barrier between the external environment and the internal environment. Additionally, it maintains water balance, protects the deeper tissues, excretes waste, regulates body temperature, and contains the sensory receptors that detect pain, sensation, pressure, and temperature. The skin (integument) is a composite organ, made up of at least two major layers of tissue: the outermost epidermis and the inner dermis, which are separated by a basement membrane (comprising basal lamina and reticular lamina). The epidermis comprises five layers: the stratum corneum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum and stratum basale. Where the skin is thicker, such as in the palms and soles, there is an extra layer of skin between the stratum corneum and the stratum granulosum known as the stratum lucidum. The dermis comprises two sections, the papillary and reticular layers, and contains connective tissues, blood vessels, glands, follicles, hair roots, sensory nerve endings, and muscular tissue. Between the integument and the deep body musculature there is a transitional subcutaneous zone, the hypodermis. == Structure == === Skin === The


id: integumentary-system-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integumentary_system-1.md
category: reference
title: Integumentary system
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integumentary_system
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:47.772667+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: integumentary-system-20260505-0
summary:
The hypodermis, otherwise known as the subcutaneous layer, is a layer beneath the skin. It invaginates into the dermis and is attached to the latter, immediately above it, by collagen and elastin fibers. It is essentially composed of a type of cell known as adipocytes, which are specialized in accumulating and storing fats. These cells are grouped together in lobules separated by connective tissue. The hypodermis acts as an energy reserve. The fats contained in the adipocytes can be put back into circulation, via the venous route, during intense effort or when there is a lack of energy-providing substances, and are then transformed into energy. The hypodermis participates, passively at least, in thermoregulation since fat is a heat insulator. == Functions == The integumentary system has multiple roles in maintaining the body's equilibrium. All body systems work in an interconnected manner to maintain the internal conditions essential to the function of the body. The skin has an important job of protecting the body and acts as the body's first line of defense against infection, temperature change, and other challenges to homeostasis. Its main functions include: Protect the body's internal living tissues and organs Protect against invasion by foreign organisms, including


id: international-health-terminology-standards-development-organisation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Health_Terminology_Standards_Development_Organisation-0.md
category: reference
title: International Health Terminology Standards Development Organisation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Health_Terminology_Standards_Development_Organisation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:49.113431+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-health-terminology-standards-development-organisation-20260505-0
summary:
The International Health Terminology Standards Development Organisation (IHTSDO), trading as SNOMED International, is private company limited by guarantee and established under the laws of England that owns SNOMED CT, a leading clinical terminology used in electronic health records. IHTSDO was founded in 2007 by 9 charter member countries (Australia, Canada, Denmark, Lithuania, Sweden, the Netherlands, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United States) in order to acquire the rights of SNOMED CT from the College of American Pathologists (CAP) and make the development of a global clinical language for healthcare an international, collaborative effort. == Governance == IHTSDO governance is defined in the IHTSDO Articles of Association. The organization is headquartered in the United Kingdom (London). Since 2007 the number of member countries has increased from 9 to 29. The members were (as of December 2016): Australia, Belgium, Brunei, Canada, Chile, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Hong Kong, Iceland, India, Ireland, Israel, Lithuania, Malaysia, Malta, Netherlands, New Zealand, Poland, Portugal, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, the United States and Uruguay. The member countries provide the bulk of the institutional financing through payment of yearly member fees, which are based on gross national income. Members of IHTSDO


id: intertriginous-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intertriginous-0.md
category: reference
title: Intertriginous
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intertriginous
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:50.397041+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: intertriginous-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, an intertriginous area is where two skin areas may touch or rub together. Examples of intertriginous areas are the axilla of the arm, the anogenital region, skin folds of the breasts and between digits. Intertriginous areas are known to harbor large amounts of aerobic cocci and aerobic coryneform bacteria, which are both parts of normal skin flora. == See also == Intertrigo == References == == Bibliography == Leyden J. Pathophysiology of certain bacterial diseases. In: Soter N, Baden H, eds. Pathophysiology of Dermatologic diseases. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1991:427-51


id: intracorporeal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intracorporeal-0.md
category: reference
title: Intracorporeal
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intracorporeal
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:51.626835+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: intracorporeal-20260505-0
summary:
Intracorporeal or intracorporal is an adjective that means within (intra-) the body (corpus). Its antonym is extracorporeal. It is used frequently in medicine to describe medical procedures that occur within the body, or within a corpus, as opposed to extracorporeal procedures (e.g. extracorporeal membrane oxygenation). In a medical or surgical context, it may refer to: Intracorporeal anastomosis Intracorporeal circulation Intracorporeal energy harvesting, harvesting energy from the body, and storing it, to sustain a medical device (e.g. a pacemaker). Intracorporeal injection Intracorporeal microrobotics Intracorporeal reconstruction Intracorporeal suturing Intracorporeal urinary diversion Lithotripsy: Intracorporeal electrohydraulic lithotripsy Intracorporeal laser lithotripsy Intracorporeal pneumatic lithotripsy Intracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy == See also == The dictionary definition of intracorporeal at Wiktionary The dictionary definition of intracorpuscular at Wiktionary Human body (corpus humanum) In vivo == References ==


id: involution-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Involution_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Involution (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Involution_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:52.820238+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: involution-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Involution is the shrinking or return of an organ to a former size. At a cellular level, involution is characterized by the process of proteolysis of the basement membrane (basal lamina), leading to epithelial regression and apoptosis, with accompanying stromal fibrosis. The consequent reduction in cell number and reorganization of stromal tissue leads to the reduction in the size of the organ. == Examples == === Thymus === The thymus continues to grow between birth and sexual maturity and then begins to atrophy, a process directed by the high levels of circulating sex hormones. Proportional to thymic size, thymic activity (T cell output) is most active before maturity. Upon atrophy, the size and activity are dramatically reduced, and the organ is primarily replaced with fat. The atrophy is due to the increased circulating level of sex hormones, and chemical or physical castration of an adult results in the thymus increasing in size and activity. === Uterus === Involution is the process by which the uterus is transformed from pregnant to non-pregnant state. This period is characterized by the restoration of ovarian function in order to prepare the body for a new pregnancy. It is a physiological process occurring after parturition;


id: ketolysis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketolysis-0.md
category: reference
title: Ketolysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketolysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:54.044756+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ketolysis-20260505-0
summary:
Ketolysis is the process of catabolizing ketones, the opposite of ketogenesis which is the process of synthesizing ketones. Ketolysis provides more energy for ATP synthesis than fatty acid oxidation (beta oxidation). Ketogenesis occurs primarily in the liver, whereas ketolysis occurs in non-liver cells, especially in the heart, brain, and skeletal muscle. The SCOT enzyme (aka thiophorase) is required for ketolysis, and is present in the mitochondria of all mammalian cells except for hepatocytes. Although type II cells of the pulmonary alveolus possess monocarboxylate transporters to transport of beta hydroxybutyrate precursors into the cytoplasm, the absence of ketolytic enzymes results in the cells being unable to catabolize the beta hydroxybutyrate. The cardioprotective effects of SGLT2 inhibitors have been attributed to the elevated ketone levels and increased ketolysis. == The Ketolytic Pathway == == References ==


id: kissing-contusion-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kissing_contusion-0.md
category: reference
title: Kissing contusion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kissing_contusion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:55.379094+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kissing-contusion-20260505-0
summary:
Contusions of both surfaces of the knee joint are known as kissing contusions. These contusions are generally found by magnetic resonance imaging and most cases are associated with ligamentous or meniscal injuries. == References ==


id: lateral-flow-test-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_flow_test-0.md
category: reference
title: Lateral flow test
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_flow_test
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:56.678548+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lateral-flow-test-20260505-0
summary:
A lateral flow test (LFT), is an assay also known as a lateral flow immunochromatographic test (ICT). It is a simple device intended to detect the presence of a target substance in a liquid sample without the need for specialized and costly equipment. LFTs are widely used in medical diagnostics in the home, at the point of care, and in the laboratory. For instance, the home pregnancy test is an LFT that detects a specific hormone. These tests are simple and economical and generally show results in around five to thirty minutes. Many lab-based applications increase the sensitivity of simple LFTs by employing additional dedicated equipment. Many LFTs are called rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs), though this term also includes other formats such as the vertical-flow tests. LFTs operate on the same principles of affinity chromatography as the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA). In essence, these tests run the liquid sample along the surface of a pad with reactive molecules that show a visual positive or negative result. The pads are based on a series of capillary beds, such as pieces of porous paper, microstructured polymer, or sintered polymer. Each of these pads has the capacity to transport fluid (e.g., urine, blood,


id: lateral-flow-test-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_flow_test-1.md
category: reference
title: Lateral flow test
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_flow_test
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:56.678548+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lateral-flow-test-20260505-0
summary:
Most tests will incorporate a second line which contains a further antibody (one which is not specific to the analyte) that binds some of the remaining colored particles which did not bind to the test line. This confirms that fluid has passed successfully from the sample-application pad, past the test line. By giving confirmation that the sample has had a chance to interact with the test line, this increases confidence that a visibly-unchanged test line can be interpreted as a negative result (or that a changed test line can be interpreted as a negative result in a competitive assay). === Blood plasma extraction === Because the intense red color of hemoglobin interferes with the readout of colorimetric or optical detection-based diagnostic tests, blood plasma separation is a common first step to increase diagnostic test accuracy. Plasma can be extracted from whole blood via integrated filters or via agglutination. === Speed and simplicity === Time to obtain the test result is a key driver for these products. Tests results can be available in as little as a few minutes. Generally there is a trade off between time and sensitivity: more sensitive tests may take longer to develop. The other key advantage


id: lateral-flow-test-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_flow_test-2.md
category: reference
title: Lateral flow test
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_flow_test
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:56.678548+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lateral-flow-test-20260505-0
summary:
Lateral flow assays have played a critical role in COVID-19 testing as they have the benefit of delivering a result in 15–30 minutes. The systematic evaluation of lateral flow assays during the COVID-19 pandemic was initiated at Oxford University as part of a UK collaboration with Public Health England. A study that started in June 2020 in the United Kingdom, FALCON-C19, confirmed the sensitivity of some lateral flow devices (LFDs) in this setting. Four out of 64 LFDs tested had desirable performance characteristics according to these early tests; the Innova SARS-CoV-2 Antigen Rapid Qualitative Test performed moderately in viral antigen detection/sensitivity with excellent specificity, although kit failure rates and the impact of training were potential issues. The Innova test's specificity is more widely publicised, but sensitivity in phase 4 trials was 50.1%. This describes a device for which one out of every two patients infected with COVID-19 and tested in real-world conditions would receive a false-negative result. After closure of schools in January 2021, biweekly LFTs were introduced in England for teachers, pupils, and households of pupils when schools re-opened on March 8, 2021 for asymptomatic testing. Biweekly LFT were made universally available to everyone in England on April 9,


id: left-without-being-seen-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Left_without_being_seen-0.md
category: reference
title: Left without being seen
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Left_without_being_seen
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:57.931077+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: left-without-being-seen-20260505-0
summary:
Left Without Being Seen (LWBS) is a healthcare term often used by emergency departments (ED) to designate a patient encounter that ended with the patient leaving the healthcare setting before the patient could be seen by a certified physician. Often the inclusion of this phrase in a medical record is the result of ED overcrowding (i.e. the patient could no longer wait in the ED to be seen by a physician, so they left without alerting a healthcare professional). Typically, those patients who leave an emergency department without being seen are not at an increased risk of death, and often do not require inpatient hospital admission. An increase in LWBS patients may be reflective of systemic public healthcare logistical issues. == References ==


id: length-of-stay-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Length_of_stay-0.md
category: reference
title: Length of stay
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Length_of_stay
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:59.189346+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: length-of-stay-20260505-0
summary:
Length of stay (LOS) is the duration of a single episode of hospitalization. Inpatient days are calculated by subtracting day of admission from day of discharge. == Analysis == A common statistic associated with length of stay is the average length of stay (ALOS), a mean calculated by dividing the sum of inpatient days by the number of patients admissions with the same diagnosis-related group classification. A variation in the calculation of ALOS can be to consider only length of stay during the period under analysis. Length of stay is typically highly skewed and so statistical approaches taking that into account are recommended. While the mean length of stay is useful from the point of view of costs, it may be a poor statistic in terms of representing a typical length of stay, and the median may be preferred. It is useful to be able to predict an individual's expected length of stay or to model length of stay to determine factors that affect it. Various analyses have sought to model length of stay in different condition contexts. This has usually been done with regression models, but Markov chain methods have also been applied. Within regression approaches, linear, log-normal and


id: lightwood-s-law-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightwood's_law-0.md
category: reference
title: Lightwood's law
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightwood's_law
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:00.416124+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lightwood-s-law-20260505-0
summary:
Lightwood's law is the principle that, in medicine, bacterial infections will tend to localise while viral infections will tend to spread. This is based on the observation that while bacterial sepsis tends, despite affecting the whole body, to have a clear site of origin or 'focus', the opposite may be true of viral infections. There may be multiple sites across the body which are affected including dermatological manifestations, respiratory symptoms and gastrointestinal symptoms. It is named for Reginald Cyril Lightwood. This principle is by no means infallible and in clinical practice a variety of diagnostic tests are used to distinguish between bacterial and viral infections. == References ==


id: list-of-bones-of-the-human-skeleton-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_bones_of_the_human_skeleton-0.md
category: reference
title: List of bones of the human skeleton
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_bones_of_the_human_skeleton
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:01.691476+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-bones-of-the-human-skeleton-20260505-0
summary:
An adult human skeleton is commonly quoted as consisting of 206 bones. Reports on the typical number of bones have varied historically depending on how different sources choose to count features such as fused bones (for example, the sternum). The actual number of bones in any individual skeleton varies depending on factors such as age and anatomical variation. The list of 206 bones in the adult skeleton can be subdivided into the axial skeleton (80 bones) and the appendicular skeleton (126 bones). 172 of 206 bones are part of a pair and the remaining 34 are unpaired. Many small accessory bones, such as sesamoid bones, are not included in the standard list. == Introduction == Infants are born with an estimated 270 bones. During the course of normal human development, many bones fuse, a process that is active throughout childhood and puberty but typically continues until sometime within the third decade of life. Therefore, the number of bones in an individual may be evaluated differently throughout a lifetime. In addition, the bones of the skull and face are counted as separate bones, despite being fused naturally. Some reliable sesamoid bones such as the pisiform are counted, while others, such as


id: list-of-medical-abbreviations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_medical_abbreviations-0.md
category: reference
title: List of medical abbreviations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_medical_abbreviations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:03.077429+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-medical-abbreviations-20260505-0
summary:
Abbreviations are used very frequently in medicine. They boost efficiency as long as they are used intelligently. The advantages of brevity should be weighed against the possibilities of obfuscation (making the communication harder for others to understand) and ambiguity (having more than one possible interpretation). Certain medical abbreviations are avoided to prevent mistakes, according to best practices (and in some cases regulatory requirements); these are flagged in the list of abbreviations used in medical prescriptions. == Orthographic styling == === Periods (stops) === Periods (stops) are often used in styling abbreviations. Prevalent practice in medicine today is often to forgo them as unnecessary. Example: Less common: The diagnosis was C.O.P.D. [chronic obstructive pulmonary disease] More common: The diagnosis was COPD === Plurals === The prevalent way to represent plurals for medical acronyms and initialisms is simply to affix a lowercase s (no apostrophe). Example: one OCP, two OCPs [oral contraceptive pills]. === Possessives === Possessive forms are not often needed, but can be formed using apostrophe + s. Often the writer can also recast the sentence to avoid it. Example: BP's effect on risk of MI is multifaceted. The effect of BP on MI risk is multifaceted. === Arrows ===


id: list-of-skeletal-muscles-of-the-human-body-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_skeletal_muscles_of_the_human_body-0.md
category: reference
title: List of skeletal muscles of the human body
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_skeletal_muscles_of_the_human_body
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:04.336896+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-skeletal-muscles-of-the-human-body-20260505-0
summary:
This is a table of skeletal muscles of the human anatomy, with muscle counts and other information. == Table == == Table explanation and summary == The muscles are described using anatomical terminology. The columns are as follows: For Origin, Insertion and Action please name a specific Rib, Thoracic vertebrae or Cervical vertebrae, by using C1-7, T1-12 or R1-12. === Summary in numbers === There does not appear to be a definitive source counting all skeletal muscles. Different sources group muscles differently, regarding physical features as different parts of a single muscle or as several muscles. There are also vestigial muscles that are present in some people but absent in others, such as the palmaris longus muscle. There are between 600 and 840 muscles within the typical human body, depending on how they are counted. In the present table, using statistical counts of the instances of each muscle, and ignoring gender-specific muscles, there are 753 skeletal muscles. Sometimes male and females have the same muscle but with different purposes ==== Numbers based on the list above ==== === Agonistic and antagonistic relationships === Muscles are often paired as agonistic and antagonistic muscles. This can be a bit misleading as, in


id: lists-of-medical-eponyms-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_medical_eponyms-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of medical eponyms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_medical_eponyms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:20.105318+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-medical-eponyms-20260505-0
summary:
Medical eponyms are diseases, disorders, or syndromes named after people, and occasionally places or things. Eponyms are widely used and new ones continue to be coined, although some physicians argue against their use. Eponyms are most typically named after the physician or researcher who first described the condition, such as Parkinson's disease, after James Parkinson (1755-1824) or Alzheimer's disease, after Alois Alzheimer (1864–1915). Some diseases are commonly known by a famous patient's name, such as Lou Gehrig disease, although amyotrophic lateral sclerosis is the clinical name. A few clinical names come from a patient's name, such as Hartnup disease (formally pellagra-like dermatosis with transitory cerebellar ataxia), named for a family with this hereditary disease. Sometimes conditions are named after multiple physicians or scientists, such as Waterhouse–Friderichsen syndrome. Lyme disease is named for two towns where the symptoms were first identified. The eponym may even be a fictional character with no direct relationship to the disease. For example, Munchausen syndrome was coined because, like Baron von Munchausen, "the persons affected have always travelled widely, and their stories, like those attributed to him, are both dramatic and untrue." Eponyms are widely used in medicine and continue to be coined. There are no


id: localized-disease-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Localized_disease-0.md
category: reference
title: Localized disease
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Localized_disease
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:21.591704+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: localized-disease-20260505-0
summary:
A localized disease is an infectious or neoplastic process that originates in and is confined to one organ system or general area in the body, such as a sprained ankle, a boil on the hand, an abscess of finger. A localized cancer that has not extended beyond the margins of the organ involved can also be described as localized disease, while cancers that extend into other tissues are described as invasive. Tumors that are non-hematologic in origin but extend into the bloodstream or lymphatic system are known as metastatic. Localized diseases are contrasted with disseminated diseases and systemic diseases. Some diseases are capable of changing from local to disseminated diseases. Pneumonia, for example, is generally confined to one or both lungs but can become disseminated through sepsis, in which the microorganism responsible for the pneumonia "seeds" the bloodstream or lymphatic system and is transported to distant sites in the body. When that occurs, the process is no longer described as a localized disease, but rather as a disseminated disease. == See also == Disease Nosology == References ==


id: medical-logistics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_logistics-0.md
category: reference
title: Medical logistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_logistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:22.898880+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-logistics-20260505-0
summary:
Medical logistics is the logistics of pharmaceuticals, medical and surgical supplies, medical devices and equipment, and other products needed to support doctors, nurses, and other health and dental care providers. Because its final customers are responsible for the lives and health of their patients, medical logistics is unique in that it seeks to optimize effectiveness rather than efficiency. Medical logistics functions comprise an important part of the health care system: after staff costs, medical supplies are the single most expensive component of health care. To drive costs out of the health-care sector, medical logistics providers are adopting supply chain management theories. This organizational chart is as follows and separated into three key areas. Medical Materiel Facilities Management. Biomedical Engineering (BMET) or Clinical Engineering These areas are managed by a qualified Director of Logistics. The Director of Logistics' educational background holds some type of accredited graduate degree (MBA or M.S.) == See also == Medical device == References ==


id: long-term-care-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_care-0.md
category: reference
title: Long-term care
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_care
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:24.445699+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: long-term-care-20260505-0
summary:
Long-term care (LTC) is a variety of services which help meet both the medical and non-medical needs of people with a chronic illness or disability who cannot care for themselves for long periods. Long-term care is focused on individualized and coordinated services that promote independence, maximize patients' quality of life, and meet patients' needs over a period of time. It is common for long-term care to provide custodial and non-skilled care, such as assisting with activities of daily living like dressing, feeding, using the bathroom, meal preparation, functional transfers and safe restroom use. Increasingly, long-term care involves providing a level of medical care that requires the expertise of skilled practitioners to address the multiple long-term conditions associated with older populations. Long-term care can be provided at home, in the community, in assisted living facilities or in nursing homes. Long-term care may be needed by people of any age, although it is a more common need for senior citizens. == Types of long-term care == Long-term care can be provided formally or informally. Facilities that offer formal LTC services typically provide living accommodation for people who require on-site delivery of around-the-clock supervised care, including professional health services, personal care, and services


id: long-term-care-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_care-1.md
category: reference
title: Long-term care
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_care
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:24.445699+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: long-term-care-20260505-0
summary:
== Long-term services and supports == "Long-term services and supports" (LTSS) is the modernized term for community services, which may obtain health care financing (e.g., home and community-based Medicaid waiver services), and may or may not be operated by the traditional hospital-medical system (e.g., physicians, nurses, nurse's aides). The Consortium of Citizens with Disabilities (CCD) which works with the U. S. Congress, has indicated that while hospitals offer acute care, many non-acute, long-term services are provided to assist individuals to live and participate in the community. An example is the group home international emblem of community living and deinstitutionalization, and the variety of supportive services (e.g., supported housing, supported employment, supported living, supported parenting, family support), supported education. The term is also common with aging groups, such as the American Association of Retired Persons (AARP), which annually surveys the US states on services for elders (e.g., intermediate care facilities, assisted living, home-delivered meals). The new US Support Workforce includes the Direct Support Professional, which is largely non-profit or for-profit, and the governmental workforces, often unionized, in the communities in US states. Core competencies (Racino-Lakin, 1988) at the federal-state interface for the aides "in institutions and communities" were identified in aging


id: long-term-care-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_care-2.md
category: reference
title: Long-term care
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_care
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:24.445699+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: long-term-care-20260505-0
summary:
Life expectancy is going up in most countries, meaning more people are living longer and entering an age when they may need care. Meanwhile, birth rates are generally falling. Globally, 70 percent of all older people now live in low or middle-income countries. Countries and health care systems need to find innovative and sustainable ways to cope with the demographic shift. As reported by John Beard, director of the World Health Organization's Department of Ageing and Life Course, "With the rapid ageing of populations, finding the right model for long-term care becomes more and more urgent." The demographic shift is also being accompanied by changing social patterns, including smaller families, different residential patterns, and increased female labour force participation. These factors often contribute to an increased need for paid care. In many countries, the largest percentages of older persons needing LTC services still rely on informal home care, or services provided by unpaid caregivers (usually nonprofessional family members, friends or other volunteers). Estimates from the OECD of these figures often are in the 80 to 90 percent range; for example, in Austria, 80 percent of all older citizens. The similar figure for dependent elders in Spain is 82.2 percent. The


id: long-term-care-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_care-3.md
category: reference
title: Long-term care
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_care
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:24.445699+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: long-term-care-20260505-0
summary:
== Long-term care funding == Governments around the world have responded to growing long-term care needs to different degrees and at different levels. These responses by governments, are based in part, upon a public policy research agenda on long-term care which includes special population research, flexible models of services, and managed care models to control escalating costs and high private pay rates. === Europe === Most Western European countries have put in place a mechanism to fund formal care and, in a number of Northern and Continental European countries, arrangements exist to at least partially fund informal care as well. Some countries have had publicly organized funding arrangements in place for many years: the Netherlands adopted the Exceptional Medical Expenses Act (ABWZ) in 1967, and in 1988 Norway established a framework for municipal payments to informal caregivers (in certain instances making them municipal employees). Other countries have only recently put in place comprehensive national programs: in 2004, for example, France set up a specific insurance fund for dependent older people and in 2006, Portugal created a public funded national network for long-term care. Some countries (Spain and Italy in Southern Europe, Poland and Hungary in Central Europe) have not yet


id: long-term-care-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_care-4.md
category: reference
title: Long-term care
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_care
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:24.445699+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: long-term-care-20260505-0
summary:
==== United States ==== Long-term care is typically funded using a combination of sources including but not limited to family members, Medicaid, long-term care insurance and Medicare. All of these include out-of-pocket spending, which often becomes exhausted once an individual requires more medical attention throughout the aging process and might need in-home care or be admitted into a nursing home. For many people, out-of-pocket spending for long-term care is a transitional state before eventually being covered by Medicaid, which requires impoverishment for eligibility. Personal savings can be difficult to manage and budget and often deplete rapidly. In addition to personal savings, individuals can also rely on an Individual retirement account, Roth IRA, Pension, Severance package or the funds of family members. These are essentially retirement packages that become available to the individual once certain requirements have been met. In 2008, Medicaid and Medicare accounted for approximately 71% of national long-term care spending in the United States. Out-of-pocket spending accounted for 18% of national long-term care spending, private long-term care insurance accounted for 7%, and other organizations and agencies accounted for the remaining expenses. Moreover, 67% of all nursing home residents used Medicaid as their primary source of payment. Private Long-Term


id: maculopapular-rash-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maculopapular_rash-0.md
category: reference
title: Maculopapular rash
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maculopapular_rash
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:25.719082+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maculopapular-rash-20260505-0
summary:
A maculopapular rash is a type of rash characterized by a flat, red area on the skin that is covered with small confluent bumps. It may only appear red in lighter-skinned people. The term "maculopapular" is a compound: macules are small, flat discolored spots on the surface of the skin; and papules are small, raised bumps. It is also described as erythematous, or red. This type of rash is common in several diseases and medical conditions, including scarlet fever, measles, Ebola virus disease, rubella, HIV, secondary syphilis (congenital syphilis, which is asymptomatic, the newborn may present this type of rash), erythrovirus (parvovirus B19), chikungunya (alphavirus), Zika fever, smallpox (which has been eradicated), varicella (when vaccinated persons exhibit symptoms from the modified form), heat rash, and sometimes dengue fever. It is also a common manifestation of a skin reaction to the antibiotic amoxicillin or chemotherapy drugs. Cutaneous infiltration of leukemic cells may also have this appearance. Maculopapular rash is seen in graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) developed after a hematopoietic stem cell transplant (bone marrow transplant), which can be seen within one week or several weeks after the transplant. In the case of GVHD, the maculopapular lesions may progress to a condition similar


id: malacia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malacia-0.md
category: reference
title: Malacia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malacia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:27.021333+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: malacia-20260505-0
summary:
Malacia is abnormal softening of a biological tissue, most often cartilage. The word is derived from Greek μαλακός, malakos = soft. Usually the combining form -malacia suffixed to another combining form that denotes the affected tissue assigns a more specific name to each such disorder, as follows: Osteomalacia (rickets), a bone disorder from vitamin D deficiency Chondromalacia, softening of cartilage (often refers to chondromalacia patellae when mentioned without further specification) Chondromalacia patellae, a disorder of cartilage under the kneecap Bronchomalacia, a disorder of the bronchial tubes' cartilage Laryngomalacia, a disorder of the larynx's cartilage Tracheomalacia, a disorder of the trachea's cartilage Keratomalacia, an eye disorder from vitamin A deficiency Myelomalacia, a disorder of the spinal cord Cerebral softening (encephalomalacia), localized softening of brain tissue == References == == External links == Definition at MedineNet.com


id: malignancy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malignancy-0.md
category: reference
title: Malignancy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malignancy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:28.374982+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: malignancy-20260505-0
summary:
Malignancy (from Latin male 'badly' and -gnus 'born') is the tendency of a medical condition to become progressively worse; the term is most familiar as a characterization of cancer. A malignant tumor contrasts with a non-cancerous benign tumor in that a malignancy is not self-limited in its growth, is capable of invading into adjacent tissues, and may be capable of spreading to distant tissues. A benign tumor has none of those properties, but may still be harmful to health. The term benign in more general medical use characterizes a condition or growth that is not cancerous, i.e. does not spread to other parts of the body or invade nearby tissue. Sometimes the term is used to suggest that a condition is not dangerous or serious, although this is not always the case. Malignancy in cancers is characterized by anaplasia, invasiveness, and metastasis. Malignant tumors are also characterized by genome instability: cancers, as assessed by whole genome sequencing, frequently have between 10,000 and 100,000 mutations in their entire genomes. Cancers usually show tumour heterogeneity, containing multiple subclones. They also frequently have reduced expression of DNA repair enzymes due to epigenetic methylation of DNA repair genes or altered microRNAs that control DNA


id: malignancy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malignancy-1.md
category: reference
title: Malignancy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malignancy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:28.374982+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: malignancy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Surgery === Surgery can help manage or treat malignancy by either removing the tumour, localising it and/or determining whether there has been a spread to other organs. When undertaking surgery for malignancy, there are six major objectives which are considered. These include "prevention of cancer, diagnosis and staging of disease, disease cure, tumour debulking, symptom palliation and patient rehabilitation". Surgical prevention of cancer largely consists of removing the organ at risk of developing malignancy. This would occur if an individual is predisposed to the formation of malignant cells as a result of inherited genetic mutations and acquired diseases. Surgical diagnosis of malignancy involves completing a biopsy. This process requires a sufficient amount of tissue to make a confident diagnosis, and the handling of specimen to expand information provided from testing. Biopsies are categorised into four different processes: "fine-needle aspirate (FNA), core needle, incisional, and excisional". Curative surgery (also known as primary surgery) can be conducted when the malignant tumour has only invaded one area of the body. The objective is to remove the entirety of the malignant cells without violating the tumour; if the tumour is violated, the risk of both tumour spillage and wound implantation would increase. The


id: mammoplasia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammoplasia-0.md
category: reference
title: Mammoplasia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammoplasia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:29.680473+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mammoplasia-20260505-0
summary:
Mammoplasia is the normal or spontaneous enlargement of human breasts. Mammoplasia occurs normally during puberty and pregnancy in women, as well as during certain periods of the menstrual cycle. When it occurs in males, it is called gynecomastia and is considered to be pathological. When it occurs in females and is extremely excessive, it is called macromastia (also known as gigantomastia or breast hypertrophy) and is similarly considered to be pathological. Mammoplasia may be due to breast engorgement, which is temporary enlargement of the breasts caused by the production and storage of breast milk in association with lactation and/or galactorrhea (excessive or inappropriate production of milk). Mastodynia (breast tenderness/pain) frequently co-occurs with mammoplasia. During the luteal phase (latter half) of the menstrual cycle, due to increased mammary blood flow and/or premenstrual fluid retention caused by high circulating concentrations of estrogen and/or progesterone, the breasts temporarily increase in size, and this is experienced by women as fullness, heaviness, swollenness, and a tingling sensation. Mammoplasia can be an effect or side effect of various drugs, including estrogens, antiandrogens such as spironolactone, cyproterone acetate, bicalutamide, and finasteride, growth hormone, and drugs that elevate prolactin levels such as D2 receptor antagonists like antipsychotics (e.g.,


id: manner-of-death-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manner_of_death-0.md
category: reference
title: Manner of death
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manner_of_death
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:31.066625+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: manner-of-death-20260505-0
summary:
In many legal jurisdictions, the manner of death is a determination, typically made by the coroner, medical examiner, police, or similar officials, and recorded as a vital statistic. Within the United States and the United Kingdom, a distinction is made between the cause of death, which is a specific disease or injury, such as a gunshot wound or cancer, versus manner of death, which is primarily a legal determination, versus the mechanism of death (also called the mode of death), which does not explain why the person died or the underlying cause of death and is usually not specific to the cause or manner of death, such as asphyxiation, arrhythmia or exsanguination. Different categories are used in different jurisdictions, but manner of death determinations include everything from very broad categories like "natural" and "homicide" to specific manners like "traffic accident" or "gunshot wound". In some cases an autopsy is performed, either due to general legal requirements, because the medical cause of death is uncertain, upon the request of family members or guardians, or because the circumstances of death were suspicious. International Classification of Disease codes are sometimes used to record manner and cause of death in a systematic way that


id: manner-of-death-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manner_of_death-1.md
category: reference
title: Manner of death
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manner_of_death
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:31.066625+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: manner-of-death-20260505-0
summary:
=== United Kingdom === In the United Kingdom, when people die, either a doctor writes an acceptable natural cause of death medical certificate, or a coroner (procurator fiscal in Scotland) investigates the case. Coroners are independent judicial officers who investigate deaths reported to them, and subsequently whatever inquiries are necessary to discover the cause of death, this includes ordering a post-mortem examination, obtaining witness statements and medical records, or holding an inquest. In the unified legal jurisdiction of England and Wales, most deaths are certified by doctors without autopsy or coroner involvement. Almost all deaths certified by the coroner involve an autopsy but most do not involve a formal inquest. In England and Wales, a specific list of choices for verdicts is not mandated, and "narrative verdicts" are allowed, which are not specifically classified. The verdicts aggregated by the Ministry of Justice are: Homicide Killed unlawfully Killed lawfully Suicide Attempted or self-induced abortion Cause of death aggravated by lack of care, or self-neglect Dependence on drugs Non-dependent abuse of drugs Want of attention at birth Death from industrial diseases Death by accident or misadventure Stillborn Death from natural causes Open verdict Disaster === Other jurisdictions === Some jurisdictions place deaths


id: mass-effect-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_effect_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Mass effect (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_effect_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:32.354081+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mass-effect-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, a mass effect is the effect of a growing mass that results in secondary pathological effects by pushing on or displacing surrounding tissue. In oncology, the mass typically refers to a tumor. For example, cancer of the thyroid gland may cause symptoms due to compressions of certain structures of the head and neck; pressure on the laryngeal nerves may cause voice changes, narrowing of the windpipe may cause stridor, pressure on the gullet may cause dysphagia and so on. Surgical removal or debulking is sometimes used to palliate symptoms of the mass effect even if the underlying pathology is not curable. In neurology, a mass effect is the effect exerted by any mass, including, for example, hydrocephalus (cerebrospinal fluid buildup) or an evolving intracranial hemorrhage (bleeding within the skull) presenting with a clinically significant hematoma. The hematoma can exert a mass effect on the brain, increasing intracranial pressure and potentially causing midline shift or deadly brain herniation. In the past this effect held additional diagnostic importance since prior to the invention of modern tomographic soft-tissue imaging utilizing MRI or CT it was not possible to directly image many kinds of primary intracranial lesions. Therefore, in those days, the


id: maternal-death-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death-0.md
category: reference
title: Maternal death
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:33.740084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maternal-death-20260505-0
summary:
Maternal death or maternal mortality is defined in slightly different ways by several different health organizations. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines maternal death as the death of a pregnant mother due to complications related to pregnancy, underlying conditions worsened by the pregnancy or management of these conditions. This can occur either while she is pregnant or within six weeks of resolution of the pregnancy. The CDC definition of pregnancy-related deaths extends the period of consideration to include one year from the resolution of the pregnancy. Pregnancy associated death, as defined by the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG), are all deaths occurring within one year of a pregnancy resolution. Identification of pregnancy associated deaths is important for deciding whether or not the pregnancy was a direct or indirect contributing cause of the death. There are two main measures used when talking about the rates of maternal mortality in a community or country. These are the maternal mortality ratio and maternal mortality rate, both abbreviated as "MMR". By 2017, the world maternal mortality rate had declined 44% since 1990; however, every day 808 women die from pregnancy or childbirth related causes. According to the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA)


id: maternal-death-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death-1.md
category: reference
title: Maternal death
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:33.740084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maternal-death-20260505-0
summary:
When abortion is legal and accessible, it is widely regarded as safer for the mother than carrying a pregnancy to term and delivery. In fact, a study published in the journal Obstetrics & Gynecology reported that in the United States, carrying a pregnancy to term and delivering a baby comes with a 14 times increased risk of death for the mother as compared to a legal abortion. However, in many regions of the world, abortion is not legal and can be unsafe for the mother. Maternal deaths caused by improperly performed procedures are preventable and contribute 13% to the maternal mortality rate worldwide. This number is increased to 25% in countries where other causes of maternal mortality are low, such as in Eastern European and South American countries. This makes unsafe abortion practices the leading cause of maternal death worldwide. Unsafe abortion is another major cause of maternal death worldwide. In regions where abortion is legal and accessible, abortion is safe and does not contribute greatly to overall rates of maternal death. However, in regions where abortions are not legal, available, or regulated, unsafe abortion practices can cause significant rates of maternal death. According to the World Health Organization in


id: maternal-death-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death-2.md
category: reference
title: Maternal death
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:33.740084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maternal-death-20260505-0
summary:
=== Risk factors === According to a 2004 WHO publication, sociodemographic factors such as age, access to resources, and income level are significant indicators of maternal outcomes. Young mothers face higher risks of complications and death during pregnancy than older mothers, especially adolescents aged 15 years or younger. Adolescents have higher risks for postpartum hemorrhage, endometritis, operative vaginal delivery, episiotomy, low birth weight, preterm delivery, and small-for-gestational-age infants, all of which can lead to maternal death. The leading cause of death for girls at the age of 15 in developing countries is complications during pregnancy and childbirth. They have more pregnancies, on average, than women in developed countries, and it has been shown that 1 in 180 15-year-old girls in developing countries who become pregnant will die due to complications during pregnancy or childbirth. This is compared to women in developed countries, where the likelihood is 1 in 4900 live births. However, in the United States, as many women of older age continue to have children, the maternal mortality rate has risen in some states, especially among women over 40 years old. Women in low-income countries face a lifetime risk of maternal death—defined as the probability that a 15-year-old girl


id: maternal-death-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death-3.md
category: reference
title: Maternal death
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:33.740084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maternal-death-20260505-0
summary:
=== Trends === The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA; formerly known as the United Nations Fund for Population Activities) has established programs that support efforts in reducing maternal death. These efforts include education and training for midwives, supporting access to emergency services in obstetric and newborn care networks, and providing essential drugs and family planning services to pregnant women or those planning to become pregnant. They also support efforts for review and response systems regarding maternal deaths. According to the 2010 United Nations Population Fund report, low-resource nations account for ninety-nine percent of maternal deaths, with the majority of those deaths occurring in Sub-Saharan Africa and Southern Asia. Globally, high and middle-income countries experience lower maternal deaths than low-income countries. The Human Development Index (HDI) accounts for between 82 and 85 percent of the maternal mortality rates among countries. In most cases, high rates of maternal deaths occur in the same countries that have high rates of infant mortality. These trends reflect that higher-income countries have stronger healthcare infrastructure, more doctors, use more advanced medical technologies, and have fewer barriers to accessing care than low-income countries. In low-income countries, the most common cause of maternal death is obstetrical hemorrhage, followed


id: maternal-death-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death-4.md
category: reference
title: Maternal death
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:33.740084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maternal-death-20260505-0
summary:
=== Prenatal care === It was estimated that in 2015, a total of 303,000 women died due to causes related to pregnancy or childbirth. The majority of these were due to severe bleeding, sepsis or infections, eclampsia, obstructed labor, and consequences from unsafe abortions. Most of these causes are either preventable or have highly effective interventions. An important factor that contributes to the maternal mortality rate is access and opportunity to receive prenatal care. Women who do not receive prenatal care are between three and four times more likely to die from complications resulting from pregnancy or delivery than those who receive prenatal care. Even in high-resource countries, many women do not receive the appropriate preventative or prenatal care. For example, 25% of women in the United States do not receive the recommended number of prenatal visits. This number increases for women among traditionally marginalized populations—32% of African American women and 41% for American Indian and Alaska Native women do not receive the recommended preventative health services before delivery. In 2023, a study reported that deaths among Native American women were three-and-a-half times that of white women. The report attributed the high rate in part to the fact that Native


id: maternal-death-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death-5.md
category: reference
title: Maternal death
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:33.740084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maternal-death-20260505-0
summary:
A public health approach to addressing maternal mortality includes gathering information on the scope of the problem, identifying key causes, and implementing interventions, both before pregnancy and during pregnancy, to combat those causes and prevent maternal mortality. Public health has a role to play in the analysis of maternal death. One important aspect in the review of maternal death and its causes are Maternal Mortality Review Committees or Boards. The goal of these review committees is to analyze each maternal death and determine its cause. After this analysis, the information can be combined to determine specific interventions that could prevent future maternal deaths. These review boards are generally comprehensive in their analysis of maternal deaths, examining details that include mental health factors, public transportation, chronic illnesses, and substance use disorders. All of this information can be combined to give a detailed picture of what is causing maternal mortality and help determine recommendations to reduce its impact. Many states in the US are taking Maternal Mortality Review Committees a step further and are collaborating with various professional organizations to improve the quality of perinatal care. These teams of organizations form a "perinatal quality collaborative" (PQC) and include state health departments, the


id: maternal-death-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death-6.md
category: reference
title: Maternal death
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:33.740084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maternal-death-20260505-0
summary:
=== Policy === The largest global policy initiative for maternal health came from the United Nations' Millennium Declaration, which created the Millennium Development Goals. In 2012, this evolved at the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development to become the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) with a target year of 2030. The SDGs are 17 goals that call for global collaboration to tackle a wide variety of recognized problems. Goal 3 focuses on ensuring health and well-being for women of all ages. A specific target is to achieve a global maternal mortality ratio of less than 70 per 100,000 live births. So far, specific progress has been made in births attended by a skilled provider, now at 80% of births worldwide compared with 62% in 2005. Countries and local governments have taken political steps to reduce maternal deaths. Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute studied maternal health systems in four apparently similar countries: Rwanda, Malawi, Niger, and Uganda. In comparison to the other three countries, Rwanda has an excellent record of improving maternal death rates. Based on their investigation of these varying country case studies, the researchers conclude that improving maternal health depends on three key factors: reviewing all maternal health-related policies


id: maternal-death-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death-7.md
category: reference
title: Maternal death
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:33.740084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maternal-death-20260505-0
summary:
==== Policies in the United States ==== Additionally, in the United States, Black women are more likely to die during and from childbirth than any other demographic. While researchers have documented the higher rate of maternal mortality in black women, they have not extensively researched the ways to improve the outcomes of maternal mortality in black mothers positively. In 2022, President Joe Biden signed the “Data Mapping to Save Moms’ Lives Act” into law, just before Christmas, and with the support of the AMA (American Medical Association). The law called for the Federal Communications Commission—in consultation with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) to incorporate publicly available data on maternal mortality and severe maternal morbidity for at least one year postpartum into its Mapping Broadband Health in America platform Regardless, a concerted study on the policy outcome on black women’s mortality rate is a rarity. Additionally, in February of 2021, Senator Cory Booker and Representatives Lauren Underwood and Alma Adams reintroduced the Black Maternal Health Momnibus Act. It consisted of thirteen bills aimed at improving maternal health. Six of the bills specifically target Black maternal health or related factors that impact it. The legislation aimed to save lives,


id: maternal-death-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death-8.md
category: reference
title: Maternal death
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:33.740084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maternal-death-20260505-0
summary:
In the United States, women who are black and non-Hispanic experience pregnancy-related death at a significantly higher rate. They are three to four times as likely to succumb to maternal mortality than non-Hispanic white women. In the United States between the years of 2007 and 2014, women who identify as non-Hispanic and black had a significant increase in death related to pregnancy. In the United States, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the maternal mortality rate in 2021 was 32.9 deaths per 100,000 live births. This is significantly higher than the rates in 2020, defined as 23.8 deaths per 100,000 live births and 20.1 in 2019. In 2021, the maternal mortality rate for non-Hispanic Black women was 69.9 deaths per 100,000 live births, which is 2.6 times higher than non-Hispanic White women. The mortality rate for women over the age of 40 was 6.8 times higher than the rate for women under the age of 25. Research indicates that these disparities in the U.S. are not due to genetic differences, but rather systemic factors, including racial bias in healthcare, inadequate access to high-quality maternity care, and higher rates of chronic conditions like hypertension and preeclampsia. Implicit


id: maternal-death-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death-9.md
category: reference
title: Maternal death
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:33.740084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maternal-death-20260505-0
summary:
=== Severe maternal morbidity === Severe maternal morbidity (SMM) is an unanticipated acute or chronic health outcome after labor and delivery that detrimentally affects a woman's health. Severe Maternal Morbidity (SMM) includes any unexpected outcomes from labor or delivery that cause both short and long-term consequences to the mother's overall health. There are nineteen total indicators used by the CDC to help identify SMM, with the most prevalent indicator being a blood transfusion. Other indicators include an acute myocardial infarction ("heart attack"), aneurysm, and kidney failure. All of this identification is done by using ICD-10 codes, which are disease identification codes found in hospital discharge data. Using these definitions that rely on these codes should be used with careful consideration since some may miss some cases, have a low predictive value, or may be difficult for different facilities to operationalize. There are certain screening criteria that may be helpful and are recommended through the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists as well as the Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine (SMFM). These screening criteria for SMM are for transfusions of four or more units of blood and admission of a pregnant woman or a postpartum woman to an ICU facility or unit.


id: mayer-waves-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayer_waves-0.md
category: reference
title: Mayer waves
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayer_waves
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:35.053060+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mayer-waves-20260505-0
summary:
Mayer waves are cyclic changes or waves in arterial blood pressure brought about by oscillations in the baroreceptor reflex control system. The waves are seen both in the ECG and in continuous blood pressure curves and have a frequency about 0.1 Hz (10-second waves). These waves were originally described by Siegmund Mayer, Ewald Hering and Ludwig Traube hence originally called "Traube–Hering–Mayer waves". Mayer waves can be defined as arterial blood pressure (AP) oscillations at frequencies slower than respiratory frequency and which show the strongest, significant coherence (strength of linear coupling between fluctuations of two variables in the frequency domain) with efferent sympathetic nervous activity (SNA). In humans, AP oscillations which meet these properties have a characteristic frequency of approx. 0.1 Hz; 0.3 Hz in rabbits and 0.4 Hz in rats. The hemodynamic basis of Mayer waves are oscillations of the sympathetic vasomotor tone of arterial blood vessels, because Mayer waves are abolished or at least strongly attenuated by pharmacological blockade of alpha-adrenoreceptors. Within a given biological species, their frequency is fairly stable; in humans it has been shown that this frequency does not depend on gender, age or posture. It has been suggested that Mayer waves trigger the liberation of


id: me-too-drug-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Me-too_drug-0.md
category: reference
title: Me-too drug
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Me-too_drug
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:36.255172+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: me-too-drug-20260505-0
summary:
The term "me-too drug" or "follow-on drug" refers to a medication that is similar to a pre-existing drug, usually by making minor modifications to the prototype, reflected in slight changes in the profiles of side effects or activity, and used to treat conditions for which drugs already exist. While pharmaceutical companies have justified the development of me-toos as offering incremental improvements in efficacy, side-effects, compliance and cost, critics have questioned the increasing marketing of me-toos, their absorption of research and development resources and their impact on the innovation of new treatments. In 1956, Louis S. Goodman, co‐editor of Goodman and Gilman, referred to “the problem of the introduction of ‘me too’ drugs, that is, drugs without signal advantage of any sort”. However, me-too drugs can be novel compounds themselves. They are commonly used and include several beta blockers, antidepressants and stomach acid reducing and cholesterol lowering drugs. == History == The term "me‐too drugs" was coined in the 1950s. In 1956, Louis S. Goodman, co‐editor of Goodman and Gilman, referred to “the problem of the introduction of ‘me too’ drugs, that is, drugs without signal advantage of any sort”. Once a new drug class was discovered, other major drug companies


id: me-too-drug-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Me-too_drug-1.md
category: reference
title: Me-too drug
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Me-too_drug
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:36.255172+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: me-too-drug-20260505-0
summary:
== Debate == In 2005, a report by the International Policy Network defended me-toos, describing their development as "incremental improvements on already existing drugs". The report stated: ... this often represent(s) advances in safety and efficacy, along with providing new formulations and dosing options that significantly increase patient compliance. From an economic standpoint, expanding drug classes represent the possibility of lower drug prices as competition between manufacturers is increased. Additionally, pharmaceutical companies depend on incremental innovations to provide the revenue that will support the development of more risky “block-buster” drugs. Policies aimed at curbing incremental innovation will ultimately lead to a reduction in the overall quality of existing drug classes and may ultimately curb the creation of novel drugs. This incremental innovation has led to some referring to me-toos as "me-betters". Many physicians are unaware that me-toos are compared to placebos rather than pre-existing drugs. Me-toos are seen as patentable new drugs and therefore substantial profit makers, where innovative drugs may be more risky to develop. == Statistics == Between 1998 and 2003, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved 487 drugs, of which 78 per cent appeared to have similar characteristics to pre-existing marketed drugs. More than 60%


id: medical-advice-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_advice-0.md
category: reference
title: Medical advice
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_advice
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:37.668231+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-advice-20260505-0
summary:
Medical advice is the provision of a formal professional opinion regarding what a specific individual should or should not do to restore or preserve health. Typically, medical advice involves giving a diagnosis and/or prescribing a treatment for medical condition. Medical advice is not the same as personal advice even if the advice concerns medical care. == Doctor–patient relationship == In industrializd countries, medical advice is given in the context of a doctor–patient relationship. A licensed health care professional can be held legally liable for the advice he or she gives to a patient. Giving bad advice may be considered medical malpractice under specified circumstances. The doctor–patient relationship is one factor in determining the patient's compliance with medical advice. Patients adhere more closely to medical advice when the healthcare provider is friendly, doesn't interrupt the patient, or has good verbal communication skills. Patients are less likely to comply with medical advice if the advice is not what the patients expected, if the patients do not agree with the proposed treatment, if the patient is not confident in the provider's competence, or if the patient cannot understand what the provider says due to language barriers or overuse of medical jargon. Patients are


id: medical-case-management-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_case_management-0.md
category: reference
title: Medical case management
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_case_management
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:38.918494+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-case-management-20260505-0
summary:
Medical case management is a collaborative process that facilitates recommended treatment plans to assure the appropriate medical care is provided to disabled, ill or injured individuals. It is a role frequently overseen by patient advocates. It refers to the planning and coordination of health care services appropriate to achieve the goal of medical rehabilitation. Medical case management may include, but is not limited to, care assessment, including personal interview with the injured employee, and assistance in developing, implementing and coordinating a medical care plan with health care providers, as well as the employee and his/her family and evaluation of treatment results. Medical case management requires the evaluation of a medical condition, developing and implementing a plan of care, coordinating medical resources, communicated healthcare needs to the individual, monitors an individual's progress and promotes cost-effective care. The term also has usage in the USA health care system, referring to the case management coordination in the managed care environment. == See also == Case management (mental health) Disease management (health) Case management (US healthcare system) == References == == External links == Case Management at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) "Medical case management do's & dont's". michigan.gov.


id: medical-consensus-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_consensus-0.md
category: reference
title: Medical consensus
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_consensus
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:40.055733+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-consensus-20260505-0
summary:
Medical consensus is a public statement on a particular aspect of medical knowledge at the time the statement is made that a representative group of experts agree to be evidence-based and state-of-the-art (state-of-the-science) knowledge. Its main objective is to counsel physicians on the best possible and acceptable way to diagnose and treat certain diseases or how to address a particular decision-making area. It is usually, therefore, considered an authoritative, community-based expression of a consensus decision-making and publication process. == Methods == There are many ways of producing medical consensus, but the most usual way is to convene an independent panel of experts, either by a medical association or by a governmental authority. Since consensus statements provide a "snapshot in time" of the state of knowledge in a particular topic, they must periodically be re-evaluated and published again, replacing the previous consensus statement. Consensus statements differ from medical guidelines, another form of state-of-the-science public statements. According to the NIH, "Consensus statements synthesize new information, largely from recent or ongoing medical research, that has implications for reevaluation of routine medical practices. They do not give specific algorithms or guidelines for practice." == History == From 1977 to 2013, the National Institutes of


id: medical-diagnosis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_diagnosis-0.md
category: reference
title: Medical diagnosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_diagnosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:41.364881+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-diagnosis-20260505-0
summary:
Medical diagnosis (abbreviated as Dx, Dx, or Ds) is the process of determining which disease or condition explains a person's symptoms and signs. It is most often referred to as a diagnosis with the medical context being implicit. The information required for a diagnosis is typically collected from a history and physical examination of the person seeking medical care. Often, one or more diagnostic procedures, such as medical tests, are also done during the process. Sometimes the posthumous diagnosis is considered a kind of medical diagnosis. Diagnosis is often challenging because many signs and symptoms are nonspecific. For example, redness of the skin (erythema), by itself, is a sign of many disorders and thus does not tell the healthcare professional what is wrong. Thus differential diagnosis, in which several possible explanations are compared and contrasted, must be performed. This involves the correlation of various pieces of information followed by the recognition and differentiation of patterns. Occasionally the process is made easy by a sign or symptom (or a group of several) that is pathognomonic. Diagnosis is a major component of the procedure of a doctor's visit. From the point of view of statistics, the diagnostic procedure involves classification tests. The


id: medical-diagnosis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_diagnosis-1.md
category: reference
title: Medical diagnosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_diagnosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:41.364881+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-diagnosis-20260505-0
summary:
=== Pattern recognition === In a pattern recognition method the provider uses experience to recognize a pattern of clinical characteristics. It is mainly based on certain symptoms or signs being associated with certain diseases or conditions, not necessarily involving the more cognitive processing involved in a differential diagnosis. This may be the primary method used in cases where diseases are "obvious", or the provider's experience may enable him or her to recognize the condition quickly. Theoretically, a certain pattern of signs or symptoms can be directly associated with a certain therapy, even without a definite decision regarding what is the actual disease, but such a compromise carries a substantial risk of missing a diagnosis which actually has a different therapy so it may be limited to cases where no diagnosis can be made. === Diagnostic criteria === The term diagnostic criteria designates the specific combination of signs and symptoms, and test results that the clinician uses to attempt to determine the correct diagnosis. Some examples of diagnostic criteria, also known as clinical case definitions, are: Amsterdam criteria for hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer McDonald criteria for multiple sclerosis ACR criteria for systemic lupus erythematosus Centor criteria for strep throat === Clinical


id: medical-diagnosis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_diagnosis-2.md
category: reference
title: Medical diagnosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_diagnosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:41.364881+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-diagnosis-20260505-0
summary:
=== Social context === Diagnosis can take many forms. It might be a matter of naming the disease, lesion, dysfunction or disability. It might be a management-naming or prognosis-naming exercise. It may indicate either degree of abnormality on a continuum or kind of abnormality in a classification. It is influenced by non-medical factors such as power, ethics and financial incentives for patient or doctor. It can be a brief summation or an extensive formulation, even taking the form of a story or metaphor. It might be a means of communication such as a computer code through which it triggers payment, prescription, notification, information or advice. It might be pathogenic or salutogenic. It is generally uncertain and provisional. Once a diagnostic opinion has been reached, the provider is able to propose a management plan, which will include treatment as well as plans for follow-up. From this point on, in addition to treating the patient's condition, the provider can educate the patient about the etiology, progression, prognosis, other outcomes, and possible treatments of her or his ailments, as well as providing advice for maintaining health. A treatment plan is proposed which may include therapy and follow-up consultations and tests to monitor the


id: medical-guideline-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_guideline-0.md
category: reference
title: Medical guideline
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_guideline
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:42.677693+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-guideline-20260505-0
summary:
A medical guideline (also called a clinical guideline, standard treatment guideline, or clinical practice guideline) is a document with the aim of guiding decisions and criteria regarding diagnosis, management, and treatment in specific areas of healthcare. Such documents have been in use for thousands of years during the entire history of medicine. However, in contrast to previous approaches, which were often based on tradition or authority, modern medical guidelines are based on an examination of current evidence within the paradigm of evidence-based medicine. They usually include summarized consensus statements on best practice in healthcare. A healthcare provider is obliged to know the medical guidelines of their profession, and has to decide whether to follow the recommendations of a guideline for an individual treatment. == Background == Modern clinical guidelines identify, summarize and evaluate the highest quality evidence and most current data about prevention, diagnosis, prognosis, therapy including dosage of medications, risk/benefit and cost-effectiveness. Then they define the most important questions related to clinical practice and identify all possible decision options and their outcomes. Some guidelines contain decision or computation algorithms to be followed. Thus, they integrate the identified decision points and respective courses of action with the clinical judgement and


id: medical-history-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_history-0.md
category: reference
title: Medical history
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_history
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:44.019225+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-history-20260505-0
summary:
The medical history, case history, or anamnesis (from Greek: ἀνά, aná, "open", and μνήσις, mnesis, "memory") of a patient is a set of information the physicians collect over medical interviews. It involves the patient, and eventually people close to them, so to collect reliable/objective information for managing the medical diagnosis and proposing efficient medical treatments. The medically relevant complaints reported by the patient or others familiar with the patient are referred to as symptoms, in contrast with clinical signs, which are ascertained by direct examination on the part of medical personnel. Most health encounters will result in some form of history being taken. Medical histories vary in their depth and focus. For example, an ambulance paramedic would typically limit their history to important details, such as name, history of presenting complaint, allergies, etc. In contrast, a psychiatric history is frequently lengthy and in depth, as many details about the patient's life are relevant to formulating a management plan for a psychiatric illness. The information obtained in this way, together with the physical examination, enables the physician and other health professionals to form a diagnosis and treatment plan. If a diagnosis cannot be made, a provisional diagnosis may be formulated, and


id: medical-history-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_history-1.md
category: reference
title: Medical history
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_history
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:44.019225+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-history-20260505-0
summary:
== Inhibiting factors == Factors that inhibit taking a proper medical history include a physical inability of the patient to communicate with the physician, such as unconsciousness and communication disorders. In such cases, it may be necessary to record such information that may be gained from other people who know the patient. In medical terms, this is known as a heteroanamnesis, or collateral history, in contrast to a self-reporting anamnesis. Medical history taking may also be impaired by various factors impeding a proper doctor-patient relationship, such as transitions to physicians that are unfamiliar to the patient. History taking of issues related to sexual or reproductive medicine may be inhibited by a reluctance of the patient to disclose intimate or uncomfortable information. Even if such an issue is on the patient's mind, they often do not start talking about such an issue without the physician initiating the subject by a specific question about sexual or reproductive health. Some familiarity with the doctor generally makes it easier for patients to talk about intimate issues such as sexual subjects, but for some patients, a very high degree of familiarity may make the patient reluctant to reveal such intimate issues. When visiting a health


id: medical-procedure-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_procedure-0.md
category: reference
title: Medical procedure
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_procedure
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:45.214641+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-procedure-20260505-0
summary:
A medical procedure is a course of action intended to achieve a result in the delivery of healthcare. A medical procedure with the intention of determining, measuring, or diagnosing a patient condition or parameter is also called a medical test. Other common kinds of procedures are therapeutic (i.e., intended to treat, cure, or restore function or structure), such as surgical and physical rehabilitation procedures. == Definition == "An activity directed at or performed on an individual with the object of improving health, treating disease or injury, or making a diagnosis." - International Dictionary of Medicine and Biology "The act or conduct of diagnosis, treatment, or operation." - Stedman's Medical Dictionary by Thomas Lathrop Stedman "A series of steps by which a desired result is accomplished." - Dorland's Medical Dictionary by William Alexander Newman Dorland "The sequence of steps to be followed in establishing some course of action." - Mosby's Medical, Nursing, & Allied Health Dictionary == List of medical procedures == === Propaedeutic === Auscultation Medical inspection (body features) Palpation Percussion (medicine) Vital signs measurement, such as blood pressure, body temperature, or pulse (or heart rate) === Diagnostic === Lab tests Biopsy test Blood test Stool test Urinalysis Cardiac stress


id: medical-state-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_state-0.md
category: reference
title: Medical state
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_state
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:46.589956+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-state-20260505-0
summary:
Medical state is a term used to describe a hospital patient's health status, or condition. The term is most commonly used in information given to the news media, and is rarely used as a clinical description by physicians. Two aspects of the patient's state may be reported. The first aspect is the patient's current state, which may be reported as "good" or "serious," for instance. Second, the patient's short-term prognosis may be reported. Examples include that the patient is improving or getting worse. If no immediate change is expected, the term stable is frequently used as a qualifier to denote conditions where a patient has stable vital signs. == United States == A wide range of terms may be used to describe a patient's condition in the United States. The American Hospital Association advises physicians to use the following one-word conditions in describing a patient's condition to those inquiring, including the media. Undetermined Patient awaiting physician and/or assessment. Good Vital signs are stable and within normal limits. Patient is conscious and comfortable. Indicators are excellent. Fair Vital signs are stable and within normal limits. Patient is conscious, but may be uncomfortable. Indicators are favorable. Serious Vital signs may be unstable


id: medical-textiles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_textiles-0.md
category: reference
title: Medical textiles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_textiles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:47.911170+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-textiles-20260505-0
summary:
Medical textiles are numerous fiber-based materials intended for medical purposes. Medical textile is a sector of technical textiles that emphasizes fiber-based products used in health care applications such as prevention, care, and hygiene. The spectrum of applications of medical textiles ranges from simple cotton bandages to advanced tissue engineering. Common examples of products made from medical textiles include dressings, implants, surgical sutures, certain medical devices, healthcare textiles, diapers, menstrual pads, wipes, and barrier fabrics. Medical textiles include many fiber types, yarns, fabrics, non-woven materials, woven, braided, as well as knitted fabrics. Physical and chemical alterations of fiber architectures, the use of functional finishes, and the production of stimuli-sensitive materials are major approaches for developing innovative medical textiles. Advances in textile manufacturing and medical technologies have made medical healthcare an important industry in textiles. Textiles are used in the production of a variety of medical devices, including replacements for damaged, injured, or non-functioning organs. The manufacture of medical textiles is a growing sector. There are many reasons for its growth, such as new technology in both textiles and medicine; ageing populations; growing populations; changes in lifestyles; and longer life expectancies. Additionally, the COVID-19 pandemic generated higher demand for certain medical textile


id: medical-textiles-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_textiles-1.md
category: reference
title: Medical textiles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_textiles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:47.911170+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-textiles-20260505-0
summary:
==== Overview ==== Medical devices are commonly made in whole or part from fibers. A medical device is defined as any device intended for medical purposes. It could be a machine, a reagent for use in the lab, software, an appliance, an instrument, or an implant. For medical use, fiber selection is based on certain criteria of intended use. Primarily, fibers are chosen on the basis of their biodegradability or non-biodegradability. Other than biodegradability, strength, elasticity, and absorbency are also considered. ==== Natural fibers ==== Natural fibers such as cotton, silk, and viscose (a regenerated cellulosic fiber) are used in hygiene and healthcare products, as well as non-implantable materials. Polyester, nylon, polypropylene, glass, and carbon are all examples of synthetic fibers used in Medical textiles. Fibers absorbed within three months by our biological system are considered biodegradable, and fibers that require more than six months to absorb are called non-biodegradable. These fibers are categorized as below: ==== PLA and PGA fibers ==== Polylactic acid, also called PLA, is a biodegradable, biosorbable or bioabsorbable polymer used in producing many type of implants such as naturally dissolving stents. Polyglycolide or polyglycolic acid, also called PGA, is a biodegradable and thermoplastic polymer. PGA


id: medical-textiles-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_textiles-2.md
category: reference
title: Medical textiles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_textiles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:47.911170+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-textiles-20260505-0
summary:
It is possible to make meter-long core-shell hydrogel microfibers that contain ECM proteins and mature cells or somatic stem cells in a microfluidic device. and these microfibers have the morphologies and functions of live tissues. The fibers also have the potential to be reeled and spin or weave Electrospinning can produce nanofibers with a range of desired fine microns that is usable to make nano- and submicron-sized fibrous scaffolds from polymer solutions that could be used as cell and tissue substrates. ===== Biomedical scaffolds ===== Hydrogel fibers are used to construct scaffolds for the development of cells and the release of drugs. ==== Antimicrobial dressing ==== Chitosan may function as an inhibitor of bacterial and fungal development. In 2003, the United States Food and Drug Administration approved chitosan-based wound dressings for medical use. Combat medics use Hemcon dressings, which is a dressing with Chitosan, to treat wounds because it stops the blood flow with its hemostasis properties. Chitosan hemostatic agents are salts formed when chitosan is combined with an organic acid (lactic acid, or Succinic acid). The hemostatic agent operates by interacting with the erythrocytes' (negatively charged) cell membrane and the protonated chitosan (positively charged), resulting in platelet involvement and


id: medically-unexplained-physical-symptoms-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medically_unexplained_physical_symptoms-0.md
category: reference
title: Medically unexplained physical symptoms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medically_unexplained_physical_symptoms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:49.258781+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medically-unexplained-physical-symptoms-20260505-0
summary:
Medically unexplained physical symptoms (MUPS or MUS) are symptoms for which a treating physician or other healthcare providers have found no medical cause, or whose cause remains contested. In its strictest sense, the term simply means that the cause for the symptoms is unknown or disputed—there is no scientific consensus. Not all medically unexplained symptoms are influenced by identifiable psychological factors. However, in practice, most physicians and authors who use the term consider that the symptoms most likely arise from psychological causes. Typically, the possibility that MUPS are caused by prescription drugs or other drugs is ignored. == Prevalence == It is estimated that between 15% and 30% of all primary care consultations are for medically unexplained symptoms. About 1 in 4 people who see a UK GP have physical symptoms that cannot be explained. Women are significantly more likely than men to be diagnosed with Medically Unexplained Symptoms. == Symptoms == A large Canadian community survey revealed that the most common medically unexplained symptoms are musculoskeletal pain, ear, nose, and throat symptoms, abdominal pain and gastrointestinal symptoms, fatigue, and dizziness. Other medically unexplained symptoms are headaches, feeling faint, heart palpitations, fits (seizures), breathlessness, weakness and paralysis, and numbness and


id: medically-unexplained-physical-symptoms-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medically_unexplained_physical_symptoms-1.md
category: reference
title: Medically unexplained physical symptoms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medically_unexplained_physical_symptoms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:49.258781+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medically-unexplained-physical-symptoms-20260505-0
summary:
The most effective current treatment for some medically unexplained symptoms is a combination of therapeutic approaches tailored to the individual patient. Most MUS patients are in need of psychotherapy, relaxation therapy and physiotherapy under medical supervision. A combined therapeutic approach which is at least twice as effective as other therapeutic modalities published to date is described in Steele RE et al. "A novel and effective treatment modality for medically unexplained symptoms". The next best documented approach is cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), with evidence from multiple randomized controlled trials. Antidepressants may also help, but the evidence is "not yet conclusive." The effectiveness of CBT and antidepressants has not been studied for all medically unexplained symptoms, however. Evidence for a positive effect of CBT has been found in trials for fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome, irritable bowel syndrome, unexplained headaches, unexplained back pain, tinnitus, and non-cardiac chest pain. Overall, CBT has been shown to be effective in reducing psychological distress and improving medical status in MUPS patients. However the quality of many CBT studies remains low, and many studies lack an attention-placebo control. As of 2006, CBT had not been tested for menopausal syndrome, chronic facial pain, interstitial cystitis, or chronic pelvic pain.


id: metabolic-flexibility-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolic_flexibility-0.md
category: reference
title: Metabolic flexibility
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolic_flexibility
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:50.563120+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: metabolic-flexibility-20260505-0
summary:
Metabolic flexibility is the capacity to alter metabolism in response to exercise or available fuel (especially fats and carbohydrates). Metabolic inflexibility was first described as the ability to generate energy through either aerobic or anaerobic respiration or as the inability of muscle to increase glucose oxidation in response to insulin. An organism can also be said to have metabolic flexibility if it is capable of metabolizing either carbohydrate or fat efficiently, depending on availability of those fuels. By this definition, metabolic flexibility can be quantified using respiratory quotient. This form of metabolic flexibility is reduced by insulin resistance. With aging there is a decrease in metabolic flexibility due to a decline in pyruvate dehydrogenase activity which results in pyruvate increasingly being anaerobically converted to lactate rather than aerobically converted to acetyl-CoA. Similarly, a virus-induced cytokine storm can compromise metabolic flexibility by inactivating the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex and other enzymes. == See also == Insulin resistance == References ==


id: mhealth-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MHealth-0.md
category: reference
title: MHealth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MHealth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:51.903089+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mhealth-20260505-0
summary:
mHealth (also written as m-health or mhealth), an abbreviation for mobile health, is the practice of medicine and public health supported by mobile devices. The term is most commonly used in reference to using mobile communication devices, such as mobile phones, tablet computers and personal digital assistants (PDAs), and wearable devices such as smart watches, for health services, information, and data collection. The mHealth field has emerged as a sub-segment of eHealth and digital health, the use of information and communication technology (ICT), such as computers, mobile phones, communications satellite, patient monitors, etc., for health services and information. mHealth applications include the use of mobile devices in collecting community and clinical health data, delivery/sharing of healthcare information for practitioners, researchers and patients, real-time monitoring of patient vital signs, the direct provision of care (via mobile telemedicine) as well as training and collaboration of health workers. In 2019, the global market for mHealth apps was estimated at US$17.92 billion, with a compound annual growth rate of 45% predicted from 2020 to 2027. While mHealth has application for industrialized nations, the field has emerged in recent years as largely an application for developing countries, stemming from the rapid rise of mobile phone


id: mhealth-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MHealth-1.md
category: reference
title: MHealth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MHealth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:51.903089+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mhealth-20260505-0
summary:
=== Diagnostic support, treatment support, communication and training for healthcare workers === Diagnostic and treatment support systems are typically designed to provide healthcare workers in remote areas advice about diagnosis and treatment of patients. While some projects may provide mobile phone applications—such as a step-by-step medical decision tree systems—to help healthcare workers diagnose, other projects provide direct diagnosis to patients themselves. In such cases, known as telemedicine, patients might take a photograph of a wound or illness and allow a remote physician to diagnose to help treat the medical problem. Both diagnosis and treatment support projects attempt to mitigate the cost and time of travel for patients located in remote areas. mHealth projects within the communication and training for healthcare workers subset involve connecting healthcare workers to sources of information through their mobile phone. This involves connecting healthcare workers to other healthcare workers, medical institutions, ministries of health, or other houses of medical information. Such projects additionally involve using mobile phones to better organize and target in-person training. Improved communication projects attempt to increase knowledge transfer amongst healthcare workers and improve patient outcomes through such programs as patient referral processes. For example, the systematic use of mobile instant messaging for


id: mhealth-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MHealth-2.md
category: reference
title: MHealth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MHealth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:51.903089+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mhealth-20260505-0
summary:
== Criticism and concerns == The extensive practice of mhealth research has sparked criticism, for example on the proliferation of fragmented pilot studies in low- and middle-income countries, which is also referred to as "pilotitis." The extent of un-coordinated pilot studies prompted for instance the Ugandan Director General Health Services Dr Jane Ruth Aceng in 2012 to issue a notice that, "in order to jointly ensure that all eHealth efforts are harmonized and coordinated, I am directing that ALL eHealth projects/Initiatives be put to halt." The assumptions that justify mhealth initiatives have also been challenged in recent sociological research. For example, mobile phones have been argued to be less widely accessible and usable than is often portrayed in mhealth-related publications; people integrate mobile phones into their health behavior without external intervention; and the spread of mobile phones in low- and middle-income countries itself can create new forms of digital and healthcare exclusion, which mhealth interventions (using mobile phones as a platform) cannot overcome and potentially accentuate. Mhealth has also been argued to alter the practice of healthcare and patient-physician relationships as well as how bodies and health are being represented. Another widespread concern relates to privacy and data protection, for


id: mhealth-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MHealth-3.md
category: reference
title: MHealth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MHealth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:51.903089+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mhealth-20260505-0
summary:
=== Healthcare in developed countries === In developed countries, healthcare systems have different policies and goals in relation to the personal and population health care goals. In the US and EU many patients and consumers use their cell phones and tablets to access health information and look for healthcare services. In parallel the number of mHealth applications grew significantly in the last years. Clinicians use mobile devices to access patient information and other databases and resources. Physicians also use mobile devices as an streamlined tool for exchanging patient information, for educational purposes, and as a tool for decision support. == Technology and market == Basic SMS functions and real-time voice communication serve as the backbone and the current most common use of mobile phone technology. The broad range of potential benefits to the health sector that the simple functions of mobile phones can provide should not be understated. The appeal of mobile communication technologies is that they enable communication in motion, allowing individuals to contact each other irrespective of time and place. This is particularly beneficial for work in remote areas where the mobile phone, and now increasingly wireless infrastructure, is able to reach more people, faster. As a result


id: mhealth-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MHealth-4.md
category: reference
title: MHealth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MHealth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:51.903089+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mhealth-20260505-0
summary:
Patient monitoring devices Mobile telemedicine/telecare devices Microcomputers Data collection software Mobile Operating System Technology Mobile applications (e.g., gamified/social wellness solutions) Chatterbots ==== Mobile device operating system technology ==== Technologies relate to the operating systems that orchestrate mobile device hardware while maintaining confidentiality, integrity and availability are required to build trust. This may foster greater adoption of mHealth technologies and services, by exploiting lower cost multi purpose mobile devices such as tablets, PCs, and smartphones. Operating systems that control these emerging classes of devices include Google's Android, Apple's iPhone OS, Microsoft's Windows Mobile, and RIM's BlackBerry OS. Operating systems must be agile and evolve to effectively balance and deliver the desired level of service to an application and end user, while managing display real estate, power consumption and security posture. With advances in capabilities such as integrating voice, video and Web 2.0 collaboration tools into mobile devices, significant benefits can be achieved in the delivery of health care services. New sensor technologies such as HD video and audio capabilities, accelerometers, GPS, ambient light detectors, barometers and gyroscopes can enhance the methods of describing and studying cases, close to the patient or consumer of the health care service. This could include diagnosis,


id: mhealth-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MHealth-5.md
category: reference
title: MHealth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MHealth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:51.903089+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mhealth-20260505-0
summary:
==== Open mHealth ==== Open mHealth architecture was introduced, fostering innovation in healthcare through facilitating access and harmonization of digital health data from disparate sources using a global community of developers and health tech decision-makers to make sense of that digital health data through an open interoperability standard. 2012 – mHealth app revolution The proliferation of smartphone apps dedicated to health and fitness catalyzed the mHealth revolution, allowing users to track fitness, monitor vitals, access medical information, and engage in telemedicine. Smart Health and Wellbeing (SHB) As a follow-up to the mHealth Evidence Workshop, NSF launched the Smart Health and Wellbeing program to address fundamental technical and scientific issues that would support the much-needed transformation of healthcare from reactive and hospital-centered to preventive, proactive, evidence-based, person-centered, and focused on wellbeing rather than disease. ASSIST Engineering Research Center (ERC) NSF and NIH initiated a joint research program specifically focusing on mHealth, following up on the insights gained from the mHealth Evidence Workshop. The Engineering Research Center ASSIST ERC at NC State University was established to further mHealth research by developing leading-edge systems for high-value applications such as healthcare and IoT by integrating fundamental advances in energy harvesting, low-power electronics, and sensors


id: internal-environment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_environment-0.md
category: reference
title: Internal environment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_environment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:53.125949+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: internal-environment-20260505-0
summary:
The internal environment (or milieu intérieur in French; French pronunciation: [mi.ljø ɛ̃.te.ʁjœʁ]) was a concept developed by Claude Bernard, a French physiologist in the 19th century, to describe the interstitial fluid and its physiological capacity to ensure protective stability for the tissues and organs of multicellular organisms. == Etymology == Claude Bernard used the French phrase milieu intérieur (internal environment in English) in several works from 1854 until his death in 1878. He most likely adopted it from the histologist Charles Robin, who had employed the phrase "milieu de l’intérieur" as a synonym for the ancient hippocratic idea of humors. Bernard was initially only concerned with the role of the blood but he later included that of the whole body in ensuring this internal stability. He summed up his idea as follows: The fixity of the milieu supposes a perfection of the organism such that the external variations are at each instant compensated for and equilibrated.... All of the vital mechanisms, however varied they may be, have always one goal, to maintain the uniformity of the conditions of life in the internal environment.... The stability of the internal environment is the condition for the free and independent life. Bernard's work


id: internal-environment-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_environment-1.md
category: reference
title: Internal environment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_environment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:53.125949+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: internal-environment-20260505-0
summary:
==== Work in Germany ==== Work in Germany over the last half-century has also focused on the internal communication system, in particular as it relates to the ground system. This work has led to their characterization of the ground system or extracellular matrix interaction with the cellular system as a 'ground regulatory system', seeing therein the key to homeostasis, a body-wide communication and support system, vital to all functions. In 1953 a German doctor and scientist, Reinhold Voll, discovered that points used in acupuncture had different electrical properties from the surrounding skin, namely a lower resistance. Voll further discovered that the measurement of the resistances at the points gave valuable indications as to the state of the internal organs. Further research was done by Dr. Alfred Pischinger, the originator of the concept of the 'system of ground regulation', as well as Drs. Helmut Schimmel, and Hartmut Heine, using Voll's method of electro-dermal screening. This further research revealed that the gene is not so much the controller but the repository of blueprints on how cells and higher systems should operate, and that the actual regulation of biological activities (see Epigenetic cellular biology) lies in a 'system of ground regulation'. This system


id: internal-environment-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_environment-2.md
category: reference
title: Internal environment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_environment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:53.125949+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: internal-environment-20260505-0
summary:
==== Work in the U.S. ==== While the initial work on identifying the importance of the ground regulatory system was done in Germany, more recent work examining the implications of inter and intra-cellular communication via the extra-cellular matrix has taken place in the U.S. and elsewhere. Structural continuity between extracellular, cyst skeletal and nuclear components was discussed by Hay, Berezny et al. and Oschman. Historically, these elements have been referred to as ground substances, and because of their continuity, they act to form a complex, interlaced system that reaches into and contacts every part of the body. Even as early as 1851 it was recognized that the nerve and blood systems do not directly connect to the cell, but are mediated by and through an extracellular matrix. Recent research regarding the electrical charges of the various glycol-protein components of the extracellular matrix shows that because of the high density of negative charges on glycosaminoglycans (provided by sulfate and carboxylate groups of the uronic acid residues) the matrix is an extensive redox system capable of absorbing and donating electrons at any point. This electron transfer function reaches into the interiors of cells as the cytoplasmic matrix is also strongly negatively charged.


id: minimally-invasive-surgeries-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimally_invasive_surgeries-0.md
category: reference
title: Minimally invasive surgeries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimally_invasive_surgeries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:54.325370+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: minimally-invasive-surgeries-20260505-0
summary:
Minimally invasive surgery (also known as minimally invasive procedure) encompass surgical techniques that limit the size of incisions needed, thereby reducing wound healing time, associated pain, and risk of infection. Surgery by definition is invasive, and many operations requiring incisions of some size are referred to as open surgery. Incisions made during open surgery can sometimes leave large wounds that may be painful and take a long time to heal. Advancements in medical technologies have enabled the development and regular use of minimally invasive procedures. For example, endovascular aneurysm repair, a minimally invasive surgery, has become the most common method of repairing abdominal aortic aneurysms in the US as of 2003. The procedure involves much smaller incisions than the corresponding open surgery procedure of open aortic surgery. Interventional radiologists were the forerunners of minimally invasive procedures. Using imaging techniques, radiologists were able to direct interventional instruments through the body by way of catheters instead of the large incisions needed in traditional surgery. As a result, many conditions once requiring surgery can now be treated non-surgically. Diagnostic techniques that do not involve incisions, puncturing the skin, or the introduction of foreign objects or materials into the body are known as non-invasive


id: multiple-of-the-median-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_of_the_median-0.md
category: reference
title: Multiple of the median
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_of_the_median
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:56.807785+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: multiple-of-the-median-20260505-0
summary:
A multiple of the median (MoM) is a measure of how far an individual test result deviates from the median. MoM is commonly used to report the results of medical screening tests, particularly where the results of the individual tests are highly variable. MoM was originally used as a method to normalize data from participating laboratories of Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) so that individual test results could be compared. 35 years later, it is the established standard for reporting maternal serum screening results. An MoM for a test result for a patient can be determined by the following: M o M ( P a t i e n t ) = R e s u l t ( P a t i e n t ) M e d i a n ( P a t i e n t P o p u l a t i o n ) {\displaystyle MoM(Patient)={\frac {Result(Patient)}{Median(PatientPopulation)}}} As an example, Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) testing is used to screen for a neural tube defect (NTD) during the second trimester of pregnancy. If the median AFP result at 16 weeks of gestation is 30 ng/mL and a pregnant woman's AFP result at that same gestational age is 60


id: multiple-sex-partners-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_sex_partners-0.md
category: reference
title: Multiple sex partners
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_sex_partners
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:58.086508+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: multiple-sex-partners-20260505-0
summary:
Multiple sex partners (MSP) is the measure and incidence of engaging in sexual activities with two or more people within a specific time period. Sexual activity with MSP can happen simultaneously or serially. MSP includes sexual activity between people of a different gender or the same gender. MSP describes the behavior in clinical terms only. A similar term, promiscuity, may imply a moral judgement. The term polyamorous describes a behavior and not a measure of multiple sexual relationships at the same time. A complete medical history includes a patient's social history and an assessment of the number of sexual partners they have had within a certain time period. Young people having MSP in the past year is an indicator used by the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in evaluating risky sexual behavior in adolescents and a tool for monitoring HIV/AIDS infection rates and deaths worldwide. == Definitions and quantification == Epidemiologists and clinicians who quantify risks associated with MSP do so to identify those who have had sexual intercourse with more than one partner in the past 12 months. For the purposes of the World Health Organization (WHO)'s effort to eliminate HIV infection, quantifying measures progress


id: multiple-sex-partners-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_sex_partners-1.md
category: reference
title: Multiple sex partners
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_sex_partners
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:58.086508+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: multiple-sex-partners-20260505-0
summary:
== Prevalence == A Durex Global Sex Survey found that men in New Zealand had claimed an average of 44 sex partners over their lifetime. In a 2019 survey, data showed that the average number of partners varies, with men and women reporting different averages (6.4 for men, 7 for women). The average "body count" for adults aged 30–44 is approximately 8 for both men and women, with over half (56–58%) having more than five partners. While averages vary by region—around 10–11 in the U.S.. Turkey leads in some reports, with an average of 14.5 to 18.5, followed by Australia (13.3), New Zealand (13.2), and Iceland (13.0). Other countries with high averages include Finland (12.4), Norway (12.1), and Italy/Sweden (11.8). An analysis of the National Family Health Survey-5 (NFHS-5) conducted between 2019 and 2021 by the International Institute for Population Sciences, Indian men were found to have the highest mean number of lifetime sexual partners in India. In Jamaica, a 2004 Behavioral Surveillance Survey demonstrated that 89 percent of males and 78 percent of females aged 15 to 24 had sex with a nonmarital or noncohabitating partner in the preceding 12 months. Fifty-six percent of males and 16 percent of


id: multiplexed-point-of-care-testing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplexed_point-of-care_testing-0.md
category: reference
title: Multiplexed point-of-care testing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplexed_point-of-care_testing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:59.380296+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: multiplexed-point-of-care-testing-20260505-0
summary:
Multiplexed point-of-care testing (xPOCT) is a more complex form of point-of-care testing (POCT), or bedside testing. Point-of-care testing is designed to provide diagnostic tests at or near the time and place that the patient is admitted. POCT uses the concentrations of analytes to provide the user with information on the physiological state of the patient. An analyte is a substance, chemical or biological, that is being analyzed using a certain instrument. While point-of-care testing is the quantification of one analyte from one in vitro (e.g., blood, plasma or urine) sample, multiplexed point-of-care testing is the simultaneous on-site quantification of various analytes from a single sample. Processing of one biological sample to yield multiple biomarker results allows for POCT testing to be done for patients who may have conditions that require the confirmation of multiple biomarkers and tests before diagnosis (e.g., many types of cancers). xPOCT has important emerging applications in resource-limited settings (e.g., in the developing countries, in doctor's practices, or at home by non experts) and has recently become more important for in vitro diagnostics. == Background == Historically, medical testing has been a tedious, long, and expensive process in a clinical setting. It usually involves taking a large


id: narrative-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrative_medicine-0.md
category: reference
title: Narrative medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrative_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:00.701624+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: narrative-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Narrative medicine is the discipline of applying the skills used in analyzing literature to interviewing patients. The premise of narrative medicine is that how a patient speaks about his or her illness or complaint is analogous to how literature offers a plot (an interconnected series of events) with characters (the patient and others) and is filled with metaphors (picturesque, emotional, and symbolic ways of speaking), and that becoming conversant with the elements of literature facilitates understanding the stories that patients bring. Narrative Medicine is a diagnostic and comprehensive approach that utilizes patients' narratives in clinical practice, research, and education to promote healing. Beyond attempts to reach accurate diagnoses, it aims to address the relational and psychological dimensions that occur in tandem with physical illness. Narrative medicine aims not only to validate the experience of the patient, it also encourages creativity and self-reflection in the physician. == History and development == In 1910, the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching created the Flexner Report, which set out to redefine medical educational practices. The report argues that the goal of medicine is "an attempt to fight the battle against disease most advantageously to the patient." Flexner wrote that "the practitioner deals


id: narrative-medicine-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrative_medicine-1.md
category: reference
title: Narrative medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrative_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:00.701624+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: narrative-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Columbia University has developed educational programs in the field of narrative medicine. Interprofessional Education: The Division of Narrative Medicine at Columbia University Irving Medical Center collaborates with all clinical programs at the medical center, in addition to leading the Interprofessional Education programming. Rounds and Workshops: The division hosts events and trainings, including "monthly rounds and weekend intensive workshops" for the public. Master of Science: Columbia University created the "Master of Science in Narrative Medicine" program in 2009, making it the first graduate program devoted to narrative medicine. Textbook: In 2016, the first textbook in narrative medicine was published: "The Principles and Practice of Narrative Medicine." Certification Program: In 2017, an asynchronous online "Certification program in Narrative Medicine" began. In 2016, the Lewis Katz School of Medicine launched a Narrative Medicine Program run by Mike Vitez, a Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist, and Naomi Rosenberg, an Emergency Medicine physician. The program's goal is to protect, support, and nourish the humanism that brings physicians into the profession, and to teach the skills of narrative that help at the bedside and beyond. The program has curricular and extracurricular components. Reflective writing forms a significant component of the Professional Identity Formation thread in the MD curriculum.


id: neo-hippocratism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Hippocratism-0.md
category: reference
title: Neo-Hippocratism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Hippocratism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:01.854843+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neo-hippocratism-20260505-0
summary:
Neo-Hippocratism was an influential movement and was the subject of numerous conversations and theorizations between the seventeenth and mid-nineteenth centuries. The movement saw a revival in popularity with physicians after the First World War. It sought to reappraise the role of Hippocrates and Hippocratic medicine and was closely associated with the idea of the holistic treatment of the patient. The popularity of neo-Hippocratism has been seen as a reaction to the growing systematisation and professionalism of medicine which some physicians saw as reductionist and failing to treat the whole person. Neo-Hippocratism is described as a rational and methodical method of seeing the body as a whole. Of examining a human in their entirety and “considers all medical and or internistic therapeutic agents- psychical, dietetic, chemical, biological, and physical- and applies them according to the indications of the individual patient under severe control of the continuous diagnosis of the person. == History == The expression, neo-hippocratism is said to been first coined by Arturo Castiglioni in 1926. One of the movement's principal promoters was Alexander Polycleitos Cawadias (1884–1971). == References ==


id: neointima-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neointima-0.md
category: reference
title: Neointima
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neointima
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:03.124624+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neointima-20260505-0
summary:
Neointima typically refers to scar tissue that forms within tubular anatomical structures such as blood vessels, as the intima is the innermost lining of these structures. Neointima can form as a result of vascular surgery such as angioplasty or stent placement. Formation of neointima occurs due to proliferation of smooth muscle cells as well as macrophages. == References ==


id: list-of-nerves-of-the-human-body-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nerves_of_the_human_body-0.md
category: reference
title: List of nerves of the human body
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nerves_of_the_human_body
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:05.522585+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-nerves-of-the-human-body-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of nerves in the human body: == Location == Structure of the nervous system Development of the nervous system The spinal cord or medulla spinalis The brain or encephalon The hindbrain or rhombencephalon The midbrain or mesencephalon The forebrain or prosencephalon Composition and central connections of the spinal nerves Pathways from the brain to the spinal cord The meninges of the brain and medulla spinalis The cerebrospinal fluid The cranial nerves The olfactory nerves The optic nerve The oculomotor nerve The trochlear nerve The trigeminal nerve The abducens nerve The facial nerve The vestibulocochlear nerve The glossopharyngeal nerve The vagus nerve The accessory nerve The hypoglossal nerve The spinal nerves The posterior divisions The anterior divisions The thoracic nerves The lumbosacral plexus The sacral and coccygeal nerves The sympathetic nerves The cephalic portion of the sympathetic system The cervical portion of the sympathetic system The thoracic portion of the sympathetic system The abdominal portion of the sympathetic system The pelvic portion of the sympathetic system The great plexuses of the sympathetic system == Alphabetical list == Abdominal aortic plexus Abducens nerve Accessory nerve Accessory obturator nerve Alderman's nerve Anococcygeal nerve Ansa cervicalis Anterior interosseous nerve


id: neuroangiogenesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroangiogenesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Neuroangiogenesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroangiogenesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:06.848068+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuroangiogenesis-20260505-0
summary:
Neuroangiogenesis is the coordinated growth of nerves and blood vessels. The nervous and blood vessel systems share guidance cues and cell-surface receptors allowing for this synchronised growth. The term neuroangiogenesis only came into use in 2002 and the process was previously known as neurovascular patterning. The combination of neurogenesis and angiogenesis is an essential part of embryonic development and early life. It is thought to have a role in pathologies such as endometriosis, brain tumors, and Alzheimer's disease. == Physiology == === Neurovascular patterning === Neurovascular development is the parallel emergence and patterning of the nervous system and the vascular system during embryogenesis and early life. Neurovascular congruency appears to be determined by shared molecular patterning mechanism involving axon guidance that involves axonal guidance molecules such as sema3A (semaphorin 3A) and (neuropilin). === Mechanisms === Neuroangiogenic and axonal guidance molecules act on both neuronal growth cones and endothelial tip cells in order to guide growth. Neuronal growth cones are situated on the tips of nerve cells and are responsive to different factors, both positive and negative. Growth of the neuron occurs by an extension of the actin (red in image) and microtubule (green in image) cytoskeleton. Tip cells found at


id: neurocristopathy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurocristopathy-0.md
category: reference
title: Neurocristopathy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurocristopathy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:08.133460+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neurocristopathy-20260505-0
summary:
Neurocristopathy is a diverse class of pathologies that may arise from defects in the development of tissues containing cells commonly derived from the embryonic neural crest cell lineage. The term was coined by Robert P. Bolande in 1974. After the induction of the neural crest, the newly formed neural crest cells (NCC) delaminate from their tissue of origin and migrate from the entire neural axis of the vertebrate embryo to specific locations where they will give rise to different cell derivatives. The formation of this cell population therefore requires a timely and spatially controlled interplay of inter- and intra-cellular signals. An alteration in the occurrence and timing of these signals leads to a set of syndromes called Neurocristopathies (NCP), which comprises a broad spectrum of congenital malformations affecting an appreciable percentage of newborns. Moreover, since NCC migrate along the embryo, they are susceptible to subtle changes in the environment both during their migration and upon arrival at their destination. This means that even little modifications, either genetically or environmentally caused, in the external cues that modulate NCC migration have a deep effect on the normal migration and differentiation of these cells, thus becoming a causative factor for the development of


id: neuron-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron-0.md
category: reference
title: Neuron
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:09.374333+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuron-20260505-0
summary:
A neuron (American English), neurone (British English), or nerve cell, is a cell that is excitable, firing electric signals called action potentials across a neural network in the nervous system, mainly in the central nervous system, and helps to receive and conduct impulses. Neurons communicate with other cells via synapses, which are specialized connections that commonly use minute amounts of chemical neurotransmitters to pass the electric signal from the presynaptic neuron to the target cell through the synaptic gap. Neurons are the main components of nervous tissue in all animals except sponges and placozoans. Plants and fungi do not have nerve cells. Molecular evidence suggests that the ability to generate electric signals first appeared in evolution some 700 to 800 million years ago, during the Tonian period. Predecessors of neurons were the peptidergic secretory cells. They eventually gained new gene modules which enabled cells to create post-synaptic scaffolds and ion channels that generate fast electrical signals. The ability to generate electric signals was a key innovation in the evolution of the nervous system. Neurons are typically classified into three types based on their function. Sensory neurons respond to stimuli such as touch, sound, or light that affect the cells of


id: neuron-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron-1.md
category: reference
title: Neuron
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:09.374333+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuron-20260505-0
summary:
The soma is the body of the neuron. As it contains the nucleus, most protein synthesis occurs here. The nucleus can range from 3 to 18 micrometers in diameter. The dendrites of a neuron are cellular extensions with many branches. This overall shape and structure are referred to metaphorically as a dendritic tree. The branches form fractal patterns that repeat at multiple size scales. This fractal tree is where the majority of input to the neuron occurs via the dendritic spine. The axon is a finer, cable-like projection that can extend tens, hundreds, or even tens of thousands of times the diameter of the soma in length. The axon primarily carries nerve signals away from the soma and carries some types of information back to it. Many neurons have only one axon, but this axon may—and usually will—undergo extensive branching, enabling communication with many target cells. The part of the axon where it emerges from the soma is called the axon hillock. Besides being an anatomical structure, the axon hillock also has the greatest density of voltage-dependent sodium channels. This makes it the most easily excited part of the neuron and the spike initiation zone for the axon. In electrophysiological


id: neuron-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron-2.md
category: reference
title: Neuron
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:09.374333+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuron-20260505-0
summary:
Neurons vary in shape and size and can be classified by their morphology and function. The anatomist Camillo Golgi grouped neurons into two types; type I with long axons used to move signals over long distances and type II with short axons, which can often be confused with dendrites. Type I cells can be further classified by the location of the soma. The basic morphology of type I neurons, represented by spinal motor neurons, consists of a cell body called the soma and a long thin axon covered by a myelin sheath. The dendritic tree wraps around the cell body and receives signals from other neurons. The end of the axon has branching axon terminals that release neurotransmitters into a gap called the synaptic cleft between the terminals and the dendrites of the next neuron. === Structural classification === ==== Polarity ==== Most neurons can be anatomically characterized as: Unipolar: single process. Unipolar cells are exclusively sensory neurons. Their dendrites receive sensory information, sometimes directly from the stimulus itself. The cell bodies of unipolar neurons are always found in ganglia. Sensory reception is a peripheral function, so the cell body is in the periphery, though closer to the CNS in


id: neuron-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron-3.md
category: reference
title: Neuron
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:09.374333+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuron-20260505-0
summary:
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers passed from one neuron to another neuron or to a muscle cell or gland cell. Cholinergic neurons – acetylcholine. Acetylcholine is released from presynaptic neurons into the synaptic cleft. It acts as a ligand for both ligand-gated ion channels and metabotropic (GPCRs) muscarinic receptors. Nicotinic receptors are pentameric ligand-gated ion channels composed of alpha and beta subunits that bind nicotine. Ligand binding opens the channel causing the influx of Na+ depolarization and increases the probability of presynaptic neurotransmitter release. Acetylcholine is synthesized from choline and acetyl coenzyme A. Adrenergic neurons – noradrenaline. Noradrenaline (norepinephrine) is released from most postganglionic neurons in the sympathetic nervous system onto two sets of GPCRs: alpha adrenoceptors and beta adrenoceptors. Noradrenaline is one of the three common catecholamine neurotransmitters, and the most prevalent of them in the peripheral nervous system; as with other catecholamines, it is synthesized from tyrosine. GABAergic neurons – gamma aminobutyric acid. GABA is one of two neuroinhibitors in the central nervous system (CNS), along with glycine. GABA has a homologous function to ACh, gating anion channels that allow Cl− ions to enter the post synaptic neuron. Cl− causes hyperpolarization within the neuron, decreasing the probability of an


id: neuron-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron-4.md
category: reference
title: Neuron
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:09.374333+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuron-20260505-0
summary:
Neurons communicate with each other via synapses, where either the axon terminal of one cell contacts another neuron's dendrite, soma, or, less commonly, axon. Neurons such as Purkinje cells in the cerebellum can have over 1000 dendritic branches, making connections with tens of thousands of other cells; other neurons, such as the magnocellular neurons of the supraoptic nucleus, have only one or two dendrites, each of which receives thousands of synapses. Synapses can be excitatory or inhibitory, either increasing or decreasing activity in the target neuron, respectively. Some neurons also communicate via electrical synapses, which are direct, electrically conductive junctions between cells. When an action potential reaches the axon terminal, it opens voltage-gated calcium channels, allowing calcium ions to enter the terminal. Calcium causes synaptic vesicles filled with neurotransmitter molecules to fuse with the membrane, releasing their contents into the synaptic cleft. The neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft and activate receptors on the postsynaptic neuron. High cytosolic calcium in the axon terminal triggers mitochondrial calcium uptake, which, in turn, activates mitochondrial energy metabolism to produce ATP to support continuous neurotransmission. An autapse is a synapse in which a neuron's axon connects to its dendrites. The human brain has some


id: neuron-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron-5.md
category: reference
title: Neuron
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:09.374333+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuron-20260505-0
summary:
The conduction of nerve impulses is an example of an all-or-none response. In other words, if a neuron responds at all, then it must respond completely. Greater intensity of stimulation, like brighter image/louder sound, does not produce a stronger signal but can increase firing frequency. Receptors respond in different ways to stimuli. Slowly adapting or tonic receptors respond to a steady stimulus and produce a steady rate of firing. Tonic receptors most often respond to increased stimulus intensity by increasing their firing frequency, usually as a power function of stimulus plotted against impulses per second. This can be likened to an intrinsic property of light where greater intensity of a specific frequency (color) requires more photons, as the photons cannot become "stronger" for a specific frequency. Other receptor types include quickly adapting or phasic receptors, where firing decreases or stops with a steady stimulus; examples include skin which, when touched causes neurons to fire, but if the object maintains even pressure, the neurons stop firing. The neurons of the skin and muscles that are responsive to pressure and vibration have filtering accessory structures that aid their function. The pacinian corpuscle is one such structure. It has concentric layers like an


id: neuron-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron-6.md
category: reference
title: Neuron
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:09.374333+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuron-20260505-0
summary:
== Neurons in the brain == The number of neurons in the brain varies dramatically from species to species. In a human, there are an estimated 10–20 billion neurons in the cerebral cortex and 55–70 billion neurons in the cerebellum. By contrast, the nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegans has just 302 neurons, making it an ideal model organism as scientists have been able to map all of its neurons. The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, a common subject in biological experiments, has around 100,000 neurons and exhibits many complex behaviors. Many properties of neurons, from the type of neurotransmitters used to ion channel composition, are maintained across species, allowing scientists to study processes occurring in more complex organisms in much simpler experimental systems. == Neurological disorders == Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease (CMT) is a heterogeneous inherited disorder of nerves (neuropathy) that is characterized by loss of muscle tissue and touch sensation, predominantly in the feet and legs extending to the hands and arms in advanced stages. Presently incurable, this disease is one of the most common inherited neurological disorders, affecting 36 in 100,000 people. Alzheimer's disease (AD), also known simply as Alzheimer's, is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by progressive cognitive deterioration, together with declining


id: neuron-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron-7.md
category: reference
title: Neuron
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:09.374333+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuron-20260505-0
summary:
Neurons develop through the process of neurogenesis, in which neural stem cells divide to produce differentiated neurons. Once fully differentiated they are no longer capable of undergoing mitosis. Neurogenesis primarily occurs during embryonic development. Neurons initially develop from the neural tube in the embryo. The neural tube has three layers – a ventricular zone, an intermediate zone, and a marginal zone. The ventricular zone surrounds the tube's central canal and becomes the ependyma. Dividing cells of the ventricular zone form the intermediate zone which stretches to the outermost layer of the neural tube called the pial layer. The gray matter of the brain is derived from the intermediate zone. The extensions of the neurons in the intermediate zone make up the marginal zone when myelinated becomes the brain's white matter. Differentiation of the neurons is ordered by their size. Large motor neurons are first. Smaller sensory neurons together with glial cell differentiate at birth. Adult neurogenesis can occur and studies of the age of human neurons suggest that this process occurs only for a minority of cells and that the vast majority of neurons in the neocortex form before birth and persist without replacement. The extent to which adult neurogenesis


id: never-event-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Never_event-0.md
category: reference
title: Never event
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Never_event
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:10.544218+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: never-event-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, a never event is the "kind of mistake (medical error) that should never happen". According to the Leapfrog Group never events are defined as "adverse events that are serious, largely preventable, and of concern to both the public and health care providers for the purpose of public accountability." A 2012 study reported there may be as many as 1,500 instances of one never event, a retained foreign object, per year in the United States. The same study suggests an estimated total of surgical mistakes at just over 4,000 per year in the United States, but these statistics are extrapolations from small samples rather than actual event counts. == United States == A list of events was compiled by the National Quality Forum and updated in 2012. The NQF’s report recommends a national state-based event reporting system to improve the quality of patient care. Artificial insemination with the wrong donor sperm or donor egg Unintended retention of a foreign body in a patient after surgery or other procedure Patient death or serious disability associated with patient elopement (disappearance) Patient death or serious disability associated with a medication error (e.g., errors involving the wrong drug, dose, patient, time, rate, preparation


id: nothing-by-mouth-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nothing_by_mouth-0.md
category: reference
title: Nothing by mouth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nothing_by_mouth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:11.785494+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nothing-by-mouth-20260505-0
summary:
Nothing by mouth is an American medical instruction meaning to withhold food and fluids. It is also known as nil per os (npo or NPO), a Latin phrase that translates to English as "nothing through the mouth". Nil by mouth is the term used in the UK (NBM), nihil/non/nulla per os, or complete bowel rest. A liquid-only diet may also be referred to as bowel rest. NPO is one of the abbreviations that is not used in AMA style; "nothing by mouth" is spelled out instead. == Purpose == The typical reason for NPO instructions is the prevention of aspiration pneumonia, e.g. in those who will undergo general anesthesia, or those with weak swallowing musculature, or in case of gastrointestinal bleeding, gastrointestinal blockage, or acute pancreatitis. Alcohol overdoses that result in vomiting or severe external bleeding also warrant NPO instructions for a period. == Duration == Pre-surgery NPO orders are typically between 6 and 12 hours prior to surgery, through recovery suite discharge, but may be longer if long acting medications or oral post-meds were administered. It is not uncommon for the food NPO period to be longer than that for liquid, as the American Board of Anesthesiology advises against


id: nocebo-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nocebo-0.md
category: reference
title: Nocebo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nocebo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:12.972595+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nocebo-20260505-0
summary:
A nocebo effect is said to occur when a patient's expectations for a treatment cause the treatment to have a worse effect than it otherwise would have. For example, when a patient anticipates a side effect of a medication, they can experience that effect even if the "medication" is actually an inert substance. The complementary concept, the placebo effect, is said to occur when expectations improve an outcome. More generally, the nocebo effect is falling ill simply by consciously or subconsciously anticipating a harmful event. This definition includes anticipated events other than medical treatment. It has been applied to Havana syndrome, where purported victims were anticipating attacks by foreign adversaries. This definition also applies to cases of electromagnetic hypersensitivity. Both placebo and nocebo effects are presumably psychogenic but can induce measurable changes in the body. One article that reviewed 31 studies on nocebo effects reported a wide range of symptoms that could manifest as nocebo effects, including nausea, stomach pains, itching, bloating, depression, sleep problems, loss of appetite, sexual dysfunction, and severe hypotension. == Etymology and usage == Walter Kennedy coined the term nocebo (Latin nocēbō, "I shall harm", from noceō, "I harm") in 1961 to denote the counterpart of


id: nocebo-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nocebo-1.md
category: reference
title: Nocebo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nocebo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:12.972595+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nocebo-20260505-0
summary:
== Ambiguity of medical usage == Stewart-Williams and Podd argue that using the contrasting terms "placebo" and "nocebo" for inert agents that produce pleasant, health-improving, or desirable outcomes and unpleasant, health-diminishing, or undesirable outcomes (respectively) is extremely counterproductive. For example, precisely the same inert agents can produce analgesia and hyperalgesia, the first of which, on this definition, would be a placebo, and the second a nocebo. A second problem is that the same effect, such as immunosuppression, may be desirable for a subject with an autoimmune disorder, but undesirable for most other subjects. Thus, in the first case, the effect would be a placebo, and in the second a nocebo. A third problem is that the prescriber does not know whether the relevant subjects consider the effects they experience desirable or undesirable until some time after the drugs have been administered. A fourth is that the same phenomena are generated in all the subjects, and generated by the same drug, which is acting in all of the subjects through the same mechanism. Yet because the phenomena in question have been subjectively considered desirable to one group but not the other, the phenomena are now being labeled in two mutually exclusive


id: non-pharmacological-intervention-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-pharmacological_intervention-0.md
category: reference
title: Non-pharmacological intervention
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-pharmacological_intervention
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:14.294367+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: non-pharmacological-intervention-20260505-0
summary:
A non-pharmacological intervention (NPI) is any type of healthcare intervention which is not primarily based on medication. Some examples include exercise, sleep improvement, and dietary habits. Non-pharmacological interventions may be intended to prevent or treat (ameliorate or cure) diseases or other health-related conditions, or to improve public health. They can be educational and may involve a variety of lifestyle or environmental changes. Complex or multicomponent interventions use multiple strategies, and they often involve the participation of several types of care providers. Non-pharmacological interventions can call on various fields of expertise, such as surgery, medical devices, rehabilitation, psychotherapy, and behavioral interventions. == Examples == === Hypertension === The first line of treatment for hypertension is lifestyle changes, including dietary changes, physical exercise, and weight loss. Although these have all been recommended in scientific advisories, a Cochrane systematic review of available relevant studies found that although weight-loss diets did reduce body weight and blood pressure, beneficial effects of those changes could not be demonstrated, owing to the small number of participants and studies, and that therefore the impact of weight loss on mortality and morbidity is unknown. Their potential effectiveness is similar to and at times exceeds a single medication. If the


id: nosokinetics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nosokinetics-0.md
category: reference
title: Nosokinetics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nosokinetics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:15.487225+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nosokinetics-20260505-0
summary:
Nosokinetics is the science/subject of measuring and modelling the process of care in health and social care systems. Nosokinetics brings together the Greek words for noso: disease and kinetics: movement. Black box models are currently used to plan changes in health and social care systems. These input-output models overlook the process of inpatient care, as a result suboptimal decisions are made. Nosokinetics, (analogous to Pharmacokinetics), seeks to develop dynamic methods which measure and model the process of inpatient care. The aim is to develop a scientific base to underpin the planning of sustainable health and social care systems. == Establishment == Nosokinetics is a new science that was established in the UK in the early 1990s by Prof Peter H Millard after publishing his PhD thesis. In 2004 Nosokinetics group newsletter was established. == Origin == Prof Peter H Millard writes about Nosokinetics : "If the random forces of wind and tide can make such a beautiful statue (referring to an iceberg), how much better could mankind do if a new science was developed which explains the complex processes of health and social care. Until new methods of planning health and social care services to meet the needs of an


id: nosology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nosology-0.md
category: reference
title: Nosology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nosology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:16.804017+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nosology-20260505-0
summary:
Nosology (from Ancient Greek νόσος (nosos) 'disease' and -λογία (-logia) 'study of') is the branch of medical science that deals with the classification of diseases. Fully classifying a medical condition requires knowing its cause (and that there is only one cause), the effects it has on the body, the symptoms that are produced, and other factors. For example, influenza is classified as an infectious disease because it is caused by a virus, and it is classified as a respiratory infection because the virus infects and damages certain tissues in the respiratory tract. The more that is known about the disease, the more ways the disease can be classified nosologically. Nosography is a description whose primary purpose is enabling a diagnostic label to be put on the situation. As such, a nosographical entity need not have a single cause. For example, inability to speak due to advanced dementia and an inability to speak due to a stroke could be nosologically different but nosographically the same. == Types of classification == Diseases may be classified by cause, pathogenesis (mechanism by which the disease progresses), or by symptom(s). Alternatively, diseases may be classified according to the organ system involved, though this is often


id: not-otherwise-specified-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Not_otherwise_specified-0.md
category: reference
title: Not otherwise specified
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Not_otherwise_specified
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:18.001904+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: not-otherwise-specified-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, not otherwise specified (NOS) is a subcategory in systems of disease/disorder classification such as ICD-9, ICD-10, or DSM-IV. It is generally used to note the presence of an illness where the symptoms presented were sufficient to make a general diagnosis, but where a specific diagnosis was not made. The DSM-IV, for example, "applies the term not otherwise specified (NOS) to a disorder or disturbance that does not meet the criteria for the specific disorders already discussed". The term was introduced because "it is sometimes impossible for the practitioner completing the diagnostic assessment to categorize all the symptoms that a client is experiencing into one diagnostic category". In the context of mental health diagnoses, four situations have been outlined for which such a diagnosis may be considered appropriate: Client meets the general guidelines for a disorder, yet not all of the criteria are met, or the ones present are not considered clinically significant. Significant behaviors are noted affecting social and occupational functioning, but are not considered part of the usual presentation for a disorder. Uncertainty about etiology or the cause of the disorder exists. This is especially important when it is suspected that the disorder may be related to


id: npu-terminology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NPU_terminology-0.md
category: reference
title: NPU terminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NPU_terminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:19.220321+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: npu-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
NPU terminology (NPU; Nomenclature for Properties and Units) is a patient-centered clinical laboratory terminology for use in the clinical laboratory sciences. Its function is to enable results of clinical laboratory examinations to be used safely across technology, time and geography. To achieve this, the NPU terminology supplies: Unique identifiers for types of examined properties of the patient, supporting structured communication and storage of laboratory data in e.g. clinical laboratory reports or electronic health records Stable and unambiguous definitions of the types of examined properties, expressed using international nomenclatures, and in accordance with international standards Specification of measurement units where relevant A structure allowing for secure translation of the definitions into other languages == Purpose == The purpose of the NPU terminology is to enable patient examination data to be safely transmitted between laboratory information systems, recognized, compared, reused in calculations, extracted for research or statistics, and stored for documentation, without loss of meaning. It does not cover sampling procedures or methodologies used for determining these data, which may both vary over time. The terminology adheres to international standards of metrology, terminology, and health informatics, in particular the International System of Quantities (ISQ) and the International Systems of Units (SI units).


id: npu-terminology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NPU_terminology-1.md
category: reference
title: NPU terminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NPU_terminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:19.220321+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: npu-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
== Translation of NPU definitions == The English NPU definition structure allows for easy and reliable translation of the NPU definitions into other languages; translating each term in the structured NPU definition into another language will produce a valid definition in that language. The concept behind each term in the definition can be determined and agreed on by accessing the international code assigned to that term. The place of the concept in the syntax assigns the specific meaning of the concept in relation to the examination result. Translations of the NPU terminology are directly available in Danish and Swedish. The terminology has been structured such that translations into other languages is straightforward. == NPU foundations == C-NPU has been managing the development of structured definitions for laboratory result information for the IFCC and IUPAC and making recommendations through papers, recommendations, and technical reports. These mostly joint documents are available from the old IUPAC website [Y]. While these documents formed the foundation for NPU entries applying to each scientific discipline, subsequent additions in the last decade have consisted primarily of "User driven" requests. The day-to-day administration of the NPU Terminology has for many years been carried out by representatives from the


id: ocular-prosthesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocular_prosthesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Ocular prosthesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocular_prosthesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:20.544903+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocular-prosthesis-20260505-0
summary:
An ocular prosthesis, artificial eye or glass eye is a type of craniofacial prosthesis that replaces an absent natural eye following an enucleation, evisceration, or orbital exenteration. Someone with an ocular prosthesis is altogether blind on the affected side and has monocular (one sided) vision. The prosthesis fits over an orbital implant and under the eyelids. The ocular prosthesis roughly takes the shape of a convex shell and is made of medical grade acrylic plastic. A few ocular prostheses today are made of cryolite glass. A variant of the ocular prosthesis is a very thin hard shell known as a scleral shell which can be worn over a damaged or eviscerated eye. Makers of ocular prosthetics are known as ocularists. Ocularists are surprisingly rare: as of 2025, there were fewer than 200 certified practitioners in the United States, and only around three dozen in India. Visual prosthesis are currently in research which could provide vision to the artificial eye. == History == The earliest known evidence of the use of ocular prosthesis is that of a woman found in Shahr-I Sokhta, Iran dating back to 2900–2800 BC. It has a hemispherical form and a diameter of just over 2.5 cm


id: ocular-prosthesis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocular_prosthesis-1.md
category: reference
title: Ocular prosthesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocular_prosthesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:20.544903+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocular-prosthesis-20260505-0
summary:
=== Integrated implants (porous) === The porous nature of integrated implants allows fibrovascular ingrowth throughout the implant and thus also insertion of pegs or posts. Because direct mechanical coupling is thought to improve artificial eye motility, attempts have been made to develop so-called 'integrated implants' that are directly connected to the artificial eye. Historically, implants that directly attached to the prosthesis were unsuccessful because of chronic inflammation or infection arising from the exposed nonporous implant material. This led to the development of quasi-integrated implants with a specially designed anterior surface that allegedly better transferred implant motility to the artificial eye through the closed conjunctiva and Tenon's capsule. In 1985, the problems associated with integrated implants were thought to be largely solved with the introduction of spherical implants made of porous calcium hydroxyapatite. This material allows for fibrovascular ingrowth within several months. Porous enucleation implants currently are fabricated from a variety of materials including natural and synthetic hydroxyapatite, aluminium oxide, and polyethylene. The surgeon can alter the contour of porous implants before insertion, and it is also possible to modify the contour in situ, although this is sometimes difficult. ==== Hydroxyapatite (HA) ==== Hydroxyapatite implants are spherical and made in a


id: ocular-prosthesis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocular_prosthesis-2.md
category: reference
title: Ocular prosthesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocular_prosthesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:20.544903+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocular-prosthesis-20260505-0
summary:
==== Conical orbital implant (COI) and multipurpose conical orbital implant (MCOI) ==== The safe and effective sphere (still popular and easy to use) was supplemented with the pyramid or COI implant. The COI has unique design elements that have been incorporated into an overall conical shape, including a flat anterior surface, superior projection and preformed channels for the rectus muscles. 5-0 Vicryl suture needles can be passed with slight difficulty straight through the implant to be tied on the anterior surface. In addition, this implant features a slightly recessed slot for the superior rectus and a protrusion to fill the superior fornix. As of 2005 the newest model is the multipurpose conical orbital implant (MCOI), which was designed to address the issues of the postoperative anophthalmic orbit being at risk for the development of socket abnormalities including enophthalmos, retraction of the upper eyelid, deepening of the superior sulcus, backward tilt of the prothesis, and stretching of the lower eyelid after evisceration or enucleation. These problems are generally thought to be secondary to orbital volume deficiencies which is also addressed by MCOIs. The conical shape of the MCOI more closely matches the anatomic shape of the orbit than a spherical implant.


id: ocular-prosthesis-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocular_prosthesis-3.md
category: reference
title: Ocular prosthesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocular_prosthesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:20.544903+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocular-prosthesis-20260505-0
summary:
The rubbing force between the posterior surface of the artificial eye and the conjunctiva that covers the implant may cause the artificial eye to move. Because this force is likely to be approximately equal in all directions, it would cause comparable horizontal and vertical artificial eye amplitudes. An artificial eye usually fits snugly in the conjunctival space (possibly not in the superior fornix). Therefore, any movement of the conjunctival fornices will cause a similar movement of the artificial eye, whereas lack of movement of the fornices will restrict its motility. Imbrication of the rectus muscles over a nonintegrated implant traditionally was thought to impart movement to the implant and prosthesis. Like a ball-and-socket joint, when the implant moves, the prosthesis moves. However, because the so-called ball and socket are separated by layers of Tenon's capsule, imbricated muscles, and conjunctiva, the mechanical efficiency of transmission of movement from the implant to the prosthesis is suboptimal. Moreover, the concern is that imbrication of the recti over nonintegrated implants actually can result in implant migration. The recent myoconjuctival technique of enucleation is an alternative to muscle imbrication. Although it is generally accepted that integrating the prosthesis to a porous implant with peg insertion


id: ocular-prosthesis-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocular_prosthesis-4.md
category: reference
title: Ocular prosthesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocular_prosthesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:20.544903+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocular-prosthesis-20260505-0
summary:
The conjunctival peritomy is performed at the corneal limbus, preserving as much healthy tissue as possible. Anterior Tenon's fascia is separated from the sclera. Blunt dissection in the four quadrants between the rectus muscles separates deep Tenon's fascia. Sutures may be passed through the rectus muscles before their disinsertion from the globe. Some surgeons also suture one or both oblique muscles. Traction sutures or clamps may be applied to the horizontal rectus muscle insertions to assist in rotating and elevating the globe during the ensuing dissection. Tenon's capsule may be opened posteriorly to allow visualization of the optic nerve. The vortex veins and posterior ciliary vessels may be cauterized before dividing the nerve and removing the eye. Alternatively, the optic nerve may be localized with a clamp before transection. Hemostasis is achieved with either cautery or digital pressure. The orbital implant is inserted at the time of enucleation. An appropriately sized implant should replace the volume of the globe and leave sufficient room for the ocular prosthesis. Enucleation implants are available in a variety of sizes that may be determined by using sizing implants or calculated by measuring globe volume or axial length of the contralateral eye. In the past,


id: ocular-prosthesis-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocular_prosthesis-5.md
category: reference
title: Ocular prosthesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocular_prosthesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:20.544903+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocular-prosthesis-20260505-0
summary:
== Notable people with prosthetic eyes == Bhumibol Adulyadej – King of Thailand; lost his eye in a 1948 car crash (right eye) Baz Bastien – Canadian ice hockey player, coach (right eye) Mokhtar Belmokhtar – Algerian smuggler, kidnapper, weapons dealer, and terrorist; lost his eye mishandling explosives (left eye) Sammy Davis Jr. – American entertainer (left eye) Peter Falk – American actor (right eye) Tex Avery – American animation director (left eye) Ry Cooder – American musician best known for his slide guitar work (left eye) Nick Griffin – British National Party leader (left eye) Jay Horwitz (born 1945), American executive for the New York Mets baseball team (right eye) Leo McKern – Actor (left eye) Carl Ouellet – Canadian professional wrestler (right eye) Claus Schenk Graf von Stauffenberg – German career army officer and resistance leader (left eye) Robert Thurman – Writer (left eye) Mo Udall – American politician (right eye) Fetty Wap - American rapper (left eye) Gordon Brown - Former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (left eye) Helmut Marko - Formula 1 racing driver (left eye) Leo Fender - Inventor (left eye) Jeff Healey - Guitarist (both eyes) == References == == External links ==


id: opengalen-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenGALEN-0.md
category: reference
title: OpenGALEN
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenGALEN
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:21.712290+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: opengalen-20260505-0
summary:
OpenGALEN is a not-for-profit organisation that provides an open source medical terminology. This terminology is written in a formal language called GRAIL (GALEN Representation And Integration Language) and also distributed in OWL. == Background == The GALEN technologies were developed with research funding provided by the European Community Framework III (GALEN Project) and Framework IV (GALEN-In-Use Project) programmes. Early phases of the GALEN Programme developed the GRAIL concept modelling language, experimented with different structures for the GALEN Common Reference Model, and, in parallel, tested the usefulness of the approach with a series of clinical demonstrator projects. Later phases of the GALEN Programme, during the late 1990s, have concentrated on robust implementations of GRAIL and the Terminology Server, development of the GALEN Common Reference Model in both scope and detail, and development of tools and techniques to enable the further development, scaling-up and maintenance of the model. An important additional focus has been in developing tools and techniques with which we can map the information found in existing coding and Medical classification schemes to the GALEN Common Reference Model. OpenGALEN has been set up as a not-for-profit Dutch Foundation by the universities of Manchester and Nijmegen to make the results of


id: ophthalmic-drug-administration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophthalmic_drug_administration-0.md
category: reference
title: Ophthalmic drug administration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophthalmic_drug_administration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:22.890768+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ophthalmic-drug-administration-20260505-0
summary:
Ophthalmic drug administration is the administration of a drug to the eyes, most typically as an eye drop formulation. Topical formulations are used to combat a multitude of diseased states of the eye. These states may include bacterial infections, eye injury, glaucoma, and dry eye. However, there are many challenges associated with topical delivery of drugs to the cornea of the eye. == Eye drop formulations == Two of the largest challenges faced when using topicals to treat pathological states of the eye include patient compliance and ineffective absorbance of drugs into the cornea due to short contact times, solution drainage, tears turnover, and dilution or lacrimation. In fact, researchers in this field of drug delivery agree that less than 7% of drugs delivered to the eye reach and penetrate the corneal barrier, therefore, increasing the frequency of dosing used for topicals. This is one of the fundamental problem associated with using topicals to deliver drugs to the cornea and therefore leads to the increased demand for patient compliance. Together, these two factors drive a need in the field of scientific research and engineering for a way to better deliver drugs to the cornea of the eye while decreasing dosing


id: ophthalmic-drug-administration-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophthalmic_drug_administration-1.md
category: reference
title: Ophthalmic drug administration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophthalmic_drug_administration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:22.890768+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ophthalmic-drug-administration-20260505-0
summary:
Fundamental Concept Understanding: A simple analogy to this is a crowded versus an uncrowded area while it is raining outside. When individuals are packed tightly the rain falls and lands on people, making its way to the ground slowly but surely in a scattered way. In an uncrowded area, the rain can fall and land on the ground easily and without interference from the people. In this analogy, the rain is analogous to light and the people are analogous to drugs being loaded in a contact lens. The more drugs added to the contact lens, the less light that can penetrate without being randomly scattered. Random scattering of the light can result in unclear and unfocused sight. Researchers have noted that by using the nanoparticle loading technique, the transparency decreases by nearly 10%. Conversely, researchers have confirmed that by using the molecular imprinting and supercritical soaking methods of drug loading, the lens transparency of the contact lenses has stayed at or above the lens transparency of the contact lenses currently approved by the FDA. === Oxygen permeability === Oxygen permeability is another important feature of all contact lenses and much be optimized to the largest degree possible when creating drug


id: ophthalmic-drug-administration-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophthalmic_drug_administration-2.md
category: reference
title: Ophthalmic drug administration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophthalmic_drug_administration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:22.890768+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ophthalmic-drug-administration-20260505-0
summary:
=== Drug release kinetics === The most important factor that must be taken into account when designing any type of drug delivery device, and specifically ocular devices, is the release rate of a drug. As discussed previously, the deliver rate and kinetics associated with drugs to the eye can reach levels that are toxic to the eye or could even cause undesirable side effects. The rate of release of a drug is also important because too slow of a release could have no beneficial outcome for the patient and a release that is too quick could result in negative side effects. Thus, it is important to balance the factors that govern the release of drugs from contact lenses as potential drug delivery devices. Researchers such as C. Alvarez-Lorenzo have tested (with animal models) and have data which supports that molecularly imprinted contact lenses release drugs in a sustained and long period of time. It has also been supported by researchers that the rate of drug release can be controlled by incorporating vitamin E within the hydrogen matrix. === Systemic side effects === Over time, it has been reported that many of the same drugs and eye drops used to treat


id: opioid-rotation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opioid_rotation-0.md
category: reference
title: Opioid rotation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opioid_rotation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:24.152953+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: opioid-rotation-20260505-0
summary:
Opioid rotation or opioid switching is the process of changing one opioid to another to improve pain control or reduce unwanted side effects. This technique was introduced in the 1990s to help manage severe chronic pain and improve the opioid response in cancer patients and non-cancer patients. In order to obtain adequate levels of pain relief, patients requiring chronic opioid therapy may require an increase in the original prescribed dose for a number of reasons, including increased pain or a worsening disease state. Over the course of long-term treatment, an increase in dosage cannot be continued indefinitely as unwanted side effects of treatment often become intolerable once a certain dose is reached, even though the pain may still not be properly managed. One strategy used to address this is to switch the patient between different opioid drugs over time, usually every few months. Opioid rotation requires strict monitoring in patients with ongoing levels of high opioid doses for extended periods of time, since long term opioid use can lead to a patient developing tolerance to the analgesic effects of the drug. Patients may also not respond to the first opioid prescribed to them at all, therefore needing to try another


id: oral-administration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_administration-0.md
category: reference
title: Oral administration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_administration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:25.383618+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: oral-administration-20260505-0
summary:
Oral administration is a route of administration whereby a substance is taken through the mouth, swallowed, and then processed via the digestive system. This is a common route of administration for many medications. Oral administration can be easier and less painful than other routes of administration, such as injection. However, the onset of action is relatively low, and the effectiveness is reduced if it is not absorbed properly in the digestive system, or if it is broken down by digestive enzymes before it can reach the bloodstream. Some medications may cause gastrointestinal side effects, such as nausea or vomiting, when taken orally. Oral administration can also only be applied to conscious patients, and patients able to swallow. == Terminology == Per os (; P.O.) is an adverbial phrase meaning literally from Latin "through the mouth" or "by mouth". The expression is used in medicine to describe a treatment that is taken orally (but not used in the mouth such as, caries prophylaxis). The abbreviation P.O. is often used on medical prescriptions. == Scope == Enteral administration includes: Buccal, dissolved inside the cheek Sublabial, dissolved under the lip Sublingual administration (SL), dissolved under the tongue, but due to rapid absorption many


id: oral-myology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_myology-0.md
category: reference
title: Oral myology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_myology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:26.614785+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: oral-myology-20260505-0
summary:
Oral myology (also known as "orofacial myology") is the field of study that involves the evaluation and treatment (known as "orofacial myofunctional therapy") of the oral and facial musculature, including the muscles of the tongue, lips, cheeks, and jaw. == Use == Orofacial myofunctional therapy treatment is most commonly used to retrain oral rest posture, swallowing patterns in the oral phase, and speech. === Tongue thrust and thumb sucking === A major focus of the field of oral myology and treatment of orofacial myofunctional disorders include tongue posture and establishing equilibrium between the tongue, lips and the cheek muscles. Tongue exercise proved to be successful in treating tongue thrust. Tongue exercise alone was reported to be successful in cessation of thumb sucking and treatment of anterior open bite malocclusion. When the tongue rests against the palate it begins to expand the maxilla by applying a slow and consistent force to the lingual (tongue side) surfaces of the teeth. This may aid in the treatment of crooked teeth and under-developed face. === Sleep apnea and snoring === Oral myology plays also an important role in the management of patients with sleep breathing disorders and snoring where oropharyngeal exercises were found to


id: orphan-patient-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orphan_patient-0.md
category: reference
title: Orphan patient
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orphan_patient
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:27.839139+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: orphan-patient-20260505-0
summary:
In health care, an orphan patient is a patient who has been "lost" within the system or has no primary provider overseeing their care. Usually, the primary provider is a general practitioner who takes care of some of the basic health needs and then refers to a specialist for complicated medical problems. Thus, orphan patients are sometimes referred to as "no-family-doctor" patients. The view from insiders and health care providers is that orphan patients tend to receive inferior care compared to those who have a "gatekeeper" coordinating the medicine. The Wordspy entry for this phrase is as follows [1]: A hospital patient who doesn't have a family doctor. Also known as an unattached patient. Example Citation: Dr. Tom Dickson, chief of staff at the William Osler Health Centre in Brampton, Ont., said the FP [family physician] shortage is so severe in the ring of suburbs surrounding Toronto — the '905 belt' — that dozens of orphan patients are arriving at local community hospitals every day. —Patrick Sullivan, "Enter the hospitalist: new type of patient creating a new type of specialist," Canadian Medical Association Journal, May 2, 2000 Earliest Citation: Recent media reports have identified a growing problem in Ontario's health


id: overdiagnosis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overdiagnosis-0.md
category: reference
title: Overdiagnosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overdiagnosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:30.416283+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: overdiagnosis-20260505-0
summary:
Overdiagnosis is the diagnosis of disease that will never cause symptoms or death during a patient's ordinarily expected lifetime and thus presents no practical threat regardless of being pathologic. Overdiagnosis is a side effect of screening for early forms of disease. Although screening saves lives in some cases, in others it may turn people into patients unnecessarily and may lead to treatments that do no good and perhaps do harm. Given the tremendous variability that is normal in biology, it is inherent that the more one screens, the more incidental findings will generally be found. For a large percentage of them, the most appropriate medical response is to recognize them as something that does not require intervention; but determining which action a particular finding warrants ("ignoring", watchful waiting, or intervention) can be very difficult, whether because the differential diagnosis is uncertain or because the risk ratio is uncertain (risks posed by intervention, namely, adverse events, versus risks posed by not intervening). Overdiagnosis occurs when a disease is diagnosed correctly, but the diagnosis is irrelevant. A correct diagnosis may be irrelevant because treatment for the disease is not available, not needed, or not wanted. Some people contend that the term "overdiagnosis"


id: overdiagnosis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overdiagnosis-1.md
category: reference
title: Overdiagnosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overdiagnosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:30.416283+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: overdiagnosis-20260505-0
summary:
== Evidence for overdiagnosis in cancer == The phenomenon of overdiagnosis is most widely understood in prostate cancer. A dramatic increase in the number of new cases of prostate cancer was observed following the introduction of the PSA (prostate specific antigen) screening test. Because of the problem of overdiagnosis, most organizations recommend against prostate cancer screening in men with limited life expectancy—generally defined as less than 10 years (see also prostate cancer screening). Overdiagnosis has been identified in mammographic screening for breast cancer. Long-term follow-up of the Malmo randomized trial of mammography found a persistent excess of 115 breast cancers in the screened group 15 years after the trial was completed (a 10% rate of overdiagnosis). In a letter to the editor, authors not associated with the original study of the data from the randomized clinical trial argued that one-quarter of mammographically detected breast cancers represent overdiagnosis. A systematic review of mammography screening programs reported an overdiagnosis rate of around 50%, which is the same of saying that a third of diagnosed cases of breast cancer are overdiagnosed. Overdiagnosis has also been identified in chest x-ray screening for lung cancer. Long-term follow-up of the Mayo Clinic randomized trial of screening


id: overdiagnosis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overdiagnosis-2.md
category: reference
title: Overdiagnosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overdiagnosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:30.416283+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: overdiagnosis-20260505-0
summary:
=== Removing cancer from names of low-risk diagnoses === It has been proposed that some conditions that are indolent (i.e., unlikely to cause appreciable harm during the patient's lifetime) should have the words "cancer" or "carcinoma" removed from their accepted/preferred medical name. Such a proposal is to name conditions as indolent lesions of epithelial origin or IDLE. == Medical complexity == If a person is medically complex (multiple comorbidities) and may expect to live for less than ten years, then there may be a net harm (benefit less harm) in diagnosing and treating one or more of their morbidities, eg prostate cancer. The principal, however, can apply to all cancers and other illnesses. == See also == Disease mongering – Pejorative term for expanding a disease's market for treatment False positive – Types of error in data reportingPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Medicalization – Categorization of human problems as medical Interventionism (medicine) Patient education – Teaching or training of patients concerning their own health needs Schooliosis – Misdiagnosis of scoliosis Screening (medicine) – Brief medical evaluation to detect unnoticed health problems == References == == Further reading == Welch, H. Gilbert, Schwartz, Lisa. Overdiagnosed: Making People Sick in


id: oxygen-saturation-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen_saturation_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Oxygen saturation (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen_saturation_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:31.562690+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: oxygen-saturation-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Oxygen saturation is the fraction of oxygen-saturated hemoglobin relative to total hemoglobin (unsaturated + saturated) in the blood. The human body requires and regulates a very precise and specific balance of oxygen in the blood. Normal arterial blood oxygen saturation levels in humans are 96–100 percent. If the level is below 90 percent, it is considered low and called hypoxemia. Arterial blood oxygen levels below 80 percent may compromise organ function, such as the brain and heart, and should be promptly addressed. Continued low oxygen levels may lead to respiratory or cardiac arrest. Oxygen therapy may be used to assist in raising blood oxygen levels. Oxygenation occurs when oxygen molecules (O2) enter the tissues of the body. For example, blood is oxygenated in the lungs, where oxygen molecules travel from the air and into the blood. Oxygenation is commonly used to refer to medical oxygen saturation. == Definition == In medicine, oxygen saturation, commonly referred to as "sats", measures the percentage of hemoglobin binding sites in the bloodstream occupied by oxygen. At low partial pressures of oxygen, most hemoglobin is deoxygenated. At around 90% (the value varies according to the clinical context) oxygen saturation increases according to an oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation


id: pain-out-of-proportion-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pain_out_of_proportion-0.md
category: reference
title: Pain out of proportion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pain_out_of_proportion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:32.847967+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pain-out-of-proportion-20260505-0
summary:
Pain out of proportion or pain out of proportion to physical examination is a medical sign where apparent pain in the individual does not correspond to other signs. It is found in a number of conditions, including: Necrotizing fasciitis Compartment syndrome Mesenteric ischemia Mueller-Weiss disease Also used in reference to the medical diagnosis of Malingering ICD-10 Z76.5 as in "Pain out of proportion to symptoms". == References ==


id: palsy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palsy-0.md
category: reference
title: Palsy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palsy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:34.180713+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: palsy-20260505-0
summary:
Palsy is a medical term which refers to various types of paralysis or paresis, often accompanied by weakness and the loss of feeling and uncontrolled body movements such as shaking. The word originates from the Anglo-Norman paralisie, parleisie et al., from the accusative form of Latin paralysis, from Ancient Greek παράλυσις (parálusis), from παραλύειν (paralúein, "to disable on one side"), from παρά (pará, "beside") + λύειν (lúein, "loosen"). The word is longstanding in the English language, having appeared in the play Grim the Collier of Croydon, reported to have been written as early as 1599: Rob. I'll have thee come, I say. Why tremblest thou? Grim. No sir, not I; 'tis a palsy I have still. In some editions, the Bible passage of Luke 5:18 is translated to refer to "a man which was taken with a palsy". More modern editions simply refer to a man who is paralysed. Although the term has historically been associated with paralysis generally, it "is now almost always used in connection to the word cerebral—meaning the brain". Specific kinds of palsy include: Bell's palsy, partial facial paralysis Bulbar palsy, impairment of cranial nerves Cerebral palsy, a neural disorder caused by intracranial lesions Conjugate gaze


id: pannus-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pannus-0.md
category: reference
title: Pannus
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pannus
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:35.450829+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pannus-20260505-0
summary:
Pannus is an abnormal layer of fibrovascular tissue or granulation tissue. Common sites for pannus formation include over the cornea, over a joint surface (as seen in rheumatoid arthritis), or on a prosthetic heart valve. Pannus may grow in a tumor-like fashion, as in joints where it may erode articular cartilage and bone. In common usage, the term pannus is often used to refer to a panniculus (a hanging flap of tissue). == Pannus in rheumatoid arthritis == The term "pannus" is derived from the Latin for "tablecloth". Chronic inflammation and exuberant proliferation of the synovium leads to formation of pannus and destruction of cartilage, bone, tendons, ligaments, and blood vessels. Pannus tissue is composed of aggressive macrophage- and fibroblast-like mesenchymal cells, macrophage-like cells and other inflammatory cells that release collagenolytic enzymes. In people suffering from rheumatoid arthritis, pannus tissue eventually forms in the joint affected by the disease, causing bony erosion and cartilage loss via release of IL-1, prostaglandins, and substance P by macrophages. == Pannus in ophthalmology == In ophthalmology, pannus refers to the growth of blood vessels into the peripheral cornea. In normal individuals, the cornea is avascular. Chronic local hypoxia (such as that occurring with overuse


id: paresis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paresis-0.md
category: reference
title: Paresis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paresis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:36.779117+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: paresis-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, paresis () is a condition typified by a weakness of voluntary movement, or by partial loss of voluntary movement or by impaired movement. When used without qualifiers, it usually refers to the limbs, but it can also be used to describe the muscles of the eyes (ophthalmoparesis), the stomach (gastroparesis), and also the vocal cords (vocal cord paresis). Neurologists use the term paresis to describe weakness, and plegia to describe paralysis in which all voluntary movement is lost. The term paresis comes from the Ancient Greek: πάρεσις 'letting go' from παρίημι 'to let go, to let fall'. == Types == === Limbs === Monoparesis – One leg or one arm Paraparesis – Both legs Hemiparesis – The loss of function to only one side of the body Triparesis – Three limbs. This can either mean both legs and one arm, both arms and a leg, or a combination of one arm, one leg, and face Double hemiparesis – All four limbs are involved, but one side of the body is more affected than the other Tetraparesis – All four limbs Quadriparesis – All four limbs, equally affected These terms frequently refer to the impairment of motion in multiple


id: past-medical-history-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_medical_history-0.md
category: reference
title: Past medical history
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_medical_history
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:37.940913+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: past-medical-history-20260505-0
summary:
In a medical encounter, a past medical history (abbreviated PMH) is the total sum of a patient's health status prior to the presenting problem. == Questions to include == Different sources include different questions to be asked while conducting a PMH, but in general, they include the following: General state of health: e.g. excellent, good, fair, poor. Note any significant change from previous state. Past illnesses: e.g. cancer, heart disease, hypertension, diabetes. Hospitalizations: including all medical, surgical, and psychiatric hospitalizations. Note the date, reason, duration for the hospitalization. Injuries, or accidents: note the type and date of injury. Surgeries: note the type of procedure, date, hospital, surgeon, and any complications. Current medications: note name, dosage, frequency of any medication, including any over-the-counter medications and herbal remedies. Note whether patient is taking the medications according to the prescribed instructions. Allergies: note any environmental, food, or drug allergies, as well as the specific type of reaction, e.g. anaphylaxis, rash, itching. Immunizations: take a careful record of all immunizations, including tetanus, diphtheria, pertussis, polio, Hepatitis B, measles, mumps, rubella, Haemophilus influenzae type B, influenza. Substance abuse: note any alcohol, tobacco, and illicit drug use, include type, amount, and duration, as well as any


id: pathognomonic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathognomonic-0.md
category: reference
title: Pathognomonic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathognomonic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:39.255891+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pathognomonic-20260505-0
summary:
Pathognomonic (synonym pathognomic) is a term, often used in medicine, that means "characteristic for a particular disease". A pathognomonic sign is a particular sign whose presence means that a particular disease is present beyond any doubt. The absence of a pathognomonic sign does not rule out the disease. Labelling a sign or symptom "pathognomonic" represents a marked intensification of a "diagnostic" sign or symptom. The word is an adjective of Greek origin derived from πάθος pathos 'disease' and γνώμων gnomon 'indicator' (from γιγνώσκω gignosko 'I know, I recognize'). == Practical use == While some findings may be classic, typical or highly suggestive in a certain condition, they may not occur uniquely in this condition and therefore may not directly imply a specific diagnosis. A pathognomonic sign or symptom has very high positive predictive value and high specificity but does not need to have high sensitivity: for example it can sometimes be absent in a certain disease, since the term only implies that, when it is present, the doctor instantly knows the patient's illness. The presence of a pathognomonic finding allows immediate diagnosis, since there are no other conditions in the differential diagnosis. Singular pathognomonic signs are relatively uncommon. Examples of


id: patient-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient-0.md
category: reference
title: Patient
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:40.560918+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patient-20260505-0
summary:
A patient is any recipient of health care services that are performed by healthcare professionals. The patient is most often ill or injured and in need of treatment by a medical doctor, nurse, optometrist, dentist, veterinarian, or other health care provider. == Etymology == The word patient originally meant 'one who suffers'. This English noun comes from the Latin word patiens, the present participle of the deponent verb, patior, meaning 'I am suffering', and akin to the Greek verb πάσχειν (paskhein 'to suffer') and its cognate noun πάθος (pathos). This language has been construed as meaning that the role of patients is to passively accept and tolerate the suffering and treatments prescribed by the healthcare providers, without engaging in shared decision-making about their care. == Outpatients and inpatients == An outpatient (or out-patient) is a patient who attends an outpatient clinic with no plan to stay beyond the duration of the visit. Even if the patient will not be formally admitted with a note as an outpatient, their attendance is still registered, and the provider will usually give a note explaining the reason for the visit, tests, or procedure/surgery, which should include the names and titles of the participating personnel,


id: pay-for-performance-healthcare-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pay_for_performance_(healthcare)-0.md
category: reference
title: Pay for performance (healthcare)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pay_for_performance_(healthcare)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:42.788886+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pay-for-performance-healthcare-20260505-0
summary:
In the healthcare industry, pay for performance (P4P), also known as "value-based purchasing", is a payment model that offers financial incentives to physicians, hospitals, medical groups, and other healthcare providers for meeting certain performance measures. Clinical outcomes, such as longer survival, are difficult to measure, so pay for performance systems usually evaluate process quality and efficiency, such as measuring blood pressure, lowering blood pressure, or counseling patients to stop smoking. This model also penalizes health care providers for poor outcomes, medical errors, or increased costs. Integrated delivery systems where insurers and providers share in the cost are intended to help align incentives for value-based care. Professional societies in the United States have given qualified approval to incentive programs, but express concern with the validity of quality indicators, patient and physician autonomy and privacy, and increased administrative burdens. == Studies and trends == Pay for performance systems link compensation to measures of work quality or goals. Current methods of healthcare payment may actually reward less-safe care, since some insurance companies will not pay for new practices to reduce errors, while physicians and hospitals can bill for additional services that are needed when patients are injured by mistakes. However, early studies showed


id: pay-for-performance-healthcare-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pay_for_performance_(healthcare)-1.md
category: reference
title: Pay for performance (healthcare)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pay_for_performance_(healthcare)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:42.788886+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pay-for-performance-healthcare-20260505-0
summary:
=== France === In France, P4P in ambulatory care was introduced as individual contracts between physicians and statutory health insurance in 2009 and termed CAPI (Contrat d'Amélioration des Pratiques Individuelles). Fourteen months later, 14,800 contracts were signed, representing one third of eligible GPs. They were signed on a voluntary basis for a three-year period and could be broken at any time on the GP's demand. The additional payment took into account the size of the population and the achievements for a number of indicators (clinical care, prevention, generic prescription), for which final as well as intermediate targets were defined. Depending on the baseline measures for the GP's practice, either final or intermediate targets were considered in determining the level of remuneration. There were no penalties for GPs who did not achieve the targets. With effect in 2012, CAPI were renamed ROSP (Rémunération sur Objectifs de Santé Publique) and incorporated into the collective agreements between doctors and statutory health insurance, with an expanded list of objectives and an extension to specialties such as cardiology. === United Kingdom === In the United Kingdom, the National Health Service (NHS) began a major pay for performance initiative in 2004, known as the Quality and


id: pay-for-performance-healthcare-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pay_for_performance_(healthcare)-2.md
category: reference
title: Pay for performance (healthcare)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pay_for_performance_(healthcare)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:42.788886+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pay-for-performance-healthcare-20260505-0
summary:
==== VBP and VBP Levels ==== Value-Based Purchasing (VBP) Linking provider payments to improved performance by health care providers. This form of payment holds health care providers accountable for both the cost and quality of care they provide. It attempts to reduce inappropriate care and to identify and reward the best-performing providers. VBP Levels 1, 2, and 3 describe the level of risk providers choose to share with the MCO. GBUACO is a level 2 VBP. VBP risk levels allow providers to gradually increase the level of risk in their contracts. Levels of risk offer a flexible approach for providers in moving to VBP. Level 1 VBP: FFS with upside-only shared savings available when outcome scores are sufficient. Has only an upside. Receives FFS Payments. Level 2 VBP: FFS with risk sharing (upside available when outcome scores are sufficient). Has upside and downside risk. Receives FFS Payments. Level 3 VBP: (feasible after experience with Level 2; requires mature contractors) Prospective capitation PMPM or Bundle (with outcome-based component). Has upside and downside risk. Prospective total budget payments. ==== California ==== Responding to public backlash to managed care in the 1990s, California health care plans and physician groups developed a set of


id: pay-for-performance-healthcare-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pay_for_performance_(healthcare)-3.md
category: reference
title: Pay for performance (healthcare)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pay_for_performance_(healthcare)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:42.788886+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pay-for-performance-healthcare-20260505-0
summary:
==== Multiple providers for complex disorders ==== Pay for performance programs often target patients with serious and complex illnesses; such patients commonly interact with multiple healthcare providers and facilities. However, pilot programs now underway focus on simple indicators such as improvement in lab values or use of emergency services, avoiding areas of complexity such as multiple complications or several treating specialists. A 2007 study analyzing Medicare beneficiaries' healthcare visits showed that a median of two primary care physicians and five specialists provide care for a single patient. The authors doubt that pay-for-performance systems can accurately attribute responsibility for the outcome of care for such patients. The American College of Physicians Ethics has expressed concern: Pay-for-performance initiatives that provide incentives for good performance on a few specific elements of a single disease or condition may lead to neglect of other, potentially more important elements of care for that condition or a comorbid condition. The elderly patient with multiple chronic conditions is especially vulnerable to this unwanted effect of powerful incentives. ==== Deselection, ethical issues ==== Present pay-for-performance systems measure performance based on specified clinical measurements, such as reductions in glycohemoglobin (HbA1c) for patients with diabetes. Healthcare providers who are monitored by


id: perinatal-mortality-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perinatal_mortality-0.md
category: reference
title: Perinatal mortality
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perinatal_mortality
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:44.093784+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: perinatal-mortality-20260505-0
summary:
Perinatal mortality (PNM) is the death of a fetus or neonate and is the basis for calculation of the perinatal mortality rate. Perinatal means "relating to the period starting a few weeks before birth and including the birth and a few weeks after birth." Variations in the precise definition of the perinatal mortality exist, specifically concerning the issue of inclusion or exclusion of early fetal and late neonatal fatalities. The World Health Organization defines perinatal mortality as the "number of stillbirths and deaths in the first week of life per 1,000 total births, the perinatal period commences at 22 completed weeks (154 days) of gestation, and ends seven completed days after birth", but other definitions have been used. The UK figure is about 8 per 1,000 and varies markedly by social class, with the highest rates seen in Asian women. Globally, an estimated 2.6 million neonates died in 2013 before the first month of age, down from 4.5 million in 1990. == Causes == Preterm birth is the most common cause of perinatal mortality, causing almost 30 percent of neonatal deaths. Infant respiratory distress syndrome, in turn, is the leading cause of death in preterm infants, affecting about 1% of


id: periodic-breathing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodic_breathing-0.md
category: reference
title: Periodic breathing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodic_breathing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:45.426022+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: periodic-breathing-20260505-0
summary:
Periodic breathing is clusters of breaths separated by intervals of apnea or near-apnea. As opposed to normal breathing, which is usually regular, periodic breathing is defined as three or more episodes of central apnea lasting at least 4 seconds, separated by no more than 30 seconds of normal breathing. Periodic breathing was originally thought to arise from serious neurologic or cardiovascular disease and therefore to carry a poor outlook. It is now known that periodic breathing also tends to occur during sleep, it can occur in healthy persons, and the apnea in periodic breathing is usually central sleep apnea rather than obstructive sleep apnea. Periodic breathing during sleep occurs typically in adult patients with congestive heart failure. Periodic breathing is also a normal variation of breathing found in premature and full term infants. It occurs when the infant has pauses in breathing for no more than 10 seconds at a time followed by a series of rapid, shallow breaths. Then the breathing returns to normal without any stimulation or intervention. These pauses in breathing may be accompanied by minor oxygen desaturation and bradycardia. It usually occurs when the infant is sleeping deeply, but may occur with light sleep or even


id: permissive-hypotension-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permissive_hypotension-0.md
category: reference
title: Permissive hypotension
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permissive_hypotension
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:46.615676+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: permissive-hypotension-20260505-0
summary:
Permissive hypotension or hypotensive resuscitation is the use of restrictive fluid therapy, specifically in the trauma patient, that increases systemic blood pressure without reaching normotension (normal blood pressures). The goal blood pressure for these patients is a mean arterial pressure of 40-50 mmHg or systolic blood pressure of less than or equal to 80. This goes along with certain clinical criteria. Following traumatic injury, some patients experience hypotension (low blood pressure) that is usually due to blood loss (hemorrhage) but can be due to other causes as well (for example, blood leaking around an abdominal aortic aneurysm). In the past, physicians were very aggressive with fluid resuscitation (giving fluids such as normal saline or lactated Ringer's through the vein) to try to bring the blood pressure to normal values. Recent studies have found that there is some benefit to allowing specific patients to experience some degree of hypotension in certain settings. This concept does not exclude therapy by means of i.v. fluid, inotropes or vasopressors, the only restriction is to avoid completely normalizing blood pressure in a context where blood loss may be enhanced. When a person starts to bleed (big or small) the body starts a natural coagulation process


id: permissive-hypotension-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permissive_hypotension-1.md
category: reference
title: Permissive hypotension
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permissive_hypotension
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:46.615676+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: permissive-hypotension-20260505-0
summary:
== Pathophysiology == Following injury, the otherwise healthy individual has a natural ability to clot off bleeding. The higher the pressure in your vessels, the harder it is for the bleeding to stop, since the fluid essentially "pushes" the clot out and consequently the bleeding resumes. In more technical terms: hypotension facilitates in vivo coagulation. This is especially true in patients who still have active bleeding. Attempts to normalize blood pressure in case of uncontrolled bleeding as in patients with penetrating trauma, may result in increased blood loss and worse outcomes. In this context, restriction of fluid resuscitation may actually improve outcomes. This concept has been supported by animal studies that have demonstrated aggressive fluid resuscitation increases the volume of hemorrhaging fluid to a significant level as well as increased mortality. Another issue with aggressive fluid resuscitation is the potential for hypothermia if fluids that are stored at room temperature are used. If these fluids are not warmed prior to infusion (which sometimes time does not permit), this can result in a significant drop in core body temperature. Hypothermia is associated with many problems including a bleeding disorder, organ failure, and hypotension, and is one of the three components in


id: phonagnosia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonagnosia-0.md
category: reference
title: Phonagnosia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonagnosia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:47.797123+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: phonagnosia-20260505-0
summary:
Phonagnosia (from Ancient Greek φωνή phone, "voice" and γνῶσις gnosis, "knowledge") or voice blindness is a type of agnosia, or loss of knowledge, that involves a disturbance in the recognition of familiar voices and the impairment of voice discrimination abilities in which the affected individual does not suffer from comprehension deficits. Phonagnosia is an auditory agnosia, an acquired auditory processing disorder resulting from brain damage. Other auditory agnosias include cortical deafness and auditory verbal agnosia also known as pure word deafness. Since people suffering from phonagnosia do not suffer from aphasia, it is suggested that the structures of linguistic comprehension are functionally separate from those of the perception of the identity of the speaker who produced it. == History == Phonagnosia is the auditory equivalent of prosopagnosia. Unlike prosopagnosia, investigations of phonagnosia have not been extensively pursued. Phonagnosia was first described by a study by Van Lancker and Cantor in 1982. The subjects in this study were asked to identify which of four names or faces matched a specific famous voice. The subjects could not complete the task. Since then, there have been a couple studies done on patients with phonagnosia. The clinical and radiologic findings with computerized tomographic scans


id: phoniatrics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoniatrics-0.md
category: reference
title: Phoniatrics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoniatrics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:49.015177+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: phoniatrics-20260505-0
summary:
Phoniatrics or phoniatry is the study and treatment of organs involved in speech production, mainly the mouth, throat (larynx), vocal cords, and lungs. Problems treated in phoniatrics include dysfunction of the vocal cords, cancer of the vocal cords or larynx, inability to control the speech organs properly (speech disorders), and vocal loading problems. According to the Union of European Phoniatricians, phoniatrics is "the medical specialty dealing with voice, speech, language, hearing and swallowing disorders". == References == == External links == "Logbook Phoniatrics UEMS 2010" (PDF). Union of the European Phoniatricians. 1 October 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 October 2016. Retrieved 30 October 2016.


id: physical-disorder-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_disorder-0.md
category: reference
title: Physical disorder
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_disorder
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:50.252559+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physical-disorder-20260505-0
summary:
Physical disorder, as a medical term, is poorly defined, and typically used in contrast to a mental disorder or a genetic disorder. The term mental disorder is heavily used in psychiatric medicine, and is defined in some psychiatric medicine texts, most notably the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). However, the more generic term of medical disorder is poorly defined, and is not mentioned in the World Health Organization's International Classification of Diseases, nor many common medical textbooks. Attempts have been made to adopt a more universal definition, but there is no widely agreed upon definition. A physical disorder is not easily defined as the term "disorder" itself has not yet been defined by any authoritative medical body. The term "disorder" bears no special clinical relevance, and could be used interchangeably with disease. The use of the term "disorder" likely rests on historical precedent as well as the preference of the field. For example, it is common to find examples of diseases named "disorders" in psychiatry and genetics, such as autosomal dominant disorders, but uncommon in cardiology. In general, diseases called "disorders" have a relatively well understood, narrow pathophysiology, such as bipolar disorder, compared to something more generic,


id: physical-inactivity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_inactivity-0.md
category: reference
title: Physical inactivity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_inactivity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:51.505258+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physical-inactivity-20260505-0
summary:
Physical inactivity refers to the lack of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity in a person's lifestyle. It is distinct from sedentary behavior. == Health effects == The World Health Organization (WHO) has defined physical inactivity as a global public health problem. Each year, approximately 3.2 million people die from causes related to physical inactivity. == Prevalence == Globally, 28% of adults and 80% of adolescents are estimated to be insufficiently active. As of 2008, the WHO identified the Americas and the Eastern Mediterranean as regions with the greatest prevalence of physical inactivity. Nearly half of all women in both of these regions have physical inactivity, as well as 40% of men in the Americas and 36% of men in the Eastern Mediterranean. In contrast, the region with the lowest prevalence of physical inactivity is Southeast Asia. There, 19% of women and 15% of men are physically inactive. In the US, physical inactivity prevalence varies by state and ethnicity. All states and territories had prevalence rates of more than 15% of adults. Colorado, Utah, Oregon, and Washington were the only states with physical inactivity prevalence less than 20%. Seven states and two territories had prevalence greater than 30%: Tennessee, Oklahoma, Louisiana, Alabama, Kentucky,


id: physiological-agonism-and-antagonism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiological_agonism_and_antagonism-0.md
category: reference
title: Physiological agonism and antagonism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiological_agonism_and_antagonism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:52.749554+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physiological-agonism-and-antagonism-20260505-0
summary:
Physiological agonism describes the action of a substance which ultimately produces the same effects in the body as another substance—as if they were both agonists at the same receptor—without actually binding to the same receptor. Physiological antagonism describes the behavior of a substance that produces effects counteracting those of another substance (a result similar to that produced by an antagonist blocking the action of an agonist at the same receptor) using a mechanism that does not involve binding to the same receptor. == Examples == === Physiological agonists === Epinephrine induces platelet aggregation, and so does hepatocyte growth factor (HGF). Thus, they are physiological agonists to each other. === Physiological antagonists === There are several substances that have antihistaminergic action despite not being ligands for the histamine receptor. For instance, epinephrine raises arterial pressure through vasoconstriction mediated by A1-adrenergic receptor activation, in contrast to histamine, which lowers arterial pressure. Thus, despite not being true antihistamines because they do not bind to and block the histamine receptor, epinephrine and other such substances are physiological antagonists to histamine. == References ==


id: pilon-fracture-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilon_fracture-0.md
category: reference
title: Pilon fracture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilon_fracture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:54.213164+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pilon-fracture-20260505-0
summary:
A pilon fracture is a fracture of the distal part of the tibia, involving its articular surface at the ankle joint. Pilon fractures are caused by rotational or axial forces, mostly as a result of falls from a height or motor vehicle accidents. Pilon fractures are rare, comprising 3 to 10 percent of all fractures of the tibia and 1 percent of all lower extremity fractures, but they involve a large part of the weight-bearing surface of the tibia in the ankle joint. Because of this, they may be difficult to fixate and are historically associated with high rates of complications and poor outcome. Pilon is the French word for "pestle" and was introduced into orthopedic literature in 1911 by pioneer French radiologist Étienne Destot. == Classification == Pilon fractures are categorized by two main X-ray schemes, Ruedi-Allgower classification system. and Müller AO Classification of fractures. == Treatment == The treatment of pilon fractures depends on the extent of the injury. This includes the involvement of other bones such as the fibula and the talus, involvement of soft tissue, and the fracture pattern. Treatment strategies and fixation methods used include internal and external fixation, as well as staged approaches, with


id: point-of-care-testing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-of-care_testing-0.md
category: reference
title: Point-of-care testing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-of-care_testing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:55.414574+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: point-of-care-testing-20260505-0
summary:
Point-of-care testing (POCT), also called near-patient testing or bedside testing, is defined as medical diagnostic testing at or near the point of care—that is, at the time and place of patient care. This contrasts with the historical pattern in which testing was wholly or mostly confined to the medical laboratory, which entailed sending off specimens away from the point of care and then waiting hours or days to learn the results, during which time care must continue without the desired information. == Technology overview == Point-of-care tests are simple medical tests that can be performed at the bedside. In many cases, the simplicity was not achievable until technology developed not only to make a test possible at all but then also to mask its complexity. For example, various kinds of urine test strips have been available for decades, but portable ultrasonography did not reach the stage of being advanced, affordable, and widespread until the 2000s and 2010s. Today, portable ultrasonography is often viewed as a "simple" test, but there was nothing simple about it until the more complex technology was available. Similarly, pulse oximetry can test arterial oxygen saturation in a quick, simple, noninvasive, affordable way today, but in earlier


id: point-of-care-testing-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-of-care_testing-1.md
category: reference
title: Point-of-care testing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-of-care_testing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:55.414574+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: point-of-care-testing-20260505-0
summary:
== Benefits == The coupling of POCT devices and electronic medical records enable test results to be shared instantly with care providers. The use of mobile devices in the health care setting also enable the health care provider to quickly access patient test results sent from a POCT device. A reduction in morbidity and mortality has been associated with such rapid turn around times from a study using the i-STAT to analyze blood lactate levels after congenital heart surgery. POCT has become established worldwide and finds vital roles in public health. Many researchers emphasize POCT as the normal standard of care in disaster situations. Potential operational benefits include more rapid decision making and triage, reduced operating times, high-dependency, postoperative care time, emergency room time, number of outpatient clinic visits, number of hospital beds required, ensuring optimal use of professional time and reduced of antimicrobial medication. At home or POCT tests, providing results within minutes of being administered, would allow for appropriate measures and rapid decisions about dental patients' care process. Characteristics and detection rate of SARS-CoV-2 in alternative sites and specimens related to dentistry has been extensively reviewed. == Regulatory in the U.S. == The Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments (CLIA)


id: posterior-cortex-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posterior_cortex-0.md
category: reference
title: Posterior cortex
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posterior_cortex
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:56.639705+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: posterior-cortex-20260505-0
summary:
Posterior cortex usually means the posterior (back) part of the complete cerebral cortex and includes the occipital, parietal, and temporal cortices. In other words, the posterior cortex includes all the cerebral cortex without the frontal cortex. In combination with specific cortical areas, 'posterior cortex' usually refers to the posterior (back) part of that cortical area. For example: the posterior parietal cortex is the posterior part of the parietal cortex and the posterior cingulate cortex is the posterior part of the cingulate cortex. == Function of the posterior cortex == The posterior cortex is the “sensory” cortex, much as the frontal cortex is the “action” cortex. The posterior cortex is responsible for encoding the sensory content (visual, auditory, and tactile) of any experience (both real and imaginary experience). The posterior cortex with the exception of the primary sensory areas (Primary visual cortex (V1), primary auditory cortex, and somatosensory cortex) was called by Christof Koch and colleagues the posterior cortical hot zone for its close association with the minimal neural substrate essential for conscious perception. == References ==


id: postictal-state-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postictal_state-0.md
category: reference
title: Postictal state
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postictal_state
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:57.970186+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: postictal-state-20260505-0
summary:
The postictal state is the altered state of consciousness after an epileptic seizure. It usually lasts between 5 and 30 minutes, but sometimes longer in the case of larger or more severe seizures, and is characterized by drowsiness, confusion, nausea, hypertension, headache or migraine, and other disorienting symptoms. The ictal period is the seizure itself; the interictal period is the time between seizures, when brain activity is more normal; and the preictal period is the time leading up to a seizure: Ictal period refers to a physiologic state or event such as a seizure, stroke, or headache. The word originates from the Latin word ictus, meaning a blow or a stroke. In electroencephalography (EEG), the recording during a seizure is said to be "ictal". The following definitions refer to the temporal relation with seizures. Pre-ictal refers to the state immediately before the actual seizure, stroke, or headache. Post-ictal refers to the state shortly after the event. Interictal refers to the period between seizures, or convulsions, that are characteristic of an epilepsy disorder. For most people with epilepsy, the interictal state corresponds to more than 99% of their life. The interictal period is often used by neurologists when diagnosing epilepsy since


id: postictal-state-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postictal_state-1.md
category: reference
title: Postictal state
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postictal_state
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:57.970186+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: postictal-state-20260505-0
summary:
=== Receptor concentration === In studies that stimulate seizures by subjecting rats to electroshock, seizures are followed by unconsciousness and slow waves on an electroencephalogram (EEG), signs of postictal catalepsy. Administering the opiate antagonist naloxone immediately reverses this state, providing evidence that increased responsiveness or concentration of the opiate receptors may be occurring during seizures and may be partially responsible for the weariness humans experience following a seizure. When humans were given naloxone in-between seizures, researchers observed increased activity on their EEGs, suggesting that opioid receptors may also be upregulated during human seizures. To provide direct evidence for this, Hammers et al. did positron emission tomography (PET) scanning of radiolabelled ligands before, during, and after spontaneous seizures in humans. They found that opioid receptors were upregulated in the regions near the focus of the seizure during the ictal phase, gradually returning to baseline availability during the postictal phase. Hammers notes that cerebral bloodflow after a seizure cannot account for the increase in PET activity observed. Regional bloodflow can increase by as much as 70–80% after seizures but normalizes after 30 minutes. The shortest postictal interval in their study was 90 minutes and none of the patients had seizures during the


id: precancerous-condition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precancerous_condition-0.md
category: reference
title: Precancerous condition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precancerous_condition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:31:59.257697+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: precancerous-condition-20260505-0
summary:
A precancerous condition is a condition, tumor or lesion involving abnormal cells which are associated with an increased risk of developing into cancer. Clinically, precancerous conditions encompass a variety of abnormal tissues with an increased risk of developing into cancer. Some of the most common precancerous conditions include certain colon polyps, which can progress into colon cancer, monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance, which can progress into multiple myeloma or myelodysplastic syndrome, and cervical dysplasia, which can progress into cervical cancer. Bronchial premalignant lesions can progress to squamous cell carcinoma of the lung. Pathologically, precancerous tissue can range from benign neoplasias, which are tumors which don't invade neighboring normal tissues or spread to distant organs, to dysplasia, a collection of highly abnormal cells which, in some cases, has an increased risk of progressing to anaplasia and invasive cancer which is life-threatening. Sometimes, the term "precancer" is also used for carcinoma in situ, which is a noninvasive cancer that has not grown and spread to nearby tissue, unlike the invasive stage. As with other precancerous conditions, not all carcinoma in situ will become an invasive disease but is at risk of doing so. == Classification == The term precancerous or premalignant condition


id: presentation-medical-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presentation_(medical)-0.md
category: reference
title: Presentation (medical)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presentation_(medical)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:00.373100+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: presentation-medical-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, a presentation is the appearance in a patient of illness or disease—or signs or symptoms thereof—before a medical professional. In practice, one usually speaks of a patient as presenting with this or that. Examples include: "...Many depressed patients present with medical rather than psychiatric complaints, and those who present with medical complaints are twice as likely to be misdiagnosed as those who present with psychiatric complaints." "...In contrast, poisonings from heavy metal can be subtle and present with a slowly progressive course." "...Some patients present with small unobstructed kidneys, when the diagnosis is easy to miss." "...A total of 7,870,266 patients presented to a public hospital ED from 1 July 2017 to 30 June 2018." == See also == Presentation (obstetrics) == References == == External links == Search the Merriam Webster Medical Dictionary for presenting and related terms


id: prevention-paradox-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prevention_paradox-0.md
category: reference
title: Prevention paradox
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prevention_paradox
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:01.559023+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: prevention-paradox-20260505-0
summary:
The prevention paradox describes the situation where the majority of cases of a disease come from a population at low or moderate risk of that disease, and only a minority of cases come from the high risk population (of the same disease). This is because the number of people at high risk is small. The prevention paradox was first formally described in 1981 by the epidemiologist Geoffrey Rose. Especially in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, the term "prevention paradox" was also used to describe the apparent paradox of people questioning steps to prevent the spread of the pandemic because the prophesied spread did not occur. This however is instead an example of a self-defeating prophecy or a preparedness paradox. == Hypothetical case study == For example, Rose describes the case of Down syndrome where maternal age is a risk factor. Yet, most cases of Down syndrome will be born to younger, low risk mothers (this is true at least in populations where most women have children at a younger age). This situation is paradoxical because it is common and logical to equate high-risk populations with making up the majority of the burden of disease. Another example could be seen


id: preventive-healthcare-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_healthcare-0.md
category: reference
title: Preventive healthcare
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_healthcare
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:02.881779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preventive-healthcare-20260505-0
summary:
Preventive healthcare or prophylaxis is the application of healthcare measures to prevent diseases. Disease and disability are affected by environmental factors, genetic predisposition, disease agents, and lifestyle choices, and are dynamic processes that begin before individuals realize they are affected. Disease prevention relies on anticipatory actions that can be categorized as primal, primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention. Preventative care can include services such as, screening tests to check for diseases, services like vaccines, dental cleanings, and education and counseling to help one make informed health related decisions. Each year, millions of people die of preventable causes. A 2004 study showed that about half of all deaths in the United States in 2000 were due to preventable behaviors and exposures. Leading causes included cardiovascular disease, chronic respiratory disease, unintentional injuries, diabetes, and certain infectious diseases. The study also estimated that 400,000 people die each year in the United States due to poor diet and a sedentary lifestyle. According to estimates made by the World Health Organization (WHO), about 55 million people died worldwide in 2011, and two-thirds of these died from non-communicable diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and chronic cardiovascular and lung diseases. This is an increase from the year 2000, during


id: preventive-healthcare-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_healthcare-1.md
category: reference
title: Preventive healthcare
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_healthcare
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:02.881779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preventive-healthcare-20260505-0
summary:
===== Access ===== Some groups are at a disadvantage when it comes to health, not because of qualities they're born with but because of socioeconomic factors they experience in life. The 2011 National Health Interview Survey performed by the Centers for Disease Control was the first national survey to include questions about ability to pay for food. Difficulty with paying for food, medicine, or both is a problem facing 1 out of 3 Americans. If better food options were available through food banks, soup kitchens, and other resources for low-income people, obesity and the chronic conditions that come along with it would be better controlled. A food desert is an area with restricted access to healthy foods due to a lack of supermarkets within a reasonable distance. These are often low-income neighborhoods with the majority of residents lacking transportation. There have been several grassroots movements since 1995 to encourage urban gardening, using vacant lots to grow food cultivated by local residents. Mobile fresh markets are another resource for residents in a "food desert", which are specially outfitted buses bringing affordable fresh fruits and vegetables to low-income neighborhoods. ===== Food education and guidance ===== It has been proposed that healthy longevity


id: preventive-healthcare-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_healthcare-2.md
category: reference
title: Preventive healthcare
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_healthcare
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:02.881779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preventive-healthcare-20260505-0
summary:
== Child mortality == In 2010, 7.6 million children died before reaching the age of 5. While this is a decrease from 9.6 million in 2000, it was still far from the fourth Millennium Development Goal to decrease child mortality by two-thirds by 2015. Of these deaths, about 64% were due to infection including diarrhea, pneumonia, and malaria. About 40% of these deaths occurred in neonates (children ages 1–28 days) due to pre-term birth complications. The highest number of child deaths occurred in Africa and Southeast Asia. As of 2015 in Africa, almost no progress has been made in reducing neonatal death since 1990. In 2010, India, Nigeria, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Pakistan, and China contributed to almost 50% of global child deaths. Targeting efforts in these countries is essential to reducing the global child death rate. Child mortality is caused by factors including poverty, environmental hazards, and lack of maternal education. In 2003, the World Health Organization created a list of interventions in the following table that were judged economically and operationally "feasible," based on the healthcare resources and infrastructure in 42 nations that contribute to 90% of all infant and child deaths. The table indicates how many


id: preventive-healthcare-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_healthcare-3.md
category: reference
title: Preventive healthcare
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_healthcare
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:02.881779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preventive-healthcare-20260505-0
summary:
Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths in the United States and Europe and is a major cause of death in other countries. Tobacco is an environmental carcinogen and the major underlying cause of lung cancer. Between 25% and 40% of all cancer deaths and about 90% of lung cancer cases are associated with tobacco use. Other carcinogens include asbestos and radioactive materials. Both smoking and second-hand exposure from other smokers can lead to lung cancer and eventually death. Prevention of tobacco use is paramount to prevention of lung cancer. Individual, community, and statewide interventions can prevent or cease tobacco use. 90% of adults in the U.S. who have ever smoked did so prior to the age of 20. In-school prevention/educational programs, as well as counseling resources, can help prevent and cease adolescent smoking. Other cessation techniques include group support programs, nicotine replacement therapy (NRT), hypnosis, and self-motivated behavioral change. Studies have shown long term success rates (>1 year) of 20% for hypnosis and 10%-20% for group therapy. Cancer screening programs serve as effective sources of secondary prevention. The Mayo Clinic, Johns Hopkins, and Memorial Sloan-Kettering hospitals conducted annual x-ray screenings and sputum cytology tests and found that


id: preventive-healthcare-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_healthcare-4.md
category: reference
title: Preventive healthcare
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_healthcare
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:02.881779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preventive-healthcare-20260505-0
summary:
==== Colorectal cancer ==== Colorectal cancer is globally the second most common cancer in women and the third-most common in men, and the fourth most common cause of cancer death after lung, stomach, and liver cancer, having caused 715,000 deaths in 2010. It is also highly preventable; about 80 percent of colorectal cancers begin as benign growths, commonly called polyps, which can be easily detected and removed during a colonoscopy. Other methods of screening for polyps and cancers include fecal occult blood testing. Lifestyle changes that may reduce the risk of colorectal cancer include increasing consumption of whole grains, fruits and vegetables, and reducing consumption of red meat. === Dementia === == Health disparities and barriers to accessing care == Access to healthcare and preventive health services is unequal, as is the quality of care received. A study conducted by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) revealed health disparities in the United States. In the United States, elderly adults (>65 years old) received worse care and had less access to care than their younger counterparts. The same trends are seen when comparing all racial minorities (black, Hispanic, Asian) to white patients, and low-income people to high-income people. Common


id: preventive-healthcare-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_healthcare-5.md
category: reference
title: Preventive healthcare
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_healthcare
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:02.881779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preventive-healthcare-20260505-0
summary:
== Effectiveness == Preventive healthcare measures increase the quality of life. There are varying views on what constitutes a "good investment." Some argue that preventive health measures should save more money than they cost, when factoring in treatment costs in the absence of such measures. Others have argued in favor of "good value" or conferring significant health benefits even if the measures do not save money. Preventive health services comprise a myriad of different services, each of which can individually lead to net costs, savings, or neither. A 2010 study reported that in the United States, vaccinating children, cessation of smoking, daily prophylactic use of aspirin, and screening of breast and colorectal cancers had the most potential to prevent premature death. Preventive health measures that resulted in savings included vaccinating children and adults, smoking cessation, daily use of aspirin, and screening for issues with alcoholism, obesity, and vision failure. These authors estimated that if usage of these services in the United States increased to 90% of the population, there would be net savings of $3.7 billion, which comprised only about -0.2% of the total 2006 United States healthcare expenditure. Despite the potential for decreasing healthcare spending, utilization of healthcare resources


id: preventive-healthcare-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_healthcare-6.md
category: reference
title: Preventive healthcare
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_healthcare
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:02.881779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preventive-healthcare-20260505-0
summary:
=== Economics of U.S. preventive care === As of 2009, the cost-effectiveness of preventive care was a highly debated topic. While some economists argue that preventive care is valuable and potentially cost saving, others believe it is a waste of resources. Preventive care is composed of a variety of clinical services and programs including annual doctor's check-ups, annual immunizations, and wellness programs; recent models show that these simple interventions can have significant economic impacts. === Clinical preventive services and programs === Research on preventive care addresses the question of whether it is cost saving or cost effective and whether there is an economics evidence base for health promotion and disease prevention. The need for and interest in preventive care is driven by the imperative to reduce health care costs while improving quality of care and the patient experience. Preventive care can lead to improved health outcomes and cost savings potential. Services such as health assessments/screenings, prenatal care, and telehealth and telemedicine can reduce morbidity or mortality with low cost or cost savings. Specifically, health assessments/screenings have cost savings potential, with varied cost-effectiveness based on screening and assessment type. Inadequate prenatal care can lead to an increased risk of prematurity, stillbirth,


id: preventive-healthcare-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_healthcare-7.md
category: reference
title: Preventive healthcare
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_healthcare
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:02.881779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preventive-healthcare-20260505-0
summary:
==== Affordable Care Act and preventive healthcare ==== The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, also known as just the Affordable Care Act or Obamacare, was passed and became law in the United States on March 23, 2010. The finalized and newly ratified law was to address many issues in the U.S. healthcare system, which included expansion of coverage, insurance market reforms, better quality, and the forecast of efficiency and costs. Under the insurance market reforms the act required that insurance companies no longer exclude people with pre-existing conditions, allow for children to be covered on their parents' plan until the age of 26, and expand appeals that dealt with reimbursement denials. The Affordable Care Act also banned the limited coverage imposed by health insurances, and insurance companies were to include coverage for preventive health care services. The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force has categorized and rated preventive health services as either A or B, as to which insurance companies must comply and present full coverage. Not only has the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force provided graded preventive health services that are appropriate for coverage, they have also provided many recommendations to clinicians and insurers to promote better preventive care


id: preventive-healthcare-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_healthcare-8.md
category: reference
title: Preventive healthcare
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_healthcare
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:02.881779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preventive-healthcare-20260505-0
summary:
==== Health capital theory ==== The burden of preventable illness extends beyond the healthcare sector, incurring costs related to lost productivity among workers in the workforce. Indirect costs related to poor health behaviors and associated chronic disease costs U.S. employers billions of dollars each year. According to the American Diabetes Association (ADA), medical costs for employees with diabetes are twice as high as for workers without diabetes and are caused by work-related absenteeism ($5 billion), reduced productivity at work ($20.8 billion), inability to work due to illness-related disability ($21.6 billion), and premature mortality ($18.5 billion). Reported estimates of the cost burden due to increasingly high levels of overweight and obese members in the workforce vary, with best estimates suggesting 450 million more missed work days, resulting in $153 billion each year in lost productivity, according to the CDC Healthy Workforce. The health capital model explains how individual investments in health can increase earnings by "increasing the number of healthy days available to work and to earn income." In this context, health can be treated both as a consumption good, wherein individuals desire health because it improves quality of life in the present, and as an investment good because of its


id: preventive-healthcare-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_healthcare-9.md
category: reference
title: Preventive healthcare
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_healthcare
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:02.881779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preventive-healthcare-20260505-0
summary:
Policies that address the obesity epidemic should be proactive and far-reaching, including a variety of stakeholders both in healthcare and in other sectors. Recommendations from the Institute of Medicine in 2012 suggest that "concerted action be taken across and within five environments (physical activity (PA), food and beverage, marketing and messaging, healthcare and worksites, and schools) and all sectors of society (including government, business and industry, schools, child care, urban planning, recreation, transportation, media, public health, agriculture, communities, and home) in order for obesity prevention efforts to truly be successful." There are dozens of current policies acting at either (or all of) the federal, state, local and school levels. Most states employ a physical education requirement of 150 minutes of physical education per week at school, a policy of the National Association of Sport and Physical Education. In some cities, including Philadelphia, a sugary food tax is employed. This is a part of an amendment to Title 19 of the Philadelphia Code, "Finance, Taxes and Collections", Chapter 19-4100, Sugar-Sweetened Beverage Tax that was approved 2016, which establishes an excise tax of $0.015 per fluid ounce on distributors of beverages sweetened with both caloric and non-caloric sweeteners. Distributors are required to


id: preventive-nutrition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_nutrition-0.md
category: reference
title: Preventive nutrition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_nutrition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:04.138297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preventive-nutrition-20260505-0
summary:
Preventive nutrition is a branch of nutrition science with the goal of preventing, delaying, and/or reducing the impacts of disease and disease-related complications. It is concerned with a high level of personal well-being, disease prevention, and diagnosis of recurring health problems or symptoms of discomfort which are often precursors to health issues. The overweight and obese population numbers have increased over the last 40 years and numerous chronic diseases are associated with obesity. Preventive nutrition may assist in prolonging the onset of non-communicable diseases and may allow adults to experience more "healthy living years." There are various ways of educating the public about preventive nutrition. Information regarding preventive nutrition is often communicated through public health forums, government programs and policies, or nutritional education. For example, in the United States, preventive nutrition is taught to the public through the use of the food pyramid or MyPlate initiatives. == History == Preventive nutrition has been known about for a long time. The philosopher Hippocrates (460-377 BC) believed that nutrition had a significant impact on maintaining health and that the best way to prevent diseases was to "let food be your medicine and medicine be your food." Meyer-Abich (2005) also believed that nutrition


id: preventive-nutrition-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_nutrition-1.md
category: reference
title: Preventive nutrition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_nutrition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:04.138297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preventive-nutrition-20260505-0
summary:
== Education == Extreme diets, such as the ketogenic diet, may potentially have adverse effects and lack data on long-term outcomes. Therefore, it should be used as a tool, rather than a long term solution. An alternative to strict diets or to complement dietary approaches, is cultivating nutritional awareness and making proactive food choices. This is a sustainable method for maintaining good health and contributes to preventive nutrition. Being familiar with nutritional labels can inform dietary choices. Reading these labels increases awareness of the food content and our consumption habits, including quantities and macronutrients. In a four-week randomized control trial assessing the impact of three types of nutrition labels on consumer food purchases, the results indicated that "products for which participants viewed the label and subsequently purchased the product during the same shopping episode were significantly healthier than products where labels were viewed but the product was not subsequently purchased." The objective of preventive nutrition is to continually enhance one's awareness of food quantities, ingredients, and how specific foods impact the body. == Athletics == Athletes are held to a higher standard of nutrition and preventive nutrition contributes to injury prevention in athletes. According to a study done by the


id: proarrhythmia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proarrhythmia-0.md
category: reference
title: Proarrhythmia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proarrhythmia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:05.273346+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: proarrhythmia-20260505-0
summary:
Proarrhythmia is a new or more frequent occurrence of pre-existing arrhythmias, paradoxically precipitated by antiarrhythmic therapy, which means it is a side effect associated with the administration of some existing antiarrhythmic drugs, as well as drugs for other indications. In other words, it is a tendency of antiarrhythmic drugs to facilitate emergence of new arrhythmias. == Types of proarrhythmia == According to the Vaughan Williams classification (VW) of antiarrhythmic drugs, there are 3 main types of Proarrhythmia during treatment with various antiarrhythmic drugs for Atrial Fibrillation or Atrial flutter: === Ventricular proarrhythmia === Torsades de pointes (VW type IA and type III drugs) Sustained monomorphic ventricular tachycardia (usually VW type IC drugs) Sustained polymorphic ventricular tachycardia/ventricular fibrillation without long QT (VW types IA, IC, and III drugs) === Atrial proarrhythmia === Conversion of atrial fibrillation to flutter (usually VW type IC drugs or amiodarone). May be a desired effect. Increase of defibrillation threshold (a potential problem with VW type IC drugs) Provocation of recurrence (probably VW types IA, IC and III drugs). It is rare. === Abnormalities of conduction or impulse formation === Sinus node dysfunction, atrioventricular block (almost all drugs) Accelerate conduction over accessory pathway (digoxin, intravenous verapamil, or


id: procidentia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procidentia-0.md
category: reference
title: Procidentia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procidentia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:06.525615+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: procidentia-20260505-0
summary:
Procidentia is a severe prolapse, the falling down of an organ from its normal anatomical position, usually referring to uterine prolapse. == See also == Uterine prolapse (and Female genital prolapse) Rectal prolapse Prolapse == References ==


id: prodromus-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prodromus-0.md
category: reference
title: Prodromus
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prodromus
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:07.883218+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: prodromus-20260505-0
summary:
A prodromus ('forerunner' or 'precursor') aka prodrome is a term used in the natural sciences to describe a preliminary publication intended as the basis for a later, more comprehensive work. It is also a medical term used for a premonitory symptom, that is, a symptom indicating the onset of a disease. The origin of the word is from the 19th century: via French from New Latin prodromus, from Greek prodromos, meaning forerunner. Nicolas Steno's De solido intra solidum naturaliter contento dissertationis prodromus, one of the early treatises attempting to explain the occurrence of fossils in solid rock. Ludovico Marracci's Arabic edition and Latin translation of the Qur’an was published in 1698. His ‘Introduction’ (Prodromus) had been published seven years earlier. Other notable prodromi include Prodromus Entomology, Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van Diemen, Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis. == See also == White paper == References ==


id: prognosis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prognosis-0.md
category: reference
title: Prognosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prognosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:09.032566+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: prognosis-20260505-0
summary:
Prognosis (Ancient Greek: πρόγνωσις 'fore-knowing, foreseeing'; pl.: prognoses) is a medical term for predicting the likelihood or expected development of a disease, including whether the signs and symptoms will improve or worsen (and how quickly) or remain stable over time; expectations of quality of life, such as the ability to carry out daily activities; the potential for complications and associated health issues; and the likelihood of survival (including life expectancy). A prognosis is made on the basis of the normal course of the diagnosed disease, the individual's physical and mental condition, the available treatments, and additional factors. A complete prognosis includes the expected duration, function, and description of the course of the disease, such as progressive decline, intermittent crisis, or sudden, unpredictable crisis. When applied to large statistical populations, prognostic estimates can be very accurate: for example the statement "45% of patients with severe septic shock will die within 28 days" can be made with some confidence, because previous research found that this proportion of patients died. This statistical information does not apply to the prognosis for each individual patient, because patient-specific factors can substantially change the expected course of the disease: additional information is needed to determine whether a


id: progression-free-survival-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progression-free_survival-0.md
category: reference
title: Progression-free survival
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progression-free_survival
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:10.257154+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: progression-free-survival-20260505-0
summary:
Progression-free survival (PFS) is "the length of time during and after the treatment of a disease, such as cancer, that a patient lives with the disease but it does not get worse". In oncology, PFS usually refers to situations in which a tumor is present, as demonstrated by laboratory testing, radiologic testing, or clinically. Similarly, "disease-free survival" is the length of time after patients have received treatment and have no detectable disease. Time to progression (TTP) does not count patients who die from other causes but is otherwise a close equivalent to PFS (unless there are many such events). The FDA gives separate definitions and prefers PFS. == Background == PFS is widely used as a surrogate endpoint in oncology. The definition of "progression" generally involves imaging techniques (plain radiograms, CT scans, MRI, PET scans, ultrasounds) or other aspects: biochemical progression may be defined on the basis of an increase in a tumor marker (such as CA125 for epithelial ovarian cancer or PSA for prostate cancer). In clinical trials, what precisely constitutes an "event" in PFS (an event being either disease progression or death) may vary depending on the specific disease and/or the toxicological characteristics of the treatments in the


id: progressive-disease-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_disease-0.md
category: reference
title: Progressive disease
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_disease
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:11.479868+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: progressive-disease-20260505-0
summary:
Progressive disease or progressive illness is a disease or physical ailment whose course in most cases is the worsening, growth, or spread of the disease. This may happen until death, serious debility, or organ failure occurs. Some progressive diseases can be halted and reversed by treatment (surgical, dietary, or lifestyle interventions). Many can be slowed by medical therapy. Some cannot be altered by current treatments. Though the time distinctions are imprecise, diseases can be rapidly progressive (typically days to weeks) or slowly progressive (months to years). The time course of a disease affects whether it is considered acute or chronic. By definition, virtually all slowly progressive diseases are also chronic diseases. Biologically, many of these are also referred to as degenerative diseases due to the cellular changes. Not all chronic diseases are progressive: a chronic, non-progressive disease may be referred to as a static condition. Progressive disease can also be a clinical endpoint i.e. an endpoint in a clinical trial. A progressive disease should not be confused with a terminal disease, the difference being that a terminal disease invariably leads to death. == Examples == There are examples of slowly and rapidly progressive diseases affecting all organ systems and parts


id: protocol-system-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protocol_system-0.md
category: reference
title: Protocol system
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protocol_system
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:12.693353+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: protocol-system-20260505-0
summary:
A computer-based protocol system is a paradigm providing a set of tools which allow health care providers access to current guidelines which they can apply in practice. Studies have shown that protocols can aid in optimising patient care. There are two types of protocol systems: passive and active. In a healthcare setting, a protocol, also called a medical guideline, is a set of instructions which describe a process to be followed to investigate a particular set of findings in a patient, or the method which should be followed to control a certain disease. == Protocol systems == Passive Passive protocol systems are a source of information which health care providers have the freedom to choose to consult or not; they are not intrinsically incorporated into the healthcare process. The purpose of a passive protocol system is to give healthcare providers access to information which may remind healthcare providers of steps during patient care which may otherwise be forgotten or changed. Active Active protocol systems are specific guidelines for healthcare providers to follow. They are a central way which healthcare is delivered. Examples of active protocol systems include trigger-automated order entry systems and appointment scheduling. Active protocol systems may provide an


id: proximodistal-trend-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proximodistal_trend-0.md
category: reference
title: Proximodistal trend
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proximodistal_trend
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:14.007881+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: proximodistal-trend-20260505-0
summary:
The proximodistal trend is the tendency for more general functions of limbs to develop before more specific or fine motor skills. It comes from the Latin words proxim- which means "close" and "-dis-" meaning "away from", because the trend essentially describes a path from the center outward. == References ==


id: pulmonary-consolidation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary_consolidation-0.md
category: reference
title: Pulmonary consolidation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary_consolidation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:15.280779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pulmonary-consolidation-20260505-0
summary:
A pulmonary consolidation is a region of normally compressible lung tissue that has been filled with liquid instead of air. The condition is marked by induration (swelling or hardening of normally soft tissue) of a normally aerated lung. It is considered a radiologic sign. Consolidation occurs through accumulation of inflammatory cellular exudate in the alveoli and adjoining ducts. The liquid can be pulmonary edema, inflammatory exudate, pus, inhaled water, or blood (from bronchial tree or hemorrhage from a pulmonary artery). Consolidation must be present to diagnose pneumonia: the signs of lobar pneumonia are characteristic and clinically referred to as consolidation. == Signs == Signs that consolidation may have occurred include: Expansion of the thorax on inspiration is reduced on the affected side Vocal fremitus is increased on the affected side Percussion note is impaired in the affected area Breath sounds are bronchial Possible medium, late, or pan-inspiratory crackles Vocal resonance is increased. Here, the patient's voice (or whisper, as in whispered pectoriloquy) can be heard more clearly when there is consolidation, as opposed to the healthy lung where speech sounds muffled. A pleural rub may be present. A lower PAO2 than calculated in the alveolar gas equation == Diagnosis ==


id: pulmonary-drug-delivery-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary_drug_delivery-0.md
category: reference
title: Pulmonary drug delivery
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary_drug_delivery
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:16.581186+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pulmonary-drug-delivery-20260505-0
summary:
Pulmonary drug delivery is a route of administration in which patients use an inhaler to inhale their medications and drugs are absorbed into the bloodstream via the lung mucous membrane. This technique is most commonly used in the treatment of lung diseases, for example, asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Different types of inhalers include metered-dose inhalers (MDI), dry powder inhalers (DPI), soft mist inhalers (SMI) and nebulizers. The rate and efficacy of pulmonary drug delivery are affected by drug particle properties, breathing patterns and respiratory tract geometry. Pulmonary drug delivery minimizes systemic side effects and increases bioavailability owing to the localised absorption through the lung. The disadvantages include possible drug irritation to the lung, limited drug dissolution, relatively high drug clearance, and the drug effectiveness depends on the inhaler techniques and patients' compliance. Drug formulation can be challenging since the drug has to bypass the defence mechanisms in the respiratory tract. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the drug in elderly patients can also be particularly difficult to predict due to age-related changes in body composition. Ongoing developments in inhaler device engineering, technology and drug formulations may improve the efficacy and overcome the challenges of pulmonary drug delivery. Recent advancements


id: pulmonary-drug-delivery-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary_drug_delivery-1.md
category: reference
title: Pulmonary drug delivery
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary_drug_delivery
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:16.581186+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pulmonary-drug-delivery-20260505-0
summary:
=== Drug particle properties === Particle diameter and particle density significantly affect the drug deposition pattern in the respiratory tract, and are the most common considerations for formulation of pulmonary drugs. Drug particles with diameter larger than 5 μm, predominantly deposit on the upper respiratory tract, limiting the amount of drug particles reaching the lung. Moderate-size drug particles with diameter between 2 μm to 5 μm, primarily deposit on the central and small airways. Small drug particles with diameter smaller than 2 μm, predominantly deposit on the alveolar sacs. Other factors affecting deposition of drugs include particle electrostatic charge, particle shape and particle volatility. Electrostatic charge of the drug particles enhances deposition due to the formation of electrostatic force on the wall of the respiratory tract. Non-spherical particle shape has a different entry pathway compared to that of the spherical particles, causing a change in deposition pattern. Particle volatility affects particle diameter due to the change of particle diameter during condensation and evaporation. === Breathing patterns === Drug particle deposition is associated with mean residence time and tidal volume. An increase in mean residence time or tidal volume enhances drug deposition in lungs, while an increase in air flow decreases


id: pulmonary-wedge-pressure-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary_wedge_pressure-0.md
category: reference
title: Pulmonary wedge pressure
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary_wedge_pressure
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:17.755342+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pulmonary-wedge-pressure-20260505-0
summary:
The pulmonary wedge pressure, also called pulmonary arterial wedge pressure, pulmonary capillary wedge pressure, pulmonary artery occlusion pressure, or cross-sectional pressure, is the pressure measured by wedging a pulmonary artery catheter with an inflated balloon into a small pulmonary arterial branch. It estimates the left atrial pressure. Pulmonary venous wedge pressure is not synonymous with the above; it has been shown to correlate with pulmonary artery pressures in studies, albeit unreliably. Physiologically, distinctions can be drawn among pulmonary artery pressure, pulmonary capillary wedge pressure, pulmonary venous pressure and left atrial pressure, but not all of these can be measured in a clinical context. Noninvasive estimation techniques have been proposed. == Clinical significance == Because of the large compliance of pulmonary circulation, it provides an indirect measure of the left atrial pressure. For example, it is considered the gold standard for determining the cause of acute pulmonary edema; this is likely to be present at a pulmonary wedge pressure of greater than 20mmHg. It has also been used to diagnose severity of left ventricular failure and mitral stenosis, given that elevated pulmonary capillary wedge pressure strongly suggests failure of left ventricular output. Traditionally, it was believed that pulmonary edema with normal


id: pursed-lip-breathing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pursed-lip_breathing-0.md
category: reference
title: Pursed-lip breathing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pursed-lip_breathing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:19.004998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pursed-lip-breathing-20260505-0
summary:
Pursed-lip breathing (PLB) is a breathing technique that consists of exhaling through tightly pressed (pursed) lips and inhaling through the nose with the mouth closed. == Uses == Pursed-lip breathing can help to ease shortness of breath in people with a variety of lung problems. It can be used effectively during asthma attacks to slow breathing and reduce the work of breathing. Physicians, nurses, physical therapists, occupational therapists, and respiratory therapists teach this technique to their patients to ease shortness of breath and to promote deep breathing, also referred to as abdominal or diaphragmatic breathing. The purpose of PLB is to create back-pressure inside airways to splint them open; moving air thus takes less work. Breathing through pursed lips on both exhalation and inhalation is one of the signs that health workers use to detect possible chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) in patients. COPD Canada suggests that using PLB has positive effects in treating stress- and anxiety-related disorders. == Mechanism of action == Pursed-lip breathing increases positive pressure generated in the conducting branches of the lungs. This can hold open bronchioles in patients with high lung compliance, such as those with emphysema. Pursed-lip breathing also accesses the parasympathetic nervous system,


id: pus-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pus-0.md
category: reference
title: Pus
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pus
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:20.218358+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pus-20260505-0
summary:
Pus is an exudate, typically white-yellow, yellow, or yellow-brown, formed at the site of inflammation during infections, regardless of cause. An accumulation of pus in an enclosed tissue space is known as an abscess, a visible collection of pus within or beneath the epidermis is known as a pustule, pimple or spot, and a similar collection of pus around a hair follicle, is known as a boil. == Terminology == Suppuration is the formation or discharge of pus or may refer to pus itself. The adjectives purulent and suppurative describe the characteristic of containing, relating to, consisting of, or being pus or being related to suppuration. For example, purulent discharge is synonymous with pus while mucopurulent discharge refers to exudate containing both mucus and pus. Seropurulent fluid or discharge contains both serum and pus. A wound or lesion may be described as suppurative or purulent if contains or expresses pus. Pyogenic means producing, generating, or characterized by the expression of pus. The term is often used to describe pyogenic bacteria, organisms whose infections frequently result in pus formation. A pyogenic infection is an infection that is characterized by severe local inflammation, usually with pus formation, generally caused by one of


id: pyonephrosis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyonephrosis-0.md
category: reference
title: Pyonephrosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyonephrosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:21.494633+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pyonephrosis-20260505-0
summary:
Pyonephrosis (from Greek pyon 'pus' and nephros 'kidney') is a dangerous kidney infection that is characterized by pus accumulation in the renal collecting system. It is linked to renal collecting system blockage and suppurative renal parenchymal destruction, which result in complete or nearly complete kidney failure. == Signs and symptoms == Clinical symptoms in patients with pyonephrosis can range from frank sepsis (15%) to asymptomatic bacteriuria. Upon physical examination, the hydronephrotic kidney may be linked to a palpable abdominal mass. On rare occasions, the hydronephrotic kidney infection may burst spontaneously into the peritoneal cavity, resulting in diffuse peritonitis and sepsis in certain patients. == Cause == Pyonephrosis can result from an upper urinary tract infection combined with blockage and hydronephrosis. == Diagnosis == When a patient has suspected pyonephrosis, the initial workup should consist of a complete blood count, serum chemistry with blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine, blood cultures, and urinalysis with culture It is generally not recommended to perform routine radiographic imaging on patients who have simple urinary tract infections. When patients do not improve quickly with appropriate antibiotics, however, appropriate radiographic studies help diagnose pyonephrosis, emphysematous pyelonephritis, and renal and/or perirenal abscesses. == Treatment == Together with


id: pyramidalis-anterior-pubic-ligament-adductor-longus-complex-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyramidalis–anterior_pubic_ligament–adductor_longus_complex-0.md
category: reference
title: Pyramidalis–anterior pubic ligament–adductor longus complex
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyramidalis–anterior_pubic_ligament–adductor_longus_complex
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:22.613323+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pyramidalis-anterior-pubic-ligament-adductor-longus-complex-20260505-0
summary:
The Pyramidalis–anterior pubic ligament–adductor longus complex, or the PLAC, is an anatomical concept in Sports medicine. The PLAC concept is used as a basis to classify type of adductor longus avulsions. The PLAC concept was developed in order to provide consistency in the diagnose of different injury patterns seen with adductor longus avulsions in athletes. The PLAC injury classification explains the symptoms and clinical presentation seen with acute adductor avulsions. The PLAC classification doesn't determine whether surgery should be performed, but it informs the surgical repair strategy if operative treatment is chosen. It is a tool for future research comparing surgical and conservative management outcomes through consistent anatomical classification. For MRI imaging the PLAC classification captures the structural complexity of adductor longus avulsions and provides a standardised anatomical framework for describing the related injuries. The MRI imaging protocol was developed to consistently and accurately define the injury patterns seen with adductor longus avlusions, replacing the outdated grading system. PLAC injuries are most often seen in professional athletes, in sports such as association football, rugby, martial arts and ice hockey, and often the sole cause of pubalgia in athletes, and/or associated with sports hernias. The PLAC concept was defined by Belgian


id: quality-of-life-healthcare-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_of_life_(healthcare)-0.md
category: reference
title: Quality of life (healthcare)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_of_life_(healthcare)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:23.761946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: quality-of-life-healthcare-20260505-0
summary:
In healthcare, quality of life is an assessment of how the individual's well-being may be affected over time by a disease, disability or disorder. == Measurement == Early versions of healthcare-related quality of life measures referred to simple assessments of physical abilities by an external rater (for example, the patient is able to get up, eat and drink, and take care of personal hygiene without any help from others) or even to a single measurement (for example, the angle to which a limb could be flexed). The current concept of health-related quality of life acknowledges that subjects put their actual situation in relation to their personal expectation. The latter can vary over time, and react to external influences such as length and severity of illness, family support, etc. As with any situation involving multiple perspectives, patients' and physicians' rating of the same objective situation have been found to differ significantly. Consequently, health-related quality of life is now usually assessed using patient questionnaires. These are often multidimensional and cover physical, social, emotional, cognitive, work- or role-related, and possibly spiritual aspects as well as a wide variety of disease related symptoms, therapy induced side effects, and even the financial impact of medical


id: quality-of-life-healthcare-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_of_life_(healthcare)-1.md
category: reference
title: Quality of life (healthcare)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_of_life_(healthcare)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:23.761946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: quality-of-life-healthcare-20260505-0
summary:
CDC HRQOL–14 "Healthy Days Measure": A questionnaire with four base questions and ten optional questions used by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (https://www.cdc.gov/hrqol/hrqol14_measure.htm). Short-Form Health Survey (SF-36, SF-12, SF-8): One example of a widely used questionnaire assessing physical and mental health-related quality of life. Used in clinical trials and population health assessments. Suitable for pharmacoeconomic analysis, benefiting healthcare rationing. EQ-5D a simple quality of life questionnaire (https://euroqol.org). AQoL-8D a comprehensive questionnaire that assesses HR-QoL over 8 domains - independent living, happiness, mental health, coping, relationships, self-worth, pain, senses (https://www.aqol.com.au). Disease, disorder or condition specific instruments King's Health Questionnaire (KHQ) International Consultation on Incontinence Questionnaire-Short Form (ICIQ-SF) in urinary incontinence, the LC -13 Lung Cancer module from the EORTC Quality of Life questionnaire library, or the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) ). Manchester Short Assessment of Quality of Life: 16-item questionnaire for use in psychiatric populations. ECOG, most commonly used to evaluate the impact of cancer on people. NYHA scale, most commonly used to evaluate the impact of heart disease on individuals. EORTC measurement system for use in clinical trials in oncology. These tools are robustly tested and validated and translated. A large amount of reference data


id: quality-of-life-healthcare-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_of_life_(healthcare)-2.md
category: reference
title: Quality of life (healthcare)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_of_life_(healthcare)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:23.761946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: quality-of-life-healthcare-20260505-0
summary:
=== Research === Research revolving around Health Related Quality of Life is extremely important because of the implications that it can have on current and future treatments and health protocols. Thereby, validated health-related quality of life questionnaires can become an integral part of clinical trials in determining the trial drugs' value in a cost-benefit analysis. For example, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) is using their health-related quality of life survey, Healthy Day Measure, as part of research to identify health disparities, track population trends, and build broad coalitions around a measure of population health. This information can then be used by multiple levels of government or other officials to "increase quality and years of life" and to "eliminate health disparities" for equal opportunity. Within the field of childhood cancer, quality of life is often measured both during and after treatment. International comparisons of both outcomes and predictors are hindered by the use of a large number of different measurements. Recently, a first step for a joint international consensus statement for measuring quality of survival for patients with childhood cancer has been established. === Ethics === The quality of life ethic refers to an ethical principle that uses


id: quaternary-prevention-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaternary_prevention-0.md
category: reference
title: Quaternary prevention
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaternary_prevention
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:25.016088+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: quaternary-prevention-20260505-0
summary:
Quaternary prevention means avoiding unnecessary medical interventions. They are the actions taken to identify an individual at risk of overmedicalisation, to protect them from new medical invasion, and to suggest interventions which are ethically acceptable. The term was coined by the Belgian general practitioner Marc Jamoulle, Quaternary prevention is the set of activities to mitigate or avoid the consequences of unnecessary or excessive intervention of the health system, i.e.iatrogenic damage. == Definition == The Wonca International Dictionary for General/Family Practice defines it as "action taken to identify patient at risk of overmedicalisation, to protect him from new medical invasion, and to suggest to him interventions, which are ethically acceptable". Alternatively, quaternary prevention has been defined as an "action taken to protect individuals from medical interventions that are likely to cause more harm than good." == Per Jamoulle == Jamoulle divided medical situations into four quadrants based on if the patient was experiencing illness (i.e. if the patient experienced subjective poor health) and if a health care provider had identified disease (constructed based on diagnostic criteria), with a different type of prevention happening in each: Primary prevention when both illness and disease are absent Secondary prevention when illness is absent but


id: radiofrequency-ablation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiofrequency_ablation-0.md
category: reference
title: Radiofrequency ablation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiofrequency_ablation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:26.338818+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: radiofrequency-ablation-20260505-0
summary:
Radiofrequency ablation (RFA) is a medical procedure in which heat generated from medium frequency alternating current (in the range of 350–500 kHz) is used to selectively destroy dysfunctional tissue such as malfunctioning parts in the electrical conduction system of the heart, tumors, and sensory nerves. RFA is generally conducted in the outpatient setting, using either a local anesthetic or twilight anesthesia. When it is delivered via catheter, it is called radiofrequency catheter ablation. RFA also forms the basis behind electrosurgery. Two advantages of medium frequency current (over previously used low frequency AC or pulses of DC) are that it does not directly stimulate nerves or heart muscle, and therefore can often be used without the need for general anesthesia, and that it is specific for treating the desired tissue without significant collateral damage. Due to this, RFA is an alternative for eligible patients who have comorbidities or do not want to undergo surgery. Documented benefits have led to RFA becoming widely used during the 21st century. RFA procedures are performed under image guidance (such as X-ray screening, CT scan or ultrasound) by an interventional pain specialist (such as an anesthesiologist), interventional radiologist, otolaryngologists, a gastrointestinal or surgical endoscopist, or a


id: radiofrequency-ablation-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiofrequency_ablation-1.md
category: reference
title: Radiofrequency ablation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiofrequency_ablation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:26.338818+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: radiofrequency-ablation-20260505-0
summary:
== Aesthetics dermatology == Radiofrequency ablation is also used in dermatosurgical applications in the form of electrosurgery. Depending on the output waveform used, different modes of ablation can be achieved, including are electrosection (cutting), electrocoagulation, electrodessication and fulguration. The use of radiofrequency ablation has obtained importance as it can be used to treat most of the skin lesions with minimal side effects and complications. == Varicose veins == Radiofrequency ablation is a minimally invasive procedure used in the treatment of varicose veins. It is an alternative to the traditional stripping operation. Under ultrasound guidance, a radiofrequency catheter is inserted into the abnormal vein and the vessel treated with radio-energy, resulting in closure of the involved vein. Radiofrequency ablation is used to treat the great saphenous vein, the small saphenous vein, and the perforator veins. The latter are connecting veins that transport blood from the superficial veins to the deep veins. Branch varicose veins are then usually treated with other minimally invasive procedures, such as ambulatory phlebectomy, sclerotherapy, or foam sclerotherapy. Currently, the VNUS ClosureRFS stylet is the only device specifically cleared by FDA for endovenous ablation of perforator veins. The possibility of skin burn during the procedure is very small,


id: radiofrequency-ablation-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiofrequency_ablation-2.md
category: reference
title: Radiofrequency ablation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiofrequency_ablation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:26.338818+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: radiofrequency-ablation-20260505-0
summary:
== Barrett's esophagus == Radiofrequency ablation has been shown to be a safe and effective treatment for Barrett's esophagus. The balloon-based radiofrequency procedure was invented by Robert A. Ganz, Roger Stern and Brian Zelickson in 1999 (System and Method for Treating Abnormal Tissue in the Human Esophagus). While the person is sedated, a catheter is inserted into the esophagus and radiofrequency energy is delivered to the diseased tissue. This outpatient procedure typically lasts from fifteen to thirty minutes. Two months after the procedure, the physician performs an upper endoscopic examination to assess the esophagus for residual Barrett's esophagus. If any Barrett's esophagus is found, the disease can be treated with a focal RFA device. Between 80 and 90% or greater of people in numerous clinical trials have shown complete eradication of Barrett's esophagus in approximately two to three treatments with a favorable safety profile. The treatment of Barrett's esophagus by RFA is durable for up to 5 years. == Thyroid nodules == Radiofrequency ablation has been used successfully on benign thyroid nodules for decades, most notably in Europe, South America and Korea. In the United States, the FDA approved the use of RFA techniques for thyroid nodules in 2018. Since


id: rapid-antigen-test-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_antigen_test-0.md
category: reference
title: Rapid antigen test
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_antigen_test
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:27.654819+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rapid-antigen-test-20260505-0
summary:
A rapid antigen test (RAT), sometimes called a rapid antigen detection test (RADT), antigen rapid test (ART), or loosely just a rapid test, is a rapid diagnostic test suitable for point-of-care testing that directly detects the presence or absence of an antigen. RATs are a type of lateral flow test detecting antigens, rather than antibodies (antibody tests) or nucleic acid (nucleic acid tests). Rapid tests generally give a result in 5 to 30 minutes, require minimal training or infrastructure, and have significant cost advantages. Rapid antigen tests for the detection of SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, have been commonly used since the COVID-19 pandemic. For many years, an early and major class of RATs—the rapid strep tests for streptococci—were so often the referent when RATs or RADTs were mentioned that the two latter terms were often loosely treated as synonymous with those. Since the COVID-19 pandemic, awareness of RATs is no longer limited to health professionals and COVID-19 has become the expected referent, so more precise usage is required in other circumstances. RATs are based on the principle of antigen-antibody interaction. They detect antigens (generally a protein on the surface of a virus). A linear chromatography substrate (a porous


id: rapid-diagnostic-test-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_diagnostic_test-0.md
category: reference
title: Rapid diagnostic test
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_diagnostic_test
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:28.836706+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rapid-diagnostic-test-20260505-0
summary:
A rapid diagnostic test (RDT) is a medical diagnostic test that is quick and easy to perform. RDTs are suitable for preliminary or emergency medical screening and for use in medical facilities with limited resources. They also allow point-of-care testing in primary care for things that formerly only a laboratory test could measure. They provide same-day results within two hours, typically in approximately 20 minutes. The European Union defines that a rapid test means qualitative or semi-quantitative in vitro-diagnostic medical devices, used singly or in a small series, which involve non-automated procedures and have been designed to give a fast result. Lateral flow tests are probably the most known type of rapid diagnostic tests, similar to pregnancy tests, but there exist other systems as dipsticks, vertical flow, etc. Anything that can be used at bedside (point-of-care) of the patient. Emerging lateral flow technology, the Cornell FeverPhone, has been validated to differentiate causes of acute febrile illness such as Dengue Virus, Chikugunya Virus and Malaria using a single drop of blood in about 15 minutes. == Examples == Some examples of RDTs are listed below: Rapid antibody tests Rapid HIV test Rapid plasma reagin Rapid antigen tests Rapid COVID-19 test Rapid


id: rapid-strep-test-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_strep_test-0.md
category: reference
title: Rapid strep test
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_strep_test
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:30.077360+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rapid-strep-test-20260505-0
summary:
The rapid strep test (RST) is a rapid antigen detection test (RADT) that is widely used in clinics to assist in the diagnosis of bacterial pharyngitis caused by group A streptococci (GAS), sometimes termed strep throat. There are currently several types of rapid strep test in use, each employing a distinct technology. However, they all work by detecting the presence of GAS in the throat of a person by responding to GAS-specific antigens on a throat swab. == Medical use == A rapid strep test may assist a clinician in deciding whether to prescribe an antibiotic to a person with pharyngitis, a common infection of the throat. Viral infections are responsible for the majority of pharyngitis, but a significant proportion (20% to 40% in children and 5% to 15% in adults) is caused by bacterial infection. The symptoms of viral and bacterial infection may be indistinguishable, but only bacterial pharyngitis can be effectively treated by antibiotics. Since the major cause of bacterial pharyngitis is GAS, the presence of this organism in a person's throat may be seen as a necessary condition for prescribing antibiotics. GAS pharyngitis is a self-limiting infection that will usually resolve within a week without medication. However,


id: regression-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regression_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Regression (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regression_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:31.331934+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: regression-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Regression in medicine is the partial or complete reversal of a disease's signs and symptoms. Clinically, regression generally refers to a decrease in severity of symptoms without completely disappearing. At a later point, symptoms may return. These symptoms are then called recidive. In cancer, regression refers to a specific decrease in the size or extent of a tumour. In histopathology, histological regression is one or more areas within a tumor in which neoplastic cells have disappeared or decreased in number. In melanomas, this means complete or partial disappearance from areas of the dermis (and occasionally from the epidermis), which have been replaced by fibrosis, accompanied by melanophages, new blood vessels, and a variable degree of inflammation. == References ==


id: relapsing-remitting-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relapsing–remitting-0.md
category: reference
title: Relapsing–remitting
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relapsing–remitting
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:32.477854+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: relapsing-remitting-20260505-0
summary:
Relapsing–remitting is a medical term referring to a presentation of disease symptoms that become worse over time (relapsing), followed by periods of less severe symptoms that do not completely cease (partial remitting). The term is used to describe a type of multiple sclerosis called relapsing–remitting multiple sclerosis, where unpredictable relapses are followed by remission for months to years. The term is also used to describe palindromic rheumatism in the context of rheumatoid arthritis, catatonia, lupus, mental disorders, and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. == References ==


id: remission-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remission_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Remission (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remission_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:33.706636+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: remission-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Remission is either the reduction or disappearance of the signs and symptoms of a disease. The term may also be used to refer to the period during which this reduction occurs. A remission may be considered a partial remission or a complete remission. Each disease, type of disorder, or clinical trial can have its own definition of a partial remission. For example, a partial remission for cancer may be defined as a 50% or greater reduction in the measurable parameters of tumor growth as may be found on physical examination, radiologic study, or by biomarker levels from a blood or urine test. A complete remission, also called a full remission, is a total disappearance of the signs and symptoms of a disease. A person whose condition is in complete remission may be considered cured or recovered. Relapse is a term to describe returning symptoms of the disease after a period of remission. In cancer-treatment, doctors usually avoid the term "cured" and instead prefer the term "no evidence of disease" (NED) to refer to a complete remission of cancer, which does not rule out the possibility of relapse. In mental disorders, there is generally no distinction between partial remission and complete


id: responsible-drug-use-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responsible_drug_use-0.md
category: reference
title: Responsible drug use
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responsible_drug_use
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:34.912036+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: responsible-drug-use-20260505-0
summary:
Responsible drug use seeks to maximize the benefits and minimize the risks associated with psychoactive drug use. For illegal psychoactive drugs that are not diverted prescription controlled substances, some critics believe that illegal recreational drug use is inherently irresponsible, due to the unpredictable and unmonitored strength and purity of the drugs and the risks of addiction, infection, and other side effects. Nevertheless, harm reduction advocates claim that the user can be responsible by employing the same general principles applicable to the use of alcohol: avoiding hazardous situations, excessive doses, and hazardous combinations of drugs; avoiding injection; and not using drugs at the same time as activities that may be unsafe without a sober state. Drug use can be thought of as an activity that is potentially beneficial but also potentially risky. Similar to other risky activities such as skydiving or mountain climbing, the varied risks of drug use can be minimized by using harm-reduction strategies such as education, caution, and common sense. These advocates also point out that government action (or inaction) makes responsible drug use more difficult by artificially increasing risks, such as by making drugs of known purity and strength unavailable due to prohibition. == Harm reduction ==


id: responsible-drug-use-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responsible_drug_use-1.md
category: reference
title: Responsible drug use
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responsible_drug_use
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:34.912036+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: responsible-drug-use-20260505-0
summary:
understanding and educating oneself on the effects, risks, side effects and legal status of the drug they are taking measuring accurate dosages, and take other precautions to reduce the risk of overdose when taking drugs where an overdose is possible if possible, drug checking all substances before use to determine their purity and strength attempting to gain the most pure and high-quality drugs, laced with no cutting agent at best such as by buying on darknet markets using drugs only in relaxed and responsible social situations as altered consciousness can be inappropriate in potentially dangerous or unknown settings avoiding driving, operating heavy machinery, or otherwise situate themselves directly or indirectly responsible for the safety or care of another person while intoxicated and discouraging persons from operating a motor vehicle while intoxicated having a trip sitter (or "copilot") when taking hallucinogenic drugs taking a small dose first when taking a new drug ("start low and go slow") taking the smallest dose of a recreational drug that will produce the desired effects using recreational drugs in moderation, setting reasonable limits on the consumption and not allowing drug use to overshadow other aspects of their life (i.e. financial and social responsibilities) avoiding mixing


id: responsible-drug-use-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responsible_drug_use-2.md
category: reference
title: Responsible drug use
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responsible_drug_use
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:34.912036+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: responsible-drug-use-20260505-0
summary:
== Organizations == Many organizations exist to promote responsible drug use and harm reduction throughout the world. Some, such as Students for Sensible Drug Policy or Drug Policy Alliance, are primarily activist groups concerned with drug policy reform, promoting scientific research on drugs, and opposing stigma and misinformation about drug use and drug users. Others exist primarily as drug testing services for drug users (e.g. Energy Control or DrugsData), or as supervised injection services (e.g. Insite), or as informational sources (e.g. Bluelight or Erowid). Governments have begun to address responsible drug use within their respective jurisdictions. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services addresses harm reduction through the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration as a part of the department's Overdose Prevention Strategy. == See also == == References == == Further reading == Zinberg, N. E. (1984) Drug, Set, And Setting: The Basis for Controlled Intoxicant Use (New Haven: Yale University Press) ISBN 0-300-03110-6 == External links == Fact sheets on responsible recreational drug use Towards a Culture of Responsible Psychoactive Drug Use Fundamentals of Responsible Psychoactive Use, Erowid === Harm reduction === The History of Harm Reduction SOM.NIT // Risk reduction associated with recreational drug consumption


id: review-of-systems-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Review_of_systems-0.md
category: reference
title: Review of systems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Review_of_systems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:36.064738+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: review-of-systems-20260505-0
summary:
A review of systems (ROS), also called a systems enquiry or systems review, is a technique used by healthcare providers for eliciting a medical history from a patient. It is often structured as a component of an admission note covering the organ systems, with a focus upon the subjective symptoms perceived by the patient (as opposed to the objective signs perceived by the clinician). Along with the physical examination, it can be particularly useful in identifying conditions that do not have precise diagnostic tests. == Examples == Whatever system a specific condition may seem restricted to, it may be reasonable to review all the other systems in a comprehensive history. Different sources describe slightly different systems of organizing the organ systems. However, the following are examples of what can be included. Unspecified and other symptoms can't consider for both HPI and ROS: There are 14 systems recognized by the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services: The questions may be asked of the patient in a "head to toe" manner. == Relationship to history == For CMS, a "problem pertinent" ROS is limited to the problem(s) identified in the HPI; an "extended" ROS covers an additional 2 to 9 systems, and


id: right-atrial-pressure-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_atrial_pressure-0.md
category: reference
title: Right atrial pressure
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_atrial_pressure
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:37.358360+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: right-atrial-pressure-20260505-0
summary:
Right atrial pressure (RAP) is the blood pressure in the right atrium of the heart. RAP reflects the amount of blood returning to the heart and the ability of the heart to pump the blood into the arterial system. RAP is often nearly identical to central venous pressure (CVP), although the two terms are not identical, as a pressure differential can sometimes exist between the venae cavae and the right atrium. CVP and RAP can differ when venous tone (i.e the degree of venous constriction) is altered. This can be graphically depicted as changes in the slope of the venous return (VR) plotted against right atrial pressure (where central venous pressure (CVP) increases, but right atrial pressure (RAP) stays the same; VR = CVP − RAP). == Factors affecting RAP == Factors that increase RAP include: Hypervolemia Forced exhalation Tension pneumothorax Heart failure Pleural effusion Decreased cardiac output Cardiac tamponade Mechanical ventilation and the application of positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) Pulmonary Hypertension Pulmonary Embolism Left to right shunted Atrial Septal Defect Factors that decrease RAP include: Hypovolemia Deep inhalation Distributive shock == See also == Pulmonary capillary wedge pressure Jugular venous pressure Central venous pressure == References == == External


id: right-to-left-shunt-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right-to-left_shunt-0.md
category: reference
title: Right-to-left shunt
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right-to-left_shunt
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:38.670025+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: right-to-left-shunt-20260505-0
summary:
A right-to-left shunt is a cardiac shunt which allows blood to flow from the right heart to the left heart. This terminology is used both for the abnormal state in humans and for normal physiological shunts in reptiles. == Clinical Significance == A right-to-left shunt occurs when: there is an opening or passage between the atria, ventricles, and/or great vessels; and, right heart pressure is higher than left heart pressure and/or the shunt has a one-way valvular opening. Small physiological, or "normal", shunts are seen due to the return of bronchial artery blood and coronary blood through the Thebesian veins, which are deoxygenated, to the left side of the heart. === Causes === Congenital defects can lead to right-to-left shunting immediately after birth: Persistent truncus arteriosus (minimal cyanosis) Transposition of great vessels Tricuspid atresia Tetralogy of Fallot Total anomalous pulmonary venous return A mnemonic to remember the conditions associated with right-to-left shunting involves the numbers 1-5, as follows: 1 Combination Vessel: Persistent truncus arteriosus (minimal cyanosis) 2 Vessels involved: Transposition of great vessels 3 Leaflets: Tricuspid atresia 4 Tetra- prefix: Tetralogy of Fallot 5 Words: Total anomalous pulmonary venous return A mainstem intubation with an endotracheal tube can lead to


id: risk-of-infection-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risk_of_infection-0.md
category: reference
title: Risk of infection
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risk_of_infection
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:39.833246+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: risk-of-infection-20260505-0
summary:
Risk of infection is a nursing diagnosis which is defined as the state in which an individual is at risk to be infected by an opportunistic or pathogenic agent (e.g., viruses, fungi, bacteria, protozoa, or other parasites) from endogenous or exogenous sources. The diagnosis was approved by NANDA in 1986. Although anyone can become infected by a pathogen, patients with this diagnosis are at an elevated risk and extra infection controls should be considered. == Endogenous sources == The risk of infection depends on a number of endogenous sources. Chronic blood loss leads to iron and nutrient deficiencies essential for immune cell production and function, thereby decreasing the body’s resistance to infection and placing the patient at increased risk for infection. == Assessment == The patient should be asked about a history of repeated infections, symptoms of infection, recent travel to high-risk areas, and their immunization history. They should also be assessed for objective signs such as the presence of wounds, fever, or signs of nutritional deficiency == Intervention == The specific nursing interventions will depend on the nature and severity of the risk. Patients should be taught how to recognize the signs of infection and how to reduce their


id: risk-of-mortality-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risk_of_mortality-0.md
category: reference
title: Risk of mortality
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risk_of_mortality
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:41.068791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: risk-of-mortality-20260505-0
summary:
The risk of mortality (ROM) provides a medical classification to estimate the likelihood of in-hospital death for a patient. The ROM classes are minor, moderate, major, and extreme. The ROM class is used for the evaluation of patient mortality. == See also == Case mix index Diagnosis codes Severity of illness == References == Alemi, F., J. Rice, and R. Hankins. 1990. "Predicting In-Hospital Survival of Myocardial Infarction." Medical Care 28 (9): 762–75. Averill, R. F., J. H. Muldoon, J. C. Vertrees, N. I. Goldfield, R. L. Mullin, E. C. Fineran, M. Z. Zhang, B. Steinbeck, and T. Grant, The Evolution of Casemix Measurement Using Diagnosis Related Groups (DRGs) 3M HIS Working Paper. Wallinford, CT: 3M Health Information Systems, 1997 Iezzoni, L. I., M. Shwartz, A. S. Ash, J. S. Hughes, J. Daley, and Y. D. Mackiernan, Severity Measurement Methods and Judging Hospital Death Rates for Pneumonia, Medical Care 34 (1): 11–28, 1996


id: risky-sexual-behavior-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risky_sexual_behavior-0.md
category: reference
title: Risky sexual behavior
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risky_sexual_behavior
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:42.273338+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: risky-sexual-behavior-20260505-0
summary:
Risky sexual behavior is the description of the activity that will increase the probability that a person engaging in sexual activity with another person infected with a sexually transmitted infection will be infected, become unintentionally pregnant, or make a partner pregnant. It can mean two similar things: the behavior itself, and the description of the partner's behavior. The behavior could be unprotected vaginal, oral, anal, or non-penetrative manual intercourse. The partner could be a non-exclusive sexual partner, HIV-positive, and/or an intravenous drug user. == Factors == Risky sexual behaviors can include: Sex and drugs such as alcohol or methamphetamine. Barebacking, i.e. sex without using condoms. Mouth-to-genital contact. Starting sexual activity at a young age. Having multiple sexual partners. Having a high-risk partner, someone who has multiple sexual partners and/or infections. Anal sex without using condoms and proper lubrication. Sex with a partner who has ever injected drugs. Engaging in sex work. Consumption of pornographic materials (which can encourage other risky sexual behaviors) Risky sexual behavior includes unprotected intercourse, multiple sexual partners, and illicit drug use. The use of alcoholic drinks and illicit drugs greatly increases the risk of gonorrhea, chlamydia, trichomoniasis, hepatitis B, and HIV/AIDS. Trauma from penile-anal sex has


id: sari-screening-tool-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARI_Screening_Tool-0.md
category: reference
title: SARI Screening Tool
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SARI_Screening_Tool
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:43.480584+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sari-screening-tool-20260505-0
summary:
SARI Screening Tool also known as the SARI score is a tool developed by the Ministry of Health in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. It is a visual triage used to identify those with the potential to have COVID-19. The tools was also used to screen for MERS. It has been modified multiple times and the weights of each symptom have been changed over time as well. == References ==


id: sclerosis-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sclerosis_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Sclerosis (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sclerosis_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:44.831503+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sclerosis-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Sclerosis (from Ancient Greek σκληρός (sklērós) 'hard') is the stiffening of a tissue or anatomical feature, usually caused by a replacement of the normal organ-specific tissue with connective tissue. The structure may be said to have undergone sclerotic changes or display sclerotic lesions, which refers to the process of sclerosis. Common medical conditions whose pathology involves sclerosis include: Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis—also known as Lou Gehrig's disease or motor neurone disease—a progressive, incurable, usually fatal disease of motor neurons. Atherosclerosis, a deposit of fatty materials, such as cholesterol, in the arteries which causes hardening. Focal segmental glomerulosclerosis is a disease that attacks the kidney's filtering system (glomeruli) causing serious scarring and thus a cause of nephrotic syndrome in children and adolescents, as well as an important cause of kidney failure in adults. Hippocampal sclerosis, a brain damage often seen in individuals with temporal lobe epilepsy. Lichen sclerosus, an inflammatory skin disease that most often affects the vulva and the penis. Multiple sclerosis, or focal sclerosis, is a central nervous system disease which affects coordination. Osteosclerosis, a condition where the bone density is significantly increased, resulting in decreased lucency on radiographs. Otosclerosis, a disease of the ears. Primary lateral sclerosis, progressive muscle


id: screen-time-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screen_time-0.md
category: reference
title: Screen time
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screen_time
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:46.015001+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: screen-time-20260505-0
summary:
Screen time is the amount of time spent using an electronic device with a display screen such as a smartphone, computer, television, video game console, or tablet. The concept is under significant research with related concepts in digital media use and mental health. Screen time is correlated with mental and physical harm in child development. The positive or negative health effects of screen time on a particular individual are influenced by levels and content of exposure. Screen time increases dopamine. To prevent harmful excesses of screen time, some governments have placed regulations on usage. == History == === Statistics === The first electronic screen was the cathode ray tube (CRT), which was invented in 1922. CRTs were the most popular choice for display screens until the rise of liquid crystal displays (LCDs) in the early 2000s. Screens are now an essential part of entertainment, advertising, and information technologies. Since their popularization in 2007, smartphones have become ubiquitous in daily life. In 2023, 85% of American adults reported owning a smartphone. An American survey in 2016 found a median of 3.7 minutes per hour screen use per citizen. All forms of screens are frequently used by children and teens. Nationally representative


id: screen-time-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screen_time-1.md
category: reference
title: Screen time
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screen_time
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:46.015001+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: screen-time-20260505-0
summary:
Increased use of screens in children has also been shown to have an association with adverse effects on the quality of sleep in children. A 2010 review concluded that "the use of electronic media by children and adolescents does have a negative impact on their sleep, although the precise effects and mechanisms remain unclear", with the most consistent results associating excessive media use with shorter sleep duration and delayed bed times. A 2016 meta-analysis found that "Bedtime access and use of media devices was significantly associated with inadequate sleep quantity; poor sleep quality; and excessive daytime sleepiness". This relationship is because much of the time spent on screens for children is at night, which can cause them to go to sleep later in addition to the blue light from the screens making it more difficult to sleep. However, the relationship between screen use and sleep may not be the same across neurotypical and neurodivergent children. There are reasons to believe that autistic children, for example, may be more interested in screens than their neurotypical peers, and less able to disengage from them. A 2025 systematic review found that a causal link between screen-time use and sleep in autistic children could


id: screen-time-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screen_time-2.md
category: reference
title: Screen time
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screen_time
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:46.015001+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: screen-time-20260505-0
summary:
=== Brain development === An increase in screen time has been associated with negative cognitive outcomes for children between 0 and 4. A study on Korean children aged 24–30 months old found that toddlers with 3 hours of TV viewing per day were three times as likely to experience a language delay. Toddlers with higher TV time also scored lower on school readiness tests, which measured vocabulary, number knowledge, and classroom engagement. The same outcomes are not present in children older than 4. Children who watched more TV were found to have less brain connectivity between language, visual and cognitive control regions of the brain than their peers who watched less TV. An ongoing study reported from the National Institutes of Health concluded that preteens who spent over 7 hours on screens a day and children who spend less than 7 hours a day had noticeably different development of their cerebral cortex. This part of the brain usually thins as people mature but the accelerated decrease could potentially be linked to amounts spent on screens. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends a screen time no longer than 1 hour per day for children aged 3–5. According to a study published


id: screen-time-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screen_time-3.md
category: reference
title: Screen time
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screen_time
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:46.015001+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: screen-time-20260505-0
summary:
Research shows that children who lack guidance from their mothers are more likely to overuse screen time and also to struggle academically. Those with more prevalent maternal interference in their online activities tend to have more controlled screen time. These children also watched more educational content when online versus their counterparts with less parental control. Educational content consumed during time allotted for digital use is shown to be positively associated with academic achievement. On the other hand, those who only consumed violent media or leisurely video games on school nights, showed a negative associated with academic achievement. Their lower academic performances were marked by decreases in grade averages and in their ability to adjust to a school or academic environment. Inability to adjust to these situations resulted in a negative effect on school performance. == Environmental effects == More screen time generally leads to less time spent in nature and therefore a weaker connection to it. Studies show nature-inspired activities simultaneously decrease for youth in financially stabilized countries with mental health issues increasing, drawing a connection to higher screen time levels. However, the higher the count in activities spent experiencing the outdoors produced positive results in mental health among adolescents.


id: screening-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screening_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Screening (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screening_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:47.287610+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: screening-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, screening is a strategy used to look for as-yet-unrecognised conditions or risk markers. This testing can be applied to individuals or to a whole population without symptoms or signs of the disease being screened. Screening interventions are designed to identify conditions which could at some future point turn into disease, thus enabling earlier intervention and management in the hope to reduce mortality and suffering from a disease. Although screening may lead to an earlier diagnosis, not all screening tests have been shown to benefit the person being screened- overdiagnosis, misdiagnosis, and creating a false sense of security are some potential adverse effects of screening. Additionally, some screening tests can be inappropriately overused. For these reasons, a test used in a screening program, especially for a disease with low incidence, must have good sensitivity in addition to acceptable specificity. Several types of screening exist: universal (population-based) screening involves testing of all individuals in a certain category (for example, all children of a certain age). Case finding involves testing a smaller group of people based on the presence of risk factors (for example, because a family member has been diagnosed with a hereditary disease). When delivered to large numbers of


id: screening-medicine-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screening_(medicine)-1.md
category: reference
title: Screening (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screening_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:47.287610+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: screening-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
=== Screening for social determinants of health === The social determinants of health are the economic and social conditions that influence individual and group differences in health status. Those conditions may have adverse effects on their health and well-being. To mitigate those adverse effects, certain health policies like the United States Affordable Care Act (2010) gave increased traction to preventive programs, such as those that routinely screen for social determinants of health. Screening is believed to a valuable tool in identifying patients' basic needs in a social determinants of health framework so that they can be better served. ==== Policy background in the United States ==== When established in the United States, the Affordable Care Act was able to bridge the gap between community-based health and healthcare as a medical treatment, leading to programs that screened for social determinants of health. The Affordable Care Act established several services with an eye for social determinants or an openness to more diverse clientele, such as Community Transformation Grants, which were delegated to the community in order to establish "preventive community health activities" and "address health disparities". ==== Clinical programs ==== Social determinants of health include social status, gender, ethnicity, economic status, education


id: screening-medicine-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screening_(medicine)-2.md
category: reference
title: Screening (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screening_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:47.287610+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: screening-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Screening may identify abnormalities that would never cause a problem in a person's lifetime. An example of this is prostate cancer screening; it has been said that "more men die with prostate cancer than of it". Autopsy studies have shown that between 14 and 77% of elderly men who have died of other causes are found to have had prostate cancer. Aside from issues with unnecessary treatment (prostate cancer treatment is by no means without risk), overdiagnosis makes a study look good at picking up abnormalities, even though they are sometimes harmless. Overdiagnosis occurs when all of these people with harmless abnormalities are counted as "lives saved" by the screening, rather than as "healthy people needlessly harmed by overdiagnosis". So it might lead to an endless cycle: the greater the overdiagnosis, the more people will think screening is more effective than it is, which can reinforce people to do more screening tests, leading to even more overdiagnosis. Raffle, Mackie and Gray call this the popularity paradox of screening: "The greater the harm through overdiagnosis and overtreatment from screening, the more people there are who believe they owe their health, or even their life, to the programme"(p56 Box 3.4) The screening


id: screening-medicine-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screening_(medicine)-3.md
category: reference
title: Screening (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screening_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:47.287610+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: screening-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Not everyone will partake in a screening program. There are factors that differ between those willing to get tested and those who are not. If people with a higher risk of a disease are more likely to be screened, for instance women with a family history of breast cancer are more likely than other women to join a mammography program, then a screening test will look worse than it really is: negative outcomes among the screened population will be higher than for a random sample. Selection bias may also make a test look better than it really is. If a test is more available to young and healthy people (for instance if people have to travel a long distance to get checked) then fewer people in the screening population will have negative outcomes than for a random sample, and the test will seem to make a positive difference. Studies have shown that people who attend screening tend to be healthier than those who do not. This has been called the healthy screenee effect, which is a form of selection bias. The reason seems to be that people who are healthy, affluent, physically fit, non-smokers with long-lived parents are more likely


id: secondary-malignant-neoplasm-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_malignant_neoplasm-0.md
category: reference
title: Secondary malignant neoplasm
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_malignant_neoplasm
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:48.442724+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: secondary-malignant-neoplasm-20260505-0
summary:
Secondary malignant neoplasm is a malignant tumor whose cause is the treatment (usually radiation or chemotherapy) which was used for a prior tumor. It must be distinguished from Metastasis from the prior tumor or a relapse from it since a secondary malignant neoplasm is a different tumor. == References ==


id: secretomotor-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretomotor-0.md
category: reference
title: Secretomotor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretomotor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:49.703071+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: secretomotor-20260505-0
summary:
The adjective secretomotor refers to the capacity of a structure (often a nerve) to induce a gland to secrete a substance (usually mucus or serous fluid). Secretomotor nerve endings are frequently contrasted with sensory neuron endings and motor nerve endings. An example of secretomotor activity can be seen with the lacrimal gland, which secretes the aqueous layer of the tear film. The lacrimal branch of the ophthalmic nerve (itself a branch of trigeminal nerve V1) supplies secretomotor innervation to the lacrimal gland, stimulating its secretion of the aqueous layer. However, these nerves fibers originate from the facial nerve (VII) and only travel briefly with fibers from the trigeminal nerve. Secretomotor neurons in the intestines and gall bladder control the movement of fluid and electrolytes. == References ==


id: sedentary-lifestyle-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedentary_lifestyle-0.md
category: reference
title: Sedentary lifestyle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedentary_lifestyle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:51.056809+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sedentary-lifestyle-20260505-0
summary:
Sedentary lifestyle is a lifestyle type, in which one is physically inactive and does little or no physical movement and/or exercise. A person living a sedentary lifestyle is often sitting or lying down while engaged in an activity like socializing, watching TV, playing video games, reading or using a mobile phone or computer for much of the day. A sedentary lifestyle contributes to poor health quality, diseases as well as many preventable causes of death. Sitting time is a common measure of a sedentary lifestyle. A global review representing 47% of the global adult population found that the average person sits down for 4.7 to 6.5 hours a day with the average going up every year. Screen time is a term for the amount of time a person spends looking at a screen such as a television, computer monitor, or mobile device. Excessive screen time is linked to negative health consequences. == Definition == Sedentary behavior is not the same as physical inactivity: sedentary behavior is defined as "any waking behavior characterized by an energy expenditure less than or equal to 1.5 metabolic equivalents (METs), while in a sitting, reclining or lying posture". Spending most waking hours sitting does not


id: sedentary-lifestyle-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedentary_lifestyle-1.md
category: reference
title: Sedentary lifestyle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedentary_lifestyle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:51.056809+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sedentary-lifestyle-20260505-0
summary:
Adults and children spend long amounts of time sitting in a workplace or at a school, which is why interventions have been focused in these two areas. Mass media campaigns might also be able to reduce the amount of time spent sitting or lying down and positively affect the intention to be active physically. Recent innovations in AI technology have led to the development of exercise prescription systems designed to reduce sedentary behavior. These systems deliver personalized exercise plans by analyzing individual health metrics, potentially decreasing the prevalence of a sedentary lifestyle and its associated health risks. === In urban spaces === Some evidence has been found of a negative association between exposure to an existing urban motorway and moderate to vigorous physical activity. The proportion of physically active individuals was higher in high- versus low-walkability neighborhoods. Rising rates of being overweight, obesity, and physical inactivity in China's rapidly growing cities and urban populations have been due to urban development practices and policies. === In a work environment === Occupational sedentary behaviour accounts for a significant proportion of sitting time for many adults. Some workplaces have implemented exercise classes at lunch, walking challenges among coworkers, or allowing employees to stand


id: self-diagnosis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-diagnosis-0.md
category: reference
title: Self-diagnosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-diagnosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:52.335800+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: self-diagnosis-20260505-0
summary:
Self-diagnosis is the process of diagnosing, or identifying, medical conditions in oneself. It may be assisted by medical dictionaries, books, resources on the Internet, past personal experiences, or recognizing symptoms or medical signs of a condition that a family member previously had or currently has. Depending on the nature of an individual's condition and the accuracy of the information they access, self-diagnoses can vary greatly in their safety. Due to self-diagnoses' varied accuracy, public attitudes toward self-diagnosis include denials of its legitimacy and applause of its ability to promote healthcare access and allow for individuals to find solidarity and support. Furthermore, external influences such as marketing, social media trends, societal stigma around disease, and to which demographic population one belongs greatly affect the use of self-diagnosis. == Appropriate use == Self-diagnosis is prone to error and may be potentially dangerous if inappropriate decisions are made, which can stem from broad or inaccurately applied symptoms as well as confirmation bias. Because of the risks, self-diagnosis is officially discouraged by physicians and patient care organizations. Physicians are also discouraged from engaging in self-diagnosis due to potential lack of objectivity. An inaccurate self-diagnosis—a misdiagnosis—can result in improper health care, including using the wrong


id: self-diagnosis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-diagnosis-1.md
category: reference
title: Self-diagnosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-diagnosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:52.335800+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: self-diagnosis-20260505-0
summary:
Self-diagnosis itself is becoming a more lucrative industry given the popularity of self-testing kits. While these are most commonly associated with COVID-19, self-testing kits exist for a wide range of conditions, such as prostate cancer, Alzheimers, and menopause. Though healthcare professionals warn of their potential to be unreliable, these kits appeal to the public due to their easy use, convenience, and inexpensiveness. Despite the fact that doctors warn that they cannot necessarily conclusively diagnose a condition nor encapsulate a disease's full complexity, the industry creating these tests is growing in profitability. ==== Smartphone applications ==== Developers of medical diagnosis applications can also be fueled by commercial interests. A number of applications receive monetary returns for acting as referrals to health insurance companies, doctor's offices, and pharmacies. These forms of monetary compensation are often not mentioned in the app's contents or general overview. === The role of stigma === ==== Public stigma ==== Though self-diagnosis may work to counter the stigma associated with disease, it faces its own share of public disapproval. Those who publish posts encouraging self-diagnosis do not always have verified medical credentials even though they often present their posts as providing expert advice. As a result, self-diagnoses are


id: self-diagnosis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-diagnosis-2.md
category: reference
title: Self-diagnosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-diagnosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:52.335800+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: self-diagnosis-20260505-0
summary:
==== Use of chatbots ==== A recent technology that has started to take hold in the realm of self-diagnosis is the utilization of chatbot-based symptom checker (CSC) applications. CSCs were designed to combat the problem of extended wait times to see a doctor and the unavailability of punctual medical advice. Patients have also utilized chatbots to determine severity of their potential diagnosis before going through the process of seeing a doctor and incurring the financial strain that can come with it. Chatbots utilize artificial intelligence (AI) in order to assist patients in their medical concerns during all hours of the day. The operational mechanism of CSCs is a text-to-text system, where the chatbot asks a series of health-related questions in order to determine a diagnosis. The effectiveness of chatbots in the process of self-diagnosis is still highly debated among researchers. Studies have found that users have varying opinions on the required input for chatbot websites and applications. In some cases, chatbots offer limited space to input multiple symptoms and locations of symptoms for diagnosis determination. Interfaces have presented users with a "pre-structured symptom selection list" which has forced users to be more general with their responses than they would prefer.


id: self-diagnosis-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-diagnosis-3.md
category: reference
title: Self-diagnosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-diagnosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:32:52.335800+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: self-diagnosis-20260505-0
summary:
==== The benefits and costs for vulnerable demographics ==== This trend of turning to self-diagnosis among minorities can be potentially dangerous, given the unfiltered and unauthorized information online. A report from Psychreg criticizes self-diagnosis for its potentially hazardous nature, reporting that 61% of the advice on social media (specifically, TikTok) is incorrect. The Camber Mental Health Organization also notes the potential danger of online self-diagnosis, indicating that influencers without proper license offer public advice that can further jeopardize the vulnerable demographics. Other studies present non-dangerous aspects of self-diagnosis for these populations. A new study published by the Department of Public Health and Primary Care at Leiden University Medical Centre explains that patients use the internet to find reliable medical information about minor ailments and thus prevent symptoms from worsening if immediate health care cannot be provided. After surveying 1,372 participants, the study finds that most patients utilize this symptom-based approach. Suppose the patients expect the potential diagnosis to be more lethal. In that case, they tend to conduct further research on the internet to verify their suspicions about their condition. === Age === Younger generations are more likely to perform self-diagnosis. Kwakernaak explains their findings of a positive correlation between


id: sequela-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequela-0.md
category: reference
title: Sequela
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequela
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:04.576198+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sequela-20260505-0
summary:
A sequela (UK: , US: ; usually used in the plural, sequelae ) is a pathological condition resulting from a disease, injury, therapy, or other trauma. Derived from the Latin word meaning "sequel", it is used in the medical field to mean a complication or condition following a prior illness or disease. A typical sequela is a chronic complication of an acute condition—in other words, a long-term effect of a temporary disease or injury—which follows immediately from the condition. Sequelae differ from late effects, which can appear long after—even several decades after—the original condition has resolved. In general, non-medical usage, the terms sequela and sequelae mean consequence and consequences. == Examples and uses == Chronic kidney disease, for example, is sometimes a sequela of diabetes; "chronic constipation" or more accurately "obstipation" (that is, inability to pass stool or gas) is a sequela to an intestinal obstruction; and neck pain is a common sequela of whiplash or other trauma to the cervical vertebrae. Post-traumatic stress disorder may be a psychological sequela of one or more traumatic events. Sequelae of traumatic brain injury include headache, dizziness, anxiety, apathy, depression, aggression, cognitive impairments, personality changes, mania, and psychosis. COVID-19 is also known to


id: sequence-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequence_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Sequence (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequence_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:05.738246+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sequence-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, a sequence is a series of ordered consequences due to a single cause. It differs from a syndrome in that seriality is more predictable: if A causes B, and B causes C, and C causes D, then D would not be seen if C is not seen. However, in less formal contexts, the term "syndrome" is sometimes used instead of sequence. Examples include: Oligohydramnios sequence (also known as Potter sequence) Pierre Robin sequence Poland sequence == References ==


id: seton-stitch-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seton_stitch-0.md
category: reference
title: Seton stitch
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seton_stitch
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:07.036799+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: seton-stitch-20260505-0
summary:
A seton or seton stitch is a procedure used to aid the healing of fistulae (abnormal connections between two epithelium-lined organs or vessels). The word "seton" comes from the Medieval Latin sētōn, itself derived from sēta (meaning "bristle" or "hair") and the suffix -ōn. == Techniques == The procedure involves running a surgical-grade cord (eg, silk suture) through the fistula tract so that the cord creates a loop that joins up outside the fistula. The cord provides a path that allows the fistula to drain continuously while it is healing, rather than allowing the exterior of the wound to close over. Keeping the fistula tract open can help prevent the trapping of pus or other infectious material in the wound. The procedure was mentioned by Hippocrates. Setons can be tied tightly or loosely and with different materials, depending on the anatomical location of the fistulae and what may be medically required. A seton might be tied loosely as a palliative measure to avoid septic and painful exacerbations, or as temporary measure before surgical excision as in fistulotomy or fistulectomy. In some types of fistulae, a seton may be tied with more tension and tightened periodically. In this case, the seton


id: sever-s-disease-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sever's_disease-0.md
category: reference
title: Sever's disease
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sever's_disease
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:08.325773+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sever-s-disease-20260505-0
summary:
Sever's disease, also known as calcaneal apophysitis, is an inflammation at the back of the heel (or calcaneus) growth plate in growing children. The condition is thought to be caused by repetitive stress at the heel. This condition is benign and common and usually resolves when the growth plate has closed or during periods of less activity. It occurs in both males and females. There are a number of locations in the body that may get apophysitis pain. Another common location is at the front of the knee which is known as apophysitis of the tibial tuberosity or Osgood–Schlatter disease. == Symptoms == Children with calcaneal apophysitis commonly complain of pain at the back of the heel. This pain increases with jumping and some running sports. Sometimes, the pain makes children limp and may result in poor sports performance or them not wanting to participate in some sports. The back of the heel is never swollen or red, unless there has been shoe rubbing. When the back of the heel is squeezed from the inside and outside, children with calcaneal apophysitis will report pain. Foot radiographs are not needed to diagnose calcaneal apophysitis as the growth plate can look similar


id: severity-of-illness-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severity_of_illness-0.md
category: reference
title: Severity of illness
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severity_of_illness
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:09.477032+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: severity-of-illness-20260505-0
summary:
Severity of illness (SOI) is defined as the extent of organ system derangement or physiologic decompensation for a patient. It gives a medical classification into minor, moderate, major, and extreme. The SOI class is meant to provide a basis for evaluating hospital resource use or to establish patient care guidelines. Patients are assigned their SOI based on their specific diagnoses and procedures performed during their medical encounter, which is generally an inpatient hospital stay. Patients with higher SOI (e.g. major or extreme) are more likely to consume greater healthcare resources and stay longer in hospitals than patients with lower SOI in the same diagnosis-related group (DRG). The Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services considered the 3M APR-DRG and SOI system as a potential evolution to the DRG system in 2006, but received such negative feedback from the industry that in March 2007 decided to adopt another internally developed system evolved from the DRG. SOI is still commonly used throughout the United States to adjust for patient complexity, so that physicians and other groups can compare resource utilization, complication rates, and length of stay. == See also == Diagnosis-related group (DRG) Risk of mortality (ROM) Case mix index (CMI) Diagnosis code


id: sham-surgery-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sham_surgery-0.md
category: reference
title: Sham surgery
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sham_surgery
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:10.758867+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sham-surgery-20260505-0
summary:
Sham surgery (or placebo surgery) is a faked surgical intervention that omits the step thought to be therapeutically necessary. In clinical trials of surgical interventions, sham surgery is an important scientific control. This is because it isolates the specific effects of the treatment as opposed to the incidental effects caused by anesthesia, the incisional trauma, pre- and postoperative care, and the patient's perception of having had a regular operation. Thus sham surgery serves an analogous purpose to placebo drugs, neutralizing biases such as the placebo effect. == Human research == A number of studies done under Institutional Review Board-approved settings have delivered important and surprising results. With the progress in minimally invasive surgery, sham procedures can be more easily performed as the sham incision can be kept small similarly to the incision in the studied procedure. A review of studies with sham surgery found 53 such studies: in 39 there was improvement with the sham operation and in 27 the sham procedure was as good as the real operation. Sham-controlled interventions have therefore identified interventions that are useless but had been believed by the medical community to be helpful based on studies without the use of sham surgery. === Examples


id: shit-life-syndrome-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shit_life_syndrome-0.md
category: reference
title: Shit life syndrome
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shit_life_syndrome
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:12.064135+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: shit-life-syndrome-20260505-0
summary:
Shit life syndrome (SLS) is a phrase used by physicians in the United Kingdom, the United States, and Australia for the effect that a variety of poverty or abuse-induced disorders can have on patients. == History == Sarah O'Connor's 2017 article for the Financial Times "Left behind: can anyone save the towns the economy forgot?" on shit life syndrome in the English coastal town of Blackpool won the 2018 Orwell Prize for Exposing Britain's Social Evils. O'Connor wrote that Blackpool exports healthy skilled people and imports the unskilled, the unemployed and the unwell. As people overlooked by the modern economy wash up in a place that has also been left behind, the result is a quietly unfolding health crisis. More than a tenth of the town's working-age inhabitants live on state benefits paid to those deemed too sick to work. Antidepressant prescription rates are among the highest in the country. Life expectancy, already the lowest in England, has recently started to fall. Doctors in places such as this have a private diagnosis for what ails some of their patients: "Shit Life Syndrome" ... People with SLS really do have mental or physical health problems, doctors say. But they believe the


id: simultanagnosia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simultanagnosia-0.md
category: reference
title: Simultanagnosia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simultanagnosia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:13.374979+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: simultanagnosia-20260505-0
summary:
Simultanagnosia (or simultagnosia) is a rare neurological disorder characterized by the inability of an individual to visually perceive more than a single object at a time. This type of visual attention problem is one of three major components (the others being optic ataxia and optic apraxia) of Bálint's syndrome, an uncommon and incompletely understood variety of severe neuropsychological impairments involving space representation (visuospatial processing). The term "simultanagnosia" was first coined in 1924 by Wolpert to describe a condition where the affected individual could see individual details of a complex scene but failed to grasp the overall meaning of the image. Simultanagnosia can be divided into two different categories: dorsal and ventral. Ventral occipito-temporal lesions cause a mild form of the disorder, while dorsal occipito-parietal lesions cause a more severe form of the disorder. == Description == Patients with simultanagnosia, a component of Bálint's syndrome, have a restricted spatial window of visual attention and cannot see more than one object at a time in a scene that contains more than one object. For instance, if presented with an image of a table containing both food and various utensils, a patient will report seeing only one item, such as a spoon. If


id: simultanagnosia-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simultanagnosia-1.md
category: reference
title: Simultanagnosia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simultanagnosia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:13.374979+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: simultanagnosia-20260505-0
summary:
=== Restricted visual attention === In 1909, Rezső Bálint published one of the earliest descriptions of simultanagnosia. He studied a patient who easily identified single objects, regardless of size, but claimed that he could only see one object when presented with a complex display of numerous items. This patient also exhibited ocular apraxia, an impairment of voluntary eye movements despite intact oculomotor reflexes, and optic ataxia, or the impairment of visually guided hand movements. This collection of symptoms would later be called Bálint's syndrome. Because the size of the object did not affect his patient's ability to perceive an item, Bálint argued that his patient did not have a narrowing of the sensory field. Therefore, Bálint concluded that the patient's attention would always be as narrow as the size of the item being observed. In other words, the attentional window of a simultanagnosic patient is limited to one object. In contrast to Bálint's hypothesis, Thaiss and De Bleser studied a patient who had a physical restriction of her attentional window. The patient's ability to perceive multiple objects and identify global structures significantly improved as the size of the presented image decreased. Thus, complex stimuli could be processed as wholes so


id: simultanagnosia-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simultanagnosia-2.md
category: reference
title: Simultanagnosia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simultanagnosia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:13.374979+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: simultanagnosia-20260505-0
summary:
=== Spatial indexing deficits === Finally, simultanagnosia may result from deficits in spatial indexing. Several studies have noted that a pre-attentive stage of processing exists during which visual features are obtained from the visual field in parallel. Once these features have been extracted, they can be indexed, which allows them to function as anchor points for additional visual routines; visual routines are sequences of elemental operations, such as visual search or texture segregation, which define the spatial relationships among objects as well as their properties. Saliency of a feature facilitates the ease with which it can be indexed. For example, the greater the difference between a specific feature and surrounding ones, the more easily it can be indexed. The indexed features, or anchor points, can serve as a "spotlight" that directs focal attention to certain objects, which can then channel visual information to specialized systems for space and shape analysis. Deficits in the spatial indexing mechanism would result in symptoms of simultanagnosia because interpretation of a complex scene requires rapid shifting of attention to various elements, and impairments in spatial indexing lead to the inability to index multiple visual features rapidly. In addition, perception is slowed, and low-level visual processing


id: skull-bossing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skull_bossing-0.md
category: reference
title: Skull bossing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skull_bossing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:14.539213+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: skull-bossing-20260505-0
summary:
Skull bossing is a descriptive term in medical physical examination indicating a protuberance of the skull, most often in the frontal bones of the forehead ("frontal bossing"). Although prominence of the skull bones may be normal, skull bossing may be associated with certain medical conditions, including nutritional, metabolic, hormonal, and hematologic disorders. == Frontal bossing == Frontal bossing is the development of an unusually pronounced forehead which may also be associated with a heavier than normal brow ridge. It is caused by enlargement of the frontal bone, often in conjunction with abnormal enlargement of other facial bones, skull, mandible, and bones of the hands and feet. Frontal bossing may be seen in a few rare medical syndromes such as acromegaly – a chronic medical disorder in which the anterior pituitary gland produces excess growth hormone (GH). Frontal bossing may also occur in diseases resulting in chronic anemia, where there is increased hematopoiesis and enlargement of the medullary cavities of the skull. == Associated medical disorders == Rickets Achondroplasia Acromegaly Basal cell nevus syndrome Congenital syphilis Cleidocranial dysostosis Crouzon syndrome Cryopyrin-Associated Periodic Syndrome (CAPS – PFS) Ectodermal dysplasia Extramedullary hematopoiesis Fragile X syndrome Hurler syndrome Osteopathia Striata with Cranial Sclerosis Pfeiffer


id: slipped-capital-femoral-epiphysis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slipped_capital_femoral_epiphysis-0.md
category: reference
title: Slipped capital femoral epiphysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slipped_capital_femoral_epiphysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:15.712162+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: slipped-capital-femoral-epiphysis-20260505-0
summary:
Slipped capital femoral epiphysis (SCFE, or skiffy), or slipped upper femoral epiphysis (SUFE, or souffy), or coxa vara adolescentium, is a medical term referring to a fracture through the growth plate (physis), which results in slippage of the overlying end of the femur (metaphysis). Normally, the head of the femur, called the caput femoris in Latin, should sit squarely on the femoral neck. Abnormal movement along the growth plate results in the slip. The term slipped capital femoral epiphysis is actually a misnomer, because the epiphysis (end part of a bone) remains in its normal anatomical position in the acetabulum (hip socket) due to the ligamentum teres femoris. It is actually the metaphysis (neck part of a bone) which slips in an anterior direction with external rotation. SCFE is the most common hip disorder in adolescence. SCFEs usually cause groin pain on the affected side, but sometimes cause knee or thigh pain. One in five cases involves both hips, resulting in pain on both sides of the body. SCFE occurs slightly more commonly in adolescent males, especially young black males, although it also affects females. Whilst it can occur in any child, the major risk factor is childhood obesity. Symptoms


id: slipped-capital-femoral-epiphysis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slipped_capital_femoral_epiphysis-1.md
category: reference
title: Slipped capital femoral epiphysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slipped_capital_femoral_epiphysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:15.712162+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: slipped-capital-femoral-epiphysis-20260505-0
summary:
The diagnosis requires x-rays of the pelvis, with anteriorposterior (AP) and frog-leg lateral views. The appearance of the head of the femur in relation to the shaft likens that of a "melting ice cream cone", visible with Klein's line. The severity of the disease can be measured using the Southwick angle. === Classification === Atypical/Typical Loder classification Stable Unstable, practically defined as when the patient is unable to ambulate even with crutches Temporal Acute Chronic Acute-on-chronic Radiological Grade I = 0–33% slippage Grade II = 34–50% slippage Grade III = >50% slippage == Treatment == The disease can be treated with external in-situ pinning or open reduction and pinning. Consultation with an orthopaedic surgeon is necessary to repair this problem. Pinning the unaffected side prophylactically is not recommended for most patients, but may be appropriate if a second SCFE is very likely. Once SCFE is suspected, the patient should be non-weight bearing and remain on strict bed rest. In severe cases, after enough rest the patient may require physical therapy to regain strength and movement back to the leg. A SCFE is an orthopaedic emergency, as further slippage may result in occlusion of the blood supply and avascular necrosis (risk


id: slips-and-capture-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slips_and_capture-0.md
category: reference
title: Slips and capture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slips_and_capture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:16.969113+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: slips-and-capture-20260505-0
summary:
A slips and capture error is a type of human error in the psychology of routine task performance, where a person inadvertently performs one action while intending to do another, often under high-stress conditions. It is a specific subset of action slips, which encompass a broader range of errors in automatic behaviors caused by lapses in attention, habitual actions, or environmental design. The term "slips and capture" became more widely known in the early 21st century in the United States, after being referred to by law enforcement in two prominent fatal police shooting cases in 2009 and 2015. In both cases, the police officer claimed to have shot a suspect while intending to use a Taser. == Background and history == The concept of "slips and capture" has been studied in the psychology of human error, and efforts to prevent error. It was thoroughly described in 1990 by James Reason. The concept has been addressed in efforts to improve business, including computer and program design, and medical practices in order to avoid preventable error. Both terms are used in error terminology: slips are defined as "errors in the performance of skill-based behaviors, typically when our attention is diverted;" and capture


id: soap-note-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SOAP_note-0.md
category: reference
title: SOAP note
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SOAP_note
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:18.158983+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: soap-note-20260505-0
summary:
The SOAP note (an acronym for subjective, objective, assessment, and plan) is a method of documentation employed by healthcare providers to write out notes in a patient's chart, along with other common formats, such as the admission note. Documenting patient encounters in the medical record is an integral part of practice workflow starting with appointment scheduling, patient check-in and exam, documentation of notes, check-out, rescheduling, and medical billing. Additionally, it serves as a general cognitive framework for physicians to follow as they assess their patients. The SOAP note originated from the problem-oriented medical record (POMR), developed nearly 50 years ago by Lawrence Weed, MD. It was initially developed for physicians to allow them to approach complex patients with multiple problems in a highly organized way. Today, it is widely adopted as a communication tool between inter-disciplinary healthcare providers as a way to document a patient's progress. SOAP notes are commonly found in electronic medical records (EMR) and are used by providers of various backgrounds. Generally, SOAP notes are used as a template to guide the information that physicians add to a patient's EMR. Prehospital care providers such as emergency medical technicians may use the same format to communicate patient information


id: soap-note-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SOAP_note-1.md
category: reference
title: SOAP note
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SOAP_note
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:18.158983+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: soap-note-20260505-0
summary:
=== Plan component === The plan is what the health care provider will do to treat the patient's concerns—such as ordering further labs, radiological work up, referrals given, procedures performed, medications given and education provided. The plan will also include goals of therapy and patient-specific drug and disease-state monitoring parameters. This should address each item of the differential diagnosis. For patients who have multiple health problems that are addressed in the SOAP note, a plan is developed for each problem and is numbered accordingly based on severity and urgency for therapy. A note of what was discussed or advised with the patient as well as timings for further review or follow-up are generally included. Often the Assessment and Plan sections are grouped together. == An example == A very rough example follows for a patient being reviewed following an appendectomy. This example resembles a surgical SOAP note; medical notes tend to be more detailed, especially in the subjective and objective sections. The plan itself includes various components: Diagnostic component: continue to monitor labs Therapeutic component: advance diet Referrals: follow up with Cardiology within three days of discharge for stress testing as an out-patient. Patient education component: that is progressing well


id: social-history-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_history_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Social history (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_history_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:19.336796+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-history-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, a social history (abbreviated "SocHx") is a portion of the medical history (and thus the admission note) addressing familial, occupational, and recreational aspects of the patient's personal life that have the potential to be clinically significant. == Components == Components can include inquiries about: Substances Alcohol Tobacco (pack years) illicit drugs occupation sexual behavior (increased risk of various infections among prostitutes, people who have sex with people for money, and males engaging in anal-receptive intercourse) prison (especially if tuberculosis needs to be ruled out) travel exercise diet Firearms in household (especially if children or persons with cognitive impairment are present) == Relation to history == == References ==


id: social-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_medicine-0.md
category: reference
title: Social medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:33:20.577714+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Social medicine is an interdisciplinary field that focuses on the interplay between socio-economic factors and individual health outcomes. Rooted in the challenges of the Industrial Revolution, it seeks to: Understand how specific social, economic, and environmental conditions directly impact health, disease, and the delivery of medical care. Promote conditions and interventions that address these determinants, aiming for a healthier and more equitable society. Social medicine as a scientific field gradually began in the early 19th century in Europe, during the Industrial Revolution and the subsequent increase in poverty and disease among workers raised concerns about the effect of social processes on the health of the poor. The field of social medicine is most commonly addressed today by efforts to understand what are known as social determinants of health. == Scope == The major emphasis on biomedical science in medical education, health care, and medical research has resulted into a gap with our understanding and acknowledgement of far more important social determinants of health and individual disease: social-economic inequalities, war, illiteracy, detrimental life-styles (smoking, obesity), discrimination because of race, gender and religion. Farmer et al. (2006) gave the following explanation for this gap: The holy grail of modern medicine remains the


