# kb

id: geography-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography-0.md
category: reference
title: Geography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:52.593175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geography-20260505-0
summary:
Geography (from Ancient Greek γεωγραφία geōgraphía; combining gê 'Earth' and gráphō 'write', lit. 'Earth writing') is the study of the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of planet Earth. Geography is an all-encompassing discipline that seeks an understanding of Earth and its human and natural complexities—not merely where objects are, but also how they have changed and come to be. While geography is specific to Earth, many concepts can be applied more broadly to other celestial bodies in the field of planetary science. Geography has been called "a bridge between natural science and social science disciplines." The history of geography as a discipline spans cultures and millennia, having been independently developed by multiple groups and cross-pollinated through trade between them. Geography as a discipline dates back to the earliest attempts to understand the world spatially, with the earliest example of an attempted world map dating to the 9th century BC in ancient Babylon. Origins of many of the concepts in geography can be traced to Greek Eratosthenes of Cyrene, who may have coined the term "geographia" (c. 276 BC – c. 195/194 BC). The first recorded use of the word γεωγραφία was as the title of a book by Greek scholar


id: geography-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography-1.md
category: reference
title: Geography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:52.593175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geography-20260505-0
summary:
Place is one of the most complex and important terms in geography. In human geography, place is the synthesis of the coordinates on the Earth's surface, the activity and use that occurs, has occurred, and will occur at the coordinates, and the meaning ascribed to the space by human individuals and groups. This can be extraordinarily complex, as different spaces may have different uses at different times and mean different things to different people. In physical geography, a place encompasses all the physical phenomena occurring in space, including the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. Places do not exist in a vacuum and instead have complex spatial relationships with each other, and place is concerned how a location is situated in relation to all other locations. As a discipline then, the term place in geography includes all spatial phenomena occurring at a location, the diverse uses and meanings humans ascribe to that location, and how that location impacts and is impacted by all other locations on Earth. In one of Yi-Fu Tuan's papers, he explains that in his view, geography is the study of Earth as a home for humanity, and thus place and the complex meaning behind the term are


id: geography-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography-2.md
category: reference
title: Geography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:52.593175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geography-20260505-0
summary:
In another approach to the abovementioned four traditions, geography is organized into applied branches. The UNESCO Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems organizes geography into the three categories of human geography, physical geography, and technical geography. Some publications limit the number of branches to physical and human, describing them as the principal branches. Human geography largely focuses on the built environment and how humans create, view, manage, and influence space. Physical geography examines the natural environment and how organisms, climate, soil, water, and landforms produce and interact, studying spatial patterns in the natural environment, atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and geosphere. The difference between these approaches led to the development of integrated geography, which combines physical and human geography and concerns the interactions between the environment and humans. Technical geography involves studying and developing the tools and techniques used by geographers, such as remote sensing, cartography, and geographic information system. It is the newest of the branches, and often other terms are used in the literature to describe the emerging category. While human and physical geographers use the techniques employed by technical geographers, technical geography is more concerned with the fundamental spatial concepts and technologies than with the nature of the data. It


id: geography-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography-3.md
category: reference
title: Geography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:52.593175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geography-20260505-0
summary:
Cartography is the art, science, and technology of making maps. Cartographers study the Earth's surface representation with abstract symbols (map making). Although other subdisciplines of geography rely on maps to present their analyses, the actual making of maps is sufficiently abstract to be regarded as a separate activity. Cartography has grown from a collection of drafting techniques into an actual science. Cartographers must learn cognitive psychology and ergonomics to understand which symbols convey information about the Earth most effectively, and behavioural psychology to induce readers of their maps to act on that information. They must learn geodesy and fairly advanced mathematics to understand how the shape of the Earth affects the distortion of map symbols projected onto a flat surface for viewing. It can be said, without much controversy, that cartography is the seed from which the larger field of geography grew. ==== Geographic information systems ==== Geographic information systems (GIS) store information about the Earth for accurate, automated retrieval by a computer, appropriate to the information's purpose. In addition to all of the other subdisciplines of geography, GIS specialists must understand computer science and database systems. GIS has revolutionized the field of cartography: nearly all mapmaking is now done


id: geography-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography-4.md
category: reference
title: Geography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:52.593175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geography-20260505-0
summary:
The concept of geography is present in all cultures; therefore, the history of the discipline is a series of competing narratives, with concepts emerging at various points across space and time. The oldest known world maps date back to ancient Babylon from the 9th century BC. The best known Babylonian world map, however, is the Imago Mundi of 600 BC. The map as reconstructed by Eckhard Unger shows Babylon on the Euphrates, surrounded by a circular landmass showing Assyria, Urartu, and several cities, in turn surrounded by a "bitter river" (Oceanus), with seven islands arranged around it so as to form a seven-pointed star. The accompanying text mentions seven outer regions beyond the encircling ocean. The descriptions of five of them have survived. In contrast to the Imago Mundi, an earlier Babylonian world map dating back to the 9th century BC depicted Babylon as being further north from the center of the world, though it is not certain what that center was supposed to represent. The ideas of Anaximander (c. 610–545 BC): considered by later Greek writers to be the true founder of geography, come to us through fragments quoted by his successors. Anaximander is credited with the invention of


id: geography-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography-5.md
category: reference
title: Geography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:57:52.593175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geography-20260505-0
summary:
The European Age of Discovery during the 16th and 17th centuries, where many new lands were discovered, and accounts by European explorers such as Christopher Columbus, Marco Polo, and James Cook revived a desire for both accurate geographic detail and more solid theoretical foundations in Europe. In 1650, the first edition of the Geographia Generalis was published by Bernhardus Varenius, which was later edited and republished by others, including Isaac Newton. This textbook sought to integrate new scientific discoveries and principles into classical geography and approach the discipline like the other sciences emerging, and is seen by some as the division between ancient and modern geography in the West. The Geographia Generalis contained both theoretical background and practical applications related to ship navigation. The remaining problem facing both explorers and geographers was finding the latitude and longitude of a geographic location. While the problem of latitude was solved long ago, the problem of longitude remained; agreeing on which meridian should be zero was only part of the problem. It was left to John Harrison to solve it by inventing the chronometer H-4 in 1760, and later in 1884 for the International Meridian Conference to adopt by convention the Greenwich meridian


id: national-science-centre-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Science_Centre-0.md
category: reference
title: National Science Centre
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Science_Centre
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:56.720855+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-science-centre-20260505-0
summary:
The National Science Centre (Polish: Narodowe Centrum Nauki, often abbreviated NCN) is a governmental grant-making agency responsible for providing financial support for the conduct of basic science research in Poland and various programs to assist scientists throughout their careers. The NCN was founded in 2010, three years after the foundation of National Centre for Research and Development. Similar to National Science Foundation in the United States, NCN is the largest grant-making agency in Poland for fundamental research and basic science and collaborates with corresponding agencies worldwide. == Works == The central tasks of NCN include: financing: basic research carried out in the form of research projects, doctoral scholarships and post-doctoral fellowships, research projects for experienced scientists aiming at implementation of pioneering scientific research; international cooperation in the financing of basic research activities; dissemination of information about contests announced by the National Science Center; supervision over the implementation of the above-mentioned scientific research; inspiring and monitoring the financing of basic research with resources coming from outside the state budget; other tasks commissioned by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education, including the development of research programs important for national culture. == Major Grants and Fellowships == The National Science Center finances


id: national-scientific-and-technical-research-council-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Scientific_and_Technical_Research_Council-0.md
category: reference
title: National Scientific and Technical Research Council
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Scientific_and_Technical_Research_Council
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:57.852297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-scientific-and-technical-research-council-20260505-0
summary:
The National Scientific and Technical Research Council (Spanish: Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, CONICET) is an Argentine government agency which directs and co-ordinates most of the scientific and technical research done in universities and institutes. == History == The National Scientific and Technical Research Council was established on 5 February 1958 by a decree of the national government. Its first director was Nobel Laureate Bernardo A. Houssay. Governed by a board independent from the federal government, it funds scientific research in three basic ways. Firstly, it gives grants for collective work to research teams of well-recognized scientists of every discipline, including social sciences and the humanities. Secondly, it has a payroll of about 6,500 researchers and 2,500 technicians working as employees in different categories, from investigador asistente (assistant researcher) to investigador principal (main researcher). Thirdly, it grants scholarships for doctoral and post-doctoral studies to 8,500 young researchers from Argentina and other countries. == Ranking == In 2025, CONICET was ranked as the best Latin American government research institution by the Scimago Institutions Ranking and the 2nd among all research institutions in the region after the Universidade de São Paulo. CONICET holds the 125th position among the most prestigious


id: research-council-of-finland-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_Council_of_Finland-0.md
category: reference
title: Research Council of Finland
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_Council_of_Finland
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:34:59.039719+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: research-council-of-finland-20260505-0
summary:
The Research Council of Finland (Finnish: Suomen Akatemia, Swedish: Finlands Akademi) is a governmental funding body for scientific research in Finland. Until August 2023, its official English-language name was Academy of Finland. It is based in Helsinki. Yearly, the council administers over 260 million euros to Finnish research activities. Over 5000 researchers are working on projects supported by the council. The Academy of Finland should not be confused with The Finnish Academy of Science and Letters (Suomalainen tiedeakatemia) and the Finnish Society of Science and Letters (Finska Vetenskaps-Societeten) which are the two Finnish learned societies for scientists and scholars. For engineers, there are two language-based honorary academies, the Finnish Academy of Technology (Teknillisten Tieteiden Akatemia) and the Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences in Finland (Svenska tekniska veteskapsakademien i Finland). The Finnish title of Academician (akateemikko / akademiker) is an award given by the President of Finland upon the recommendation of the Research Council to the most distinguished Finnish scientists, scholars and artists. It may also be bestowed on foreign scientists, scholars or artists who have contributed very significantly to Finnish intellectual life. At any time, there may be a maximum of 12 living scientific and scholarly academicians and eight living


id: research-council-of-norway-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_Council_of_Norway-0.md
category: reference
title: Research Council of Norway
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_Council_of_Norway
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:00.257746+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: research-council-of-norway-20260505-0
summary:
The Research Council (also the Research Council of Norway; Norwegian: Norges forskningsråd) is a Norwegian government agency that funds research and innovation projects. On behalf of the Government, the Research Council invests NOK 11.7 billion (2022) annually. The Research Council is responsible for promoting basic and applied research and innovation. This is done by managing research funding and by advising the authorities on research policy, among other things through proposals for the research budget in the National Budget. The Research Council works to promote international research and innovation cooperation, and has a number of schemes to mobilise Norwegian applicants for the EU Research and Innovation Programme. Other tasks include creating meeting places for researchers, trade and industry, public administration, public actors and other users of research. The Research Council was established in 1993 through the merging of five different previously created research councils. The Research Council has approximately 360 employees (2023). It has local representatives in nine different regions of Norway. Since 23 June 2014, the Research Council's main office is located just outside of Oslo. == Background == There were five predecessors of the council, each established as independent councils related to their own areas of interest: science and


id: research-foundation-flanders-fwo-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_Foundation_–_Flanders_(FWO)-0.md
category: reference
title: Research Foundation – Flanders (FWO)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_Foundation_–_Flanders_(FWO)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:01.477032+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: research-foundation-flanders-fwo-20260505-0
summary:
The Research Foundation – Flanders (FWO; Dutch: Fonds voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek – Vlaanderen) is a Belgian public research council, based in Brussels. The Flemish research council aims to sponsor ground-breaking research and innovation. Much of this work involves supporting researchers and undertakings in association with the universities and institutes of Flanders, including Ghent University, University of Leuven, University of Antwerp and Free University of Brussels, among others. == History == The FWO is a successor to the Belgian National Fund for Scientific Research (NFWO / FNRS), which had been founded in 1928, after the call from King Albert I of Belgium for the promotion of research and innovation. In 2006, the National Fund for Scientific Research (NFWO / FNRS) divided into two organisations: the FWO, for the Flemish community, and the F.R.S.-FNRS (French: Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique – FNRS) for the French-speaking region. A self-governing organization, the Research Foundation – Flanders is located in Brussels and financed by the Flemish government, the federal government, and the national lottery, with further support coming from partner institutes and companies. == Function == The FWO supports research in science, engineering, and the humanities through a variety of frameworks. It offers competitive funding


id: bank-of-sweden-tercentenary-foundation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_of_Sweden_Tercentenary_Foundation-0.md
category: reference
title: Bank of Sweden Tercentenary Foundation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_of_Sweden_Tercentenary_Foundation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:02.655614+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bank-of-sweden-tercentenary-foundation-20260505-0
summary:
The Riksbankens Jubileumsfond Foundation is an independent foundation with the aim of promoting high scientific quality, encouraging cross-disciplinary research, and contributing to capacity building in Swedish research within the humanities and social sciences. The foundation supports research in the humanities and social sciences with a connection to Sweden. It was established in 1962 through a donation from the Central bank of Sweden, which wished to commemorate the bank’s 300th anniversary in 1968 while also supporting “a significant national cause.” == History == Sweden has the world’s oldest central bank, and in preparation for its 300th anniversary in 1968, the bank wanted to support a significant national cause linked to science and research. As a result, the Riksbank made two donations: one to establish a prize in economic sciences in memory of Alfred Nobel, and another to support future research. On December 2, 1964, the Swedish Parliament decided to establish a foundation for this donation – the Riksbankens Jubileumsfond. In 1988, the foundation received new statutes, which made it an independent financial entity and clarified its mission. === Statutes === On January 1, 1988, Riksbankens Jubileumsfond received new statutes, which made the foundation an independent financial entity and clarified its purpose.


id: russian-foundation-for-basic-research-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Foundation_for_Basic_Research-0.md
category: reference
title: Russian Foundation for Basic Research
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Foundation_for_Basic_Research
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:03.845074+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: russian-foundation-for-basic-research-20260505-0
summary:
Russian Foundation for Basic Research (RFBR) is a national science funding body of the Russian government created on 27 April 1992 by a decree of the President of Russia. == Activities == The Russian Foundation for Basic Research financially sponsors conferences and research, provides collective bargaining in negotiating access to research databases for Russian research institutions, and co-hosts the Scopus Awards with Elsevier for Russian scientists who score high in Elsevier's academic productivity and citation metrics and are strongly involved in RFBR's programs and grants. RFBR research grants are usually only available to Russian researchers and their international collaborators. == International collaboration == RFBR collaborates with other research foundations around the world, including CRDF Global, the National Science Foundation and National Institutes of Health in the United States, the French National Center for Scientific Research, the German Research Foundation the Royal Society of the United Kingdom, the Iran National Science Foundation, the Indian Ministry of Science and Technology, the Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment of the Republic of Cuba, the Academy of Finland, the Research Council of Norway, and the King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology in Saudi Arabia. === International joint projects === BRICS STI Framework Programme


id: science-foundation-ireland-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Foundation_Ireland-0.md
category: reference
title: Science Foundation Ireland
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Foundation_Ireland
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:04.993244+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-foundation-ireland-20260505-0
summary:
Science Foundation Ireland (SFI; Irish: Fondúireacht Eolaíochta Éireann) was a statutory body in Ireland. It was an agency of the Department of Further and Higher Education, Research, Innovation and Science, with responsibility for funding oriented basic and applied research in the areas of science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) with a strategic focus. The board of SFI was appointed by the Minister for Further and Higher Education, Research, Innovation and Science. == History == The agency was established in 2003 under the Industrial Development (Science Foundation Ireland) Act 2003. Following a Technology Foresight activity managed by Forfás, the Irish Government allocated €1.3bn under the 2000–2006 National Development Plan to spend on R&D. SFI was responsible for disbursing €650M of these monies in the targeted strategic areas of ICT and Biotechnology during this period. After an initial call for research proposals in 2000, the first Director General, Dr William Harris, joined SFI in 2001 leading the organization to the establishment of a range of research programmes from Principal Investigator Awards to large research centers, called Centers for Science & Engineering Technology. In 2006, under the next National Development Plan, under the Strategy for Science, Technology & Innovation (SSTI), the Irish Government


id: science-foundation-ireland-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Foundation_Ireland-1.md
category: reference
title: Science Foundation Ireland
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Foundation_Ireland
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:04.993244+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-foundation-ireland-20260505-0
summary:
=== Industry Programmes === The Industry Fellowship programme funds the bi-directional movement of academic and industry researchers. Fellowships can be awarded to academic researchers wishing to spend time in industry worldwide and to individuals from industry anywhere in the world (including Ireland) wishing to spend time in an eligible Irish Research Body. The programme facilitates knowledge transfer and training, building critical mass in areas of strategic importance for Ireland. SFI Research Centres are large scale Research Centres which have an economic impact for Ireland. SFI Research Centres may be funded at a level of between €1-5 million per year in direct costs. SFI funds up to 70% of the overall Research Centre budget. A minimum of 30% of the budget must be secured from industry partners, at least one-third of which must be in cash.See details on the 16 funded SFI Research Centres here: SFI Research Centre Spokes is a mechanism to allow new industry and academic partners to join the existing SFI Research Centres. SFI Partnership Programme is a mechanism by which SFI builds collaborations with industry, funding agencies, charities, philanthropic organisations or higher education institutes (HEIs) in order to co-fund future opportunities. SFI Centre for Research Training is


id: science-fund-of-the-republic-of-serbia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Fund_of_the_Republic_of_Serbia-0.md
category: reference
title: Science Fund of the Republic of Serbia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Fund_of_the_Republic_of_Serbia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:06.150716+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-fund-of-the-republic-of-serbia-20260505-0
summary:
Science Fund of the Republic of Serbia is a public organization that provides support for science and research activities in the Republic of Serbia. It was founded with the aim of providing support and conditions for the continuous development of scientific research and development activities in the Republic of Serbia, necessary for the progress of a knowledge-based society. Activities are implemented through scientific, technological and development programs to achieve the strategic goals of the scientific and technological development of the Republic of Serbia. As part of the Fund's program, projects are financed through public calls. The projects ensure a high scientific level and innovative results, competitiveness at the international level and relevance in relation to the challenges of society. The Law on the Fund for Science of the Republic of Serbia was adopted in December 2018, and the Fund began its work in March 2019. == About Science Fund == === Establishment of the Science Fund === The Science Fund of the Republic of Serbia was established by the Government of the Republic of Serbia with the aim of establishing a mechanism for project financing of science and scientific research. This decision is in line with the commitment of the


id: science-fund-of-the-republic-of-serbia-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Fund_of_the_Republic_of_Serbia-1.md
category: reference
title: Science Fund of the Republic of Serbia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Fund_of_the_Republic_of_Serbia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:06.150716+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-fund-of-the-republic-of-serbia-20260505-0
summary:
== Bodies of the Science Fund == The bodies of the Science Fund are: Director, Supervisory Board, Management Board, and Scientific Council of the Fund. The Director is appointed and dismissed by the Government on the proposal of the Board of Directors, with the prior approval of the Minister. The Director is appointed based on a public competition for a period of four years. The current acting director of the Fund is Dr. Milica Đurić-Jovičić. The Management Board has five members, one of whom is the president, who are appointed and dismissed by the Government, at the proposal of the Ministry. The members of the management board must have international experience in business covered by the Law, experience in management business and at least 15 years of work experience. The term of the members of the board of directors is four years, with the possibility of another appointment. The President of the board of directors is Dr. Vujo Drndarević. The Supervisory Board has three members, one of whom is the president, who is appointed and dismissed by the Government, on the proposal of the ministry responsible for scientific research activity, of which at least two members are from the economic


id: science-fund-of-the-republic-of-serbia-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Fund_of_the_Republic_of_Serbia-2.md
category: reference
title: Science Fund of the Republic of Serbia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Fund_of_the_Republic_of_Serbia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:06.150716+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-fund-of-the-republic-of-serbia-20260505-0
summary:
== Programs of the Science Fund == Program for Excellent Projects of Young Researchers (PROMIS) The Program for Excellent Projects of Young Researchers (PROMIS) is a program of the Science Fund of the Republic of Serbia intended for excellent projects of young researchers in the early stages of their careers. The goals of the PROMIS program are to involve excellent young researchers in scientific research work, to strengthen their professional capacities, to train young doctors of science to manage projects, to train young researchers to apply for other research and development projects, to create new project teams, to support excellent ideas and to support scientific research work that will have a positive impact on society and the economy. As part of the first PROMIS program announced by the Science Fund, 59 basic and applied research projects were selected, which will be implemented in the period 2020–2022. Fields of science: natural sciences, engineering and technology, medicine, biotechnologies, as well as social sciences and humanities. Program budget: EUR 8.9 million Program for Development of Projects in the Field of Artificial Intelligence (PRVI) The Program for Development of Projects in the Field of Artificial Intelligence is realized within two subprograms, one intended for


id: science-fund-of-the-republic-of-serbia-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Fund_of_the_Republic_of_Serbia-3.md
category: reference
title: Science Fund of the Republic of Serbia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Fund_of_the_Republic_of_Serbia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:06.150716+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-fund-of-the-republic-of-serbia-20260505-0
summary:
In accordance with the goal of involving more young researchers in scientific research projects, within the PRISMA program it was possible to register as team members doctoral students who have not yet been selected for a position, with the obligation to acquire the position before the start of the project implementation. Program budget: EUR 25,000,000 == Presentation of scientists and scientific projects == The Science Fund strives to provide high visibility to all supported projects and research activities. This is one of the ways to encourage researchers and the industry to new partnerships and to expand cooperation at the international level. The Science Fund of the Republic of Serbia achieves this goal by publishing publications on programs and projects, organizing exhibitions and events dedicated to promoting science, certain scientific fields and topics, as well as participating in various domestic and international gatherings, conferences and fairs where it presents the results and successes of research within the projects funded by the Science Fund. In addition, the Science Fund regularly works to increase the visibility of projects and their activities and results in the media, providing support for scientists to promote the projects they are implementing, in the media. == See also


id: south-african-medical-research-council-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_African_Medical_Research_Council-0.md
category: reference
title: South African Medical Research Council
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_African_Medical_Research_Council
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:12.154044+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: south-african-medical-research-council-20260505-0
summary:
The South African Medical Research Council (SAMRC) is a para-statal medical research organisation in South Africa. The current president is professor Ntobeko Ntusi. The South African Medical Research Council was established in 1969 to act as an independent statutory body to co-ordinate health and medical research activities throughout South Africa. The SAMRC strives to “advance the nation’s health and quality of life and address inequity by conducting and funding relevant and responsive health research, capacity development, innovation, and research translation”. Research conducted by the SAMRC is in the fields of tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS, cardiovascular diseases, non-communicable diseases, gender and health, alcohol abuse, and drug abuse. It is a member of the Innovative Vector Control Consortium. == References ==


id: state-research-agency-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Research_Agency-0.md
category: reference
title: State Research Agency
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Research_Agency
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:13.340145+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: state-research-agency-20260505-0
summary:
The State Research Agency (Spanish: Agencia Estatal de Investigación, AEI) is the Spanish research funding agency responsible for the promotion of scientific and technical research in all areas of knowledge through the competitive and efficient allocation of public resources, the monitoring of actions financed and their impact, and advice on action planning or initiatives through which the R&D policies of the General State Administration are implemented. The AEI was created in November 2015, although it came into operation on 20 June 2016 with the first meeting of the Governing Council. The Agency is chaired by the Secretary of State for Science, currently Juan Cruz Cigudosa, and the CEO is José Manuel Fernández Labastida. == Structure == The structure of the State Research Agency is: The President. The President of the Agency is the Secretary of State for Science of the Ministry of Science. The Governing Council. Collective-decision-making body. The Director-General. Chief executive of the AEI. The Secretary-General. Responsible for the day-to-day management of the AEF and its internal services. The Deputy Directorate for Economic Management of Aids The Directorate for Scientific and Technological Management. The Deputy Directorate for Evaluation. The Deputy Directorate for Thematic Programs. The Deputy Directorate for Horizontal


id: swedish-research-council-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_Research_Council-0.md
category: reference
title: Swedish Research Council
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_Research_Council
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:14.563911+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: swedish-research-council-20260505-0
summary:
The Swedish Research Council (Swedish: Vetenskapsrådet) is a Government agency in Sweden established in 2001, with the responsibility to support and develop basic scientific research. Its objective is for Sweden to be a leading nation in scientific research. The agency has three main functions: To distribute government funding for basic research To advise the government on issues related to scientific research To communicate science and scientific research to the general public == See also == Open access in Sweden == References == == External links == Swedish Research Council - Official site


id: swiss-national-science-foundation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_National_Science_Foundation-0.md
category: reference
title: Swiss National Science Foundation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_National_Science_Foundation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:15.836178+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: swiss-national-science-foundation-20260505-0
summary:
The Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF, German: Schweizerischer Nationalfonds zur Förderung der wissenschaftlichen Forschung, SNF; French: Fonds national suisse de la recherche scientifique, FNS; Italian: Fondo nazionale svizzero per la ricerca scientifica) or Swiss National Fund is a science research support organisation mandated by the Swiss Federal Government. The Swiss National Science Foundation was established under private law by physicist and medical doctor Alexander von Muralt in 1952. == Organisation == The SNSF consists of three main bodies: Foundation Council, National Research Council and Administrative Offices. The Foundation Council is the highest authority and makes strategic decisions. The National Research Council is composed of distinguished researchers who mostly work at Swiss institutions of higher education. They assess research proposals submitted to the SNSF and make funding decisions. The National Research Council comprises up to 100 members and is subdivided into four divisions: Division I: humanities and social sciences Division II: mathematics, natural sciences and engineering sciences Division III: biology and medicine Division IV: programmes (National Research Programmes and National Centres of Competence in Research) Mandated by the federal authorities, the Swiss National Science Foundation supports basic science in all academic disciplines. == Research programmes == The National Research Programmes (NRP)


id: uk-research-and-innovation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Research_and_Innovation-0.md
category: reference
title: UK Research and Innovation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Research_and_Innovation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:17.191723+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: uk-research-and-innovation-20260505-0
summary:
UK Research and Innovation (UKRI) is a non-departmental public body of the Government of the United Kingdom that directs research and innovation funding, funded through the science budget of the Department for Science, Innovation and Technology. == History and role == UKRI was created following a report by Sir Paul Nurse, the President of the Royal Society, who recommended the merger in order to increase integrative cross-disciplinary research. UKRI was established on 1 April 2018 by the Higher Education and Research Act 2017. It brought together the seven research councils and two additional bodies, Innovate UK and Research England. Innovate UK (formerly the Technology Strategy Board) was an arm's length body of the Department of Trade and Industry, while Research England succeeded the former Higher Education Funding Council for England. Research England is responsible for the Research Excellence Framework, or REF, and is developing a new knowledge exchange framework, KEF. Working in partnership with universities, research organisations, businesses, charities, and government, its mission is to foster research and development within the United Kingdom and create a positive "impact"—"push the frontiers of human knowledge and understanding", "deliver economic impact", and "create social and cultural impact". The first Chief Executive Officer of


id: wellcome-trust-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wellcome_Trust-0.md
category: reference
title: Wellcome Trust
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wellcome_Trust
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:18.459047+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wellcome-trust-20260505-0
summary:
The Wellcome Trust is a charitable foundation focused on health research based in London, United Kingdom. It was established in 1936 with legacies from the pharmaceutical magnate Henry Wellcome (founder of Burroughs Wellcome, one of the predecessors of GSK plc) to fund research to improve human and animal health. The aim of the Trust is to "support science to solve the urgent health challenges facing everyone." It had a financial endowment of £37.6 billion in 2025, making it the fourth wealthiest charitable foundation in the world. In 2012, the Wellcome Trust was described by the Financial Times as the United Kingdom's largest provider of non-governmental funding for scientific research, and one of the largest providers in the world. According to their annual report, the Wellcome Trust spent GBP £1.1 billion on charitable activities across their 2023/2024 financial year. According to the OECD, the Wellcome Trust's financing for 2019 development increased by 22% to US$327 million. == Headquarters == The Wellcome Trust's operations are run from two buildings on Euston Road in London. The Wellcome Building, at 183 Euston Road, built in 1932 in Portland stone houses the Wellcome Collection and the adjoining glass and steel building at 215 Euston Road


id: wellcome-trust-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wellcome_Trust-1.md
category: reference
title: Wellcome Trust
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wellcome_Trust
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:18.459047+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wellcome-trust-20260505-0
summary:
=== Support for open access and open data === The Wellcome Trust plays an important role in encouraging publication of research in open access repositories such as Europe PubMed Central (EuropePMC). The Wellcome Trust believes that maximising the distribution of these papers – by providing free, online access – is the most effective way of ensuring that the research can be accessed, read and built upon. In turn, this will foster a richer research culture. In 2016, the Wellcome Trust partnered with the US National Institutes of Health (NIH) and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute to launch the Open Science Prize to "help develop services, tools and platforms that enable open content to be discovered, assessed and re-used in ways that will advance discovery and spark innovation." In 2016, Wellcome Trust announced that it would be launching Wellcome Open Research, an open access publication system running on the F1000 Research platform. Article processing charges will be covered directly by Wellcome Trust. Papers from the system are now indexed in PubMed Central. === Membership in the Global Health Innovative Technology Fund (GHIT) === In the summer of 2015, the Wellcome Trust joined the Japanese government, 7 Japanese pharmaceutical and diagnostics companies,


id: academic-imperialism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_imperialism-0.md
category: reference
title: Academic imperialism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_imperialism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:20.078935+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: academic-imperialism-20260505-0
summary:
Academic imperialism is an unequal relationship between groups or disciplines of academic study, such that one dominates others, consuming them or leaving them ignored. Early theories of academic imperialism date to the 1960s. == Definitions == Academic imperialism has been defined either in the context of certain disciplines or subdisciplines as oppressing others or (more often) as part of political imperialism that has resulted in inequality between academia in the First World (the West) and Third World. === Within disciplines === In the intradisciplinary context, an example of imperialistic behavior was the dismissive attitude of the 1920s-1930s adherents of behavioral psychology in the United States towards non-behavioral psychologists. === Internationally === In the international context, academic imperialism began in the colonial period when the colonial powers designed and implemented a system of academia in their colonial territories. C. K. Raju claims academic imperialism emerged thanks to racism among native colonial elites. Academic imperialism is blamed for "tutelage, conformity, secondary role of dominated intellectuals and scholars, rationalization of the civilizing mission, and the inferior talent of scholars from the home country specializing in studies of the colony." In the modern postcolonial era, academic imperialism has transformed itself into a more indirect


id: boundary-object-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boundary_object-0.md
category: reference
title: Boundary object
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boundary_object
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:21.317357+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: boundary-object-20260505-0
summary:
In sociology and science and technology studies, a boundary object is information, such as specimens, field notes, and maps, used in different ways by different communities for collaborative work through scales. Boundary objects are plastic, interpreted differently across communities but with enough immutable content (i.e., common identity across social words and contexts) to maintain integrity. The concept was introduced by Susan Leigh Star and James R. Griesemer in a 1989 publication (p. 393): Boundary objects are objects which are both plastic enough to adapt to local needs and constraints of the several parties employing them, yet robust enough to maintain a common identity across sites. They are weakly structured in common use, and become strongly structured in individual-site use. They may be abstract or concrete. They have different meanings in different social worlds but their structure is common enough to more than one world to make them recognizable, a means of translation. The creation and management of boundary objects is key in developing and maintaining coherence across intersecting social worlds. In their article, Star and Griesemer describe the importance of boundary objects and methods standardization in the development of the Berkeley Museum of Vertebrate Zoology. Boundary objects can be abstract


id: empirical-sociology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_sociology-0.md
category: reference
title: Empirical sociology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_sociology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:23.723030+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: empirical-sociology-20260505-0
summary:
Empirical sociology is the study of sociology based on methodological methods and techniques for collecting, processing, and communicating primary sociological information. Describes the situation of the aspects of social life such as economy, law, family, and politics during the research. Empirical sociology is often concerned with aspects of everyday life with common sense, which it treats as a resource, a form of knowledge. Empirical sociology inductively studies how people appreciate and get along with each other. Empirical sociology is an American tradition with roots in the social reform movements of the Progressive Era. == Definition == The task of empirical sociology is to conduct inductive research on a particular social phenomenon. The German sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies defined empirical sociology as the collection of factual information or evidence. Sociologist Morris Janowitz defined empirical sociology as collecting and planning empirical indicators of change. Morris describes the relationship between history and empirical sociology as "At this point, sociology and "history” converge. All empirical sociology is history, but history is not all empirical sociology". == Timeline == The first stage of empirical sociology was represented by the changes introduced into the scientific procedure by the Chicago school between 1895 and 1929. The American sociologist


id: harem-effect-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harem_effect_(science)-0.md
category: reference
title: Harem effect (science)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harem_effect_(science)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:31.980840+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: harem-effect-science-20260505-0
summary:
In the sociology and history of science, the harem effect refers to a phenomenon whereby a male scientist, in a position of power, predominantly hires female subordinates for his research team. Positively, the "Harem Effect" provided female scientists with exceptional possibilities to pursue careers in their preferred professions. Additionally, it made a lot of scientific endeavours attainable from an economic standpoint. These ladies were the human computers of a period before computers. The downside was that female scientists were frequently refused acknowledgement for their findings and hindered by "busy work," sometimes known as "women's labour." The women at the "harem" received compensation less compared to their male colleagues, yet put in more hours than males despite the fact that this "women's profession" usually required accurate assessments, difficult mathematical calculations, and large amounts of data processing. Most importantly, it is sometimes forgotten that these female scientists' "women's labour" during the Victorian era led to remarkable advancements in a variety of subjects. == History == While there are numerous historical examples of this phenomenon and the practice may continue today, two examples stand out in the literature. Erwin Frink Smith, a USDA plant pathologist in the Bureau of Plant Industry, hired more


id: sociology-and-the-history-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_and_the_history_of_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Sociology and the history of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_and_the_history_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:33.315055+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sociology-and-the-history-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Throughout the 20th and 21st century, sociological inquiry has sought to analyze large-scale socialized patterns and trends in the development of science, as well as ask and answer questions about how science "works" both in a philosophical and practical sense. In particular, sociologists concerned with the history of science ask how societies construct narritives around scienticity, and how methodologies and paradigms throughout scientific history not only change, but change in context to culture, authority, political economy, and more sociologically strident means of analysis. == Science as a social enterprise == In the last few centuries, science as a social enterprise has grown rapidly. The few individuals who could conduct natural research in antiquity were either wealthy individuals themselves, had wealthy sponsors, or had the backing of a religious group. Today, scientific research has tremendous government support and also ongoing support from the private sector. Available methods of communication have improved tremendously over time. Instead of waiting months or years for a hand-copied letter to arrive, today scientific communication can be practically instantaneous. Earlier, most natural philosophers worked in relative isolation, due to the difficulty and slowness of communication. Still, there was a considerable amount of cross-fertilization between distant groups and


id: sociology-and-the-history-of-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_and_the_history_of_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Sociology and the history of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_and_the_history_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:33.315055+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sociology-and-the-history-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Political support == One of the basic requirements for a scientific community is the existence and approval of a political sponsor; in England, the Royal Society operates under the aegis of the monarchy; in the US, the National Academy of Sciences was founded by Act of the United States Congress; etc. Otherwise, when the basic elements of knowledge were being formulated, the political rulers of the respective communities could choose to arbitrarily either support or disallow the nascent scientific communities. For example, Alhazen had to feign madness to avoid execution. The polymath Shen Kuo lost political support, and could not continue his studies until he came up with discoveries that showed his worth to the political rulers. The admiral Zheng He could not continue his voyages of exploration after the emperors withdrew their support. Another famous example was the suppression of the work of Galileo, by the twentieth century, Galileo would be pardoned. == Patterns in the history of science == One of the major occupations with those interested in the history of science is whether or not it displays certain patterns or trends, usually along the question of change between one or more scientific theories. Generally speaking, there


id: sociology-and-the-history-of-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_and_the_history_of_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Sociology and the history of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_and_the_history_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:33.315055+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sociology-and-the-history-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== The nature of scientific discovery == Individual ideas and accomplishments are among the most famous aspects of science, both internally and in larger society. Breakthrough figures like Sir Isaac Newton or Albert Einstein are often celebrated as geniuses and heroes of science. Popularizers of science, including the news media and scientific biographers, contribute to this phenomenon. But many scientific historians emphasize the collective aspects of scientific discovery, and de-emphasize the importance of the "Eureka!" moment. A detailed look at the history of science often reveals that the minds of great thinkers were primed with the results of previous efforts, and often arrive on the scene to find a crisis of one kind or another. For example, Einstein did not consider the physics of motion and gravitation in isolation. His major accomplishments solved a problem which had come to a head in the field only in recent years—empirical data showing that the speed of light was inexplicably constant, no matter the apparent speed of the observer. (See Michelson–Morley experiment.) Without this information, it is very unlikely that Einstein would have conceived of anything like relativity. The question of who should get credit for any given discovery is often a source


id: intersubjective-verifiability-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intersubjective_verifiability-0.md
category: reference
title: Intersubjective verifiability
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intersubjective_verifiability
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:34.524429+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: intersubjective-verifiability-20260505-0
summary:
Intersubjective verifiability is the capacity of a concept to be readily and accurately communicated between individuals ("intersubjectively"), and to be reproduced under varying circumstances for the purposes of verification. It is a core principle of empirical, scientific investigation. Although there are areas of belief that do not consistently employ intersubjective verifiability (e.g., many religious claims), intersubjective verifiability is a near-universal way of arbitrating truth claims used by people everywhere. In its basic form, it can be found in colloquial expressions, e.g., "I'm from Missouri. Show me!" or "Seeing is believing". The scientific principle of replication of findings by investigators other than those that first reported the phenomenon is simply a more highly structured form of the universal principle of intersubjective verifiability. == Subjective experience == Each individual is a subject, and must subjectively experience the physical world. Each subject has a different perspective and point of view on various aspects of the world. However, by sharing their comparable experiences intersubjectively, individuals may gain an increasingly similar understanding of the world. In this way, many different subjective experiences can come together to form intersubjective ones that are less likely to be prone to individual bias or gaps in knowledge. While specific


id: john-desmond-bernal-prize-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Desmond_Bernal_Prize-0.md
category: reference
title: John Desmond Bernal Prize
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Desmond_Bernal_Prize
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:35.744080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: john-desmond-bernal-prize-20260505-0
summary:
The John Desmond Bernal Prize is an award given annually by the Society for Social Studies of Science (4S) to scholars judged to have made a distinguished contribution to the interdisciplinary field of Science and Technology Studies (STS). The award was launched in 1981, with the support of Eugene Garfield. The award is named after the scientist John Desmond Bernal. == Award recipients == Source: Society for Social Studies of Science Archived 2017-08-06 at the Wayback Machine == See also == List of social sciences awards == References == == External links == Society for Social Studies of Science


id: mathematical-sociology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_sociology-0.md
category: reference
title: Mathematical sociology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_sociology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:37.275238+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mathematical-sociology-20260505-0
summary:
Mathematical sociology is an interdisciplinary field of research concerned with the use of mathematics within sociological research. == History == Starting in the early 1940s, Nicolas Rashevsky, and subsequently in the late 1940s, Anatol Rapoport and others, developed a relational and probabilistic approach to the characterization of large social networks in which the nodes are persons and the links are acquaintanceship. During the late 1940s, formulas were derived that connected local parameters such as closure of contacts – if A is linked to both B and C, then there is a greater than chance probability that B and C are linked to each other – to the global network property of connectivity. Moreover, acquaintanceship is a positive tie, but what about negative ties such as animosity among persons? To tackle this problem, graph theory, which is the mathematical study of abstract representations of networks of points and lines, can be extended to include these two types of links and thereby to create models that represent both positive and negative sentiment relations, which are represented as signed graphs. A signed graph is called balanced if the product of the signs of all relations in every cycle (links in every graph cycle)


id: mathematical-sociology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_sociology-1.md
category: reference
title: Mathematical sociology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_sociology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:37.275238+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mathematical-sociology-20260505-0
summary:
== Further developments == In 1954, a critical expository analysis of Rashevsky's social behavior models was written by sociologist James S. Coleman. Rashevsky's models and as well as the model constructed by Simon raise a question: how can one connect such theoretical models to the data of sociology, which often take the form of surveys in which the results are expressed in the form of proportions of people believing or doing something. This suggests deriving the equations from assumptions about the chances of an individual changing state in a small interval of time, a procedure well known in the mathematics of stochastic processes. Coleman embodied this idea in his 1964 book Introduction to Mathematical Sociology, which showed how stochastic processes in social networks could be analyzed in such a way as to enable testing of the constructed model by comparison with the relevant data. The same idea can and has been applied to processes of change in social relations, an active research theme in the study of social networks, illustrated by an empirical study appearing in the journal Science. In other work, Coleman employed mathematical ideas drawn from economics, such as general equilibrium theory, to argue that general social theory


id: mathematical-sociology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_sociology-2.md
category: reference
title: Mathematical sociology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_sociology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:37.275238+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mathematical-sociology-20260505-0
summary:
== Research programs == Many of the developments in mathematical sociology, including formal theory, have exhibited notable decades-long advances that began with path-setting contributions by leading mathematical sociologists and formal theorists. This provides another way of taking note of recent contributions but with an emphasis on continuity with early work through the use of the idea of “research program,” which is a coherent series of theoretical and empirical studies based on some fundamental principle or approach. There are more than a few of these programs and what follows is no more than a brief capsule description of leading exemplars of this idea in which there is an emphasis on the originating leadership in each program and its further development over decades. (1) Rational Choice Theory and James S. Coleman: After his 1964 pioneering Introduction to Mathematical Sociology, Coleman continued to make contributions to social theory and mathematical model building and his 1990 volume, Foundations of Social Theory was the major theoretical work of a career that spanned the period from 1950s to 1990s and included many other research-based contributions. The Foundation book combined accessible examples of how rational choice theory could function in the analysis of such sociological topics as


id: mathematical-sociology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_sociology-3.md
category: reference
title: Mathematical sociology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_sociology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:37.275238+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mathematical-sociology-20260505-0
summary:
In the simplest models, each person in an interactive pair, is represented in terms of one side of a role relationship in which fundamental sentiments associated with each role guide the process of immediate interaction. A higher level of the control process can be activated in which the definition of the situation is transformed. This research program comprises several of the key chapters in a 2006 volume of contributions to control systems theory (in the sense of Powers 1975 ) in sociology. (8) "Distributive Justice Theory" and Guillermina Jasso: Since 1980, Jasso has treated problems of distributive justice with an original theory that uses mathematical methods. She has elaborated upon and applied this theory to a wide range of social phenomena. Her most general mathematical apparatus – with the theory of distributive justice as a special case—deals with any subjective comparison between some actual state and some reference level for it, e.g., a comparison of an actual reward with an expected reward. In her justice theory, she starts with a very simple premise, the justice evaluation function (the natural logarithm of the ratio of actual to just reward) and then derives numerous empirically testable implications. (9) Collaborative research and John


id: mathematical-sociology-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_sociology-4.md
category: reference
title: Mathematical sociology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_sociology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:37.275238+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mathematical-sociology-20260505-0
summary:
== Awards in mathematical sociology == The Mathematical Sociology section of The American Sociological Association in 2002 initiated awards for contributions to the field, including The James S. Coleman Distinguished Career Achievement Award. (Coleman had died in 1995 before the section had been established.) Given every other year, the awardees include some of those just listed in terms of their career-long research programs: 2022: Guillermina Jasso, New York University 2020: Noah Friedkin, University of California, Santa Barbara 2018: Ronald Breiger, University of Arizona 2017: Lynn Smith-Lovin, Duke University. 2014: Philip Bonacich, University of California, Los Angeles. 2012: John Skvoretz, University of South Florida. 2010: David R. Heise, Indiana University. 2008: Scott Boorman, Yale University. 2006: Linton Freeman, University of California, Irvine. 2004: Thomas Fararo, University of Pittsburgh. 2002: Harrison White, Columbia University. The section's other categories of awards and their recipients are listed at ASA Section on Mathematical Sociology == Texts and journals == Mathematical sociology textbooks cover a variety of models, usually explaining the required mathematical background before discussing important work in the literature (Fararo 1973, Leik and Meeker 1975, Bonacich and Lu 2012). An earlier text by Otomar Bartos (1967) is still of relevance. Of wider scope and


id: no-innovation-without-representation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No_innovation_without_representation-0.md
category: reference
title: No innovation without representation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No_innovation_without_representation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:40.844025+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: no-innovation-without-representation-20260505-0
summary:
No innovation without representation is a democratic ideal of ensuring that everyone involved gets a chance to be represented fairly in technological developments. Political philosopher of technology Langdon Winner states that groups and social interests likely to be affected by a particular kind of technological change ought to be represented at an early stage in defining exactly what that technology will be. It is the idea that relevant parties have a say in technological developments and are not left in the dark. It has been spoken about by political scientist Massimiano Bucchi. This ideal does not require the public to become experts on the topics of science and engineering, it only asks that the opinions and ideas be heard before making drastic decisions, as talked about by Steven L. Goldman. == Arguments for no innovation without representation == Arguments for no innovation without representation stated by Carl Mitcham: Experts cannot escape public influence. There will always be influence from corporations or outside sources. "Technoscientific decision making is never neutral or objective." Public participation will have a more beneficial long-term effect than no participation. "Without public participation nothing will get done" Experts promote their own self-interest at the expense of the


id: helga-nowotny-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helga_Nowotny-0.md
category: reference
title: Helga Nowotny
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helga_Nowotny
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:46.378111+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: helga-nowotny-20260505-0
summary:
Helga Nowotny (born 9 August 1937) is professor emeritus of Social Studies of Science, ETH Zurich. She has held numerous leadership roles on Academic boards and public policy councils, and she has authored many publications in the social studies of science and technology. == Early life == Nowotny grew up in Vienna, Austria during World War II. In interviews, she has recalled first wanting to become a scientist at the age of 8, when she was sent to Vorarlberg, the westernmost province of Austria, and quickly learned the local dialect. Nowotny received her doctorate of jurisprudence at the University of Vienna in 1959. After completing her degree, she faced opposition to her application for an assistant professorship in the Department of Criminology there on the basis of her being a woman. She agreed with the hiring professor that if a more capable man applied for the position, he could have the job. In the end, she was hired to the position. It was there that she became interested in the sociology of science. In 1965, she moved to New York City with her husband, where she enrolled in a sociology doctoral program. There, she met Paul Lazarsfeld and Robert K.


id: helga-nowotny-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helga_Nowotny-1.md
category: reference
title: Helga Nowotny
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helga_Nowotny
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:46.378111+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: helga-nowotny-20260505-0
summary:
== Awards and prizes == Nowotny is a Member of Academia Europaea and Foreign Member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences since 2006. Among other honours she has been awarded the J.D. Bernal Prize for her lifelong achievements in social studies of science. In October 2015, she received an honorary doctorate at the University of Bergen. She has also received an honorary doctorate from the Weizmann Institute of Science and the University of Twente. In July 2013, Nowotny was awarded an Honorary Doctorate by Lancaster University, UK. In September 2017, she was awarded the President's Medal of the British Academy "for her contribution to the founding and shaping of the European Research Council, and positively influencing the shape of research funding and research policy in the UK and Europe". == Selected bibliography == === Books === Nowotny, Helga; Mendelsohn, Everett (1984). Nineteen eighty-four: science between utopia and dystopia. Dordrecht Boston Hingham, Massachusetts: D. Reidel Publishg Co. ISBN 9789027717214. Nowotny, Helga; et al. (1994). The new production of knowledge: the dynamics of science and research in contemporary societies. London Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications. ISBN 9780803977945. Nowotny, Helga; Taschwer, Klaus (1996). The sociology of the sciences. Cheltenham, UK Brookfield, Vermont,


id: obliteration-by-incorporation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obliteration_by_incorporation-0.md
category: reference
title: Obliteration by incorporation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obliteration_by_incorporation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:47.617618+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: obliteration-by-incorporation-20260505-0
summary:
In sociology of science, obliteration by incorporation (OBI) occurs when at some stage in the development of a science, certain ideas become so universally accepted and commonly used that their contributors are no longer cited. Eventually, its source and creator are forgotten ("obliterated") as the concept enters common knowledge (is "incorporated"). Obliteration occurs when "the sources of an idea, finding or concept, become obliterated by incorporation in canonical knowledge, so that only a few are still aware of their parentage". == Concept == The concept was introduced by Robert K. Merton in 1949, although some incorrectly attribute it to Eugene Garfield, whose work contributed to the popularization of Merton's theory. Merton introduced the concept of "obliteration by incorporation" in the 1968 enlarged edition of his landmark work Social Theory and Social Structure (pp. 28, 35). Merton also introduced the less known counterpart to this concept, adumbrationism, meaning the attribution of insights, ideas or analogies absent from original works. In the process of "obliteration by incorporation", both the original idea and the literal formulations of it are forgotten due to prolonged and widespread use, and enter into everyday language (or at least the everyday language of a given academic discipline), no


id: public-opinion-on-extraterrestrial-life-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_opinion_on_extraterrestrial_life-0.md
category: reference
title: Public opinion on extraterrestrial life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_opinion_on_extraterrestrial_life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:48.897019+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: public-opinion-on-extraterrestrial-life-20260505-0
summary:
Public opinion on extraterrestrial life refers to the collective beliefs, attitudes, and statistical data regarding the existence of extraterrestrial life and extraterrestrial intelligence (ETI). While scientific consensus has historically been cautious, public opinion surveys from the late 20th and early 21st centuries indicate a widespread belief in the existence of intelligent alien civilizations, often exceeding the confidence levels expressed by the scientific community. == Global surveys == Research conducted on an international scale has revealed significant belief in extraterrestrial civilizations across diverse cultures. Glocalities Study (2017): A survey of 26,492 respondents across 24 countries found that 47% of participants believed in "the existence of intelligent alien civilizations in the universe." The study noted substantial cross-national variation, with belief rates ranging from 45% in the United States to 68% in Russia. The researchers categorized a segment of high-engagement believers as "Homo Universalis," a group characterized by unconventional thinking and high interest in science and politics. Western Nations Comparison (2015): A YouGov survey comparing attitudes in the United Kingdom, Germany, and the United States found that more than one in two people in all three nations believed living creatures with communication abilities exist outside Earth. Specifically, 56% of Germans, 54% of Americans,


id: scientific-community-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_community-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific community
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_community
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:52.684091+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-community-20260505-0
summary:
The scientific community is a diverse network of interacting scientists. It includes many "sub-communities" working on particular scientific fields, and within particular institutions; interdisciplinary and cross-institutional activities are also significant. Objectivity is expected to be achieved by the scientific method. Peer review, through discussion and debate within journals and conferences, assists in this objectivity by maintaining the quality of research methodology and interpretation of results. == History of scientific communities == The eighteenth century had some societies made up of men who studied nature, also known as natural philosophers and natural historians, which included even amateurs. As such these societies were more like local clubs and groups with diverse interests than actual scientific communities, which usually had interests on specialized disciplines. Though there were a few older societies of men who studied nature such as the Royal Society of London, the concept of scientific communities emerged in the second half of the 19th century, not before, because it was in this century that the language of modern science emerged, the professionalization of science occurred, specialized institutions were created, and the specialization of scientific disciplines and fields occurred. For instance, the term scientist was first coined by the naturalist-theologian William Whewell


id: scientific-community-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_community-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientific community
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_community
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:52.684091+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-community-20260505-0
summary:
Unlike in previous centuries when the community of scholars were all members of few learned societies and similar institutions, there are no singular bodies or individuals which can be said today to speak for all science or all scientists. This is partly due to the specialized training most scientists receive in very few fields. As a result, many would lack expertise in all the other fields of the sciences. For instance, due to the increasing complexity of information and specialization of scientists, most of the cutting-edge research today is done by well funded groups of scientists, rather than individuals. However, there are still multiple societies and academies in many countries which help consolidate some opinions and research to help guide public discussions on matters of policy and government-funded research. For example, the United States' National Academy of Sciences (NAS) and United Kingdom's Royal Society sometimes act as surrogates when the opinions of the scientific community need to be ascertained by policy makers or the national government, but the statements of the National Academy of Science or the Royal Society are not binding on scientists nor do they necessarily reflect the opinions of every scientist in a given community since membership


id: scientific-wager-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_wager-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific wager
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_wager
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:55.117975+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-wager-20260505-0
summary:
A scientific wager is a wager whose outcome is settled by experiment or observation, following the scientific method. It typically comprises a commitment to pay out when a currently-unknown or uncertain statement is resolved, and either proven or disproved. Some wagers have specific date restrictions for collection, but many are open. Wagers occasionally exert a powerful galvanizing effect on society and the scientific community. Notable scientists who have made scientific wagers include Stephen Hawking and Richard Feynman. The Stanford Linear Accelerator has an open book containing about 35 wagers in particle physics dating back to 1980; many are still unresolved. == Notable scientific wagers == There are many examples of scientific wagers from the past two centuries, many related to large-scale questions in science at the time. In 1870, Alfred Russel Wallace bet a flat-Earth theorist named John Hampden that he could prove the flat Earth hypothesis incorrect. The sum staked was £500 (equivalent to £62,000 in 2024). A test involving a stretch of the Old Bedford River, in Norfolk, was agreed on: Wallace measured the curvature of the canal's surface using two markers separated by about 5 km (3 mi) and suspended at equal heights above the water's surface.


id: scientific-wager-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_wager-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientific wager
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_wager
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:55.117975+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-wager-20260505-0
summary:
== See also == Long Now Foundation § Long Bet Project The efforts of photographer Eadweard Muybridge to capture the motion of a galloping horse were not part of a wager, contrary to popular opinion. Pascal's wager is not a wager in the sense used in this article. == References ==


id: sociology-of-scientific-ignorance-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance-0.md
category: reference
title: Sociology of scientific ignorance
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:56.569358+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sociology-of-scientific-ignorance-20260505-0
summary:
The sociology of scientific ignorance (SSI) is the study of ignorance in and of science. The most common way is to see ignorance as something relevant, rather than simply lack of knowledge. There are two distinct areas in which SSI is being studied: some focus on ignorance in scientific research, whereas others focus on public ignorance of science. Sociology of scientific ignorance is a complementary field to the sociology of scientific knowledge (SSK). When studying ignorance in scientific research, the common standpoint is that ignorance can be used as a tool in science. An example of this is blackboxing, which is the notion that it can be beneficial to hide the internal parts of a system, and only make the input and output visible to the user. Studies of public ignorance of science focuses on how scientific ignorance can affect society, the public view of science, and what can give rise to public ignorance of science. This area is related to public understanding of science. == Ignorance in scientific research == Generally, the word ignorance has a negative tone to it, and for a long time scientific ignorance was viewed as a purely negative thing. Recently, however, people have started


id: sociology-of-scientific-knowledge-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge-0.md
category: reference
title: Sociology of scientific knowledge
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:57.954867+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sociology-of-scientific-knowledge-20260505-0
summary:
The sociology of scientific knowledge (SSK) is the study of science as a social activity, especially dealing with "the social conditions and effects of science, and with the social structures and processes of scientific activity." The sociology of scientific ignorance (SSI) is complementary to the sociology of scientific knowledge. For comparison, the sociology of knowledge studies the impact of human knowledge and the prevailing ideas on societies and relations between knowledge and the social context within which it arises. Sociologists of scientific knowledge study the development of a scientific field and attempt to identify points of contingency or interpretative flexibility where ambiguities are present. Such variations may be linked to a variety of political, historical, cultural or economic factors. Crucially, the field does not set out to promote relativism or to attack the scientific project; the objective of the researcher is to explain why one interpretation rather than another succeeds due to external social and historical circumstances. The field emerged in the late 1960s and early 1970s and at first was an almost exclusively British practice. Other early centers for the development of the field were in France, Germany, and the United States (notably at Cornell University). Major theorists include


id: sociology-of-scientific-knowledge-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge-1.md
category: reference
title: Sociology of scientific knowledge
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:35:57.954867+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sociology-of-scientific-knowledge-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == Baez, John (2010). "The Bogdanoff Affair". Bloor, David (1976) Knowledge and social imagery. London: Routledge. Bloor, David (1999) "Anti-Latour". Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A Volume 30, Issue 1, March 1999, Pages 81–112. Chu, Dominique (2013), The Science Myth---God, society, the self and what we will never know, ISBN 1782790470 Collins, H.M. (1975) The seven sexes: A study in the sociology of a phenomenon, or the replication of experiments in physics, Sociology, 9, 205-24. Collins, H.M. (1985). Changing order: Replication and induction in scientific practice. London: Sage. Collins, Harry and Steven Yearley. (1992). "Epistemological Chicken" in Science as Practice and Culture, A. Pickering (ed.). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 301-326. Edwards, D., Ashmore, M. & Potter, J. (1995). Death and furniture: The rhetoric, politics, and theology of bottom line arguments against relativism. History of the Human Sciences, 8, 25-49. Fleck, Ludwik (1935). Entstehung und Entwicklung einer wissenschaftlichen Tatsache. Einführung in die Lehre vom Denkstil und Denkkollektiv [Emergence and development of a scientific fact: Introduction to the study of thinking style and thinking collectives] (in German). Verlagsbuchhandlung, Basel: Schwabe. Fleck, Ludwik (1979). Genesis and development of a scientific fact. Chicago, Illinois: University of


id: spanish-language-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_language_in_science_and_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: Spanish language in science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_language_in_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:03.760679+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: spanish-language-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
summary:
The Spanish language is used in diverse areas of science and technology. Despite its large number of speakers, the Spanish language does not feature prominently in scientific writing, with the exception of the humanities. One estimate puts the percentage of Spanish language publications in natural sciences and technology as 0.5% of the world total, a low number since Spanish is often considered to rank second or third among languages in various other metrics and estimates. In the humanities, a similar estimate yields 2.81%. Summarizing the status of the Spanish language in the sciences, researcher Álvaro Cabezas writes: "No serious scientist publishes his best works in a language other than English". The creation of new Spanish terminology is more a result of translating concepts from other languages than of crafting original ideas. == Bibliometric studies == Among Spanish-language articles indexed in Scopus from 1996 to 2011, 10.8% qualify as "Life Sciences", 13.2% as "Physical Sciences", 44.4% as "Health Sciences", 29.6% as "Social Sciences, Arts & Humanities", and 2.0% as "Multi-disciplinary & Undefined". Thus, a higher percentage of Spanish language content is published in "Health Sciences" and "Social Sciences, Arts & Humanities" than in English, Chinese, or Russian. Spanish shares this trait


id: science-studies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_studies-0.md
category: reference
title: Science studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:09.263367+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-studies-20260505-0
summary:
Science studies is an interdisciplinary research area that seeks to situate scientific expertise in broad social, historical, and philosophical contexts. It uses various methods to analyze the production, representation and reception of scientific knowledge and its epistemic and semiotic role. Similarly to cultural studies, science studies are defined by the subject of their research and encompass a large range of different theoretical and methodological perspectives and practices. The interdisciplinary approach may include and borrow methods from the humanities, natural and formal sciences, from scientometrics to ethnomethodology or cognitive science. Science studies have a certain importance for evaluation and science policy. Overlapping with the field of science, technology and society, practitioners study the relationship between science and technology, and the interaction of expert and lay knowledge in the public realm. == Scope == The field started with a tendency toward navel-gazing: it was extremely self-conscious in its genesis and applications. From early concerns with scientific discourse, practitioners soon started to deal with the relation of scientific expertise to politics and lay people. Practical examples include bioethics, bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), pollution, global warming, biomedical sciences, physical sciences, natural hazard predictions, the (alleged) impact of the Chernobyl disaster in the UK, generation


id: science-studies-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_studies-1.md
category: reference
title: Science studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:09.263367+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-studies-20260505-0
summary:
Until now there has been no science that describes the means for making discoveries and inventions, and the generality of people, as well as many people of learning, believe that there never will be. This is an error. Someday a science of making discoveries and inventions will exist and will render services. It will arise not all at once; first only its general outline will appear, which subsequent researchers will correct and elaborate, and which still later researchers will apply to individual branches of knowledge. It is striking that, while early 20th-century sociologist proponents of a discipline to study science and its practitioners wrote in general theoretical terms, Prus had already half a century earlier described, with many specific examples, the scope and methods of such a discipline. Thomas Kuhn's Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962) increased interest both in the history of science and in science's philosophical underpinnings. Kuhn posited that the history of science was less a linear succession of discoveries than a succession of paradigms within the philosophy of science. Paradigms are broader, socio-intellectual constructs that determine which types of truth claims are permissible. Science studies seeks to identify key dichotomies – such as those between science and


id: science-studies-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_studies-2.md
category: reference
title: Science studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:09.263367+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-studies-20260505-0
summary:
Donovan et al. (2012) used social studies of volcanology to investigate the generation of knowledge and expert advice on various active volcanoes. It contains a survey of volcanologists carried out during 2008 and 2009 and interviews with scientists in the UK, Montserrat, Italy and Iceland during fieldwork seasons. Donovan et al. (2012) asked the experts about the felt purpose of volcanology and what they considered the most important eruptions in historical time. The survey tries to identify eruptions that had an influence on volcanology as a science and to assess the role of scientists in policymaking. A main focus was on the impact of the Montserrat eruption 1997. The eruption, a classical example of the black swan theory directly killed (only) 19 persons. However the outbreak had major impacts on the local society and destroyed important infrastructure, as the island's airport. About 7,000 people, or two-thirds of the population, left Montserrat; 4,000 to the United Kingdom. The Montserrat case put immense pressure on volcanologists, as their expertise suddenly became the primary driver of various public policy approaches. The science studies approach provided valuable insights in that situation. There were various miscommunications among scientists. Matching scientific uncertainty (typical of volcanic unrest)


id: actor-network-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actor–network_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Actor–network theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actor–network_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:10.578747+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: actor-network-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Actor–network theory (ANT) is a theoretical and methodological approach to social theory where everything in the social and natural worlds exists in constantly shifting networks of relationships. It posits that nothing exists outside those relationships. All the factors involved in a social situation are on the same level, and thus there are no external social forces beyond what and how the network participants interact at present. Thus, objects, ideas, processes, and any other relevant factors are seen as just as important in creating social situations as humans. ANT holds that social forces do not exist in themselves, and therefore cannot be used to explain social phenomena. Instead, strictly empirical analysis should be undertaken to "describe" rather than "explain" social activity. Only after this can one introduce the concept of social forces, and only as an abstract theoretical concept, not something which genuinely exists in the world. Although it is best known for its controversial insistence on the capacity of nonhumans to act or participate in systems or networks or both, ANT is also associated with forceful critiques of conventional and critical sociology. Developed by science and technology studies (STS) scholars Michel Callon, Madeleine Akrich and Bruno Latour, the sociologist John


id: actor-network-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actor–network_theory-1.md
category: reference
title: Actor–network theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actor–network_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:10.578747+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: actor-network-theory-20260505-0
summary:
==== Human actors ==== Human normally refers to human beings and their human behaviors. ==== Nonhuman actors ==== Traditionally, nonhuman entities are creatures including plants, animals, geology, and natural forces, as well as a collective human making of arts, languages. In ANT, nonhuman covers multiple entities including things, objects, animals, natural phenomena, material structures, transportation devices, texts, and economic goods. But nonhuman actors do not cover entities such as humans, supernatural beings, and other symbolic objects in nature. === Actor-Network === As the term implies, the actor-network is the central concept in ANT. The term "network" is somewhat problematic in that it, as Latour notes, has a number of unwanted connotations. Firstly, it implies that what is described takes the shape of a network, which is not necessarily the case. Secondly, it implies "transportation without deformation," which, in ANT, is not possible since any actor-network involves a vast number of translations. Latour, however, still contends that network is a fitting term to use, because "it has no a priori order relation; it is not tied to the axiological myth of a top and of a bottom of society; it makes absolutely no assumption whether a specific locus is macro- or


id: actor-network-theory-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actor–network_theory-2.md
category: reference
title: Actor–network theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actor–network_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:10.578747+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: actor-network-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Quasi-object === For the rethinking of social relations as networks, Latour mobilizes a concept from Michel Serres and expands on it in order “to locate the position of these strange new hybrids”. Quasi-objects are simultaneously quasi-subjects – the prefix quasi denotes that neither ontological status as subject or object is pure or permanent, but that these are dynamic entities whose status shifts, depending on their respective momentous activity and their according position in a collective or network. What is decisive is circulation and participation, from which networks emerge, examples for quasi-objects are language, money, bread, love, or the ball in a soccer game: all of these human or non-human, material or immaterial actants have no agency (and thus, subject-status) in themselves, however, they can be seen as the connective tissue underlying – or even activating – the interactions in which they are enmeshed. In Reassembling the Social, Latour refers to these in-between actants as “the mediators whose proliferation generates, among many other entities, what could be called quasi-objects and quasi-subjects.” Actor–network theory refers to these creations as tokens or quasi-objects which are passed between actors within the network. As the token is increasingly transmitted or passed through the network,


id: actor-network-theory-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actor–network_theory-3.md
category: reference
title: Actor–network theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actor–network_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:10.578747+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: actor-network-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== International relations === Actor–network theory has become increasingly prominent within the discipline of international relations and political science. Theoretically, scholars within IR have employed ANT in order to disrupt traditional world political binaries (civilised/barbarian, democratic/autocratic, etc.), consider the implications of a posthuman understanding of IR, explore the infrastructures of world politics, and consider the effects of technological agency. Empirically, IR scholars have drawn on insights from ANT in order to study phenomena including political violences like the use of torture and drones, piracy and maritime governance, and garbage. === Design === The actor–network theory can also be applied to design, using a perspective that is not simply limited to an analysis of an object's structure. From the ANT viewpoint, design is seen as a series of features that account for a social, psychological, and economical world. ANT argues that objects are designed to shape human action and mold or influence decisions. In this way, the objects' design serves to mediate human relationships and can even impact our morality, ethics, and politics. === Literary criticism === The literary critic Rita Felski has argued that ANT offers the fields of literary criticism and cultural studies vital new modes of interpreting and


id: actor-network-theory-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actor–network_theory-4.md
category: reference
title: Actor–network theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actor–network_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:10.578747+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: actor-network-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Nonhuman actors can be considered as a condition in human social activities. Through the human's formation of nonhuman actors such as durable materials, they provide a stable foundation for interactions in society. Reciprocally, nonhumans' actions and capacities serve as a condition for the possibility of the formation of society. In Latour's We Have Never Been Modern, his conceptual "parliament of things" consists of social, natural, and discourse together as hybrids. Although the interlocks between human actors and nonhumans effects the modernized society, this parliamentary setting based on nonhuman actors would eliminate such fake modernization, and changes the dichotomy between modern society and premodern society. Nonhuman actors can be considered as mediators. On the one hand, nonhumans could constantly modify relations between actors. On the other hand, nonhumans share the same features with other actors not solely as means for human actors. In this circumstance, nonhuman actors impact human interactions. It either creates an atmosphere for humans to agree with each other, or lead to conflict as the mediators. It is noticeable that the status of mediation is more affiliated with intermediaries or means as a stable presence in the corpus of ANT, while mediators function more powers to influence actors


id: actor-network-theory-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actor–network_theory-5.md
category: reference
title: Actor–network theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actor–network_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:10.578747+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: actor-network-theory-20260505-0
summary:
== See also == Annemarie Mol Helen Verran Mapping controversies Science and technology studies (STS) Obligatory passage point (OPP) Social construction of technology (SCOT) Technology dynamics Theory of structuration (according to which neither agents nor social structure have primacy) Thing theory Outline of organizational theory == References == == Further reading == Carroll, N., Whelan, E., and Richardson, I. (2012). Service Science – an Actor Network Theory Approach. International Journal of Actor-Network Theory and Technological Innovation (IJANTTI), Volume 4, Number 3, pp. 52–70. Carroll, N. (2014). Actor-Network Theory: A Bureaucratic View of Public Service Innovation. Chapter 7, p. 115-144. In Ed Tatnall (ed). Technological Advancements and the Impact of Actor-Network Theory, IGI Global. Online version of the article "On Actor Network Theory: A Few Clarifications", in which Latour responds to criticisms. Archived 2021-04-26 at the Wayback Machine Introductory article "Dolwick, JS. 2009. The 'Social' and Beyond: Introducing Actor–Network Theory", which includes an analysis of other social theories ANThology. Ein einführendes Handbuch zur Akteur–Netzwerk-Theorie, von Andréa Belliger und David Krieger, transcript Verlag (German) Transhumanism as Actor-Network Theory "N00bz & the Actor-Network: Transhumanist Traductions" Archived 2010-10-08 at the Wayback Machine (Humanity+ Magazine) by Woody Evans. John Law (1992). "Notes on the Theory


id: applied-epistemology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_epistemology-0.md
category: reference
title: Applied epistemology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_epistemology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:13.103463+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: applied-epistemology-20260505-0
summary:
Applied epistemology refers to the study that determines whether the systems of investigation that seek the truth lead to true beliefs about the world. A specific conceptualization cites that it attempts to reveal whether these systems contribute to epistemic aims. It is applied in practices outside of philosophy like science and mathematics. Once applied epistemology is described as a method in an epistemological search, it implies that the methodology is supported by an epistemological foundation. == Background == Applied epistemology forms part of the concept of "applied philosophy" as theorists begin to distinguish it from "applied ethics". It is argued that "applied philosophy" is a broader field, and that it has parts that are not subdisciplines of applied ethics. The emergence of "applied philosophy" gained traction after it was proposed that philosophy can be applied to contemporary issues. Applied epistemology emerged from epistemologists routine examinations that determine whether truth-seeking practices like science and mathematics are capable of delivering truths. It draws from epistemological theorizing to address pressing epistemic matters of practical value. An epistemological question assumes a philosophical form once it deals with the type of knowledge or justification that is presupposed in most ordinary contexts. In its infancy, applied


id: applied-epistemology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_epistemology-1.md
category: reference
title: Applied epistemology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_epistemology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:13.103463+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: applied-epistemology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Informal logic === According to Mark Battersby, the method of critical thinking or informal logic can be considered a form of applied epistemology. This method involves the assessment of the strength of evidences that afford conclusions can only be made if the domain within which the argument is presented is taken into account. For Battersby, this constitutes applied epistemology, since it is about grounding assessments of arguments as they occur within them. Mark Weinstein maintained that a focus on the account of how acceptability is transmitted from premises to conclusion show close theoretical parallel between informal logic and applied epistemology. It is argued that rather than rules of logic, epistemological norms constitute the philosophical core of informal logic and that there is a close parallel between informal logic and applied ethics. Based on these factors, scholars such as Battersby and Weinstein maintain that informal logic should be classified as applied epistemology instead of logic. === Social issues === It has been suggested by scholars such as Jennifer Lackey that applied epistemology provides the tools in contemporary epistemology's evaluation of the issues of social concern. It is relevant to issues affecting social groups since it helps in answering the recurring


id: biology-and-political-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology_and_political_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Biology and political science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology_and_political_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:14.832004+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biology-and-political-science-20260505-0
summary:
The interdisciplinary study of biology and political science is the application of theories and methods from the field of biology toward the scientific understanding of political behavior. The field is sometimes called biopolitics, a term that will be used in this article as a synonym although it has other, less related meanings. More generally, the field has also been called "politics and the life sciences". == History == During the 19th century, some scholars and philosophers made attempts to apply concepts derived from the natural sciences in the understanding of society and politics. This was greatly influenced by positivism and Darwinism. In The Social Organism (1860), Herbert Spencer compares society fo a living organism, he states that just like biological species evolve through natural selection, societies evolve through analogous processes. Another proponent of Social Darwinism, was Francis Galton, Darwin's nephew, whose ideas were the basis of behaviourial genetics and eugenics. He claimed that mental qualities (genius and talent), just like physical traits, where inherited among generations of people. He claimed that society should change so that heredity was a conscious decision, to avoid both over-breeding by less fit members of society and the under-breeding of the more fit ones. In


id: bold-hypothesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bold_hypothesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Bold hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bold_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:16.007133+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bold-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
Bold hypothesis (or bold conjecture, the terms are used interchangeably) is a concept originally created by the liberal philosopher Karl Popper when he tried to define the meaning of scientific thinking and scientific progress. It was first explained in his debut The Logic of Scientific Discovery (1935) and subsequently elaborated in writings such as Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge (1963), Objective knowledge: an evolutionary approach (1972), and Replies to my critics (1974). In successive texts written in the course of four decades, Popper added some nuances to the definition of the concept. Broadly speaking, the idea of a bold hypothesis refers to a new, testable theoretical proposition (or theoretical claim) made within a subject area which, if it is true, would be able to explain and predict much more about the subject than was previously possible. It would significantly alter existing scientific understandings about the subject, in a positive way. The new idea would be very useful for scientific research about the subject. This contrasts with other types of scientific claims which, if they turn out to be true, make little difference to what scientists already know about the subject. The contrary of a bold hypothesis is


id: bold-hypothesis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bold_hypothesis-1.md
category: reference
title: Bold hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bold_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:16.007133+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bold-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
”There is a reality behind the world as it appears to us, possibly a many-layered reality, of which the appearances are the outermost layers. What the great scientist does is boldly to guess, daringly to conjecture, what these inner realities are like. (…) The boldness can be gauged by the distance between the world of appearance and the conjectured reality, the explanatory hypotheses. But there is another, a special kind of boldness – the boldness of predicting aspects of the world of appearance which so far have been overlooked but which it must possess if the conjectured reality is (more or less) right, if the explanatory hypotheses are (approximately) true. It is this more special kind of boldness which I have usually in mind when I speak of bold scientific conjectures. It is the boldness of a conjecture which takes a real risk – the risk of being tested and refuted; the risk of clashing with reality. Thus my proposal was, and is, that it is this second boldness, together with the readiness to look out for tests and refutations, which distinguishes “empirical” science from nonscience, and especially from prescientific myths and metaphysics.” This passage makes it very clear, that


id: bold-hypothesis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bold_hypothesis-2.md
category: reference
title: Bold hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bold_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:16.007133+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bold-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
Is boldness always a good thing in scientific hypothesizing? How we assess the degree of boldness may just be a subjective matter (it may depends on how you care to look at it). Some new ideas, although they are rather modest in themselves, can make a very large difference to the advancement of scientific research. At a more concrete level, the degree of "boldness" could refer (i) to the content of the hypothesis (considered relative to other possible hypotheses), or (ii) to the manner or context in which the hypothesis is presented, (iii) to its expected importance for research, or (iv) to the attitude involved. The degree of boldness could be downplayed for the sake of credibility or compatibility with established ideas, or it could be exaggerated to create the image of a "big scientific breakthrough" (to obtain research funding). The timing of the evaluation of a hypothesis is also important: a hypothesis which does not seem "bold" right now, could be judged "very bold" later, when historians know much more about the full impact it turned out to have (and vice versa). Alan F. Chalmers comments that “What rates as a bold conjecture at one stage in the history


id: bold-hypothesis-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bold_hypothesis-3.md
category: reference
title: Bold hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bold_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:16.007133+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bold-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
A falsified conjecture shows the scientist only "what he does not know" or what cannot be the case. However, in reality scientists are more interested in knowing what is the case, and what they can know. That is, scientists are interested mainly in gaining positive new knowledge, which can be used for practical purposes. Scientists are not primarily interested in “knowing that they don't know things”, or in "knowing what is not the case" (other than to rule out possibilities). Scientists want to know what really is the case. Scientific statements according to this Lakatosian perspective are not falsifiable statements, as Karl Popper claimed, but fallible statements. There is an important difference. Falsifiable ideas are testable ideas which can be definitely proved to be false. Fallible statements are testable statements that could be wrong. Fallible statements include both testable propositions and statements of which it is known that they could be wrong, although currently we do not know how to test them yet for their truth or falsity (or, the possible tests are technically not yet feasible). According to Lakatos, all scientific statements are in reality fallible hypotheses, which scientists at the very least intend or aim to test for


id: boundary-work-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boundary-work-0.md
category: reference
title: Boundary-work
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boundary-work
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:22.248543+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: boundary-work-20260505-0
summary:
Boundary-work is part of science studies. In boundary-work, boundaries, demarcations, or other divisions between fields of knowledge are created, advocated, attacked, or reinforced. Such delineations often have high stakes for the participants, and carry the implication that such boundaries are flexible and socially constructed. == Thomas F. Gieryn == The original use of the term "boundary-work" for these sorts of issues has been attributed to Thomas F. Gieryn, a sociologist, who initially used it to discuss the problem of demarcation, the philosophical difficulty of coming up with a rigorous delineation between what is "science" and what is "non-science". Gieryn defined boundary-work as the "attribution of selected characteristics to [an] institution of science (i.e., to its practitioners, methods, stock of knowledge, values and work organization) for purposes of constructing a social boundary that distinguishes some intellectual activities as [outside that boundary]." Gieryn suggests that Philosophers and sociologists of science, such as Karl Popper and Robert K. Merton, long struggled to come up with a criterion which would distinguish science as unique from other knowledge-generating activities, but never were able to come up with one that was stable, transhistorical, or worked reliably. Gieryn's 1983 article on boundary-work and demarcation highlighted that the


id: design-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Design science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:28.749850+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: design-science-20260505-0
summary:
Design science refers to a scientific, i.e. rational and systematic, approach to designing. An early concept of design science was introduced in 1957 by R. Buckminster Fuller who defined it as a systematic form of designing which he applied especially in innovative engineering design. The concept has been more broadly defined by the Design Science journal as “quantitative and qualitative research in the creation of artifacts and systems, and their embedding in our physical, virtual, psychological, economic, and social environment”. == Design-science relationship == There has been recurrent concern to differentiate design from science. Nigel Cross differentiated between scientific design, design science and a science of design. A science of design (the scientific study of design) does not require or assume that the acts of designing are themselves scientific, and an increasing number of research programs take this view. To some extent the two uses of the term design science (systematic designing and the study of designing) have co-mingled to the point where there can be some confusion, and design science sometimes may be referred to either as meaning a science of design or design as a science. == A science of design == Herbert A. Simon's The Sciences of


id: economics-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Economics of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:30.029864+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: economics-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The economics of science aims to understand the impact of science on the advance of technology, to explain the behavior of scientists, and to understand the efficiency or inefficiency of scientific institutions and science markets. The importance of the economics of science is substantially due to the importance of science as a driver of technology and technology as a driver of productivity and growth. Believing that science matters, economists have attempted to understand the behavior of scientists and the operation of scientific institutions. == Science as a public good == Economists consider "science" as the search and production of knowledge using known starting conditions. Knowledge can be considered a public good, due to the fact that its utility to society is not diminished with additional consumption (non-rivalry), and once the knowledge is shared with the public it becomes very hard to restrict access to it or use of it (non-excludable). Traditional public economic theory asserts that competitive markets provide poor incentives for production of a public good because the producers cannot reap the benefits of use of their product, and thus costs will be higher than benefits. Economists have identified several possible reasons as to why producers of science might


id: economics-of-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Economics of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:30.029864+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: economics-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== The patent system === In the United States, the Patent and Trademark Office issues patents that give the holder of the patent exclusive, defined property rights to their product for 20 years. From an economic perspective, the value of the patent is that it increases the marginal benefit of the firm that is producing the scientific knowledge. To graphically display this concept, the accompanying figure depicts the marginal benefit and marginal cost curves of a firm in the market for science. The vertical axis displays the marginal cost and marginal benefit of each additional dollar spent on research and development. The horizontal axis displays the amount of money spent on research and development in total. Research and development is assumed to have diminishing returns. For simplicity's sake, all curves are assumed to be linear, and the marginal cost curve is assumed to be constant. A firm will maximize their profits by producing where marginal cost intersects marginal benefit. In the absence of any government intervention, the firm will produce where at RD0, where private marginal benefit (MB0) intersects MC. However, if scientific knowledge is assumed to be a public good, then RD0 is too low a quantity to satisfy


id: economics-of-scientific-knowledge-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_scientific_knowledge-0.md
category: reference
title: Economics of scientific knowledge
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_scientific_knowledge
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:31.260792+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: economics-of-scientific-knowledge-20260505-0
summary:
The economics of scientific knowledge is an approach to understanding science which is predicated on the need to understand scientific knowledge creation and dissemination in economic terms. The approach has been developed as a contrast to the sociology of scientific knowledge, which places scientists in their social context and examines their behavior using social theory. The economics of scientific knowledge typically involves thinking of scientists as having economic interests with these being thought of as utility maximisation and science as being a market process. Modelling strategies might use any of a variety of approaches including the neoclassical, game theoretic, behavioural (bounded rationality) information theoretic and transaction costs. Boumans and Davis (2010) mention Dasgupta and David (1994) as being an interesting early example of work in this area. == See also == Economics of science == References ==


id: the-emperor-s-new-drugs-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Emperor's_New_Drugs-0.md
category: reference
title: The Emperor's New Drugs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Emperor's_New_Drugs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:32.497590+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-emperor-s-new-drugs-20260505-0
summary:
The Emperor's New Drugs: Exploding the Antidepressant Myth is a 2009 book by Irving Kirsch, arguing that the chemical imbalance theory of depression is wrong and that antidepressants have little or no direct effect on depression but, because of their common or serious side-effects, they are powerful active placebos. == Author == Kirsch is Associate Director of the Program in Placebo Studies and a lecturer in medicine at the Harvard Medical School and Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, and professor emeritus of psychology at the Universities of Hull and Plymouth in the United Kingdom, and the University of Connecticut in the United States. His research interests include placebo effects, antidepressants, expectancy, and hypnosis. He is the originator of response expectancy theory. == Argument == While analyzing antidepressant trials as part of his research into the placebo effect, Kirsch realised that drug companies do not publish all of their disappointing antidepressant trial results, but most decisions about the efficacy of an antidepressant are based only on published results. Using the Freedom of Information Act, he and his colleagues acquired from the US Food and Drug Administration the unpublished trial results for six antidepressants. When the results from both published and unpublished


id: encyclop-die-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopédie-0.md
category: reference
title: Encyclopédie
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopédie
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:33.670090+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: encyclop-die-20260505-0
summary:
The Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers (French for 'Encyclopedia, or a Systematic Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts and Crafts'), better known as the Encyclopédie (French: [ɑ̃siklɔpedi]), was a general encyclopedia published in France between 1751 and 1772, with later supplements, revised editions, an index, and translations. It had many contributors, known among contemporaries as the Encyclopédistes. It was edited by Denis Diderot and, until 1759, co-edited by Jean le Rond d'Alembert. The Encyclopédie is most famous for representing the thought of the Enlightenment. According to Diderot in the article "Encyclopédie", the Encyclopédie's aim was "to change the way people think" and to allow people to inform themselves. Diderot hoped the Encyclopédie would disseminate a vast amount of knowledge to the present and future generations. Thus, it is an example of democratization of knowledge, though the high price of the first edition especially (980 livres) prevented it from being bought by much of the middle class. The Encyclopédie was also the first encyclopedia to include contributions from many named contributors, and it was the first general encyclopedia to describe the mechanical arts in much detail. In the first edition, seventeen folio volumes of text were


id: encyclop-die-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopédie-1.md
category: reference
title: Encyclopédie
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopédie
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:33.670090+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: encyclop-die-20260505-0
summary:
The work consisted of 28 volumes, with approximately 71,818 articles and 2,784 plates of illustrations (the exact numbers depend on one's definition of an "article" and a "plate"). The first seventeen volumes were published between 1751 and 1765; eleven volumes of plates were finished by 1772. The first edition had a pressrun of 4,225 copies, well above the average pressrun for French books at the time, which was around 2000 copies., and it earned the four publishers profits of more than two million livres. Because of its sometimes radical contents, the Encyclopédie stirred up controversy in conservative circles, and after the publication of the second volume, it was briefly suspended by a royal edict of 1752 accusing it of "destroying royal authority, fomenting a spirit of independence and revolt, and ... laying the groundwork for error, for the corruption of morals, and for irreligion and atheism." In 1759, following the publication of the seventh volume, on the initiative of the Parlement of Paris, the French government suspended the encyclopedia's privilege. Nevertheless, work continued "in secret," partially because the project had highly placed supporters, including the minister Malesherbes and the royal mistress Madame de Pompadour. French authorities deliberately ignored the continuation


id: encyclop-die-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopédie-2.md
category: reference
title: Encyclopédie
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopédie
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:33.670090+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: encyclop-die-20260505-0
summary:
From almost the beginning of the publication of volume i in June 1751, many contemporaries took to calling the collaborators by the term "Encyclopedists" and assumed that they were a cohesive group of religious and political reformers in close-knit association.... But, as we shall see, the Encyclopedists were not a company of obedient soldiers led by a few generals in a campaign to destroy the Old Regime. They were instead a varied collection of men of letters, physicians, scientists, craftsmen, scholars, and others, each frequently following his own bent with little central direction. The Encyclopédie became not a party statement, but a great compendium of knowledge filled with contradictions, a mélange of ideas, some progressive and some conservative. The Encyclopédie was the first encyclopedia to credit contributors within articles in a systematic way. This it accomplished for regular contributors by appending symbols (sometimes called "signatures") at the ends of articles. An "O" at the end of an article indicated D'Alembert as responsible, for example, just as an "L" did the anatomist Pierre Tarin. The symbols were set forth in the "Preliminary Discourse." From the beginning, however, some articles were anonymous, whether because of oversight or because no one dared to


id: encyclop-die-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopédie-3.md
category: reference
title: Encyclopédie
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopédie
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:33.670090+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: encyclop-die-20260505-0
summary:
=== Structure === The introduction to the Encyclopédie, D'Alembert's "Preliminary Discourse", is considered an important exposition of Enlightenment ideals. Among other things, it presents a taxonomy of human knowledge (see Fig. 3). The idea of presenting a taxonomy of knowledge in the introduction to an alphabetical encyclopedia arose with the Cyclopaedia. More specific inspiration for the one in the Encyclopédie came from Francis Bacon's The Advancement of Learning. The three main branches of knowledge were: "Memory"/History, "Reason"/Philosophy, and "Imagination"/Poetry. In this taxonomy and elsewhere, D'Alembert's "Preliminary Discourse" made human reason, and not religious or other authority, the measure of knowledge. According to the “Preliminary Discourse,” the purpose of the tree of knowledge was to allow users of the Encyclopédie to relate articles they consulted to the entirety of knowledge. Accordingly, the first article in the Encyclopédie, on the letter “A,” began, following the headword, with a parenthetical indication of its place in the tree of knowledge. Notice the abbreviations in italics, which correspond to levels in the tree of knowledge: A, a & a s.m. (ordre Encyclopéd. Entend. Science de l'homme, Logique, Art de communiquer, Gramm.) caractere ou figure de la premiere lettre de l'Alphabet, en latin, en françois, &


id: encyclop-die-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopédie-4.md
category: reference
title: Encyclopédie
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopédie
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:33.670090+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: encyclop-die-20260505-0
summary:
=== Overall scope === The Encyclopédie was narrower in scope than nineteenth- and twentieth-century encyclopedias (which covered history lavishly), and much narrower in scope than Wikipedia (which also covers popular culture lavishly). Like the Cyclopaedia, its model, it was a dictionary of the arts and sciences – or, rather, to quote its subtitle, a dictionary of the sciences, arts, and crafts. In contemporary parlance, dictionaries of the arts and sciences were often contrasted with historical dictionaries, the former concentrating on areas of knowledge that could be understood as rational systems, the latter concentrating on contingent facts. Dictionaries of the arts and sciences had been encroaching on historical knowledge since their beginnings in the late seventeenth century, and the process continued with the Encyclopédie, which covered geography more thoroughly than the Cyclopaedia or any previous dictionary of the arts and sciences. It covered history only patchily, however, and the omission reflected not simply an oversight but a conviction that historical knowledge belonged in a different kind of work. In the article 'Encyclopédie', Diderot wrote that “the purpose of an encyclopedia is to bring together knowledge scattered across the surface of the earth.” At the beginning of the work, neither Diderot nor


id: encyclop-die-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopédie-5.md
category: reference
title: Encyclopédie
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopédie
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:33.670090+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: encyclop-die-20260505-0
summary:
== Influence == By 1789, in its various editions, some 25,000 sets of the Encyclopédie had been sold throughout Europe. Chambers' (and then Abraham Rees's) much smaller Cyclopaedia went through more editions (including translations) and presumably sold in more sets, since at least one of the pressruns was as high as those of the Encyclopédie. Still, the third edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, which was almost as large as the Encyclopédie, sold 13,000 sets, half as many as the Encyclopédie, and the only eighteenth-century encyclopedia that was bigger than the Encyclopédie, the Grosses vollständiges Universal-Lexicon (1732–50), seems to have sold only 1,500 sets. Unlike the Cyclopaedia, the Encyclopédie was never published in a comprehensive translation, though attempts at such a translation were made in English and German. In part, French, unlike Chambers’ English, was understood by elites throughout Europe and elsewhere. More importantly, extracts were published in several languages, including the "Preliminary Discourse." In Russian, at least twenty-nine works were published between 1767 and 1805 based on articles from the Encyclopédie. In the history of encyclopedias, the Encyclopédie was significant in several respects. It was the first encyclopedia known to have been written by numerous contributors, and it pioneered the


id: encyclop-die-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopédie-6.md
category: reference
title: Encyclopédie
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopédie
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:33.670090+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: encyclop-die-20260505-0
summary:
=== Bibliography === Blom, Philipp. Enlightening the World: Encyclopédie, the Book that changed the Course of History. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005. ISBN 1-4039-6895-0. Birn, Raymond. "Encyclopedie." In Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment. Ed. Alan Charles Kors. 4 vols. Oxford: Oxford University Press 2003. 1: 403-409. Birn, Raymond. “Les Mots et les images: L’Encyclopédie, le projet de Diderot et la stratégie des éditeurs.” Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine 35 (1988): 637-51. Boussuge, Emmanuel. "La chronologie de l'Encyclopédie interdite: Les dix derniers volumes: Tomes VIII a XVII (1762-1765)." Dix-huitième siècle 52 (2020): 287-302. Bradshaw, Lael Ely. “Ephraim Chambers’ Cyclopaedia.” In Notable Encyclopedias of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. Ed. Frank A. Kafker. Oxford: Voltaire Foundation: 1981. 123-40. Brewer, Daniel (1993). The Discourse of Enlightenment in Eighteenth-century France: Diderot and the Art of Philosophizing. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521414838.. Brewer, Daniel. "The Encyclopédie: Innovation and Legacy." In New Essays on Diderot. Ed. James Fowler, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011. ISBN 0-521-76956-6. Chinard, Gilbert. "L'Encyclopédie et le rayonnement de l'esprit encyclopédique en Amérique." Cahiers de l'AIEF 1-2 (1951): 3-22. Curran, Andrew S. The Anatomy of Blackness: Science & Slavery in an Age of Enlightenment. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2011. Curran, Andrew


id: encyclop-die-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopédie-7.md
category: reference
title: Encyclopédie
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopédie
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:33.670090+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: encyclop-die-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == D'Alembert, Jean Le Rond. Preliminary discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot, translated by Richard N. Schwab, 1995. ISBN 0-226-13476-8 Darnton, Robert. "The Encyclopédie Wars of Prerevolutionary France." American Historical Review 78 (1973): 1331–52. online ENCICLOPEDIA DEGLI ILLUMINISTI - Antologia tecnica e scientifica (in Italian language), edited by Claudio Pierini, Cierre Grafica, Verona 2022. ISBN 978-883-210-2635 Encyclopédie ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, Editions Flammarion, 1993. ISBN 2-08-070426-5 Grimsley. Ronald. Jean d'Alembert (1963) Hazard, Paul. European thought in the Eighteenth Century from Montesquieu to Lessing (1954). pp. 199–224 Lough, John. Essays on the Encyclopédie of Diderot and d'Alembert. Oxford UP, 1968. Pannabecker, John R. Diderot, the Mechanical Arts, and the Encyclopédie, 1994. == External links == Media related to Encyclopédie, ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers at Wikimedia Commons Texts on Wikisource: "Encyclopédie". New International Encyclopedia. 1905. "Encyclopédie". The Nuttall Encyclopædia. 1907. French Wikisource has original text related to this article: Encyclopédie, ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers Digitized version of the Encyclopédie Diderot – search engine in tribute to Diderot University of Chicago on-line version with an English interface and the dates of publication


id: expertise-finding-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expertise_finding-0.md
category: reference
title: Expertise finding
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expertise_finding
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:39.545902+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expertise-finding-20260505-0
summary:
Expertise finding is the use of tools for finding and assessing individual expertise. In the recruitment industry, expertise finding is the problem of searching for employable candidates with certain required skills set. In other words, it is the challenge of linking humans to expertise areas, and as such is a sub-problem of expertise retrieval (the other problem being expertise profiling). == Importance of expertise == It can be argued that human expertise is more valuable than capital, means of production or intellectual property. Contrary to expertise, all other aspects of capitalism are now relatively generic: access to capital is global, as is access to means of production for many areas of manufacturing. Intellectual property can be similarly licensed. Furthermore, expertise finding is also a key aspect of institutional memory, as without its experts an institution is effectively decapitated. However, finding and "licensing" expertise, the key to the effective use of these resources, remain much harder, starting with the very first step: finding expertise that you can trust. Until very recently, finding expertise required a mix of individual, social and collaborative practices, a haphazard process at best. Mostly, it involved contacting individuals one trusts and asking them for referrals, while hoping


id: expertise-finding-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expertise_finding-1.md
category: reference
title: Expertise finding
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expertise_finding
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:39.545902+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expertise-finding-20260505-0
summary:
== Approaches for creating expertise content == Manual, either by experts themselves (e.g., Skillhive) or by a curator (Expertise Finder) Automated, e.g., using software agents (e.g., MIT's ExpertFinder) or a combination of agents and human curation (e.g., ResearchScorecard ) In industrial expertise search engines (e.g., LinkedIn), there are many signals coming into the ranking functions, such as, user-generated content (e.g., profiles), community-generated content (e.g., recommendations and skills endorsements) and personalized signals (e.g., social connections). Moreover, user queries might contain many other aspects rather required expertise, such as, locations, industries or companies. Thus, traditional information retrieval features like text matching are also important. Learning to rank is typically used to combine all of these signals together into a ranking function == Collaborator discovery == In academia, a related problem is collaborator discovery, where the goal is to suggest suitable collaborators to a researcher. While expertise finding is an asynchronous problem (employer looking for employee), collaborator discovery can be distinguished from expertise finding by helping establishing more symmetric relationships (collaborations). Also, while in expertise finding the task often can be clearly characterized, this is not the case in academic research, where future goals are more fuzzy. == References == == Further reading


id: beno-t-godin-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benoît_Godin-0.md
category: reference
title: Benoît Godin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benoît_Godin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:44.616227+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: beno-t-godin-20260505-0
summary:
Benoît Godin was a Canadian political scientist and sociologist. == Biography == Benoît Godin is mostly known for his research into the history of statistics, statistics of innovation, and of the ideological roots of the concept of innovation. After a first degree at the Université Laval (1984) in Québec (CA), he obtained a PhD at the Science Policy Research Unit (SPRU) the University of Sussex (UK) in 1994). From February 1993 until his death he was professor at Institut national de la recherche scientifique INRS, Québec (CA). == Work == The work of Benoît Godin covers both the history of quantification and that of innovation. He worked on measurement statistics in science, on the history of science proper, as well as that of technology and innovation. In the last years of his life he focused on the intellectual history of innovation, noting how the ‘superlative’ connotation of the term innovation is recent, in relative terms, as it had a rather negative connotation until the late 1960s or early 1970s. == Books == Godin, Benoit (2020). The idea of technological innovation : a brief alternative history. Edward Elgar Publishing. Cheltenham. ISBN 978-1-83910-400-8. OCLC 1152021488.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)


id: international-encyclopedia-of-unified-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Encyclopedia_of_Unified_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: International Encyclopedia of Unified Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Encyclopedia_of_Unified_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:50.048664+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-encyclopedia-of-unified-science-20260505-0
summary:
The International Encyclopedia of Unified Science (IEUS) was a series of publications devoted to unified science. The IEUS was conceived at the Mundaneum Institute in The Hague in the 1930s, and published in the United States beginning in 1938. It was an ambitious project that was never completed. The IEUS was an output of the Vienna Circle to address the "growing concern throughout the world for the logic, the history, and the sociology of science..." Only the first section Foundations of the Unity of Science (FUS) was published; it contains two volumes for a total of nineteen monographs published from 1938 to 1969. == International Congresses for the Unity of Science == Creation of the IEUS was facilitated by the International Congresses for the Unity of Science organized by members of the Vienna Circle. After a preliminary conference in Prague in 1934, the First International Congress for the Unity of Science was held at the Sorbonne, Paris, 16–21 September 1935. It was attended by about 170 people from over twenty different countries. With the active involvement of Kazimierz Ajdukiewicz (Poland), Susan Stebbing (England), and Federigo Enriques (Italy) the scope of the project for an IEUS was considerably expanded. The congress


id: leviathan-and-the-air-pump-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leviathan_and_the_Air-Pump-0.md
category: reference
title: Leviathan and the Air-Pump
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leviathan_and_the_Air-Pump
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:51.494994+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: leviathan-and-the-air-pump-20260505-0
summary:
Leviathan and the Air-Pump: Hobbes, Boyle, and the Experimental Life (published 1985) is a book by Steven Shapin and Simon Schaffer. It examines the debate between Robert Boyle and Thomas Hobbes over Boyle's air-pump experiments in the 1660s. In 2005, Shapin and Schaffer were awarded the Erasmus Prize for this work. On a theoretical level, the book explores the acceptable methods of knowledge production, and societal factors related to the different knowledge systems promoted by Boyle and Hobbes. The "Leviathan" in the title is Hobbes's book on the structure of society, Leviathan, or The Matter, Forme and Power of a Common Wealth Ecclesiasticall and Civil and the "Air-Pump" is Robert Boyle's mechanical instrument. The book also contains a translation by Schaffer of Hobbes's Dialogus physicus de natura aeris. It attacked Boyle and others who founded the society for experimental research, soon known as the Royal Society. == Intention of the work == Shapin and Schaffer state in their first chapter, "Understanding Experiment", that they wish to answer the question, "Why does one do experiments in order to arrive at scientific truth?" Their aim is to use a historical account of the debate over the validity of Boyle's air pump experiments,


id: leviathan-and-the-air-pump-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leviathan_and_the_Air-Pump-1.md
category: reference
title: Leviathan and the Air-Pump
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leviathan_and_the_Air-Pump
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:51.494994+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: leviathan-and-the-air-pump-20260505-0
summary:
== Chapter II: Seeing and Believing: The Experimental Production of Pneumatic Facts == Chapter Two outlines Boyle's theory of knowledge production, which revolves around the creation of the "matter of fact". This refers to an experimentally generated piece of knowledge separate from a universal theory and that was based on probability. This is in direct opposition to Hobbes (discussed in chapter 3), who required "absolute certainty" based on "logic and geometry" to consider a phenomenon a fact. In the eyes of Boyle and his colleagues, the abandonment of absolute certainty was not "a regrettable retreat from more ambitious goals; it was celebrated as a wise rejection of a failed project". Thus, because "matters of fact" did not have to be absolute, universal assent was not necessary for the production of knowledge. Boyle made use of three knowledge-producing technologies in order to produce knowledge: "a material technology embedded in the construction and operation of the air-pump; a literary technology by means of which the phenomena produced by the pump were made known to those who were not direct witnesses; and a social technology that incorporated the conventions that experimental philosophers should use in dealing with each other and considering knowledge-claims". Importantly,


id: leviathan-and-the-air-pump-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leviathan_and_the_Air-Pump-2.md
category: reference
title: Leviathan and the Air-Pump
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leviathan_and_the_Air-Pump
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:51.494994+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: leviathan-and-the-air-pump-20260505-0
summary:
== Chapter III: Seeing Double: Hobbes's Politics of Plenism before 1660 == The third chapter centers on Hobbes' side of the debate for the effective production of knowledge. However, unlike Boyle, Hobbes denies that natural philosophy can be separated from politics and religion. In the previous chapter, Boyle's "matter of fact" worked towards separation from church and state by remaining objective and probabilistic. For Hobbes, however, "the boundaries Boyle proposed to erect and maintain were guarantees of continued disorder, not remedies to philosophical dissension". Hobbes also argued for "proper metaphysical language", in contrast to Boyle's reluctance to address the issue of a vacuum and his vague concept of air "pressure." Hobbes was motivated by three things in his attack on Boyle: (1) to save his own reputation as a natural philosopher, (2) to develop a system of knowledge production that secured order and maintained proper goals for natural philosophy (namely precision instead of probability) and (3) to be sensitive to the needs of Restoration society (discussed in more detail in chapter 7). Hobbes' denial of a vacuum stems in part from a need for political stability. It follows logically that if there can be a space which is devoid of


id: leviathan-and-the-air-pump-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leviathan_and_the_Air-Pump-3.md
category: reference
title: Leviathan and the Air-Pump
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leviathan_and_the_Air-Pump
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:51.494994+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: leviathan-and-the-air-pump-20260505-0
summary:
Hobbes criticized Boyle's experimental space for being private (as it was exclusive to everyone but empiricists) and insisted that the space had a "master" - which undermined Boyle's concept of free discourse and consensus to generate matters of fact. Also he criticized the fact that, since the whole experimental community must come into agreement before a "matter of fact" can be produced, the whole experimental community must view the same demonstration at the same time. This was an obvious impossibility and was problematic for Boyle because "If they were not witnessed simultaneously and together, then in what ways was the evaluation of experimental testimony different from the evaluation of testimony generally?" Hobbes also criticized the air-pump itself, saying that "the physical integrity of the machine was massively violated." He asserted that "it was impossible to understand the air-pump experiments 'unless the nature of the air is known first.'" This was important for three reasons: (1) because Hobbes said the fluidity of the air ruled out the ability to produce an impermeable seal (2) because describing the air as mixture allowed Hobbes to explain the pumps actions (drawing out the course aspects of the air and leaving behind the more subtle


id: leviathan-and-the-air-pump-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leviathan_and_the_Air-Pump-4.md
category: reference
title: Leviathan and the Air-Pump
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leviathan_and_the_Air-Pump
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:51.494994+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: leviathan-and-the-air-pump-20260505-0
summary:
== Chapter V: Boyle's Adversaries: Experiment Defended == While the previous chapter focuses on the attacks of Boyle's main opponent (Hobbes), this chapter focuses on Boyle's actions in the face of more general adversity. The three main opponents to Boyle were Hobbes, Linus and More, and Boyle's response to each in turn reflects his opinion of their ideas and shows what parts of his own ideas he deemed essential and what parts he deemed less so. The figures can be divided into two groups: Linus - who conformed to the model of the experimental programme but did not agree with Boyle's explanation of the air-pump experiments, and Hobbes and More - who attacked the experimental programme as an institution. "Linus said there was no vacuum in the Torricellian space. This was apparent because one could see through that space; if there were a vacuum, 'no visible species could proceed either from it, or through it, unto the eye." Linus offered a nonmechanical solution to the sustained height of the liquid in the Torricellian apparatus. He suggested that "a certain internal thread (funiculus) whose upper extremity was attached to the finger [blocking the top of the inverted tube] and whose lower


id: leviathan-and-the-air-pump-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leviathan_and_the_Air-Pump-5.md
category: reference
title: Leviathan and the Air-Pump
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leviathan_and_the_Air-Pump
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:51.494994+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: leviathan-and-the-air-pump-20260505-0
summary:
== Chapter VI: Replication and Its Troubles: Air-Pumps in the 1660s == Chapter 6 is an evaluation of the technologies stated in chapter 2 and their role in replication - namely replication of the material technology and the utility of virtual witnessing. The chapter focuses on the propagation of the pump via the experimental community. The air-pump was first developed in Oxford and London with the help of the Royal Society (and in response to Hobbes criticism) beginning in 1659. It was during its development that Robert Moray wrote to Christiaan Huygens (Holland) detailing the changes Boyle would be making to the original design of his pump. Huygens rejected Boyle's changes and set about making his own alterations. "Christiaan Huygens was the only natural philosopher in the 1660s who built an air-pump that was outside the direct management of Boyle and Hooke." At the end of Huygens development, Huygens claimed that "my pneumatic pump was begun to work since yesterday, and all that night a bladder stayed inflated within it [which was a test for the goodness of a pump]...which Mr. Boyle was not able to effect." Indeed, he discovered a phenomenon called anomalous suspension (the suspension of water in


id: leviathan-and-the-air-pump-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leviathan_and_the_Air-Pump-6.md
category: reference
title: Leviathan and the Air-Pump
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leviathan_and_the_Air-Pump
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:51.494994+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: leviathan-and-the-air-pump-20260505-0
summary:
== Chapter VIII: The Polity of Science: Conclusions == In the final chapter of Leviathan and the Air-Pump, Shapin and Schaffer condense their vastly complicated picture of Restoration society and how it interacted with the development of modern science to three points. "First, scientific practitioners have created, selected, and maintained a polity within which they operate and make intellectual product; second, the intellectual product made within that polity has become an element in political activity and in the state; third, there is a conditional relationship between the nature of the polity occupied by scientific intellectual and the nature of the wider polity." In proving those three points they say they had three things to connect: "(1) the polity of the intellectual community; (2) the solution to the practical problem of making and justifying knowledge; and (3) the polity of the wider society" and that they did so by connecting three things: "(1) that the solution to the problem of knowledge is political...(2) that the knowledge thus produced and authenticated become an element in political action in the wider polity...[and] (3) that the contest among alternative forms of life and their characteristic forms of intellectual product depend on the political success


id: leviathan-and-the-air-pump-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leviathan_and_the_Air-Pump-7.md
category: reference
title: Leviathan and the Air-Pump
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leviathan_and_the_Air-Pump
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:51.494994+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: leviathan-and-the-air-pump-20260505-0
summary:
=== English editions === (Hardcover) Shapin, Steven; Schaffer, Simon (1985). Leviathan and the air-pump : Hobbes, Boyle, and the experimental life : including a translation of Thomas Hobbes, Dialogus physicus de natura aeris by Simon Schaffer (1st ed.). Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-08393-2. OCLC 12078908. (Paperback) Shapin, Steven; Schaffer, Simon (1989) [1985]. Leviathan and the air-pump : Hobbes, Boyle, and the experimental life : including a translation of Thomas Hobbes, Dialogus physicus de natura aeris by Simon Schaffer (1st Princeton paperback printing, with corrections ed.). Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-02432-4. OCLC 21974013. (eBook) Shapin, Steven; Schaffer, Simon (2011). Leviathan and the air-pump : Hobbes, Boyle, and the experimental life : with a new introduction by the authors (2nd ed.). Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-3849-3. OCLC 759907750. (Paperback) Shapin, Steven; Schaffer, Simon (2017). Leviathan and the air-pump : Hobbes, Boyle, and the experimental life (First Princeton Classics paperback ed.). Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-17816-5. OCLC 984327399. === Translations === Shapin, Steven; Schaffer, Simon (1993). Leviathan et la pompe à air: Hobbes et Boyle entre science et politique (in French). Translated by Piélat, Thierry; Barjansky, Sylvie. Paris: Ed. La Découverte. ISBN 978-2-7071-2273-5.


id: leviathan-and-the-air-pump-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leviathan_and_the_Air-Pump-8.md
category: reference
title: Leviathan and the Air-Pump
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leviathan_and_the_Air-Pump
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:51.494994+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: leviathan-and-the-air-pump-20260505-0
summary:
=== Other === Abbri, Ferdinando (January 1987). "Steven Shapin, Simon Schaffer, Leviathan and the Air-Pump. Hobbes, Boyle, and the Experimental Life, Princeton, Princeton University Press 1985, XIV + 440 pp". Nuncius. 2 (1): 241–244. doi:10.1163/182539177X00935. ISSN 0394-7394. Hackmann, W. D. (May 1986). "Fuss over nothing". Nature. 321 (6069): 480. Bibcode:1986Natur.321..480H. doi:10.1038/321480a0. ISSN 1476-4687. S2CID 38738481. Hankins, T. L. (23 May 1986). "A Debate over Experiment: Leviathan and the Air-Pump". Science. 232 (4753): 1040–1042. doi:10.1126/science.232.4753.1040. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 17759318. Kargon, Robert (Winter 1986). "Steven Shapin & Simon Schaffer. Leviathan and the Air-Pump: Hobbes, Boyle, and the Experimental Life. Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press. 1985. Pp. xiv, 440. $60.00". Albion. 18 (4): 665–666. doi:10.2307/4050153. ISSN 0095-1390. JSTOR 4050153. Jacob, Margaret C. (December 1986). "Review of Leviathan and the Air Pump: Hobbes, Boyle, and the Experimental Life". Isis. 77 (4): 719–720. doi:10.1086/354315. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 233211. Hall, M. B. (1 November 1986). "Reviews". Ambix. 33 (3): 157–167. doi:10.1179/amb.1986.33.2-3.153. ISSN 0002-6980. Hall, M. B. (1986). "Book reviews". Annals of Science. 43 (6): 575–576. doi:10.1080/00033798600200381. ISSN 0003-3790. PMID 8416581. Jones, Harold W. (January 1987). "Review of 'Leviathan' and the Air Pump: Hobbes, Boyle and the Experimental Life. Including a Translation of Thomas Hobbes, 'Dialogus


id: limiting-case-philosophy-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limiting_case_(philosophy_of_science)-0.md
category: reference
title: Limiting case (philosophy of science)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limiting_case_(philosophy_of_science)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:57.360522+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: limiting-case-philosophy-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
In the philosophy of science, under the correspondence principle, a limiting case theory is an earlier theory which becomes incorporated into a later, usually broader theory; that is to say, the earlier (limiting case) theory proves to be a special or limited case of the later theory. Technically, a theory is said to be a limiting case of another, later theory when and if the later theory subsumes the theoretical relations and apparent referents of the earlier one. For example, physicists agree that classical mechanics constitutes a low-energy limiting case of relativity theory. In words of Larry Laudan, realist philosophers use this phrase in the sense that the theory "T1 can be a limiting case of [the theory] T2 only if (a) all the variables (observable and theoretical) assigned a value in T1 are assigned a value by T2 and (b) the values assigned to every variable of T1 are the same as, or very close to, the values T2 assigns to the corresponding variable when certain initial and boundary conditions—consistent with T2—are specified". The idea that a theory (in our previous example, Newtonian mechanics) that is close to being true (i.e., that is verisimil) converges as a limiting case


id: memex-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memex-0.md
category: reference
title: Memex
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memex
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:58.676263+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: memex-20260505-0
summary:
A memex (a portmanteau of "memory" and "index") is a hypothetical electromechanical device for interacting with microform documents and described in Vannevar Bush's 1945 article "As We May Think". Bush envisioned the memex as a device in which individuals would compress and store all of their books, records, and communications, "mechanized so that it may be consulted with exceeding speed and flexibility". The individual was supposed to use the memex as an automatic personal filing system, making the memex "an enlarged intimate supplement to his memory". The concept of the memex influenced the development of early hypertext systems and personal knowledge base software. The hypothetical implementation depicted by Bush for the purpose of concrete illustration was based upon a document bookmark list of static microfilm pages and lacked a true hypertext system, where parts of pages would have internal structure beyond the common textual format. == Development == === An electromechanical memex device === In "As We May Think", Vannevar Bush describes a memex as an electromechanical device enabling individuals to develop and read a large self-contained research library, create and follow associative trails of links and personal annotations, and recall these trails at any time to share them with


id: memex-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memex-1.md
category: reference
title: Memex
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memex
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:58.676263+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: memex-20260505-0
summary:
Wholly new forms of encyclopedias will appear, ready-made with a mesh of associative trails running through them, ready to be dropped into the memex and there amplified. The lawyer has at his touch the associated opinions and decisions of his whole experience, and of the experience of friends and authorities. The patent attorney has on call the millions of issued patents, with familiar trails to every point of his client's interest. The physician, puzzled by a patient's reactions, strikes the trail established in studying an earlier similar case, and runs rapidly through analogous case histories, with side references to the classics for the pertinent anatomy and histology. ... The historian, with a vast chronological account of a people, parallels it with a skip trail that stops only on the salient items and can follow at any time contemporary trails which lead him all over civilization at a particular epoch. There is a new profession of trailblazers, those who find delight in the task of establishing useful trails through the enormous mass of the common record. The inheritance from the master becomes, not only his additions to the world's record but for his disciples the entire scaffolding by which they were


id: memex-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memex-2.md
category: reference
title: Memex
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memex
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:58.676263+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: memex-20260505-0
summary:
== 1967 Memex revisited == Vannevar Bush published the retrospective article "Memex Revisited" in his 1967 book Science Is Not Enough. Over two decades after his initial conception of the Memex, Bush details the various technological advancements that have made his vision a possibility. Specifically, Bush cites photocells, transistors, cathode ray tubes, magnetic and videotape, "high-speed electric circuits", and "miniaturization of solid-state devices" such as the TV and radio. The article claims that magnetic tape would be central to the creation of a modern Memex device. The erasable quality of the tape is of special significance, as this would allow for modification of information stored in the proposed Memex. In the article, Bush stresses the continued importance of supplementing "how creative men think" and relates that the systems for indexing data are still insufficient and rely too much on linear pathways rather than the association-based system of the human brain. Bush writes that a machine with the "speed and flexibility" of the brain is not attainable, but improvements could be made in regard to the capacity to obtain informational "permanence and clarity". Bush also relates that, unlike digital technology, Memex would be of no significant aid to business or profitable


id: mental-models-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_Models-0.md
category: reference
title: Mental Models
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_Models
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:36:59.848818+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mental-models-20260505-0
summary:
Mental Models is a book published by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., in 1983 ISBN 0-89859-242-9. It was edited by Dedre Gentner and Albert L. Stevens, both employees of Bolt, Beranek and Newman, Inc. at the time. It appeared at about the same time as a book by the same name by Philip Johnson-Laird. According to the acknowledgment of the book, it resulted from a workshop on mental models held at the University of California, San Diego in October 1980, that was jointly sponsored by the Office of Naval Research and the Sloan Foundation. == Chapters == Some Observations on Mental Models — Donald A. Norman, UCSD Dr. Norman describes the properties of mental models — that they can be contradictory, incomplete, superstitious, erroneous, and unstable, varying in time. So the job of system designers is to help users form an accurate and useful mental model of a system. And the job of researchers is to set up experiments to learn to understand actual mental models, even though they may be messy and incomplete. Phenomenology and the Evolution of Intuition — Andrea diSessa, MIT Surrogates and Mappings: Two Kinds of Conceptual Models for Interactive Devices — Richard M. Young, Medical Research


id: mundaneum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mundaneum-0.md
category: reference
title: Mundaneum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mundaneum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:01.058134+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mundaneum-20260505-0
summary:
The Mundaneum was an institution which aimed to gather together all the world's knowledge and classify it according to a system known as the Universal Decimal Classification. It was developed at the turn of the 20th century by Belgian lawyers Paul Otlet and Henri La Fontaine. The Mundaneum has been identified as a milestone in the history of data collection and management, and, albeit more tenuously, as a precursor to the Internet. In the 21st century, the Mundaneum is a non-profit organisation based in Mons, Belgium, that runs an exhibition space, website, and archive, which celebrate the legacy of the original Mundaneum. == History == The Mundaneum was created in 1910, following an initiative begun in 1895 by Belgian lawyers Paul Otlet and Henri La Fontaine, as part of their work on documentation science. Otlet first called it the Palais Mondial ("World Palace"), and it occupied the left wing of the Cinquantenaire Palace, a government building in Brussels. Otlet and La Fontaine organized an International Conference of International Associations, which was the origin of the Union of International Associations (UIA). Otlet regarded the project as the centrepiece of a new "world city"—a centrepiece, which eventually became an archive with more


id: olympia-academy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympia_Academy-0.md
category: reference
title: Olympia Academy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympia_Academy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:02.341108+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: olympia-academy-20260505-0
summary:
The Olympia Academy (German: Akademie Olympia) was a group of friends in Bern, Switzerland, who met – usually at Albert Einstein's apartment – to discuss philosophy and physics. == Overview == The group was founded in 1902 by Einstein, Conrad Habicht, and Maurice Solovine, and played a significant role in Einstein's intellectual development. Before his "miracle year" (1905), when Einstein was a patent clerk in Bern, the group of friends met to debate books in the fields of physics and philosophy. The group's origin lay in Einstein's need to offer private lessons in mathematics and physics in order to make a living (in 1901, before he took up his post at the patent office in Bern). Solovine, a Romanian philosophy student, answered Einstein's newspaper advertisement. In fact neither the tutorials nor any payment materialised; instead, the two began to meet regularly to discuss their shared interest in physics and philosophy. They were soon joined by the mathematician Habicht, who was Einstein's neighbour at Schaffhausen; in 1902 they named themselves the Akademie Olympia, and though a friend would occasionally join them in one of their meetings, the Academy remained essentially just the trio of Einstein, Habicht, and Solovine until the latter


id: ortega-hypothesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ortega_hypothesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Ortega hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ortega_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:03.610887+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ortega-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
The Ortega hypothesis holds that average or mediocre scientists contribute substantially to the advancement of science. According to this hypothesis, scientific progress occurs mainly by the accumulation of a mass of modest, narrowly specialized intellectual contributions. On this view, major breakthroughs draw heavily upon a large body of minor and little-known work, without which the major advances could not happen. == Citation research == The Ortega hypothesis is widely held, but a number of systematic studies of scientific citations have favored the opposing "Newton hypothesis", which says that scientific progress is mostly the work of a relatively small number of great scientists (after Isaac Newton's statement that he "stood on the shoulders of giants"). The most important papers mostly cite other important papers by a small number of outstanding scientists, suggesting that the breakthroughs do not actually draw heavily on a large body of minor work. Rather, the pattern of citations suggests that most minor work draws heavily on a small number of outstanding papers and outstanding scientists. Even minor papers by the most eminent scientists are cited much more than papers by relatively unknown scientists; and these elite scientists are clustered mostly in a small group of elite departments


id: patronage-in-astronomy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patronage_in_astronomy-0.md
category: reference
title: Patronage in astronomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patronage_in_astronomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:06.257744+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patronage-in-astronomy-20260505-0
summary:
Patronage in astronomy is an approach which one can use to examine the history of astronomy from a cultural standpoint. Rather than simply focusing on the findings and discoveries of individual astronomers, this approach emphasizes the importance of patronage in shaping the field of astronomy. == Importance to the history of science == An often overlooked dimension in the history of science, the patronage system and the realities that existed within such a system played an important role in the lives of many of science's icons and heroes. The history of astronomy in particular is filled with examples demonstrating the relationship between patron and client, including that of Galileo Galilei and his ties to the Medici family. Many historians have begun to examine the importance of examining scientific history through this relatively forgotten lens. Dr. Robert Smith, in an article examining patronage in the early history of NASA, begins with the assertion that “the history of space astronomy is usually written from the perspective of the remarkable scientific findings garnered by space astronomers and the ways these findings have enriched and guided new views of the universe.” But, as Barker and Goldstein ensure, “following the groundbreaking work of Robert Westman


id: patronage-in-astronomy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patronage_in_astronomy-1.md
category: reference
title: Patronage in astronomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patronage_in_astronomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:06.257744+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patronage-in-astronomy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Nicholas Jardine === In his article titled The Places of Astronomy in Early-Modern Culture, Nicholas Jardine looks to examine how the system of patronage and the codes of courtly conduct shaped a new agenda for astronomy: the quest for the true world system. Jardine begins his article by noting that astronomy “did not then make up a specialty or discipline in anything like the modern sense… rather, it comprised a whole series of practices widely diffused through the various social sites and strata.” The focus of University teachings on astronomy was “predominantly practical and utilitarian, directed towards the calendrical, navigational, agricultural, and above all, medical applications of the subject… [p]lanetary models were on the whole considered as fictions devised for predictive purposes.” But, during the course of the sixteenth century “there arose an entirely new kind of princely and aristocratic involvement in astronomy, an involvement in which astronomical observations, instruments, models, and ultimately world systems themselves became objects of courtly production, exchange, and competition.” Some notable places of this “new courtly culture of astronomy were the court of Landgraf Wilhelm IV of Hesse-Kassel, Tycho Brahe’s island of Hven (held in fief from Frederick II of Denmark) and, some decades


id: patronage-in-astronomy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patronage_in_astronomy-2.md
category: reference
title: Patronage in astronomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patronage_in_astronomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:06.257744+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patronage-in-astronomy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Mario Biagioli === In his book, Galileo Courtier: The Practice of Science in the Culture of Absolutism, Mario Biagioli looks to shed light on the ways in which a society characterized by patronage relationships affected one of astronomy's, and modern science's, greatest heroes: Galileo Galilei. Biagioli looks to uncover aspects of Galileo's life by “vividly [presenting] the pioneer physicist to us through the active social relations he experienced with persons in the different courts with which he was connected.” The book reveals how Galileo “used patronage to obtain his teaching position in Pisa… [and] maneuvered his transfer from Padua to the “home court” of the Medicis... used contacts with Prince Cesi and other well-placed persons in Roman circles to become an Academian, and a person of influence, and how all of this turned to dust for Galileo, when he lost the patronage of Urban VIII, one of his two most special patrons”. In a review of Biagioli's work, Larry Wolff noted Biagioli as demonstrating Galileo's legitimacy as a direct consequence of “his ‘career strategies’” and not just “his ‘cognitive attitudes’” and that Galileo is shown to be a master of attaining power and a seventeenth-century career in science The


id: patronage-in-astronomy-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patronage_in_astronomy-3.md
category: reference
title: Patronage in astronomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patronage_in_astronomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:06.257744+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patronage-in-astronomy-20260505-0
summary:
[H]e saw the telescope more as an instrument of patronage than as an instrument of astronomy. When Galileo, having seized what the moon and stars could quickly offer, had turned his telescope on the next brightest object in the evening sky, Jupiter, early in January, Venus was visible in the predawn sky. For a Copernican, Venus was in a critical part of its orbit, past maximum elongation, approaching superior conjunction, and thus exhibiting a shape incompatible with the Ptolemaic system. As we have seen, however, Jupiter had offered something quite different, an incomparable present to the grand duke, and Galileo had not paused to look further. Westfall questions Galileo's commitment to Copernicanism, and instead views Galileo as being more concerned with finding discoveries that could help further his patronage relationship, and that Galileo was prepared to try to monopolize the telescope in order to do so. == See also == History of Science History of Astronomy Age of Enlightenment Galileo Galilei Galileo Affair Johannes Kepler Tycho Brahe Nicolaus Copernicus == Notes == == References == Barker, Peter, and Bernard R. Goldstein. "Patronage and the Production of De Revolutionibus." Journal for the History of Astronomy (ISSN 0021-8286), Vol. 34, Part 4,


id: performativity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performativity-0.md
category: reference
title: Performativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:07.568610+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: performativity-20260505-0
summary:
Performativity is the concept that language can function as a form of social action and have the effect of change. The concept has multiple applications in diverse fields such as anthropology, social and cultural geography, economics, gender studies (social construction of gender), law, linguistics, performance studies, history, management studies and philosophy. The concept is first described by philosopher of language John L. Austin when he referred to a specific capacity: the capacity of speech and communication to act or to consummate an action. Austin differentiated this from constative language, which he defined as descriptive language that can be "evaluated as true or false". Common examples of performative language are making promises, betting, performing a wedding ceremony, an umpire calling a foul, or a judge pronouncing a verdict. The concept of performance has been developed by such scholars as Richard Schechner, Victor Turner, Clifford Geertz, Erving Goffman, John Austin, John Searle, Pierre Bourdieu, Stern and Henderson, and Judith Butler. == Defining performance == Performance is a bodily practice that produces meaning. It is the presentation or 're-actualization' of symbolic systems through living bodies as well as lifeless mediating objects, such as architecture. In the academic field, as opposed to the domain


id: performativity-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performativity-1.md
category: reference
title: Performativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:07.568610+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: performativity-20260505-0
summary:
=== J. L. Austin === The term derives from the founding work in speech act theory by ordinary language philosopher J. L. Austin. In the 1950s, Austin gave the name performative utterances to situations where saying something was doing something, rather than simply reporting on or describing reality. The paradigmatic case here is speaking the words "I do". Austin did not use the word performativity. Breaking with analytic philosophy, Austin argued in How to Do Things With Words that a "performative utterance" cannot be said to be either true or false as a constative utterance might be: it can only be judged either "happy" or "infelicitous" depending upon whether the conditions required for its success have been met. In this sense, performativity is a function of the pragmatics of language. Having shown that all utterances perform actions, even apparently constative ones, Austin famously discarded the distinction between "performative" and "constative" utterances halfway through the lecture series that became the book and replaced it with a three-level framework: locution (the actual words spoken, that which the linguists and linguistic philosophers of the day were mostly interested in analyzing) illocutionary force (what the speaker is attempting to do in uttering the locution)


id: performativity-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performativity-2.md
category: reference
title: Performativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:07.568610+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: performativity-20260505-0
summary:
=== Jacques Derrida === Philosopher Jacques Derrida drew on Austin's theory of performative speech act while deconstructing its logocentric and phonocentric premises and reinscribing it within the operations of generalized writing. In contrast to structuralism's focus on linguistic form, Austin had introduced the force of speech acts, which Derrida aligns with Nietzsche's insights on language. In "Signature, Event, Context," Derrida focused on Austin's privileging of speech and the accompanying presumptions of the presence of a speaker ("signature") and the bounding of a performative's force by an act or a context. In a passage that would become a touchstone of poststructuralist thought, Derrida stresses the citationality or iterability of any and all signs.Every sign, linguistic or nonlinguistic, spoken or written (in the current sense of this opposition), in a small or large unit, can be cited, put between quotation marks; in doing so it can break with every given context, engendering an infinity of new contexts in a manner which is absolutely illimitable. This does not imply that the mark is valid outside of a context, but on the contrary that there are only contexts without any center or absolute anchorage [ancrage]. This citationality, this duplication or duplicity, this iterability of


id: performativity-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performativity-3.md
category: reference
title: Performativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:07.568610+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: performativity-20260505-0
summary:
== Various applications == Performance offers a tremendous interdisciplinary archive of social practices. It offers methods to study such phenomena as body art, ecological theatre, multimedia performance and other kinds of performance arts. Performance also provides a new registry of kinaesthetic effects, enabling a more conscientious observation of the moving body. The changing experience of movement, for example as a result of new technologies, has become an important subject of research. Moreover, the performative turn has helped scholars to develop an awareness of the relations between everyday life and stage performances. For example, at conferences and lectures, on the street and in other places where people speak in public, performers tend to use techniques derived from the world of theatre and dance. Performance allows us to study nature and other apparently 'immovable' and 'objectified' elements of the human environment (e.g. architecture) as active agents, rather than only as passive objects. Thus, in recent decades environmental scholars have acknowledged the existence of a fluid interaction between man and nature. The performative turn has provided additional tools to study everyday life. A household for example may be considered as a performance, in which the relation between wife and husband is a role


id: performativity-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performativity-4.md
category: reference
title: Performativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:07.568610+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: performativity-20260505-0
summary:
=== Video art === Theories of performativity have extended across multiple disciplines and discussions. Notably, interdisciplinary theorist José Esteban Muñoz has related video to theories of performativity. Specifically, Muñoz looks at the 1996 documentary by Susana Aiken and Carlos Aparicio, "The Transformation." Although historically and theoretically related to performance art, video art is not an immediate performance; it is mediated, iterative and citational. In this way, video art raises questions of performativity. Additionally, video art frequently puts bodies and display, complicating borders, surfaces, embodiment, and boundaries and so indexing performativity. == Issues and debates == Despite cogent attempts at definition, the concept of performance continues to be plagued by ambiguities. Most pressing seems to be the paradox between performance as the consequence of following a script (cf. Schechners restored behaviour) and performance as a fluid activity with ample room for improvisation. Another problem involves the discrepancy between performance as a human activity that constructs culture (e.g. Butler and Derrida) on the one hand and performance as a representation of culture on the other (e.g. Bourdieu and Schechner). Another issue, important to pioneers such as Austin but now deemed irrelevant by postmodernism, concerns the sincerity of the actor. Can performance be


id: performativity-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performativity-5.md
category: reference
title: Performativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:07.568610+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: performativity-20260505-0
summary:
== Bibliography and further reading == Austin, J. L. 1962. How to Do Things with Words. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Austin, J. L. 1970. "Performative Utterances." In Austin, "Philosophical Papers", 233–52. London: Oxford University Press. Bakhtin, Mikhail. "Discourse in the Novel", The dialogic imagination : four essays; edited by Michael Holquist; translated by Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist Austin: University of Texas Press, c1981. Bamberg, M., Narrative. State of the Art (2007). Barad, Karen. 2003. "Posthumanist Performativity: Toward and Understanding of How Matter Comes to Matter." Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 28.3: 801–831. Boldyrev, Ivan and Svetlova, Ekaterina. 2016. Enacting Dismal Science: New Perspectives on the Performativity of Economics. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Bourdieu, P., Outlines of a Theory of Practice (Cambridge 1972). Burke, Peter, 'Performing history: the importance of occasions', in: Rethinking history 9 afl. 1 (2005), pp. 35–52. Brickell, Chris. 2005. "Masculinities, Performativity, and Subversion: A Sociological Reappraisal." Men and Masculinities 8.1: 24–43. Brisset, Nicolas. 2017. "On performativity: Option Theory and the Resistance of Financial Phenomena". Journal of the History of Economic Thought. 39(4) : 549–569. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1053837217000128 Brisset, Nicolas. 2019. Economics and Performativity. Exploring limits,Theories and Cases. Routledge INEM Advances in Economic Methodology. Butler, Judith. 1993.


id: philosophy-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Philosophy of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:09.106686+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophy-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Philosophy of science (also theory of science) is the branch of philosophy concerned with the foundations, methods, and implications of science. Amongst its central questions are the difference between science and non-science, the reliability of scientific theories, and the ultimate purpose and meaning of science as a human endeavour. Philosophy of science focuses on metaphysical, epistemic and semantic aspects of scientific practice, and overlaps with metaphysics, ontology, logic, and epistemology, for example, when it explores the relationship between science and the concept of truth. Philosophy of science is both a theoretical and empirical discipline, relying on philosophical theorising as well as meta-studies of scientific practice. Ethical issues such as bioethics and scientific misconduct are often considered ethics or science studies rather than the philosophy of science. Many of the central problems concerned with the philosophy of science lack contemporary consensus, including whether science can infer truth about unobservable entities and whether inductive reasoning can be justified as yielding definite scientific knowledge. Philosophers of science also consider philosophical problems within particular sciences (such as biology, physics and social sciences such as economics and psychology). Some philosophers of science also use contemporary results in science to reach conclusions about philosophy itself. While


id: philosophy-of-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Philosophy of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:09.106686+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophy-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
A closely related question is what counts as a good scientific explanation. In addition to providing predictions about future events, society often takes scientific theories to provide explanations for events that occur regularly or have already occurred. Philosophers have investigated the criteria by which a scientific theory can be said to have successfully explained a phenomenon, as well as what it means to say a scientific theory has explanatory power. One early and influential account of scientific explanation is the deductive-nomological model. It says that a successful scientific explanation must deduce the occurrence of the phenomena in question from a scientific law. This view has been subjected to substantial criticism, resulting in several widely acknowledged counterexamples to the theory. It is especially challenging to characterize what is meant by an explanation when the thing to be explained cannot be deduced from any law because it is a matter of chance, or otherwise cannot be perfectly predicted from what is known. Wesley Salmon developed a model in which a good scientific explanation must be statistically relevant to the outcome to be explained. Others have argued that the key to a good explanation is unifying disparate phenomena or providing a causal mechanism.


id: philosophy-of-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Philosophy of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:09.106686+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophy-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Should science aim to determine ultimate truth, or are there questions that science cannot answer? Scientific realists claim that science aims at truth and that one ought to regard scientific theories as true, approximately true, or likely true. Conversely, scientific anti-realists argue that science does not aim (or at least does not succeed) at truth, especially truth about unobservables like electrons or other universes. Instrumentalists argue that scientific theories should only be evaluated on whether they are useful. In their view, whether theories are true or not is beside the point, because the purpose of science is to make predictions and enable effective technology. Realists often point to the success of recent scientific theories as evidence for the truth (or near truth) of current theories. Antirealists point to either the many false theories in the history of science, epistemic morals, the success of false modeling assumptions, or widely termed postmodern criticisms of objectivity as evidence against scientific realism. Antirealists attempt to explain the success of scientific theories without reference to truth. Some antirealists claim that scientific theories aim at being accurate only about observable objects and argue that their success is primarily judged by that criterion. ==== Real patterns ====


id: philosophy-of-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Philosophy of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:09.106686+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophy-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Instrumentalism became popular among physicists around the turn of the 20th century, after which logical positivism defined the field for several decades. Logical positivism accepts only testable statements as meaningful, rejects metaphysical interpretations, and embraces verificationism (a set of theories of knowledge that combines logicism, empiricism, and linguistics to ground philosophy on a basis consistent with examples from the empirical sciences). Seeking to overhaul all of philosophy and convert it to a new scientific philosophy, the Berlin Circle and the Vienna Circle propounded logical positivism in the late 1920s. Interpreting Ludwig Wittgenstein's early philosophy of language, logical positivists identified a verifiability principle or criterion of cognitive meaningfulness. From Bertrand Russell's logicism they sought reduction of mathematics to logic. They also embraced Russell's logical atomism, Ernst Mach's phenomenalism—whereby the mind knows only actual or potential sensory experience, which is the content of all sciences, whether physics or psychology—and Percy Bridgman's operationalism. Thereby, only the verifiable was scientific and cognitively meaningful, whereas the unverifiable was unscientific, cognitively meaningless "pseudostatements"—metaphysical, emotive, or such—not worthy of further review by philosophers, who were newly tasked to organize knowledge rather than develop new knowledge. Logical positivism is commonly portrayed as taking the extreme position that scientific


id: philosophy-of-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science-4.md
category: reference
title: Philosophy of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:09.106686+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophy-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
That there is an objective reality shared by all rational observers."The basis for rationality is acceptance of an external objective reality." "Objective reality is clearly an essential thing if we are to develop a meaningful perspective of the world. Nevertheless its very existence is assumed." "Our belief that objective reality exist is an assumption that it arises from a real world outside of ourselves. As infants we made this assumption unconsciously. People are happy to make this assumption that adds meaning to our sensations and feelings, than live with solipsism." "Without this assumption, there would be only the thoughts and images in our own mind (which would be the only existing mind) and there would be no need of science, or anything else." That this objective reality is governed by natural laws; "Science, at least today, assumes that the universe obeys knowable principles that don't depend on time or place, nor on subjective parameters such as what we think, know or how we behave." Hugh Gauch argues that science presupposes that "the physical world is orderly and comprehensible." That reality can be discovered by means of systematic observation and experimentation.Stanley Sobottka said: "The assumption of external reality is necessary for


id: philosophy-of-science-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science-5.md
category: reference
title: Philosophy of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:09.106686+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophy-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Paul Feyerabend (1924–1994) argued that no description of scientific method could possibly be broad enough to include all the approaches and methods used by scientists, and that there are no useful and exception-free methodological rules governing the progress of science. He argued that "the only principle that does not inhibit progress is: anything goes". Feyerabend said that science started as a liberating movement, but that over time it had become increasingly dogmatic and rigid and had some oppressive features, and thus had become increasingly an ideology. Because of this, he said it was impossible to come up with an unambiguous way to distinguish science from religion, magic, or mythology. He saw the exclusive dominance of science as a means of directing society as authoritarian and ungrounded. Promulgation of this epistemological anarchism earned Feyerabend the title of "the worst enemy of science" from his detractors. === Sociology of scientific knowledge methodology === According to Kuhn, science is an inherently communal activity which can only be done as part of a community. For him, the fundamental difference between science and other disciplines is the way in which the communities function. Others, especially Feyerabend and some post-modernist thinkers, have argued that there is


id: philosophy-of-science-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science-6.md
category: reference
title: Philosophy of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:09.106686+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophy-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Other topics == === Reductionism === Analysis involves breaking an observation or theory down into simpler concepts in order to understand it. Reductionism can refer to one of several philosophical positions related to this approach. One type of reductionism suggests that phenomena are amenable to scientific explanation at lower levels of analysis and inquiry. Perhaps a historical event might be explained in sociological and psychological terms, which in turn might be described in terms of human physiology, which in turn might be described in terms of chemistry and physics. Daniel Dennett distinguishes legitimate reductionism from what he calls greedy reductionism, which denies real complexities and leaps too quickly to sweeping generalizations. === Social accountability === A broad issue affecting the neutrality of science concerns the areas which science chooses to explore—that is, what part of the world and of humankind are studied by science. Philip Kitcher in his Science, Truth, and Democracy argues that scientific studies that attempt to show one segment of the population as being less intelligent, less successful, or emotionally backward compared to others have a political feedback effect which further excludes such groups from access to science. Thus such studies undermine the broad consensus required


id: philosophy-of-science-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science-7.md
category: reference
title: Philosophy of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:09.106686+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophy-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Philosophy of biology deals with epistemological, metaphysical, and ethical issues in the biological and biomedical sciences. Although philosophers of science and philosophers generally have long been interested in biology (e.g., Aristotle, Descartes, Leibniz and even Kant), philosophy of biology only emerged as an independent field of philosophy in the 1960s and 1970s. Philosophers of science began to pay increasing attention to developments in biology, from the rise of the modern synthesis in the 1930s and 1940s to the discovery of the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in 1953 to more recent advances in genetic engineering. Other key ideas such as the reduction of all life processes to biochemical reactions as well as the incorporation of psychology into a broader neuroscience are also addressed. Research in current philosophy of biology includes investigation of the foundations of evolutionary theory (such as Peter Godfrey-Smith's work), and the role of viruses as persistent symbionts in host genomes. As a consequence, the evolution of genetic content order is seen as the result of competent genome editors in contrast to former narratives in which error replication events (mutations) dominated. === Philosophy of medicine === Beyond medical ethics and bioethics, the philosophy of medicine is a branch


id: philosophy-of-science-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science-8.md
category: reference
title: Philosophy of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:09.106686+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophy-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The philosophy of social science is the study of the logic and method of the social sciences, such as sociology and cultural anthropology. Philosophers of social science are concerned with the differences and similarities between the social and the natural sciences, causal relationships between social phenomena, the possible existence of social laws, and the ontological significance of structure and agency. The French philosopher, Auguste Comte (1798–1857), established the epistemological perspective of positivism in The Course in Positivist Philosophy, a series of texts published between 1830 and 1842. The first three volumes of the Course dealt chiefly with the natural sciences already in existence (geoscience, astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology), whereas the latter two emphasised the inevitable coming of social science: "sociologie". For Comte, the natural sciences had to necessarily arrive first, before humanity could adequately channel its efforts into the most challenging and complex "Queen science" of human society itself. Comte offers an evolutionary system proposing that society undergoes three phases in its quest for the truth according to a general 'law of three stages'. These are (1) the theological, (2) the metaphysical, and (3) the positive. Comte's positivism established the initial philosophical foundations for formal sociology and social research. Durkheim,


id: proofs-and-refutations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proofs_and_Refutations-0.md
category: reference
title: Proofs and Refutations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proofs_and_Refutations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:14.943371+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: proofs-and-refutations-20260505-0
summary:
Proofs and Refutations: The Logic of Mathematical Discovery is a 1976 book by philosopher Imre Lakatos expounding his view of the progress of mathematics. The book is written as a series of Socratic dialogues involving a group of students who discuss proposed proofs of Euler's polyhedral formula. A central theme is that definitions are not carved in stone, but often have to be patched up in the light of later insights, in particular failed proofs. This gives mathematics a somewhat experimental flavour. At the end of the Introduction, Lakatos explains that his purpose is to challenge formalism in mathematics, and to show that informal mathematics grows by a logic of "proofs and refutations". == Background == The 1976 book Proofs and Refutations is based on the first three chapters of his 1961 four-chapter doctoral thesis Essays in the Logic of Mathematical Discovery. But its first chapter is Lakatos's own revision of its chapter 1 that was first published as Proofs and Refutations in four parts in 1963–4 in the British Journal for the Philosophy of Science. == Synopsis == Many important logical ideas are explained in the book. For example, the difference between a counterexample to a lemma (a so-called


id: richard-dawkins-how-a-scientist-changed-the-way-we-think-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Dawkins:_How_a_Scientist_Changed_the_Way_We_Think-0.md
category: reference
title: Richard Dawkins: How a Scientist Changed the Way We Think
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Dawkins:_How_a_Scientist_Changed_the_Way_We_Think
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:16.286866+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: richard-dawkins-how-a-scientist-changed-the-way-we-think-20260505-0
summary:
Richard Dawkins: How a Scientist Changed the Way We Think is a festschrift of 25 essays written in recognition of the life and work of Richard Dawkins. It was published in 2006, to coincide with the 30th anniversary of the publication of The Selfish Gene. A wide range of topics is covered from many fields including evolutionary biology, philosophy, and psychology. Space is also given to writers who are not in full agreement with Dawkins. The book is edited by two of Dawkins' former PhD students, Alan Grafen and Mark Ridley. (ISBN 9780199291168) == Reception == The reviews of the book have been mixed, but the controversial title phrase, "How a Scientist Changed the Way We Think" has been explained by considering Dawkins to have worked as an influential educator and concise author, of The Selfish Gene, who promoted the key ideas of others about evolutionary biology, also including some controversial ideas which are not as widely accepted. As the author of a popular science book, Dawkins had popularized ideas by George Williams in critiquing group selection, William Hamilton on the theory of kin selection in evolution, biologist/geneticist John Maynard Smith on evolutionarily stable strategies, and Robert Trivers about reciprocal


id: science-and-civilisation-in-china-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China-0.md
category: reference
title: Science and Civilisation in China
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:17.599687+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-civilisation-in-china-20260505-0
summary:
Science and Civilisation in China (1954–present) is an ongoing series of books about the history of science and technology in China published by Cambridge University Press. It was initiated and edited by British historian Joseph Needham (1900–1995). Needham was a well-respected scientist before undertaking this encyclopedia and was even responsible for the "S" in UNESCO. To date there have been seven volumes in twenty-seven books. The series was on the Modern Library Board's 100 Best Nonfiction books of the 20th century. Needham's work was the first of its kind to praise Chinese scientific contributions and provide their history and connection to global knowledge in contrast to eurocentric historiography. By asking his grand questions: why did modern science not develop in China, and why China was technologically superior to the West prior to the 16th century, Needham’s Science and Civilisation in China is also recognized as one of the most influential works in stimulating the discourse on the multicultural roots of modern science. In 1954, Needham—along with an international team of collaborators—initiated the project to study the science, technology, and civilisation of ancient China. This project produced a series of volumes published by Cambridge University Press. The project is still continuing


id: science-and-civilisation-in-china-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China-1.md
category: reference
title: Science and Civilisation in China
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:17.599687+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-civilisation-in-china-20260505-0
summary:
=== Critical acclaim === Groff Conklin of Galaxy Science Fiction in 1955 said that Vol. 1 "presents a richly patterned tapestry of the development of civilization in the Far East", and that "it is for everyone who is intrigued by the unknown, whether future (science fiction) or past (scientific history)". Jonathan Spence wrote in a 1982 New York Times article "this work is the most ambitious undertaking in Chinese studies during this century". The New York Times obituary for Needham stated that students of China hail Needham's encyclopedia and compare him to Charles Darwin in terms of importance regarding scientific knowledge. In 1999 Roger Hart published Beyond Science and Civilization: A Post-Needham Critique giving more analysis of Needham's work about how sciences of the West and China differed in practice to make for different historical attributes. According to Arun Bala, the author of The Dialogue of Civilizations in the Birth of Modern Science, Needham postulates that scientific knowledge may evolve to more closely resemble Chinese philosophical views of nature; signifying his belief in Chinese inherent wisdom. === Criticism from scholars === Science and Civilisation in China was welcomed and is highly regarded among scholars because of its extensive comparative coverage


id: science-and-civilisation-in-china-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China-2.md
category: reference
title: Science and Civilisation in China
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:17.599687+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-civilisation-in-china-20260505-0
summary:
=== Scholarly Discourse === In the late 1950s and early 1960s, in response to Needham’s Science and Civilisation in China, Western historians insisted that modern science was unique to Western civilizations. Scholars like Roger Hart stated that Needham’s work was significant in helping change the criteria for defining modern science. In Hart’s Imagined Civilizations: China, The West, and Their First Encounter, Hart introduces the idea of the “Great Divide” between “the primitive non-West and the modern West” in the history of science. Hart explains the concept of the “Great Divide” as the perception that non-Western civilizations practiced false sciences and he criticizes the Eurocentric claim that the development of modern science was uniquely Western. Bala’s The Dialogue of Civilizations in the Birth of Modern Science examines historical and epistemological presumptions in order to break from the Eurocentric view of the development of modern science. Needham’s juxtaposition of the attributes of Eastern and Western science influenced Bala to postulate that the future of science could be close to the Chinese view of nature. Needham and his co-authors are credited for amassing a plethora of evidence regarding the influence and contributions of Chinese technologies and ideas that allowed for the growth of


id: scientific-community-metaphor-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_community_metaphor-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific community metaphor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_community_metaphor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:22.603136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-community-metaphor-20260505-0
summary:
In computer science, the scientific community metaphor is a metaphor used to aid understanding scientific communities. The first publications on the scientific community metaphor in 1981 and 1982 involved the development of a programming language named Ether that invoked procedural plans to process goals and assertions concurrently by dynamically creating new rules during program execution. Ether also addressed issues of conflict and contradiction with multiple sources of knowledge and multiple viewpoints. == Development == The scientific community metaphor builds on the philosophy, history and sociology of science. It was originally developed building on work in the philosophy of science by Karl Popper and Imre Lakatos. In particular, it initially made use of Lakatos' work on proofs and refutations. Subsequently, development has been influenced by the work of Geof Bowker, Michel Callon, Paul Feyerabend, Elihu M. Gerson, Bruno Latour, John Law, Karl Popper, Susan Leigh Star, Anselm Strauss, and Lucy Suchman. In particular Latour's Science in Action had great influence. In the book, Janus figures make paradoxical statements about scientific development. An important challenge for the scientific community metaphor is to reconcile these paradoxical statements. == Qualities of scientific research == Scientific research depends critically on monotonicity, concurrency, commutativity, and pluralism


id: scientific-community-metaphor-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_community_metaphor-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientific community metaphor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_community_metaphor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:22.603136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-community-metaphor-20260505-0
summary:
== Emphasis on communities rather than individuals == Alan Turing was one of the first to attempt to more precisely characterize individual intelligence through the notion of his famous Turing Test. This paradigm was developed and deepened in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon did pioneer work in analyzing the protocols of individual human problem solving behavior on puzzles. More recently Marvin Minsky has developed the idea that the mind of an individual human is composed of a society of agents in Society of Mind (see the analysis by Push Singh). The above research on individual human problem solving is complementary to the scientific community metaphor. == Current applications == Some developments in hardware and software technology for the Internet are being applied in light of the scientific community metaphor.Hewitt 2006 Legal concerns (e.g., HIPAA, Sarbanes-Oxley, "The Books and Records Rules" in SEC Rule 17a-3/4 and "Design Criteria Standard for Electronic Records Management Software Applications" in DOD 5015.2 in the U.S.) are leading organizations to store information monotonically forever. It has just now become less costly in many cases to store information on magnetic disk than on tape. With increasing storage capacity, sites can monotonically


id: the-selfish-gene-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene-0.md
category: reference
title: The Selfish Gene
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:23.752400+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-selfish-gene-20260505-0
summary:
The Selfish Gene is a 1976 popular science book by Richard Dawkins that espouses the gene-centred view of evolution. It builds upon the thesis of George Christopher Williams's Adaptation and Natural Selection (1966) and W. D. Hamilton's work on kin selection. From the gene-centred view, it follows that the more genes two individuals share, the more sense it makes for them to co-operate. The book introduced the term meme for a unit of cultural evolution analogous to the gene. Memetics has become a subject in its own right in the years since. In popularising Hamilton's ideas, as well as making its own valuable contributions to the field, the book has also stimulated research on human inclusive fitness. The "selfish gene" is a metaphor for the gene-centred view of evolution. As such, the book is not about a particular gene that causes selfish behaviour; in fact, much of it is devoted to explaining the evolution of altruism. Dawkins says of the title that he "can readily see that it might give an inadequate impression of its contents" and in retrospect wishes he had taken Tom Maschler's advice and titled it The Immortal Gene. He laments that “Too many people read it


id: the-selfish-gene-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene-1.md
category: reference
title: The Selfish Gene
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:23.752400+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-selfish-gene-20260505-0
summary:
9. Battle of the Sexes Dawkins discusses Darwin’s theory of sexual selection. Females can afford to be choosy in their mates, and select for attractive traits in males. Fisher's principle explains why a 50:50 ratio of males to females is evolutionarily stable. This is true even in an extreme case like the harem-keeping elephant seal, where 4% of the males get 88% of copulations. In that case, the strategy of having a female offspring is safe, as she will have a pup, but the strategy of having a male can bring a large return (dozens of pups), even though many males live out their lives as bachelors. 10. You Scratch My back, I’ll Ride on Yours Dawkins discusses reciprocal altruism. Amotz Zahavi's theory of honest signalling explains stotting as a selfish act that improves the springbok's chances of escaping from a predator by indicating how difficult the chase would be. Dawkins discusses why many species live in groups, achieving mutual benefits through mechanisms such as Hamilton's selfish herd model: each individual behaves selfishly but the result is herd behaviour. Altruism can evolve, as in the social insects such as ants and bees, where workers give up the right to reproduce


id: the-selfish-gene-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene-2.md
category: reference
title: The Selfish Gene
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:23.752400+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-selfish-gene-20260505-0
summary:
=== Choice of words === A good deal of objection to The Selfish Gene stemmed from its failure to be always clear about "selection" and "replication". Dawkins says the gene is the fundamental unit of selection, and then points out that selection does not act directly upon the gene, but upon "vehicles" or '"extended phenotypes". Stephen Jay Gould took exception to calling the gene a 'unit of selection' because selection acted only upon phenotypes. Summarising the Dawkins-Gould difference of view, Sterelny says: Gould thinks gene differences do not cause evolutionary changes in populations, they register those changes. The word "cause" here is somewhat tricky: does a change in lottery rules (for example, inheriting a defective gene "responsible" for a disorder) "cause" differences in outcome that might or might not occur? It certainly alters the likelihood of events, but a concatenation of contingencies decides what actually occurs. Dawkins thinks the use of "cause" as a statistical weighting is acceptable in common usage. Like Gould, Gabriel Dover in criticising The Selfish Gene says: It is illegitimate to give 'powers' to genes, as Dawkins would have it, to control the outcome of selection...There are no genes for interactions, as such: rather, each unique


id: the-selfish-gene-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene-3.md
category: reference
title: The Selfish Gene
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:23.752400+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-selfish-gene-20260505-0
summary:
== Awards and recognition == In July 2017 a poll to celebrate the 30th anniversary of the Royal Society Science Book Prize listed The Selfish Gene as the most influential science book of all time. The Royal Institution conducted a poll to determine the best science book ever. The Selfish Gene made the shortlist, along with Tom Stoppard's Arcadia, Konrad Lorenz's King Solomon's Ring and, in first place, Primo Levi's The Periodic Table. Ian McEwan writes that it "stood at the beginning of a golden age of science writing. With a fine sense of literary tradition, the physicist Steven Weinberg, in his book Dreams of a Final Theory, revisited Huxley's lecture on chalk in order to make the case for reductionism. Steven Pinker's application of Darwinian thought to Chomskyan linguistics in The Language Instinct is one of the finest celebrations of language I know. Among many other indispensable 'classics', I would propose EO Wilson's The Diversity of Life on the ecological wonders of the Amazon rain forest, and on the teeming micro-organisms in a handful of soil; David Deutsch's masterly account of the Many Worlds theory in The Fabric of Reality; Jared Diamond's melding of history with biological thought in


id: sociobiology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiology-0.md
category: reference
title: Sociobiology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:24.998969+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sociobiology-20260505-0
summary:
Sociobiology is a field of biology that aims to explain social behavior in terms of evolution. It draws from disciplines including psychology, ethology, anthropology, evolution, zoology, archaeology, and population genetics. Within the study of human societies, sociobiology is closely related to evolutionary anthropology, human behavioral ecology, evolutionary psychology, and sociology. Sociobiology investigates social behaviors such as mating patterns, territorial fights, pack hunting, and the hive society of social insects. It argues that just as selection pressure led to animals evolving useful ways of interacting with the natural environment, so also it led to the genetic evolution of advantageous social behavior. While the term "sociobiology" originated at least as early as the 1940s; the concept did not gain major recognition until the publication of E. O. Wilson's book Sociobiology: The New Synthesis in 1975. The field quickly became the subject of scientific controversy. Critics, led by Richard Lewontin and Stephen Jay Gould, argued that genes played a role in human behavior, but that traits such as aggressiveness could be explained by social environment rather than by biology. Sociobiologists responded by pointing to the complex relationship between nature and nurture. Among sociobiologists, the controversy between laying weight to different levels of selection


id: sociobiology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiology-1.md
category: reference
title: Sociobiology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:24.998969+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sociobiology-20260505-0
summary:
Certain behavioral traits are inherited, Inherited behavioral traits have been honed by natural selection and were adaptive in the environment in which they evolved. Sociobiology uses Nikolaas Tinbergen's four questions to search for explanations of animal behavior. Two of these categories are at the species level; two, at the individual level. The species-level categories (often called "ultimate explanations") are the adaptive function that a behavior serves and the historical evolutionary process that resulted in this functionality. The individual-level categories (often called "proximate explanations") are the development of the individual and the proximate mechanism (such as brain anatomy and hormones). === In humans === Studies of human behavior genetics have found behavioral traits such as creativity, extroversion, aggressiveness, and IQ have high heritability. Researchers are careful to point out that heritability does not constrain the influence that environmental or cultural factors may have on these traits. Various theorists have argued that in some environments criminal behavior might be adaptive. The evolutionary neuroandrogenic (ENA) theory, by sociologist/criminologist Lee Ellis, posits that female sexual selection has led to increased competitive behavior among men, sometimes resulting in criminality. In another theory, Mark van Vugt argues that a history of intergroup conflict for resources between


id: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-0.md
category: reference
title: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:26.249284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-0
summary:
The Structure of Scientific Revolutions is a 1962 book about the history of science by the philosopher Thomas S. Kuhn. Its publication was a landmark event in the history, philosophy, and sociology of science. Kuhn challenged the then prevailing view of progress in science in which scientific progress was viewed as "development-by-accumulation" of accepted facts and theories. Kuhn argued for an episodic model in which periods of conceptual continuity and cumulative progress, referred to as periods of "normal science", were interrupted by periods of revolutionary science. The discovery of "anomalies" accumulating and precipitating revolutions in science leads to new paradigms. New paradigms then ask new questions of old data, move beyond the mere "puzzle-solving" of the previous paradigm, alter the rules of the game and change the "map" directing new research. For example, Kuhn's analysis of the Copernican Revolution emphasized that, in its beginning, it did not offer more accurate predictions of celestial events, such as planetary positions, than the Ptolemaic system, but instead appealed to some practitioners based on a promise of better, simpler solutions that might be developed at some point in the future. Kuhn called the core concepts of an ascendant revolution its "paradigms" and thereby launched


id: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-1.md
category: reference
title: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:26.249284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-0
summary:
"The operations and measurements that a scientist undertakes in the laboratory are not "the given" of experience but rather "the collected with difficulty". They are not what the scientist sees—at least not before his research is well advanced and his attention focused. Rather, they are concrete indices to the content of more elementary perceptions, and as such they are selected for the close scrutiny of normal research only because they promise opportunity for the fruitful elaboration of an accepted paradigm. Far more clearly than the immediate experience from which they in part derive, operations and measurements are paradigm-determined. Science does not deal in all possible laboratory manipulations. Instead, it selects those relevant to the juxtaposition of a paradigm with the immediate experience that that paradigm has partially determined. As a result, scientists with different paradigms engage in different concrete laboratory manipulations." === Historical examples of chemistry === Kuhn explains his ideas using examples taken from the history of science. For instance, eighteenth-century scientists believed that homogenous solutions were chemical compounds. Therefore, a combination of water and alcohol was generally classified as a compound. Nowadays it is considered to be a solution, but there was no reason then to suspect that


id: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-2.md
category: reference
title: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:26.249284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-0
summary:
A famous example of a revolution in scientific thought is the Copernican Revolution. In Ptolemy's school of thought, cycles and epicycles (with some additional concepts) were used for modeling the movements of the planets in a cosmos that had a stationary Earth at its center. As accuracy of celestial observations increased, complexity of the Ptolemaic cyclical and epicyclical mechanisms had to increase to maintain the calculated planetary positions close to the observed positions. Copernicus proposed a cosmology in which the Sun was at the center and the Earth was one of the planets revolving around it. For modeling the planetary motions, Copernicus used the tools he was familiar with, namely the cycles and epicycles of the Ptolemaic toolbox. Yet Copernicus' model needed more cycles and epicycles than existed in the then-current Ptolemaic model, and due to a lack of accuracy in calculations, his model did not appear to provide more accurate predictions than the Ptolemy model. Copernicus' contemporaries rejected his cosmology, and Kuhn asserts that they were quite right to do so: Copernicus' cosmology lacked credibility. Kuhn illustrates how a paradigm shift later became possible when Galileo Galilei introduced his new ideas concerning motion. Intuitively, when an object is set


id: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-3.md
category: reference
title: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:26.249284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-0
summary:
=== Coherence === One of the aims of science is to find models that will account for as many observations as possible within a coherent framework. Together, Galileo's rethinking of the nature of motion and Keplerian cosmology represented a coherent framework that was capable of rivaling the Aristotelian/Ptolemaic framework. Once a paradigm shift has taken place, the textbooks are rewritten. Often the history of science too is rewritten, being presented as an inevitable process leading up to the current, established framework of thought. There is a prevalent belief that all hitherto-unexplained phenomena will in due course be accounted for in terms of this established framework. Kuhn states that scientists spend most (if not all) of their careers in a process of puzzle-solving. Their puzzle-solving is pursued with great tenacity, because the previous successes of the established paradigm tend to generate great confidence that the approach being taken guarantees that a solution to the puzzle exists, even though it may be very hard to find. Kuhn calls this process normal science. As a paradigm is stretched to its limits, anomalies – failures of the current paradigm to take into account observed phenomena – accumulate. Their significance is judged by the practitioners


id: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-4.md
category: reference
title: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:26.249284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-0
summary:
=== Incommensurability === According to Kuhn, the scientific paradigms preceding and succeeding a paradigm shift are so different that their theories are incommensurable—the new paradigm cannot be proven or disproven by the rules of the old paradigm, and vice versa. A later interpretation by Kuhn of "commensurable" versus "incommensurable" was as a distinction between "languages", namely, that statements in commensurable languages were translatable fully from one to the other, while in incommensurable languages, strict translation is not possible. The paradigm shift does not merely involve the revision or transformation of an individual theory, it changes the way terminology is defined, how the scientists in that field view their subject, and, perhaps most significantly, what questions are regarded as valid, and what rules are used to determine the truth of a particular theory. The new theories were not, as the scientists had previously thought, just extensions of old theories, but were instead completely new world views. Such incommensurability exists not just before and after a paradigm shift, but in the periods in between conflicting paradigms. It is simply not possible, according to Kuhn, to construct an impartial language that can be used to perform a neutral comparison between conflicting paradigms, because


id: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-5.md
category: reference
title: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:26.249284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-0
summary:
"First, the new candidate must seem to resolve some outstanding and generally recognized problem that can be met in no other way. Second, the new paradigm must promise to preserve a relatively large part of the concrete problem-solving ability that has accrued to science through its predecessors. Novelty for its own sake is not a desideratum in the sciences as it is in so many other creative fields. As a result, though new paradigms seldom or never possess all the capabilities of their predecessors, they usually preserve a great deal of the most concrete parts of past achievement and they always permit additional concrete problem-solutions besides." In the second edition, Kuhn added a postscript in which he elaborated his ideas on the nature of scientific progress. He described a thought experiment involving an observer who has the opportunity to inspect an assortment of theories, each corresponding to a single stage in a succession of theories. What if the observer is presented with these theories without any explicit indication of their chronological order? Kuhn anticipates that it will be possible to reconstruct their chronology on the basis of the theories' scope and content, because the more recent a theory is, the


id: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-6.md
category: reference
title: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:26.249284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-0
summary:
=== Political science === In 1974, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions was ranked as the second most frequently used book in political science courses focused on scope and methods. In particular, Kuhn's theory has been used by political scientists to critique behavioralism, which claims that accurate political statements must be both testable and falsifiable. The book also proved popular with political scientists embroiled in debates about whether a set of formulations put forth by a political scientist constituted a theory, or something else. The changes that occur in politics, society and business are often expressed in Kuhnian terms, however poor their parallel with the practice of science may seem to scientists and historians of science. The terms "paradigm" and "paradigm shift" have become such notorious clichés and buzzwords that they are sometimes viewed as effectively devoid of content. == Criticisms == The Structure of Scientific Revolutions was soon criticized by Kuhn's colleagues in the history and philosophy of science. In 1965, a special symposium on the book was held at an International Colloquium on the Philosophy of Science that took place at Bedford College, London, and was chaired by Karl Popper. The symposium led to the publication of the symposium's


id: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-7.md
category: reference
title: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:26.249284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-0
summary:
Relativistic mass: the mass of a particle is equal to the total energy of the particle divided by the speed of light squared. Since the total energy of a particle in relation to one system of reference differs from the total energy in relation to other systems of reference, while the speed of light remains constant in all systems, it follows that the mass of a particle has different values in different systems of reference. "Real" mass: the mass of a particle is equal to the non-kinetic energy of a particle divided by the speed of light squared. Since non-kinetic energy is the same in all systems of reference, and the same is true of light, it follows that the mass of a particle has the same value in all systems of reference. Projecting this distinction backwards in time onto Newtonian dynamics, we can formulate the following two hypotheses: HR: the term "mass" in Newtonian theory denotes relativistic mass. Hp: the term "mass" in Newtonian theory denotes "real" mass. According to Field, it is impossible to decide which of these two affirmations is true. Prior to the theory of relativity, the term "mass" was referentially indeterminate. But this does not


id: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-8.md
category: reference
title: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:26.249284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-0
summary:
== Bibliography == Barnes, Barry (1982). T. S. Kuhn and Social Science. New York City: Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231054362. Bilton, Tony; et al. (2002). Introductory Sociology (4th ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 422. ISBN 978-0-333-94571-1.* Bird, Alexander (2013). "Thomas Kuhn". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved September 23, 2017. Bird, Alexander; Ladyman, James (2013). Arguing about Science. Routledge. ISBN 9780415492294. Retrieved September 23, 2017. Blanchard, Olivier J. (2009). "The State of Macro". Annual Review of Economics. 1 (1): 209–228. doi:10.3386/w14259. Conant, James; Haugeland, John (2002). "Editors' introduction". The Road Since Structure: Philosophical Essays, 1970-1993, with an Autobiographical Interview (2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0226457994. Daston, Lorraine (2012). "Structure". Historical Studies in the Natural Sciences. 42 (5): 496–499. doi:10.1525/hsns.2012.42.5.496. JSTOR 10.1525/hsns.2012.42.5.496. Davidson, Donald (1973). "On the Very Idea of a Conceptual Scheme". Proceedings and Addresses of the American Philosophical Association. 47: 5–20. doi:10.2307/3129898. JSTOR 3129898. de Gelder, Beatrice (1989). "Granny, The Naked Emperor and the Second Cognitive Revolution". The Cognitive Turn: Sociological and Psychological Perspectives on Science. Sociology of the Sciences Yearbook. Vol. 13. Springer Netherlands. pp. 97–100. ISBN 978-0-7923-0306-0. Dolby, R. G. A. (1971). "Reviewed Work: Criticism and the


id: technoscience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technoscience-0.md
category: reference
title: Technoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:32.691160+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technoscience-20260505-0
summary:
In common usage, technoscience refers to the entire long-standing and global human activity of technology, combined with the relatively recent scientific method that occurred primarily in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries. Technoscience is the study of how humans interact with technology using the scientific method. Technoscience thus comprises the history of human application of technology and modern scientific methods, ranging from the early development of basic technologies for hunting, agriculture, or husbandry (e.g. the well, the bow, the plow, the harness) and all the way through atomic applications, biotechnology, robotics, and computer sciences. This more common and comprehensive usage of the term technoscience can be found in general textbooks and lectures concerning the history of science. The relationship with the history of science is important in this subject and also underestimated, for example, by more modern sociologists of science. Instead, it is worth emphasizing the links that exist between books on the history of science and technology and the study of the relationship between science and technology within a framework of social developments. The generational leap between historical periods and scientific discoveries, the construction of machines, and the creation of tools in relation to the technological changes that


id: technoscience-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technoscience-1.md
category: reference
title: Technoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:32.691160+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technoscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Political === Science and technology are tools that continually change social structures and behaviors. Technoscience can be viewed as a form of government or having the power of government because of its impact on society. The impact extends to public health, safety, the environment, and beyond. Innovations create fundamental changes and drastically change the way people live. For example, C-SPAN and social media give American voters a near real-time view of Congress. This has allowed journalists and the people to hold their elected officials accountable in new ways. === Environmental === Chlorine chemists and their scientific knowledge helped set the agenda for many environmental problems: PCBs in the Hudson River are polychlorinated biphenols; DDT, dieldrin, and aldrin are chlorinated pesticides; CFCs that deplete the ozone layer are chlorofluorocarbons. Industry actually manufactured the chemicals and consumers purchased them. Therefore, one can determine that chemists are not the sole cause for these issues, but they are not blameless. == See also == Bernard Stiegler Feminist technoscience Technocriticism Technoethics == Notes == == References == Steven Lukes, Power (1974), A Radical View, London: Macmillan Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar (1979). Laboratory Life: the Social Construction of Scientific Facts. Princeton University Press. ISBN


id: tree-of-knowledge-system-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_knowledge_system-0.md
category: reference
title: Tree of knowledge system
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_knowledge_system
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:35.269263+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tree-of-knowledge-system-20260505-0
summary:
The tree of knowledge (ToK) system is a new map of Big History that traces cosmic evolution across four different planes of existence, identified as Matter, Life, Mind and Culture that are mapped respectively by the physical, biological, psychological and social domains of science. The Tree of Knowledge (ToK) System was developed by Gregg Henriques, who is a professor and core faculty member in the Combined-Integrated Doctoral Program in Clinical and School Psychology at James Madison University. The ToK System is part of a larger Unified Theory of Knowledge that Henriques describes as a consilient scientific humanistic philosophy for the 21st Century. The official Unified Theory of Knowledge website describes the ToK System as: [A] theory of scientific knowledge that defines the human knower in relation to the known. It achieves this novel accomplishment by solving the problem of psychology and giving rise to a truly consilient view of the scientific landscape. It accomplishes this via dividing the evolution of behavioral complexity into four different planes of existence...The ToK also characterizes modern empirical natural science as a kind of justification system that functions to map complexity and change. The outline of the ToK System was first published in 2003 in


id: tree-of-knowledge-system-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_knowledge_system-1.md
category: reference
title: Tree of knowledge system
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_knowledge_system
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:35.269263+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tree-of-knowledge-system-20260505-0
summary:
=== Mind/Animal — (Basic) psychological sciences === Mind/cognition in the ToK system refers to the set of mental behaviors. Mental behaviors are behaviors of animals mediated by the nervous system that produce a functional effect on the animal-environment relationship. As such, Mind/cognition is essentially synonymous with what behavioral psychologists have meant when they use the term behavior. Thus, a fly avoiding a fly swatter, a rat pushing a bar or a human getting a drink of water are all mental behaviors. Mind is not synonymous with sentience or the capacity for mental experience, although such processes are presumed to emerge in the mental/cognitive dimension. Cognition, in the broad sense of the term is meaning bodily-neuro-social information processing, as in EEEE Cognition: Embodied, Embedded, Enactive, Extended. While cognitive science stands for naturalist study of mind, psychology is an approach grounded in the tradition of humanities, especially philosophy. Thus, by defining mind as mental behavior, Henriques argues that the ToK System provides a way to bridge the epistemological differences between cognitive and behavioral science. Henriques argues that comparative psychology, ethology, and (animal) cognitive behavioral neuroscience should all be thought of as parts of the discipline that maps the animal-mental domain. === Culture/Person


id: tree-of-knowledge-system-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_knowledge_system-2.md
category: reference
title: Tree of knowledge system
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_knowledge_system
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:35.269263+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tree-of-knowledge-system-20260505-0
summary:
== The "problem of psychology" == The ToK System emerged as a consequence of Henriques wrestling with what he calls "the problem of psychology". Henriques argues that the most difficult problem in psychology as a discipline is that while there is incredible diversity offered by different approaches to psychology, and there is no consensus model of what psychology actually is. Specifically, Henriques argues that the field lacks a clear definition, an agreed upon subject matter, and a coherent conceptual framework. The problem has been long standing, identified as the "crisis" by Lev Vygotsky in the mid 1920s. Henriques further argues that the patent tendency of psychology has been toward theoretical and substantial fragmentation and increasing insularity among the "specialties." In other words, the discipline has fragmented into different schools of thought and methodology, with no overall framework to interpret and integrate the research of different areas. At its best, the different approaches are a strength of psychology; different approaches lead to novel ideas, and prevent psychologists from clinging to a paradigm that fails to explain a phenomenon. At its worst, adherents of one particular school cling to their beliefs concerning the relative importance of their research and disregard or are


id: tree-of-knowledge-system-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_knowledge_system-3.md
category: reference
title: Tree of knowledge system
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_knowledge_system
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:35.269263+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tree-of-knowledge-system-20260505-0
summary:
(1) psychological formalism and (2) human psychology. Psychological formalism is defined as the science of mind and corresponds to the behavior of animal objects. Human psychology is considered to be a unique subset of psychological formalism that deals with human behavior at the level of the individual. Because human behavior is immersed in the larger socio-cultural context (level four in the ToK System), human psychology is considered a hybrid discipline that merges the pure science of psychology with the social sciences. It is important to point out that there are other disciplines the ToK System would classify as “hybrids.” Molecular genetics, for example, is a hybrid between chemistry and biology and neuroscience is a hybrid between biology and psychology. As with Henriques' proposed conception of human psychology, both of these disciplines adopt an object level perspective (molecular and cellular, respectively) on phenomena that simultaneously exist as part of meta-level system processes (life and mind, respectively). Though David A. F. Haaga "congratulate[d] Dr. Henriques' ambitious, scholarly, provocative paper", and "found the Tree of Knowledge taxonomy, the theoretical joint points, the evolutionary history, and the levels of emergent properties highly illuminating", he asks the rhetorical questions, If it is so difficult to


id: tree-of-knowledge-system-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_knowledge_system-4.md
category: reference
title: Tree of knowledge system
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_knowledge_system
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:35.269263+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tree-of-knowledge-system-20260505-0
summary:
== Toward the integration of human knowledge == As stated above, the ToK System proposes a new epistemology with the goal of moving academic knowledge toward what E.O. Wilson termed consilience. Consilience is the interlocking of fact and theory into a coherent, holistic view of knowledge. Henriques argues that the ToK affords new perspectives on how knowledge is obtained because it depicts how science emerges from culture and that the four dimensions of complexity correspond to four broad classes of science: the physical, biological, psychological and social sciences. Henriques further argues that developing such a system for integrating knowledge is not just an academic enterprise. He suggests that in an increasingly complex world, the fragmented state of knowledge can be seen as one of the most pressing social problems of our time. Henriques also believes that history seems to attest that the absence of a collective worldview ostensibly condemns humanity to an endless series of conflicts that inevitably stem from incompatible, partially correct, locally situated justification systems. Thus, from Henriques' perspective, there are good reasons for believing that if there was a shared, general background of explanation, humanity might be able to achieve much greater levels of harmonious relations. In


id: unified-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Unified Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:37.815419+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: unified-science-20260505-0
summary:
"Unified Science" can refer to any of three related strands in contemporary thought. Belief in the unity of science was a central tenet of logical positivism. Different logical positivists construed this doctrine in several different ways, e.g. as a reductionist thesis, that the objects investigated by the special sciences reduce to the objects of a common, putatively more basic domain of science, usually thought to be physics; as the thesis that all of the theories and results of the various sciences can or ought to be expressed in a common language or "universal slang"; or as the thesis that all the special sciences share a common method. The writings of Edward Haskell and a few associates, seeking to rework science into a single discipline employing a common artificial language. This work culminated in the 1972 publication of Full Circle: The Moral Force of Unified Science. The vast part of the work of Haskell and his contemporaries remains unpublished, however. Timothy Wilken and Anthony Judge have recently revived and extended the insights of Haskell and his coworkers. Unified Science has been a consistent thread since the 1940s in Howard T. Odum's systems ecology and the associated Emergy Synthesis, modeling the "ecosystem":


id: unity-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unity_of_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Unity of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unity_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:39.001046+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: unity-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The unity of science is a thesis in philosophy of science that says that all the sciences form a unified whole. The variants of the thesis can be classified as ontological (giving a unified account of the structure of reality) and/or as epistemic/pragmatic (giving a unified account of how the activities and products of science work). There are also philosophers who emphasize the disunity of science, which does not necessarily imply that there could be no unity in some sense but does emphasize pluralism in the ontology and/or practice of science. Early versions of the unity of science thesis can be found in ancient Greek philosophers such as Aristotle, and in the later history of Western philosophy. For example, in the first half of the 20th century the thesis was associated with the unity of science movement led by Otto Neurath, and in the second half of the century the thesis was advocated by Ludwig von Bertalanffy in "General System Theory: A New Approach to Unity of Science" (1951) and by Paul Oppenheim and Hilary Putnam in "Unity of Science as a Working Hypothesis" (1958). It has been opposed by, for example, Jerry Fodor in "Special Sciences (Or: The Disunity


id: vienna-circle-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Circle-0.md
category: reference
title: Vienna Circle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Circle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:41.365102+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vienna-circle-20260505-0
summary:
The Vienna Circle (German: Wiener Kreis) of logical empiricism was a group of philosophers and scientists drawn from the natural and social sciences, logic and mathematics who met regularly from 1924 to 1936 at the University of Vienna, chaired by Moritz Schlick. The Vienna Circle had an influence on 20th-century philosophy, especially philosophy of science and analytic philosophy. The philosophical position of the Vienna Circle was called logical empiricism (German: logischer Empirismus), logical positivism or neopositivism. It was influenced by Ernst Mach, David Hilbert, French conventionalism (Henri Poincaré and Pierre Duhem), Gottlob Frege, Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein and Albert Einstein. The Vienna Circle was pluralistic and committed to the ideals of the Enlightenment. It was unified by the aim of making philosophy scientific with the help of modern logic. Main topics were foundational debates in the natural and social sciences, logic and mathematics; the modernization of empiricism by modern logic; the search for an empiricist criterion of meaning; the critique of metaphysics and the unification of the sciences in the unity of science. The Vienna Circle appeared in public with the publication of various book series – Schriften zur wissenschaftlichen Weltauffassung (Monographs on the Scientific World-Conception), Einheitswissenschaft (Unified Science) and


id: vienna-circle-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Circle-1.md
category: reference
title: Vienna Circle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Circle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:41.365102+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vienna-circle-20260505-0
summary:
=== Public phase – Schlick Circle and Verein Ernst Mach (1928–1934) === In 1928 the Verein Ernst Mach (Ernst Mach Society) was founded, with Schlick as its chairman. The aim of the society was the spreading of a "scientific world conception" through public lectures that were in large part held by members of the Vienna Circle. In 1929 the Vienna Circle made its first public appearance under this name – invented by Neurath – with the publication of its manifesto Wissenschaftliche Weltauffassung. Der Wiener Kreis (The Scientific Conception of the World. The Vienna Circle also known as Viewing the World Scientifically: The Vienna Circle) The pamphlet is dedicated to Schlick, and its preface was signed by Hahn, Neurath and Carnap. The manifesto was presented at the Tagung für Erkenntnislehre der exakten Wissenschaften (Conference on the Epistemology of the Exact Sciences) in autumn 1929, organized by the Vienna Circle together with the Berlin Circle. This conference was the first international appearance of logical empiricism (Neurath coined the term in 1931 in his article "Physikalismus") and the first of a number of conferences: Königsberg (1930), Prague (1934), Paris (1935), Copenhague (1936), Cambridge, UK (1938), Cambridge, Mass. (1939), and Chicago (1941). While primarily


id: vienna-circle-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Circle-2.md
category: reference
title: Vienna Circle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Circle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:41.365102+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vienna-circle-20260505-0
summary:
== Congresses and publications == The Vienna Circle was very active in advertising their new philosophical ideas. Several congresses on epistemology and philosophy of science were organized, with the help of the Berlin Circle. There were some preparatory congresses: Prague (1929), Königsberg (1930), Prague (1934) and then the first congress on scientific philosophy held in Paris (1935), followed by congresses in Copenhagen (1936), Paris (1937), Cambridge, UK (1938), Cambridge, Massachusetts. (1939). The Königsberg congress (1930) was very important, for Kurt Gödel announced that he had proven the completeness of first-order logic and the incompleteness of formal arithmetic. Another very interesting congress was the one held in Copenhagen (1936), which was dedicated to quantum physics and causality. Between 1928 and 1937, the Vienna Circle published ten books in a collection named Schriften zur wissenschaftlichen Weltauffassung (Monographs on the Scientific World-Conception), edited by Schlick and Frank. Karl Raimund Popper's book Logik der Forschung was published in this collection. Seven works were published in another collection, called Einheitswissenschaft (Unified Science). In 1930 Rudolf Carnap and Hans Reichenbach undertook the editorship of the journal Erkenntnis, which was published between 1930 and 1940 (from 1939 the editors were Otto Neurath, Rudolf Carnap and Charles Morris).


id: vienna-circle-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Circle-3.md
category: reference
title: Vienna Circle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Circle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:41.365102+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vienna-circle-20260505-0
summary:
=== The Manifesto (1929) === This states the scientific world-conception of the Vienna Circle, which is characterized "essentially by two features. First it is empiricist and positivist: there is knowledge only from experience. Second, the scientific world-conception is marked by the application of a certain method, namely logical analysis." Logical analysis is the method of clarification of philosophical problems; it makes an extensive use of symbolic logic and distinguishes the Vienna Circle empiricism from earlier versions. The task of philosophy lies in the clarification—through the method of logical analysis—of problems and assertions. Logical analysis shows that there are two different kinds of statements; one kind includes statements reducible to simpler statements about the empirically given; the other kind includes statements which cannot be reduced to statements about experience and thus they are devoid of meaning. Metaphysical statements belong to this second kind and therefore they are meaningless. Hence many philosophical problems are rejected as pseudo-problems which arise from logical mistakes, while others are re-interpreted as empirical statements and thus become the subject of scientific inquiries. One source of the logical mistakes that are at the origins of metaphysics is the ambiguity of natural language. "Ordinary language for instance uses the


id: vienna-circle-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Circle-4.md
category: reference
title: Vienna Circle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Circle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:41.365102+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vienna-circle-20260505-0
summary:
=== Critique of metaphysics === The attitude of Vienna Circle towards metaphysics is well expressed by Carnap in the article 'Überwindung der Metaphysik durch Logische Analyse der Sprache' in Erkenntnis, vol. 2, 1932 (English translation 'The Elimination of Metaphysics Through Logical Analysis of Language' in Sarkar, Sahotra, ed., Logical empiricism at its peak: Schlick, Carnap, and Neurath, New York : Garland Pub., 1996, pp. 10–31). A language—says Carnap—consists of a vocabulary, i.e., a set of meaningful words, and a syntax, i.e., a set of rules governing the formation of sentences from the words of the vocabulary. Pseudo-statements, i.e., sequences of words that at first sight resemble statements but in reality have no meaning, are formed in two ways: either meaningless words occur in them, or they are formed in an invalid syntactical way. According to Carnap, pseudo-statements of both kinds occur in metaphysics. A word W has a meaning if two conditions are satisfied. First, the mode of the occurrence of W in its elementary sentence form (i.e., the simplest sentence form in which W is capable of occurring) must be fixed. Secondly, if W occurs in an elementary sentence S, it is necessary to give an answer to the


id: vienna-circle-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Circle-5.md
category: reference
title: Vienna Circle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Circle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:41.365102+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vienna-circle-20260505-0
summary:
What sentences is S deducible from, and what sentences are deducible from S? Under what conditions is S supposed to be true, and under what conditions false? How is S verified? What is the meaning of S? (Carnap, "The Elimination of Metaphysics Through Logical Analysis of Language" in Sarkar, Sahotra 1996, p. 12) An example offered by Carnap concerns the word 'arthropod'. The sentence form "the thing x is an arthropod" is an elementary sentence form that is derivable from "x is an animal", "x has a segmented body" and "x has jointed legs". Conversely, these sentences are derivable from "the thing x is an arthropod". Thus the meaning of the word 'arthropod' is determined. According to Carnap, many words of metaphysics do not fulfill these requirements and thus they are meaningless. As an example, Carnap considers the word 'principle'. This word has a definite meaning, if the sentence "x is the principle of y" is supposed to be equivalent to the sentence "y exists by virtue of x" or "y arises out of x". The latter sentence is perfectly clear: y arises out of x when x is invariably followed by y, and the invariable association between x and


id: science-journalism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_journalism-0.md
category: reference
title: Science journalism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_journalism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:43.357712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-journalism-20260505-0
summary:
Science journalism conveys reporting about science to the public. The field typically involves interactions between scientists, journalists and the public. There are many different examples of science writing. A few examples include feature writing, risk communication, blogs, science books, scientific journals, science podcasts and science magazines. == Origins == Modern science journalism originated in weather and other natural history observations, as well as reports of new scientific findings, reported by almanacs and other news writing in the centuries following the advent of the printing press. One early example dates back to Digdarshan (means showing the direction), which was an educational monthly magazine that started publication in 1818 from Srirampore, Bengal, India. Digdarshan carried articles on different aspects of science, such as plants, steam boat, etc. It was available in Bengali, Hindi and English languages. In the U.S., Scientific American was founded in 1845, in another early example. One of the occasions an article was attributed to a 'scientific correspondent' was "A Gale in the Bay of Biscay" by William Crookes which appeared in The Times on 18 January 1871, page 7. Thomas Henry Huxley (1825–1895) and John Tyndall (1820–1893) were scientists who were greatly involved in journalism and Peter Chalmers


id: science-journalism-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_journalism-1.md
category: reference
title: Science journalism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_journalism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:43.357712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-journalism-20260505-0
summary:
== Status == With budget cuts at major newspapers and other media, there are fewer working science journalists employed by traditional print and broadcast media than before. Similarly, there are currently very few journalists in traditional media outlets that write multiple articles on emerging science, such as nanotechnology. In 2011, there were 459 journalists who had written a newspaper article covering nanotechnology, of whom 7 wrote about the topic more than 25 times. In January 2012, just a week after The Daily Climate reported that worldwide coverage of climate change continued a three-year slide in 2012 and that among the five largest US dailies, the New York Times published the most stories and had the biggest increase in coverage, that newspaper announced that it was dismantling its environmental desk and merging its journalists with other departments. News coverage on science by traditional media outlets, such as newspapers, magazines, radio and news broadcasts is being replaced by online sources. In April 2012, the New York Times was awarded two Pulitzer Prizes for content published by Politico and The Huffington Post (now HuffPost) both online sources, a sign of the platform shift by the media outlet. Science information continues to be widely


id: science-journalism-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_journalism-2.md
category: reference
title: Science journalism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_journalism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:43.357712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-journalism-20260505-0
summary:
The content of news stories regarding climate change are affected by journalistic norms including balance, impartiality, neutrality and objectivity. Balanced reporting, which involves giving equal time to opposing sides of a debate over has had a harmful impact on the media coverage of climate science.


id: science-journalism-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_journalism-3.md
category: reference
title: Science journalism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_journalism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:43.357712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-journalism-20260505-0
summary:
== Criticism == Science journalists regularly come under criticism for misleading reporting of scientific stories. All three groups of scientists, journalists and the public often criticize science journalism for bias and inaccuracies. However, with the increasing collaborations online between science journalists there may be potential with removing inaccuracies. The 2010 book Merchants of Doubt by historians of science Naomi Oreskes and Erik M. Conway argues that in topics like the global warming controversy, tobacco smoking, acid rain, DDT and ozone depletion, contrarian scientists have sought to "keep the controversy alive" in the public arena by demanding that reporters give false balance to the minority side. Very often, such as with climate change, this leaves the public with the impression that disagreement within the scientific community is much greater than it actually is. Science is based on experimental evidence and testing, and disputation is a normal activity. Scholars have criticized science journalists for: Uncritical reporting Emphasizing frames of scientific progress and economic prospect Not presenting a range of expert opinion Having preferences toward positive messages Reporting unrealistic timelines and engaging in the production of a "cycle of hype" Science journalists can be seen as the gatekeepers of scientific information. Just like


id: the-craft-of-science-writing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Craft_of_Science_Writing-0.md
category: reference
title: The Craft of Science Writing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Craft_of_Science_Writing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:50.185718+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-craft-of-science-writing-20260505-0
summary:
The Craft of Science Writing: Selections from The Open Notebook is a non-fiction book edited by Siri Carpenter and published in 2020 by The Open Notebook. == Synopsis == The Craft of Science Writing presents more than 30 articles, some new, others previously published on The Open Notebook website, organized to answer five questions: "Who is a science journalist and how do you become one? What makes a science story and how do you find one? How do you report a science story? How do you tell your story? How do you build expertise in science writing?" In ALA's CHOICE, Melody Herr wrote that the articles are organized "into an introductory course that covers becoming a science journalist, identifying a story idea, conducting research, writing the story, and building proficiency in core skills". She also said the articles demonstrate effective idea presentation, "through personal anecdotes, interviews with award-winning journalists, expert panel discussions, and visuals, including a marked-up science article, a flowchart, and helpful checklists". Jonathan Wai wrote in Psychology Today, that it "...seeks to illuminate the craft of science writing by collecting numerous perspectives from science writers themselves about how to improve their own craft of science writing." Carolyn Crist


id: patrusky-lecture-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrusky_Lecture-0.md
category: reference
title: Patrusky Lecture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrusky_Lecture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:53.795621+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patrusky-lecture-20260505-0
summary:
The Patrusky lecture series is held by the Council for the Advancement of Science Writing (CASW) in honor of Ben Patrusky, who retired from CASW in 2013 after 25 years as the executive director of CASW and 30 years as the director of the New Horizons in Science program. The first lecture was held in 2013 and the event has taken place every year since then. == The Lecturers == 2013 — George M. Whitesides 2014 — Donald Johanson 2015 — Jo Handelsman 2016 — Steven Weinberg 2017 — Susan Desmond-Hellmann 2018 — Shirley Tilghman 2019 — Steve Squyres 2020 — Ruha Benjamin 2021 — Katharine Hayhoe 2022 — Alyssa A. Goodman 2023 — Michael E. Mann == References ==


id: the-puzzle-solver-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Puzzle_Solver-0.md
category: reference
title: The Puzzle Solver
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Puzzle_Solver
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:55.135087+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-puzzle-solver-20260505-0
summary:
The Puzzle Solver: A Scientist's Desperate Quest to Cure the Illness that Stole His Son is a book by Tracie White with scientist Ronald W. Davis about Davis's efforts to cure his son Whitney, who has very severe myalgic encephalomyelitis, also called chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS). The book was published on January 5, 2021. == Publication history == The Puzzle Solver began as a work of journalism that Tracie White wrote for Stanford Medicine. She expanded the work into a book (her first) in collaboration with Ronald W. Davis, a renowned scientist and one of the book's subjects. It was published by Hachette on January 5, 2021. == Content == Whitney Dafoe was a photographer and world traveler when at age 23, he was hospitalized on a trip to India, suffering from a stomach ailment. When he returned home, he weighed only 115 pounds and instead of recovering his health steadily declined. He was diagnosed with ME/CFS in 2011 but continued to slip until he was confined to a back room at his parents' home, unable to speak or eat without the assistance of a feeding tube. His one source of hope was his father, world renown scientist Ronald W.


id: scientific-writing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_writing-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific writing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_writing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:57.612484+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-writing-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific writing is about science, with the implication that the writing is done by scientists and for an audience that primarily includes peers—those with sufficient expertise to follow in detail. (The similar term "science writing" instead refers to writing about a scientific topic for a general audience; this could be by scientists and/or journalists, for example.) Scientific writing is a specialized form of technical writing, and a prominent genre of it involves reporting about scientific studies such as in articles for a scientific journal. Other scientific writing genres include writing literature-review articles (also typically for scientific journals), which summarize the existing state of a given aspect of a scientific field, and writing grant proposals, which are a common means of obtaining funding to support scientific research. Scientific writing is more likely to focus on the pure sciences compared to other aspects of technical communication that are more applied, although there is overlap. There is not one specific style for citations and references in scientific writing. Whether one is submitting a grant proposal, literature review articles, or submitting an article into a paper, the citation system that must be used will depend on the publication they plan to submit to. English-language


id: scientific-writing-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_writing-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientific writing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_writing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:57.612484+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-writing-20260505-0
summary:
Dissuasion from, and sometimes advocacy of, the passive voice. Advocates for the passive voice argue for its utility in avoiding first-person pronouns, while critics argue that it can be hard to make claims without an active voice. Generalizations about tense. In the mathematical sciences, for example, it is customary to report in the present tense, while in experimental sciences reporting is always in the past tense, as the experiments happened in the past. Preferences about "we" vs. "I" as a personal pronoun or a first-person pronoun (e.g., mathematical deductions sometimes include the reader in the pronoun "we.") Contemporary researchers in writing studies have pointed out that blanket generalizations about academic writing are seldom helpful, for example, scientific writing in practice is complex and shifts of tense and person reflect subtle changes in the section of the scientific journal article. Additionally, the use of passive voice allows the writer to focus on the subject being studied (the focus of communication in science) rather than the author. Similarly, some use of first-person pronouns is acceptable (such as "we" or "I," which depends on the number of authors). According to some journal editors, the best practice is to review articles recently published in


id: scientific-writing-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_writing-2.md
category: reference
title: Scientific writing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_writing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:57.612484+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-writing-20260505-0
summary:
== Scientific report == The stages of the scientific method are often incorporated into sections of scientific reports. The first section is typically the abstract, followed by the introduction, methods, results, conclusions, and acknowledgments. The introduction discusses the issue studied and discloses the hypothesis tested in the experiment. The step-by-step procedure, notable observations, and relevant data collected are all included in the methods and results. The discussion section consists of the author's analysis and interpretations of the data. Additionally, the author may choose to discuss any discrepancies with the experiment that could have altered the results. The conclusion summarizes the experiment and will make inferences about the outcomes. The paper will typically end with an acknowledgments section, giving proper attribution to any other contributors besides the main author(s). To get published, papers must go through peer review by experts with significant knowledge in the field. During this process, papers may get rejected or edited without adequate justification. This historically emerged form of argument has been periodically criticized for obscuring the process or investigation, eliminating the incorrect guesses, false leads, and errors that may have occurred before coming to the final method, data, explanation, and argument presented in the published paper.


id: 1970s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1970s_in_science_and_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: 1970s in science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1970s_in_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:59.149639+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 1970s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
summary:
This article is a summary of the 1970s in science and technology. == Science == The 1970s in science and technology reached its height with the ambitious Voyager Program, which sent the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 uncrewed expeditions to several of the outer planets in the Solar System. The program also included a Voyager Golden Record with the spaceships in hopes of presenting aspects of life on Earth to intelligent alien life forms. The record contained pictures and other data about human beings and other living beings on earth. It also had an assortment of music from across cultures. Coupled with the zenithal achievements of the Voyagers was the end of NASA's Apollo lunar spacecraft program, with the final flight, Apollo 17, in 1972. The Apollo–Soyuz and Spacelab programs ended in 1976, and there would be a five-year hiatus in American crewed spaceflight until the flight of the Space Shuttle. The Soviet Union developed vital technologies involving long-term human life in free-fall on the Salyut and later Mir space stations. The 1970s witnessed an explosion in the understanding of solid-state physics, driven by the development of the integrated circuit and the laser. The evolution of the computer produced an


id: 1980s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980s_in_science_and_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: 1980s in science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980s_in_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:00.473684+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 1980s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
summary:
This article is a summary of the 1980s in science and technology. == Astronomy == The Rings of Neptune were first discovered in 1984. The Voyager 2 spacecraft provided images of them in 1989. 4769 Castalia was discovered in 1989. It became the first asteroid to be viewed through radar imaging. The first exoplanet is discovered in 1988, though it was not confirmed until much later. == Genetic engineering and biology == 1983 Kary Mullis revolutionized molecular biology with his invention of the polymerase chain reaction, which required only a test tube, some reagents, a DNA template, and a source of heat. 1986 April – The first child produced from a gestational surrogacy is born. This is the first time in history that a child has been born to somebody who is not their biological mother. 1989 May 22 – The first gene transfer experiment in humans takes place, leading to full-fledged gene therapy trials by September 1990. The gene responsible for the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator was discovered. Mutations of the gene are considered causes of cystic fibrosis. The kākāpō, a bird species of New Zealand, was termed a threatened species. The Department of Conservation started an endangered


id: 1990s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990s_in_science_and_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: 1990s in science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990s_in_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:01.793632+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 1990s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
summary:
This article is a summary of the 1990s in science and technology. == Science timeline == 1990 April - The Hubble Space Telescope is launched; revolutionizes astronomy. September - The first successful somatic gene therapy trials begin. October - Human Genome Project formally begins. December 20 - The World Wide Web software is first tested by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN. 1992 January 14 - The first intracytoplasmic sperm injection in vitro fertilization produced baby is born by mechanically injecting a single, selected sperm cell into an egg. Detection of extrasolar planets orbiting a pulsar is confirmed. 1994 The FlavrSavr tomato, the first genetically modified food sold in the United States is introduced. The Oriental Pearl Tower is completed in Shanghai, China, representing the newfound wealth and investment present in eastern China. 1995 The Global Positioning System (GPS) becomes fully operational. In April the NSFNET backbone is shut down, making the Internet a unified and "centerless" network without any restrictions on traffic types and essentially causing the Dot com bubble by attracting large-scale corporate investment in the Internet. On June 5 the first Bose–Einstein condensates of Rubidium-87 and Sodium-23 are created at JILA and MIT. In December the Galileo probe orbits


id: 1990s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990s_in_science_and_technology-1.md
category: reference
title: 1990s in science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990s_in_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:01.793632+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 1990s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Home consoles become powerful and affordable enough to begin replacing trips to the arcade. CD-ROMs, which was first introduced as a software storage media with the 1988 launch of the PC Engine CD-ROM² System in Japan, gradually replaced ROM cartridges and floppy disks as the primary storage media for video games, starting with the release of platforms such as the Turbo Duo and Sega CD, later on with the PlayStation and the Sega Saturn, while CD-ROM drives for PCs became standardized. The sole exception was Nintendo, who canceled their plans to release a CD-ROM adapter for the Super NES and chose to employ cartridges for their subsequent home console, the Nintendo 64. Gaming, along with animation in general becomes more appealing to adults. Online multiplayer environments are popular over the internet during the later half of the 1990s. The first console with built-in Internet connectivity was the Dreamcast in 1999, which failed due to the low download speeds common at the time but eventually led to an online-centric gaming industry by the late 2000s. First-person shooter games become popular with the release of Doom (1993). 3D graphics overtake the traditional 2D graphics in the mid-nineties with the release of Quake


id: 2000s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000s_in_science_and_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: 2000s in science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000s_in_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:07.510758+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 2000s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
summary:
This article is a summary of the 2000s in science and technology. == Science == Using the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe, scientists studying the universe measured that its age is 13.77 billion years; "solidly supported" that it has been expanding and cooling since the Big Bang; and calculated that the universe is composed of about 4.6% atoms, 24% dark matter, and 71% dark energy. The Mars Exploration Rover (MER) Mission successfully reached the surface of Mars in 2004, and sent detailed data and images of the landscape there back to Earth. Whilst NASA's original mission timeline of three months was incorrectly speculated, the mission was tremendously successful overall in the long term, as the MER Mission continued until 2018, lasting nearly 25 times the projected length. The Human Genome Project was completed in 2003. The National Geographic Society and IBM funded The Genographic Project. In 2002, Perelman posted the first of a series of eprints to the arXiv, in which he proved the Poincaré conjecture, 2004 – The astrophysicist and radio astronomer Naomi McClure-Griffiths identifies a new spiral arm of the Milky Way galaxy On 29 July 2005, the discovery of Eris, a Kuiper Belt object larger than Pluto, was


id: 2000s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000s_in_science_and_technology-1.md
category: reference
title: 2000s in science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000s_in_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:07.510758+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 2000s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Digital cameras became very popular due to rapid decreases in size and cost while photo resolution steadily increased. As a result, sales of film reel cameras diminished greatly, and integration into mobile phones increased greatly; sexting by teenagers also became a controversial social issue, with teenagers - and even in one case a school administrator who investigated a sexting case - being arrested. Graphics processing units (GPUs) and video cards became powerful enough to render ultra-high-resolution (e.g. 2560 × 1600) scenes in real time with substantial detail and texture. Flat panel displays began displacing cathode ray tubes. This was a dramatic change during the decade, as very few flat panels were sold through the mid-2000s (decade) and the majority of stores sell only flat panel TVs by the end of the decade. Handheld projectors entered the market and were then integrated into cellphones. The digital switchover started to be enforced for television. The introduction of digital video recorders (DVRs) allowed consumers to modify content they watch on TV, and to record TV programs and watch them later, leading to problems as consumers could fast-forward through commercials, making them useless, and save TV shows for later viewing, causing a decline in


id: 2010s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010s_in_science_and_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: 2010s in science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010s_in_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:08.831866+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 2010s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
summary:
This article is a summary of the 2010s in science and technology. == Technology == Big data and "Big Tech" saw an expansion in size and power in the 2010s, particularly FAANG corporations. The growing influence of "Big Tech" over cyberspace drew scrutiny and increased oversight from national governments. The G20 countries began closing tax loopholes and the European Union began asserting legal guidelines over domains such as data privacy, copyright, and hate speech, the latter of which helped fuel a debate over tech censorship and free speech online, particularly deplatforming. Throughout the decade, the United States government increasingly scrutinized the tech industry, from attempted copyright regulations to threatening antitrust probes. Increased protectionism and attempts to regulate and localize the internet by national governments also raised fears of cyber-balkanization in the later half of the decade. === Communications and electronics === Smartphones maintained their strong popularity throughout the 2010s, along with the arrival of tablets. Apple Inc. launched the iPad in 2010, its first tablet computer, which offered multi-touch interaction. The iPad became an immediate bestseller and only months after its release became the best selling tech product in history. By the mid-2010s, almost all smartphones were touchscreen-only, and Android


id: 2010s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010s_in_science_and_technology-1.md
category: reference
title: 2010s in science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010s_in_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:08.831866+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 2010s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Drones became increasingly popular, especially in the assistance of making deliveries, aerial photography, and drone racing. Electric and hybrid vehicles became popular in many countries in the Western world during the decade. Notable electric vehicles include the Chevrolet Volt, which became the world's top selling plug-in hybrid of all time with over 100,000 units sold in 2015. Other hybrid vehicles have also been noted such as the Porsche Panamera and BMW i3. Self-driving cars, while still in their infancy, were widely tested throughout the 2010s with significant progress. Google developed Waymo, the world's first self-driving car, to be licensed for use on public roads in 2011. In 2018, a woman in Tempe, Arizona became the first recorded casualty of an accident involving an autonomous vehicle. Automaker Volkswagen is alleged to have been involved in worldwide rigging of diesel emissions tests in 2015, affecting an estimated 11 million vehicles globally. The trend of shared mobility grew significantly during the decade. Carsharing, bike-sharing, and scooter-sharing services saw substantial growth as multiple economic, social and technological factors such as developments in "last mile" transportation helped changed the way people think about modern transportation, particularly in the Western world. The world's first 100% low-floor


id: 2010s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010s_in_science_and_technology-2.md
category: reference
title: 2010s in science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010s_in_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:08.831866+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 2010s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
summary:
== Computing and artificial intelligence == The number of internet users doubled from about 2 billion to about 4 billion, surpassing half the world population in 2018. Smartphones became increasingly common due to a rapid increase in sales. Their applications and use time by the average user increased, too. Google develops the world's first self-driving car to be licensed for use on public roads. It was the first driverless ride that was on a public road and was not accompanied by a test driver or police escort. The car had no steering wheel or floor pedals. In 2012, Google Chrome became the world's most used web browser, displacing former long-time frontrunner Internet Explorer. Microsoft announces Windows Mixed Reality (previously Windows Holographic). Quantum computers made rapid progress. In 2019 Google announced to have achieved quantum supremacy, although this claim is disputed. During this decade artificial intelligence based on deep learning neural networks experienced rapid advancement, resulting in multiple practical applications in diverse fields such as speech and image recognition, social network moderation, virtual assistants, surveillance, healthcare or even art generation. In 2016, Google artificial intelligence program AlphaGo beat human grandmaster in the game of Go for the first time. === Legal


id: 2020s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020s_in_science_and_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: 2020s in science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020s_in_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:10.099531+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 2020s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
summary:
This article is a summary of the 2020s in science and technology. == Biology and medicine == DeepMind used artificial intelligence for the first time to predict protein folding. Singapore became the first jurisdiction to approve the sale of cultured meat. The vaccines produced by Pfizer/BioNTech and Moderna against Coronavirus disease 2019 became the first vaccines developed using messenger RNA and mark the fastest vaccine development and approval, taking only 10 months. Oregon became the first jurisdiction to legalize the medicinal use of psilocybin for mental health treatment. == Energy == QuantumScape revealed that it had created the first functioning prototype of a solid-state battery, promising to massively increase battery capacity. The Chinese Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak was turned on for the first time. The China Fusion Engineering Test Reactor is being planned for commissioning later in the decade. Group14 Technologies has patented SCC55, a silicon-carbon composite, leading to 50% more in fully lithiated volumetric energy density than graphite used in conventional lithium-ion battery anodes. == Environmental sciences == The United Nations has designated the 2020s as the Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development. == Space == == Transport == === Air === In 2021, United Airlines revealed plans


id: list-of-inventions-in-the-medieval-islamic-world-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world-0.md
category: reference
title: List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:11.746810+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventions-in-the-medieval-islamic-world-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of inventions, discoveries and scientific advancements made in the medieval Islamic world, especially during the Islamic Golden Age, as well as in later states of the Age of the Islamic Gunpowders such as the Ottoman and Mughal empires. The Islamic Golden Age was a period of cultural, economic and scientific flourishing in the history of Islam, traditionally dated from the eighth century to the fourteenth century, with several contemporary scholars dating the end of the era to the fifteenth or sixteenth century. This period is traditionally understood to have begun during the reign of the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid (786 to 809) with the inauguration of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, where scholars from various parts of the world with different cultural backgrounds were mandated to gather and translate all of the world's classical knowledge into the Arabic language and subsequently development in various fields of sciences began. Science and technology in the Islamic world adopted and preserved knowledge and technologies from contemporary and earlier civilizations, including Persia, Egypt, India, China, and Greco-Roman antiquity, while making numerous improvements, innovations and inventions. == List of inventions == === Early caliphates === ==== Seventh century ====


id: list-of-inventions-in-the-medieval-islamic-world-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world-1.md
category: reference
title: List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:11.746810+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventions-in-the-medieval-islamic-world-20260505-0
summary:
==== Ninth century ==== Algebra discipline: Al-Khwarizmi is considered the father of the algebra discipline. The word Algebra comes from the Arabic الجبر (al-jabr) in the title of his book Ilm al-jabr wa'l-muḳābala. He was the first to treat algebra as an independent discipline in its own right. Algebraic reduction and balancing, cancellation, and like terms: Al-Khwarizmi introduced reduction and balancing in algebra. It refers to the transposition of subtracted terms to the other side of an equation, that is, the cancellation of like terms on opposite sides of the equation, which the term al-jabr (algebra) originally referred to. Automatic controls: "Although the Banu Musa took Greek models as their starting point, they went well beyond anything achieved by Hero or Philo. In particular, it is their preoccupation with automatic controls that distinguishes them not only from their Greek predecessors but from their Islamic successors." Chemical synthesis of a naturally occurring compound: The oldest known instructions for deriving an inorganic compound (sal ammoniac or ammonium chloride) from organic substances (such as plants, blood, and hair) by chemical means appear in the works attributed to Jabir ibn Hayyan (written c. 850–950). Chess manual: The oldest known chess manual was in Arabic


id: list-of-inventions-in-the-medieval-islamic-world-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world-2.md
category: reference
title: List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:11.746810+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventions-in-the-medieval-islamic-world-20260505-0
summary:
==== Tenth century ==== Alhazen's problem: A theorem by ibn al-Haytham solved only in 1997 by Neumann. Arabic numerals: The modern Arabic numeral symbols originate from Islamic North Africa in the 10th century. A distinctive Western Arabic variant of the Eastern Arabic numerals began to emerge around the 10th century in the Maghreb and Al-Andalus (sometimes called ghubar numerals, though the term is not always accepted), which are the direct ancestor of the modern Arabic numerals used throughout the world. Binomial theorem: The first formulation of the binomial theorem and the table of binomial coefficient can be found in a work by Al-Karaji, quoted by Al-Samaw'al in his "al-Bahir". Cauchy-Riemann Integral: Ibn al-Haytham gave a simple form of this. Decimal fractions: Decimal fractions were first used by Abu'l-Hasan al-Uqlidisi in the 10th century. Experimental scientific method: Expounded and practised by ibn al-Haytham Fountain pen: An early historical mention of what appears to be a reservoir pen dates back to the 10th century. According to Ali Abuzar Mari (d. 974) in his Kitab al-Majalis wa 'l-musayarat, the Fatimid caliph Al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah demanded a pen that would not stain his hands or clothes, and was provided with a pen that held


id: list-of-inventions-in-the-medieval-islamic-world-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world-3.md
category: reference
title: List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:11.746810+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventions-in-the-medieval-islamic-world-20260505-0
summary:
==== Thirteenth century ==== Fritware: It refers to a type of pottery which was first developed in the Near East, beginning in the late 1st millennium, for which frit was a significant ingredient. A recipe for "fritware" dating to c. 1300 AD written by Abu’l Qasim reports that the ratio of quartz to "frit-glass" to white clay is 10:1:1. This type of pottery has also been referred to as "stonepaste" and "faience" among other names. A 9th-century corpus of "proto-stonepaste" from Baghdad has "relict glass fragments" in its fabric. Mercury clock: A detailed account of technology in Islamic Spain was compiled under Alfonso X of Castile between 1276 and 1279, which included a compartmented mercury clock, which was influential up until the 17th century. It was described in the Libros del saber de Astronomia, a Spanish work from 1277 consisting of translations and paraphrases of Arabic works. Mariotte's bottle: The Libros del saber de Astronomia describes a water clock which employs the principle of Mariotte's bottle. Metabolism: Although Greek philosophers described processes of metabolism, Ibn al-Nafees is the first scholar to describe metabolism as "a continuous state of dissolution and nourishment". Naker: Arabic nakers were the direct ancestors of most


id: list-of-inventions-in-the-medieval-islamic-world-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world-4.md
category: reference
title: List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:11.746810+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventions-in-the-medieval-islamic-world-20260505-0
summary:
==== Thirteenth century ==== Various automatons: Al-Jazari's inventions included automaton peacocks, a hand-washing automaton, and a musical band of automatons. Candle clock with dial and fastening mechanism: The earliest reference of the candle clock is described in a Chinese poem by You Jiangu (AD 520), However the most sophisticated candle clocks known, were those of Al-Jazari in 1206. It included a dial to display the time. Crank-slider: Ismail al-Jazari's water pump employed the first known crank-slider mechanism. Cotton gin with worm gear: The worm gear roller gin was invented in the Delhi Sultanate during the 13th to 14th centuries. Design and construction methods: English technology historian Donald Hill wrote, "We see for the first time in al-Jazari's work several concepts important for both design and construction: the lamination of timber to minimize warping, the static balancing of wheels, the use of wooden templates (a kind of pattern), the use of paper models to establish designs, the calibration of orifices, the grinding of the seats and plugs of valves together with emery powder to obtain a watertight fit, and the casting of metals in closed mold boxes with sand." Draw bar: The draw bar was applied to sugar-milling, with evidence of


id: list-of-inventions-in-the-medieval-islamic-world-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world-5.md
category: reference
title: List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:11.746810+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventions-in-the-medieval-islamic-world-20260505-0
summary:
==== Sixteenth century ==== Firearm kneeling position: At the Battle of Mohács in 1526, the Janissaries equipped with 2000 tüfenks (usually translated as musket) "formed nine consecutive rows and they fired their weapons row by row," in a "kneeling or standing position without the need for additional support or rest." The Chinese later adopted the Ottoman kneeling position for firing. Marching band and military band: The marching band and military band both have their origins in the Ottoman military band, performed by the Janissary since the 16th century. Matchlock volley fire: Volley fire with matchlocks was first implemented in 1526 when the Ottoman Janissaries utilized it during the Battle of Mohács. Parallel rulers: Invented by Taqi ad-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf and used at the Constantinople Observatory of Taqi ad-Din (1577–1580). Practical impulse steam turbine: A practical impulse steam turbine was first described in 1551 by Taqi al-Din, a philosopher, astronomer and engineer in 16th century Ottoman Egypt, who described a method for rotating a spit by means of a jet of steam playing on rotary vanes around the periphery of a wheel. A similar device for rotating a spit was also later described by John Wilkins in 1648. Steam jack:


id: science-and-technology-in-pacific-island-countries-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Pacific_Island_countries-0.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology in Pacific Island countries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Pacific_Island_countries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:13.011932+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-in-pacific-island-countries-20260505-0
summary:
Science and technology in Pacific Island countries encompass a diverse range of activities and innovations that address the unique challenges faced by this geographically dispersed region. Despite limited resources and infrastructural constraints, Pacific Island nations have made notable progress in areas such as digital connectivity, agricultural innovation, and climate resilience. Advancements in mobile and internet technologies have improved access to information and services, while regional cooperation has fostered the development of research networks and shared scientific infrastructure. The application of emerging technologies, including nuclear science for agriculture and DNA monitoring for biosecurity, is increasingly shaping policy and development initiatives. However, the region continues to face obstacles such as data scarcity, limited research funding, and vulnerability to climate change, necessitating ongoing collaboration and investment to realize the full potential of science and technology for sustainable development. == Socio-economic context == === Trends === Pacific Island economies are mostly dependent on natural resources, with a tiny manufacturing sector and no heavy industry. In Fiji and Papua New Guinea, for instance, there is a need to adopt automated machinery and design in forestry and to improve training, in order to add value to exports. Papua New Guinea experienced the strongest economic growth between


id: science-and-technology-in-pacific-island-countries-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Pacific_Island_countries-1.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology in Pacific Island countries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Pacific_Island_countries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:13.011932+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-in-pacific-island-countries-20260505-0
summary:
=== Regional bodies addressing technological issues === Both the largest and smallest Pacific nations acknowledge that taking a regional approach to science and technology offers them greater opportunities for institutional development. This approach is encapsulated in the Framework for Pacific Regionalism (2014). All 14 nations have mandated the agencies attached to the Council of Regional Organisations of the Pacific (CROP) to conduct technical backstopping. CROP agencies partially fulfill the role that a science council might play in other regions. However, none of these agencies has a specific mandate or policy for science and technology. Pacific Island states have established a number of regional bodies to address technological issues for sectorial development. Examples are the Council of Regional Organisations of the Pacific, such as the Pacific Community (SPC); Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat; and Secretariat of the Pacific Region Environmental Programme. The Ministers of Education from Pacific Island countries signed a Ministerial communiqué on Pacific Science, Technology and Innovation in 2017, in which they committed to developing regional and national STI policies and roadmaps. However, no policy or roadmap has since been published for want of resources. The 2014 Small Island Developing States (SIDS) Accelerated Modalities of Action Pathway (SAMOA Pathway) identified


id: science-and-technology-in-pacific-island-countries-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Pacific_Island_countries-2.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology in Pacific Island countries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Pacific_Island_countries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:13.011932+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-in-pacific-island-countries-20260505-0
summary:
==== Higher education ==== Fiji, Papua New Guinea and Samoa all consider education to be one of the key policy tools for driving science, technology and innovation, as well as modernization. Fiji, in particular, has made a supreme effort to re-visit existing policies, rules and regulations in this sector. The Fijian government allocates a larger portion of its national budget to education than any other Pacific Island country (4.2% of GDP in 2011), although this is down from 6% of GDP in 2000. The proportion of the education budget allocated to higher education (0.5% of GDP) amounts to 13% of the public education budget. Scholarship schemes like National Toppers, introduced in 2014, and the availability of student loans have made higher education attractive and rewarding in Fiji. According to an internal investigation into the choice of disciplines in school-leaving examinations (year 13), Fijian students have shown a greater interest in science since 2011. A similar trend can be observed in enrolment figures at all three Fijian universities. Many Pacific Island countries take Fiji as a benchmark for education. The country draws education leaders from other Pacific Island countries for training and, according to the Ministry of Education, teachers from Fiji


id: science-and-technology-in-pacific-island-countries-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Pacific_Island_countries-3.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology in Pacific Island countries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Pacific_Island_countries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:13.011932+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-in-pacific-island-countries-20260505-0
summary:
==== Research and development ==== The National Vision 2050 was adopted in 2009. It has led to the establishment of the Research, Science and Technology Council. At its gathering in November 2014, the Council re-emphasized the need to focus on sustainable development through science and technology. Vision 2050’s medium-term priorities are: emerging industrial technology for downstream processing; infrastructure technology for the economic corridors; knowledge-based technology; Science and engineering education; and to reach the target of investing 5% of GDP in R&D by 2050. By 2016, the share of GDP invested in research and development measured just 0.03%. Between 2008 and 2014, 82% of scientific articles from Papua New Guinea concerned the biological and medical sciences. Less than 10% of the country's 517 articles catalogued in Thomson Reuters' Web of Science (Science Citation Index Expanded) focused on geosciences. In 2016, women represented 33.2% of the scientists in Papua New Guinea, on par with the global share. Professor Teatulohi Matainaho serves as Chief Science Advisor to Papua New Guinea, appointed in 2013. == Sustainable development == === Disaster resilience === Countries around the Pacific Rim are seeking ways to link their national knowledge base to regional and global advances in science. One


id: science-and-technology-in-pacific-island-countries-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Pacific_Island_countries-4.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology in Pacific Island countries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Pacific_Island_countries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:13.011932+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-in-pacific-island-countries-20260505-0
summary:
=== Energy === On average, 10% of the GDP of Pacific Island countries funds imports of petroleum products but in some cases this figure can exceed 30%. In addition to high fuel transport costs, this reliance on fossil fuels leaves Pacific economies vulnerable to volatile global fuel prices and potential spills by oil tankers. Consequently, many Pacific Island countries are convinced that renewable energy will play a role in their socio-economic development. In Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Samoa and Vanuatu, renewable energy sources already represent significant shares of the total electricity supply: 60%, 66%, 37% and 15% respectively. Tokelau has even become the first country in the world to generate 100% of its electricity using renewable sources. According to the Secretariat of the Pacific Community, renewable energy still represented less than 10% of total energy use in the 22 Pacific Island countries and territories in 2015. The Secretariat of the Pacific Community observed that, 'while Fiji, Papua New Guinea and Samoa are leading the way with large-scale hydropower projects, there is enormous potential to expand the deployment of other renewable energy options such as solar, wind, geothermal and ocean-based energy sources'. International development partners are participating in several projects to


id: science-and-technology-in-pacific-island-countries-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Pacific_Island_countries-5.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology in Pacific Island countries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Pacific_Island_countries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:13.011932+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-in-pacific-island-countries-20260505-0
summary:
=== Trends in scientific authorship === According to the Web of Science, Papua New Guinea had the largest number of publications (110) among Pacific Island states in 2014, followed by Fiji (106). Fijian research was concentrated in a handful of scientific disciplines, such as medical sciences, geosciences and biology. Nine out of ten scientific publications from Papua New Guinea focused on immunology, genetics, biotechnology and microbiology. This pattern contrasts with the trend observed in the French territories of New Caledonia and French Polynesia, where there was a strong emphasis on geosciences: six to eight times the world average for this field. === Trends in international co-authorship === More than three-quarters of articles published by scientists from Pacific Island nations between 2008 and 2014 were signed by international collaborators, according to Thomson Reuters' Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded. International co-authorship was higher for Papua New Guinea and Fiji (90% and 83% respectively) than for New Caledonia and French Polynesia (63% and 56% respectively). All countries counted North American partners among their top five partners. Fijian research collaboration with North American partners even exceeded that with India, even though a large proportion of Fijians are of Indian origin. Research partnerships


id: 500-women-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/500_Women_Scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: 500 Women Scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/500_Women_Scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:17.413441+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 500-women-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
500 Women Scientists is a non-profit group dedicated to making science open, inclusive, and accessible. To achieve this mission, they work to increase scientific literacy through public engagement, advocate for science and equity, and provide self-identifying women with the tools and support they need to reach their full potential. The organization began with an open letter in November 2016 and was officially recognized as a 501(c)3 in May 2018. == History == 500 Women Scientists launched with an open letter signed by 500 women scientists after the United States 2016 presidential election. The letter pledged to speak out not only against policies that go against scientific evidence, but also against inequality, sexism, xenophobia, and other forms of discrimination against marginalized communities. Within two months, the pledge received over fifteen thousand signatures from women and allies in 109 countries. In concert with the 2017 Women's March, women scientists and supporters who signed the pledge organized themselves into groups to march together. The local marches became the basis for forming local chapters, or "Pods", where local women scientists meet regularly. Pods function both as a support system and as a vehicle to focus on and organize around issues that resonate in their


id: academianet-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AcademiaNet-0.md
category: reference
title: AcademiaNet
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AcademiaNet
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:18.588181+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: academianet-20260505-0
summary:
AcademiaNet was an international database containing profiles of women scientists. It is a non-profit project with the goal to raise the share of women in leadership positions in academia. AcademiaNet was initiated in 2010 in Germany by the Robert Bosch Stiftung and the publishing house "Spektrum der Wissenschaft". The Swiss National Science Foundation assumed responsibility of the platform in 2020, but shut it down in September 2025. == Goals and functions == The share of women professors and executives at research institutions across Europe is low and rising only slowly. AcademiaNet is a resource aimed at facilitating the search for women researchers in view of academic appointments or as conference speakers, experts on scientific committees or peer reviewers. A search function allows users to find the registered scientists according to their field or discipline. As opposed to databases such as "Request a Woman in STEMM" by 500 Women Scientists or "WiLS database of women in science", women cannot create their own profile on AcademiaNet; they need to be nominated by a scientific partner based on clearly defined criteria. == History == The Robert Bosch Stiftung founded AcademiaNet in 2010. In her speech inaugurating the platform in November 2010, the German


id: ada-lovelace-day-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada_Lovelace_Day-0.md
category: reference
title: Ada Lovelace Day
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada_Lovelace_Day
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:19.767827+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ada-lovelace-day-20260505-0
summary:
Ada Lovelace Day is an annual event held on the second Tuesday of October to celebrate and raise awareness of the contributions of women to STEM fields. It is named after mathematician and computer science pioneer Ada Lovelace. It started in 2009 as a "day of blogging" and has since become a multi-national event with conferences. == History == The day was founded in the United Kingdom in 2009 by Suw Charman-Anderson on the second Tuesday in October as a means of raising awareness about the contributions of women to science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields. Charman-Anderson later said of this: I launched Ada Lovelace Day in 2009 because I felt passionately that we needed a way to celebrate and highlight women’s work and achievements in STEM, which frequently don’t get the recognition they deserve. In 2022, Charman-Anderson announced that this would be the last year in which the organization that she founded, Finding Ada, would organize an annual flagship Ada Lovelace Day event in England. However, the Royal Institution stepped in with funding, due to its alignment with their mission to bring scientists and the public together. Since its inception, Ada Lovelace Day has become international in scope,


id: afghan-girls-robotics-team-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghan_Girls_Robotics_Team-0.md
category: reference
title: Afghan Girls Robotics Team
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghan_Girls_Robotics_Team
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:25.549004+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: afghan-girls-robotics-team-20260505-0
summary:
The Afghan Girls Robotics Team, also known as the Afghan Dreamers, is an all-girl robotics team from Herat, Afghanistan, founded through the Digital Citizen Fund (DCF) in 2017 by Roya Mahboob and Alireza Mehraban. It is made up of girls between ages 12 and 18 and their mentors. Several members of the team were relocated to Qatar and Mexico by humanitarian and tech entrepreneur Sarah Porter following the fall of Kabul in August 2021. A documentary film featuring members of the team, titled Afghan Dreamers, was released by MTV Documentary Films in 2023. == Origins == The Afghan Girls Robotics Team was co-founded in 2017 by Roya Mahboob, who is their coach, mentor and sponsor, and founder of the Digital Citizen Fund (DCF), which is the parent organization for the team. Dean Kamen was planning a 2017 competition in the United States and had recruited Mahboob to form a team from Afghanistan. Out of 150 girls, 12 were selected for the first team. Before parts were sent by Kamen, they trained in the basement of the home of Mahboob's parents, with scrap metal and without safety equipment under the guidance of their coach, Mahboob's brother Alireza Mehraban, who is also


id: afghan-girls-robotics-team-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghan_Girls_Robotics_Team-1.md
category: reference
title: Afghan Girls Robotics Team
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghan_Girls_Robotics_Team
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:25.549004+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: afghan-girls-robotics-team-20260505-0
summary:
== Afghan Dreamers documentary == The Afghan Dreamers documentary from MTV Documentary Films premiered in May 2023 on Paramount+. The film was directed by David Greenwald and produced by David Cowan and Beth Murphy. In a review for Screen Daily, Wendy Ide wrote, "This film, with its likeable cast of girl nerds and positive message, should enjoy a warm reception on the festival circuit, and will be of particular interest to events seeking to showcase women's stories from around the world. It also serves as a timely cautionary tale – a case study on just how quickly the rights and the opportunities of women can be curtailed, at the behest of the men in power." == Honors and awards == 2017 Silver medal for Courageous Achievement at the FIRST Global Challenge, science and technology 2017 Benefiting Humanity in AI Award at World Summit AI 2017 Winner, Entrepreneurship Challenge at Robotex in Estonia 2018 Permission to Dream Award, Raw Film Festival 2018 Conrad Innovation Challenge, Raw Film Festival 2018 Rookie All Star – District Championship, Canada 2018 Asia Game Changer Award Honoree 2019 Inspiring in Engineering Award – FIRST Detroit World Championship 2019 Asia Game Changer Award of California 2019 Safety


id: athena-swan-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athena_SWAN-0.md
category: reference
title: Athena SWAN
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athena_SWAN
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:26.970905+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: athena-swan-20260505-0
summary:
The Athena SWAN Charter (Scientific Women's Academic Network) is an equality charter mark framework and accreditation scheme for higher education and research institutions, established in 2005 by the UK's Equality Challenge Unit (now part of Advance HE). It recognises and promotes commitment to advancing gender equality, particularly in relation to representation, career progression, and success for women. The charter is used both as a self-assessment and benchmarking tool to guide institutional change. == Award details == Members (universities) who sign up to the charter are expected to apply for an Athena SWAN award, at Bronze, Silver or Gold level. Each award is valid for four years under the post-2015 rules (three years where pre-2015 rules apply). They commit to adopting ten principles, which focus on promoting and supporting gender equality for women. These are: We acknowledge that academia cannot reach its full potential unless it can benefit from the talents of all. We commit to advancing gender equality in academia, in particular, addressing the loss of women across the career pipeline and the absence of women from senior academic, professional and support roles. We commit to addressing unequal gender representation across academic disciplines and professional and support functions. In this


id: athena-swan-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athena_SWAN-1.md
category: reference
title: Athena SWAN
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athena_SWAN
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:26.970905+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: athena-swan-20260505-0
summary:
== Reception == An exploratory study of women's and men's perceptions of Athena SWAN in 2017 was broadly positive, and highlighted the significance of government funding being linked to Athena SWAN awards; it also highlighted the limitations of the process to change long-standing and entrenched issues in society. A 2019 study of the university culture in medical and social sciences attributed a more positive culture in medical sciences to the widespread implementation of Athena SWAN gender equality action plans, linked to the funding incentives of the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR). A 2020 study examining the effect of Athena SWAN funding incentives on women's research leadership in NIHR Biomedical Research Centres found a rise in the number of women in mid-level leadership positions and the proportion of funding going to women. According to empirical research carried out at the University of Bath, "there is no evidence that Athena SWAN membership and award level have any impact" on "the gender pay gap and the proportion of women in the top quartile of pay". Some commentators consider it to be largely window-dressing with little impact on lived experiences of women working in universities. Others have indicated an apparent failure to find


id: balfour-biological-laboratory-for-women-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balfour_Biological_Laboratory_for_Women-0.md
category: reference
title: Balfour Biological Laboratory for Women
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balfour_Biological_Laboratory_for_Women
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:28.178724+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: balfour-biological-laboratory-for-women-20260505-0
summary:
The Balfour Biological Laboratory for Women was a laboratory attached to the University of Cambridge from 1884 to 1914. Established to expand the laboratory capacity and provide a separate space for women's practical work, it served as an important source of academic posts and opportunities for networking and discussion for women at Cambridge until laboratories began being shared by men and women in 1914. == Background == In March 1881, the month after women students received the right to sit the Natural Sciences Tripos at the University of Cambridge, twenty-two natural sciences students at Newnham College, Cambridge presented a memorial to the college's governing body outlining the need for more laboratory space. Newnham, one of two women's colleges at Cambridge, had had a purpose-built laboratory on its grounds since 1879. This laboratory was mostly set up for chemistry, and more space was needed because the Natural Sciences Tripos included a two-day examination in practical laboratory techniques. All laboratory space at Cambridge was becoming oversubscribed due to the increase in students wanting to study natural sciences, but it was also thought appropriate that women, who attended lectures alongside men, should have a separate laboratory facility rather than a shared one. In


id: bathurst-studentship-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathurst_studentship-0.md
category: reference
title: Bathurst studentship
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathurst_studentship
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:29.360126+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bathurst-studentship-20260505-0
summary:
The Bathurst studentship was a fund for graduates of the natural science tripos at the women's colleges at the University of Cambridge to continue their scientific research. It was established in 1879 by The Hon. Lady Evelyn Selina Bathurst (often called Selina Bathurst, d. 1946). She was the daughter of Allen Bathurst, 6th Earl Bathurst and his second wife Evelyn, née Hankey. She contributed money and equipment for the establishment of the Balfour Biological Laboratory for Women. On 18 June 1898, she married Major George Coryton Lister. They had two children. She died on 16 April 1946. The Bathurst Studentship, awarded 'from time to time,' was taken up by dozens of women scientists in the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Students would work independently, supported by academic supervisors, and were granted bench space in the Balfour Biological Laboratory for Women for their experiments. == Notable recipients == Florence Eves (1881–2) Alice Johnson (1882–3) Marion Greenwood (1883–4) Anna Bateson (1887–9) Edith Saunders (1888–9) Elizabeth Eleanor Field (1891–3) Mary Tebb (1891–3) Gertrude Elles (1895) Ethel Skeat (1895–7) Mildred Gostling (1899–1900) Sibille Ford (1900–2) Ida Smedley (1901–3) Jessie Slater (1903–5) Muriel Onslow (1904) Edith Gertrude Willcock (1904–5) Annie Homer (1905) Mary Gladys Sykes


id: beyond-curie-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Curie-0.md
category: reference
title: Beyond Curie
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Curie
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:30.629931+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: beyond-curie-20260505-0
summary:
Beyond Curie is a portrait series of women who have made significant contributions in STEM fields. As of November 2018, the series features 42 women, including all 18 female Nobel Prize winners in Physics, Chemistry, and Physiology or Medicine. The series was created by Amanda Phingbodhipakkiya, a former neuroscience researcher and designer who named the project after two-time Nobel prize winner Marie Curie, with the goal of highlighting other important female scientists who are less well known. Beyond Curie has raised $44,172 from 856 backers across two Kickstarter campaigns. == Public exhibits == Beyond Curie has been on display in an exhibit at the North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences since March 24, 2017. Phingbodhipakkiya worked with the March for Science organizers to make special Beyond Curie posters that could be freely downloaded and brought to a rally or protest. In partnership with Outside, Phingbodhipakkiya developed five portraits specifically focused on women whose work focused on health and the environment. Phingbodhipakkiya presented some of the Beyond Curie portraits at TEDWomen 2017, where she said the project was "about finding your heroes" and shared stories of female scientists who only learned about some of the historical figures of the series after


id: susan-brunskill-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susan_Brunskill-0.md
category: reference
title: Susan Brunskill
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susan_Brunskill
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:31.928946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: susan-brunskill-20260505-0
summary:
Sue Brunskill is a Landcare community leader, and was awarded a Medal of the Order of Australia, General Division, for her leadership and services to the environment. She has 35 years experience in bushland conservation and land management. == Early life == Brunskill's early life and childhood took place on a farm near Wagga Wagga, in Borambola. She was a volunteer within the Wooragee Primary School for 15 years, and then a volunteer at the Horticultural business, Amenity Horticulture. == Career == Brunskill was a teacher of Natural Resource Management, at the TAFE of Thurgoona. She is a bush regenerator, both teaching and conducting bush regeneration and Bush Care, in various groups around Albury Wodonga. Brunskill has been a community leader for longer than 30 years, and has been working to conserve the native flora and fauna species on her 50 ha property in Wooragee, located in the north-east region of Victoria. She is the president and has been working with the Wooragee Landcare Group (WLG), a group who removes invasive species which outcompete native vegetation. Her knowledge, combined with her enthusiasm for conservation, has supported local gardeners, farmers, and local people to understand the impact they can have on


id: computer-engineer-barbie-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Engineer_Barbie-0.md
category: reference
title: Computer Engineer Barbie
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Engineer_Barbie
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:34.331879+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: computer-engineer-barbie-20260505-0
summary:
Computer Engineer Barbie is the 126th career version of Mattel's Barbie doll. In response to poll results indicating strong support for computer engineers, the doll set was created and introduced in 2010. In 2014, Mattel apologized for the accompanying book, I Can Be a Computer Engineer, after complaints that it represented Barbie as incompetent in the field, needing the help of men. == Description == The doll has a pink laptop and a pink smartphone, and is wearing geometric pink glasses, a pink watch, black leggings, a T-shirt decorated with "Barbie" spelled in binary code, a fitted vest with saddle-stitch detailing, pink wedges, and a Bluetooth headset. The packaging included a code to unlock exclusive game content on the Barbie website. Female engineers including Betty Shanahan, CEO of the Society of Women Engineers, and Alice Agogino of the National Academy of Engineering were consulted on her wardrobe and work environment. They suggested that for authenticity she needed "a Coke can and a bag of Doritos" on her desk; she has a coffee cup. One mockup also included a Linux penguin; Barbie is running Linux on her dual-monitor set-up. == History == In 2010, Mattel invited people to vote for Barbie's


id: django-girls-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Django_Girls-0.md
category: reference
title: Django Girls
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Django_Girls
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:35.493958+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: django-girls-20260505-0
summary:
Django Girls is an international non-profit organization started by two Polish women, Ola Sitarska and Ola Sendecka, to inspire women from all backgrounds to get interested in technology and to become programmers, offering a safe and friendly environment. It is known for the free workshops it hosts to help women to learn to program and for its Django tutorial. It is often supported by the Python Software Foundation, and they often hold sessions at the Python Conference. == History == The first Django Girls workshop, which kicked off Django Girls, happened during EuroPython 2014, in Berlin. Ola Sitarska and Ola Sendecka decided to use Django and Python because both are open source code platforms, which may help women developing their own ideas. Since then, the initiative has spread worldwide, reaching countries like Argentina, Australia, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Ghana, Nigeria, United Kingdom, Peru, United States, Zimbabwe and many others. == Tutorial == The tutorial, which teaches how to create and deploy a blog application using Django, is maintained and updated by the Django Girls community, using Github. As of May 2018, the Django Girls tutorial has been published online in 14 languages besides its original English version. As of May


id: doris-m-curtis-outstanding-woman-in-science-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doris_M._Curtis_Outstanding_Woman_in_Science_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: Doris M. Curtis Outstanding Woman in Science Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doris_M._Curtis_Outstanding_Woman_in_Science_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:36.953396+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: doris-m-curtis-outstanding-woman-in-science-award-20260505-0
summary:
The Doris M. Curtis Outstanding Woman in Science Award, also known as the Subaru Outstanding Woman in Science Award is a prize given annually by the Geological Society of America to "...women who have made a significant impact on the geosciences with their Ph.D. research." The award is named in memory of Doris Malkin Curtis, first female president of the GSA, and sponsored by Subaru. Recipients of the award are listed below. == References ==


id: empowering-women-in-organic-chemistry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empowering_Women_in_Organic_Chemistry-0.md
category: reference
title: Empowering Women in Organic Chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empowering_Women_in_Organic_Chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:43.310723+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: empowering-women-in-organic-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
Empowering Women in organic Chemistry (EWOC) is a scientific conference designed to bring the research and career interests of women in organic chemistry to the forefront and seeks to empower all marginalized individuals by promoting equity, justice, diversity, and inclusion across all chemistry fields. EWOC is the world's largest gathering of women in organic chemistry, and hosts an annual meeting of women (students, post-docs, faculty and professionals) who work or plan to work in the field of Organic Chemistry, broadly defined, from all types of institutions (academic, industry, biotech, non-profit and government). The meeting goals are to Establish a peer group network for collaborating and recruiting diverse talent Afford a novel mechanism to provide advice and counsel for women organic chemists Share stories from different perspectives about career development and challenges faced – and overcome – along the way Establish an inclusive community, with an emphasis on Diversity, Inclusion and Belonging, to engage, network and support each other in the field of Organic Chemistry Provide support and guidance to graduate students and post-docs making career decisions Provide community support to enhance retention of women in chemistry. == History == The number of female scientists in the organic chemistry community, industry


id: feminist-technoscience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_technoscience-0.md
category: reference
title: Feminist technoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_technoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:47.206109+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: feminist-technoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Feminist technoscience is a transdisciplinary branch of science studies which emerged from decades of feminist critique on the way gender and other identity markers are entangled in the combined fields of science and technology. The term technoscience, especially in regard to the field of feminist technoscience studies, seeks to remove the distinction between scientific research and development with applied applications of technology while assuming science is entwined with the common interests of society. As a result, science is suggested to be held to the same level of political and ethical accountability as the technologies which develop from it. Feminist technoscience studies continue to develop new theories on how politics of gender and other identity markers are interconnected to resulting processes of technical change, and power relations of the globalized, material world. Feminist technoscience focuses less on intrapersonal relationships between men and women, and more on broader issues concerning knowledge production and how bodies manifest and are acknowledged in societies. Feminist technoscience studies are inspired by social constructionist approaches to gender, sex, intersectionalities, and science, technology and society (STS). It can also be referred to as feminist science studies, feminist STS, feminist cultural studies of science, feminist studies of science and


id: feminist-technoscience-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_technoscience-1.md
category: reference
title: Feminist technoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_technoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:47.206109+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: feminist-technoscience-20260505-0
summary:
== Feminist technologies and technoscience studies == Feminist technoscience studies have become intrinsically linked with practices of Technofeminism and the development of feminist technologies in cultural and critical vernacular. Feminist technoscience studies explore the coded social and historical implications of science and technology on the development of society, including how identity constructs and is constructed by these technologies. Technofeminism emerged in the early 1980s, leaning on the different feminist movements. Feminist scholars reanalyzed the Scientific Revolution, and stated that the resulting science was based on the masculine ideology of exploiting the Earth and control. During this time, nature and scientific inquiry were modelled after misogynous relationships to women. Femininity was associated with nature and considered as something passive to be objectified. This was in contrast to culture, which was represented by objectifying masculinity. This analysis depended on the use of gender imagery to conceptualize the nature of technoscientific masculine ideology. Judy Wajcman draws parallels between Judith Butler's theory of gender performativity and the construction of technology. Butler conceives gender as a performative act as opposed to a naturalized condition one is born into. Through a fluctuating process achieved in daily social interaction, gender identity is acted and constructed through relational


id: feminist-technoscience-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_technoscience-2.md
category: reference
title: Feminist technoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_technoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:47.206109+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: feminist-technoscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Bioethics and capitalism === The development of reproductive technologies blur the lines between nature and technology, allowing for the reconfiguration of life itself. Through the advances of genetic technologies, the controlling of pregnancy, childbirth, and motherhood has become increasingly possible through intrusive means. These advances in biotechnology are serving to develop life as a commodity and deepen monetary inequality - a link made by feminist theorists such as Donna Haraway. Genetic engineering also brings about questions in eugenics, leading early radical feminist analysis to declare and attempt to reclaim motherhood as a foundation of female identity. The idea of a green, natural motherhood was popularized by ecofeminists who celebrated the identification of women with nature, and natural life. Haraway instead chooses to embrace technology as feminist instead of reverting to this idea of naturalized femininity. By embracing the image of the cyborg, an amalgamation that is neither human/animal nor machine, Haraway explores the ideas of technoscience and gender, conceptualizing a space where gender is an arbitrary, unnecessary construct. The corporatization of biology through the alteration of nature through technology is also a theme explored by Haraway. The OncoMouse is a laboratory mouse genetically modified to carry a specific gene


id: graduate-women-in-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graduate_Women_in_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Graduate Women in Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graduate_Women_in_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:48.647238+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: graduate-women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
Graduate Women in Science (GWIS), formerly known as Sigma Delta Epsilon (ΣΔΕ), is an international professional organization for women in science. It was established as a scientific women's fraternity in 1921 at Cornell University, United States. It played an important role for women scientists for some fifty years when they were not allowed membership in most mainstream scientific organizations. GWIS is a non-profit 501(c)(3) organization with over 1,000 active members and more than 30 active chapters. == History == Sigma Delta Epsilon was established at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York by Adele Lewis Grant on May 24, 1921. It was founded as a fraternity for women pursuing graduate degrees in the sciences. Its stated purpose was "to further interest in science, recognize women involved in science, and unite them through friendship". Initially, Sigma Delta Epsilon had 25 student members and eight honorary members, who were professional women who had achieved recognition in science. Its first officers were Adele Lewis Grant, president; Katherine Van Winkle, vice president; Josephine Overton Sonders, secretary; and Hazel Elizabeth Branch, treasurer. Sigma Delta Epsilon had a fraternity house where its members could live. In 1922, a similar local group for women at the University of


id: list-of-graduate-women-in-science-chapters-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Graduate_Women_in_Science_chapters-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Graduate Women in Science chapters
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Graduate_Women_in_Science_chapters
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:49.991460+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-graduate-women-in-science-chapters-20260505-0
summary:
Graduate Women in Science, formerly known as Sigma Delta Epsilon, is an international organization for women in science. It was established in 1921 at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York, United States. In the following list, active chapters are indicated in bold and inactive chapters are in italics. == See also == List of Graduate Women in Science members == Notes == == References ==


id: harvard-plate-stacks-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Plate_Stacks-0.md
category: reference
title: Harvard Plate Stacks
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Plate_Stacks
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:51.318188+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: harvard-plate-stacks-20260505-0
summary:
The Harvard Plate Stacks, previously known as the Harvard College Observatory glass plate collection or the astronomical photographic glass plate collection, is a collection of astronomical glass plate negatives at the Center for Astrophysics | Harvard & Smithsonian in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Created over more than a century by the Harvard College Observatory, it is widely described as the largest collection of astronomical glass plates in the world. The collection includes more than 550,000 glass plate negatives dating from the 1870s to the late 1990s, as well as early photographic data from as early as 1849, and logbooks, notebooks, and photographic prints associated with astronomical research at Harvard and affiliated observing stations. It is one of the largest photographic collections at Harvard. Many of the astronomers, assistants, and computers who worked with the collection were women, including members of the group now commonly known as the Women Astronomical Computers. == Scope and Size == The Harvard Plate Stacks collection consists of over 550,000 glass plate negatives of the night sky. The glass alone is estimated to weigh over 165 tons and stored across three floors of a purpose-built building on Observatory Hill in Cambridge, MA. The majority of the collection consists


id: harvard-plate-stacks-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Plate_Stacks-1.md
category: reference
title: Harvard Plate Stacks
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Plate_Stacks
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:51.318188+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: harvard-plate-stacks-20260505-0
summary:
"My dear Mrs. Draper, Mr. Clark tells me that you are preparing to complete the work in which Dr. Draper was engaged, and my interest in this matter must be my excuse for addressing you regarding it. I need not state my satisfaction that you are taking this step, since it must be obvious that in no other way could you erect so lasting a monument to his memory." This would be the beginning of Anna Draper being the single largest benefactor to the Harvard College Observatory for the next three decades. Her funds and future endowment would back the creation, preservation, and housing of nearly 6000,000 glass plates and the core of the Harvard Plate Stacks collection, which would amount to a century of photographing the night sky. Her gift would not only include funds but also her and her husband's personal telescope. She would establish the Henry Draper Memorial, which would include both the creation of a physical photographic plate collection, as well as the study and publication of what is known as the Henry Draper Catalogue. Over 44 women would partake in the study, writing, and creation of the catalogue from 1886 until the final publication of


id: harvard-plate-stacks-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Plate_Stacks-2.md
category: reference
title: Harvard Plate Stacks
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Plate_Stacks
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:51.318188+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: harvard-plate-stacks-20260505-0
summary:
=== Armagh-Dunsink-Harvard telescope === In 1947 through a chance meeting in the Shannon Airport with Harvard College Observatory director, Harlow Shapley, and Irish President (Taoiseach), Éamon de Valera led to the idea and further creation of the Armagh-Dunsink-Harvard telescope. Although installed and housed at Harvard's Boyden Observatory in South Africa, this was a joint endeavor with the Armagh Observatory in Northern Ireland, the Republic of Ireland, and the Harvard College Observatory. This was one of the earlier examples of Space diplomacy that would be spearheaded at Harvard by astronomer Bart Bok. The director of the Armagh Observatory at the time was Eric Lindsay, who not only got his PhD from Harvard in 1934, but he would meet and later marry Women Astronomical Computer, Sylvia Mussells (Sister to fellow astronomer and Harvard Plate Stacks employee Muriel Mussells Seyfert). De Valera recently pushed to create the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies and its subsequent purchase of the Dunsink Observatory after Trinity College Dublin had ceased its operations a few years earlier. This cooperative agreement would be one of the rare instances where these two governments would regularly work together. The telescope was a 36—32 Baker-Schmidt telescope that received first light in October


id: hidden-figures-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_Figures-0.md
category: reference
title: Hidden Figures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_Figures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:52.643995+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hidden-figures-20260505-0
summary:
Hidden Figures is a 2016 American biographical drama film co-produced and directed by Theodore Melfi, who co-wrote the screenplay with Allison Schroeder. It is loosely based on the 2016 book by Margot Lee Shetterly. It follows three female African-American mathematicians, Katherine Goble Johnson (Taraji P. Henson), Dorothy Vaughan (Octavia Spencer), and Mary Jackson (Janelle Monáe), who worked at NASA during the Space Race in the 1950s and 1960s. Other stars include Kevin Costner, Kirsten Dunst, Jim Parsons, Mahershala Ali, Aldis Hodge, and Glen Powell. Principal photography began in March 2016 in Atlanta, Georgia, and wrapped up in May 2016. Other filming locations included several other locations in Georgia, including East Point, Canton, Monroe, Columbus, and Madison. Hidden Figures had a limited release on December 25, 2016, by 20th Century Fox, before going wide in on January 6, 2017. The film received positive reviews, with praise for the performances (particularly Henson, Spencer and Monáe), the writing, direction, cinematography, emotional tone, and historical accuracy, although some argued it featured a white savior narrative. The film was a commercial success, grossing $236 million worldwide against its $25 million production budget. The film was chosen by the National Board of Review as one of


id: hidden-figures-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_Figures-1.md
category: reference
title: Hidden Figures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_Figures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:52.643995+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hidden-figures-20260505-0
summary:
=== Development and casting === In 2015, producer Donna Gigliotti acquired Margot Lee Shetterly's nonfiction book Hidden Figures, about a group of Black female mathematicians that helped NASA win the Space Race. Allison Schroeder wrote the script, which was developed by Gigliotti through Levantine Films. Schroeder grew up by Cape Canaveral and her grandparents worked at NASA, where she also interned as a teenager, and as a result saw the project as a perfect fit for herself. Levantine Films produced the film with Peter Chernin's Chernin Entertainment. Fox 2000 Pictures acquired the film rights, and Theodore Melfi signed on to direct. After coming aboard, Melfi revised Schroeder's script, and in particular focused on balancing the home lives of the three protagonists with their careers at NASA. After the film's development was announced, actresses considered to play the lead roles included Oprah Winfrey, Viola Davis, Octavia Spencer, and Taraji P. Henson. Chernin and Jenno Topping produced, along with Gigliotti and Melfi. Fox cast Henson to play the lead role of mathematician Katherine Goble Johnson. Spencer was selected to play Dorothy Vaughan, one of the three lead mathematicians at NASA. Kevin Costner was cast in the film to play the fictional head


id: hidden-figures-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_Figures-2.md
category: reference
title: Hidden Figures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_Figures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:52.643995+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hidden-figures-20260505-0
summary:
== Historical accuracy == The film, set at NASA Langley Research Center in 1961, depicts segregated facilities such as the West Area Computing unit, where an all-Black group of female mathematicians were originally required to use separate dining and bathroom facilities. However, in reality, Dorothy Vaughan was promoted to supervisor of West Computing much earlier, in 1949, becoming the first Black supervisor at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) and one of its few female supervisors. In 1958, when NACA became NASA, segregated facilities, including the West Computing office, were abolished. Vaughan and many of the former West computers transferred to the new Analysis and Computation Division (ACD), a racially and gender-integrated group. It was Mary Jackson, not Katherine Goble Johnson, who had difficulty finding a colored bathroom – in a 1953 incident she experienced while on temporary assignment in the East Area, a region of Langley unfamiliar to her and where few Blacks worked. Katherine Goble Johnson, for her part, was initially unaware that the bathrooms at Langley were segregated (in both its East and West areas during the NACA era), and used the "whites-only" bathrooms (many were not explicitly labeled as such) for years before anyone complained.


id: hidden-figures-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_Figures-3.md
category: reference
title: Hidden Figures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_Figures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:52.643995+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hidden-figures-20260505-0
summary:
His frustration is also a perfect example of how, when it comes to open dialogue about depictions of people of color on screen, it behooves white people (especially those who position themselves as 'allies') to listen [...] the inclusion of the bathroom scene doesn't make Melfi a bad filmmaker, or a bad person, or a racist. But his suggestion that a feel-good scene like that was needed for the marketability and overall appeal of the film speaks to the fact that Hollywood at large still has a long way to go in telling Black stories, no matter how many strides have been made. The fictional characters Vivian Mitchell and Paul Stafford are composites of several team members and reflect common social views and attitudes of the time. Karl Zielinski is based on Mary Jackson's mentor, Kazimierz "Kaz" Czarnecki. John Glenn, who was about a decade older than depicted at the time of launch, did ask specifically for Goble Johnson to verify the IBM calculations, although she had several days before the launch date to complete the process. Author Margot Lee Shetterly has agreed that there are differences between her book and the movie, but found that to be understandable: For


id: hidden-figures-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_Figures-4.md
category: reference
title: Hidden Figures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_Figures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:52.643995+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hidden-figures-20260505-0
summary:
=== Charity screenings === After Hidden Figures was released on December 25, 2016, certain charities, institutions and independent businesses who regard the film as relevant to the cause of improving youth awareness in education and careers in the science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields, organized free screenings of the film in order to spread the message of the film's subject matter. A collaborative effort between Western New York STEM Hub, AT&T and the Girl Scouts of the USA allowed more than 200 Buffalo Public Schools students, Girl Scouts and teachers to see the film. WBFO's Senior Reporter Eileen Buckley stated the event was designed to help encourage a new generation of women to consider STEM careers. Research indicates that by 2020, there will be 2.4 million unfilled STEM jobs. Aspiring astronaut Naia Butler-Craig wrote of the film: "I can't imagine what that would have been like: 16-year-old, impressionable, curious and space-obsessed Naia finding out that Black women had something to do with getting Americans on the moon." Also, the film's principal actors (Henson, Spencer, Monáe and Parsons), director (Melfi), producer/musical creator (Williams), and other non-profit outside groups have offered free screenings to Hidden Figures at several cinema locations around


id: hidden-figures-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_Figures-5.md
category: reference
title: Hidden Figures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_Figures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:52.643995+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hidden-figures-20260505-0
summary:
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 93% based on 325 reviews, with an average rating of 7.6/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "In heartwarming, crowd-pleasing fashion, Hidden Figures celebrates overlooked—and crucial—contributions from a pivotal moment in American history." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 74 out of 100, based on 47 critics, indicating "generally favorable" reviews. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A+" on an A+ to F scale, one of fewer than 90 films in the history of the service to receive such a score. Simon Thompson of IGN gave the film a rating of nine out of ten, writing, "Hidden Figures fills in an all too forgotten, or simply too widely unknown, blank in US history in a classy, engaging, entertaining and hugely fulfilling way. Superb performances across the board and a fascinating story alone make Hidden Figures a solid, an accomplished and deftly executed movie that entertains, engages and earns your time, money and attention." Ty Burr of The Boston Globe wrote, "the film's made with more heart than art and more skill than subtlety, and it works primarily because of the


id: inferior-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inferior_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Inferior (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inferior_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:55.013756+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: inferior-book-20260505-0
summary:
Inferior: How Science Got Women Wrong and the New Research That's Rewriting the Story is a 2017 book by science journalist Angela Saini. The book discusses the effect of sexism on scientific research, and how that sexism influences social beliefs. Inferior was launched in June 2017 at the Royal Academy of Engineering. The book was published by Beacon Press in the United States and Fourth Estate Books in the United Kingdom. == Reception == According to journalist Chantal Da Silva of The Independent, Angela Saini "paints a disturbing picture of just how deeply sexist notions have been woven into the fabric of scientific research" and concluded that her work "presents the rest of the scientific community with an important challenge: to acknowledge and correct a deep-rooted bias – and to help rewrite the role of women in the story of human evolution". Science journalist Nicola Davis writing for The Guardian stated that Saini "discovers that many of society’s traditional beliefs about women are built on shaky ground" and that "Saini’s scrutiny of the stereotype of men as hunters, leaving women to tend hearth and home, is eye-opening". Journalist Anjana Vaswani in the Ahmedabad Mirror wrote that Saini "exposes Charles Darwin's


id: international-conference-of-women-engineers-and-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Conference_of_Women_Engineers_and_Scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: International Conference of Women Engineers and Scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Conference_of_Women_Engineers_and_Scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:56.348614+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-conference-of-women-engineers-and-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
ICWES (International Conference of Women Engineers and Scientists) is an international conference for engineers and scientists. Established in 1964, it takes place every 3–4 years in countries around the world. Since 1999, the conference has been organised by the International Network of Women Engineers and Scientists (INWES), which was founded at the World Conference on Science (Budapest, Hungary) in 1999. The first conference took place in New York City, USA in 1964, the second followed in 1967 in Cambridge, UK. Since then meetings have taken place in Turin, Italy (1971); Cracow, Poland (1975); Rouen, France (1978); Mumbai, India, (1981); Washington DC, USA (1984); Abidjan, Ivory Coast (1988); Warwick, UK (1991); Budapest, Hungary (1996); Chiba, Japan (1999); Ottawa, Canada (2002); Seoul, Korea (2005); Lille, France (2008); Adelaide, Australia (2011); Los Angeles, USA (2014); New Delhi, India (2017). ICWES 18 was postponed due to the Covid pandemic and took place in Coventry, UK, in 2021. ICWES 19 was hosted in Aotearoa, New Zealand in 2023. == ICWES I - New York City == The first ICWES conference took place in New York City, United States of America in 1964 and was organised by the American Society of Women Engineers (SWE). Beatrice Hicks


id: international-day-of-women-and-girls-in-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Day_of_Women_and_Girls_in_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: International Day of Women and Girls in Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Day_of_Women_and_Girls_in_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:02.768407+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-day-of-women-and-girls-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
The International Day of Women and Girls in Science is an annual observance adopted by the United Nations General Assembly to promote equal participation of women in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) fields. The United Nations General Assembly passed the resolution in 2015, which proclaimed 11 February as the commemoration of the observance. A theme is selected annually as a focus point for gender equality in science. The International Day of Women and Girls in Science is implemented annually at the United Nations Headquarters by the Royal Academy of Science International Trust in partnership with UNESCO and UNWomen. to promote the role of women and girls in scientific fields and celebrate those who have been successful in the field. == Background == === Context === In comparison to their male peers, females are underrepresented in science and technology fields. Between the 1960s and 1980s, the number of women obtaining science and engineering degrees steadily increased in American universities, however reached an unexpected plateau from the 1980s. A 2013 UK study explored that there has existed a persistent underrepresentation of women in STEM fields, and that in the prior 25-year period there had been little change of the participation of


id: international-day-of-women-and-girls-in-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Day_of_Women_and_Girls_in_Science-1.md
category: reference
title: International Day of Women and Girls in Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Day_of_Women_and_Girls_in_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:02.768407+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-day-of-women-and-girls-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
Following the adoption of Resolution A/RES/70/212 on the International Day of Women and Girls in Science, The Royal Academy of Science International Trust (RASIT) continues to work with UN Member States, Inter-Governmental Organizations, the UN and its entities to achieve equality in science, technology, and innovation for socio-economic sustainable development in line with the 2030 Agenda and its SDGs. Following the adoption of UNGA Resolution 70/212, RASIT reached out to UNESCO and UN Women on January 4, 2016 to discuss its vision for the inaugural International Day of Women and Girls in Science. On January 7, UNESCO, accompanied by UN Women invited RASIT to lead celebration planning. Each year on February 11, RASIT in close collaboration and partnership with the United Nations Member States, Departments, organizations and entities, as well as Intergovernmental Organizations organizes the International Day of Women and Girls in Science Assembly at the United Nations Headquarters in New York. The High-Level Assembly brings together representatives of member states and international organizations, the private sector and leading scientists to discuss measures and initiatives to promote the increased participation of females in STEM. Each year the assembly focuses upon a key theme as a central topic of discussion. In


id: international-network-of-women-engineers-and-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Network_of_Women_Engineers_and_Scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: International Network of Women Engineers and Scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Network_of_Women_Engineers_and_Scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:03.985537+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-network-of-women-engineers-and-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
International Network of Women Engineers and Scientists (INWES) is a current network for women professionals, which was founded in 2002 with the intention to support women and girls in engineering and science across the world. The current (2020–2023) President is Jung Sun Kim, from Dongseo University, South Korea. According to their mission statement, the network seeks to encourage the education and retention of professional women in these fields through international collaboration. The founding of the network received support from UNESCO. Founding members include Canadian engineers Claire Deschênes, Monique Frize and Gail Mattson, current Immediate Past President of INWES and past president of SWE, Society of Women Engineers, USA. The network currently has over 60 countries involved, including the Association of Korean Women Scientists and Engineers, Women's Engineering Society (UK), the German Association of Women Engineers (DIB), the Society of Taiwan Women in Science and Technology (TWiST) and African Women in Science and Engineering (AWSE). == Management of the International Conference of Women Engineers and Scientists == The network took over the management of the International Conference of Women Engineers and Scientists (ICWES), which first took place in 1964 in New York and has met every 3–4 years since then. ICWES


id: ir-ne-joliot-curie-prize-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irène_Joliot-Curie_Prize-0.md
category: reference
title: Irène Joliot-Curie Prize
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irène_Joliot-Curie_Prize
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:05.253413+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ir-ne-joliot-curie-prize-20260505-0
summary:
The Irène Joliot-Curie Prize is a French prize for women in science and technology, founded in 2001. It is awarded by the Ministry of Higher Education, Research and Innovation, the Airbus Group corporate foundation, the French Academy of Sciences and the Academy of Technologies, it aims at rewarding women for their work in the fields of science and technology". The prize is named after French scientist Irène Joliot-Curie, a French chemist, physicist and politician who won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1935 for the discovery of artificial radioactivity. (This prize should be distinguished from a different prize with the same name, offered since 1956 by the Société Française de Physique. which rewards work in the field of physics each year.) Each year three awards are given: one for the female scientist of the year, a second to a young female scientist, and a third to a woman in business and technology. In addition, until 2009, of the award a fourth category of awards was given, to an individual or group in recognition of their mentorship of women in science. In 2023, a new category was recognized in a special prize for engagement. Since 2011, the award winners have been


id: kiriri-women-s-university-of-science-and-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiriri_Women's_University_of_Science_and_Technology-0.md
category: reference
title: Kiriri Women's University of Science and Technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiriri_Women's_University_of_Science_and_Technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:06.468263+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kiriri-women-s-university-of-science-and-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Kiriri Women's University of Science and Technology, often referred to as KWUST, is a non-state funded secular women's university in Nairobi, Kenya. It was started in 2002. Its aim is to empower women in sciences. Kiriri Women's University is the only women's university in east and southern Africa. Its main campus is located in Mwihoko, Githurai in the outskirt of Nairobi. Kiriri has no male students. It offers Bachelors in Science degrees, mathematics (actuarial, pure, statistics), computer science and business administration, as well as diplomas and certificates. == Admissionsthrive == Admissions are conducted twice annually, in May and September.The university maintains a female-only enrollment policy, in line with its mission to empower women in STEM and leadership fields. === Accreditation === Kiriri Women's University of Science and Technology (KWUST) was officially accredited by the Commission for University Education (CUE) in Kenya and granted its charter on 2 August 2022. == References == == External links == Official website Universities and Colleges in Kenya


id: lean-out-the-struggle-for-gender-equality-in-tech-and-start-up-culture-20260505-0
category: reference
title: Lean Out: The Struggle for Gender Equality in Tech and Start-up Culture
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:07.743742+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lean-out-the-struggle-for-gender-equality-in-tech-and-start-up-culture-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lean_Out:_The_Struggle_for_Gender_Equality_in_Tech_and_Start-up_Culture-0.md

summary:
Lean Out: The Struggle for Gender Equality in Tech and Start-Up Culture is a 2015 book written by Elissa Shevinsky, an information security entrepreneur and feminist. Shevinsky wrote it in response to Sheryl Sandberg's Lean In, a book often criticized by feminists as being unrealistic in its expectations on women. == Reactions == The book was listed by Inc. Magazine as one of the 100 best business books of 2015. Newspaper reviews have been nearly universal in their approbation of Shevinsky's work, with the Los Angeles Times saying "the book is not just directed at women who might want to opt out of the rat race and start their own thing. This book is packed with stories — and statistics — that should give anyone in tech management pause." At least one review notes that "the essays end up varying widely in quality, radical message, level of editing, and scope. Among incisive critiques of nerd sociology and important stories of micro and macro aggressions, there are also far too many unnecessarily long resumes and capitalist self-help manuals in the book." == References ==

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lean_Out:_The_Struggle_for_Gender_Equality_in_Tech_and_Start-up_Culture


id: list-of-graduate-women-in-science-members-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Graduate_Women_in_Science_members-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Graduate Women in Science members
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Graduate_Women_in_Science_members
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:09.048874+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-graduate-women-in-science-members-20260505-0
summary:
Graduate Women in Science formerly known as Sigma Delta Epsilon, is an international organization for women in science. It was established in 1921 at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York, United States as a women's fraternity. Following are some of its notable members. Membership includes graduate students in the sciences, alumnae, and honorary members. The latter are professional women who had achieved recognition in the science. == See also == List of Graduate Women in Science chapters Women in science == References ==


id: marie-pistilli-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Pistilli_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: Marie Pistilli Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Pistilli_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:10.197004+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: marie-pistilli-award-20260505-0
summary:
The Marie R. Pistilli Women in Engineering Achievement Award is issued annually since 2000 by the Design Automation Conference (DAC) to honor the outstanding achievements of women in Electronic Design Automation. It is named after the co-founder of DAC, Marie Pistilli. Originally named as the "Marie R. Pistilli Women in EDA Achievement Award", it is named the "Marie R. Pistilli Women in Engineering Achievement Award" since 2016. == Recipients == 2000: Penny Herscher, then with Cadence Design Systems 2001: Deirdre Hanford, Synopsys, Inc. 2002: Ann Rincon, then senior technical staff member at IBM Microelectronics, Burlington, Vermont, "For her significant contributions in helping women advance in the field of DA technology" 2003: Karen Bartleson, Synopsis, Inc. 2004: Mary Jane Irwin, Pennsylvania State University 2005: Kathryn Kranen, Jasper Design Automation 2006: Ellen J. Yoffa, IBM 2007: Jan Willis, then with Cadence Design Systems - "Jan's leadership and dedication in serving as a mentor and role model to women in EDA, and young girls and boys as they begin to consider career options, exemplifies what the Marie R. Pistilli Women in Electronic Design Automation Achievement Award is all about." 2008: Louise Trevillyan IBM Research Center 2009: Telle Whitney 2010: Mar Hershenson, Vice President


id: matilda-effect-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matilda_effect-0.md
category: reference
title: Matilda effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matilda_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:11.466682+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: matilda-effect-20260505-0
summary:
The Matilda effect is a bias against acknowledging the achievements of women scientists and inventors, whose work is consequently attributed to their male colleagues. This phenomenon was first described by suffragist and abolitionist Matilda Joslyn Gage (1826–1898) in her essay, "Woman as Inventor" (first published as a tract in 1870 and later published in the North American Review, retitled "Woman as an Inventor", in 1883). The term Matilda effect was coined in 1993 by science historian Margaret W. Rossiter. Rossiter provides several examples of this effect. Trotula (Trota of Salerno), a 12th-century Italian woman physician, wrote books which, after her death, were attributed to male authors. Nineteenth- and twentieth-century cases illustrating the Matilda effect include those of Nettie Stevens, Lise Meitner, Marietta Blau, Rosalind Franklin, and Jocelyn Bell Burnell. The Matilda effect was compared to the Matthew effect, whereby an eminent scientist often gets more credit than a comparatively unknown researcher, even if their work is shared or similar. == Research == In 2012, Marieke van den Brink and Yvonne Benschop from Radboud University Nijmegen showed that in the Netherlands the sex of professorship candidates influences the evaluation made of them. Similar cases are described by Andrea Cerroni and Zenia


id: matilda-effect-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matilda_effect-1.md
category: reference
title: Matilda effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matilda_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:11.466682+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: matilda-effect-20260505-0
summary:
In 1934, the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to George Whipple, George Richards Minot, and William P. Murphy. They felt their female co-worker, Frieda Robscheit-Robbins, was excluded on grounds of her sex. Whipple, however, shared the prize money with her as he felt she deserved the Nobel as well, since she was co-author of almost all of Whipple's publications. In 1944 the Nobel Prize in Chemistry was given to Otto Hahn as the sole recipient. Lise Meitner had worked with Hahn and had laid the theoretical foundations for nuclear fission (she coined the term nuclear fission). Meitner was not recognized by the Nobel Prize Committee, partly due to her gender and partly due to her persecuted Jewish identity in Nazi Germany. She was affected by the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, which prohibited Jews from holding government-related positions, including in research. Initially, her Austrian citizenship shielded her from persecution, but she fled Germany after Hitler's annexation of Austria in 1938. In 1950, Cecil Powell received the Nobel Prize in Physics for his development of the photographic method of studying nuclear processes and for the resulting discovery of the pion (pi-meson). Marietta Blau did


id: sarah-mcswiney-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah_McSwiney-0.md
category: reference
title: Sarah McSwiney
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah_McSwiney
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:12.632651+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sarah-mcswiney-20260505-0
summary:
Sarah McSwiney FTSE is an Australian aerospace engineer, who was made a fellow of the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering in 2025. She is head of Engineering at Jetstar Airways and has a passion for supporting young women in the Aerospace and Aviation industry, and supporter of gender equity. == Education == McSwiney attended Kilvington Grammar and graduated in 1999. She graduated with a Bachelor of Aerospace Engineering (hons), as well as an MBA. == Career == McSwiney was a design engineer and liaison engineer in Seattle (USA) and Melbourne. She worked with Boeing for 17 years, including as leading the liaison engineering team across Boeing Australia, and then subsequently the Senior Manager of Engineering Strategy and Operations. McSwiney was Chair of Kilvington Board, as well as holding a number of Board positions, including Chair of the Aviation/Aeorspace Australia. She is also the Chair of the Sir Lawrence Wackett Defence as well as Chair of the Aerospace Centre advisory board at RMIT. == Gender Equity == McSwiney has a passion for encouraging young women and girls to pursue careers in STEM, and encouraging gender equity, which was first sparked while she was a primary school student at Kilvington


id: nelson-diversity-surveys-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nelson_Diversity_Surveys-0.md
category: reference
title: Nelson Diversity Surveys
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nelson_Diversity_Surveys
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:13.862910+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nelson-diversity-surveys-20260505-0
summary:
The Nelson Diversity Surveys (NDS) are a collection of data sets that quantify the representation of women and minorities among professors, by science and engineering discipline, at research universities. They consist of four data sets compiled by Donna Nelson, Professor of Chemistry at the University of Oklahoma during fiscal years (FY) 2002, 2005, 2007, and 2012 through the Diversity in Science Association. These surveys were each complete populations, rather than samples. Consequently, the Surveys quantified characteristics of the faculty which had never been revealed previously, drawing great attention from women and minorities. Furthermore, the Surveys initially came at a time when these underrepresented groups were becoming concerned and vocal about perceived inequities in academia. At the time the surveys were initiated, the MIT Study of 1999, expressing the concerns of women scientists (including Nancy Hopkins), had just been issued, and underrepresented minority (URM) science faculty noticed URM students increase among PhD recipients without a corresponding increase among recently hired professors. Data sets like the NDS, along with similar research available through the NSF, allowed URM faculty to track the progress of diversity efforts in the STEM fields. As noted by the Women's Institute for Policy Research, progress has been slow


id: pakistani-women-in-stem-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistani_women_in_STEM-0.md
category: reference
title: Pakistani women in STEM
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistani_women_in_STEM
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:19.618247+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pakistani-women-in-stem-20260505-0
summary:
While STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) fields all over the world are dominated by men, the number of Pakistani women in 'STEM' is low due to one of the highest gender gaps in STEM fields. However, over the time, some Pakistani women have emerged as scientists in fields like physics, biology and computer sciences. == Gender gap in Pakistan == Pakistan has one of the highest gender gaps in the world, and it is the third least performer in gender parity according to a report published by World Economic Forum in 2020. The low literacy rate of women in Pakistan, despite women making almost half the population, is one of the factors in a high gender gap in STEM fields. This literacy rate is even lower in science and technology. === Facts === According to UNESCO, among students enrolled in bachelor's degrees, 47% are women while 53% are men. The number of women pursuing doctoral studies is only 36%, while the percentage of men is 64%. There is also a significant gender gap in research sector, with women making only 34% of researchers. Among students in universities, the field of natural sciences is reported to have only 40% women


id: portrayal-of-women-scientists-in-film-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portrayal_of_women_scientists_in_film-0.md
category: reference
title: Portrayal of women scientists in film
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portrayal_of_women_scientists_in_film
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:20.837531+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: portrayal-of-women-scientists-in-film-20260505-0
summary:
Films have portrayed professional women in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields in various ways throughout film history. == Overview == The study of female characters in film began with movements from the 1960s and 1970s in the form of second-wave feminism, the rise of independent films, and the beginning of academic film studies. Some films promote certain socially defined female stereotypical archetypes that often combine job stereotypes with gender stereotypes. The use of these stereotypes in film has been suggested to contribute to a questionable portrayal of women, especially revolving around themes of violence, sexuality, objectification, and subordination. == Examples of female scientists in film == === Early 20th century === The presentation of women as scientists on film goes back to the early days of cinema. The first known presentation may be 1929's Woman in the Moon. Written by Thea von Harbou and directed by Fritz Lang, the film follows a group of Germans as they travel to the Moon. The group includes Friede Velten, an assistant on the trip, who chooses between two potential husbands and ultimately decides to stay on the Moon and live a new life there. It would take almost ten years before


id: portrayal-of-women-scientists-in-film-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portrayal_of_women_scientists_in_film-1.md
category: reference
title: Portrayal of women scientists in film
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portrayal_of_women_scientists_in_film
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:20.837531+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: portrayal-of-women-scientists-in-film-20260505-0
summary:
=== Arrival (2016) === The 2016 film Arrival revolves around the character of linguist Dr. Louise Banks, played by Amy Adams, who facilitates the very first instance of human communicative contact with an alien population. The film makes an obvious effort at employing a feminist theme, primarily through the way the backstory shapes Dr. Banks and frames her as an accomplished professional and mother. === Hidden Figures === Hidden Figures was released in 2016 and told the true story of three female African-American mathematicians, Katherine Johnson, Dorothy Vaughan and Mary Jackson (engineer) who worked at NASA during the Space Race. === Black Panther (2018) === The critically acclaimed film Black Panther features Princess Shuri, a young, Black, female character who excels in the STEM field as an intelligent and creative technology whiz and inventor. Portrayed by Letitia Wright, Princess Shuri is the younger sister of T'Challa (Chadwick Boseman), the eventual king of Wakanda, and the mastermind behind harnessing the power of vibranium, specifically in the creation of the Black Panther suit. The Marvel Cinematic Universe has portrayed over 60 fictional scientists, about a quarter of them being women, including computer expert Dr Helen Cho, biologist Dr Maya Hensen and biochemist


id: portrayal-of-women-scientists-in-film-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portrayal_of_women_scientists_in_film-2.md
category: reference
title: Portrayal of women scientists in film
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portrayal_of_women_scientists_in_film
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:20.837531+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: portrayal-of-women-scientists-in-film-20260505-0
summary:
=== The Lonely Heroine === This type of woman scientist is intelligent, attractive, and somewhat independent. Flicker says that she "has appropriated some male traits," such as losing herself in her work. She is both sexual and smart, and she manages to exhibit both qualities in the film. Despite this, she is still subordinate to the men on her team, and depends on them and their work to gain respect. She is the most progressive of the woman scientist types, but she lacks her own form of independence and still must rely on a sexual relationship with a man to be seen as someone. The "lonely heroine" type is best seen in Jodie Foster's portrayal of Elleonore Arroway in the film Contact. == Objectification of women in film == Flicker argues that women are often pigeonholed into these six limiting roles when written in films. Each of these roles places the female scientist character on the sidelines, and does not allow her to be on the same level as her male counterpart(s). Although the women in these roles are educated, and often just as educated as the men on their team, they are used primarily as assistants and sexual characters.


id: portrayal-of-women-scientists-in-film-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portrayal_of_women_scientists_in_film-3.md
category: reference
title: Portrayal of women scientists in film
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portrayal_of_women_scientists_in_film
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:20.837531+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: portrayal-of-women-scientists-in-film-20260505-0
summary:
== Opposing views == Noël Carroll references Mulvey's pivotal paper on psychoanalysis and visual pleasure in his writing, and plays devil's advocate to her claim that women are the only subjects of gaze. Carroll acknowledges and agrees with Mulvey's assessment that women in film are strategically placed for the male gaze despite the role of their actual character. Carroll states, "Women in Hollywood film are staged and blocked for male erotic contemplation and pleasure." However, Carroll adds that men in films are also strategically placed for the purpose of pleasure. He cites such examples as Sylvester Stallone and Arnold Schwarzenegger, big bodybuilding actors "whose scenes are blocked and staged precisely to afford spectacles of bulging pectorals and other parts." Similarly to actresses, male actors are also heralded for their facial attractiveness and are sometimes lauded exclusively for being attractive. As an example, Carroll offers Leslie Howard, a male actor who appeared in Of Human Bondage and Gone With the Wind, who was highly successful in the industry despite being "staggeringly ineffectual." According to Carroll, being subject to the erotic gaze of the audience is not an exclusively female burden; rather, both sexes fall prey to Hollywood camera angles that best


id: promoting-women-in-entrepreneurship-act-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promoting_Women_in_Entrepreneurship_Act-0.md
category: reference
title: Promoting Women in Entrepreneurship Act
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promoting_Women_in_Entrepreneurship_Act
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:22.467511+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: promoting-women-in-entrepreneurship-act-20260505-0
summary:
The Promoting Women in Entrepreneurship Act in the USA (Pub. L. 115–6 (text) (PDF), H.R. 255) is a 2017 public law amendment to the Science and Engineering Equal Opportunities Act (Pub. L. 96–516) to authorize the National Science Foundation to encourage its entrepreneurial programs to recruit and support women to extend their focus beyond the laboratory and into the commercial world. == Background == The Promoting Women in Entrepreneurship Act was introduced in the United States House of Representatives on January 4, 2017, by Representative Elizabeth Esty of Connecticut and signed into law by President Donald Trump on February 28, 2017. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, women account for 47% of the workforce, but make up only 25.6 percent of computer and mathematical occupations. In addition, only 15.4 percent of architecture and engineering jobs are filled by women. Congress also found that only 26 percent of women who earned STEM degrees actually worked in STEM related jobs. The president stated, “(Pub. L. 96–516) enables the National Science Foundation to support women inventors – of which there are many – researchers and scientists in bringing their discoveries to the business world, championing science and entrepreneurship and creating new ways


id: maria-aparecida-soares-ruas-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Aparecida_Soares_Ruas-0.md
category: reference
title: Maria Aparecida Soares Ruas
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Aparecida_Soares_Ruas
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:24.932179+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maria-aparecida-soares-ruas-20260505-0
summary:
Maria Aparecida Soares Ruas (1948–2025) was a Brazilian mathematician specializing in differential geometry and singularity theory. She was a professor at the University of São Paulo. == Education and career == Ruas was born on 5 January 1948, in Lins, São Paulo. She became interested in mathematics through a junior high school mathematics teacher, Râmisa Jorge, and after entering university study in 1967, earned a licenciate in mathematics in 1970 through what is now the Faculty of Science and Letters of the Araraquara campus of São Paulo State University. She became a teaching assistant at the same campus in 1971, while at the same time studying for a master's degree at the University of São Paulo, working there with Gilberto Francisco Loibel; she completed her degree in 1974, and was promoted to assistant professor. In 1982 she moved to the University of São Paulo as a professor. She defended her doctoral dissertation, Finity Determinacy and Applications at the University of São Paulo in 1983. It was jointly advised by Luiz Antonio Fávaro and Terence Gaffney. She headed the mathematics department at the University of São Paulo, was a founding member of the Brazilian Mathematical Society, and organized the biennial Workshop


id: us-international-women-in-science-dialogue-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US-International_Women_in_Science_Dialogue-0.md
category: reference
title: US-International Women in Science Dialogue
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US-International_Women_in_Science_Dialogue
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:26.209335+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: us-international-women-in-science-dialogue-20260505-0
summary:
The US-International Women in Science Dialogue was a conference held in June 2011 that brought sixteen women scientists from different countries to talk about their experiences as women in science. It was moderated by Sherburne Abbott. The discussions included public questions from Twitter. == Attendees == Ana Lucia Assad, Ministry of Science and Technology, Brazil. Ansam Sawalha, West Bank and others. == External links == "US-International Women in Science Dialogue" on YouTube. == References ==


