# kb

id: decompression-theory-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompression_theory-16.md
category: reference
title: Decompression theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompression_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:49.112339+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: decompression-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Practical effectiveness of models === Bubble models for decompression were popular among technical divers in the early 2000s, although there was little data to support the effectiveness of the models in practice. Since then, several comparative studies have indicated relatively larger numbers of venous gas emboli after decompression based on bubble models, and one study reported a higher rate of decompression sickness. The deeper decompression stops earlier in the ascent appear to be less effective at controlling bubble formation than the hypotheses suggested. This failure may be due to continued ingassing of slower tissues during the extended time at greater depth, resulting in these tissues being more supersaturated at shallower depths. The optimal decompression strategy for deep bounce dives remains unknown (2016). The practical efficacy of gas switches from helium-based diluent to nitrox for accelerating decompression has not been demonstrated convincingly. These switches increase risk of inner ear decompression sickness due to counterdiffusion effects. Besides the basic dive profile and gas mixes, and the residual gas load from previous dives, three groups of factors are considered likely to have significant influence on decompression stress, the evolution of bubbles in the diver, and development of symptoms. These are exercise, before,


id: disease-theory-of-alcoholism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_theory_of_alcoholism-0.md
category: reference
title: Disease theory of alcoholism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_theory_of_alcoholism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:50.381723+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disease-theory-of-alcoholism-20260505-0
summary:
The modern disease theory of alcoholism states that problem drinking is sometimes caused by a disease of the brain, characterized by altered brain structure and function. Today, alcohol use disorder (AUD) is used as a more scientific and suitable approach to alcohol dependence and alcohol-related problems. The largest association of physicians – the American Medical Association (AMA) – declared that alcoholism was an illness in 1956. In 1991, the AMA further endorsed the dual classification of alcoholism by the International Classification of Diseases under both psychiatric and medical sections. == Theory == Under the model of alcoholism, alcohol use disorder is viewed as chronic problem for which abstinence is required. A brain disease model of addiction, based on the extent of neuroadaptation and impaired control, is main position advanced for proposing a disease model of alcohol use disorder. However, if managed properly, damage to the brain can be stopped and to some extent reversed. In addition to problem drinking, the disease is characterized by symptoms including an impaired control over alcohol, compulsive thoughts about alcohol, and distorted thinking. Alcoholism can also lead indirectly, through excess consumption, to physical dependence on alcohol, and diseases such as cirrhosis of the liver. The


id: disease-theory-of-alcoholism-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_theory_of_alcoholism-1.md
category: reference
title: Disease theory of alcoholism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_theory_of_alcoholism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:50.381723+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disease-theory-of-alcoholism-20260505-0
summary:
My observations authorize me to say, that persons who have been addicted to them, should abstain from them suddenly and entirely. 'Taste not, handle not, touch not' should be inscribed upon every vessel that contains spirits in the house of a man, who wishes to be cured of habits of intemperance. Rush argued that "habitual drunkenness should be regarded not as a bad habit but as a disease", describing it as "a palsy of the will". Rush expounded his views in a book published in 1808. His views are described by Valverde, Levine Spode, and Perkins-McVey. Already in 1802 the prominent German physician Christoph Wilhelm Hufeland had published a book on the "brandy plague" stating that the "infection" with spirits makes it "inevitably necessary to drink ever more." Later he wrote an enthusiastic preface to the book On the addiction to drink and a rational cure of it by German-Russian physician C. von Brühl-Cramer. As Spode points out, this study marked the birth of a consistent "paradigm" of addiction as a mental illness, although it took many decades until this view was accepted. Perkins-McVey argues that Rush, Trotter, and Brühl-Cramer each independently developed their own disease theories of alcoholism as


id: disease-theory-of-alcoholism-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_theory_of_alcoholism-2.md
category: reference
title: Disease theory of alcoholism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_theory_of_alcoholism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:50.381723+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disease-theory-of-alcoholism-20260505-0
summary:
== Controlled drinking == The disease theory is often interpreted as implying that problem drinkers are incapable of returning to 'normal' problem free drinking, and therefore that treatment should focus on total abstinence. Some critics have used evidence of controlled drinking in formerly dependent drinkers to dispute the disease theory of alcoholism. The first major empirical challenge to this interpretation of the disease theory followed a 1962 study by Dr. D. L. Davies. Davies' follow-up of ninety-three problem drinkers found that seven of them were able to return to "controlled drinking" (less than seven drinks per day for at least seven years). Davies concluded that "the accepted view that no alcohol addict can ever again drink normally should be modified, although all patients should be advised to aim at total abstinence"; After the Davies study, several other researchers reported cases of problem drinkers returning to controlled drinking. In 1976, a major study commonly referred to as the RAND report, published evidence of problem drinkers learning to consume alcohol in moderation. The publication of the study renewed controversy over how people with a disease which reputedly leads to uncontrollable drinking could manage to drink controllably. Subsequent studies also reported evidence of


id: disease-theory-of-alcoholism-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_theory_of_alcoholism-3.md
category: reference
title: Disease theory of alcoholism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_theory_of_alcoholism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:50.381723+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disease-theory-of-alcoholism-20260505-0
summary:
== Current acceptance == Alcoholism is a disease with a known pathology and an established biomolecular signal transduction pathway which culminates in ΔFosB overexpression within the D1-type medium spiny neurons of the nucleus accumbens; when this overexpression occurs, ΔFosB induces the addictive state. In 2004, the World Health Organization published a detailed report on alcohol and other psychoactive substances entitled "Neuroscience of psychoactive substance use and dependence". It stated that this was the "first attempt by WHO to provide a comprehensive overview of the biological factors related to substance use and dependence by summarizing the vast amount of knowledge gained in the last 20-30 years. The report highlights the current state of knowledge of the mechanisms of action of different types of psychoactive substances, and explains how the use of these substances can lead to the development of dependence syndrome." The report states that "dependence has not previously been recognized as a disorder of the brain, in the same way that psychiatric and mental illnesses were not previously viewed as being a result of a disorder of the brain. However, with recent advances in neuroscience, it is clear that dependence is as much a disorder of the brain as any


id: effective-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effective_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Effective theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effective_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:51.573632+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: effective-theory-20260505-0
summary:
In science, an effective theory is a deliberately limited scientific theory applicable under specific circumstances. In practice, all theories are effective theories, with the name "effective theory" being used to signal that the limitations are built in by design. == Examples == An early example is Galileo Galilei's theory of falling bodies. Using observed values, Galileo deduced that the height of a falling body can be accounted for by constant acceleration, written here in modern notation: d 2 z d t 2 = − g , {\displaystyle {\frac {d^{2}z}{dt^{2}}}=-g,} where t is the time, z is the vertical position of an object and g is gravitational acceleration near the surface of Earth. Within the scope of objects falling on Earth, this theory works well. However, as Isaac Newton discovered in his Newton's law of universal gravitation, a more elaborate but still effective theory, has more scope at the expense of additional complications. The next layer was Albert Einstein's general relativity, with more scope but even more complications. == Effective field theory == Effective field theory is a method used to describe physical theories when there is a hierarchy of scales. Effective field theories in physics can include quantum field theories


id: expectancy-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:52.715379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Expectancy theory (or expectancy theory of motivation) proposes that an individual will behave or act in a certain way because they are motivated to select a specific behavior over others due to what they expect the result of that selected behavior will be. In essence, the motivation of the behavior selection is determined by the desirability of the outcome. However, at the core of the theory is the cognitive process of how an individual processes the different motivational elements. This is done before making the ultimate choice. The outcome is not the sole determining factor in making the decision of how to behave. Expectancy theory is a motivation theory concerned with mental processes regarding choice, or choosing. First proposed by Victor Vroom of the Yale School of Management in 1964, it aims to explain the processes that an individual undergoes to make choices. In relation to the study of organizational behavior, the theory stresses "the need for organizations to relate rewards directly to performance and to ensure that the rewards provided are deserved and wanted by the recipients". Vroom defines motivation as a process governing choices among alternative forms of voluntary activities, a process controlled by the individual. The individual


id: expectancy-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_theory-1.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:52.715379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Management === Victor Vroom's expectancy theory is one such management theory focused on motivation. According to Holdford and Lovelace-Elmore, Vroom asserts, "intensity of work effort depends on the perception that an individual's effort will result in a desired outcome". In order to enhance the performance-outcome tie, managers should use systems that tie rewards very closely to performance. Managers also need to ensure that the rewards provided are deserved and wanted by the recipients. In order to improve the effort-performance tie, managers should engage in training to improve their capabilities and improve their belief that added effort will in fact lead to better performance. Emphasizes self-interest in the alignment of rewards with employee's wants. Emphasizes the connections among expected behaviors, rewards and organizational goals Expectancy Theory, though well known in work motivation literature, is not as familiar to scholars or practitioners outside that field. === Computer users === Lori Baker-Eveleth and Robert Stone, University of Idaho in 2008 conducted an empirical study on 154 faculty members' reactions to the use of new software. It was found that ease of system use affects both self-efficacy (self-confidence) and anticipated usefulness. These in turn influenced the decision, or anticipated decision, to use the


id: expectancy-theory-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_theory-2.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:52.715379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-theory-20260505-0
summary:
== Criticisms == Critics of the expectancy model include Graen, Lawler and Porter. Their criticisms of the theory were based upon the expectancy model being too simplistic in nature; these critics started making adjustments to Vroom's model. Edward Lawler claims that the simplicity of expectancy theory is deceptive because it assumes that if an employer makes a reward (such as a financial bonus or promotion) enticing enough, employees will increase their productivity to obtain the reward. However, this only works if the employees believe the reward is beneficial to their immediate needs. For example, a $2 increase in salary may not be desirable to an employee if the increase pushes him into a tax bracket in which he believes his net pay is actually reduced (a belief that is typically fallacious, especially in the United States). Similarly, a promotion that provides higher status but requires longer hours may be a deterrent to an employee who values evening and weekend time with their children. As an additional example, if a person in the armed forces or security agencies is promoted, there is the possibility that he or she will be transferred to other locations. In such cases, if the new posting


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Expectancy violations theory (EVT) is a theory of communication that analyzes how individuals respond to unanticipated violations of social norms and expectations. The theory was proposed by Judee K. Burgoon in the late 1970s and continued through the 1980s and 1990s as "nonverbal expectancy violations theory", based on Burgoon's research studying proxemics. Burgoon's work initially analyzed individuals' allowances and expectations of personal distance and how responses to personal distance violations were influenced by the level of liking and relationship to the violators. The theory was later changed to its current name when other researchers began to focus on violations of social behavior expectations beyond nonverbal communication. This theory sees communication as an exchange of behaviors, where one individual's behavior can be used to violate the expectations of another. Participants in communication will perceive the exchange either positively or negatively, depending upon an existing personal relationship or how favorably the violation is perceived. Violations of expectancies cause arousal and compel the recipient to initiate a series of cognitive appraisals of the violation. The theory predicts that expectancies influence the outcome of the communication interaction as either positive or negative and predicts that positive violations increase the attraction of the violator and


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-1.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Communicator reward valence === The communicator reward valence is an evaluation one makes about the person who committed a violation of expectancy. Em Griffin summarizes the concept behind communicator reward valence as "the sum of positive and negative attributes brought to the encounter plus the potential to reward or punish in the future". The social exchange theory explains that individuals seek to reward some and seek to avoid punishing others. When one individual interacts with another, Burgoon believes he or she will assess the "positive and negative attributes that person brings to the encounter". If the person has the ability to reward or punish the receiver in the future, then the person has a positive reward valence. Rewards simply refer to the person's ability to provide a want or need. It can be represented by several features, such as communicators with high social class, reputation, knowledge, positive emotional support, physical attractiveness, and so on. The term 'communicator reward valence' is used to describe the results of this assessment. For example, people will feel encouraged during conversation when the listener is nodding, making eye contact, and responding actively. Conversely, if the listener is avoiding eye contact, yawning, and texting, it


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-2.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Propositions === After assessing expectancy, violation valence, and communicator reward valence of a given situation, it becomes possible to make rather specific predictions about whether the individual who perceived the violation will reciprocate or compensate the behavior in question. Guerrero and Burgoon noticed that predictable patterns develop when considering reward valence and violation valence together. Specifically, if the violation valence is perceived as positive and the communicator reward valence is also perceived as positive, the theory predicts individuals will reciprocate the positive behavior. Similarly, if one perceives the violation valence as negative and the communicator reward valence as negative, the theory again predicts that one will reciprocate the negative behavior. Thus, if a disliked coworker is grouchy and unpleasant, people will likely reciprocate and be unpleasant in return. Conversely, if one perceives a negative violation valence but views the communicator reward valence as positive, it is likely that the person will compensate for his or her partner's negative behavior. For example, imagine a supervisor appears sullen and throws a stack of papers in front of an employee. Rather than grunt back, EVT predicts that the employee will compensate for the boss's negativity, perhaps by asking if everything is okay.


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-3.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Intimate distance: (0–18 inches) – This distance is for close, intimate encounters. Normally core family, close friends, lovers, or pets. People will normally share a unique level of comfort with one another. Personal distance: (18 inches – 4 feet) – Reserved for conversations with friends, extended family, associates, and group discussions. The personal distance will give each person more space compared with the intimate distance, but is still close enough to involve touching one another. Social distance: (4–10 feet) – This distance is reserved for newly formed groups, and new acquaintances and colleagues one may have just met. People generally do not engage physically with one another within this section. Public distance: (10 feet to infinity) – Reserved for a public setting with large audiences, strangers, speeches, and theaters. Many different cultures are influenced by proxemics in different ways and respond differently to the same situation. In some cultures, those who have not formed close relationships may greet each other with kisses on the cheek, engaging one another well within the intimate range of proxemics. In other cultures, a custom greeting is a handshake which maintains a physical separation but is well within personal distance. Across the proxemic zones, actions


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-4.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
==== Friendship ==== Expectations with friends formulate over time and are usually brought together by a series of observations of behavior and predictions on how that friend will act in the future. When these expectations are violated, it often can be damaging and dangerous for a close friendship. It can cause an end to the friendship and create a strong negative experience in that person's life. Over time, people might expect friends to act consistently around them until a violation to this expectation takes place. For example, when they begin "breaking promises or even acting in an inauthentic manner to impress others, can have aversive consequences for close relationships" (Cohen 2010). People expect their friends to act in a social manner and adhere to all of our personal rules they set in their minds, such as being nice, kind, considerate, and refraining from any comment that puts another down. This is a part of the personal rules with a personal friendship, though in a different setting with that individual around different people, the rules may be broken. While this might be an offense in one's eyes, it may not be offensive in the others. Each negative experience can deteriorate the


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-5.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Expectancy violations happen frequently in romantic relationships. In relationships there is an unspoken expectation when interacting and that is the significant other will give their full undivided attention when in the presence of their significant other. As the new generation evolves, the face to face contact has changed. With the access use of phones and social media the attention of individuals has shifted to their devices and continues to become worse. Since there is access to many mobile devices, there has been an increase of lack of communication face to face. This has made it difficult for some relationships to grow and has created conflict because the expectation of attention has been shifted. "Individuals expect conversational partners to be moderately involved in an interaction (Burgoon, Newton, Walther, & Baesler, 1989). Within existing relationships, partners rely on one another to show interest and immediacy in interactions (White, 2008). However, the presence of cell phones and the expectation to be constantly available (Ling, 2012) impacts partners' abilities to give full attention to one another" (Miller-Ott, A., & Kelly, L. 2015). Regardless of where the romantic relationship takes place, people are likely to have negative valence about cell phone usage, including texting, viewing


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-6.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
==== Stereotypes, Gender and Sexuality ==== A study on personality traits and gender-based stereotypes in perceived negotiation skills was conducted in 2024. The study found that women tend to perform better in same-sex negotiations than in opposite-sex negotiations, while no significant differences were observed for men-pointing to the detrimental effect of gender in negotiation. Negotiation outcomes were mostly one-sided in favor of high-powered negotiators when stereotypical masculine traits were displayed, whereas stereotypically feminine traits tended to produce win-win outcomes. When negotiators' behaviors counter gender-specific beliefs, negative expectancy violations occur, generating backlash and negatively affecting negotiators' outcomes. When facing an unexpected negotiation partner, the impact of a hiring manager's gender-role violation on job candidates become evident. Job candidate believed that hiring managers were more extreme in characteristics that violated gender-role expectations: agentic female hiring managers were seen as more agentic than their male peers, while communal male hiring managers were perceived as more communal than their female counterparts. Job candidates were also less comfortable with an agentic female hiring manager than with an agentic male hiring manager. Further negotiating with an agentic female hiring manager would result in the least favorable outcomes, whereas those negotiating with a communal hiring manager would


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-7.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Human-Technology Interaction with AI and Chatbots === Researchers found that the communication style of chatbots can influence consumers' satisfaction, trust, and engagement in the context of service failure. This is demonstrated through interactions with social-oriented communication-style chatbots, which elevate the level of consumers' interaction satisfaction and behavioral intention. This study examined how the communication style of chatbots influences consumers' satisfaction, trust, and engagement in the context of service failure. Additionally, when consumers' expectations are violated to a higher level, chatbots using a socially oriented (vs. task-oriented) communication style are more likely to incite higher interaction satisfaction, trust, and patronage intention. Another study about chatbot interactions examined the opposing effects of response time in human-chatbot interaction. It was found that experienced users may find a delayed response time irritating because they are aware that a chatbot can answer instantly. The results also reveal that social presence, or the feeling of being there, mediates the effect of chatbot response time on usage intentions (the willingness of a person to use a particular product, service, or system). It was also found that when perceived social presence is low, skilled users have a higher usage intention than novice users. This means that users


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-8.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Computer-mediated communication and social media === As has previously been addressed, EVT has evolved tremendously over the years, expanding beyond its original induction when it focused on FtF communication and proxemics. The advancement of information and communications technology has provided tools for expressing oneself and conveying messages beyond just typing in text. As already discussed, arousal can divert one's attention or interest from a message to the source of the arousal. Virtual realities created online through computer-mediated communication (CMC), especially those which evoke strong visual presence through media, can increase arousal levels, such as those with high violent or sexual content. Just as people may use television viewing to increase or decrease arousal levels, people may use media in online communication to increase or decrease arousal levels. People may interact with others online by assuming the identities of avatars which may take on completely different, alternate personalities. The differences in perceived intimateness, co-presence, and emotionally-based trust can very significantly between avatar communication and other communication modalities such as text chat, audio, and audio-visual. The media options available to users when communicating with others online present a host of potential expectancy violations unique to CMC. The introduction of social media


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-9.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
""Don't stalk' – and when you do, don't talk about it" Though an understanding exists among Facebook participants that users will use the site to keep track of the behavior of others in a number of ways, excessive monitoring is likely to be perceived as an expectancy violation. "Don't embarrass me with bad pictures" Users may have the ability to control which pictures they post on their own Facebook page, but they do not have the ability to control what others post. Posting and "tagging" unflattering pictures of others may create expectancy violations. "Don't mess up my profile" Several participants expressed annoyance of others who alter their profiles knowing that their alterations could be perceived negatively, though they did not mention changing their passwords or protecting themselves in other ways. "Choose an appropriate forum for messages" Messages can be sent between Facebook participants through 'Facebook messages', which are not public, or 'wall postings', which can be viewed by anyone specified in the user's privacy controls. Posting messages which may be perceived as private, embarrassing, or inappropriate to a wall posting can create expectancy violations. "Don't compete over number of friends" Facebook users maintain a running total of 'friends' on their


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-10.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== In educational contexts === EVT posits that deviations from expected behavior can influence social judgments. In the context of teacher dress, formal attire aligns with expectations of a teacher's role, and such congruence typically results in favorable credibility assessments. The impact of clothing on expectations, where attire considered appropriate to the teaching context bolstered perceptions of a teacher's potential for student academic success. A mixed method study conducted in 2023 followed first generation college students and their social expectations for their transition to college. Overall students reported negative violations when it came to partying, making new friends, and strengthening new bonds. They also experienced positive violations when it came to stress and workload. Students who reported more negative violations also reported an overall more difficult transition period. Students who reported more positive violations reported an easier transition period. === Implications for teacher dress code === The implications of these studies are twofold: they reaffirm the importance of attire as a component of nonverbal communication within educational settings, and they highlight the potential for teacher attire to align with institutional norms and expectations to enhance educational outcomes. While the preference for formality in attire may vary by educational context, the


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-11.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
==== Student disclosures in college classroom ==== In 2013, Frisby and Sidelinger conducted a research about student disclosures in college classroom to examine what kinds of student disclosures would violate peers' expectations and their perceptions about the disclosers. According to the study, those who make inappropriate disclosures violate others' expectations most in a classroom environment. Inappropriate disclosures are described as high frequent, negative, offensive and irrelevant topics. Disclosers of inappropriate information are more likely to be described as incompetent students, and they are less likeable than students who disclose appropriate information that are related to course materials. ==== Students' expectations towards instructors in online classes ==== Taking EVT as a lens, Renee Bourdeaux and Lindsie Schoenack investigate students' reasons for taking online classes, their expectations towards instructors, and the derivation of expectations of instructors' behaviors. Research shows that students expect clarity, respect, and well-designed course accommodating to the online environment. Participants consider effective communication and improving learning as behaviors bringing positive results. However, unprofessional behaviors, such as lack of use of teaching tools decreasing the productivity of classes, lead to negative results. === Business communication crisis === EVT can also apply to everyday business interaction between long-term partners, new partners,


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-12.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
==== Business/Workplace Behaviors ==== In another study conducted in 2025, researchers examined the aftermath of an ethical violation and how family firms suffer more than non-family firms, as well as the reasons behind this. The presence of family firm information leads individuals to perceive the firm as more trustworthy. Although family firms may be seen as more trustworthy, the opposite effect can also be greater. effects as well. An identity threat could lead to a loss of benevolence beliefs and an avoidant reaction. Similarly, a decrease in perceived integrity and benevolence was significantly greater for family firms than for non-family firms. A 2024 study investigated the effects of greenwashing effects on corporate reputation and brand hate through environmental performance and green perceived risk. The findings show that consumer perceptions of greenwashing can damage a brand's image. Additionally, the study found that greenwashing negatively affects on corporate reputation through perceived environmental performance and green perceived risk. Reducing greenwashing practices can improve consumers' perceptions of corporate environmental performance. In 2024, another study explored whether religion mattered to angel investors specifically, the influence of religion on entrepreneurial investor decision-making. The results showed that religion contributes to social trust across multiple levels of analysis.


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-13.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Evaluation of media figures === Expectancy violations are tightly related to the changes of people's evaluation on their relationships with media figures. In 2010, Cohen made comparisons between relationships with friends and media figures in order to find similarities and differences of people's reactions when their expectations are violated in these two relationships. Violations were generally divided in three categories: social violations such as making offensive comments, trust violations such as making up stories about their life experience, and moral violations such as cheating in a marital relationship or drunk driving. Research indicated that in both friendships and relationships with media figures, social and trust violations are more offensive than moral violations. Specifically, people are more intolerable about moral violations from media figures than from their friends. According to the study, the reason for the intolerance is because relationships with media figures are relatively weak that people invest less on the relationships with media figures than on friendships. The type of media figures is also an important factor to determine the changes of closeness with media figures. People have different expectations to various types of media figures. Research discussed that moral violations negatively influence relationships with athletes, damaging their


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-14.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Expectations of adults with autism === Expectancy violations theory has been applied in studies to determine whether people judge adults with autism as violating their expectations since people with autism can exhibit little-to-no eye contact, or facial expression, not recognize certain nonverbal cues, or utilize tones that non-autistic people may perceive as abnormal. In one manuscript replying to another study, Bishop describes communication deficits in autistic individuals as potentially violating one's expectations for social communication, thus being a form of expectation violation since people with autism can struggle with social communication. One study by Lim, Young, and Brewer hypothesized that people can incorrectly perceive autistic adults as having no credibility or being deceptive. They believed that due to expectancy violations theory, people will judge those who violate their expectations unfavorably in a negative light. They recorded videos of autistic and non autistic adults attempting to persuade the interviewer that they did not steal an envelope of money and the participants of the study were to judge whether they believed the individuals in the interview were lying or telling the truth. The results showed that the autistic people were perceived as deceptive and less credible than non autistic people in


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-15.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Predictability and testability === EVT has undergone scrutiny for its attempt to provide a covering law for certain aspects of interpersonal communication. Some critics of EVT believe most interactions between individuals are extremely complex and there are many contingencies to consider within the theory. This makes the prediction of behavioral outcomes of a particular situation virtually impossible to consistently predict. Another critique of the theory is the assumption that expectancy violations are mostly highly consequential acts, negative in nature, and cause uncertainty to increase between communicators. In actuality, research shows expectancy violations vary in frequency, seriousness, and valence. While it is true that many expectancy violations carry a negative valence, numerous are positive and actually reduce uncertainty because they provide additional information within the parameters of the particular relationship, context, and communicators. ==== A First Look at Communication ==== Emory Griffin, the author of A First Look at Communication Theory, analyzed unpredictability in EVT. His test consisted in analyzing his interaction with four students who made various requests from him. The students were given the pseudonyms Andre, Belinda, Charlie and Dawn. They start with the letters A, B, C and D to represent the increasing distance between them and


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-16.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
== Further use and development of the theory == The concept of social norms marketing follows expectancy violation in that it is based upon the notion that messages containing facts that vary from perception of the norm will create a positive expectancy violation. Advertising, strategic communications, and public relations base social norms campaigns on this position. Interaction adaptation theory further explores expectancy violations. Developed by Burgoon to take a more comprehensive look at social interaction, IAT posits that people enter into interactions with requirements, expectations, and desires. These factors influence both the initial behavior as well as the response behavior. When faced with behavior that meets an individual's needs, expectations, or desires, the response behavior will be positive. When faced with behavior that does not meet an individual's needs, expectations, or desires, he or she can respond either positively or negatively depending on the degree of violation and positive or negative valence of the relationship. Expectancies exert significant influence on people's interaction patterns, on their impressions of one another, and on the outcomes of their interactions. People who can assume that they are well regarded by their audience are safer engaging in violations and more likely to profit from doing


id: expectancy-value-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy-value_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy-value theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy-value_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:55.181654+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-value-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Expectancy–value theory has been developed in many different fields including education, health, communications, marketing and economics. Although the model differs in its meaning and implications for each field, the general idea is that there are expectations as well as values or beliefs that affect subsequent behavior. == Education model == === History and model overview === John William Atkinson developed the expectancy–value theory in the 1950s and 1960s in an effort to understand the achievement motivation of individuals. In the 1980s, Jacquelynne Eccles expanded this research into the field of education. According to expectancy–value theory, students' achievement and achievement related choices are most proximally determined by two factors: expectancies for success, and subjective task values. Expectancies refer to how confident an individual is in his or her ability to succeed in a task whereas task values refer to how important, useful, or enjoyable the individual perceives the task. Theoretical and empirical work suggests that expectancies and values interact to predict important outcomes such as engagement, continuing interest, and academic achievement. Other factors, including demographic characteristics, stereotypes, prior experiences, and perceptions of others' beliefs and behaviors affect achievement related outcomes indirectly through these expectancies and values. This model has most widely


id: expectancy-value-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy-value_theory-1.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy-value theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy-value_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:55.181654+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-value-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== History === Dr. Martin Fishbein is credited with developing the expectancy–value theory (EVT) in the early to mid-1970s. It is sometimes referred to as Fishbein's expectancy–value theory or simply expectancy–value model. The primary work typically cited by scholars referring to EVT is Martin Fishbein and Icek Ajzen's 1975 book called Belief, Attitude, Intention, and Behavior: An Introduction to Theory and Research. The seed work of EVT can be seen in Fishbein's doctoral dissertation, A Theoretical and Empirical Investigation of the Interrelation between Belief about an Object and the Attitude toward that Object (1961, UCLA) and two subsequent articles in 1962 and 1963 in the journal Human Relations. Fishbein's work drew on the writings of researchers such as Ward Edwards, Milton J. Rosenberg, Edward Tolman, and John B. Watson. === Concepts === EVT has three basic components. First, individuals respond to novel information about an item or action by developing a belief about the item or action. If a belief already exists, it can and most likely will be modified by new information. Second, individuals assign a value to each attribute that a belief is based on. Third, an expectation is created or modified based on the result of a


id: language-expectancy-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_expectancy_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Language expectancy theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_expectancy_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:56.372148+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: language-expectancy-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Language expectancy theory (LET) is a theory of persuasion. The theory assumes language is a rules-based system, in which people develop expected norms as to appropriate language usage in given situations. Furthermore, unexpected linguistic usage can affect the receiver's behavior resulting from attitudes towards a persuasive message. == Background == Created by Michael Burgoon, a retired professor of medicine from the University of Arizona, and Gerald R. Miller, the inspiration for LET was sparked by Brooks' work on expectations of language in 1970. Burgoon, Jones and Stewart furthered the discussion with the idea of linguistic strategies and message intensity in an essay published in 1975. The essay linked linguistic strategies, or how a message is framed, to effective persuasive outcomes. The original work for the language expectation theory was published in 1978. Titled "An empirical test of a model of resistance to persuasion", it outlined the theory through 17s. == Expectations == The theory views language expectancies as enduring patterns of anticipated communication behavior which are grounded in a society's psychological and cultural norms. Such societal forces influence language and enable the identification of non-normative use; violations of linguistic, syntactic and semantic expectations will either facilitate or inhibit an audience's


id: language-expectancy-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_expectancy_theory-1.md
category: reference
title: Language expectancy theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_expectancy_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:56.372148+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: language-expectancy-theory-20260505-0
summary:
== The role of intensity == These propositions give rise to the impact of language intensity—defined by John Waite Bowers as a quality of language that "indicates the degree to which the speaker's attitude toward a concept deviates from neutrality"—on persuasive messages. Theorists have concentrated on two key areas: (1) intensity of language when it comes to gender roles and (2) credibility. The perceived credibility of a source can greatly affect a message's persuasiveness. Researchers found that credible sources can enhance their appeal by using intense language; however, less credible speakers are more persuasive with low-intensity appeals. Similarly, females are less persuasive than males when they use intense language because it violates the expected behavior, but are more persuasive when they use low-intensity language. Males, however, are seen as weak when they argue in a less intense manner. Theorists argue further that females and speakers perceived as having low credibility have less freedom in selecting message strategies and that the use of aggressive language negatively violates expectations. == Example == To better explain the theory we look at the expectations and societal norms for a man and a woman on their first date. If the man pushed for further physical


id: the-limits-of-individual-plasticity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Limits_of_Individual_Plasticity-0.md
category: reference
title: The Limits of Individual Plasticity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Limits_of_Individual_Plasticity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:57.512199+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-limits-of-individual-plasticity-20260505-0
summary:
"The Limits of Individual Plasticity" is a short essay written by the science fiction author H. G. Wells (21 September 1866 – 13 August 1946) in 1895. In it, Wells speculates his theories on the plasticity of animals, explaining that the default biological form of an animal may be altered in a way that it would continue to survive even if it, in any way, no longer resembles its inherent form. This could, according to Wells, theoretically be achieved through surgical or chemical modification. Wells was fully aware that surgical modification is only a physical change, and would not alter an animal's genetic blueprint. He made note that should an animal be surgically modified, its offspring would most likely retain its parent creature's original physical form. == Incorporation in novels == Wells presented many of his ideas from "The Limits of Individual Plasticity" in his 1896 science fiction novel, The Island of Doctor Moreau. In the novel, a shipwrecked Englishman named Edward Prendick is rescued from the sea and brought to a secluded island by a man named Montgomery, who reveals the island is owned and operated by an eminent British physiologist named Dr. Moreau. Moreau was shunned from the


id: membrane-theory-of-shells-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membrane_theory_of_shells-0.md
category: reference
title: Membrane theory of shells
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membrane_theory_of_shells
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:58.715178+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: membrane-theory-of-shells-20260505-0
summary:
The membrane theory of shells, or membrane theory for short, describes the mechanical properties of shells when twisting or under bending and assumes that bending moments are small enough to be negligible. The spectacular simplification of membrane theory makes possible the examination of a wide variety of shapes and supports, in particular, tanks and shell roofs. There are heavy penalties paid for this simplification, and such inadequacies are apparent through critical inspection, remaining within the theory, of solutions. However, this theory is more than a first approximation. If a shell is shaped and supported so as to carry the load within a membrane stress system it may be a desirable solution to the design problem, i.e., thin, light and stiff. == See also == Theory of plates and shells Stress resultants in plates and shells == References == == Literature == Ventsel, Eduard; Krauthammer, Theodor (24 August 2001). "Chapter 13. The Membrane Theory Of Shells". Thin Plates and Shells - Theory: Analysis, and Applications. CRC Press. pp. 349–372. doi:10.1201/9780203908723.ch13 (inactive 12 July 2025). ISBN 978-0-8247-0575-6. Retrieved 5 October 2014.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link) Practical industry example for plates and shell analysis - animated video


id: mosquito-malaria-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquito-malaria_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Mosquito-malaria theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquito-malaria_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:59.882762+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mosquito-malaria-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Mosquito-malaria theory (or sometimes mosquito theory) was a scientific theory developed in the latter half of the 19th century that solved the question of how malaria was transmitted. The theory proposed that malaria was transmitted by mosquitoes, in opposition to the centuries-old medical dogma that malaria was due to bad air, or miasma. The first scientific idea was postulated in 1851 by Charles E. Johnson, who argued that miasma had no direct relationship with malaria. Although Johnson's hypothesis was forgotten, the arrival and validation of the germ theory of diseases in the late 19th century began to shed new lights. When Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran discovered that malaria was caused by a protozoan parasite in 1880, the miasma theory began to subside. An important discovery was made by Patrick Manson in 1877 that mosquitos could transmit human filarial parasite. Inferring from such novel discovery, Albert Freeman Africanus King proposed the hypothesis that mosquitoes were the source of malaria. In the early 1890s Manson himself began to formulate the complete hypothesis, which he eventually called the mosquito-malaria theory. According to Manson, malaria was transmitted from human to human by a mosquito. The theory was scientifically proved by Manson's confidant Ronald Ross


id: mosquito-malaria-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquito-malaria_theory-1.md
category: reference
title: Mosquito-malaria theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquito-malaria_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:59.882762+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mosquito-malaria-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Discovery of mosquito as disease vector === In the early 1880s, Laveran's germ theory of malaria was generally accepted by the science community. However pivotal problems still remained, such as what transmit the malarial parasites and how. The scientific clue emerged when a British medical officer Patrick Manson discovered for the first time that parasites were transmitted by mosquitoes. In 1877 while working in Amoy, a coastal town in China, he found that the mosquito Culex fatigans (now Culex quinquefasciatus) was the vector of the filarial roundworm that he called Filaria sanguinis hominis (but now Wuchereria bancrofti). His findings were published in the China Customs Medical Report in 1878, and relayed by Spencer Cobbold to the Linnean Society in London. This was the first direct evidence that mosquitoes could transmit microscopic parasites in humans, further suggesting that the same could be true in case of malaria. == King's theory == Based on the report of Manson's discovery, an American physician Albert Freeman Africanus King developed a proposition that malaria is transmitted by mosquitoes. He revealed his idea in 1881 to his colleagues C.V. Riley and L.O. Howard, who did not share the same opinion. Unfettered he developed the theory


id: mosquito-malaria-theory-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquito-malaria_theory-2.md
category: reference
title: Mosquito-malaria theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquito-malaria_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:59.882762+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mosquito-malaria-theory-20260505-0
summary:
In 1894 Patrick Manson devised an ingenious procedure for detecting malarial parasites at different developmental stages from blood samples. This would later prove to be the tool for experimental proof of his theory. Manson demonstrated to and taught Ronald Ross the technique from which Ross became convinced of Laveran's germ theory. Trained and mentored by Manson, Ross returned to India in March 1895 to start his investigation. But to the dismay of Ross it was not an easy task. His first detection of malarial parasite from patients came only after two months of hard work. The disappointed Ross had to be encouraged by Manson calling the study as the "Holy Grail" of malaria research, and that Ross was the "Sir Galahad". After one and half years he made no significant progress. On 20 August 1897 he made a momentous discovery that some mosquitoes had malarial parasites in them. He had fed the blood of a malarial patient (Husein Khan) to different groups of mosquitoes four days before, and found that only one type (which he called "brown type" or more commonly "dappled-winged mosquitoes", not knowing the species, which in fact was Anopheles) acquired the malarial parasites in its stomach. This


id: nonequilibrium-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonequilibrium_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Nonequilibrium theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonequilibrium_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:01.047591+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nonequilibrium-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Nonequilibrium theory refers to the idea that ecosystems are not in a stable state, but instead are fluctuating from disturbances and pressures. Disturbances like disease, predators, climate change, fires, and others lead to shifts in ecosystem characteristics and prevent the return to equilibrium. Once shifted to an altered state, it can be difficult to return to an original state. This theory challenges traditional ideas of stability. Ecosystems are dynamic, ever changing structures that can be influenced by numerous characteristics.This perspective has important implications for conservation, prompting a shift toward strategies that embrace change, resilience, and adaptability rather than trying to preserve a single state. == Disturbance driven dynamics == Ecosystems are frequently influenced by a large variety of different disturbances. These disturbances can be periodic, unpredictable, with very different intensities. Disturbances may arise from natural events or human activities, each having the potential to drastically alter ecosystem structure and function. === Natural disturbance === Wildfire Hurricanes Tornadoes Floods and droughts Extreme temperature fluctuations === Human disturbance === Land use change (urbanization, crop land, deforestation) Pollution Invasive species introduction Overexploitation of resources == Multiple stable states == Depending on external pressures, ecosystems can exist under alternate stable states. Even under equal


id: scientific-socialism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_socialism-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific socialism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_socialism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:02.303293+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-socialism-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific socialism in Marxism is the application of historical materialism to the development of socialism, as not just a practical and achievable outcome of historical processes, but the only possible outcome. It contrasts with utopian socialism by basing itself upon material conditions instead of concoctions and ideas, where "the final causes of all social changes and political revolutions are to be sought, not in men's brains, not in men's better insights into eternal truth and justice, but in changes in the modes of production and exchange. They are to be sought, not in the philosophy, but in the economics of each particular epoch." Fredrich Engels, who developed it alongside Karl Marx, described: To accomplish this act of universal emancipation [proletarian revolution and communism] is the historical mission of the modern proletariat. To thoroughly comprehend the historical conditions and thus the very nature of this act, to impart to the now oppressed proletarian class a full knowledge of the conditions and of the meaning of the momentous act it is called upon to accomplish, this is the task of the theoretical expression of the proletarian movement, scientific Socialism. The term's modern meaning is based almost totally on Engels's book Socialism: Utopian


id: youngest-toba-eruption-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youngest_Toba_eruption-0.md
category: reference
title: Youngest Toba eruption
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youngest_Toba_eruption
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:17.793231+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: youngest-toba-eruption-20260505-0
summary:
The Toba eruption (also called the Toba supereruption and the Youngest Toba eruption) was a large eruption that occurred around 74,000 years ago, during the Late Pleistocene, at the site of present-day Lake Toba, in Sumatra, Indonesia. It was the last in a series of at least four caldera-forming eruptions there, the earlier known caldera having formed about 1.2 million years ago. This, the last eruption, had an estimated volcanic explosivity index of 8, making it the largest known explosive volcanic eruption in the Quaternary, and one of the largest known explosive eruptions in the Earth's history. == Eruption == === Chronology of the Toba eruption === The exact date of the eruption is unknown, but the pattern of ash deposits suggests that it occurred during the northern summer because only the summer monsoon could have deposited Toba ashfall in the South China Sea. The eruption lasted perhaps 9 to 14 days. The most recent two high-precision argon–argon datings dated the eruption to 73,880 ± 320 and 73,700 ± 300 years ago. Five distinct magma bodies were activated within a few centuries before the eruption. The eruption commenced with small and limited air-fall and was directly followed by the main


id: youngest-toba-eruption-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youngest_Toba_eruption-1.md
category: reference
title: Youngest Toba eruption
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youngest_Toba_eruption
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:17.793231+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: youngest-toba-eruption-20260505-0
summary:
==== Possible climate records of the eruption ==== While the Toba eruption occurred in the backdrop of the rapid climate transitions of GS20 and MIS 4, triggered by changes in ocean currents and insolation, whether the eruption played any role in accelerating these events is much more heavily debated. South China Sea marine records of climate, sampled at every centennial interval, shows 1 °C (1.8 °F) cooling above the Toba ash layer for a thousand years but the authors concede that it may just be GS20. Arabian Sea marine records confirm that Toba ash occurred after the onset of GS20 but also that GS20 is not colder than GS21 in the records, from which authors conclude that the eruption did not intensify GS20 cooling. Dense sampling of environmental records, at every 6–9-year interval, in Lake Malawi, show no cooling-induced change in lake ecology and in grassy woodlands after the deposition of Toba ash, but cooling-forced aridity killed high-elevation afromontane forests. The Lake Malawi studies concluded that the environmental effects of the eruption were mild and limited to less than a decade in East Africa, but these studies are questioned due to sediment mixing which would have diminished the cooling signal.


id: youngest-toba-eruption-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youngest_Toba_eruption-2.md
category: reference
title: Youngest Toba eruption
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youngest_Toba_eruption
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:17.793231+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: youngest-toba-eruption-20260505-0
summary:
==== Human demographic history ==== Recent analyses apply Markov models to the complete set of genetic material to infer human population history. In non-African populations, studies recover a long-term steep decline in numbers starting 200 kyr and reaching the lowest point around 40–60 kyr. During this bottleneck non-African populations experienced 5- to 15-fold reduction, with an effective population size of only 1,000–3,000 individuals by 50 kyr, consistent with the earliest mtDNA studies. This severe non-African contraction is consistent with a founder effect caused by Out-of-Africa dispersal. As a small group with a size of a few thousand people migrated from the African continent into the Near East, the drastic reduction in numbers imprinted on non-African genomic diversity. Genetic analysis identified 56 selective sweeps related to cold adaptations in non-African populations, of which 31 sweeps occurred during 72–97 kyr. This event of closely timed selections is named the "Arabian Standstill" and may have been caused by the severe cold arid conditions from the onset of MIS 4 and exacerbated by the Toba super-eruption. African populations experienced a slightly earlier, milder bottleneck and recovered earlier. Estimated effective population size based on samples from the Luhya and Maasai people attained their lowest numbers


id: youngest-toba-eruption-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youngest_Toba_eruption-3.md
category: reference
title: Youngest Toba eruption
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youngest_Toba_eruption
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:17.793231+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: youngest-toba-eruption-20260505-0
summary:
Population Bottlenecks and Volcanic Winter "Toba Volcano by George Weber". Archived from the original on April 22, 2011. Retrieved June 1, 2006. "The proper study of mankind" – Article in The Economist Homepage of Professor Stanley H. Ambrose, including bibliographic information on the two papers he has published on the Toba catastrophe theory Mount Toba: Late Pleistocene human population bottlenecks, volcanic winter, and differentiation of modern humans by Professor Stanley H. Ambrose, Department of Anthropology, University Of Illinois, Urbana, USA; Extract from "Journal of Human Evolution" [1998] 34, 623–651 Journey of Mankind by The Bradshaw Foundation – includes discussion on Toba eruption, DNA and human migrations Geography Predicts Human Genetic Diversity ScienceDaily (Mar. 17, 2005) – By analyzing the relationship between the geographic location of current human populations in relation to East Africa and the genetic variability within these populations, researchers have found new evidence for an African origin of modern humans. Out of Africa – Bacteria, As Well: Homo Sapiens And H. Pylori Jointly Spread Across The Globe ScienceDaily (Feb. 16, 2007) – When man made his way out of Africa some 60,000 years ago to populate the world, he was not alone: He was accompanied by the bacterium


id: skepticism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skepticism-0.md
category: reference
title: Skepticism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skepticism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:19.331375+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: skepticism-20260505-0
summary:
Skepticism (US) or scepticism (UK) is a questioning attitude or doubt toward knowledge claims that are seen as mere belief or dogma. For example, if a person is skeptical about claims made by their government about an ongoing war then the person doubts that these claims are accurate. In such cases, skeptics normally recommend not disbelief but suspension of belief, i.e. maintaining a neutral attitude that neither affirms nor denies the claim. This attitude is often motivated by the impression that the available evidence is insufficient to support the claim. Formally, skepticism is a topic of interest in philosophy, particularly epistemology. More informally, skepticism as an expression of questioning or doubt can be applied to any topic, such as politics, religion, or pseudoscience. It is often applied within restricted domains, such as morality (moral skepticism), atheism (skepticism about the existence of God), or the supernatural. Some theorists distinguish "good" or moderate skepticism, which seeks strong evidence before accepting a position, from "bad" or radical skepticism, which wants to suspend judgment indefinitely. Philosophical skepticism is one form of skepticism. It rejects knowledge claims that seem certain from the perspective of common sense. Radical forms of philosophical skepticism deny that "knowledge or


id: skepticism-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skepticism-1.md
category: reference
title: Skepticism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skepticism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:19.331375+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: skepticism-20260505-0
summary:
== Types == Various types of skepticism have been discussed in the academic literature. Skepticism is usually restricted to knowledge claims on one particular subject, which is why its different forms can be distinguished based on the subject. For example, religious skeptics distrust religious doctrines and moral skeptics raise doubts about accepting various moral requirements and customs. Skepticism can also be applied to knowledge in general. However, this attitude is usually only found in some forms of philosophical skepticism. A closely related classification distinguishes based on the source of knowledge, such as skepticism about perception, memory, or intuition. A further distinction is based on the degree of the skeptical attitude. The strongest forms assert that there is no knowledge at all or that knowledge is impossible. Weaker forms merely state that one can never be absolutely certain. Some theorists distinguish between a good or healthy form of moderate skepticism in contrast to a bad or unhealthy form of radical skepticism. On this view, the "good" skeptic is a critically minded person who seeks strong evidence before accepting a position. The "bad" skeptic, on the other hand, wants to "suspend judgment indefinitely... even in the face of demonstrable truth". Another categorization


id: skepticism-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skepticism-2.md
category: reference
title: Skepticism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skepticism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:19.331375+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: skepticism-20260505-0
summary:
There were two major schools of skepticism in the ancient Greek and Roman world. The first was Pyrrhonism, founded by Pyrrho of Elis (c. 360–270 BCE). The second was Academic Skepticism, so-called because its two leading defenders, Arcesilaus (c. 315–240 BCE) who initiated the philosophy, and Carneades (c. 217–128 BCE), the philosophy's most famous proponent, were heads of Plato's Academy. Pyrrhonism's aims are psychological. It urges suspension of judgment (epoche) to achieve mental tranquility (ataraxia). The Academic Skeptics denied that knowledge is possible (acatalepsy). The Academic Skeptics claimed that some beliefs are more reasonable or probable than others, whereas Pyrrhonian skeptics argue that equally compelling arguments can be given for or against any disputed view. Nearly all the writings of the ancient skeptics are now lost. Most of what we know about ancient skepticism is from Sextus Empiricus, a Pyrrhonian skeptic who lived in the second or third century CE. His works contain a lucid summary of stock skeptical arguments. Ancient skepticism faded out during the late Roman Empire, particularly after Augustine (354–430 CE) attacked the skeptics in his work Against the Academics (386 CE). There was little knowledge of, or interest in, ancient skepticism in Christian Europe during the


id: skepticism-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skepticism-3.md
category: reference
title: Skepticism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skepticism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:19.331375+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: skepticism-20260505-0
summary:
A scientific or empirical skeptic is one who questions beliefs on the basis of scientific understanding and empirical evidence. Scientific skepticism may discard beliefs pertaining to purported phenomena not subject to reliable observation and thus not systematic or empirically testable. Most scientists, being scientific skeptics, test the reliability of certain kinds of claims by subjecting them to systematic investigation via the scientific method. As a result, a number of ostensibly scientific claims are considered to be "pseudoscience" if they are found to improperly apply or to ignore the fundamental aspects of the scientific method. === Auditing === Professional skepticism is an important concept in auditing. It requires an auditor to have a "questioning mind", to make a critical assessment of evidence, and to consider the sufficiency of the evidence. == See also == == Notes == == Sources == Butchvarov, Panayot (1998). Skepticism About the External World. Oxford University Press. Hönigswald, Richard (2008) [1914]. Die Skepsis in Philosophie und Wissenschaft. Göttingen: Edition Ruprecht. ISBN 978-3767530560. Keeton, Morris T. (1962). "skepticism". In Runes, Dagobert D. (ed.). Dictionary of Philosophy. Totowa, N.J.: Littlefield, Adams, and Company. pp. 277–278. Le Morvan, P. (March 2011). "Healthy Skepticism and Practical Wisdom" (PDF). Logos & Episteme.


id: betteridge-s-law-of-headlines-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betteridge's_law_of_headlines-0.md
category: reference
title: Betteridge's law of headlines
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betteridge's_law_of_headlines
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:20.500979+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: betteridge-s-law-of-headlines-20260505-0
summary:
Betteridge's law of headlines is an adage that states: "Any headline that ends in a question mark can be answered by the word no." It is based on the assumption that if the publishers were confident that the answer was yes, they would have presented it as an assertion; by presenting it as a question, they are not accountable for whether it is correct or not. The law is named after Ian Betteridge, a British technology journalist who wrote about it in 2009. The maxim has been cited by other names since 1991, when a published compilation of Murphy's law variants called it "Davis's law", a name that also appears online without any explanation of who Davis was. It has also been referred to as the "journalistic principle" and in 2007 was referred to in commentary as "an old truism among journalists". == History == Betteridge's name became associated with the concept after he discussed it in a February 2009 article, which examined a previous TechCrunch article that carried the headline "Did Last.fm Just Hand Over User Listening Data to the RIAA?": This story is a great demonstration of my maxim that any headline which ends in a question mark


id: betteridge-s-law-of-headlines-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betteridge's_law_of_headlines-1.md
category: reference
title: Betteridge's law of headlines
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betteridge's_law_of_headlines
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:20.500979+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: betteridge-s-law-of-headlines-20260505-0
summary:
== Question headlines == Phrasing headlines as questions is a tactic employed by newspapers that do not "have the facts required to buttress the nut graph". Roger Simon characterized the practice as justifying "virtually anything, no matter how unlikely", giving "Hillary to Replace Biden on Ticket?" and "Romney to Endorse Gay Marriage Between Corporations?" as hypothetical examples of such a practice. Many question headlines were used, for example, in reporting of Bharatiya Janata Party in-fighting in 2004, because no politicians went on record to confirm or deny facts, such as "Is Venkaiah Naidu on his way out?" Because this implication is known to readers, guides giving advice to newspaper editors state that so-called "question heads" should be used sparingly. Freelance writer R. Thomas Berner calls them "gimmickry". Grant Milnor Hyde observed that they give the impression of uncertainty in a newspaper's content. When Linton Andrews worked at the Daily Mail after the First World War, one of the rules set by Lord Northcliffe was to avoid question headlines, unless the question itself reflected a national issue. Question headlines are not legally sound when it comes to avoiding defamation. The Supreme Court of Oklahoma held in 1913, in its decision in


id: doubting-antiquity-school-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doubting_Antiquity_School-0.md
category: reference
title: Doubting Antiquity School
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doubting_Antiquity_School
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:21.630643+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: doubting-antiquity-school-20260505-0
summary:
The Doubting Antiquity School or Yigupai (Chinese: 疑古派; pinyin: Yígǔpài; Wade–Giles: I-ku-p'ai) refers to a group of scholars and writers in Chinese academia, starting during the New Culture Movement (mid-1910s to 1920s), who applied a critical historiographical approach to Chinese historical sources. They put forward theories doubting the authenticity of texts and narratives that, in traditional Chinese historiography, were often accepted as authentic. Hu Shih studied in the West and was deeply influenced by Western thought. He then argued in Peking University that Chinese written history was not credible before the Eastern Zhou period without critical examination. This view was accepted by his students Fu Sinian and especially Gu Jiegang, who further advanced the position that "our traditional knowledge of Chinese antiquity was built up in successive strata, but in an order exactly the reverse of the actual occurrence." Most of their criticism concerns the authenticity of pre-Qin texts and deals with questions put forward by the past dynastic writers, as well as other subjects. Hu Shih initiated the critical movement, with his pupil Gu Jiegang and his friend Qian Xuantong continuing this school of thought. Their writings also had influence on many western sinologists, including Bernhard Karlgren and Samuel


id: doubting-antiquity-school-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doubting_Antiquity_School-1.md
category: reference
title: Doubting Antiquity School
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doubting_Antiquity_School
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:21.630643+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: doubting-antiquity-school-20260505-0
summary:
== Criticism == The Doubting Antiquity School's opinion and claims were not universally accepted by other schools in the 1920s. Major critics of the Doubting Antiquity School were historians from the Historiography and Geography School (史地學派) of the National Central University in Nanjing and the academics associated with the academic journal Critical Review, termed the Xueheng School. The major opposition included Chu Coching, Liu Yizheng, Liang Qichao, Wang Guowei, Chen Yinque, and Miao Fenglin. These historians claimed that the many hypotheses of the Doubting Antiquity School were radical nationalist revisionism influenced by the May Fourth Movement and New Culture Movement, which aimed to abolish Chinese tradition, as well as that some claims of the Doubting Antiquity School, such as Sino-Babylonianism, were based on assumptions without any archaeological evidence. Chinese writer Lu Xun dismissed the Doubting Antiquity School and their publication Gushibian (古史辨, Debates on Ancient History). He argued that the real intention behind the Doubting Antiquity School was to aggressively demolish the Chinese imperial legacy, so much so that they would reject real historiography. Much archaeological evidence discovered in the 20th century, such as Yinxu and Taosi, proved some of the Doubting Antiquity School's claims to be incorrect. Zhang Guoan


id: escaping-the-rabbit-hole-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escaping_the_Rabbit_Hole-0.md
category: reference
title: Escaping the Rabbit Hole
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escaping_the_Rabbit_Hole
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:22.876404+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: escaping-the-rabbit-hole-20260505-0
summary:
Escaping the Rabbit Hole: How to Debunk Conspiracy Theories Using Facts, Logic, and Respect is a non-fiction book by Mick West that describes a method for helping people disengage from conspiratorial beliefs through patient dialogue, clear evidence, and an emphasis on trust building. Skyhorse Publishing released the first edition in 2018. A revised and updated edition appeared in 2023 with new case material on the COVID-19 pandemic, election fraud narratives, QAnon, and contemporary UFO claims. The work combines practical communication tactics with case studies drawn from West's investigations on the Metabunk forum. == Background == West is a science writer and investigator who founded Metabunk, an online forum focused on analyzing extraordinary claims. The book emerged from a decade of moderating and documenting conversations with believers and former believers, which shaped the focus on respectful engagement, calibration of claims to evidence, and attention to the social dynamics around conspiracist communities. An excerpt from the book appeared in Salon before publication, outlining steps for approaching a friend who believes a conspiracy theory, including establishing common ground, isolating specific points of disagreement, and agreeing on shared standards of evidence. == Contents == The first edition sets out a communication framework that prioritizes


id: local-skepticism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_skepticism-0.md
category: reference
title: Local skepticism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_skepticism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:24.030944+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: local-skepticism-20260505-0
summary:
Local skepticism is the view that one cannot possess knowledge in some particular domain. It contrasts with global skepticism (also known as absolute skepticism or universal skepticism), the view that one cannot know anything at all. == Examples of local skepticism == Moral skepticism is the belief that moral knowledge is either nonexistent or unattainable. Metaphysical skepticism, often called external world skepticism, is the denial of metaphysical knowledge. This belief is generally said to follow from the argument that material knowledge can only be attained through our perception of the world, and that our senses which constitute that perception do not necessarily correspond with any actual state of affairs. See also: subjective idealism. Theological skepticism it is the view that we cannot know for certain whether one or more deities exist. A theological skeptic may be an atheist, theist, or agnostic. == Notes == == Further reading == The Impossibility of Local Skepticism by Stephen Maitzen -- a critique of the possibility of local skepticism Theory of Knowledge, notes by Richard Feldman, University of Rochester


id: reasonable-doubt-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reasonable_doubt-0.md
category: reference
title: Reasonable doubt
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reasonable_doubt
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:25.218620+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: reasonable-doubt-20260505-0
summary:
Beyond (a) reasonable doubt is a legal standard of proof required to reach a criminal conviction in most adversarial legal systems. It is a higher standard of proof than the standard of balance of probabilities (US English: preponderance of the evidence) commonly used in civil cases. The prosecution bears the burden of presenting compelling evidence that establishes guilt beyond a reasonable doubt; if the trier of fact is not convinced to that standard, the accused is entitled to an acquittal. The standard is now widely accepted in criminal justice systems throughout common law jurisdictions. == In practice == Because the defendant is presumed innocent, prosecutors must prove each element of the crime charged beyond a reasonable doubt in order to obtain a conviction. This means the evidence must leave little actual doubt in the mind of the judge or jury that the defendant committed the alleged offense. Unreasonable or purely speculative doubts are excluded, whereas doubts grounded in tangible conflicts within the evidence or its sufficiency warrant an acquittal. In many jurisdictions, the phrase "reasonable doubt" remains purposefully undefined in jury instructions to reduce confusion, although critics argue that the lack of a clear definition may itself cause confusion. Academic


id: anita-superson-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anita_Superson-0.md
category: reference
title: Anita Superson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anita_Superson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:26.369349+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anita-superson-20260505-0
summary:
Anita Superson is an American philosopher who is a professor of philosophy at the University of Kentucky. She was also the visiting Churchill Humphrey and Alex P. Humphrey Professor of Feminist Philosophy at the University of Waterloo during the winter term of 2013. == Education and career == Superson received a bachelor's in biology from DePaul University in 1981 and went on to receive a master's in philosophy (with a concentration in medical ethics) from the University of Tennessee, Knoxville in 1985 and a doctorate in philosophy from the University of Illinois at Chicago in 1989. Superson is currently a professor of philosophy at the University of Kentucky, where she has held an appointment since 1992. She is an affiliated faculty member of the Gender and Women's Studies Department at the University of Kentucky. She also holds the visiting Churchill Humphrey and Alex P. Humphrey Professorship in Feminist Philosophy at the University of Waterloo for the winter of 2013. She also held a visiting professorship at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor in 2008. Before her current appointments, she held an assistant professorship at Kansas State University, and also taught at the University of Illinois at Chicago and the University


id: am-d-e-all-on-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amédée_Alléon-0.md
category: reference
title: Amédée Alléon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amédée_Alléon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:28.293449+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: am-d-e-all-on-20260505-0
summary:
Count Jean Gérard Amédée Alléon (8 October 1838 – 16 January 1904) was a French nobleman, naturalist, taxidermist and artist who lived in the Ottoman Empire. He noted the migrations of birds of prey in the Bosporus Straits and wrote on the birds of the region. == Biography == Alléon was born in Buyuk-Déré, near Istanbul (Constantinople), the son of Count Jacques Alléon (1792–1876), a Galata banker in the Ottoman Empire, and Marie Marion. He took an interest in nature and art at an early age with a talent for music and drawing. The family owned land and real estate and he became a shareholder of the English railroad company. He produced a number of artworks, and also made a collection of mounted bird specimens. In 1863 he married Madeleine Asselin de Villequier-Alléon (1844–1911) and they had five children including Maurice and Abel who were involved in natural history. He worked with Jules Vian of the French zoological society, sending many specimens to France. The English naturalist H. J. Elwes stayed with Alléon when he passed through Constantinople in 1870. In 1864, he donated a large set of his collections to the Ottoman government and in 1899, some to the


id: tamara-awerbuch-friedlander-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamara_Awerbuch-Friedlander-0.md
category: reference
title: Tamara Awerbuch-Friedlander
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamara_Awerbuch-Friedlander
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:29.465606+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tamara-awerbuch-friedlander-20260505-0
summary:
Tamara Eugenia Awerbuch-Friedlander (Hebrew: תמרה אוורבוך-פרידלנדר; 1941–2021) was an Uruguay-born Israeli-American biomathematician and public health scientist who worked at the Harvard School of Public Health (HSPH) in Boston, Massachusetts. Her primary research and publications focus on biosocial interactions that cause or contribute to disease. She also is believed to be the first female Harvard faculty member to have had a jury trial for a lawsuit filed against Harvard University for sex discrimination. == Early life == Tamara Eugenia Friedlander was born in Uruguay, lived until the age of 12 in Buenos Aires, Argentina, then moved to Israel with her parents, where her grandparents and parents had lived after they had escaped Nazi Germany just before the Holocaust began. She studied and completed two degrees at Hebrew University in Jerusalem. She studied chemistry and minored in biochemistry and completed the BSc degree in 1965. In 1967, she completed both the Master of Science (MSc) in Physiology and the Master of Education (MEd) degree from Hebrew University. She was certified to teach grades K–12 in Israel, where she lectured and appeared on panels and in workshops, as she did also in the United States and elsewhere. She also served for two years


id: tamara-awerbuch-friedlander-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamara_Awerbuch-Friedlander-1.md
category: reference
title: Tamara Awerbuch-Friedlander
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamara_Awerbuch-Friedlander
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:29.465606+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tamara-awerbuch-friedlander-20260505-0
summary:
=== Sex-discrimination suit against Harvard === Although Theda Skocpol had alleged gender bias in denial of tenure as early as 1980, Awerbuch-Friedlander was believed to be the first female Harvard Faculty member to file a lawsuit against Harvard University for sex discrimination. The suit was "filed with the Middlesex County Superior Court in June 1997." Encouraged by her mentors, Richard Levins and Marvin Zelen, Awerbuch-Friedlander sought "nearly $1 million in lost wages and benefits, as well as a promotion at the HSPH" and argued "that Fineberg refused to promote her to a tenure-track position because she is a woman, despite the positive recommendation of the HSPH's selection committee of appointment and re-appointment (SCARP)." Intermittently from 1998 through 2007, the gender discrimination case was covered by the Harvard Crimson (campus media), The Boston Globe (local media), and Science magazine (professional and scientific print media). Science documented the case developments of the sex-discrimination case in its "News of the Week: Women in Science" section. and in Science's SCIENCESCOPE two months later. Her sex discrimination lawsuit was based upon Harvard's denial of tenure to her, despite her significant accomplishments in her fields of expertise, biomathematics, epidemiology, biostatistics and public health. The University argued


id: j-nas-hallgr-msson-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jónas_Hallgrímsson-0.md
category: reference
title: Jónas Hallgrímsson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jónas_Hallgrímsson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:30.606913+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: j-nas-hallgr-msson-20260505-0
summary:
Jónas Hallgrímsson (16 November 1807 – 26 May 1845) was an Icelandic poet, writer and naturalist. He was one of the founders of the Icelandic journal Fjölnir, which was first published in Copenhagen in 1835. The magazine was used by Jónas and his fellow Fjölnismenn to promote Icelandic nationalism, in the hope of giving impetus to the Icelandic Independence Movement. Jónas remains one of Iceland's most beloved poets, penning some of the best-known Icelandic poems about Iceland and its people. Since 1996, Jónas's birthday has been officially recognised in Iceland as the Day of the Icelandic Language. On 16 November each year, the Jónas Hallgrímsson Award is awarded to an individual for their outstanding contribution to the Icelandic Language. == Biography == Jónas was born in the north of Iceland, in Öxnadalur in Eyjafjörður. He was the son of Hallgrímur Þorsteinsson, a curate, and Rannveig Jónasdóttir. He was the third of their four children; his siblings were Þorsteinn (born 1800), Rannveig (born 1802) and Anna Margrét (born 1815). In 1816 Jónas' father drowned in a lake and Jónas was sent to live with his aunt. In 1821 he returned home to Öxnadalur to be confirmed, before going away to a


id: yonetar-kikuchi-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yonetarō_Kikuchi-0.md
category: reference
title: Yonetarō Kikuchi
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yonetarō_Kikuchi
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:32.100533+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: yonetar-kikuchi-20260505-0
summary:
Yonetaro Kikuchi (菊池 米太郎; 1869 – 1921) was a Japanese zoologist and naturalist. He was born in Miyazaki Prefecture, Empire of Japan, and is best known for his extensive collection and study of birds, mammals, and reptiles in Taiwan during the Japanese colonial period. == Biography == In 1906, Kikuchi traveled to Taiwan to work for the Taiwan Government-General under the Bureau of Productive Industries. Over the following decade, he conducted extensive fieldwork across the island, including Mount Niitaka (now Yushan), Green Island, the Alishan Range, Orchid Island, and the Penghu archipelago. His collections of Taiwanese birds, mammals, and reptiles were large in scale and scientifically significant. Kikuchi is particularly known for being the first person to successfully capture the Mikado pheasant (Syrmaticus mikado) in 1906, after being commissioned by a British specimen dealer. In 1918, by order of Governor-General Akashi Motojirō, Kikuchi again captured Mikado pheasants and personally presented them to Emperor Taishō, accompanied by the Governor-General. The birds were subsequently kept in the Shinjuku Gyoen National Garden. In addition to his field expertise, Kikuchi was a highly skilled taxidermist. A large proportion of the zoological specimens currently held by the National Taiwan Museum were prepared by him. Kikuchi


id: josef-menges-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef_Menges-0.md
category: reference
title: Josef Menges
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef_Menges
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:33.294691+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: josef-menges-20260505-0
summary:
Jakob Josef Menges (7 October 1850– 4 January 1910) was a German explorer, naturalist, zoologist, cartographer, trader and author. During the 1870s and until the end of the 19th century, Menges undertook commercial and scientific expeditions in Northeast Africa and the Horn of Africa. His routes took him through the Turco-Egyptian Sudan, the interior of British Somaliland and Abyssinia in modern-day Ethiopia. To fund his journeys, Menges published travel and research reports on the region's geography, zoology and ethnology in German scientific journals. Later in life, he focused on animal trading, supplying exotic animals to European zoos, as well as facilitating human shows of Somali people in Europe. == Biography == === Early life and education === Josef Menges was the son of Joseph Menges and his wife Maria Josepha Diefenbach. His father was the last Thurn-und-Taxis postmaster of Limburg an der Lahn, actively involved in local politics and elected mayor in 1877. Josef Menges attended the Realgymnasium in Limburg and completed training as a railway official in Frankfurt am Main. === Travels === After the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, the coastal regions of the Horn of Africa drew growing attention from foreign governments, companies, and private


id: josef-menges-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef_Menges-1.md
category: reference
title: Josef Menges
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef_Menges
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:33.294691+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: josef-menges-20260505-0
summary:
In addition to English, French and Italian, Menges learned several African dialects. To obtain information and establish his position, he depended largely on the support of local inhabitants. In a letter of 11 April 1883 to the editors of Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen, he wrote:Nor did I fail to ask the accompanying natives, who knew every detail about the land, in order to be able to write down the names of the various localities, so that I believe I have made as accurate a sketch as is at all possible of a hunting expedition that had no scientific purpose. === Animal trading === To support his expeditions financially, Menges formed a professional association in 1876 with the Hamburg circus manager and animal trainer Carl Hagenbeck. This included providing Hagenbeck with information about animal populations, possibilities for capture and logistics to transport animals to the coast and further to Europe. Menges played a central role in establishing early contacts between Somali intermediaries and Hagenbeck’s enterprise. Besides Hamburg, the Frankfurt Zoological Garden became the main hub for animal collections imported by Menges to Europe. When Adalbert Seitz became director of the Frankfurt Zoo on 1 April 1893, he provided Menges with temporary storage


id: antonio-pineda-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Pineda-0.md
category: reference
title: Antonio Pineda
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Pineda
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:34.423278+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: antonio-pineda-20260505-0
summary:
Antonio Pineda (January 17, 1751 – June 23, 1792) was a Spanish naturalist and military officer. He participated in the Malaspina Expedition as leader of the natural history team which included Thaddäus Haenke and Luis Née. His scientific exploration and collecting covered a significant portion of the Pacific basin including the coast of South America, Mexico, and the Philippines. Before his untimely death in the Philippines, Pineda had amassed a huge volume of documents including scientific reports, diaries, and logbooks as well as a significant collection of natural history specimens. == Biography == Pineda was born on January 17, 1751, in Guatemala City, New Spain. His Spanish father, José de Pineda, was a knight in the Order of Santiago and served as a judge in the Royal Audiencia of Guatemala. His mother, María Josefa Ramírez, was a native of Lucena, Spain and held estates in Laxa. When Pineda was six years old the family returned to Spain where his father served the Royal Chancellery in Granada. Antonio was first educated at the "Colegio de Nobles" in Madrid. When he turned seventeen he enrolled in the Spanish Military Academy and was accepted as a cadet in the distinguished Spanish Royal Guard.


id: natural-history-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history_museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Natural history museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history_museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:35.990276+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-history-museum-20260505-0
summary:
A natural history museum or museum of natural history is a scientific institution with natural history collections that include current and historical records of animals, plants, fungi, ecosystems, geology, paleontology, climatology, and more. == History == The primary role of a natural history museum is to provide the scientific community with current and historical specimens for their research, which is to improve our understanding of the natural world. Some museums have public exhibits to share the beauty and wonder of the natural world with the public; these are referred to as 'public museums'. Some museums feature non-natural history collections in addition to their primary collections, such as ones related to history, art, and science. Renaissance cabinets of curiosities were private collections that typically included exotic specimens of national history, sometimes faked, along with other types of object. The first natural history museum was possibly that of Swiss scholar Conrad Gessner, established in Zürich in the mid-16th century. The National Museum of Natural History, established in Paris in 1635, was the first natural history museum to take the form that would be recognized as a natural history museum today. Early natural history museums offered limited accessibility, as they were generally private


id: cabinet-of-curiosities-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiosities-0.md
category: reference
title: Cabinet of curiosities
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiosities
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:37.214770+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cabinet-of-curiosities-20260505-0
summary:
Cabinets of curiosities (German: Kunstkammer [ˈkʊnstˌkamɐ] and Kunstkabinett [ˈkʊnstkabiˌnɛt]), also known as wonder-rooms (German: Wunderkammer [ˈvʊndɐˌkamɐ] ), were encyclopedic collections of objects whose categorical boundaries were, in Renaissance Europe, yet to be defined. Although more rudimentary collections had preceded them, the classic cabinets of curiosities emerged in the sixteenth century. The term cabinet originally described a room rather than a piece of furniture. Modern terminology would categorize the objects included as belonging to natural history (sometimes faked), geology, ethnography, archaeology, religious or historical relics, works of art (including cabinet paintings), and antiquities. In addition to the most famous and best documented cabinets of rulers and aristocrats, members of the merchant class and early practitioners of science in Europe formed collections that were precursors to museums. Cabinets of curiosities served not only as collections to reflect the particular interests of their curators but also as social devices to establish and uphold rank in society. There are said to be two main types of cabinets. As R. J. W. Evans notes, there could be "the princely cabinet, serving a largely representational function, and dominated by aesthetic concerns and a marked predilection for the exotic," or the less grandiose, "the more modest collection


id: cabinet-of-curiosities-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiosities-1.md
category: reference
title: Cabinet of curiosities
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiosities
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:37.214770+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cabinet-of-curiosities-20260505-0
summary:
Two of the most famously described seventeenth-century cabinets were those of Ole Worm, known as Olaus Wormius (1588–1654) (illustration, above right), and Athanasius Kircher (1602–1680). These seventeenth-century cabinets were filled with preserved animals, horns, tusks, skeletons, minerals, as well as other interesting man-made objects: sculptures wondrously old, wondrously fine or wondrously small; clockwork automata; ethnographic specimens from exotic locations. Often they would contain a mix of fact and fiction, including apparently mythical creatures. Worm's collection contained, for example, what he thought was a Scythian Lamb, a woolly fern thought to be a plant/sheep fabulous creature. However he was also responsible for identifying the narwhal's tusk as coming from a whale rather than a unicorn, as most owners of these believed. The specimens displayed were often collected during exploring expeditions and trading voyages. Cabinets of curiosities would often serve scientific advancement when images of their contents were published. The catalog of Worm's collection, published as the Museum Wormianum (1655), used the collection of artifacts as a starting point for Worm's speculations on philosophy, science, natural history, and more. Cabinets of curiosities were limited to those who could afford to create and maintain them. Many monarchs, in particular, developed large collections. A


id: cabinet-of-curiosities-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiosities-2.md
category: reference
title: Cabinet of curiosities
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiosities
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:37.214770+00:00
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Sloane meticulously cataloged and created extensive records for most of the specimens and objects in his collection. He also began to acquire other collections by gift or purchase. Herman Boerhaave gave him four volumes of plants from Boerhaave's gardens at Leiden. William Charleton, in a bequest in 1702, gave Sloane numerous books of birds, fish, flowers, and shells and his miscellaneous museum consisting of curiosities, miniatures, insects, medals, animals, minerals, precious stones and curiosities in amber. Sloane purchased Leonard Plukenet's collection in 1710. It consisted of twenty-three volumes with over 8,000 plants from Africa, India, Japan and China. Mary Somerset, Duchess of Beaufort (1630–1715), left him a twelve-volume herbarium from her gardens at Chelsea and Badminton upon her death in 1714. Reverend Adam Buddle gave Sloane thirteen volumes of British plants. In 1716, Sloane purchased Engelbert Kaempfer's volume of Japanese plants and James Petiver's virtual museum of approximately one hundred volumes of plants from Europe, North America, Africa, the Near East, India, and the Orient. Mark Catesby gave him plants from North America and the West Indies from an expedition funded by Sloane. Philip Miller gave him twelve volumes of plants grown from the Chelsea Physic Garden. Sloane acquired approximately


id: cabinet-of-curiosities-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiosities-3.md
category: reference
title: Cabinet of curiosities
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiosities
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:37.214770+00:00
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parent: cabinet-of-curiosities-20260505-0
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=== United States === Thomas Dent Mutter (1811–1859) was an early American pioneer of reconstructive plastic surgery. His specialty was repairing congenital anomalies, cleft lip and palates, and club foot. He also collected medical oddities, tumors, anatomical and pathological specimens, wet and dry preparations, wax models, plaster casts, and illustrations of medical deformities. This collection began as a teaching tool for young physicians. Just prior to Mütter's death in 1859, he donated 1,344 items to the American College of Physicians in Philadelphia, along with a $30,000 endowment for the maintenance and expansion of his museum. Mütter's collection was added to ninety-two pathological specimens collected by Doctor Isaac Parrish between 1849 and 1852. The Mütter Museum began to collect antique medical equipment in 1871, including Benjamin Rush's medical chest and Florence Nightingale's sewing kit. In 1874 the museum acquired one hundred human skulls from Austrian anatomist and phrenologist, Joseph Hyrtl (1810–1894); a nineteenth-century corpse, dubbed the "soap lady"; the conjoined liver and death cast of Chang and Eng Bunker, the Siamese twins; and in 1893, Grover Cleveland's jaw tumor. The Mütter Museum is an excellent example of a nineteenth-century grotesque cabinet of medical curiosities. P. T. Barnum established Barnum's American Museum


id: cabinet-of-curiosities-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiosities-4.md
category: reference
title: Cabinet of curiosities
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiosities
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:37.214770+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cabinet-of-curiosities-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == Under the Sign: John Bargrave as Collector, Traveler, and Witness, Stephen Bann, Michigan, 1995 Beßler, Gabriele, Chambers of Art and Wonders, EGO - European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2015, retrieved: March 8, 2021 (pdf). The Origins of Museums: The Cabinet of Curiosities in Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-Century Europe, ed. Oliver Impey and Arthur MacGregor, 2001, paperback, 431 pages, ISBN 1-84232-132-3 Cabinets for the curious: looking back at early English museums, Ken Arnold, Ashgate, 2006, ISBN 0-7546-0506-X. Mr. Wilson's Cabinet Of Wonder: Pronged Ants, Horned Humans, Mice on Toast, and Other Marvels of Jurassic Technology, Lawrence Weschler, 1996, trade paperback, 192 pages, ISBN 0-679-76489-5 (see website link above) The Cabinet of Curiosities (novel), Douglas Preston and Lincoln Child, Warner Books, 2003, paperback, ISBN 0-446-61123-9. Helmar Schramm et al. (ed.). Collection, Laboratory, Theater. Scenes of Knowledge in the 17th Century, Berlin/New York 2005, ISBN 978-3-11-017736-7 The Lure of Antiquity and the Cult of the Machine: The Kunstkammer and the Evolution of Nature, Art and Technology Horst Bredekamp (Allison Brown, translator) (Princeton: Marcus Weiner) 1995. Steven Lubar, "Cabinets of Curiosity: What they were, why they disappeared, and why they’re so popular now" == External links == Historic


id: list-of-natural-history-museums-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums-0.md
category: reference
title: List of natural history museums
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:38.436193+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-natural-history-museums-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of natural history museums whose exhibits focus on the subject of natural history, including such topics as animals, plants, ecosystems, geology, paleontology, and climatology. Some museums feature natural-history collections in addition to other collections, such as ones related to history, art and science. In addition, nature centers often include natural history exhibits. == Africa == === Algeria === Beni Abbes Museum (Musee de Beni-Abbes), Béni Abbès === Angola === National Museum of Natural History of Angola (Museu Nacional de História Natural de Angola), Luanda === Botswana === Botswana National Museum, Gaborone === Egypt === Egyptian Geological Museum, Cairo Alexandria Aquarium Museum, Alexandria === Ethiopia === Zoological Natural History Museum, Addis Ababa === Kenya === Kitale Museum, Kitale National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi === Mozambique === Museu de História Natural de Moçambique, Maputo === Namibia === National Earth Science Museum, Geological Survey of Namibia, Windhoek === Nigeria === Natural History Museum, OAU, Ifẹ, located at the Obafemi Awolowo University === South Africa === Albany Museum, Grahamstown Amathole Museum, King William's Town Bleloch Geological Museum, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg Wits Life Sciences Museum, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg CP Nel Museum, Oudtshoorn Natural Science Museum, Durban Iziko


id: list-of-natural-history-museums-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums-1.md
category: reference
title: List of natural history museums
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:38.436193+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-natural-history-museums-20260505-0
summary:
=== Singapore === Science Centre Singapore Lee Kong Chian Natural History Museum === Taiwan === Insect Science Museum, Taipei National Museum of Natural Science, Taichung National Museum of Taiwan History, Tainan City National Taiwan Museum, Taipei City National Chiayi University Insect Museum, Chiayi City === Thailand === Thailand National Science Museum, Pathum Thani Chulalongkorn University Museum of Natural History, Bangkok Chulalongkorn University's Geological Museum, Bangkok Chulalongkorn University's Traditional Medicine Museum, Bangkok Mahidol University's Mollusk Museum, Bangkok Mahidol University's Mosquito Museum, Bangkok Mahidol University's Bio-Geo Path, Bangkok Rattanakosin Natural History Museum, Kasetsart University, Bangkok Veterinarical Anatomy Museum, Kasetsart University, Bangkok Pathology Museum, Kasetsart University, Bangkok Kasetsart University's Ant Museum, Bangkok Kasetsart University's Zoological Museum, Bangkok Kasetsart University Museum of Fisheries (Natural History), Bangkok Kasetsart University's 60th Anniversary Museum and Park of Insects, Bangkok Lichen Museum, Ramkhamhaeng University, Bangkok Bangkok Butterfly and Insect Park, Bangkok Dusit Zoo Museum, Bangkok Soil Museum, Bangkok Geological Museum, Bangkok Horn and Antler Museum, Bangkok Biological Science Museum at Faculaty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai Chiang Mai University's Geological Museum, Chiang Mai Museum of World Insects and Natural Heritages, Chiang Mai Lignite Learning Centre Museum, Lampang King Mongkut Memeorail Park of Science and Technology, Prachuap


id: list-of-natural-history-museums-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums-2.md
category: reference
title: List of natural history museums
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:38.436193+00:00
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parent: list-of-natural-history-museums-20260505-0
summary:
=== Croatia === Croatian Natural History Museum, Zagreb (Hrvatski prirodoslovni muzej) Dubrovnik Natural History Museum, Dubrovnik Hunting Museum, Zagreb Karlovac Municipal Museum, Karlovac Museum of Evolution and Prehistoric Human Habitation, Krapina Museum of Slavonia, Osijek Mushroom Museum, Zagreb Natural History Museum, Rijeka Natural History Museum and Zoo, Split Ornithological Collection, Metković Senj City Museum, Senj Varazdin Municipal Museum: The Herzer Palace, Varaždin Zoological Museum of Baranja – Kopačevo, Baranja – Kopačevo === Czech Republic === Moravian Museum, Brno National Museum (Prague), Prague Chlupáč's Museum of the History of Earth, Prague Městské muzeum Čáslav, Čáslav === Denmark === Copenhagen Amber Museum, Copenhagen Natural History Museum of Denmark, Copenhagen Fossil and Mo-clay Museum, near Sejerslev (northern Mors Island) Fur Museum, Nederby (on Fur Island) GeoCenter Møns Klint, Borre (eastern Møn) Gram Natural History Museum, Gram Museum of Evolution at Knuthenborg Safaripark, Bandholm NaturBornholm, Aakirkeby Naturhistorisk Museum, Aarhus Naturama, Svendborg Stevns Klint Experience, Rødvig Wadden Sea Centre, Vester Vedsted (near Ribe) === Estonia === Estonian Museum of Natural History, Tallinn Ice Age Centre, Tartu University of Tartu Natural History Museum, Tartu === Finland === Finnish Museum of Natural History, Helsinki Geological Museum, University of Oulu, Oulu Mineralogical Museum of the Geological Survey of


id: list-of-natural-history-museums-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums-3.md
category: reference
title: List of natural history museums
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:38.436193+00:00
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parent: list-of-natural-history-museums-20260505-0
summary:
=== Italy === Museo Civico Scienze Naturali Enrico Caffi, Bergamo University Museums, University of Bologna, Bologna Museo della Preistoria Luigi Donini, San Lazzaro di Savena, Bologna Museo del Fossile del Monte Baldo, Brentonico, Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol Museo Civico di Storia Naturale, Carmagnola, Piedmont Museo Civico Comunale di Comiso, Sicily Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Ferrara, Ferrara Museo di Storia Naturale di Firenze, University of Florence, Florence Museo Civico di Storia Naturale Giacomo Doria, Genoa Museo di Storia Naturale della Maremma, Grosseto Museo di Storia Naturale del Mediterraneo, Livorno Museo di Scienze Naturali, Lodi, Lombardy Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Milano, Milan Zoological Museum of Naples, Naples Museo di Geologia e Paleontologia, University of Padua, Padua Museo per la Storia dell'Università, University of Pavia, Pavia Museo di Storia Naturale, University of Pavia, Pavia Museo di Archeologia, University of Pavia, Pavia Museo di Mineralogia, University of Pavia, Pavia Natural History Museum, Pisa Museo Geologico delle Dolomiti, Predazzo, Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol Museo Civico di Zoologia di Roma, Rome Geological Museum, Rome Museo Civico Rovereto, Rovereto Museo Regionale di Scienze Naturali, Saint-Pierre Museo di Storia Naturale, Sulmona Museo di Storia Naturale Bios Taras, Taranto Museo Tridentino di Scienze Naturali, Trento Museo Civico di Storia


id: list-of-natural-history-museums-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums-4.md
category: reference
title: List of natural history museums
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:38.436193+00:00
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parent: list-of-natural-history-museums-20260505-0
summary:
=== Spain === Cau del Cargol Conquilles del Món (Shells of the World Museum, malacology), Catalonia Institut Paleontològic Dr. M. Crusafont, Sabadell Museo de Ciencias de Arnedo (Museum of Science Arnedo), Arnedo Museo de Ciencias Naturales, Álava Museu de Ciències Naturals, Barcelona Museo de Ciencias Naturales (Guadalcazar) and Mocha Tower, Córdoba Museo Geominero, Madrid Museo Municipal de Ciencias Naturales (Municipal Museum of Natural Science), Valencia Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, Madrid Museo Paleontologico de la Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza Museu de Ciencies Naturals de Costix, Mallorca Museu de Granollers Ciències Naturals, Granollers Museu de les Papallones de Catalunya, Lleida Museu Geològic del Seminari de Barcelona, Barcelona Museu Montsia, Amposta Museu Valencià d'Història Natural – Fundación Entomológica Torres Sala, Valencia Museum of Zoology, University of Navarra, Pamplona === Sweden === Biologiska Museet (Biological Museum), Djurgården, Stockholm Gotland Museum (Gotlands museum), Visby Geological Museum Villa Heidelberg, Klimpfjäll Göteborg Natural History Museum (Göteborgs Naturhistoriska Museum), Gothenburg Malmö Museums – Natural History Museum, Malmö Lund University Zoology Museum (Lunds Universitet Zoologiska museet), Lund Museum of Evolution, Uppsala University (Evolutions Museet Uppsala Universitet), Uppsala Swedish Museum of Natural History (Naturhistoriska riksmuseet), Stockholm Swedish Amber Museum, Höllviken === Switzerland === Musée cantonal de géologie (Cantonal Museum


id: list-of-natural-history-museums-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums-5.md
category: reference
title: List of natural history museums
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:38.436193+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-natural-history-museums-20260505-0
summary:
==== Ontario ==== 1000 Islands History Museum, Gananoque Aquatarium, Brockville Arkona Lions Museum, Arkona Ball's Falls Centre for Conservation, Ball's Falls, Ontario Bonnechere Museum, Bonnechere Canadian Museum of Nature, Ottawa Dynamic Earth, Sudbury Entomica Insectarium, Sault Ste. Marie Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto The Earth Sciences Museum, University of Waterloo, Waterloo The Miller Museum of Geology, Queen's University at Kingston Museum of Northern History, Kirkland Lake The Niagara Falls Museum, Niagara Falls Pelee Island Heritage Centre, Pelee Science North, Greater Sudbury Stones 'N Bones Museum, Sarnia ==== Quebec ==== Lake Timiskaming Fossil Centre, Quebec City Montreal Biosphere, Montreal Montreal Insectarium, Montreal Musée de la Nature et des Sciences, Sherbrooke Musee du Fjord, La Baie Musée de Paléontologie et de l'Evolution, Montreal Musée Minéralogique d'Asbestos, Asbestos Musée minèralogique et minier de Thetford Mines, Thetford Mines Redpath Museum, Montreal Sherbrooke Nature and Science Museum, Sherbrooke ==== Saskatchewan ==== Abernethy Nature-Heritage Museum, Abernethy Ancient Echoes Interpretive Center, Herschel Museum of Natural Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon Royal Saskatchewan Museum, Regina T.rex Discovery Centre, Eastend ==== Yukon ==== Kluane Museum of Natural History, Burwash Landing Yukon Beringia Interpretive Centre, Whitehorse === Mexico === Caracol, Museo de Ciencias de Ensenada, Ensenada Museo de Geología UNAM, Mexico


id: list-of-natural-history-museums-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums-6.md
category: reference
title: List of natural history museums
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:38.436193+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-natural-history-museums-20260505-0
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=== Brazil === Museu de Arqueologia e Etnologia – USP, São Paulo, SP Museu de Ciências Naturais – PUC MINAS, Belo Horizonte, MG Museu Entomológico Fritz Plaumann, Santa Catarina Museu Geológico Valdemar Lefèvre, São Paulo, SP Museu de Geociências – USP, São Paulo, SP Museu de História Natural de Taubaté, Taubaté Museu de Historia Natural Capão da Imbuia Wood, Curitiba Museu Nacional, UFRJ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi, Belém Museu de Rochas, Minerais e Minérios – USP, São Paulo, SP Museum of Veterinary Anatomy FMVZ USP, São Paulo Museu de Zoologia da Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo state Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo === Chile === Chilean National Museum of Natural History, Santiago Museo de Historia Natural de Valparaiso, Región de Valparaiso Museo de Historia Natural de Concepción, Región del Biobío === Colombia === Museo de Historia Natural, Popayán Museo La Salle, Bogotá Museo Prehistórico National University of Colombia, Bogotá: Museo de Historia Natural (Museum of Natural History) Museo Entomológico (Museum of Entomology) Museo Paleontológico (Museum of Paleontology) Botanic Garden Medellín === Ecuador === Gustavo Orcés V. Natural History Museum, Quito === Guyana === Guyana National Museum, Georgetown === Paraguay


id: alaska-museum-of-science-and-nature-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska_Museum_of_Science_and_Nature-0.md
category: reference
title: Alaska Museum of Science and Nature
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska_Museum_of_Science_and_Nature
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:39.618711+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alaska-museum-of-science-and-nature-20260505-0
summary:
The Alaska Museum of Science and Nature (AKSCI) is a natural history museum in Anchorage, Alaska. It is known for its collection of fossils. == History == The museum initially opened in 1994, in a shopping mall in the Eagle River community of Anchorage. By 2015, it had moved to its own building in the Mountain View neighborhood. == Exhibits == The museum has six main exhibits: Dinosaurs of Darkness, Alaska Marine Life, Birds of a Feather, Bare Bones, Ice Age Alaska, and Rocks & Minerals. The Dinosaurs exhibit contains skeletons and reproductions of dinosaurs such as Hadrosaurs, Ceratopsians, Albertosaurus, and raptors. The Marine Life exhibit shows off whalebones and skulls and a full skeleton of a beluga whale. The birds exhibit contains a rookery with a variety of bird species, and the bones exhibit contains replicas of human bones and compares them to animal ones. The Ice Age exhibit displays models of animals from the Pleistocene, such as American lions and saber-toothed tigers. The rocks exhibit shows off fluorescent and multi-colored minerals, meteorites, and fossils from the prehistoric forest in Sutton. The museum contains several life-sized dinosaur paintings by local artist James Haven. == References == == External links


id: anthropos-pavilion-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropos_Pavilion-0.md
category: reference
title: Anthropos Pavilion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropos_Pavilion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:40.809214+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anthropos-pavilion-20260505-0
summary:
Anthropos (or Anthropos Pavilion, from the Greek Άνθρωπος, human or man) is a museum located in the city of Brno, South Moravia, Czech Republic. The museum is a part of the Moravské zemské muzeum (Moravian Museum). It focuses on exhibitions presenting the oldest history of Europe and mankind. In a 2009 exhibition, the museum presented the most important art works of the Paleolithic era, such as Venus of Willendorf (exhibited for the first time outside of Austria) and Venus of Dolní Věstonice. == Basic characteristics == The museum is situated on the right bank of the river Svratka, in the cadastral municipality of Pisárky in the western part of Brno. It consists of a permanent, three-part exhibition presenting the oldest history of human settlement in Moravia and Europe and of temporary exhibitions. The permanent exhibition includes a life-size model of mammoth. == History == In 1928, during an exhibition of the contemporary culture held at the Brno Exhibition Centre, the archaeologist Karel Absolon presented the findings of the oldest history of human settlements in a solo exhibition called Člověk a jeho rod (Man and his Ancestry). The exhibition was supported by the first Czechoslovak president Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk and by


id: bangladesh-national-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladesh_National_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Bangladesh National Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladesh_National_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:41.955974+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bangladesh-national-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Bangladesh National Museum (Bengali: বাংলাদেশ জাতীয় জাদুঘর, romanized: Bānlādēśa Jātīẏa Jādughara) is the national repository of Bangladesh's cultural and historical artifacts, located in the Shahbag area of Dhaka. The museum was established on 20 March 1913, under the name Dhaka Museum, and was formally inaugurated on 7 August 1913. With an initial collection of 379 objects, it was opened to the public on 25 August 1914. After the independence of Bangladesh in 1971, the institution was reorganized under the name Bangladesh National Museum, incorporating various parts of the former Dhaka Museum, and was formally inaugurated in its present form in 1983. The museum has departments of ethnography and decorative art, history and classical art, natural history, and world civilization. Artifacts from the prehistoric era to contemporary history are displayed here, which include over 50,000 ancient and medieval coins, Buddhist sculptures from the Gandhara period, and exhibits related to the 1971 Liberation War. == History == In 1855, the Asiatic Society of Bengal proposed establishing a museum in Dhaka, but it was postponed due to logistical constraints. Later, in 1907, this initiative re-emerged among the elite class of Dhaka. Following this, on 20 March 1913, the Dhaka Museum was formally


id: belarusian-nature-and-environment-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarusian_Nature_and_Environment_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Belarusian Nature and Environment Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarusian_Nature_and_Environment_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:43.122911+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: belarusian-nature-and-environment-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Museum of Nature and Environment of the Republic of Belarus (Belarusian: Музей прыроды і экалогіі Рэспублікі Беларусь, romanized: Muzey pryrody i ekalogii Respubliki Byelarus) is a museum in Minsk, Belarus, founded in 1991 at Minsk on the basis of the nature of Belarusian National History and Culture Museum. There are more than 40 thousand exhibits inside an exposition area of 350 m2. In the 6 thematic rooms (mineralogical, fenalagichny, nature, river, lake, forest) exhibits tell about the natural riches of the evolution of flora and fauna from antiquity to the present day. == Gallery == == External links == Official website


id: beni-abbes-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beni_Abbes_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Beni Abbes Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beni_Abbes_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:44.315522+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: beni-abbes-museum-20260505-0
summary:
Beni Abbes Museum, also known as Béni Abbès Museum (Arabic: متحف بني عباس, romanized: Matḥaf Banī ʻAbbās) is an art museum located in oasis town of Beni Abbes, Béchar Province, Algeria. It is "a resource dedicated to desert fauna, fossils and Algerian arts and crafts." == Displays == Béni Abbès Museum is popular in Algeria. It is supported by the Saharan Research Center. The museum houses displays desert fauna, fossils and traditional arts and crafts, such as carpets, wall hangings, ceramic items, woodcarvings and jewelry. The museum, which is supported by the Saharan Research Center, displays an extensive range of different types of dates. Dates are one of the mainstay crops of oasis towns and villages in Algeria. == Myth == The oasis of Beni Abbes has its own myth. Local people claim that: “The spring which waters this lush oasis came about as a miracle. It is said that a traveler pushed his walking-stick into the ground, declaring that if he should die in this place, water would come out of the ground. He apparently died the following night, possibly due to lack of water, and the spring began to flow, continuing to do so to this day”. ==


id: biblical-museum-of-natural-history-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_Museum_of_Natural_History-0.md
category: reference
title: Biblical Museum of Natural History
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_Museum_of_Natural_History
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:45.519755+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biblical-museum-of-natural-history-20260505-0
summary:
The Biblical Museum of Natural History (Hebrew: מוזיאון הטבע התנ"כי, romanized: Muzeyum haTeva haTanakhi), currently located in Hartuv at the entrance to Beit Shemesh, Israel, was founded in 2014 by Rabbi Dr. Natan Slifkin, affectionately referred to as the "Zoo Rabbi." == Vision and purpose == The establishment describes itself as "part natural history museum, part zoo" and is meant to "enhance the appreciation and understanding of biblical scripture and Jewish tradition via the natural world." Visitors are able to gain insight into the animals that lived in Israel during biblical times even if they no longer exist there now, such as bears and crocodiles. Visitors to the museum are currently directed by special tour by appointment only. Features include live animal, taxidermy and skeleton exhibits, as well as audio/visual presentations. Tour topics include unraveling incidents of misidentification of animals by biblical scholars of species mentioned in both the Five Books of Moses and the Talmud due to their lack of familiarity with different families that are not represented in places like Europe, where much of the Jewish medieval biblical commentary was written. == History == In 2017 the Museum held a "Feast of Exotic Curiosities," at which foods including


id: biomuseo-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomuseo-0.md
category: reference
title: Biomuseo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomuseo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:46.661955+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biomuseo-20260505-0
summary:
Biomuseo is a museum focused on the natural history of Panama, whose isthmus was formed very recently in geologic time, with major impact on the ecology of the Western Hemisphere. Located on the Amador Causeway in Panama City, Panama, it was designed by renowned architect Frank Gehry. This is Gehry's first design for Latin America. The design was conceived in 1999 and the museum opened on 2 October 2014. The Biomuseo highlights Panama's natural and cultural history, emphasizing the role of humans in the 21st century. Its galleries tell the story of how the rise of the isthmus of Panama changed the world. == Location == Biomuseo is located in Amador, also known as Causeway, at the south entrance of the Panama Canal. Visitors can get there via taxi or bus. == The building and its galleries == With 4,000 square meters, the Biomuseo has eight galleries for its permanent exhibits, designed in sequence by Bruce Mau Design. The museum also has a public atrium, a space for temporary exhibits, a gift store, a coffee shop and exterior exhibits in a botanical garden designed by Edwina von Gal. On October 2, 2014, the Biomuseo opened the first five galleries to


id: b-tov-castle-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bítov_Castle-0.md
category: reference
title: Bítov Castle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bítov_Castle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:47.958468+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: b-tov-castle-20260505-0
summary:
Bítov Castle (Czech: Hrad Bítov, German: Schloss Vöttau) is a castle on a steep promontory towering above the meandering River Želetavka, near the Vranov reservoir, in the village of Bítov, some 25 kilometres (16 mi) northwest of Znojmo, Czech Republic. Built in the 11th century, Bítov is one of the oldest and largest Moravian castles. == History == A Přemyslid fortified settlement originally stood on the site and included the Chapel of Our Lady (Kostelík Panny Marie). The fort was rebuilt in the first half of the 13th century as an impregnable Gothic castle guarding the southern boundaries of the Přemyslid lands. In the 14th century a new inner ward was built along with Late Gothic fortifications. The Lords of Bítov became the new owners of the castle and based themselves here for four centuries. They carried out further improvements to the defensive capabilities of the castle. Bítov finally underwent Baroque remodelling, and gained its present form at the beginning of the 19th century, when it passed into the hands of the Counts of Daun. The descendants of Marshal Daun, the famous military leader, rebuilt the castle in the spirit of the Romantic style. Between 1811 and 1845 the richly


id: botanical-garden-and-zoo-of-asunci-n-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_Garden_and_Zoo_of_Asunción-0.md
category: reference
title: Botanical Garden and Zoo of Asunción
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_Garden_and_Zoo_of_Asunción
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:49.175308+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: botanical-garden-and-zoo-of-asunci-n-20260505-0
summary:
The Botanical Garden and Zoo of Asunción (Spanish: Jardín Botánico y Zoológico de Asunción) is a botanical garden and zoo located in Asunción, capital of the Republic of Paraguay. The Botanical Garden and Zoo is one of the principal open spaces of the city of Asunción, set in natural forest covering 110 hectares (270 acres) to the north of the city. The zoo is home to nearly seventy species of wildlife including birds, mammals and reptiles, mostly representing the fauna of South America. The botanical garden is home to native species, exhibiting, in particular, the variety and beauty of its lush trees. == History == This sprawling property was the former country house and estate of Carlos Antonio López, president of Paraguay between 1842 and 1862. Lopez ordered the construction of "Casa Lopez" as his home in the 1840s. Besides its historical value, the main building is very representative of the era in which it was built, in terms of technology, architecture and decoration, and is registered in the "Catalogue of Buildings and Sites of Urban Planning, architectural, Historical and Artistic Heritage of the city of Asunción", and specially protected by Law 946/82 "Protection of Cultural Property". In 1896, Lopez's


id: botanical-garden-and-zoo-of-asunci-n-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_Garden_and_Zoo_of_Asunción-1.md
category: reference
title: Botanical Garden and Zoo of Asunción
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_Garden_and_Zoo_of_Asunción
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:49.175308+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: botanical-garden-and-zoo-of-asunci-n-20260505-0
summary:
African lion (Panthera leo ) Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) Jaguar (Panthera onca) Puma (Puma concolor) Geoffroy's cat (Leopardus geoffroyi ) Ocelot (Leopardus pardalis) Crab-eating fox (Cerdocyon thous) Crab-eating raccoon (Procyon cancrivorus) Ring-tailed coati (Nasua nasua) Tayra (Eira barbara) Fallow deer (Dama dama) Gray brocket deer (Mazama gouazoubira) Domestic goat (Capra aegagrus hircus) White-lipped peccary (Tayassu pecari) Collared peccary (Tayassu tajacu) Tapir (Tapirus terrestris) Common hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) African savannah elephant (Loxodonta africana) Capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) Giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) southern tamandua (Tamandua tetradactyla) Common chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) Black-headed spider monkey (Ateles fusciceps) Azara's night monkey(Aotus azarae) Black howler monkey (Alouatta caraya)) Azaras's capuchin (Sapajus cay paraguayanus) ==== Birds ==== Birds at the zoo include: Chaco eagle or Crowned solitary eagle (Harpyhaliaetus coronatus) Common rhea (Rhea americana) Red-and-green macaw (Ara chloroptera) Monk parakeet (Myiopsitta monachus) Great horned owl (Bubo virginianus) Aplomado falcon (Falco femoralis) Jabiru (Jabiru mycteria) southern crested caracara (Caracara plancus) Southern screamer (Chauna torquata) Nanday parakeet (Aratinga nenday) black vulture or American black vulture(Coragyps atratus) Barn owl (Tyto (sp.)) Burrowing parrot or Patagonian conure (Cyanoliseus patagonus) Blue-fronted amazon (Amazona aestiva) Blue-winged macaw (Primolius maracana) Vinaceous-breasted amazon (Amazona vinacea) Striped owl (Asio clamator) Spectacled owl (Pulsatrix perspicillata) Toco toucan


id: bournemouth-natural-science-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bournemouth_Natural_Science_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: Bournemouth Natural Science Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bournemouth_Natural_Science_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:50.347678+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bournemouth-natural-science-society-20260505-0
summary:
Bournemouth Natural Science Society is a historic museum in Bournemouth, Dorset, England. == History == The building was constructed circa 1865. The museum holds collections covering Natural History, Geology, Egyptology and Archaeology. In 2019, a project began to restore a lantern roof light. == See also == List of museums in Dorset == References ==


id: croatian-natural-history-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croatian_Natural_History_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Croatian Natural History Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croatian_Natural_History_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:51.545007+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: croatian-natural-history-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Croatian Natural History Museum (Croatian: Hrvatski prirodoslovni muzej) is the oldest and biggest natural history museum and the main body for natural history research, preservation and collection in Croatia. Located on Dimitrije Demeter Street in Gornji Grad, one of the oldest neighbourhoods of the Croatian capital Zagreb, it owns one of the biggest museum collections in Croatia, with over 2 million artefacts, including over 1.1 million animal specimens. It was founded in 1846 as the "National Museum". The National Museum was later split up into five museums, three of which were in 1986 merged as departments of the newly named Croatian Natural History Museum. The museum contains a large scientific library open to the public, and publishes the first Croatian natural history scientific journal, Natura Croatica. The permanent display of the Croatian Natural History Museum consists of mineralogical, petrographical and zoological collections, as well as two permanent exhibits in the atrium: the Rock Map of Croatia and the Geological Pole. It is home to the remains of the Neanderthal from Krapina. In 2021, the museum was closed pending the completion of reconstruction following the 2020 Zagreb earthquake, and then reopened in 2024. == History == The history of the


id: croatian-natural-history-museum-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croatian_Natural_History_Museum-1.md
category: reference
title: Croatian Natural History Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croatian_Natural_History_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:51.545007+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: croatian-natural-history-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The museum is divided into Mineralogical–Petrographical, Geological–Palaeontological, Zoological and Botanical Departments. The first three are successors to the National Museum's 19th-century offspring museums, while the Botanical Department was established in 1990. The museum's holdings number over 2 million rocks, minerals, fossils, and other artefacts collected all over the country. The zoological collection consists of 1,135,000 animal specimens, including a tissue bank for DNA analysis. It also holds the remains of the Neanderthal man found near Krapina by Dragutin Gorjanović-Kramberger, a former director of the National Museum. The original remains are held in the museum's vault, while a replica is being exhibited in the Krapina museum. The museum's permanent display encompasses mineralogical and petrographical collections, as well as a collection of animals, the bulk of which dates back to the 19th century. The zoological collection is on the second floor of the museum. It includes the skeleton of a Mediterranean monk seal, a basking shark native to the Adriatic Sea and an Atlantic puffin, a bird today native to the Arctic area, which is believed to have nested in the Adriatic in the 19th century. The mineralogical and petrographical collections are divided into three exhibitions. "From a Collection to a Museum"


id: cyprus-museum-of-natural-history-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus_Museum_of_Natural_History-0.md
category: reference
title: Cyprus Museum of Natural History
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus_Museum_of_Natural_History
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:52.711815+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cyprus-museum-of-natural-history-20260505-0
summary:
The Cyprus Museum of Natural History (Greek: Κυπριακό Μουσείο Φυσικής Ιστορίας, romanized: Kypriakó Mouseío Fysikís Istorías) is a natural history museum on the outskirts of Nicosia, Cyprus. The museum was founded by the Photos Photiades Charity, Scientific and Cultural Foundation, and is the largest museum of its kind in Cyprus. Its approximately 2,500 exhibits include various embalmed animals including mammals, birds, fish, reptiles, and insects. It also includes rocks, minerals, semi-precious stones, shells, and fossils, showcasing the region's geological history and evolution over millions of years. == References == == External links == Museum website


id: dead-sea-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_Sea_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Dead Sea Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_Sea_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:53.867630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dead-sea-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Dead Sea Museum (Arabic: متحف البحر الميت, romanized: Matḥaf al-Baḥr al-Mayyit) is a history and natural history museum located in the Maeen subdistrict, Jordan. The museum is dedicated to showing the history of the Dead Sea and how civilizations developed around it. == History == Among the intentions for the creation was to promote tourism, and to facilitate the public to learn more about how the Dead Sea is constituted. The museum aims to raise awareness about the conservation of the Dead Sea. The construction of the museum was funded by the Japan International Cooperation Agency. The museum first opened in 2006, and is Jordan's first natural history museum. In 2015, for International Museum Day, educational activities for students from the South Jordan Valley were organized in this place. == Collections == The museum contains collections of rocks and minerals The museum exhibits are divided into four sections First section: The geology of the Dead Sea, as well as its formation. Second section: The study of the Dead Sea ecosystem. Third section: The human impact on the Dead Sea as well as the benefits that the existence of this sea has brought to the civilizations of the Middle East.


id: dippy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dippy-0.md
category: reference
title: Dippy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dippy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:55.062702+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dippy-20260505-0
summary:
Dippy is a composite Diplodocus skeleton. The original skeleton is in Pittsburgh's Carnegie Museum of Natural History, and the holotype of the species Diplodocus carnegii. It is considered the most famous single dinosaur skeleton in the world, due to the numerous plaster casts donated by Andrew Carnegie to several major museums around the world at the beginning of the 20th century. One well known cast in the United Kingdom was displayed at the Natural History Museum in London from 1905 until 2017. The casting and distribution of the skeleton made the word dinosaur a household word; for millions of people it became the first dinosaur they had ever seen. It was also responsible for the subsequent popularity of the entire genus Diplodocus, since the skeleton has been on display in more places than any other sauropod dinosaur. Its discovery was catalyzed by the announcement of the excavation of a large thigh bone (unrelated to Dippy) by William Reed near Medicine Bow, Wyoming in December 1898. On a return trip financed by Carnegie, Reed excavated Sheep Creek Quarry D in which he found the first part of Dippy's skeleton, a toe bone, on July 4, 1899. Its discovery on Independence Day,


id: dippy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dippy-1.md
category: reference
title: Dippy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dippy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:55.062702+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dippy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Early history === The London cast of Dippy came about when King Edward VII, then a keen trustee of the British Museum, saw a sketch of the bones at Carnegie's Scottish home, Skibo Castle, in 1902, and Carnegie agreed to donate a cast to the Natural History Museum as a gift. Carnegie paid £2,000 for the casting in plaster of paris, copying the original fossil bones held by the Carnegie Museum (not mounted until 1907, as a new museum building was still being constructed to house it).The 292 cast pieces of the skeleton were sent to London in 36 crates, and the 25.6 metres (84 ft) long exhibit was unveiled on May 12, 1905, to great public and media interest, with speeches from the museum director Professor Ray Lankester, Andrew Carnegie, Lord Avebury on behalf of the trustees, the director of the Carnegie Museum William Jacob Holland, and finally the geologist Sir Archibald Geikie. The cast was mounted in the museum's Reptile Gallery to the left of the main hall (until recently the gallery of Human Biology) as it was too large to display in the Fossil Marine Reptile Gallery (to the right of the main hall). Dippy was


id: estonian-museum-of-natural-history-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonian_Museum_of_Natural_History-0.md
category: reference
title: Estonian Museum of Natural History
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonian_Museum_of_Natural_History
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:56.201383+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: estonian-museum-of-natural-history-20260505-0
summary:
The Estonian Museum of Natural History (EMNH; Estonian: Eesti Loodusmuuseum) is the Estonian national museum for natural history. It is situated in Tallinn's Old Town. The museum focuses on natural history and nature education, offering its visitors a tour in the wilderness of Estonia. == History == The origins of the museum goes back to the Estonian Literary Society's museum founded in 1842 and renamed to the Provincial Museum in 1864. This museum was active in exploring the natural sciences, an area that increased in significance at the museum in 1872 when Alexander von der Pahlen (1820–1895) began to contribute to the collection. Pahlen was later elected chairman and under his leadership the collection continued to grow. As the collection grew, a new building on Kohtu Street was purchased in 1911 to house it. During World War I, due to passive resistance, the museum's collection were not moved to Russia. The Provincial Museum continued to operate under the Arts and Heritage Department of the Minister of Education and Research but changed its name to the Museum of the Estonian Literary Society in 1926. After the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, Baltic-German institutions, including the Estonian Literary Society, were closed. In 1940, through the


id: gozo-nature-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gozo_Nature_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Gozo Nature Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gozo_Nature_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:57.428881+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gozo-nature-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Gozo Nature Museum, formerly known as the Natural Science Museum, is a museum in Victoria, on the island of Gozo, Malta. Open to public since 1991, the museum is housed in a group of houses in the Cittadella, the oldest part of the city. These houses date back to various ages: the older one, which was an inn, to 1495; the other to the 17th century. The Natural Science Museum shows collections "relating to the Island’s geology, minerals, marine life, insects, local habitats and ecosystems" as well as national plants (including the Maltese Rock Centaury), human and animal evolution. During later years, this building was used as an inn for visitors, and is mentioned in Thomas McGill’s “Handbook, or Guide, for Strangers visiting Malta” of 1839, and described as: an excellent house of entertainment offering clean and comfortable beds and reasonably-priced dinners. During World War II the building served as a shelter for families during aerial bombings. The buildings which house the museum are listed on the National Inventory of the Cultural Property of the Maltese Islands. == See also == List of museums in Malta == References == == External links == Official website museum on Official Malta


id: guatemalan-national-natural-history-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guatemalan_National_Natural_History_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Guatemalan National Natural History Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guatemalan_National_Natural_History_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:58.616369+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: guatemalan-national-natural-history-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Guatemalan National Natural History Museum (Spanish: Museo de Historia Natural 'Jorge A. Ibarra') is a national natural history museum in Guatemala City, Guatemala. It was founded in 1950 and moved to its present facility in 1986. It was renamed in honor of its founder and long-term director, Jorge A. Ibarra. == References == == External links == Official website


id: gustavo-orc-s-v-natural-history-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustavo_Orcés_V._Natural_History_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Gustavo Orcés V. Natural History Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustavo_Orcés_V._Natural_History_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:59.747039+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gustavo-orc-s-v-natural-history-museum-20260505-0
summary:
Gustavo Orcés V. Natural History Museum (Spanish: Museo de Historia Natural Gustavo Orcés V.) is a natural history museum in Quito, Ecuador. It was established in 2005. == Background == From the eighteenth century European naturalists came to Ecuador for scientific expeditions, during which they collected specimens of flora, fauna, rocks and fossils. In the early twentieth century, Franz Spillmann brought together a collection of fossils, which formed the "Cabinet of Natural Sciences" of the Central University. Later, in 1946, Robert Hoffstetter and Gustavo Orcés founded the Department of Biology at the National Polytechnic School, and made numerous paleontological expeditions, particularly in the Santa Elena peninsula. Hoffstetter’s extensive work and organization formed the basis of the modern museum. == References ==


id: hasanbey-zardabi-natural-history-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasanbey_Zardabi_Natural_History_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Hasanbey Zardabi Natural History Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasanbey_Zardabi_Natural_History_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:00.908048+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hasanbey-zardabi-natural-history-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Hasanbey Zardabi Natural History Museum (Azerbaijani: Həsən bəy Zərdabi adına Təbiət Tarixi Muzeyi) is a natural history museum in Baku, Azerbaijan. The museum bears the name of Hasan bey Zardabi, an Azerbaijani journalist and intellectual, and founder of the first Azeri-language newspaper Akinchi ("The Ploughman") in 1875. The museum has two departments: a geology department that has samples of metallic and nonmetallic natural resources and minerals and rocks of Azerbaijan and a zoology department. The general collection of the museum numbers more than 1400 different items. The biological department exhibits numerous skeletons and fragments of animal bones found during field work and treated by researchers. The oldest exhibit is the teeth of an ichthyosaur from the Cretaceous period, more than 120 million years old. The research activities of the Natural History Museum have developed in several directions, focused especially on paleontological sites. The main research focuses on the study of the Binagadi quaternary and the Eldar late Sarmatian hipparion faunas, Pirekishkuli Maykop vertebrate fauna, numerous sites of primitive people, as well as Azokh cave and others. In the collection of the quaternary fauna of Binagadi, there are 41 species of mammals, 110 species of birds, 2 reptiles, 1 amphibian,


id: international-inventories-programme-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Inventories_Programme-0.md
category: reference
title: International Inventories Programme
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Inventories_Programme
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:02.043688+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-inventories-programme-20260505-0
summary:
The International Inventories Programme (IIP) is an international research and database project for investigating objects pertaining to the cultural heritage of Kenya that are held in cultural institutions like ethnographic museums across the globe. The programme is jointly run by the National Museums of Kenya in Nairobi, the Rautenstrauch-Joest Museum in Cologne and the Weltkulturen Museum in Frankfurt a. M., both in Germany. To establish a direct relation to contemporary cultural activities both in Kenya and in Germany, the multi-disciplinary arts groups The Nest Collective (Kenya) and SHIFT Collective in Germany and France are further members of the IIP. - The programme and its projects are supported by the Goethe-Institut - German cultural centre in Kenya - and the German Federal Cultural Foundation. == Background and international cooperation == The IIP was publicly launched in 2018, and was described by Quartz Africa magazine as "a movement to investigate the cultural artifacts stolen and kept outside the country’s borders (...) exploring where in the West they are actually housed, who holds the agency to demand their repatriation, and how their historical and cultural legacy can be harnessed for sustainable and creative development.” As much of Kenya's cultural heritage is inaccessible both


id: kitale-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitale_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Kitale Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitale_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:03.196256+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kitale-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Kitale Museum is a regional museum located in Kitale, Trans-Nzoia County, Kenya. Operating under the National Museums of Kenya (NMK) network, it holds the distinction of being the first regional museum to be integrated into the national system. In February 2024, it became the first national museum in the country to transition to the management of a county government under the Kenya devolution framework. While it maintains a technical partnership with the NMK, the facility is currently managed by the Trans-Nzoia County Government, which oversees its daily operations, budget, and staff. The museum originated from the private collection of Lieutenant Colonel Hugh Stoneham established in 1926 and was officially nationalized in 1974. It features natural history exhibitions and ethnographic displays including traditional Kenyan homesteads. Following Stoneham's death in 1966, the collection was bequeathed to the Kenyan government on the condition that a permanent museum be established in Kitale. In 1974, the facility was officially nationalized and opened to the public as the first regional branch of the NMK. Today, the museum is notable for its outdoor exhibits of traditional homesteads representing the Luhya, Maasai, and Kalenjin cultures, as well as a nature trail through a protected riverine known as


id: latvian-museum-of-natural-history-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latvian_Museum_of_Natural_History-0.md
category: reference
title: Latvian Museum of Natural History
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latvian_Museum_of_Natural_History
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:04.336595+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: latvian-museum-of-natural-history-20260505-0
summary:
The Latvian National Museum of Natural History (Latvian: Latvijas Nacionālais dabas muzejs) is a natural history museum in Riga, Latvia. It was founded in 1845 as the Riga Naturalist Society (German: Naturforscherverein zu Riga). The museum contains the following Departments: Custodial Botany Zoology Geology and Palaeontology Technological Support Communications Administration == External links == Official site


id: lebanese-marine-and-wildlife-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanese_Marine_and_Wildlife_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Lebanese Marine and Wildlife Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanese_Marine_and_Wildlife_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:05.545747+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lebanese-marine-and-wildlife-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Lebanese Marine and Wildlife Museum (Arabic: المتحف اللبناني للحياة البحرية و البرية, al-matḥaf al-lubnani lil-hayat al-bahriya wa al-bariya) is a zoological museum in Jeita. Its goals are to study Lebanon's ecosystem, encourage preservation, and maintain a scientific archive of Lebanon's wildlife and the Mediterranean marine life. == History == The Museum was first opened in Tyre in 2001. == Collections == The Lebanese Marine and Wildlife Museum has over 2000 species with over 5000 specimen. The museum currently contains 6 Exhibits: === Mammals === Displaying over 30 of Lebanon's mammals which once roamed freely the forests of Lebanon, most of which are now critically endangered, due to deforestation, indiscriminate hunting and habitat destruction. === Birds === The Museum Has over 200 species of birds === Reptiles === over 20 species of lizards and 30 species of snakes === Minerals, Gems and Fossils === over 300 specimens of minerals and gems === Seashells === The seashell collections contains over 200 seashell species from the Mediterranean and over 300 of the largest seashells from around the world. === Marine life === This display contains over 40 species sharks, in additions to fish, crabs, cephalopods, crustaceans, sea turtles, dolphins and a monk


id: lee-kong-chian-natural-history-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Kong_Chian_Natural_History_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Lee Kong Chian Natural History Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Kong_Chian_Natural_History_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:06.718966+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lee-kong-chian-natural-history-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Lee Kong Chian Natural History Museum (LKCNHM; Malay: Muzium Sejarah Alamiah Lee Kong Chian, Chinese: 李光前自然历史博物馆; pinyin: Lǐguāngqián zìrán lìshǐ bówùguǎn) is a museum of natural history at the Kent Ridge Campus of the National University of Singapore. It is named after Lee Kong Chian, a prominent Chinese businessman and philanthropist active in Malaya and Singapore between the 1930s and the 1960s. It was officially opened on 18 April 2015. The idea for a natural history collection was first mooted by Sir Stamford Raffles, and the collection of Southeast Asian biodiversity was begun in 1849 at the Raffles Museum (now the National Museum of Singapore). In 1972, the Government of Singapore removed the natural history collections from the National Museum and gave them to the Zoology Department of what was then the University of Singapore. They were housed in various temporary premises, including the Nanyang Technological University for seven years. Subsequently, they were returned to the NUS and housed in the Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research. LKCNHM inherited the natural history collections from the Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research. The Museum currently has more than 560,000 catalogued lots in its collection and over a million specimens from throughout the


id: list-of-sites-and-monuments-in-kenya-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sites_and_monuments_in_Kenya-0.md
category: reference
title: List of sites and monuments in Kenya
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sites_and_monuments_in_Kenya
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:07.992336+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-sites-and-monuments-in-kenya-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of sites and monuments of historic value that are maintained by the National Museums of Kenya. == Historic sites == == See also == List of museums in Kenya == References == == External links == Hassan, Mohamed (27 April 2019). "NMK Seek More Funds To Protect Historical Sites, Monuments". Kenya News Agency. Retrieved 11 October 2010. "Overview". Kenya Wildlife Service. Retrieved 11 October 2010.


id: national-museum-of-natural-history-luxembourg-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_Natural_History,_Luxembourg-0.md
category: reference
title: National Museum of Natural History, Luxembourg
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_Natural_History,_Luxembourg
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:09.168043+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-museum-of-natural-history-luxembourg-20260505-0
summary:
The National Museum of Natural History (Luxembourgish: Nationalmusée fir Naturgeschicht, French: Musée national d'histoire naturelle, German: Nationalmuseum für Naturgeschichte) is a natural history museum in Luxembourg City, in southern Luxembourg. The museum is located in the Grund quarter on the eastern bank of the Alzette river, next to the Neumünster Abbey cultural centre. The museum is composed of eight separate scientific sections, spanning the natural sciences: botany, ecology, geology and mineralogy, geophysics and astrophysics, palaeontology, vertebrate zoology, and invertebrate zoology. == History == The Society of the Natural Sciences was established in 1850, under the patronage of Prince Henry, the newly appointed Governor of Luxembourg representing Grand Duke William III. The society's primary aim was the promotion of the natural sciences and natural history to the general population. To achieve this, the government put at the society's disposal a section of the city Athenaeum, now the National Library. Opening its doors in 1854, this area hosted a number of cabinets displaying fossil specimens, spread across three rooms. After almost four decades of this arrangement, pressure for display area caused the museum to move into its own premises, at the Vauban Barracks in Pfaffenthal, in 1892. However, these were criticised for


id: national-museum-malaysia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_(Malaysia)-0.md
category: reference
title: National Museum (Malaysia)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_(Malaysia)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:10.309796+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-museum-malaysia-20260505-0
summary:
The National Museum (Malay: Muzium Negara) is a public museum in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia dedicated to Malaysian art, culture, and history. Located on Jalan Damansara close to Perdana Lake Gardens across KL Sentral station. Its façade comprises elements from both traditional Malay and modern features. It was inaugurated on 31 August 1963. The National Museum is a three-story structure, 109.7 metres (359 ft 11 in) long and 15.1 metres (49 ft 6 in) wide, which is 37.6 metres (123 ft 4 in) high at the central point. The museum houses four main galleries allotted to ethnology and natural history (geology). The displays range from free-standing tableaux showing cultural events like weddings, festivals and costumes; to traditional weapons, musical instruments, arts and crafts, ceramics, and flora and fauna. == History == === The Old Selangor Museum === Selangor Museum was the de facto national museum pre-independence. Selangor Museum was established in 1887 as an amateur affair by colonial civil servants. It was taken over by the colonial government, and following the formation of the Federated Malay States in 1896, in 1904 it was administratively merged with the Perak Museum in Taiping as the Federated Malay States Museums under director Leonard Wray


id: national-museum-malaysia-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_(Malaysia)-1.md
category: reference
title: National Museum (Malaysia)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_(Malaysia)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:10.309796+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-museum-malaysia-20260505-0
summary:
Other galleries include the National Sports Gallery and the Natural History Gallery. In the vicinity of the museum building, there are a number of outdoor displays of transportation in Malaysia, past and present. The Melaka Bullock Cart exhibit closely resembles the early American horse-drawn wagon. Of unparalleled interest are the Steam Locomotive made by Kitson & Co, England, which was put into service in 1921 until it ceased operation in 1969. It covered 1.5 million rail miles; a Tin Dredge which resembles a floating factory, on a natural or artificial lake. Also on display are motorized vehicles, including antiqued civic vehicles and private vehicles, including an early 1.3 liter Proton Saga, the first national car launched on July 9, 1985. In addition, there are two monuments in the grounds: a bronze bust of King Edward VII, and a statue of Sir Frank Swettenham. National Museum also holds regular thematic exhibitions featuring specific aspects of life and world culture. === Central Hall === Adorning the floor of the Central Hall are blue geometric-design mosaic tiles from Pakistan, with intricate carved panels on the ceiling of the hall. The Central Hall houses temporary exhibitions, and thematic and special exhibitions are held at


id: marine-exhibition-center-of-punta-culebra-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_Exhibition_Center_of_Punta_Culebra-0.md
category: reference
title: Marine Exhibition Center of Punta Culebra
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_Exhibition_Center_of_Punta_Culebra
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:11.477332+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: marine-exhibition-center-of-punta-culebra-20260505-0
summary:
The Punta Culebra Nature Center (Spanish: Centro de Exhibiciones Marinas de Punta Culebra) is a visitor center located in Panama City, on one of the islands connected by the Amador Causeway. It is operated by the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, also located in Panama. The center focuses mainly on marine and terrestrial science and education, conservation and interpretation of marine coastal environments in the tropics. Among its attractions, the Fabulous Frogs of Panama, a touch tank with equinoderms and turtles are some of the exhibits found in Punta Culebra. A trail to a stretch of tropical dry forest is also part of the attractions where free roaming animals such as raccoons, sloths, green iguanas and beautiful birds and butterflies can be found. == References == == External links == Punta Culebra Nature Center official site


id: mongolian-natural-history-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolian_Natural_History_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Mongolian Natural History Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolian_Natural_History_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:12.622406+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mongolian-natural-history-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Natural History Museum (Mongolian: Байгалийн түүхийн музей, romanized: Baigaliin tüükhiin muzyei) is a repository and research institution located in Chingeltei, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. The museum was previously known as the Mongolian National Museum or State Central Museum. The museum includes Departments of Geology, Geography, Flora and Fauna, Paleontology, and Anthropology encompassing the natural history of Mongolia. The museum's holdings include more than 15000 specimens, 45% of which were on permanent public display. The museum is particularly well known for its dinosaur and other paleontological exhibits, among which the most notable are a nearly complete skeleton of a late Cretaceous Tarbosaurus tyrannosaurid and broadly contemporaneous nests of Protoceratops eggs. == History == The museum was established in 1924 as the National Museum (Mongolian: Үндэсний музей). In 1940–1941, it became known as the Rural Research Museum (Mongolian: Орон нутаг судлах музей) and in 1956 as the State Central Museum (Mongolian: Улсын төв музей). It received its current designation after 1991. Authorities deemed the museum's 1953 building to be highly susceptible to natural disasters such as earthquakes in a study made in 2013. The museum was closed in June 2013, with its exhibits put into storage or displayed at other venues. Initial plans


id: moravsk-zemsk-muzeum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moravské_zemské_muzeum-0.md
category: reference
title: Moravské zemské muzeum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moravské_zemské_muzeum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:13.848491+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: moravsk-zemsk-muzeum-20260505-0
summary:
Moravské zemské muzeum (English: Moravian Museum) is a museum in Brno in the Czech Republic. It is the second-largest and second-oldest museum in the country. Its collections include several million objects from many fields of science and culture. == Location == The museum's seat is located in Dietrichstein Palace in Zelný trh in the historic centre of Brno. It was built as a residence of Cardinal Franz von Dietrichstein in 1613–1616. It was rebuilt in late Baroque style at the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries and become one of the largest Baroque buildings in Brno. == History == The Moravian Museum was founded in July 1817 by a decree of Emperor Francis II. Science figures such as Christian Carl André, Count Josef Auersperg, Count Hugo-František Salm-Reifferscheid, or Antonín Bedřich Mitrovský were involved in the establishment of the museum. === Beethoven score manuscript === Following the Nazi invasion of Czechoslovakia, the Petschek family, a wealthy Czech Jewish family involved in banking and the mining industry, fled to the US. They attempted to send by post a prized family possession, the original score of the fourth movement of Beethoven's String Quartet No. 13. However, it was intercepted by the Gestapo.


id: museo-de-vida-silvestre-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museo_de_Vida_Silvestre-0.md
category: reference
title: Museo de Vida Silvestre
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museo_de_Vida_Silvestre
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:14.999359+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: museo-de-vida-silvestre-20260505-0
summary:
The Museo de Vida Silvestre (in English, the Wildlife Museum) is located in San Juan, Puerto Rico. It was inaugurated on November 1, 2010, and houses more than 200 specimens in their respective habitats. The museum has garnered popularity in the island, receiving more than 100,000 visitors shortly after its first year. == Building == The Museo de Vida Silvestre is located in the John F. Kennedy Avenue in San Juan, inside a 55,000 square feet, 2-story building. The building features several environmentally friendly elements within its structure, like the installation of ivy around it, and the use of photovoltaic cells to provide partial energy to the facilities. == See also == Tourism in Puerto Rico == References == == External links == Official website (in Spanish)


id: museo-la-salle-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museo_La_Salle-0.md
category: reference
title: Museo La Salle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museo_La_Salle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:16.156785+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: museo-la-salle-20260505-0
summary:
The Museo de Ciencias Naturales La Salle (English: Natural Science Museum La Salle) is a natural history museum in San José, Costa Rica. It consists of 3 main halls where exhibitions are organized by categories, such as insects, ichthyology, herpetology, ornithology, mammals, and anthropology. The museum was founded in 1960 by Eduardo Fernández, a science teacher at Colegio La Salle, who with the help of his students began the collection. == Exhibitions == The museum has over 65,000 pieces in exhibition, with sections like paleontology, including replicas of dinosaurs fossils, butterflies, geology and mineralogy with many minerals and rocks, and malacology with the collection of molluscs. It also has a large collection of taxidermy that includes lots of species of fish, reptiles, mammals and birds, that are well preserved thanks to the taxidermy. It has been considered as one of the most complete museums in all of Latin America. == References == == External links == Official website


id: museo-nacional-de-historia-natural-cubana-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museo_Nacional_de_Historia_Natural_Cubana-0.md
category: reference
title: Museo Nacional de Historia Natural Cubana
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museo_Nacional_de_Historia_Natural_Cubana
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:17.347002+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: museo-nacional-de-historia-natural-cubana-20260505-0
summary:
The Museo Nacional de Historia Natural Cubana or Museo Nacional de Historia Natural de Cuba in Havana, Cuba is the national museum of Natural History, with exhibits of Cuba's plants and animals. It is located in a former U.S. embassy building. == History == The museum has origins going back before the Cuban revolution. The Museo Cubana de Ciencias Naturales existed from 1959 to 1961, and became El Museo de Ciencias 'Felipe Poey' in 1962-1980, named for Cuban zoologist Felipe Poey (1799-1891). The exhibitions were open to the public for the first time in 1964-1980. In the period 1980-1984 the museum had financial problems, but has since undergone major restructuring, first under the Ministry of Culture and, since 1992, under the Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment. In November 2016, the American Museum of Natural History presented the exhibit "¡Cuba!", created in collaboration with the MNHNC and featuring unique anthropological acquisitions, video, collected specimens, and live animals that are endemic to the environment of Cuba. The exhibit is considered one of the largest displays of Cuban natural history ever seen in the United States and is the first fully bilingual exhibit at AMNH. == Overview == == Address == ==


id: museum-of-natural-history-in-cabo-san-lucas-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_Natural_History_in_Cabo_San_Lucas-0.md
category: reference
title: Museum of Natural History in Cabo San Lucas
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_Natural_History_in_Cabo_San_Lucas
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:18.606631+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: museum-of-natural-history-in-cabo-san-lucas-20260505-0
summary:
The Museum of Natural History in Cabo San Lucas (Spanish: Museo de Historia Natural de Cabo San Lucas), also known as the Museum of the Californias (Museo de las Californias), is a natural history museum in Cabo San Lucas, Baja California Sur. Established in 2006 and located in the city's center, it offers exhibits on the history of Cabo and skeletons of native animals. == History == The museum first opened on 9 October 2006. The building it is in was previously the first elementary school in the city, called Article 123 of the United Nations (Artículo 123 Naciones Unidas) and it was built in 1952. The museum was originally a project run by professors at the Autonomous University of Baja California Sur, but the current curator and director, Roberto Cuétara González, took over in 2007. He viewed it as a continuation of the Old Museum of the Californias that was previously housed in the schoolbuilding. The museum has been consistently neglected, however, and, its director, Roberto Cuétara González, has had to put his own money into keeping the museum open. The museum's facade was renovated in 2019. == Exhibits == The museum has exhibits that cover paleobotany, anthropology, astronomy,


id: museum-of-natural-history-lima-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_Natural_History,_Lima-0.md
category: reference
title: Museum of Natural History, Lima
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_Natural_History,_Lima
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:19.780308+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: museum-of-natural-history-lima-20260505-0
summary:
The Natural History Museum (Spanish: Museo de Historia Natural) in Lima, is Peru's most important museum of natural history. It was established in 1918 and belongs to the National University of San Marcos. == History == The museum was founded in 1918 by the Faculty of Sciences of the Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos. The first director and founder of the museum was Carlos Rospigliosi. The initial personal of the museum consisted in one curator in chief, and three curators for the areas of Zoology, Botany and Mineralogy. The first scientific expedition was organized by Rospigliosi in April 1918, that collected specimens of fauna, flora and minerals from the departments of Junín and Huánuco. The second expedition was organized by the Geographic Society of Lima in 1920 that included the participation of Swedish geologist and explorer Otto Nordenskiöld. This expedition explored the highlands and foothills of the Andes in the department of Junín. In 1920, the rector of the National University of San Marcos, Dr. Javier Prado, interceded in order to acquire the collections of Antonio Raimondi for the recently created museum. These samples included zoological, botanical and mineralogical specimens. == The building == Originally, the museum was located


id: museum-of-natural-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_Natural_Sciences-0.md
category: reference
title: Museum of Natural Sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_Natural_Sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:20.944418+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: museum-of-natural-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
The Museum of Natural Sciences (French: Muséum des sciences naturelles, pronounced [myzeɔm de sjɑ̃s natyʁɛl]; Dutch: Museum voor Natuurwetenschappen, pronounced [myˈzeːjʏɱ voːr naːˈtyːrˌʋeːtə(n)sxɑpə(n)]) is a museum in Brussels, Belgium, dedicated to natural history. It is a part of the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences (French: Institut royal des sciences naturelles de Belgique (IRSNB); Dutch: Koninklijk Belgisch Instituut voor Natuurwetenschappen (KBIN)), itself part of the institutions of the Belgian Federal Science Policy Office (BELSPO). The museum's Dinosaur Hall is the world's largest museum hall completely dedicated to dinosaurs. Its most important pieces are 30 fossilised Iguanodon skeletons, which were discovered in 1878 in Bernissart, Belgium. Another famous piece is the Ishango bone, which was discovered in 1960 by Jean de Heinzelin de Braucourt in the Belgian Congo. The museum also houses a research department and a public exhibit department. The museum is located at 29, rue Vautier/Vautierstraat, in Leopold Park, close to the European institutions and the House of European History (HEH). This area is served by Brussels-Luxembourg railway station, as well as by the metro stations Maelbeek/Maalbeek and Schuman on lines 1 and 5. == History == The Museum of Natural Sciences was founded on 31 March 1846 as


id: museum-of-the-sea-uruguay-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_the_Sea_(Uruguay)-0.md
category: reference
title: Museum of the Sea (Uruguay)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_the_Sea_(Uruguay)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:22.095860+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: museum-of-the-sea-uruguay-20260505-0
summary:
The Museum of the Sea (Spanish: Museo del Mar), opened in 1996, is a museum of natural history located in La Barra, in the department of Maldonado, Uruguay. It occupies about 2,300 m2 (25,000 sq ft) and is divided into four large halls, which are open to the public all year round. == Overview == The museum contains over 5,000 specimens of marine fauna, all of which are clearly labelled. Among these specimens are whale skeletons, sea urchins, starfish and turtle shells. In addition, there are old photographs and an old bathing machine used by women in the early days of the 20th century, as well as telescopes and blunderbusses of the period. There is also an exhibit about the most famous pirates. This huge collection of objects, exhibits, photographs and stories is the work of the museum's creator, Pablo Etchegaray. This self-taught collector began his collection of marine-related items many years ago. == Exhibit halls == The Museum of the Sea is composed of four museums in one. In the Museum of the Sea, everything is related to marine life: whale skeletons, seashells, a deep sea room, interactive exhibits, an area where children can draw their own pictures, a


id: national-museum-of-natural-history-malta-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_Natural_History,_Malta-0.md
category: reference
title: National Museum of Natural History, Malta
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_Natural_History,_Malta
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:23.265094+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-museum-of-natural-history-malta-20260505-0
summary:
The National Museum of Natural History (Maltese: Mużew Nazzjonali tal-Istorja Naturali) is a natural history museum in the mediaeval walled city of Mdina, Malta. It is housed in Palazzo Vilhena, a French Baroque palace rebuilt in 1726 by Grand Master Antonio Manoel de Vilhena to designs of Charles François de Mondion. The museum opened to the public in 1973, and is run by Heritage Malta. The museum gives the visitor an overview of Maltese ecosystems (both on ground and under water), focusing on endemic plants and bird of the Islands, such as the Maltese Centaury and Blue Rock Thrush. This museum display ranks a large variety of minerals, fossils, insects, reptiles, birds, mammals, fish and sections about Geology and Palaeontology. == Apollo 17 Goodwill Moon Rock == On Tuesday May 18, 2004, Malta's Apollo 17 Goodwill Moon rock was stolen from the Museum. According to an Associated Press story the Moon rock has a value of 5 million dollars (U.S), making it one of the largest valued thefts in Malta's history. The Moon rock has not been recovered. == See also == List of museums in Malta == References ==


id: national-museum-of-natural-history-of-paraguay-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_Natural_History_of_Paraguay-0.md
category: reference
title: National Museum of Natural History of Paraguay
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_Natural_History_of_Paraguay
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:24.425321+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-museum-of-natural-history-of-paraguay-20260505-0
summary:
The National Museum of Natural History of Paraguay (MNHNP), officially known as the Dirección de Investigación Biológica / Museo Nacional de Historia Natural del Paraguay (DIB/MNHNP), is a state public museum, funded by the Paraguayan government, located in San Lorenzo, Central Department, Paraguay. Its main objectives are to conserve, investigate, educate and communicate the knowledge generated through its collections, and to promote sustainable development in Paraguay. It is a fundamental institution for the study, conservation and teaching of biodiversity in Paraguay. The museum houses specialists, specimen collections, laboratories and libraries. It is open to the public during weekdays from 8AM to 14PM, free of charge. == Bulletin == The museum publishes a peer-reviewed scientific journal called "Boletín del Museo Nacional de Historia Natural del Paraguay", which features original research, reviews, and monographs in botany, zoology, paleontology, and descriptive geology. It focuses mostly on Paraguay and the Neotropical region. The journal is available freely online. == Awards == In 2020, the museum was one of 5 finalists of the Museo del Año (Museum of the Year) award, an award organised by the "Paraguayan Association of Museologists and Museum Workers". In 2021, it was one of 5 finalists and in 2022, it


id: national-museum-of-natural-history-colombo-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_Natural_History,_Colombo-0.md
category: reference
title: National Museum of Natural History, Colombo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_Natural_History,_Colombo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:26.146219+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-museum-of-natural-history-colombo-20260505-0
summary:
The National Museum of Natural History (Sinhala: ජාතික ස්වාභාවික විද්‍යා කෞතුකාගාරය, romanized: Jātika Svābhāvika Vidyā Kautukāgāraya, Tamil: தேசிய இயற்கை வரலாறு நூதனசாலை, கொழும்பு, romanized: Tēciya Iyaṟkai Varalāṟu Nūtaṉacālai, Koḻumpu) is a museum that covers the natural heritage of Sri Lanka. The museum is located closer to the National Museum of Colombo. It was established on September 23, 1986, and became only one museum in Sri Lanka that represents natural history and natural heritage. The National Museum of Natural History exhibits rare and threatened with extinction such as natural heritage of plant and animal species endemic to Sri Lanka, over 5,000 specimens of mammals, jurassic period indigenous fossils and various kinds of geological rocks. == See also == List of museums in Sri Lanka == References ==


id: national-museum-of-natural-history-uruguay-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_Natural_History,_Uruguay-0.md
category: reference
title: National Museum of Natural History, Uruguay
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_Natural_History,_Uruguay
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:27.306631+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-museum-of-natural-history-uruguay-20260505-0
summary:
The National Museum of Natural History (Spanish: Museo Nacional de Historia Natural or MNHN) in Montevideo is a natural history museum in Uruguay. It opened in 1838, and is the oldest scientific institution in Uruguay and one of the oldest natural history collections in the world. The museum's first permanent exhibition space is at Miguelete 1825—the former Miguelete Prison—and the scientific collections, library and administrative offices are at Calle 25 de Mayo 582 in the Old City. == History == In September 1837 the Government of Uruguay established a commission to create a library and a national museum. Dámaso Antonio Larrañaga was appointed president of the commission, but the commission itself requested that Teodoro Vilardebó take over. The commission undertook an expedition that December to excavate a glyptodon fossil from the banks of the Pedernal River in Canelones Department, the results of which were published in 1838. The museum itself first opened on 18 July 1838 in what is now the Plaza Zabala. The museum, Uruguay's oldest scientific institution, predates the American Museum of Natural History (1871) and the Natural History Museum in London (1881). In 1840, the poet Francisco Acuña de Figueroa was appointed director and for some years


id: natural-history-museum-in-belgrade-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Museum_in_Belgrade-0.md
category: reference
title: Natural History Museum in Belgrade
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Museum_in_Belgrade
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:28.435679+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-history-museum-in-belgrade-20260505-0
summary:
The Natural History Museum in Belgrade (Serbian: Природњачки музеј у Београду / Prirodnjački muzej u Beogradu) is a museum located in Belgrade, Serbia. It is one of the oldest specialized national institutions in Serbia, and is the only museum of this type in Serbia. By the richness and diversity of the exhibited species, as well as the results achieved in the domain of museology and science, this museum is one of the most important in the South-Eastern Europe. It was officially founded in 1895, registered as The Natural History Museum of Serbian Land at that time (Јестаственички музеј српске земље). == History == Prior to the foundation of the Museum, in the first half of the 19th century, in the former Principality of Serbia, there was a large number of natural history collections, predominantly kept in the Natural History Cabinet of the Great Lyceum (Great School). The museum was initially located at an Endowment house of Stevče Mihajlovic on the Vracar (central municipality of Belgrade). Josif Pančić is considered to be the founder of the Natural History Museum who, accompanied by the group of his associates and students, systematically collected, studied and extracted specimens from nature to be exhibited. He


id: natural-history-museum-in-belgrade-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Museum_in_Belgrade-1.md
category: reference
title: Natural History Museum in Belgrade
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Museum_in_Belgrade
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:28.435679+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-history-museum-in-belgrade-20260505-0
summary:
== Museum publishing activity == Publishing activity of the Museum commenced in 1903. Initially, the former Natural History Museum of the Serbian Land has published concise articles on fauna, flora and gea. The first papers were printed in periodicals such as The Hunter, The Teacher and The Educational Gazette. The Natural History Museum has its own journal, which first issue have been published in 1948, as the Gazette of the Natural History Museum of Serbian Land (beginning with 1958 as The Gazette of the Natural History Museum, and from 2008 on as the Bulletin of the Natural History Museum in Belgrade). Since 2007, the museum initiated edition: Yearbook of Natural History Museum. The yearbook was designed to disclose data on all activities and events in a calendar year: news, information on curator's results, collections arrangements, training and workshops, published papers, participation at conferences, media appearances, the work of the library, educational work and the like activities. == Gallery at Kalemegdan == The Museum has no permanent exhibition and various exhibition activities, educational workshops, promotions and conferences are all held in the Gallery at Kalemegdan. Educational service of the Museum collaborates with numerous schools and nurseries of Serbia, adjusting its activities


id: natural-history-museum-of-armenia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Museum_of_Armenia-0.md
category: reference
title: Natural History Museum of Armenia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Museum_of_Armenia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:29.605341+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-history-museum-of-armenia-20260505-0
summary:
The Natural History Museum of Armenia (Armenian: Հայաստանի բնության պետական թանգարան, romanized: Hayastani bnut'yan petakan t'angaran) represents Armenia's unique nature and its diversity. The museum was reopened in 2004. == History == During the Soviet period, an anti-religion museum was opened in 1952 which was later transformed into a museum of natural sciences and in 1960 renamed as The Natural History Museum of Armenia. In 1999 the museum was relocated in another building. From 2000 to 2004 with the patronage of Bella and Levon Aharonyan, two Iranian-Armenian benefactors, the building of the museum was reconstructed and opened to the public with its new exhibition. == Exhibition == The museum is home to over 6000 objects, only one-third of which are temporarily or primarily put on display. In four rooms, rare types of flora and fauna are exhibited. The museum also presents the personal collection of the Aharonyan family. The objects in the museum represent the diversity of nature in Armenia. The main exhibition contains photos related to zoology, botany, geology and plastic arts. replicas of mammals, reptiles, birds, amphibious animals, fish, insects, and arachnid as well as skulls, skins, shells, pieces of trees, samples of herbarium, animal or plant fossils,


id: natural-history-museum-of-nepal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Museum_of_Nepal-0.md
category: reference
title: Natural History Museum of Nepal
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Museum_of_Nepal
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:30.836033+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-history-museum-of-nepal-20260505-0
summary:
The Natural History Museum of Nepal (Nepali: प्राकृतिक इतिहास सङ्ग्रहालय नेपाल, romanized: Prākr̥tika Itihāsa Saṅgrahālaya Nēpāla) is located near the World Heritage Site of Swayambhunath. The museum was established in 1975. Since then the museum has collected 50,000 specimens of Nepal’s flora, fauna, and funga. == Journal of Natural History Museum == The Natural History Museum of Nepal has been publishing a journal annually since 1977. The journal, entitled the Journal of Natural History Museum, is the oldest journal on nature in Nepal. The museum has also published numerous books and field guides on Nepal's wildlife. === NHM and CITES === The museum is the scientific authority in fauna for CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) in Nepal. It conducts training programs on CITES-related issues for teachers, students, and people working in Nepal’s conservation sector. == Specimens == The museum's huge specimen collection is a treasure trove of Nepal's bio-diversity. There are 14,843 specimens of butterflies and moths; 4,142 of beetles; 1,464 of dragonflies and 1,604 of other insects. It also has six specimens of lower chordates, 890 of fish, 107 amphibians specimens, 390 of reptiles and 1,194 of birds. The museum's mammalian


id: natural-history-museum-of-tripoli-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Museum_of_Tripoli-0.md
category: reference
title: Natural History Museum of Tripoli
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Museum_of_Tripoli
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:32.061054+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-history-museum-of-tripoli-20260505-0
summary:
The Natural History Museum of Tripoli is a museum located in Tripoli, Libya. It was developed by Professor Zahid Baig Mirza (Z. B. Mirza). == See also == List of museums in Libya List of natural-history museums == References ==


id: natural-history-museum-of-zimbabwe-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Museum_of_Zimbabwe-0.md
category: reference
title: Natural History Museum of Zimbabwe
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Museum_of_Zimbabwe
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:33.223566+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-history-museum-of-zimbabwe-20260505-0
summary:
The Natural History Museum of Zimbabwe is located in Bulawayo, Zimbabwe, on Leopold Takawira Avenue. Designed by architect James Whalley, the museum officially opened in 1964, the museum contains exhibits illustrating the history, mineral wealth and wildlife of Zimbabwe, including the second largest mounted elephant in the world. It is one of the five national museums nationwide and the only natural history museum in Zimbabwe. The museum has nine public display galleries, a lecture hall with a seating capacity of 120 people, a cafeteria, and eight research departments with substantial study collections and ongoing research in the following disciplines: Arachnology and invertebrates, Entomology, Ornithology, Mammology, Herpetology, Ichthyology, Paleontology and Geology and Archaeology. == History == 1901 - Cecil Rhodes visited Bulawayo and received a request from the Rhodesia Scientific Board to build a museum to house their growing collection of minerals. 1 January 1902 - the Rhodesia Museum came into being with Mr F. P. Mennell as the Geologist and the first curator. At this time the museum was housed at the now Bulawayo Public Library. September 1905 - the Museum Committee moved to the former Congregation Chapel after buying the Chapel. This museum was opened by Professor G Darwin,


id: natural-sciences-museum-sabiha-kasimati-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_Sciences_Museum_Sabiha_Kasimati-0.md
category: reference
title: Natural Sciences Museum Sabiha Kasimati
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_Sciences_Museum_Sabiha_Kasimati
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:34.405301+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-sciences-museum-sabiha-kasimati-20260505-0
summary:
Natural Sciences Museum "Sabiha Kasimati" (Albanian: Muzeu i Shkencave të Natyrës "Sabiha Kasimati") is a natural science museum in Tirana, Albania. == History == Established in 1948, the museum is affiliated with the University of Tirana and has branches in zoology, botany and geology. On 8 March 2018, the museum was named after Sabiha Kasimati, first Albanian scientist to make major contributions to the study of freshwater fish. Kasimati was killed in February 1951 by the Communist regime, accused of being part of a group of 22 Albanian intellectuals who had detonated a bomb in the Russian embassy in Tirana. In 1991, all victims were rehabilitated by the new government and awarded posthumously by the Order of Honour of the State. == Collections == The museum is composed of seven pavilions that collect 3,000 items related to the rich Albanian biodiversity, including animals (mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, insects and aquatic invertebrates) and plants. Invertebrates represent the largest number of faunal specimens exhibited in the museum and kept in the scientific storage area. The rich collection of the Museumis due to its talented researchers such as Sabiha Kasimati, Ilia Mitrushi, Vasil Puzanov, Fotaq Lamani, Kastriot Misja, Idriz Haxhiu, Vangjel Andoni,


id: nature-museum-of-the-republic-of-kazakhstan-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_Museum_of_the_Republic_of_Kazakhstan-0.md
category: reference
title: Nature Museum of the Republic of Kazakhstan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_Museum_of_the_Republic_of_Kazakhstan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:35.606778+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nature-museum-of-the-republic-of-kazakhstan-20260505-0
summary:
The Nature Museum of the Republic of Kazakhstan (Russian: Музей природы Казахстана, tr. muzei prirody kazakhstana) is a natural history museum of the National Academy of Sciences of Kazakhstan, located in the Gylym Ordasy complex in Almaty. == History == The Museum of Nature and Paleontology opened in 1959 at 85 Lenin Avenue, now Dostyk Avenue. According to the Decree of the Presidium of the Academy of Sciences of the Kazakh SSR № 44 of 29 April 1961, the official opening of the museum was timed to the 40th anniversary of the founding of the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic. In accordance with the Order of the Committee of Science of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Kazakhstan on 1 June 2010 № 35-PR, the museum was relocated to the Gylym Ordasy in order to preserve, study and popularize the research and collections. In 2012 the museum reopened after reconstruction as part of the Gylym Ordasy complex, in the building of the Academy of Sciences of Kazakhstan. == Museum exposition == The museum is divided into two sections: Paleontological and Zoological. Among the artefacts displayed are fossils of animals and plants, skeletons of dinosaurs, tarbosaurs and other


id: nha-trang-oceanography-institute-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nha_Trang_Oceanography_Institute-0.md
category: reference
title: Nha Trang Oceanography Institute
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nha_Trang_Oceanography_Institute
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:36.746768+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nha-trang-oceanography-institute-20260505-0
summary:
The Institute of Oceanography, Nha Trang (Vietnamese: Viện Hải dương học Nha Trang) is a marine science research institute located in Nha Trang, Khánh Hòa Province, Vietnam. Established on September 14, 1922, it is one of the oldest scientific research institutions in Vietnam and serves as a leading center for tropical oceanographic research in Southeast Asia. The institute operates under the Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology (VAST) and focuses on basic and applied research in marine sciences, resource management, environmental protection, and education. == History == The institute was founded in 1922 as the Sở Hải dương học nghề cá Đông Dương (Indochina Fisheries Oceanography Department) during the French colonial period, following a proposal by Dr. Alexandre Yersin. In 1929, it was upgraded to the Viện Hải dương học Đông Dương (Indochina Oceanography Institute), with Dr. A. Krempf as its first director. After several name changes and reorganizations, including Hải học viện Nha Trang in 1952, it was officially renamed the Institute of Oceanography in 1993. In 2001, its branches in Hanoi and Hai Phong were separated into independent institutes: the Institute of Marine Geology and Geophysics (Hanoi) and the Institute of Marine Environment and Resources (Hai Phong). Over


id: oceanographic-museum-of-monaco-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanographic_Museum_of_Monaco-0.md
category: reference
title: Oceanographic Museum of Monaco
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanographic_Museum_of_Monaco
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:37.893164+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: oceanographic-museum-of-monaco-20260505-0
summary:
The Oceanographic Museum (French: Musée océanographique), is a museum of marine sciences in Monaco City, Monaco. This building is part of the Institut océanographique, which is committed to sharing its knowledge of the oceans. == History == The Oceanographic Museum was inaugurated in 1910 by Monaco's modernist reformer Prince Albert I, who invited to the celebrations not just high officials and celebrities but also the world-leading oceanographers of the day to develop the concept of a future Mediterranean Commission dedicated to oceanography, now called Mediterranean Science Commission. Jacques-Yves Cousteau was director from 1957 to 1988. The Museum celebrated its centenary in March 2010, after extensive renovations. == Overview == The museum is home to exhibitions and collections of various species of sea fauna (starfish, seahorses, turtles, jellyfish, crabs, lobsters, rays, sharks, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, eels, cuttlefish etc.). The museum's holdings also include a great variety of sea related objects, including model ships, sea animal skeletons, tools, weapons etc., as well as a collection of material culture and ritual objects made from, or integrating materials such as pearls, molluscs and nacre. At the first floor, A Sailor’s Career showcases the work of Prince Albert I. It includes the laboratory from


id: olduvai-gorge-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olduvai_Gorge_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Olduvai Gorge Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olduvai_Gorge_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:39.071350+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: olduvai-gorge-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Olduvai Gorge Museum (Swahili: Makumbusho ya Bonde la Oltupai) is located in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area in Northern Tanzania on the edge of the Olduvai Gorge. The museum was founded by Mary Leakey and is now under the jurisdiction of the Tanzanian government's Department of Cultural Antiquities and is managed by the Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority. It is a museum dedicated to the appreciation and understanding of the Olduvai Gorge and Laetoli fossil sites. == History == The museum was founded in the late 1970s by Mary Leakey, an archaeologist and paleoanthropologist who conducted research in the gorge for decades. The museum was created to house and showcase paleoanthropological artifacts from the surrounding area. After Mary's death, the Olduvai Gorge Museum was put under control of the Tanzanian government's Department of Cultural Antiquities. During the mid-1990s, the J. Paul Getty Museum's Department of Conservation renovated and added to the museum. This included a new wing with exhibits that were designed by the Getty Museum. The Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority replaced the original museum structure with the construction of a new museum and visitors center which opened to the public in 2018. The new museum construction included the expansion and


id: oman-natural-history-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oman_Natural_History_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Oman Natural History Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oman_Natural_History_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:40.258113+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: oman-natural-history-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Natural History Museum of Oman (Arabic: متحف التاريخ الطبيعي, romanized: Matḥaf al-Tārīkh al-Ṭabīʻī) is a natural history museum, located at the Ministry of Heritage and Culture complex, Al Khuwair, opposite the Zawawi Mosque in Muscat, Oman. The museum opened on 20 December 1985, and has detailed coverage of Oman's flora and fauna, with displays on indigenous mammals, insects, and birds and botanical gardens. One of the highlights of the museum is the whale hall: it houses the huge skeleton of a sperm whale, which was washed up on the Omani coastline in the 1986. The museum contains marine and animal fossils and ancient mammals such as monkeys and elephants primitive, teeth Deinotherium and Gomphotherium, and stuffed animals: Arabian leopard, caracal, Arabian Oryx, Arabian wolf, Arab Red fox, Arabian Ibex, flamingo, birds, crow, owl, reptiles, snakes, izards, snails, and shells. == New premises == In January 2014, the Ministry of Heritage and Culture announced plans to build new premises for the museum, the project will consist of three floors with a gross area rated to 5,000 square meters. The first floor is specialised for exhibiting marine environments such as sandy coasts, mangroves, rocky coasts and coral reef environments as well


id: palestine-museum-of-natural-history-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestine_Museum_of_Natural_History-0.md
category: reference
title: Palestine Museum of Natural History
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestine_Museum_of_Natural_History
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:41.406724+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: palestine-museum-of-natural-history-20260505-0
summary:
The Palestine Museum of Natural History (PMNH; Arabic: متحف فلسطين للتاريخ الطبيعي, romanized: Matḥaf Filasṭīn lil-Tārīkh al-Ṭabīʻī) is a natural history museum in Bethlehem, West Bank, Palestine. Founded in 2013, it opened to the public in 2017. The museum collections focus on botany, zoology and entomology. The goals of the museum include research, collecting and education to record and amplify the importance of Palestine's biodiversity and environmental heritage. == Location == It is part of Bethlehem University and is closely linked to the Palestine Institute for Biodiversity and Sustainability. As of 2019 it had 10 full-time staff, both Palestinian and Israeli. The museum also features a botanic garden, a wildlife rehabilitation centre, and an aviary. The museum also runs educational programs for children. == History == The museum opened to the public on 12 April 2017 and is the first of its kind in Palestine. Its collection began to be established in 2014 by Mazin Qumsiyeh, who many years previously had recognised the need for an archive of Palestinian biodiversity and research programmes to understand its significance. The initial foundation costs were supported by Mazin and Jesse Qumsiyeh and Bethlehem University: with $250,000 donation from the former, supported by $450,000


id: national-museum-prague-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_(Prague)-0.md
category: reference
title: National Museum (Prague)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_(Prague)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:42.577921+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-museum-prague-20260505-0
summary:
The National Museum (NM; Czech: Národní muzeum) is a public museum dedicated to natural scientific and historical collections of the Czech Republic, its history, culture and people, among others. The museum was founded in 1818 by Kašpar Maria Šternberg. Historian František Palacký was also strongly involved in the foundation of the museum. The National Museum houses nearly 14 million items from the areas of natural history, history, arts, music and librarianship, which are located in dozens of museum buildings. The main hall of the National Museum is located on Wenceslas Square in downtown Prague. Built in neo-Renaissance style in 1891, the building underwent significant restoration from 2011 to 2018 to mark the centennial of the Czech and Czechoslovak declaration of independence. Due to its dominance over the busiest intersection of Prague, the National Museum building carries a significant national importance. As such, it frequently serves as a focal point for protests, rallies, gatherings and public events. == Origins == Even before the French Revolution, some royal and private collections of art, science and culturally relevant items were made available to the public. The beginnings of the museum can be seen as far back as 1796 when the private Society of


id: national-museum-prague-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_(Prague)-1.md
category: reference
title: National Museum (Prague)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_(Prague)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:42.577921+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-museum-prague-20260505-0
summary:
The Main Building of the National Museum (Historical Building) is located on the upper end of Wenceslas Square and was built by prominent Czech neo-renaissance architect Josef Schulz between 1885 and 1891. Prior to the museum being constructed, there had been several noblemen's palaces located at this site. With the construction of a permanent building for the museum, a great deal of work, which had previously been devoted to ensuring that the collections would remain intact, was now put toward collecting new materials. The building was damaged during World War II in 1945 by a bomb, but the collections were not damaged due to their removal to secured storage sites. The museum was reopened after intensive repairs in 1947, and in 1960, exterior night floodlighting was installed, which followed a general repair of the facade that had taken place in previous years. During the 1968 Warsaw Pact intervention, the main facade was severely damaged by strong Soviet machine-gun and automatic submachine-gun fire. The shots made numerous holes in sandstone pillars and plaster, destroyed stone statues and reliefs, and also caused damage in some of the depositories. Despite the general facade repair made between 1970 and 1972 the damage still can


id: national-museum-prague-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_(Prague)-2.md
category: reference
title: National Museum (Prague)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_(Prague)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:42.577921+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-museum-prague-20260505-0
summary:
==== Departments ==== The Department of Prehistory and Protohistory contains a rich collection of artifacts which were used in daily life thousands of years ago. The curators of this collection were also among the first Czech archeologists: J.L. Píč, curator of one of the collections from 1893 to 1911 is credited with conducting the first system archeological field exploration in Czechoslovakia. The department also maintains collections in the field of classical archaeology; however, its main value is in the documentation of Greek and Roman arts and crafts. Among its most valuable objects are a painted dish of Nikosthenes, a glass bottle from the port of Puteolo, and a gilded silver rhyton. The Collection of Classical Archaeology belongs to the same department. The Department of the Old Czech History has assembled numerous objects which trace the development of the Czech state beginning from the Slavonic culture of the 10th century up to the independent republic of Czechoslovakia in 1918. This is done through the acquisition of objects which recall figures of Czech culture and leadership. The collection of archaeology concerns many objects from archaeological excavation of the land (ceramics, metals, stone), artifacts of painting, sculpture and decorative arts beginning from the


id: natural-history-museum-prague-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Museum,_Prague-0.md
category: reference
title: Natural History Museum, Prague
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Museum,_Prague
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:43.845092+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-history-museum-prague-20260505-0
summary:
The Natural History Museum (Czech: Přírodovědecké muzeum) is a museum in Prague in the Czech Republic. It is one of the five components of the National Museum and currently consists of eight departments: the Mineralogical and Petrological, Paleontological, Mycological, Botanical, Entomological, Zoological, Anthropological, and the Ringing Station. The Natural History Museum employs over 80 people, and its collections contain more than 15 million objects, of which only a fraction are exhibited. Ivo Macek has been the director of the museum since 2015. The museum's activities fulfill three main tasks: It expands and manages natural history collections and continuously documents nature in the Czech Republic and abroad. It scientifically processes its collections and organizes its own research at the international level. It presents its own collections and scientific activities to the general public through expositions, exhibitions, popular educational publications, lectures, and accompanying programs to expositions and exhibitions. It also involves the public in scientific research through citizen science projects. == History == Natural sciences, with their rich collections, have been one of the main focuses of the National (originally Patriotic) Museum since its foundation in 1818. Kaspar Maria von Sternberg, a versatile naturalist and a leading figure among the founders of


id: natural-history-museum-prague-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Museum,_Prague-1.md
category: reference
title: Natural History Museum, Prague
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Museum,_Prague
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:43.845092+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-history-museum-prague-20260505-0
summary:
=== Paleontology Department === The Paleontological Department was established in 1864, but for many years it operated in association with the Zoological Department and as the Geological and Paleontological Department. The modern history of the Paleontological Department began in 1964. The collections of the department comprise about five million specimens, mainly from the Czech Republic, but there are also important foreign collections. The collections are continuously replenished both by collections of the department staff and donations and purchases from institutions, scientists, and private collectors. Among the most important collections of the Paleontological Department are, among others, the paleobotanical collection of Kaspar Maria von Sternberg, the collection of protohistoric invertebrates of Joachim Barrande, and the collection of fossil animals of the Czech permocarbon by Antonín Frič. The most scientifically valuable part of the collection is the extensive collection of material comprising over 2,500 pieces. In addition to fossils, the department also preserves a large amount of field and collection documentation, documents for paleontological works, personal equipment of leading personalities of Czech paleontology, and an extensive collection of scientific illustrations and pictorial reconstructions. Paleontology Department staff is engaged in the study of the taxonomy, morphology, ontogeny, and phylogeny of animal and plant


id: natural-history-museum-prague-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Museum,_Prague-2.md
category: reference
title: Natural History Museum, Prague
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Museum,_Prague
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:43.845092+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-history-museum-prague-20260505-0
summary:
=== Zoology Department === Although the first zoological exhibits were donated to the museum's collections as early as 1818, the Zoological Department was not separated until 1864 in conjunction with the Paleontological Department. The department has been functioning independently since 1895. The zoological collection is divided into five departments, which manage specialized collections of mammals (mammalological and osteological collections), birds (ornithological collection), amphibians and reptiles (herpetological collection), fish vertebrates (ichthyological collection) and all invertebrates, except insects (evertebrate collection). The collections of the Zoology Department include over 1.1 million items from all over the world. Annual additions exceed 10,000 specimens. The collections also include many hundreds of type specimens from the Czech Republic and abroad. The staff of the department is currently working mainly on systematics, evolution, ecology and biogeography of fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals and spiders. They also study the molecular phylogeny of fish, reptiles and bats. Biodiversity conservation is also an integral part of the department's work. === Anthropology Department === Anthropology Department, which was established in 1967, is dedicated to the study of human populations. The collections of the Anthropology Department comprise about 30,000 items, mainly from the Czech Republic. They can be divided into four basic


id: natural-history-museum-prague-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Museum,_Prague-3.md
category: reference
title: Natural History Museum, Prague
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Museum,_Prague
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:43.845092+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-history-museum-prague-20260505-0
summary:
== Citizen Science == The Natural History Museum has traditionally organized citizen science projects in which the general public participates to a greater or lesser extent in the process of scientific research. By involving a large number of trained volunteers, naturalists gain a wealth of important data, and participants learn skills about the process of scientific inquiry. One such project, for example, is bird ringing, in which trained volunteers have participated since 1914. In 2018, the Natural History Museum participated for the first time in the international City Nature Challenge project, which aims to bring the general public and the natural history community together in a collaborative activity of observing urban nature. Using the iNaturalist app, interested people take photos of nature in their neighborhood, providing valuable data for professional naturalists. A number of citizen science projects are currently underway and, based on similar projects abroad and the positive public response, which is reflected in the increasing number of visitors to the museum, it is likely that the museum will continue these projects. == Directors of the Natural History Museum == === Term of office === 1 August 1964 – 31 December 1964: Otakar Štěpánek 1 January 1965 – 28


id: red-castle-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Castle_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Red Castle Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Castle_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:44.989303+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: red-castle-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Red Castle Museum, also known as As-saraya Al-hamra Museum (Arabic: متحف السرايا الحمراء, romanized: Matḥaf al-Sarāyā al-Ḥamrāʼ), the Archaeological Museum of Tripoli or Jamahiriya Museum, is a national museum in Libya. It is located in the historic building known as the Red Castle of Tripoli (Arabic: السراي الحمراء, romanized: al-Sarāy al-Ḥamrāʼ), sometimes also referred to as Red Saraya, on the promontory above and adjacent to the old-town district with medina Ghadema. Designed in conjunction with UNESCO, the museum covers 5,000 years from prehistory to the independence revolution (1953) era. The museum has an entrance on historic As-Saha al-Kradrah, the Martyrs' Square. The museum was closed from 2011 to 2025 for security concerns. == History == The museum was established in 1919, when the colonial Italians in Libya converted a section of the castle to a museum to house many of the archaeological artifacts scattered across the country since prehistoric times. The building was renovated in the early 1920s on plans by Armando Brasini, who designed its characteristic arches. The square around the castle was designed in the thirties by architect Florestano Di Fausto. When the British occupied Libya during World War II, the museum occupied the entire complex of


id: royal-museum-for-central-africa-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Museum_for_Central_Africa-0.md
category: reference
title: Royal Museum for Central Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Museum_for_Central_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:46.224492+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: royal-museum-for-central-africa-20260505-0
summary:
The Royal Museum for Central Africa (RMCA) (Dutch: Koninklijk Museum voor Midden-Afrika (KMMA); French: Musée royal de l'Afrique centrale (MRAC); German: Königliches Museum für Zentralafrika (KMZA)), communicating under the name AfricaMuseum since 2018, is an ethnography and natural history museum situated in Tervuren in Flemish Brabant, Belgium, just outside Brussels. It was originally built to showcase King Leopold II's Congo Free State in the International Exposition of 1897. The museum focuses on the Congo, a former Belgian colony. The sphere of interest, however, especially in biological research, extends to the whole Congo Basin, Central Africa, East Africa, and West Africa, attempting to integrate "Africa" as a whole. Intended originally as a colonial museum, from 1960 onwards it has focused more on ethnography and anthropology. Like most museums, it houses a research department in addition to its public exhibit department. Not all research pertains to Africa (e.g. research on the archaeozoology of Sagalassos, Turkey). Some researchers have strong ties with the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences. In November 2013, the museum closed for extensive renovation work, including the construction of new exhibition space, and re-opened in December 2018. == History == === International Exposition (1897) === After the Congo Free


id: royal-museum-for-central-africa-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Museum_for_Central_Africa-1.md
category: reference
title: Royal Museum for Central Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Museum_for_Central_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:46.224492+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: royal-museum-for-central-africa-20260505-0
summary:
== Buildings == The current AfricaMuseum complex consists of six buildings. The centrally located main building houses the permanent exhibitions. It was built under Leopold II by the French architect Charles Girault. The building is 125 metres (410 ft) long and 75 metres (246 ft) wide. The façade is decorated in the style of the neoclassical French grand palaces. On the right (south-west) side of this imposing building is the Executive Pavilion, and on the left (north-east), the Stanley Pavilion, which houses the entire Stanley Archive. The former Palace of the Colonies (now the Africa Palace) has been transformed into a reception centre, media library and banquet hall. The Centre d'Accueil du Personnel Africain (CAPA) building, erected in 1957 for the African staff, houses several scientific departments. Following the museum's complete renovation, a part of the previously scattered archives are now presented in new on-site exhibition spaces. A reception pavilion, newly built in 2016, between the management building and the Palace of Africa, functions as the entrance building. In this building are the ticket offices, cloakrooms, a shop, a restaurant, as well as a picnic area for children. An underground gallery leads from the reception building into the existing museum


id: royal-museum-for-central-africa-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Museum_for_Central_Africa-2.md
category: reference
title: Royal Museum for Central Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Museum_for_Central_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:46.224492+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: royal-museum-for-central-africa-20260505-0
summary:
Atrocities in the Congo Free State Belgian Federal Science Policy Office (BELSPO) Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90 Brussels Conference Act of 1890 Archives Africaines of the Belgian SPF Affaires étrangères, Commerce extérieur et Coopération au Développement Belgium in the long nineteenth century == References == == Bibliography == === Issued by the museum === Verswijver; et al., eds. (1995). Masterpieces from Central Africa. Patricia Van Schuylenbergh (1997), La mémoire des Belges en Afrique; Inventaire des archives historiques privées du Musée royal de l'Afrique centrale de 1858 a nos jours (PDF) (in French), Musée royal de l'Afrique centrale, ISBN 2-87398-006-0 Toma Muteba Luntumbue & Claire Ponas, ed. (2001). EXITCONGOMUSEUM/Contemporary Art. === About the museum === in English "Tervueren", Belgium and Holland (15th ed.), Leipzig: Karl Baedeker, 1910, OCLC 397759 – via Internet Archive, Congo Museum Jean Muteba Rahier (2003). "Ghost of Leopold II: The Belgian Royal Museum of Central Africa and Its Dusty Colonialist Exhibition". Research in African Literatures. 34. Véronique Bragard (2011). "'Indépendance!': The Belgo-Congolese Dispute in the Tervuren Museum". Human Architecture. ISSN 1540-5699. Patrick Hoenig (2014). "Visualizing trauma: the Belgian Museum for Central Africa and its discontents". Postcolonial Studies. 17. Institute of Postcolonial Studies, Melbourne. ISSN 1466-1888. in other languages


id: seychelles-natural-history-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seychelles_Natural_History_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Seychelles Natural History Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seychelles_Natural_History_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:47.418681+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: seychelles-natural-history-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Seychelles Natural History Museum is a natural history museum in the Seychelles. == Location == The museum is located in next to the main post office in Victoria, the capital of the Seychelles, on Mahé Island. == Galleries == The displays include sections on botany, zoology, geology and anthropology. There are also some items related to the history of the Seychelles People's Militia, the Seychelles People's Liberation Army and the Seychelles People's Defence Forces. == See also == Seychelles National Museum of History == References == == Further reading == Smith, David (12 February 2010). "Quirky museum reveals the Seychelles' rich history". The Guardian. London.


id: slovenian-museum-of-natural-history-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovenian_Museum_of_Natural_History-0.md
category: reference
title: Slovenian Museum of Natural History
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovenian_Museum_of_Natural_History
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:48.599061+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: slovenian-museum-of-natural-history-20260505-0
summary:
The Slovenian Museum of Natural History (Slovene: Prirodoslovni muzej Slovenije, Latin: Museum Historiae Naturalis Sloveniae) is a Slovenian national museum with natural history, scientific, and educational contents. It is the oldest cultural and scientific Slovenian institution. The museum features national, European, and worldwide collections demonstrating the changes in biodiversity, the development of the natural history thought, as well as different techniques of collection and preparation of samples. Its research activities focus on natural heritage of Slovenia. The Slovenian Museum of Natural History operates in the Center District in Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia, at Museum Street (Muzejska ulica), near Tivoli Park, the Parliament and the Opera House. Along with the National Museum of Slovenia, it is housed in a building from 1885, built upon the plans by the Viennese architect Wilhelm Rezori and the master builder Wilhelm Treo from Ljubljana. The symbol of the museum is an almost complete woolly mammoth skeleton, found in Nevlje near Kamnik in 1938. Its official publication, published since autumn 1978, has been named Scopolia in honour of Giovanni Antonio Scopoli, a leading Carniolan naturalist of the 18th century. == History == The museum was founded in 1821 as the Carniolan Estates Museum (German: Krainisch


id: state-museum-of-nature-of-uzbekistan-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Museum_of_Nature_of_Uzbekistan-0.md
category: reference
title: State Museum of Nature of Uzbekistan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Museum_of_Nature_of_Uzbekistan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:49.792378+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: state-museum-of-nature-of-uzbekistan-20260505-0
summary:
The Uzbekistan State Museum of Nature (Uzbek: Tabiat muzeyi) is one of the oldest museums in Uzbekistan. The museum's main purpose is to show the natural beauty of Uzbekistan and to help protect its environment. The museum features chronologically-ordered exhibits and seeks to educate visitors about Uzbekistan's geography through time. == Contents == The Museum consists of about 400,000 specimens and artefacts that are on display. Three hundred thousand items are insects. Eleven thousand are herbarium leaves and other zoological and geological materials. The museum is visited mainly by Uzbeks and visitors from formerly-Soviet Union countries. The four areas in the museum are geological-geographic department, flora and fauna department, scientific department and funds department. The museum organizes many social events in Tashkent, including assemblies in many of the Republic's schools, academic lyceums, colleges and higher education facilities. == History == The Museum is the oldest in Uzbekistan. It was established in Tashkent by Russian scientists on July 12, 1876, as the Tashkent Museum. The museum closed and re-opened several times. In 1919, it opened as Turkestan National Museum. Two years later, in 1921, it became The State Museum of Nature of Uzbekistan. In 1930, the museum joined with the agricultural


id: steinhardt-museum-of-natural-history-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steinhardt_Museum_of_Natural_History-0.md
category: reference
title: Steinhardt Museum of Natural History
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steinhardt_Museum_of_Natural_History
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:50.985111+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: steinhardt-museum-of-natural-history-20260505-0
summary:
The Steinhardt Museum of Natural History (Hebrew: מוזיאון הטבע ע״ש שטיינהרדט), Israel National Center for Biodiversity Studies at Tel Aviv University, is a natural history museum in Israel, including both education and a research center. It is the largest and most active center in Israel of documentation and science, focusing on biodiversity research and its varied applications including nature conservation, environmental protection, and agriculture. The museum is set for the discovery, collections development and care, and scientific categorization of millions of specimens, documenting the flora and fauna in Israel and the Middle East for thousands of years, as well as the history of humankind and its interactions with the environment. It provides access to the public and the scientific and professional community. Collections holding some 5.5 million items, accumulated by scientists from Tel Aviv University and other institutions, were moved to the new museum before it opened to the public in July 2018. == Architecture and concept == The museum was designed by Kimmel Eshkolot Architects. The 9,620 sq m five-story building was designed as a "Treasure Box" or "Noah's Ark". Thousands of items from the collections, used primarily for basic and applied research, for teaching and training, are presented


id: stephen-hui-geological-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hui_Geological_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Stephen Hui Geological Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hui_Geological_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:52.178891+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stephen-hui-geological-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Stephen Hui Geological Museum (Chinese: 許士芬地質博物館; pinyin: Xǔshìfēn Dìzhí Bówùguǎn) is the first and only geological museum in Hong Kong. It is located on the ground and first floors of the James Hsioung Lee Building (厲樹雄科學館), in the University of Hong Kong Main Campus. The museum is part of the Department of Earth Sciences, the only earth sciences department in Hong Kong. With the goal of making the rock collection available for public viewing, the museum opened on January 16, 2009. It houses around 10,000 catalogued specimens from different parts of the world. In 2014, a student examining the museum's collections discovered a fish fossil which was estimated to be around 147 million-years-old. The fossil was later determined to be the first dinosaur-era fish to be identified from Hong Kong. The museum is open from Mondays to Fridays, 1PM to 6PM, with mornings reserved for guided group tours. In 2017, the museum hosted the largest exhibition of private geological collections in Hong Kong. == References == == External links == Museum official website


id: university-of-tartu-natural-history-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Tartu_Natural_History_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: University of Tartu Natural History Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Tartu_Natural_History_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:53.358719+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: university-of-tartu-natural-history-museum-20260505-0
summary:
University of Tartu Natural History Museum (Estonian: Tartu Ülikooli Loodusmuuseum) is a natural history museum in Tartu, Estonia. The museum is affiliated with Tartu University. The museum was established in 1802. The museum has zoological, geological, botanical and mycological collections. The permanent exhibition of the museum is titled as "Earth. Life. Story." == References == == External links == Official website


id: african-natural-history-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_Natural_History-0.md
category: reference
title: African Natural History
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_Natural_History
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:54.851895+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: african-natural-history-20260505-0
summary:
African Natural History was a scientific journal published by Iziko Museums (Cape Town). It took the place of the Annals of the South African Museum, which has been discontinued. Now the journal has been discontinued. == External links == Official website


id: the-american-naturalist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_American_Naturalist-0.md
category: reference
title: The American Naturalist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_American_Naturalist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:56.085658+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-american-naturalist-20260505-0
summary:
The American Naturalist is the monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal of the American Society of Naturalists, whose purpose is "to advance and to diffuse knowledge of organic evolution and other broad biological principles so as to enhance the conceptual unification of the biological sciences." It was established in 1867 and is published by the University of Chicago Press. The journal covers research in ecology, evolutionary biology and behavior. As of 2023, the editor-in-chief is Volker H. W. Rudolf. According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal had a 2023 impact factor of 2.4. == History == The journal was founded by Alpheus Hyatt, Edward S. Morse, Alpheus S. Packard Jr., and Frederick W. Putnam at the Essex Institute in Salem, Massachusetts. The first issue appeared in print dated March 1867. In 1885 the four men founded the American Naturalist Society, where in 1887 the journal was designated an official organ of the society for publication. In 1878 the journal was for sale and Edward Cope bought half the rights. He moved the journal to Philadelphia and arranged to edit it jointly with Professor Alpheus S. Packard Jr. Cope became editor-in-chief in 1887 and continued in that capacity until his death in


id: boston-journal-of-natural-history-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_Journal_of_Natural_History-0.md
category: reference
title: Boston Journal of Natural History
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_Journal_of_Natural_History
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:57.274838+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: boston-journal-of-natural-history-20260505-0
summary:
The Boston Journal of Natural History (1834–1863) was a scholarly journal published by the Boston Society of Natural History in mid-19th century Massachusetts. Contributors included Charles T. Jackson, Augustus A. Gould, and others. Each volume featured lithographic illustrations, some in color, drawn/engraved by E.W. Bouvé, B.F. Nutting, A. Sonrel, et al. and printed by Pendleton's Lithography and other firms. The journal was continued by Memoirs Read Before the Boston Society of Natural History in 1863. == Further reading == Boston Journal of Natural History v.1 (1834–1837); v.2 (1838–1839); v.4 (1843–1844); v.5 (1845–1847); v.6 (1850–1857); v.7 (1859–1863). == Image gallery == == References ==


id: the-irish-naturalist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Irish_Naturalist-0.md
category: reference
title: The Irish Naturalist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Irish_Naturalist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:58.412322+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-irish-naturalist-20260505-0
summary:
The Irish Naturalist was a scientific journal that was published in Dublin, Ireland, from April 1892 until December 1924. == History == The journal owed its establishment to the efforts of several leading Dublin naturalists, notably George H. Carpenter and R. M. Barrington. The first editors were Carpenter and Robert Lloyd Praeger, of the National Library of Ireland. The journal was supported by a number of societies, including the Royal Zoological Society of Ireland, the Dublin Microscopical Club, the Belfast Naturalists' Field Club, and the Dublin Naturalists' Field Club. The Irish Naturalist was published for 33 years and contained in total over 3000 pages. The journal ceased publication in December 1924. It had been having some financial problems, but the final blow came when Carpenter took up his appointment to the keepership of the Manchester Museum in 1923. The journal was succeeded in 1925 by the Irish Naturalists' Journal. == Contributors == Among notable contributors to The Irish Naturalist were: George James Allman Gerald Edwin Hamilton Barrett-Hamilton Alfred Cort Haddon Maxwell Henry Close Annie Massy Amy Warren == See also == Irish Naturalists' Journal, the successor to The Irish Naturalist == References == == External links == About the Irish


id: irish-naturalists-journal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Naturalists'_Journal-0.md
category: reference
title: Irish Naturalists' Journal
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Naturalists'_Journal
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:08:59.634673+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: irish-naturalists-journal-20260505-0
summary:
The Irish Naturalists' Journal (ISSN 0021-1311) is a scientific journal covering all aspects of natural history. It has been published since 1925. It was preceded by The Irish Naturalist (1892−1924). == References == == External links == Official website The Irish Naturalist (1892−1924) in Biodiversity Heritage Library


id: natural-history-review-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Review-0.md
category: reference
title: Natural History Review
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Review
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:00.810744+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-history-review-20260505-0
summary:
The Natural History Review was a short-lived, quarterly journal devoted to natural history. It was published in Dublin and London between 1854 and 1865. The Natural History Review included the transactions of the Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society, Cork Cuvierian Society, Dublin Natural History Society, Dublin University Zoological Association, and the Literary and Scientific Institution of Kilkenny, as authorised...It was founded by Edward Perceval Wright who was also the editor. The parts are: Vols 1-4, 1854–57; title concludes: ...by the Councils of these Societies (Geological Society of Dublin later added to list) This was continued as Natural History Review, and quarterly journal of science. Edited by Edward Percival Wright, William Henry Harvey, Joseph Reay Greene, Samuel Haughton and Alexander Henry Haliday London, Vols 5-7, 1858-60. In turn continued as Natural History Review: a quarterly journal of biological science. Edited by George Busk, William Benjamin Carpenter, Frederick Currey et al., London, Vols 1-5, 1861–65; no more published. == External links == Volume 1 (1854) Volume 2 (1855) Volume 3 (1856) Volume 4 (1857) Volume 5 (1858) Volume 6 (1859) Volume 7 (1860) Volume 1 (1861) Volume 2 (1862) Volume 5 (1865)


id: der-naturforscher-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der_Naturforscher-0.md
category: reference
title: Der Naturforscher
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der_Naturforscher
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:01.970159+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: der-naturforscher-20260505-0
summary:
Der Naturforscher (transl. "The Naturalist") was a German scientific publication of the Enlightenment devoted to natural history. It was published yearly from 1774 to 1804, by J. J. Gebauers Witwe and Joh. Jac. Gebauer at Halle and edited first by Johann Ernst Immanuel Walch (from 1774 to 1778) and later by Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber (from 1779 to 1802). Both editors were also contributors. Most of the articles concern aspects of invertebrate zoology, mostly entomology and conchology. A few concern ornithology and other subjects, including mineralogy. It is usually bound in fifteen volumes octavo. Indices and registers are given at ten year intervals enumerating 640 memoirs. Just over 150 plates accompany the text. Many of the illustrations are by Johann Stephan Capieux and are of a very high standard. Armin Geus provides comprehensive indices. == Contributors == Most authors contributing to Der Naturforscher were German, but the journal also included some French authors. No natural history journal published in France existed at the time. Amongst others, some notable naturalists contributing to Der Naturforscher were: Johann August Ephraim Goeze Theodor Gottlieb von Scheven Josef Aloys Frölich Nikolaus Joseph Brahm Eugen Johann Christoph Esper Johann Kaspar Füssli Johann Friedrich Gmelin Siegmund


id: nemouria-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nemouria-0.md
category: reference
title: Nemouria
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nemouria
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:03.120658+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nemouria-20260505-0
summary:
Nemouria: Occasional Papers of the Delaware Museum of Natural History is a peer-reviewed scientific journal covering natural history that is published by the Delaware Museum of Natural History. It was established in 1970. The journal mainly focuses on molluscs and birds, but occasionally publishes papers on other topics, relating to North America or a region well represented in the museum's collection, such as the Indo-West Pacific or Philippines. == References == == External links == Official website Archive and statistics at BioStor


id: revista-chilena-de-historia-natural-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revista_Chilena_de_Historia_Natural-0.md
category: reference
title: Revista Chilena de Historia Natural
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revista_Chilena_de_Historia_Natural
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:04.317924+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: revista-chilena-de-historia-natural-20260505-0
summary:
The Revista Chilena de Historia Natural is a bilingual open access scientific journal published by the Sociedad de Biología de Chile covering research in many areas of biology. It was established in 1897 by Carlos Porter. == References == == External links == Official website


id: revista-de-biolog-a-tropical-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revista_de_Biología_Tropical-0.md
category: reference
title: Revista de Biología Tropical
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revista_de_Biología_Tropical
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:05.478663+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: revista-de-biolog-a-tropical-20260505-0
summary:
The Revista de Biología Tropical is a bilingual open access scientific journal published by the University of Costa Rica covering research in the field of tropical biology and conservation biology. It was established in 1953. It is indexed and abstracted in Current Contents, Science Citation Index and Biological Abstracts among others. == References == == External links == Official website


id: belfast-natural-history-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belfast_Natural_History_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: Belfast Natural History Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belfast_Natural_History_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:06.994654+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: belfast-natural-history-society-20260505-0
summary:
The Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society was founded in 1821 to promote the scientific study of animals, plants, fossils, rocks and minerals. == History == The Society was founded by George Crawford Hyndman, James Lawson Drummond, James Grimshaw, James McAdam, Robert Patterson, Robert Simms, Francis Archer, the Thomas Dix Hincks, Edward Hincks and Edmund Getty. Five years later in 1826 Alexander Henry Haliday and William Thompson both joined. In 1823, the Society's collection and the small collection begun in 1788 in the rooms of the Belfast Reading Society and that of the Belfast Literary Society were moved to Belfast Academical Institution where James Bryce was centralising Belfast's rapidly expanding natural history holdings. A new building opened at No. 7 College Square North in 1831. How big the first collections were is unknown but the 1831 figure of 300 insects given when the Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society Museum opened to non-members may refer to specimens on display. The research material would have been much more numerous and expanded rapidly during the next decade. Specimens from England, the West Indies, Lapland, France, Greece, Italy, Senegal, New Holland, Java, Sumatra, Ceylon, Mauritius, Colombia, Recife, Peru, Virginia, India and West Africa


id: belfast-natural-history-society-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belfast_Natural_History_Society-1.md
category: reference
title: Belfast Natural History Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belfast_Natural_History_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:06.994654+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: belfast-natural-history-society-20260505-0
summary:
Georges Cuvier, 1829 Regne Animalium, in English, The Animal Kingdom, published by Chez Deterville at Paris; 1832 Class Insecta Whitaker, London Justin Pierre Marie Macquart, 1834–1835. Histoire naturelle des insectes. Dipteres Paris : Roret. Pierre André LatreilleGenera crustaceorum et insectorum, secundum ordinem naturalem ut familias disposita (4 vols., 1806 1807 1807 1809) Peter Simon Pallas Zoographia Rosso-asiatica Friedrich Wilhelm Martini Neues systematisches Conchylien-Cabinet; Emanuel Mendez da Costa A Natural History of Fossils (1757), Elements of Conchology, or An Introduction to the Knowledge of Shells (1776), British Conchology (1778) Gilbert White The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne (1789) Thomas Pennant History of Quadrupeds Johannes Allart, Afbeeldingen der fraaiste, meest uitheemsche boomen en heesters. Amsterdam, Johannes Allart, 1802 [-1808]; William Smith Strata by Organized Fossils (1815); Louis Agassiz Recherches sur les poissons fossiles (1833–1843); Philipp Franz von Siebold Fauna Japonica: Birds or Aves, 1844–1850 12 vol.; Fish or Pisces 1842–1850 16 vol.; Crustaceans or Crustacea 1833–1850 8 vol.; Mammals or Mammalia 1842–1844 4 vol Pierre Barrère Ornithologiae Specimen Novum, sive Series Avium in Ruscinone, Pyrenaeis Montibus, atque in Galliâ Aequinoctiali Observatarum, in Classes, genera & species, novâ methodo, digesta (1745); Julius Theodor Christian Ratzeburg Die Waldverderber und ihre Feinde, Berlin, 1841


id: birmingham-natural-history-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham_Natural_History_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: Birmingham Natural History Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham_Natural_History_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:08.197571+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: birmingham-natural-history-society-20260505-0
summary:
Birmingham Natural History Society was a learned society for the study of the natural history of Birmingham, England, and in the surrounding Midlands region, and beyond. It was founded in 1858, and was a registered charity. The Society has had various names, e.g. in the 1870s it was called the Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society, and from 1894 to 1963 the Birmingham Natural History and Philosophical Society. It was agreed that the society should be dissolved in 2022, due to lack of volunteer officers to run it. == History == The Society was founded in 1858. For a considerable part of its early life, it was called the Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society. In 1877, the Society played the lead in forming the Union of Midland Natural History Societies, which published the journal The Midland Naturalist. Some of the societies in the union later merged with the Birmingham Natural History Society. The Birmingham Philosophical Society, founded in 1876, merged in 1894, when the title of the Society was changed to the Birmingham Natural History and Philosophical Society. The Midland Malacological Society and the Birmingham Entomological Society were amalgamated in 1906 and 1908 respectively. The society's activities were greatly


id: bombay-natural-history-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombay_Natural_History_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: Bombay Natural History Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombay_Natural_History_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:09.410140+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bombay-natural-history-society-20260505-0
summary:
The Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), founded on 15 September 1883, is one of the largest non-governmental organisations in India engaged in conservation and biodiversity research. It supports many research efforts through grants and publishes the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. Many prominent naturalists, including the ornithologists Sálim Ali and S. Dillon Ripley, have been associated with it. == History == British hunters in Bombay organized a hunting group around 1811, their activities included riding with foxhounds and shooting. A Bombay Hunt was supported by Sir Bartle Frere from 1862. A natural history society was begun, possibly as spinoff from the Bombay Geographical Society, in 1856 by Doctors Don (of Karachee), Andrew Henderson Leith (surgeon), George Buist, and Henry John Carter along with Lawrence Hugh Jenkins, then a registrar of the Supreme Court. The group did not last more than three years. On 15 September 1883 eight men interested in natural history met at Bombay in the Victoria and Albert Museum (now Bhau Daji Lad Museum) and: constituted themselves as the Bombay Natural History Society. They proposed to meet monthly and exchange notes, exhibit interesting specimens and otherwise encourage each other. According to E. H. Aitken (the first


id: boston-society-of-natural-history-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_Society_of_Natural_History-0.md
category: reference
title: Boston Society of Natural History
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_Society_of_Natural_History
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:10.559085+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: boston-society-of-natural-history-20260505-0
summary:
The Boston Society of Natural History (1830–1948) in Boston, Massachusetts, was an organization dedicated to the study and promotion of natural history. It published a scholarly journal and established a museum. In its first few decades, the society occupied several successive locations in Boston's Financial District, including Pearl Street, Tremont Street and Mason Street. In 1864 it moved into a newly constructed museum building at 234 Berkeley Street in the Back Bay, designed by architect William Gibbons Preston. In 1951 the society evolved into the Museum of Science, and relocated to its current site on the Charles River. == History == Founders of the society in 1830 included Amos Binney Jr., Edward Brooks, Walter Channing, Henry Codman, George B. Emerson, Joshua B. Flint, Benjamin D. Greene, Simon E. Greene, William Grigg, George Hayward, David Humphreys Storer, and John Ware. Several had previously been involved with the Linnaean Society of New England. By 1838, the society held "regular meetings on the 2nd and 4th Wednesday of each month." "In its collection are about 700 specimens in mineralogy and geology, besides the rich collection of Dr. C.T. Jackson, and the state collection; botany, 5,000; mammalia, 30 entire skeletons and 30 crania; birds,


id: british-entomological-and-natural-history-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Entomological_and_Natural_History_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: British Entomological and Natural History Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Entomological_and_Natural_History_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:11.869634+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: british-entomological-and-natural-history-society-20260505-0
summary:
The British Entomological and Natural History Society or BENHS is a British entomological society. It is based at Dinton Pastures Country Park in Reading, England. == History == BENHS was founded in 1872 as the South London Entomological and Natural History Society. == Publications == BENHS publishes a quarterly journal, the British Journal of Entomology and Natural History (ISSN 0952-7583), formerly Proceedings and Transactions of the British Entomological and Natural History Society, and Proceedings and Transactions of the South London Entomological and Natural History Society. BENHS has published a number of books. Among the most well-known are two illustrated identification guides to British flies: Stubbs, Alan E. and Steven J. Falk (1983) British Hoverflies, an illustrated identification guide Stubbs, Alan E. and Martin Drake (2001) British Soldierflies and their allies Another title published by BENHS was New British Beetles - species not in Joy's practical handbook by Peter J. Hodge and Richard A. Jones, a companion volume to Norman H. Joy's A Practical Handbook of British Beetles. In 2024 BENHS published A checklist of the Lepidoptera of the British Isles (2nd Edition) edited by David J.L. Agassiz, Stella D. Beavan & Robert J. Heckford == Affiliated societies == The following


id: deyrolle-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deyrolle-0.md
category: reference
title: Deyrolle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deyrolle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:13.039623+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: deyrolle-20260505-0
summary:
Deyrolle is a historic Parisian institution specialising in natural sciences, entomology, and taxidermy. Founded in 1831, it is one of the best known companies of entomology and taxidermy of Paris, celebrated for its collections in taxidermy, entomology, and natural history. Today, Deyrolle is a shop and a cabinet of curiosities open to the public, whose vocation is to show the beauty of Nature. == History == === Since 1831 === Deyrolle was created in 1831 by Jean-Baptiste Deyrolle, who was soon succeeded by his son Achille, at 46 rue du Bac in a building constructed in 1697-1699 by Jean-Baptiste Voille for a member of the Bruand family (Libéral Bruand). It was deeply transformed in 1739 by Samuel-Jacques Bernard, son of the banker of King Louis XIV (the Sun King), Samuel Bernard (7e arrondissement). Beyond its scientific material, minerals collections, seashells, fossils, mounted animals and prehistoric tools, Deyrolle provides pedagogical charts to schools and universities in France, made to illustrate teacher’s lessons. (Musée scolaire Deyrolle). In 1995, the world famous painter Richard Marolle bought Deyrolle before selling it to entrepreneur and duke Louis Albert de Broglie. In 2001 Louis Albert de Broglie bought Deyrolle and he restored the shop. === The


id: dolphin-nature-conservation-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolphin_Nature_Conservation_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: Dolphin Nature Conservation Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolphin_Nature_Conservation_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:14.261005+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dolphin-nature-conservation-society-20260505-0
summary:
The Dolphin Nature Conservation Society (DNCS) is a registered (no. 507/2001) voluntary environmental non-profit and non-governmental organization (NGO) located in Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India. It is committed to the causes of nature conservation, environmental protection, research, education, and awareness. The society was founded on March 5, 2001, by Dr. Mantha Rama Murty and Dr. Mangathayi, who had previously launched several nature conservation programs in Andhra Pradesh, particularly in Visakhapatnam. The organization's activities are intended to instill a love for nature and conservation among people, especially among the younger generation. Notable research, documentation, conservation, and awareness campaigns of the society have involved Olive-Ridley Sea Turtles, intertidal rocky shore fauna and flora of the Visakhapatnam coast, and butterflies of the Eastern Ghats. The society's flagship project is the development and maintenance of the Biodiversity Park in Visakhapatnam. == Precursor: Penguin Nature Club (WWF-India) == In 1987, an environmental organization known as the Penguin Nature Club was formed at the BVK College (part of Andhra University, Visakhapatnam) in affiliation with WWF-India. The organization engaged in nature conservation and environmental protection activities for more than a decade. Seeking to expand its activities, the organization was renamed the Dolphin Nature Conservation Society in 2001 and


id: essex-county-natural-history-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essex_County_Natural_History_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: Essex County Natural History Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essex_County_Natural_History_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:15.402808+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: essex-county-natural-history-society-20260505-0
summary:
The Essex County Natural History Society (1833–1848) in Salem, Massachusetts, United States, was formed "for the purpose of promoting the science of natural history." It endeavored "to form a complete collection of natural productions, curiosities. &c, particularly of this county; and, to form a library of standard books on the natural sciences." The society incorporated in 1836; Andrew Nichols, William Oakes, and William Prescott served as signatories. Other members included Samuel B. Buttrick, Samuel P. Fowler, John M. Ives, John C. Lee, George Osgood, Charles G. Page, Gardner B. Perry, George Dean Phippen, William P. Richardson, John Lewis Russell, Henry Wheatland. By 1836 some 100 members belonged to the society. In Salem its "cabinets and library were first deposited in Essex Place, then in Franklin Building, then in Chase's Building, Washington Street, and finally removed to Pickman Place, in 1842." In 1848 the society merged with the Essex Historical Society to form the Essex Institute. == See also == Essex Institute (1848–1992), successor to the Natural History Society == References == == Further reading == Journal of the Essex County Natural History Society. 1836-ca.1852 Samuel P. Fowler. An historical sketch. Bulletin of the Essex Institute, v.16, 1884. == External links


id: gibraltar-ornithological-natural-history-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibraltar_Ornithological_&_Natural_History_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: Gibraltar Ornithological & Natural History Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibraltar_Ornithological_&_Natural_History_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:16.613013+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gibraltar-ornithological-natural-history-society-20260505-0
summary:
The Gibraltar Ornithological & Natural History Society (GONHS), founded in 1976, is a non-governmental, membership-based organisation committed to research into and conservation of nature in Gibraltar and the region of the Strait of Gibraltar. It works independently and in collaboration with other organisations and scientific or conservation institutions to achieve these aims. GONHS is a Partner of BirdLife International, a member of IUCN (The World Conservation Union), of the UK Overseas Territories Conservation Forum, the British Trust for Ornithology, the Iberian Council for the Defence of Nature, the Association of European Rarities Committees, and Countdown 2010. Its first General Secretary was Dr. John Cortes who served until 2011. == References == == External links == GONHS Official Website


id: lincolnshire-naturalists-union-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lincolnshire_Naturalists'_Union-0.md
category: reference
title: Lincolnshire Naturalists' Union
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lincolnshire_Naturalists'_Union
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:17.794512+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lincolnshire-naturalists-union-20260505-0
summary:
Lincolnshire Naturalist's Union (LNU) is an association of amateur naturalists covering a wide range of natural history subjects. It was founded in 1893 and aims to promote the investigation of the fauna, flora, and physical features of the county of Lincolnshire and to promote the study of natural history. == History == The society was formed on 12 June 1893 during a meeting held in Mablethorpe. The meeting came about from conversations held by William F. Baker and Joseph Coe with "prominent naturalists connectected with Lincolnshire". About 30 naturalists met at Mablethrope, travelled to Theddlethorpe and then returned to the Book-in-Hand hotel at Mablethorpe to discuss the formation of a union. A subsequent meeting was held on 1 July 1893 at Lincoln to elect officers to organise the union. John Cordeaux was elected as the inaugural President of the LNU and William F. Baker as its Secretary. Officers were also elected to six divisional sections: Vertebrate Zoology, Conchology, Entomology, Botany, Geology, and Micro-Zoology & Botany. == Activities == The LNU has hosted over 800 field meetings across the county of Lincolnshire. Historically, several members of the LNU have donated their collections to the county museum, The Collection, in Lincoln. ==


id: linnaean-society-of-new-england-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linnaean_Society_of_New_England-0.md
category: reference
title: Linnaean Society of New England
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linnaean_Society_of_New_England
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:18.960427+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: linnaean-society-of-new-england-20260505-0
summary:
The Linnaean Society of New England (1814–1822) was established in Boston, Massachusetts, to promote natural history. The society organized a natural history museum and also arranged lectures and excursions for its members. In 1817 it became involved in the Gloucester sea serpent debate. Although the society itself did not last, its initial energy and rapid accomplishments helped shape the growing field of natural history in the early years of the United States. == History == The society began December 8, 1814, "at the room of Dr. Jacob Bigelow." Founders included Bigelow; Walter Channing; Ezekiel D. Cushing; James Freeman Dana; George Hayward; LaFayette Perkins; Octavius Pickering; William Smith Shaw; Nathaniel Tucker; John Ware; and John White Webster. John Davis served as president. "Meetings were held weekly, on Saturday evenings. The members were divided into 6 classes: viz., for minerals; for plants and vegetables; for quadrupeds and birds; for fishes, reptiles, and serpents; for insects; and for vermes, corals, madrepores, &c." Initially, the society had a room "in Joy's Buildings" in Boston; they soon moved to Boylston Market. In January 1815, the society agreed to call itself the "Linnaean Society of New England" (instead of its previous name, "New-England Society for the


id: linnaean-society-of-new-england-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linnaean_Society_of_New_England-1.md
category: reference
title: Linnaean Society of New England
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linnaean_Society_of_New_England
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:18.960427+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: linnaean-society-of-new-england-20260505-0
summary:
Among the quadrupeds may be mentioned the Lion, Tiger, Leopard, Catamount, Wolf, Bear, Stag, Sea-Elephant, and a great number of smaller species, principally native. The birds amount to nearly three hundred in number, and consist of elegant species in every order, and of every size, from the Albatross and the large Sea-Eagle of North America, to the minutest Humming birds of Cayenne. A majority of the birds are natives of this country, but there are many beautiful species from tropical countries ... The fishes are prepared in uniform half specimens fixed upon a white ground, and afford a fine display, being sufficiently numerous to nearly cover one end of the hall. The insects and shells amounting to some thousands in number, include many rare and elegant species, both native and foreign, and among them may be mentioned, a fine collection of insects from China, and of shells from the Isle of France and Calcutta. The mineralogical specimens already fill four large cabinets. ... The whole collection, with the exception of the fishes and a few other specimens, have been inclosed at a great expense, in mahogany cases with glass fronts. ... The specimens have been prepared by members of the


id: madras-naturalists-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madras_Naturalists'_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: Madras Naturalists' Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madras_Naturalists'_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:20.100203+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: madras-naturalists-society-20260505-0
summary:
Madras Naturalists' Society is a non-governmental organization that promotes appreciation, education and conservation of Nature. It was founded by bird watchers from the city of Madras (now Chennai), India) on 17 May 1978. G. K. Bhat was the organization's first President. The logo of the society is a Blackbuck The society started publishing a monthly bulletin from December 1978 and a quarterly journal Blackbuck from January 1985 Blackbuck carries semi-technical articles and works of popular interest. The digitised Version of 'Blackbuck' and the monthly bulletin was unveiled on 2 July 2015 to the members. An anthology of writings from the Blackbuck titled Sprint of the Blackbuck was published in 2012. The volume was edited by noted Tamil film historian and Madras Naturalists' Society member S. Theodore Baskaran. Starting from Madhavaiah Krishnan's birth centenary year in 2012, the society annual presents a "M. Krishnan Memorial Nature Writing Award" for young wildlife writers. == Notable members == Madhaviah Krishnan S. Theodore Baskaran V. Krishnamurthy == See also == Birding in Chennai == Notes ==


id: midland-union-of-natural-history-societies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midland_Union_of_Natural_History_Societies-0.md
category: reference
title: Midland Union of Natural History Societies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midland_Union_of_Natural_History_Societies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:21.360259+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: midland-union-of-natural-history-societies-20260505-0
summary:
The Midland Union of Natural History Societies (initially the Union of Midland Natural History Societies) was an association of amateur groups in the English Midlands and central Wales, which existed from 1877. For sixteen years it published a journal, The Midland Naturalist, and from 1881 awarded a medal, the Darwin Prize. The phrase "Natural History" was interpreted broadly, and the groups' interests included archaeology, architecture and geology. == History == The success of a Tamworth Natural History, Geological, and Antiquarian Society meeting held early in 1874, joined by the Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society (BNHMS) led William G. Blatch, Honorary Secretary of the latter, to propose closer collaboration between local natural history societies. Eventually, on 17 August 1876 committee meeting of the Birmingham society, decided to investigate the formation of a union of such groups. Representatives of various societies met at the Midland Institute, Birmingham, on 28 August 1877, and elected a council to manage the union. The eminent surgeon and president of the BNHMS, Lawson Tait, played a leading role in the formation and early administration of the Union. He resigned his positions on the managing bodies of both organisations in 1878, in a dispute over the Union's


id: natural-history-society-of-montreal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Society_of_Montreal-0.md
category: reference
title: Natural History Society of Montreal
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Society_of_Montreal
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:22.520949+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-history-society-of-montreal-20260505-0
summary:
The Natural History Society of Montreal, which ran from 1827 to 1928, was the oldest scientific organisation in Canada, and one of the oldest in North America. Its first meeting took place on May 12, 1827. The first chair of the society was Andrew Fernando Holmes. Other notable members were George Barnston and his son James Barnston and the first recorded Canadian clerk of works, John Mactaggart (1791-1830). The society published a journal, originally titled the Canadian naturalist and quarterly journal of science (1856-1883) and subsequently the Canadian record of science (1884-1916). The society founded a natural history museum, some of whose collections are now stored in the McGill University Herbarium. == References ==


id: natural-history-society-of-northumbria-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Society_of_Northumbria-0.md
category: reference
title: Natural History Society of Northumbria
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Society_of_Northumbria
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:23.715047+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-history-society-of-northumbria-20260505-0
summary:
The Natural History Society of Northumbria (NHSN) is a voluntary organization to promote the study of natural history and protect the wildlife of North East England. Its offices and library are in the Great North Museum: Hancock, whose building, land and collections it owns. It leases them to Newcastle University, on whose behalf they are administered by Tyne & Wear Archives & Museums. It possesses a substantial natural history library and archive and maintains the Gosforth Nature Reserve, one of the oldest designated nature reserves in North East England. It also carries out research and provides talks, field trips and educational courses, as well as publishing scientific papers. == Gosforth Nature Reserve == NHSN has managed Gosforth Nature Reserve since 1929. This 1 km x 1 km wildlife refuge north of Newcastle upon Tyne includes a shallow lake with extensive reed bed, mixed woodland and small areas of wildflower meadow. The reserve is scientifically important for its uncommon flora and fauna, which includes bittern, kingfisher, otter, coralroot orchid and purple hairstreak butterfly. The reserve has hides and boardwalks that enable visitors to view waterfowl, waders and reed bed birds at one of the most popular birdwatching sites in the Newcastle


id: natural-history-society-of-northumbria-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Society_of_Northumbria-1.md
category: reference
title: Natural History Society of Northumbria
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_Society_of_Northumbria
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:23.715047+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-history-society-of-northumbria-20260505-0
summary:
William Loftus (c.1821–1858) was an English archaeologist and traveller. Joshua Alder (1792–1867) was an amateur zoologist and malacologist specialising in tunicates and gastropods. Albany Hancock (1806–1873) was the brother of the ornithologist John Hancock and specialised in the anatomy of sea creatures especially sea slugs or nudibranchs, depicting them in minute detail. His watercolour drawings are held in the Society's archives. William Chapman Hewitson (1806–1878) was a wealthy collector, particularly of beetles, lepidopterans, bird's nests and eggs. He built up an extensive collection of butterflies of the world and was an accomplished illustrator. John Hancock (1808–1890) was an ornithologist, produced his Catalogue of the Birds of Northumberland and Durham in 1874. His greatest talent, however, was taxidermy and his collection of mounted British birds can still be seen today in the Bird Gallery of the Great North Museum: Hancock. Mary Jane Hancock (1810–1896) was an amateur botanist and enthusiastic watercolour painter, and the youngest sister of John and Albany Hancock. The Natural History Society of Northumbria holds over 60 of her paintings and more than 300 botany specimens from her personal collections. Marie Victoire Lebour (1876–1971) studied the life cycles of many aquatic organisms, rearing them from eggs to larvae


id: naturhistorieselskabet-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturhistorieselskabet-0.md
category: reference
title: Naturhistorieselskabet
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturhistorieselskabet
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:24.940250+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: naturhistorieselskabet-20260505-0
summary:
Naturhistorieselskabet (lit. 'the Society for Natural History') was a private society that was the only institution to offer education in natural history in Denmark in the late 18th century. The spirit of the Age of Enlightenment and an escalating agricultural crisis, led the king and the Danish elite to call foreign experts on economy, including botany and silviculture, to the country. The autonomous University of Copenhagen, on the other hand, was reluctant to employ foreign experts in little-established disciplines. Naturhistorieselskabet was formed in 1788 in order to ensure education in botany, zoology and mineralogy based on private funds. For example, Martin Vahl lectured in botany. After the appointment in 1795 of a professor in geology and in 1797 one in botany, the society gradually lost its importance. It was soon abolished and its collections donated to the state (much later united with the university collections). == Sources == Wagner, P.H. 2001. Institutionaliseringen af botanik og geologi i Danmark-Norge i det 18. århundrede (colloquium). Institut for Videnskabshistorie.


id: orkney-natural-history-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orkney_Natural_History_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: Orkney Natural History Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orkney_Natural_History_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:26.119623+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: orkney-natural-history-society-20260505-0
summary:
The Orkney Natural History Society was a scientific society established in 1837 on Orkney, Scotland by Rev. William Stobbs, and Rev. William Clouston, L.L.D. It was one of many provincial naturalist societies to emerge in Victorian Britain. Their role in contributing knowledge, collecting specimens, and fostering cultures of scientific inquiry outside the metropolitan centers is now widely recognized by historians of science. == Founding == The Orkney Natural History Society was established on 28 December 1837 at Stromness, Orkney. Its first Annual Report stated that the society aimed at 'investigating the Natural History and Antiquities' of Orkney county, 'promoting of natural science by the support of a museum', and 'stimulating the inhabitants of these islands to study of the Almighty's works'. It organised public lectures and excursions and founded the Stromness Museum, which is still in existence today. By 1838, the society's collection of specimens included 100 fossil fish, 400 minerals, 60 specimens of birds, 200 eggs, and 600 land plants. == People == The first President was the Reverend Charles Clouston, a Prebystarian Minister from Stromness. The second president was the Rev. William Clouston, who published widely on Orkney flora and fauna. Members in this early period included marine


id: penzance-natural-history-and-antiquarian-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penzance_Natural_History_and_Antiquarian_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: Penzance Natural History and Antiquarian Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penzance_Natural_History_and_Antiquarian_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:27.278675+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: penzance-natural-history-and-antiquarian-society-20260505-0
summary:
Penzance Natural History and Antiquarian Society (1839–1961) was a local society founded in Penzance in Cornwall, England, UK, whose aim was "the cultivation of the science of Natural History, and for the investigation of the Antiquities referring to the early inhabitants." == History == The Society was established at a public meeting on 20 November 1839, with an annual subscription of 10 shillings or life membership of £5. The society held meetings, where lectures were delivered and discussed, held an annual excursion to visit the antiquities of the area, and maintained a museum. Despite the initial enthusiasm, very little happened as the Secretaries and Curators' Report at the 1845 AGM concluded with "The society having somewhat revived from the torpor which has for some time hung over it, the council hopes that its increased energy will be continued without further interruption". The first volume of Reports and Transactions was finally published in 1851, covering the years 1845–51. Transactions continued with the publication of volume two in 1864 (covering the years 1851–55) and volume three in 1865 (the years 1862–65). The society then lay dormant apart from the annual excursions which continued until 1872 when it became defunct. Fifty-three members joined


id: perthshire-society-of-natural-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perthshire_Society_of_Natural_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Perthshire Society of Natural Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perthshire_Society_of_Natural_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:28.466795+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: perthshire-society-of-natural-science-20260505-0
summary:
Perthshire Society of Natural Science (PSNS) is one of the oldest scientific societies in Scotland, having been established in 1867. Under its parent body, it has three sections covering Nature (formerly Botany and Ornithology), Archaeology & History, and Photography (also known as Perthshire Photographic Society). Additionally it runs a series of talks on a broad science theme called Curious Minds. Now based at the A. K. Bell Library in Perth, Scotland, the society was initially composed of men, but by the end of the 19th century, around a quarter of its members were women. The membership ranged across social classes, hence it was known as "a society for all". Whereas specimens were physically collected by the society's members during its early years, now digital photography is used, along with digital data, to create records. In 1935, the society donated paintings and natural-history collections to Perth Museum and Art Gallery to display in its new extension, which was opened by the Duke and Duchess of York, the future King George VI and Queen Elizabeth. The society undertook an excavation at Pitmiddle village (whose history dates to the 12th century) and Elcho Nunnery, and published its report in 1988. The society's longest-serving


id: society-for-the-history-of-natural-history-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_the_History_of_Natural_History-0.md
category: reference
title: Society for the History of Natural History
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_the_History_of_Natural_History
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:29.703434+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: society-for-the-history-of-natural-history-20260505-0
summary:
The Society for the History of Natural History (SHNH) is an international society for everyone who is interested in natural history in the broadest sense. This includes botany, zoology and geology as well as natural history collections, exploration, art and bibliography. Everyone with an interest in these subjects – professional or amateur – is welcome to join. The Society's Patron is Sir David Attenborough OM CH FRS. Originally named the Society for the Bibliography of Natural History, SHNH was founded in 1936 by a small group of distinguished scientists, librarians and bibliographers whose appreciation and love of books inspired the formation of the Society in London. The Society's first President was Charles Davies Sherborn (1861–1942), who compiled the Index Animalium single-handedly over 43 years (1758–1850). This 11 volume, 9,000 page work, that catalogued 444,000 names of every living and extinct animal discovered between 1758 and 1850 is considered to be the bibliographic foundation for zoological nomenclature. The Society's main publication is Archives of Natural History which is published for the Society by Edinburgh University Press. Archives of Natural History provides an avenue for the publication of papers on the history and bibliography of natural history in its broadest sense, and


id: somerset-archaeological-and-natural-history-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somerset_Archaeological_and_Natural_History_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: Somerset Archaeological and Natural History Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somerset_Archaeological_and_Natural_History_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:32.076426+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: somerset-archaeological-and-natural-history-society-20260505-0
summary:
Somerset Archaeological and Natural History Society (SANHS) is a learned society established in 1849 to encourage the study of archaeology, natural history and history relating to the historic county of Somerset. In 1874 the society acquired Taunton Castle, subsequently restoring and adapting the building for use as a museum, library and venue for meetings. Since 2010 the society's administrative base has been at the Somerset Heritage Centre in Norton Fitzwarren. During the first half of the 20th century the society expanded its activities under the leadership of Harold St George Gray, whose excavations and curatorial work influenced the development of the collections and raised the society's profile. In 1958 financial pressures led to the leasing of Taunton Castle, with the museum collections, to Somerset County Council (now Somerset Council). The society works collaboratively with Somerset Council and the South West Heritage Trust, and continues its activities through lectures, research, conservation initiatives and publications, as well as through its ownership of Taunton Castle and extensive collections. == Origins of the society == Somerset Archaeological and Natural History Society was founded in 1849 following discussions among several residents of Taunton and its surrounding area. Individuals associated with its establishment and early development


id: somerset-archaeological-and-natural-history-society-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somerset_Archaeological_and_Natural_History_Society-1.md
category: reference
title: Somerset Archaeological and Natural History Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somerset_Archaeological_and_Natural_History_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:32.076426+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: somerset-archaeological-and-natural-history-society-20260505-0
summary:
== Later history == Following Gray's retirement in 1949, Wilfred Seaby was appointed as his successor. During Seaby's short tenure the collections were returned from wartime storage, the library was reorganised and additional office accommodation was created. In 1952 major repairs to the castle began, focusing on the Great Hall, and by the end of the year negotiations had been completed for bringing the recently-discovered Low Ham Roman mosaic to the museum. Although visitor numbers and educational use increased during the mid-20th century, financial pressures also intensified. Castle Lodge and Ine's Cottage were sold, and in 1958 the society ended its direct management of the museum by leasing Taunton Castle, together with the museum collections, to Somerset County Council. Since 2014 responsibility for the management of the museum and the collections has rested with the South West Heritage Trust. The society was a partner with Somerset County Council in a major project, supported by the Heritage Lottery Fund, to refurbish and redisplay the museum. It reopened in 2011 as the Museum of Somerset. In 2013 the society worked with Somerset Buildings Preservation Trust and the County Council on a Lottery-funded project to repair Castle House, part of the Taunton Castle


id: vindhyan-ecology-and-natural-history-foundation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vindhyan_Ecology_and_Natural_History_Foundation-0.md
category: reference
title: Vindhyan Ecology and Natural History Foundation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vindhyan_Ecology_and_Natural_History_Foundation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:33.277587+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vindhyan-ecology-and-natural-history-foundation-20260505-0
summary:
The Vindhyan Ecology and Natural History Foundation (VENHF) is a registered non-profit organisation (2012) with its headquarter in Mirzapur, Uttar Pradesh, India, working for the protection and conservation of the nature, natural resources and rights of the nature dependent communities in the ecologically fragile landscape of Vindhya Range in India. Vindhya Bachao Abhiyan is the flagship campaign of the organization. == Programs == === Vindhya Bachao Abhiyan === Vindhya Bachao Abhiyan (Hindi pronunciation: [viŋd̪ʱyaː batʃaːoː] English meaning: Save Vindhya Campaign) is the flagship program of VENHF which works towards environmental equity and bringing ecological justice through research-based environmental litigation, strengthening grass-root environmental movements, supporting institution of local governance and protecting the rights of nature dependent indigenous communities. == Activities and projects == === Natural history research === ==== Wildlife Inventory of Mirzapur Forests ==== In the year 2017, Vindhyan Ecology and Natural History Foundation in association with WWF-India published a sign-based study on Sloth Bears in Mirzapur, which identified five forest ranges as critical wildlife habitats. The study estimated an area of 430 km2 (170 sq mi). of core Sloth bear habitat and a total of 1,110 km2 (430 sq mi) of Reserve Forests area which may be protected as


id: vindhyan-ecology-and-natural-history-foundation-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vindhyan_Ecology_and_Natural_History_Foundation-1.md
category: reference
title: Vindhyan Ecology and Natural History Foundation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vindhyan_Ecology_and_Natural_History_Foundation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:33.277587+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vindhyan-ecology-and-natural-history-foundation-20260505-0
summary:
==== Kanhar Dam ==== Vindhya Bachao Abhiyan exposed the illegalities in environment clearance and forest clearance surrounding the controversial Kanhar Dam Project in Sonbhadra district, Uttar Pradesh on Kanhar River. The information collected by Vindhya Bachao using the Right to Information Act, 2005 was the basis of challenging the construction of the dam. Members of Vindhya Bachao and the People's Union for Civil Liberties challenged the project in National Green Tribunal, New Delhi. The construction of the dam was thereafter stayed by the National Green Tribunal in December 2014. The Chief Secretary of the Chhattisgarh government in April 2015 took note of the irregularities highlighted by Vindhya Bachao Abhiyan and asked the Uttar Pradesh government to stop the construction until the survey and compensation for the affected villages are completed. The National Green Tribunal passed its final judgement on 7 May 2015 staying any new construction to be undertaken but allowing the construction already underway. The court also formed a high-level committee under the chairmanship of Principal Chief Conservator of Forests, Uttar Pradesh to report on the directions issued in the judgment. The members filed a review petition against the judgment passed by the tribunal, following which the court gave


id: wernerian-natural-history-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wernerian_Natural_History_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: Wernerian Natural History Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wernerian_Natural_History_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:34.449198+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wernerian-natural-history-society-20260505-0
summary:
The Wernerian Natural History Society (12 January 1808 – 16 April 1858), commonly abbreviated as the Wernerian Society, was a learned society interested in the broad field of natural history, and saw papers presented on various topics such as mineralogy, plants, insects, and scholarly expeditions. The Society was an offshoot of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and from its beginnings it was a rather elite organization. The Society was named after Abraham Gottlob Werner, a German geologist who was a creator of Neptunism, a theory of superposition based on a receding primordial ocean that had deposited all the rocks in the crust. At this time all rocks, including basalt, and crystalline substances were thought by some to be precipitated from solution. == History == Robert Jameson, Regius Professor of Natural History at the University of Edinburgh, was the founder and life president of the Society. In 1800, he spent a year at the mining academy in Freiberg, Saxony, where he studied under Werner. The Society was founded on 12 January 1808, and the first meeting of the Society occurred on 2 March 1808. Between 1811 and 1839 eight volumes of Memoirs of the Wernerian Natural History Society appeared. More than


id: wiltshire-archaeological-and-natural-history-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiltshire_Archaeological_and_Natural_History_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiltshire_Archaeological_and_Natural_History_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:35.593919+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wiltshire-archaeological-and-natural-history-society-20260505-0
summary:
The Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Society was founded in 1853, and is one of the largest county-based archaeological societies in the United Kingdom. It runs the Wiltshire Museum in Devizes, Wiltshire which has the best Bronze Age collections in Britain, including finds from Avebury and Stonehenge. It also publishes the annual Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Magazine. The society has in the past published books of Wiltshire interest, such as the Tropenell Cartulary. The present-day Wiltshire Record Society began life as the Records Branch of the society. == History == A motivation for the creation of the society was an 1852 proposal by the antiquarian and writer John Britton (1771–1857) to sell his collection of Wiltshire-related books, drawings etc. William Cunnington III (grandson of the pioneering excavator of the same name) formed a Devizes-based committee which purchased the collection for £150. The inaugural meeting of the society was held at Devizes Town Hall on 12 October 1853, and attracted between 200 and 300 people including "many of the neighbouring Gentry and Clergy". The resolution to form the society stated that its objects would be "to cultivate and collect information on Archaeology and Natural History in their various branches, and


id: yorkshire-naturalists-union-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yorkshire_Naturalists'_Union-0.md
category: reference
title: Yorkshire Naturalists' Union
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yorkshire_Naturalists'_Union
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:36.757553+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: yorkshire-naturalists-union-20260505-0
summary:
The Yorkshire Naturalists' Union is an association of amateur and professional naturalists covering a wide range of aspects of natural history. It is one of United Kingdom's oldest extant wildlife organisations and oldest natural history federation. Its Mycological Committee, founded in 1892, is the oldest permanent organisation dedicated to the study of fungi in Great Britain. == History == The Yorkshire Naturalists' Union was founded in 1861 as the West Riding Consolidated Naturalists' Society. Initially a collaboration of five local natural history field clubs, additional clubs and societies from across Yorkshire continued to join. The association renamed itself the Yorkshire Naturalists' Union in 1876. == Activities == The Yorkshire Naturalists' Union organises joint field trips, co-operates with the British Association for the Advancement of Science and other county-sized associations, and publishes a journal, The Naturalist. The journal was first published by the Yorkshire Naturalists' Union in August 1878. == Notable members == William Sawney Bisat(1886–1973), geologist Frederick Orpen Bower (1855–1948), botanist William Norwood Cheesman (1847–1925), mycologist Alfred Clarke (1848–1925), mycologist and photographer William Eagle Clarke (1853–1938), ornithologist William James Clarke (1871–1945), naturalist and folklorist Charles Crossland (1844–1916), mycologist and ecologist James William Davis (1846–1893), geologist John Farrah (1849–1907), botanist and


id: anthropologist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropologist-0.md
category: reference
title: Anthropologist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropologist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:38.314828+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anthropologist-20260505-0
summary:
An anthropologist is a scientist engaged in the practice of anthropology. Anthropologists study aspects of humans within past and present societies. Social anthropology, cultural anthropology and philosophical anthropology study the norms, values, and general behavior of societies. Linguistic anthropology studies how language affects social life, while economic anthropology studies human economic behavior. Biological (physical), forensic, and medical anthropology study the biology and evolution of humans and their primate relatives, the application of biological anthropology in a legal setting, and the study of diseases and their impacts on humans over time, respectively. == Education == Anthropologists usually cover a breadth of topics within anthropology in their undergraduate education and then proceed to specialize in topics of their own choice at the graduate level. In some universities, a qualifying exam serves to test both the breadth and depth of a student's understanding of anthropology; the students who pass are permitted to work on a doctoral dissertation. Anthropologists typically hold graduate degrees, either doctorates or master's degrees. Not holding an advanced degree is rare in the field. Some anthropologists hold undergraduate degrees in other fields than anthropology and graduate degrees in anthropology. == Career == Research topics of anthropologists include the discovery of


id: archivist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archivist-0.md
category: reference
title: Archivist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archivist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:39.518023+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: archivist-20260505-0
summary:
An archivist is an information professional who assesses, collects, organizes, preserves, maintains control over, and provides access to records and archives determined to have long-term value. The records that are maintained by an archivist can consist of a variety of forms, including but not limited to letters, diaries, logs, other personal documents, government documents, sound or picture recordings, digital files, or other physical objects. == Description == As Richard Pearce-Moses wrote: Archivists keep records that have enduring value as reliable memories of the past, and they help people find and understand the information they need in those records. Determining what records have enduring value can be challenging. Archivists must also select records valuable enough to justify the costs of storage and preservation, plus the labor-intensive expenses of arrangement, description, and reference service. The theory and scholarly work underpinning archives practices is called archival science. The most common related occupations are librarians, museum curators, and records managers. The occupation of archivist is distinct from that of librarian. The two occupations have separate courses of training, adhere to separate and distinct principles, and are represented by separate professional organizations. In general, the librarian tends to deal with published media (where the metadata,


id: archivist-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archivist-1.md
category: reference
title: Archivist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archivist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:39.518023+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: archivist-20260505-0
summary:
Archivists' duties include acquiring and appraising new collections, arranging and describing records, providing reference service, and preserving materials. In arranging records, archivists apply two important principles: provenance and original order. Provenance refers to the creation of records and keeping different records separate in order to maintain context. Many entities create records, including governments, businesses, universities, and individuals. Original order is applied by keeping records in their order as established and maintained by the creator(s). Both provenance and original order are closely related to the concept of respect des fonds, which states that records from one corporate body should not be mixed with records from another. There are two aspects to arrangement: intellectual and physical. Both aspects follow the principle of original order. Archivists process the records physically by placing them in acid-free folders and boxes to ensure their long-term survival. They also process the records intellectually, by determining what the records consist of, how they are organized, and what, if any, finding aids need to be created. Finding aids can be box lists or descriptive inventories, or indexes. Even if the original arrangement is unclear or unhelpful in terms of accessing the collection, it is rarely rearranged to something that


id: archivist-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archivist-2.md
category: reference
title: Archivist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archivist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:39.518023+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: archivist-20260505-0
summary:
=== France === In France, the oldest Archivist School is the École des chartes, founded in 1821. This prestigious grande école (literally, "grand schools") offers a diploma in "Archivist-Paleography", created in 1849, after a three-year curriculum. Many graduates become curators in archives, museums, and libraries or become researchers in universities. Some universities, like University of Angers, Jean Moulin University Lyon 3, and Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines University, offer a master's degree in Archival Science, while the Burgundy has a course for their history degree focusing on archives of 20th and 21st century Europe. === Ireland === In the Republic of Ireland, the School of History of the University College Dublin (UCD) offers a Masters of Arts degree in Archives and Records Management, providing the only recognized course in Ireland for the training of professional archivists, which is accredited by the Archives and Records Association. UCD also offers certificates in Archives Management and Records Management. === New Zealand === Victoria University of Wellington is the only tertiary institution in New Zealand that provides postgraduate archival courses. Victoria Information Studies qualifications with ARCR endorsement have been recognized by Records and Information Management Professionals Australasia. The Open Polytechnic of New Zealand has an undergraduate course


id: archivist-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archivist-3.md
category: reference
title: Archivist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archivist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:39.518023+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: archivist-20260505-0
summary:
== History of the profession == The first predecessors of archival science in the West are Jacob von Rammingen's manuals of 1571. and Baldassarre Bonifacio's De Archivis libris singularis of 1632. In 1883, French archivist Gabriel Richou published the first Western text on archival theory, entitled Traité théorique et pratique des archives publiques (Treaty of Theory and Practice of the Public Archives), in which he systematized the archival theory of the respect des fonds, first published by Natalis de Wailly in 1841. In 1898, three Dutch archivists, Samuel Muller, Johan Feith, and Robert Fruin, published the Handleiding voor het ordenen en beschrijven van archieven (Manual for the Arrangement and Description of Archives). Produced for the Dutch Association of Archivists, it set out one hundred rules for archivists to base their work around. Notably, within these rules, the principle of preserving provenance and original order was first argued for as an essential trait of archival arrangement and description. Many of these principles were subsequently adopted and developed by the British archivist Hilary Jenkinson in his Manual of Archive Administration, first published in 1922, with a revised edition appearing in 1937. In 1956, T. R. Schellenberg, known as the "Father of American


id: economist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economist-0.md
category: reference
title: Economist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:41.732649+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: economist-20260505-0
summary:
An economist is a professional and practitioner in the social science discipline of economics. The individual may also study, develop, and apply theories and concepts from economics and write about economic policy. Within this field there are many sub-fields, ranging from the broad philosophical theories to the focused study of minutiae within specific markets, macroeconomic analysis, microeconomic analysis or financial statement analysis, involving analytical methods and tools such as econometrics, statistics, economics computational models, financial economics, regulatory impact analysis and mathematical economics. == History of the profession == Although economists are now recognized as specialists in a distinct profession, the earliest contributors to economic thought were polymath philosophers. Some of the earliest economic writings date to antiquity, notably Aristotle’s Oeconomica and Xenophon’s Oeconomicus. These works addressed, in rudimentary form, themes such as the division of labour. In the seventeenth century, as early modern economic thought began to take shape, its leading writers were typically broad-ranging scholars who wrote on economics alongside philosophy and law. This was true of Richard Cantillon, who described what later came to be known as the Cantillon effect, and of David Hume, who anticipated the quantity theory of money. Adam Smith, in An Inquiry into the


id: economist-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economist-1.md
category: reference
title: Economist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:41.732649+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: economist-20260505-0
summary:
==== By country ==== Economics graduates are employable in varying degrees depending on the regional economic scenario and labour market conditions at the time for a given country. Apart from the specific understanding of the subject, employers value the skills of numeracy and analysis, the ability to communicate and the capacity to grasp broad issues which the graduates acquire at the university or college. Whilst only a few economics graduates may be expected to become professional economists, many find it a base for entry into a career in finance – including accounting, insurance, tax and banking, or management. A number of economics graduates from around the world have been successful in obtaining employment in a variety of major national and international firms in the financial and commercial sectors, and in manufacturing, retailing and IT, as well as in the public sector – for example, in the health and education sectors, or in government and politics. Some graduates go on to undertake postgraduate studies, either in economics, research, teacher training or further qualifications in specialist areas. ===== Brazil ===== Unlike most nations, the economist profession in Brazil is regulated by law; specifically, Law No. 1,411, of August 13, 1951. The professional


id: economist-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economist-2.md
category: reference
title: Economist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:41.732649+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: economist-20260505-0
summary:
==== Finance and professional orientation ==== The growing centrality of finance goes hand in hand with the rise of business schools, which employ an increasingly large share of economists and occupy a growing place in top journals, while authors affiliated with public institutions become less common. Symbolically, this shifts the intellectual and political centre of gravity of the profession towards the world of business, with greater support for the private sector, deregulation, and limits on public intervention, and it fuels the idea of a partial convergence between the interests of the profession and those of finance, which may help explain changes in economists’ political stances. In this context, scholars also describe a “fix-it” culture among economists: a strong confidence in their ability to propose solutions and correct malfunctions, relying on tools they regard as effective and scientific. This suggests that this influence can reinforce the higher status often accorded to economists, while also leaving them particularly exposed in the public arena: in times of crisis, they are among the first to be questioned and blamed. ==== Influence in the state ==== Some authors report a paradox in this diagnosis of the “superiority” of economists. From the outside, as mentioned, economists


id: economist-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economist-3.md
category: reference
title: Economist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:41.732649+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: economist-20260505-0
summary:
=== Social composition, values and public image === Economics as a discipline is heavily male-dominated, compared with many other social sciences, and its practitioners also tend to come from relatively higher social strata. Economists form a professional group with a distinctive profile, whether in their behaviour, their political views, their social position, or their relationship to power. Like much of the academic world, they tend to place themselves somewhat to the left of centre, but on average they are less interventionist than their colleagues and appear to have a particular relationship to individual self-interest. It is difficult, however, to determine whether this relationship is produced by economic training itself, or whether individuals already more oriented towards self-interest are simply more likely to choose economics in the first place. Their views are often out of step with those of the general public, for example in their support for market-based mechanisms to address social issues (such as paying organ donors, or using carbon taxes). Their relative material comfort tends to widen the social distance that separates them from other groups, which raises questions given that economists occupy important positions at the heart of decision-making structures, and that their discipline is closely linked


id: geographer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographer-0.md
category: reference
title: Geographer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:42.948366+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geographer-20260505-0
summary:
A geographer is a physical scientist, social scientist or humanist whose area of study is geography, the study of Earth's natural environment and human society, including how society and nature interact. The Greek prefix "geo" means "earth" and the Greek suffix, "graphy", meaning "description", so a geographer is someone who studies the earth. The word "geography" is a Middle French word that is believed to have been first used in 1540. Although geographers are historically known as people who make maps, map making is actually the field of study of cartography, a subset of geography. Geographers do not study only the details of the natural environment or human society, but they also study the reciprocal relationship between these two. For example, they study how the natural environment contributes to human society and how human society affects the natural environment. In particular, physical geographers study the natural environment while human geographers study human society and culture. Some geographers are practitioners of GIS (geographic information system) and are often employed by local, state, and federal government agencies as well as in the private sector by environmental and engineering firms. The paintings by Johannes Vermeer titled The Geographer and The Astronomer are both


id: psychologist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologist-0.md
category: reference
title: Psychologist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:44.175778+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: psychologist-20260505-0
summary:
A psychologist is a professional who practices psychology and studies mental states, perceptual, cognitive, emotional, and social processes and behavior. Their work often involves the experimentation, observation, and interpretation of how individuals relate to each other and to their environments. Psychologists usually acquire a bachelor's degree in psychology, followed by a master's degree or doctorate in psychology. Unlike psychiatrists and psychiatric nurse-practitioners, psychologists usually cannot prescribe medication, but depending on the jurisdiction, some psychologists with additional training can be licensed to prescribe medications; qualification requirements may be different from a bachelor's degree and master's degree. Psychologists receive extensive training in psychological testing, communication techniques, scoring, interpretation, and reporting, while psychiatrists are not usually trained in psychological testing. Psychologists are also trained in, and often specialize in, one or more psychotherapies to improve symptoms of many mental disorders, including but not limited to treatment for anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, personality disorders and eating disorders. Treatment from psychologists can be individual or in groups. Cognitive behavioral therapy is a commonly used, well studied and high efficacy psychotherapy practiced by psychologists. Psychologists can work with a range of institutions and people, such as schools, prisons, in a private clinic,


id: psychologist-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologist-1.md
category: reference
title: Psychologist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:44.175778+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: psychologist-20260505-0
summary:
== Germany == In Germany, the use of the title Diplom-Psychologe (Dipl.-Psych.) is restricted by law, and a practitioner is legally required to hold the corresponding academic title, which is comparable to a M.Sc. degree and requires at least five years of training at a university. Originally, a diploma degree in psychology awarded in Germany included the subject of clinical psychology. With the Bologna-reform, this degree was replaced by a master's degree. The academic degree of Diplom-Psychologe or M.Sc. (Psychologie) does not include a psychotherapeutic qualification, which requires three to five years of additional training. The psychotherapeutic training combines in-depth theoretical knowledge with supervised patient care and self-reflection units. After having completed the training requirements, psychologists take a state-run exam, which, upon successful completion (Approbation), confers the official title of "psychological psychotherapist" (Psychologischer Psychotherapeut). After many years of inter-professional political controversy, non-physician psychotherapy was given an adequate legal foundation through the creation of two new academic healthcare professions. == Greece == Since 1979, the title "psychologist" has been protected by law in Greece. It can only be used by people who hold a relevant license or certificate, which is issued by the Greek authorities, to practice as a psychologist. The


id: psychologist-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologist-2.md
category: reference
title: Psychologist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:44.175778+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: psychologist-20260505-0
summary:
== United Kingdom == In the UK, "registered psychologist" and "practitioner psychologist" are protected titles. The title of "neuropsychologist" is not protected. In addition, the following specialist titles are also protected by law: "clinical psychologist", "counselling psychologist", "educational psychologist", "forensic psychologist", "health psychologist", "occupational psychologist" and "sport and exercise psychologist". The Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC) is the statutory regulator for practitioner psychologists in the UK. In the UK, the use of the title "chartered psychologist" is also protected by statutory regulation, but that title simply means that the psychologist is a chartered member of the British Psychological Society, but is not necessarily registered with the HCPC. However, it is illegal for someone who is not in the appropriate section of the HCPC register to provide psychological services. The requirement to register as a clinical, counselling, or educational psychologist is a professional doctorate (and in the case of the latter two the British Psychological Society's Professional Qualification, which meets the standards of a professional doctorate). The title of "psychologist", by itself, is not protected. The British Psychological Society is working with the HCPC to ensure that the title of "neuropsychologist" is regulated as a specialist title for practitioner psychologists.


id: psychologist-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologist-3.md
category: reference
title: Psychologist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:44.175778+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: psychologist-20260505-0
summary:
Bases of behavior—biological, cognitive-affective, and cultural-social Individual differences—personality, lifespan development, psychopathology History and systems—development of psychological theories, practices and scientific knowledge Clinical practice—diagnostics, psychological assessment, psychotherapeutic interventions, psychopharmacology, ethical and legal issues Coursework in statistics and research design Clinical experience Practicum—usually three or four years of working with clients under supervision in a clinical setting. Most practicum placements begin in either the first or second year of doctoral training. Doctoral internship—usually an intensive one or two-year placement in a clinical setting Dissertation—PhD programs usually require original quantitative empirical research, while PsyD dissertations involve original quantitative or qualitative research, theoretical scholarship, program evaluation or development, critical literature analysis or clinical application and analysis. The dissertation typically takes 2–3 years to complete. Specialized electives—many programs offer sets of elective courses for specializations, such as health, child/adolescent, family, community, or neuropsychology. Personal psychotherapy—many programs require students to undertake a certain number of hours of personal psychotherapy (with a non-faculty therapist) although in recent years this requirement has become less frequent. Comprehensive exams or master's thesis: a thesis can involve original data collection and is distinct from a dissertation. Psychologists can be seen as practicing within two general categories of psychology: health service psychology,


id: psychologist-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologist-4.md
category: reference
title: Psychologist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:44.175778+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: psychologist-20260505-0
summary:
==== Ambiguity of title ==== To practice with the title of "psychologist", in almost all cases a doctoral degree is required (PhD, PsyD, or EdD in the U.S.). Normally, after the degree, the practitioner must fulfill a certain number of supervised postdoctoral hours ranging from 1,500 to 3,000 (usually taking one to two years), and pass the EPPP and any other state or provincial exams. By and large, a professional in the U.S. must hold a doctoral degree in psychology (PsyD, EdD, or PhD), and/or have a state license to use the title psychologist. However, regulations vary from state to state. For example, in the states of Michigan, West Virginia, and Vermont, there are psychologists licensed at the master's level. ==== Differences with psychiatrists ==== Although clinical psychologists and psychiatrists share the same fundamental aim—the alleviation of mental distress—their training, outlook, and methodologies are often different. Perhaps the most significant difference is that psychiatrists are licensed physicians, and, as such, psychiatrists are apt to use the medical model to assess mental health problems and to also employ psychotropic medications as a method of addressing mental health problems. Psychologists generally do not prescribe medication, although in some jurisdictions they do have


id: peter-paul-biro-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Paul_Biro-0.md
category: reference
title: Peter Paul Biro
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Paul_Biro
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:49.356644+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: peter-paul-biro-20260505-0
summary:
Peter Paul Biró (1954–2024) was a forensic art analyst, known for his work in authenticating paintings using fingerprint analysis. He was involved in several high-profile cases, including the authentication of works attributed to artists Jackson Pollock, Leonardo da Vinci, and Goodridge Roberts. Biro's techniques and conclusions were subjects of debate and scrutiny. In 2009, The New Yorker published an article that critically examined Biro's methods. Subsequently, Biro filed a defamation lawsuit against the magazine, the article's author, and others. The courts later dismissed the lawsuit. == Early life and background == Peter Paul Biro was born in 1954 in Budapest and emigrated to Montreal with his family as a teenager. He left college early to join his father and brother in the art restoration business. Through this business, Biro helped to authenticate a painting by J. M. W. Turner. While examining the Turner painting, he developed the idea to compare a fingerprint found on it to other paintings by Turner. His idea to use fingerprint analysis added a scientific approach to art authentication, a field that had been traditionally subjective. Biro built his career on the analysis of fingerprints. He operated on the premise that artists may leave their fingerprints


id: coroner-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coroner-0.md
category: reference
title: Coroner
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coroner
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:50.552754+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: coroner-20260505-0
summary:
A coroner is a government or judicial official who is empowered to conduct or order an inquest into the manner or cause of death. The official may also investigate or confirm the identity of an unknown person who has been found dead within the coroner's jurisdiction. In Medieval England, English coroners were Crown officials who held financial powers and conducted some judicial investigations in order to counterbalance the power of sheriffs or bailiffs. Depending on the jurisdiction, the coroner may adjudge the cause of death personally, or may act as the presiding officer of a special court (a "coroner's jury"). The term coroner derives from the same source as the word crown. == Duties and functions == Responsibilities of the coroner may include overseeing the investigation and certification of deaths related to mass disasters that occur within the coroner's jurisdiction. A coroner's office typically maintains death records of those who have died within the coroner's jurisdiction. The additional roles that a coroner may oversee in judicial investigations may be subject to the attainment of suitable legal and medical qualifications. The qualifications required of a coroner vary significantly between jurisdictions and are described below under the entry for each jurisdiction. Coroners,


id: coroner-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coroner-1.md
category: reference
title: Coroner
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coroner
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:50.552754+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: coroner-20260505-0
summary:
Death investigation is the responsibility of each individual Canadian province and territory—there is no overarching federal authority. As a result, each province and territory has developed its own system and legislation to fulfill the mandate of investigating deaths that are unexpected, unexplained, or as a result of injuries or drugs. Two different death investigation systems have developed in Canada: the Coroner's system and the Medical Examiner's system. The Coroner's system is used in the majority of provinces and territories. It is a system that is centuries old and originated in Great Britain. It is found throughout the world in countries that were former British colonies, including Canada. The Medical Examiner's system (used in Alberta, Manitoba, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland and Labrador) is just over one century old and originated in the United States. Although there are some differences between the two systems, the ultimate goal of each is the same—to investigate certain deaths defined in their legislation and establish the identity of the deceased together with the cause of death and the manner of death. In 21st-century Canada the officer responsible for investigating all unnatural and natural unexpected, unexplained, or unattended deaths goes under the title "coroner" or "medical examiner"


id: coroner-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coroner-2.md
category: reference
title: Coroner
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coroner
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:50.552754+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: coroner-20260505-0
summary:
=== United Kingdom === There are separate coroner services for England and Wales and for Northern Ireland. There are no longer coroners in Scotland. Coroners existed in Scotland between about 1400 and 1800 when they ceased to be used. Deaths in Scotland requiring judicial examination are now reported to The Crown Office and Procurator Fiscal Service, who investigates deaths on behalf of the Lord Advocate. Different teams investigating deaths include the Scottish Fatalities Investigation Unit, the National Homicide Team, the Health and Safety Investigation Unit, the Road Traffic Fatalities Investigation Unit and The Custody Deaths Unit. In the rest of the United Kingdom a coroner is a specialist judge. Whilst coroners are appointed and paid by local authorities, they are not employees of those local authorities but rather independent judicial office holders who can be removed from office only by the Lord Chief Justice and the Lord Chancellor. The Ministry of Justice, which is headed by the Lord Chancellor and Secretary of State for Justice, is responsible for coronial law and policy. However, it has no operational responsibility for the running of coroners' courts. A coroner's jurisdiction is limited to determining who the deceased was and how, when and where


id: coroner-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coroner-3.md
category: reference
title: Coroner
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coroner
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:50.552754+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: coroner-20260505-0
summary:
The coroner service in England and Wales is supervised by the Chief Coroner, a judge appointed by the Lord Chief Justice after consulting the Lord Chancellor. The Chief Coroner provides advice, guidance and training to coroners and aims to secure uniformity of practice throughout England and Wales. The post is currently part-time. The present Chief Coroner is Alexia Durran. England and Wales are divided into coroner districts by the Lord Chancellor, each district consisting of the area or areas of one or more local authorities. The relevant local authority, with the consent of the Chief Coroner and the Lord Chancellor, must appoint a senior coroner for the district. It must also appoint area coroners (in effect deputies to the senior coroner) and assistant coroners, to the number that the Lord Chancellor considers necessary in view of the physical character and population of the district. The cost of the coroner service for the district falls upon the local authority or authorities concerned, and thus ultimately upon the local inhabitants. There are 98 coroners in England and Wales, covering 109 local authority areas. To become a coroner in England and Wales the applicant must be a qualified solicitor, barrister, or a Fellow


id: coroner-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coroner-4.md
category: reference
title: Coroner
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coroner
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:50.552754+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: coroner-20260505-0
summary:
=== United States === As of 2004, of the 2,342 death investigation offices in the United States, 1,590 were coroners' offices, 82 of which served jurisdictions of more than 250,000 people. Qualifications for coroners are set by individual states and counties in the U.S. and vary widely. In many jurisdictions, little or no training is required, even though a coroner may overrule a forensic pathologist in naming a cause of death. Some coroners are elected with others appointed. Some coroners hold office by virtue of holding another office. For example, in Nebraska, a county's district attorney is also the county's coroner. Similarly, in many counties in Texas, the justice of the peace may be in charge of death investigation. In yet other places, the sheriff may be the lawful coroner. In different jurisdictions the terms "coroner" and "medical examiner" are defined differently. In some places, stringent rules require that the medical examiner be a forensic pathologist. In others, the medical examiner must be a physician, though not necessarily a pathologist nor further specialized forensic pathologist; physicians with no experience in forensic medicine have become medical examiners. In other jurisdictions, such as Wisconsin, each county sets standards, and in some, the


id: coroner-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coroner-5.md
category: reference
title: Coroner
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coroner
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:50.552754+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: coroner-20260505-0
summary:
=== Literature === M. R. Hall is a British crime novelist, who writes a series of best-selling novels featuring Bristol-based coroner, Jenny Cooper. Novelist Bernard Knight, a former Home Office pathologist and a professor of forensic pathology at the University of Wales College of Medicine, is well known for his Crowner John Mysteries series set in 12th-century Devon, England. ("Crowner" is an archaic word for "coroner" and is based on the origins of the word. See the History section above.) === Television === Although coroners are often depicted in police dramas as a source of information for detectives, there are a number of fictional coroners who have taken particular focus on television. Dr. Camille Saroyan is a federal coroner and the head of the Forensic Division at Jeffersonian Institute in the TV series Bones. British television drama series The Coroner has as its main character a coroner based in a fictional Devon town. Crossing Jordan features Jill Hennessy as Jordan Cavanaugh, M.D., a crime-solving forensic pathologist employed in the Massachusetts Office of the Chief Medical Examiner. The coroners are significant characters and main cast members on CSI: Crime Scene Investigation and its spin-offs CSI: Miami and CSI: NY. The television


id: crime-scene-cleanup-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime_scene_cleanup-0.md
category: reference
title: Crime scene cleanup
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime_scene_cleanup
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:51.716934+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: crime-scene-cleanup-20260505-0
summary:
Crime scene cleanup is a term applied to cleanup of blood, bodily fluids, and other potentially infectious materials (OPIM). It is also referred to as biohazard remediation, and forensic cleanup, because crime scenes are only a portion of the situations in which biohazard cleaning is needed. Incidents which may require this type of cleanup include accidents, suicide (or attempted suicide), homicides, and decomposition after unattended death, as well as mass trauma, industrial accidents, infectious disease contamination, animal biohazard contamination (e.g. feces or blood) or regulated waste transport, treatment, and disposal. == Usage == Television productions like CSI: Crime Scene Investigation have added to the popularity of the term "crime scene cleanup". Australia, Canada and England have added it to their professional cleaning terminology. As a profession, it is growing in popularity because of media exposure and the growth of training programs worldwide. The generic terms for crime scene cleanup include trauma cleaning, crime and trauma scene decontamination ("CTS Decon"), biohazard remediation, biohazard removal, and blood cleanup. The state of California refers to individuals who practice this profession as Valid Trauma Scene Waste Management Practitioners. == Types of cleanups == Crime scene cleanup includes blood spills following an assault, homicide or


id: crime-scene-cleanup-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime_scene_cleanup-1.md
category: reference
title: Crime scene cleanup
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime_scene_cleanup
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:51.716934+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: crime-scene-cleanup-20260505-0
summary:
The American Bio Recovery Association (ABRA) is the 3rd party credentialing body and membership organization for companies that specialize in this niche industry. Bio Recovery covers a bit more than the clean up of body fluids. Bio Recovery is the act of assessing risk, mitigating threats and remediating conditions resulting from the release of biological hazards. This may include crime and trauma mitigation (bloodborne and body fluids), suicide cleanup, outbreak response, zoonotic diseases, foodborne diseases, public health threats, illicit drugs and clandestine drug labs. ABRAs certification credentialing platform requires applicants to obtain prerequisite requirements prior to sitting for an independent exam. Questions on the exams are derived from the information in the required prerequisite and demonstrate retention of industry knowledge providing a high level of credibility. Member Companies of ABRA are held to the highest international standards for ethics and professionalism. Three levels of Credentialing are available for industry career advancement from the American Bio Recovery Association include the Certified Bio Recovery Technician (CBRT), Certified Bio Recovery Supervisor (CBRS), and the Certified Bio Recovery Master (CBRM). The Institute for Inspection Cleaning and Certification (IICRC) is the Standards development organization for the cleaning industry. It created the ANSI/IICRC S540 Standard for


id: medical-examiner-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_examiner-0.md
category: reference
title: Medical examiner
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_examiner
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:52.883401+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-examiner-20260505-0
summary:
The medical examiner is an official who is responsible for investigating the cause of a death and overseeing the death certification process. A medical examiner is usually trained in pathology. In the United States they may perform post-mortem examinations, and in some jurisdictions have the power to initiate inquests. In England and Wales, the medical examiner is mostly responsible for scrutinising the cause of a death where an inquest is not held by a coroner. In England and Wales (and formerly in Scotland) coroners are judicial officers who have held a number of responsibilities since their inception, but today they are mostly responsible for holding inquests where the cause of a death may not be clear or suspicious. This system was adopted throughout the British Empire, including in the United States. In most of these countries, including parts of the United States, the coroner has retained this role, however parts of the United States may also have a medical examiner, which evolved from coroners during the latter half of the 19th century. The exact responsibilities of a medical examiner varies across jurisdictions, with over 2,000 separate jurisdictions for investigating unnatural deaths. == History == === United Kingdom === Medical examiners


id: regius-professor-of-forensic-medicine-glasgow-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regius_Professor_of_Forensic_Medicine_(Glasgow)-0.md
category: reference
title: Regius Professor of Forensic Medicine (Glasgow)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regius_Professor_of_Forensic_Medicine_(Glasgow)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:54.056596+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: regius-professor-of-forensic-medicine-glasgow-20260505-0
summary:
The Regius Chair of Forensic Medicine at the University of Glasgow was founded in 1839 by Queen Victoria. The chair was occupied for over one sixty years by the same family, when John Glaister Jnr. succeeded his father as Regius Professor. The chair is currently vacant. == Regius Professors of Forensic Medicine == 1839 - Robert Cowan 1841 - Harry Rainy 1872 - Pierce Adolphus Simpson 1898 - John Glaister 1931 - John Glaister Jnr 1964 - Gilbert Forbes 1974 - William Arthur Harland 1985 - Alan Albert Watson 1993 - Peter Vanezis == See also == List of Professorships at the University of Glasgow University of Glasgow Medical School


id: scenes-of-crime-officer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scenes_of_crime_officer-0.md
category: reference
title: Scenes of crime officer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scenes_of_crime_officer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:55.217860+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scenes-of-crime-officer-20260505-0
summary:
A scenes of crime officer (SOCO) is an officer who gathers forensic evidence for the British police. They are also referred to by some forces as forensic scene investigators (FSIs), crime scene investigators (CSIs) (although their job differs from that depicted in the CBS TV series), or crime scene examiners (CSEs). SOCOs are usually not police officers, but are employed by the police forces. Evidence collected is passed to the detectives of the Criminal Investigation Department and to the forensic laboratories. The SOCOs do not investigate crimes or analyse evidence themselves. To be a SOCO, at least 5 GCSEs at Grade level 9 - 4 are required. == History == SOCOs were first introduced into the Metropolitan Police in 1968, replacing the CID officers who had previously carried out these functions. Some other forces had introduced them before that time, however. Other police forces around the United Kingdom continued this trend of replacing the CID officers with civilians. This allowed the creation of dedicated departments within the police forces. Police officers often moved post after only a few years; the introduction of civilian scenes of crime officers allowed departments to build a resource based on experience. == Training == Today,


id: pearl-tytell-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearl_Tytell-0.md
category: reference
title: Pearl Tytell
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearl_Tytell
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:56.357159+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pearl-tytell-20260505-0
summary:
Pearl L. Tytell (August 29, 1917 – September 26, 2021) was a forensic questioned document examiner and handwriting expert. With her husband, Martin Tytell, she was involved in the solving of numerous criminal cases for over half a century. == Early life == Tytell was born on August 29, 1917, in Manhattan, and named Pearl Lily Kessler. She met Martin Tytell in 1938; they married in 1943. She graduated from New York University in the 1960s with a Bachelor of Science and a Master of Arts degree. == Career == The Tytells had a typewriter rental and repair business in Manhattan from 1933 until 2001 which was devoted to creating keyboards in 142 languages. The husband and wife team were often asked to identify the specific typewriter used to type anonymous letters or to modify typed documents. In 1951 Pearl Tytell created the Tytell Questioned Document Laboratory which specialized in dating paper and ink as well as the forensic study of signatures on checks, contracts and wills to determine whether they were genuine. For fifty years she worked, testified and lectured on handwriting and typewriter identification as well as the detection of forgeries. She was a lecturer at New York


id: actuarial-credentialing-and-exams-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuarial_credentialing_and_exams-0.md
category: reference
title: Actuarial credentialing and exams
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuarial_credentialing_and_exams
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:57.851270+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: actuarial-credentialing-and-exams-20260505-0
summary:
To become a qualified actuary, the actuarial credentialing and exam process usually requires passing a series of professional examinations over a period of several years. In some countries, such as Denmark, most study takes place in a university setting. In others, such as the U.S., most study takes place during employment through a series of examinations. In the UK, and countries based on its process, there is a hybrid university-exam structure. == Australia == The education system in Australia is divided into three components: an exam-based curriculum; a professionalism course; and work experience. The system is governed by the Institute of Actuaries of Australia. The exam-based curriculum is in three parts. Part I relies on exemptions from an accredited under-graduate degree from either Bond University, Monash University, Macquarie University, University of New South Wales, University of Melbourne, Australian National University or Curtin University. The courses cover subjects including finance, financial mathematics, economics, contingencies, demography, models, probability and statistics. Students may also gain exemptions by passing the exams of the Institute of Actuaries in London. Part II is the Actuarial control cycle and is also offered by each of the universities above. Part III consists of four half-year courses of which


id: actuarial-credentialing-and-exams-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuarial_credentialing_and_exams-1.md
category: reference
title: Actuarial credentialing and exams
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuarial_credentialing_and_exams
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:57.851270+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: actuarial-credentialing-and-exams-20260505-0
summary:
== South Africa == Actuaries in South Africa are served by the Actuarial Society of South Africa (ASSA). Until 2010, the requirement to qualify as an actuary in South Africa was to pass the exams hosted by the UK bodies. Starting in 2010, a South African actuarial qualification hosted by ASSA has replaced this arrangement. Key changes include exam syllabuses based on South African-specific content. The UK actuarial professional bodies, however, still support qualification through the UK. Students may receive exemption from part of the examinations for qualification from approved universities. The South African qualification does have mutual recognition with many of the international actuarial bodies as well as approval of the syllabus from the International Actuarial Association. One may obtain the Chartered Enterprise Risk Actuary (CERA) designation through the ASSA. South Africa pioneered the actuarial banking route, with fellowship exams (equivalent to the UK's SA exams) in banking beginning in the late 2010s. == Sweden == Actuarial training in Sweden takes place at Stockholm University. The five-year master's program (for those with no previous university-level knowledge in mathematics, or without a bachelor's degree in mathematics) covers the subjects mathematics, mathematical statistics, insurance mathematics, financial mathematics, insurance law and insurance


id: actuarial-credentialing-and-exams-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuarial_credentialing_and_exams-2.md
category: reference
title: Actuarial credentialing and exams
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuarial_credentialing_and_exams
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:57.851270+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: actuarial-credentialing-and-exams-20260505-0
summary:
=== Education and exams === The Society of Actuaries' requirements for Associateship (ASA) include passing 6 preliminary examinations (probability, financial mathematics, fundamentals of actuarial mathematics, statistics for risk modeling, predictive analytics, and one from either advanced long-term actuarial mathematics or advanced short-term actuarial mathematics), validating educational experience (VEE) in 3 fields (economics, accounting and finance, and mathematical statistics), completing self-learning series and passing their assessments (advanced topics in predictive analytics, five-module fundamentals of actuarial practice), and taking a course on professionalism. For Fellowship (FSA), three other modules, three or four exams depending on specialty track, and a special fellowship admission course is added. The Casualty Actuarial Society requires the successful completion of seven examinations, two modules, and economics and corporate finance VEEs for Associateship and three additional exams for Fellowship. In addition to these requirements, casualty actuarial candidates must also complete professionalism education and be recommended for membership by existing members. Depending on which society a student chooses to pursue, there are six or seven preliminary exams. Most of the exams are multiple choice and administered on computers at Prometric testing centers. Candidates are allowed to use a calculator from an approved list. The exams are timed and last between


id: actuary-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuary-0.md
category: reference
title: Actuary
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuary
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:59.049101+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: actuary-20260505-0
summary:
An actuary is a professional with advanced mathematical skills who deals with the measurement and management of risk and uncertainty. These risks can affect both sides of the balance sheet and require asset management, liability management, and valuation skills. Actuaries provide assessments of financial security systems, with a focus on their complexity, their mathematics, and their mechanisms. The name of the corresponding academic discipline is actuarial science. While the concept of insurance dates to antiquity, the concepts needed to scientifically measure and mitigate risks have their origins in 17th-century studies of probability and annuities. Actuaries in the 21st century require analytical skills, business knowledge, and an understanding of human behavior and information systems; actuaries use this knowledge to design programs that manage risk, by determining if the implementation of strategies proposed for mitigating potential risks does not exceed the expected cost of those risks actualized. The steps needed to become an actuary, including education and licensing, are specific to a given country, with various additional requirements applied by regional administrative units; however, almost all processes impart universal principles of risk assessment, statistical analysis, and risk mitigation, involving rigorously structured training and examination schedules, taking many years to complete. The profession


id: actuary-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuary-1.md
category: reference
title: Actuary
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuary
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:59.049101+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: actuary-20260505-0
summary:
=== Non-traditional employment === As an outgrowth of more traditional roles, actuaries also work in the fields of risk management and enterprise risk management for both financial and non-financial corporations. Actuaries in traditional roles study and use tools and data previously in the domain of finance. Two accords—the Basel II accord for financial institutions (2004), and the analogous Solvency II accord for insurance companies (in force since 2016)—require institutions to account for operational risk separately, in addition to credit, reserve, asset, and insolvency risk. Actuarial skills are well suited to this context, because actuaries are trained in analyzing various forms of risk, and judging the potential for gain and loss associated with these forms of risk. Actuaries also participate in investment advising and asset management, and can be general business managers and chief financial officers or chief investment officers. They analyze business prospects using financial skills in valuing or discounting risky future cash flows; they also apply pricing expertise in insurance to other lines of business. For example, insurance securitization requires both actuarial and finance skills. Actuaries also act as expert witnesses in court trials, by using analysis to estimate the economic value of losses such as lost profits or


id: actuary-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuary-2.md
category: reference
title: Actuary
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuary
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:09:59.049101+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: actuary-20260505-0
summary:
=== Development of the modern profession === In the 18th and 19th centuries, computational complexity was limited to manual calculations. The calculations required to compute fair insurance premiums can be burdensome. The actuaries of that time developed methods to construct easily used tables, using arithmetical short-cuts called commutation functions, to facilitate timely, accurate, manual calculations of premiums. In the mid-19th century, professional bodies were founded to support and further both actuaries and actuarial science, and to protect the public interest by ensuring competency and ethical standards. Since calculations were cumbersome, actuarial shortcuts were commonplace. Non-life actuaries followed in the footsteps of their life compatriots in the early 20th century. In the United States, the 1920 revision to workers' compensation rates took over two months of around-the-clock work by day and night teams of actuaries. In the 1930s and 1940s, rigorous mathematical foundations for stochastic processes were developed. Actuaries began to forecast losses using models of random events instead of deterministic methods. Computers further revolutionized the actuarial profession. From pencil-and-paper to punchcards to microcomputers, the modeling and forecasting ability of the actuary has grown vastly. Another modern development is the convergence of modern finance theory with actuarial science. In the early


id: enrolled-actuary-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enrolled_actuary-0.md
category: reference
title: Enrolled actuary
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enrolled_actuary
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:10:00.205458+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: enrolled-actuary-20260505-0
summary:
An enrolled actuary is an actuary enrolled by the Joint Board for the Enrollment of Actuaries under the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 (ERISA). Enrolled actuaries, under regulations of the Department of the Treasury and the Department of Labor, perform a variety of tasks with respect to pension plans in the United States under ERISA. As of August, 2024, there were approximately 3,400 enrolled actuaries. == Qualifications == The Joint Board for the Enrollment of Actuaries administers two examinations to prospective enrolled actuaries. Once the two examinations have been passed, and an individual has also obtained sufficient relevant professional experience, that individual becomes an enrolled actuary. The first exam (EA-1) tests basic knowledge of the mathematics of compound interest, the mathematics of life contingencies, and practical demographic analysis. The second (EA-2) examination consists of two segments, which are offered during separate exam sittings in either the fall or the spring. Segment F covers the selection of actuarial assumptions, actuarial cost methods, and the calculation of minimum (required) and maximum (tax-deductible) contributions to pension plans. Segment L tests knowledge of relevant federal pension laws (in particular, the provisions of ERISA) as they affect pension actuarial practice. == Employers ==


id: computational-scientist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_scientist-0.md
category: reference
title: Computational scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:10:03.648081+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: computational-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
A computational scientist is a person skilled in scientific computing. This person is usually a scientist, a statistician, an applied mathematician, or an engineer who applies high-performance computing and sometimes cloud computing in different ways to advance the state-of-the-art in their respective applied discipline; physics, chemistry, social sciences and so forth. Thus scientific computing has increasingly influenced many areas such as economics, biology, law, and medicine to name a few. Because a computational scientist's work is generally applied to science and other disciplines, they are not necessarily trained in computer science specifically, though concepts of computer science are often used. Computational scientists are typically researchers at academic universities, national labs, or tech companies. One of the tasks of a computational scientist is to analyze large amounts of data, often from astrophysics or related fields, as these can often generate huge amounts of data. Computational scientists often have to clean up and calibrate the data to a usable form for an effective analysis. Computational scientists are also tasked with creating artificial data through computer models and simulations. == References ==


id: computer-scientist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_scientist-0.md
category: reference
title: Computer scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:10:04.789721+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: computer-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
A computer scientist is a scientist who specializes in the academic study of computer science and technology. Computer scientists typically work on the theoretical side of computation. Although computer scientists can also focus their work and research on specific areas (such as algorithm and data structure development and design, software engineering, information theory, database theory, theoretical computer science, numerical analysis, programming language theory, compiler, computer graphics, computer vision, robotics, computer architecture, operating system), their foundation is the theoretical study of computing from which these other fields derive. A primary goal of computer scientists is to develop or validate models, often mathematical, to describe the properties of computational systems (processors, programs, computers interacting with people, computers interacting with other computers, etc.) with an overall objective of discovering designs that yield useful benefits (faster, smaller, cheaper, more precise, etc.). == Education == Most computer scientists possess a PhD, M.S., or Bachelor's degree in computer science, in other similar fields like Information and Computer Science (CIS), or closely related disciplines such as mathematics or physics. === Areas of specialization === Theoretical computer science – including data structures and algorithms, theory of computation, information theory and coding theory, programming language theory, and formal methods


id: methodological-advisor-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodological_advisor-0.md
category: reference
title: Methodological advisor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodological_advisor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:10:12.583537+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: methodological-advisor-20260505-0
summary:
A methodological advisor or statistical consultant provides methodological and statistical advice and guidance to clients or colleagues interested in making decisions regarding the design of studies, the collection and analysis of data, and the presentation and dissemination of research findings. Trained in both methods and statistics, and communication skills, advisors may work in academia, industry, or the public sector. == Education and employment == Methodological advisors generally have post-graduate training in statistics and relevant practical experience. Advisors may also have significant education and experience in the particular field they work in. Some universities offer specific graduate programmes in fields such as biostatistics, psychological methods, or methodology and statistics for the medical, behavioural, and social sciences. Methodological consultants primarily find work in academia and industry. In the private sector, consultants may be part of an organisation, employed by a consultancy firm, or self-employed. Many universities offer in-house methodological advice for researchers, as well as, in some cases, services for outside clients. The advisors may also be researchers of their own right and be involved with particular projects. Project statisticians, in particular, are embedded with research groups and often developed a deep understanding not just of statistics, but also of the research


id: physicist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicist-0.md
category: reference
title: Physicist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:10:13.846614+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physicist-20260505-0
summary:
A physicist is a scientist who specializes in the field of physics, which encompasses the interactions of matter and energy at all length and time scales in the physical universe. Physicists generally are interested in the root or ultimate causes of phenomena, and usually frame their understanding in mathematical terms. They work across a wide range of research fields, spanning all length scales: from sub-atomic and particle physics, through biological physics, to cosmological length scales encompassing the universe as a whole. The field generally includes two types of physicists: experimental physicists who specialize in the observation of natural phenomena and the development and analysis of experiments, and theoretical physicists who specialize in mathematical modeling of physical systems to rationalize, explain and predict natural phenomena. Physicists can apply their knowledge towards solving practical problems or to developing new technologies (also known as applied physics or engineering physics). == History == The study and practice of physics is based on an intellectual ladder of discoveries and insights from ancient times to the present. Many mathematical and physical ideas used today found their earliest expression in the work of ancient civilizations, such as the Babylonian astronomers and Egyptian engineers, the Greek philosophers of


id: physicist-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicist-1.md
category: reference
title: Physicist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:10:13.846614+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physicist-20260505-0
summary:
=== United Kingdom === Chartered Physicist (CPhys) is a chartered status and a professional qualification awarded by the Institute of Physics. It is denoted by the postnominals "CPhys". Achieving chartered status in any profession denotes to the wider community a high level of specialised subject knowledge and professional competence. According to the Institute of Physics, holders of the award of the Chartered Physicist (CPhys) demonstrate the "highest standards of professionalism, up-to-date expertise, quality and safety" along with "the capacity to undertake independent practice and exercise leadership" as well as "commitment to keep pace with advancing knowledge and with the increasing expectations and requirements for which any profession must take responsibility". Chartered Physicist is considered to be equal in status to Chartered Engineer, which the IoP also awards as a member of the Engineering Council UK, and other chartered statuses in the UK. It is also considered a "regulated profession" under the European professional qualification directives. === Canada === The Canadian Association of Physicists can appoint an official designation called Professional Physicist (P. Phys.), similar to the designation of Professional Engineer (P. Eng.). This designation was unveiled at the CAP congress in 1999 and already more than 200 people carry this


id: statistician-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistician-0.md
category: reference
title: Statistician
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistician
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:10:16.081961+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: statistician-20260505-0
summary:
A statistician is a person who works with theoretical or applied statistics. The profession exists in both the private and public sectors. It is common to combine statistical knowledge with expertise in other subjects, and statisticians may work as employees or as statistical consultants. == Overview == According to the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, as of 2014, 26,970 jobs were classified as statistician in the United States. Of these people, approximately 30 percent worked for governments (federal, state, or local). As of October 2021, the median pay for statisticians in the United States was $92,270. Additionally, there is a substantial number of people who use statistics and data analysis in their work but have job titles other than statistician, such as actuaries, applied mathematicians, economists, data scientists, data analysts (predictive analytics), financial analysts, psychometricians, sociologists, epidemiologists, and quantitative psychologists. Statisticians are included with the professions in various national and international occupational classifications. In many countries, including the United States, employment in the field requires either a master's degree in statistics or a related field or a PhD. According to one industry professional, "Typical work includes collaborating with scientists, providing mathematical modeling, simulations, designing randomized experiments and randomized sampling


id: 3d-slicer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_Slicer-0.md
category: reference
title: 3D Slicer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_Slicer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:10:20.011628+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 3d-slicer-20260505-0
summary:
3D Slicer (Slicer) is a free and open source software package for image analysis and scientific visualization. Slicer is used in a variety of medical applications, including autism, multiple sclerosis, systemic lupus erythematosus, prostate cancer, lung cancer, breast cancer, schizophrenia, orthopedic biomechanics, COPD, cardiovascular disease and neurosurgery. == About == 3D Slicer is a free open source software (BSD-style license) that is a flexible, modular platform for image analysis and visualization. 3D Slicer is extended to enable development of both interactive and batch processing tools for a variety of applications. 3D Slicer provides image registration, processing of DTI (diffusion tractography), an interface to external devices for image guidance support, and GPU-enabled volume rendering, among other capabilities. 3D Slicer has a modular organization that allows the addition of new functionality and provides a number of generic features. The interactive visualization capabilities of 3D Slicer include the ability to display arbitrarily oriented image slices, build surface models from image labels, and hardware accelerated volume rendering. 3D Slicer also supports a rich set of annotation features (fiducials and measurement widgets, customized color maps). Slicer's capabilities include: Handling DICOM images and reading/writing a variety of other formats Interactive visualization of volumetric Voxel images, polygonal


id: adept-c-library-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adept_(C++_library)-0.md
category: reference
title: Adept (C++ library)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adept_(C++_library)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:10:21.196568+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: adept-c-library-20260505-0
summary:
Adept is a combined automatic differentiation and array software library for the C++ programming language. The automatic differentiation capability facilitates the development of applications involving mathematical optimization. Adept is notable for having applied the template metaprogramming technique of expression templates to speed-up the differentiation of mathematical statements. Along with the efficient way that it stores the differential information, this makes it significantly faster than most other C++ tools that provide similar functionality (e.g. ADOL-C, CppAD and FADBAD), although comparable performance has been reported for Stan and in some cases Sacado. Differentiation may be in forward mode, reverse mode (for use with a Quasi-Newton minimization scheme), or the full Jacobian matrix may be computed (for use with the Levenberg-Marquardt or Gauss-Newton minimization schemes). Applications of Adept have included computer functionality in the financial field, computational fluid dynamics, physical chemistry, parameter estimation and meteorology. Adept is free software distributed under the Apache License. == Example == Adept implements automatic differentiation using an operator overloading approach, in which scalars to be differentiated are written as adouble, indicating an "active" version of the normal double, and vectors to be differentiated are written as aVector. The following simple example uses these types to differentiate a


id: advanced-simulation-library-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Simulation_Library-0.md
category: reference
title: Advanced Simulation Library
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Simulation_Library
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:10:22.399192+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: advanced-simulation-library-20260505-0
summary:
Advanced Simulation Library (ASL) is a free and open-source hardware-accelerated multiphysics simulation platform. It enables users to write customized numerical solvers in C++ and deploy them on a variety of massively parallel architectures, ranging from inexpensive FPGAs, DSPs and GPUs up to heterogeneous clusters and supercomputers. Its internal computational engine is written in OpenCL and utilizes matrix-free solution techniques. ASL implements variety of modern numerical methods, i.a. level-set method, lattice Boltzmann, immersed boundary. The mesh-free, immersed boundary approach allows users to move from CAD directly to simulation, reducing pre-processing efforts and number of potential errors. ASL can be used to model various coupled physical and chemical phenomena, especially in the field of computational fluid dynamics. It is distributed under the free GNU Affero General Public License with an optional commercial license (which is based on the permissive MIT License). == History == Advanced Simulation Library is being developed by Avtech Scientific, an Israeli company. Its source code was released to the community on 14 May 2015, whose members packaged it for scientific sections of all major Linux distributions shortly thereafter. Subsequently, Khronos Group acknowledged the significance of ASL and listed it on its website among OpenCL-based resources. == Application areas


id: anuga-hydro-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ANUGA_Hydro-0.md
category: reference
title: ANUGA Hydro
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ANUGA_Hydro
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:10:23.608024+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anuga-hydro-20260505-0
summary:
ANUGA Hydro is a free and open source software tool for hydrodynamic modelling, suitable for predicting the consequences of hydrological disasters such as riverine flooding, storm surges and tsunamis. For example, ANUGA can be used to create predicted inundation maps based on hypothetical tsunami or flood scenarios. The ANUGA name without qualification is used informally to mean the ANUGA Hydro tool. == ANUGA == === Background === Modelling the effects on the built environment of natural hazards such as riverine flooding, storm surges and tsunami is critical for understanding their economic and social impact on our urban communities. ANUGA has its genesis as a MatLab program developed for ACTEW (an Australian Capital Territory owned utility providing electricity, water and wastewater treatment to the residents of the Australian Capital Territory). Its development was instigated by Dr Christopher Zoppou, a senior engineer in the Hydrographics Section of ACTEW in 1998 and a former student of Professor Stephen Roberts from the Australian National University (ANU). Stephen Roberts and Christopher Zoppou embarked on the development of a two-dimensional hydrodynamic shallow water wave equation solver. Written by Stephen Roberts, the MatLab code was used by Christopher Zoppou to simulate the impact of the catastrophic collapse


id: anuga-hydro-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ANUGA_Hydro-1.md
category: reference
title: ANUGA Hydro
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ANUGA_Hydro
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:10:23.608024+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anuga-hydro-20260505-0
summary:
Additional viewing capability is available via several other options: – Using Commercial Software such as WaterRide (Ref to WebSite) – Using Free tools Such as Mirone (Grid viewing software) which has a specific tool called Aquamoto – Using SWW2DEM in combination with any GIS platform – Using Crayfish viewer as plugin in QGIS – Possibly using tools such as VisIt (Ref to Web Site) === Validation studies === ANUGA has been extensively validated against wave tank experiments and field studies where available, and ships with a validation test suite with about 30 analytical solutions, wave tank and field tests. Examples include validation against the wave tank experiment for the Okushiri 1995 tsunami, wave tank runup experiments at University of Queensland, the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami impact at Patong Beach, comparison to other models, ANUGA was a late entry in the UK 2D model Benchmarking project in 2010 using version 1.1beta_7501. As a result, not all tests were completed. However of the basic tests ANUGA was well within the comparable range of results of other models. Since late 2013 the standard test suite for the model also includes a full catchment model (Towradgi Creek Catchment) which has been validated against the


id: anuga-hydro-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ANUGA_Hydro-2.md
category: reference
title: ANUGA Hydro
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ANUGA_Hydro
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:10:23.608024+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anuga-hydro-20260505-0
summary:
The mathematical model is the 2D shallow water wave equation. As such it cannot resolve vertical convection and consequently not breaking waves or 3D turbulence (e.g. vorticity). All spatial coordinates are assumed to be UTM (meters). As such, ANUGA is unsuitable for modelling flows in areas larger than one and half UTM zones (9 degrees wide). Fluid is assumed to be inviscid – although kinematic viscosity can be used modelled using a kinematic viscosity operator. The finite volume is a very robust and flexible numerical technique, especially when implemented on an unstructured triangular mesh, but it is not the fastest method around, and over sufficiently simple geometries alternative algorithms may be able to solve the problem faster than ANUGA. Frictional resistance is implemented using Manning's formula. == Users == Geoscience Australia Australian National University Fire and Emergency Services of Western Australia Franzius-Institut, Leibniz University Hannover Australia-Indonesia Facility for Disaster Reduction Wollongong City Council Balance Research & Development Institute Teknologi Bandung, Indonesia Universitas Sanata Dharma, Yogyakarta, Indonesia DMInnovation PT Inteligensi Risiko, Jakarta PT Reasuransi MAIPARK Indonesia, Jakarta Hydrata NASA JPL == Use history == ANUGA was trialed as a conventional hydrodynamic 2D flood model on both a complex urban system and


id: archaeological-recording-kit-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_Recording_Kit-0.md
category: reference
title: Archaeological Recording Kit
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_Recording_Kit
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:10:39.716591+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: archaeological-recording-kit-20260505-0
summary:
Archaeological Recording Kit (ARK) is a web-based, open source software package for recording and disseminating archaeological data. ARK is primarily designed for recording excavations, but can also be used for archaeological surveys, palaeoenvironmental research and collections management. ARK is based on the LAMP stack and MapServer, and is free software released under the GNU GPL. It was developed by L-P Archaeology, a British commercial archaeology practice. The Fasti Online project was built using an ARK back-end, and demonstrates its usage beyond normal archaeological recording. == References == == External links == ARK


id: armadillo-c-library-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armadillo_(C++_library)-0.md
category: reference
title: Armadillo (C++ library)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armadillo_(C++_library)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:10:40.886820+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: armadillo-c-library-20260505-0
summary:
Armadillo is a linear algebra software library for the C++ programming language. It aims to provide efficient and streamlined base calculations, while at the same time having a straightforward and easy-to-use interface. Its intended target users are scientists and engineers. It supports integer, floating point (single and double precision), complex numbers, and a subset of trigonometric and statistics functions. Dense and sparse matrices are supported. Various matrix decompositions are provided through optional integration with Linear Algebra PACKage (LAPACK), Automatically Tuned Linear Algebra Software (ATLAS), and ARPACK. High-performance BLAS/LAPACK replacement libraries such as OpenBLAS and Intel MKL can also be used. The library employs a delayed-evaluation approach (during compile time) to combine several operations into one and reduce (or eliminate) the need for temporaries. Where applicable, the order of operations is optimised. Delayed evaluation and optimisation are achieved through template metaprogramming. Armadillo is related to the Boost Basic Linear Algebra Subprograms (uBLAS) library, which also uses template metaprogramming. However, Armadillo builds upon ATLAS and LAPACK libraries, thereby providing machine-dependent optimisations and functions not present in uBLAS. It is open-source software distributed under the permissive Apache License, making it applicable for the development of both open source and proprietary software. The project


id: artificial-intelligence-system-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_Intelligence_System-0.md
category: reference
title: Artificial Intelligence System
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_Intelligence_System
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:10:42.105702+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: artificial-intelligence-system-20260505-0
summary:
Artificial Intelligence System (AIS) was a volunteer computing project undertaken by Intelligence Realm, Inc. with the long-term goal of simulating the human brain in real time, complete with artificial consciousness and artificial general intelligence. They claimed to have found, in research, the "mechanisms of knowledge representation in the brain which is equivalent to finding artificial intelligence", before moving into the developmental phase. == History == The project's initial goal was recreating the largest brain simulation to date, performed by neuroscientist Eugene M. Izhikevich of The Neurosciences Institute in San Diego, California. Izhikevich simulated 1 second of activity of 100 billion neurons (the estimated number of neurons in the human brain) in 50 days using a cluster of 27 3-gigahertz processors. He extrapolated that a real-time simulation of the brain could not be achieved before 2016. The project aimed to disprove this prediction. Artificial Intelligence System announced on Sep 5, 2007 that they will use the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) software to perform intensive calculations. On July 12, 2008, the first phase of the project had been completed by reaching the 100 billion neuron mark. The project then continued to simulate neurons while they completed the development of


id: ascalaph-designer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascalaph_Designer-0.md
category: reference
title: Ascalaph Designer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascalaph_Designer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:10:43.266788+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ascalaph-designer-20260505-0
summary:
Ascalaph Designer is a computer program for general purpose molecular modelling for molecular design and simulations. It provides a graphical environment for the common programs of quantum and classical molecular modelling ORCA, NWChem, Firefly, CP2K and MDynaMix . The molecular mechanics calculations cover model building, energy optimizations and molecular dynamics. Firefly (formerly named PC GAMESS) covers a wide range of quantum chemistry methods. Ascalaph Designer is free and open-source software, released under the GNU General Public License, version 2 (GPLv2). == Key features == == Uses == == See also == List of software for molecular mechanics modeling Molecular design software Molecule editor Abalone == References == == External links == Official website SourceForge Twitter


id: berkeley-open-infrastructure-for-network-computing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkeley_Open_Infrastructure_for_Network_Computing-0.md
category: reference
title: Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkeley_Open_Infrastructure_for_Network_Computing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:10:44.486200+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: berkeley-open-infrastructure-for-network-computing-20260505-0
summary:
The Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC, pronounced –rhymes with "oink") is an open-source middleware system for volunteer computing (a type of distributed computing). Developed originally to support SETI@home, it became the platform for many other applications in areas as diverse as medicine, molecular biology, mathematics, linguistics, climatology, environmental science, and astrophysics, among others. The purpose of BOINC is to enable researchers to utilize processing resources of personal computers and other devices around the world. BOINC development began with a group based at the Space Sciences Laboratory (SSL) at the University of California, Berkeley, and led by David P. Anderson, who also led SETI@home. As a high-performance volunteer computing platform, BOINC brings together 34,236 active participants employing 136,341 active computers (hosts) worldwide, processing daily on average 20.164 PetaFLOPS as of 16 November 2021 (it would be the 21st largest processing capability in the world compared with an individual supercomputer). The National Science Foundation (NSF) funds BOINC through awards SCI/0221529, SCI/0438443 and SCI/0721124. Guinness World Records ranks BOINC as the largest computing grid in the world. BOINC code runs on various operating systems, including Microsoft Windows, macOS, Android, Linux, and FreeBSD. BOINC is free software released under the terms of


id: bigdl-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BigDL-0.md
category: reference
title: BigDL
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BigDL
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:10:45.702369+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bigdl-20260505-0
summary:
BigDL is a distributed deep learning framework for Apache Spark, created by Jason Dai at Intel. BigDL has its source code hosted on GitHub. == Features == == Applications == == See also == Comparison of deep learning software == References ==


id: biskit-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biskit-0.md
category: reference
title: Biskit
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biskit
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:10:46.850468+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biskit-20260505-0
summary:
Biskit is an open source software package that facilitates research in structural bioinformatics and molecular modelling. Written in Python, it consists of: An object-oriented programming library for manipulating and analyzing macromolecular structures, protein complexes and molecular dynamics trajectories A set of programs for solving specific tasks, such as automatic prediction of protein structures by homology modeling, and possible prediction of protein complex structures through flexible protein-protein docking The library delegates many calculations to more specialized third-party software. It currently utilizes 15 external applications, including X-PLOR, Hex, T-Coffee, DSSP and MODELLER. The latest Biskit version, 2.4.0, was released on 4 Mar 2012. It was originally developed at the Pasteur Institute. The name "Biskit" refers to the research group's name, Unité de BioInformatique Structurale. == References == == External links == Official website


id: brian-software-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_(software)-0.md
category: reference
title: Brian (software)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_(software)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:10:48.484045+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: brian-software-20260505-0
summary:
Brian is an open source Python package for developing simulations of networks of spiking neurons. == Details == Brian is aimed at researchers developing models based on networks of spiking neurons. The general design is aimed at maximising flexibility, simplicity and users' development speed. Users specify neuron models by giving their differential equations in standard mathematical form as strings, create groups of neurons and connect them via synapses. This is in contrast to the approach taken by many neural simulators in which users select from a predefined set of neuron models. Brian is written in Python. Computationally, it is based around the concept of code generation: users specify the model in Python but behind the scenes Brian generates, compiles and runs code in one of several languages (including Python, Cython and C++). In addition there is a "standalone" mode in which Brian generates an entire C++ source code tree with no dependency on Brian, allowing models to be run on platforms where Python is not available. == Example == The following code defines, runs and plots a randomly connected network of leaky integrate and fire neurons with exponential inhibitory and excitatory currents. == Comparison to other simulators == Brian is


id: caffe-software-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caffe_(software)-0.md
category: reference
title: Caffe (software)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caffe_(software)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:10:49.666525+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: caffe-software-20260505-0
summary:
Caffe (Convolutional Architecture for Fast Feature Embedding) is a deep learning framework, originally developed at University of California, Berkeley. It is open source, under a BSD license. It is written in C++, with a Python interface. == History == Yangqing Jia created the Caffe project during his PhD at UC Berkeley, while working the lab of Trevor Darrell. The first version, called "DeCAF", made its first appearance in Spring 2013 when it was used for the ILSVRC challenge (later called ImageNet). The library was named Caffe and released to the public in December 2013. It reached end-of-support in 2018. It is hosted on GitHub. == Features == Caffe supports many different types of deep learning architectures geared towards image classification and image segmentation. It supports CNN, RCNN, LSTM and fully-connected neural network designs. Caffe supports GPU- and CPU-based acceleration computational kernel libraries such as Nvidia cuDNN and Intel MKL. == Applications == Caffe is being used in academic research projects, startup prototypes, and even large-scale industrial applications in vision, speech, and multimedia. Yahoo! has also integrated Caffe with Apache Spark to create CaffeOnSpark, a distributed deep learning framework. == Caffe2 == In April 2017, Facebook announced Caffe2, which included new


id: cgal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CGAL-0.md
category: reference
title: CGAL
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CGAL
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:10:50.777246+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cgal-20260505-0
summary:
The Computational Geometry Algorithms Library (CGAL) is an open source software library of computational geometry algorithms. While primarily written in C++, Scilab bindings and bindings generated with SWIG (supporting Python and Java for now) are also available. The software is available under dual licensing scheme. When used for other open source software, it is available under open source licenses (LGPL or GPL depending on the component). In other cases commercial license may be purchased, under different options for academic/research and industrial customers. == History == The CGAL project was founded in 1996, as a consortium of eight research institutions in Europe and Israel: Utrecht University, ETH Zurich, Free University of Berlin, INRIA Sophia Antipolis, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Max Planck Institute for Informatics Saarbrücken, Johannes Kepler University Linz, and Tel-Aviv University. The original funding for the project came from the ESPRIT project of the European Union. Originally, its licensing terms allowed its software to be used freely for academic purposes, with commercial licenses available for other uses. CGAL Releases 3.x were distributed under the QPL license. Starting with CGAL 4.0, released in 2012, CGAL is distributed under the GPL version 3. As of 2013 it is managed by a thirteen-member editorial board,


id: citcom-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citcom-0.md
category: reference
title: Citcom
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citcom
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:10:51.934088+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: citcom-20260505-0
summary:
CitCom (for California Institute of Technology Convection in the Mantle) is a finite element code designed to solve thermal convection problems relevant to Earth's mantle released under the GNU General Public License. Written in C, the code's latest version, CitComS, runs on a variety of parallel processing computers, including shared and distributed memory platforms. == History == CitCom was originally written in the early 1990s by Louis Moresi (Monash U.). Although the code for three-dimensional problems was incorporated from its inception, early versions of the software only solved for time-dependent convection problems within two-dimensional Cartesian domains. Moresi's original code turned out to be incredibly modular and easily extensible. Consequently, the fundamental finite element infrastructure which Louis wrote is still in place and forms the basis for much of the code contained in the present release. In the mid-1990s Moresi wrote versions of the code that solved the equations within three-dimensional Cartesian domains. Then Shijie Zhong (U. of Colorado, Boulder) successfully parallelized CitCom using message passing routines on a limited release Intel supercomputer. Zhong then created a spherical version of the code which he named CitComS. Lijie Han (Planetary Science Institute) then created a regional version of CitComS as well as


id: clean-energy-project-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean_Energy_Project-0.md
category: reference
title: Clean Energy Project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean_Energy_Project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:10:53.152563+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: clean-energy-project-20260505-0
summary:
The Clean Energy Project (CEP) was a virtual high-throughput discovery and design effort for the next generation of plastic solar cell materials that has finished. It studies millions of candidate structures to identify suitable compounds for the harvesting of renewable energy from the sun and for other organic electronic applications. It ran on the BOINC platform. == Project purpose == The project searched for the most suitable organic compounds with which to make solar cells, the best polymeric membranes with which to make fuel cells, and how best to assemble the molecules for such devices. == Current project status == On June 24, 2013, the Clean Energy Project released its database to the public and the research community. The release was featured on the White House Blog and by several news organizations including the MIT Technology Review. The database contains 150 million density functional theory calculations on 2.3 million molecules. == Publications == C. Amador-Bedolla, R. Olivares-Amaya, J. Hachmann, A. Aspuru-Guzik, Towards Materials Informatics for Organic Photovoltaics, in Informatics for Materials Science and Engineering, K. Rajan, Ed., Elsevier, Amsterdam (2013). In press. R. Olivares-Amaya, C. Amador-Bedolla, J. Hachmann, S. Atahan-Evrenk, R.S. Sánchez-Carrera, L. Vogt, A. Aspuru-Guzik, Accelerated Computational Discovery of


