# kb

id: intellectual-freedom-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_freedom-5.md
category: reference
title: Intellectual freedom
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_freedom
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:53:58.522346+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: intellectual-freedom-20260505-0
summary:
=== United States === In the aftermath of the September 11th attacks issues concerning the suspension or reduction of civil liberties in the name of national security have arisen. Legislation such as the Homeland Security Act (HSA) of 2002 and the USA PATRIOT Act (often shortened to the Patriot Act) of 2001 encroach upon intellectual freedom rights to privacy and freedom of information to enhance domestic security from potential terrorist threats and acts. The Patriot Act in particular has come under fire from numerous intellectual freedom organizations. The Electronic Privacy Information Center (EPIC) has criticized the Patriot Act as unconstitutional, especially when "the private communications of law-abiding American citizens might be intercepted incidentally," Additionally, the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) maintains that the lower standard applied to wiretaps "gives the FBI a 'blank check' to violate the communications privacy of countless innocent Americans". The American Library Association (ALA) has partnered with American libraries in opposition to a provision in Section 215 which allows the FBI to apply for an order to produce materials that assist in an investigation undertaken to protect against international terrorism or clandestine intelligence activities. The "tangible things" that can be targeted include "books, records, papers, documents, and


id: international-centre-for-integrated-mountain-development-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Centre_for_Integrated_Mountain_Development-0.md
category: reference
title: International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Centre_for_Integrated_Mountain_Development
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:53:59.782758+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-centre-for-integrated-mountain-development-20260505-0
summary:
The International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) is a regional intergovernmental learning and knowledge sharing centre founded in 1983, serving the eight regional member countries of the Hindu Kush Himalaya region – Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan. The HKH region is a vast area, encompassing mountain ranges stretching from the Hindu Kush range in northern Afghanistan to the Arakan range in Myanmar, with the Himalayan range as its spine, and also includes the Tibetan Plateau. ICIMOD's mission is to promote partnerships amongst the regional member countries to secure a better future for the people and environment of the region. ICIMOD is headquartered at Khumaltar in the city of Lalitpur, located in the Kathmandu valley of Nepal. At Godavari in Lalitpur, ICIMOD has a Knowledge Park which exhibits some applications of ICIMOD's theoretical and field research. In addition, ICIMOD has country offices in Afghanistan and Pakistan. ICIMOD's partner organisations include national and international scientific institutions, government agencies, donor agencies, and the private sector, both within the region and outside. == History == === Origins === In December 1974, the idea of creating an institution to promote the ecologically sound development of mountainous regions was discussed at


id: national-council-for-science-and-technology-communication-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Council_for_Science_and_Technology_Communication-0.md
category: reference
title: National Council for Science and Technology Communication
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Council_for_Science_and_Technology_Communication
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:02.242914+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-council-for-science-and-technology-communication-20260505-0
summary:
The National Council for Science and Technology Communication (NCSTC) is a scientific programme of the Government of India for the popularisation of science, dissemination of scientific knowledge and inculcation of scientific temper. Established under the Department of Science and Technology, it "is mandated to communicate Science and Technology to masses, stimulate scientific and technological temper and coordinate and orchestrate such efforts throughout the country." Following the science communication plan introduced in the Sixth Five-Year Plan of India, NCSTC was established in 1982. == Objectives == NCSTC has three major objectives: For developing a building capacity for informed decision and promote scientific thinking to the Indian communities. For the development of society using scientific knowledge and organise programmes using different media to reach every citizen. To conduct outreach activities, including training in science and technology communication, awareness programmes, dissemination of scientific knowledge, award incentives, promote scientific research, develop international co-operation, while providing special attention to women. == History == The Government of India in its Sixth Five-Year Plan in 1980 introduced an elaborate scheme for the promotion of science and technology. It constituted a Cabinet Committee on Science and Technology (CCST) on 3 March 1981. Chaired by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi,


id: natural-frequency-statistics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_frequency_(statistics)-0.md
category: reference
title: Natural frequency (statistics)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_frequency_(statistics)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:03.422873+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-frequency-statistics-20260505-0
summary:
A common question in medicine is how likely it is that someone has a disease when they get a 'positive' test result. Because some people without the disease also test positive, not everyone who tests positive has the disease. Expressing the probabilities using natural frequencies – absolute counts from a sample showing the joint probabilities (disease x test result) – makes the question easier to answer. For example, by stating that 100 out of 10,000 women have breast cancer, 90 out of 100 with breast cancer have a positive mammogram and 990 out of 9,900 without breast cancer have a positive mammogram. In contrast, people struggle when you give the same information as conditional probabilities. That is, when they are given information in a format like this: 80% of women with breast cancer test positive on a mammogram, whereas 9.6% of healthy women also get a positive test (false positive). One percent of women has breast cancer. People often neglect the base rate of people with breast cancer when given this information (base rate fallacy), leading them to overestimate how likely it is someone has the disease given a positive test result. In one study, only 6% of medical students


id: notre-dame-quarknet-center-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notre_Dame_QuarkNet_Center-0.md
category: reference
title: Notre Dame QuarkNet Center
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notre_Dame_QuarkNet_Center
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:04.641333+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: notre-dame-quarknet-center-20260505-0
summary:
The Notre Dame QuarkNet Center at the University of Notre Dame was established in 1999. QuarkNet is a nation-wide program that pairs university faculty with high school teachers and students to perform summer research related to physics, astronomy, chemistry, and biology. Along with Notre Dame, QuarkNet centers are sponsored by dozens of other universities. The Notre Dame QuarkNet Center is regarded as a flagship center for the program. The program was started by particle physicists associated with Fermilab in Illinois and CERN in Switzerland and has been sponsored by the National Science Foundation (NSF) and the United States Department of Energy (DoE). == 1997 to early 2000s == === Randal Ruchti and Patrick Mooney === In 1997, professor Randal Ruchti of the University of Notre Dame began efforts to teach particle physics to local high school students in the South Bend, Indiana community. In particular, he wanted to link students to experiments being conducted at Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory in Illinois and the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) in Switzerland. Ruchti had also been selected as a United States educator coordinator for the LHC. Ruchti engaged young people with demonstrations at the annual Science Alive event hosted by the South Bend


id: notre-dame-quarknet-center-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notre_Dame_QuarkNet_Center-1.md
category: reference
title: Notre Dame QuarkNet Center
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notre_Dame_QuarkNet_Center
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:04.641333+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: notre-dame-quarknet-center-20260505-0
summary:
=== Tom Loughran === Tom Loughran of the University of Notre Dame participated in a summer 2000 Research Experience for Teachers (RET) experience at the Notre Dame QuarkNet Center under the guidance of professor Ruchti. Loughran had obtained a Ph.D. in philosophy from Notre Dame in 1986. Loughran would go on to work in various aspects and offshoots of the Notre Dame QuarkNet Center and Fermilab such as the I2U2 education program, Michiana BioEYES, and the Notre Dame Extended Research Community (NDeRC). === Smithsonian cosmic rays === In the Summer of 2001, Randal Ruchti and Barry Baumbaugh of Notre Dame installed a cosmic ray detector in a permanent display at the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, DC. The detector was included in the "Explore the Universe" exhibit that highlighted instruments built by astronomers and scientists. Ruchti and Baumbaugh's detector was the only live functioning device in the exhibit and utilized a night vision scope to project live views of cosmic ray particle tracks on a screen. The night vision scope detected faint pulses of light generated when high energy particles pass through a bundle of special fiber optic material in the device. The building of cosmic ray detectors


id: notre-dame-quarknet-center-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notre_Dame_QuarkNet_Center-2.md
category: reference
title: Notre Dame QuarkNet Center
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notre_Dame_QuarkNet_Center
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:04.641333+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: notre-dame-quarknet-center-20260505-0
summary:
=== Siemens Competition === In 2006, junior students Mengwen Zhang (Penn High School) and Kristen Anderson (Bremen High School) were selected as finalists for the Siemens Competition for scientific research held at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). The students had presented their QuarkNet summer research project named "Performance of Scintillating and Waveshifting Fibers for Particle Detectors". The research was related to the particle accelerator at CERN. Both students were introduced to the QuarkNet program by their high school science teachers. Anderson and Zhang performed their research project under the direction of QuarkNet staff members Dan Karmgard and Mark Vigneault. Anderson obtained a bachelor's degree from MIT and now works in the aerospace industry. Zhang was the Penn High School co-valedictorian and later obtained her Ph.D. in chemical engineering from UC Santa Barbara and works as a patent engineer. === CRiL === In 2007, Marian High School junior Tony Coiro and LaLumier High School junior Caleb Phillps worked at the Notre Dame QuarkNet Center under the direction of Dan Karmgard, Jeff Chorny, Danielle McDermott, then an Arkansas high school physics teacher, research technician Mike McKenna, and physicist Barry Baumbaugh of Notre Dame. Their project was to build a table-top cosmic


id: notre-dame-quarknet-center-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notre_Dame_QuarkNet_Center-3.md
category: reference
title: Notre Dame QuarkNet Center
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notre_Dame_QuarkNet_Center
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:04.641333+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: notre-dame-quarknet-center-20260505-0
summary:
=== I2U2 === In 2008, Tom Loughran was selected as Education Program Leader for the Interactions in Understanding the Universe (I2U2) program. This NSF-funded effort had been established by Marge Bardeen of Fermilab. Within I2U2, Loughran would spearhead the continuing development of e-Labs which had been used by other QuarkNet teachers nationally. Work on e-Labs became part of the summer research performed at the Notre Dame QuarkNet Center. The e-Labs were designed as a free resource that would link data and researchers from academic settings to high school educators and students. The e-Labs drew on work in cosmic rays, observations from the Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS) experiment within the LHC, and data from the LIGO gravitational wave experiment. In 2009, Loughran sponsored a Notre Dame workshop for local teachers to showcase the new LIGO e-Lab. Physics teacher Mark Kirzeder of Marian High School stated that "It's going to be a neat application." Kirzeder would go on to become a QuarkNet teacher in 2010. He had taught mathematics at Mishawaka Marian High School since 2005 and would be appointed principal of the school in 2014. === ILC === In 2009, a group of Notre Dame faculty and local high school teachers


id: notre-dame-quarknet-center-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notre_Dame_QuarkNet_Center-4.md
category: reference
title: Notre Dame QuarkNet Center
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notre_Dame_QuarkNet_Center
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:04.641333+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: notre-dame-quarknet-center-20260505-0
summary:
=== Notre Dame DVT === In 2013, Ken Andert of LaLumiere High School attended the Live Interactive Planetarium Symposium held at Seminole State College in Sandford, Florida. Andert started work as a QuarkNet teacher in 1999 and has worked with astronomy professor Keith Davis of Notre Dame in the university's Digital Visualization Theater (DVT) at the Jordan Hall of Science. The DVT is a 136-seat, 50-foot-domed planetarium theatre. The Notre Dame QuarkNet DVT group was established in 2008. Along with Ken Andert and Keith Davis, other participants include Ed Fidler of New Buffalo High School and Notre Dame QuarkNet staff member Jeff Marchant. Andert and Davis teach summer QuarkNet students the foundations of 3D animation by using professional modeling and rendering software. Along with LaLumiere students, Andert and Davis created a 3D simulation of particle collisions from the Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS) experiment at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) in Geneva, Switzerland. The simulation was designed to be projected onto a planetarium dome and was presented at the 2013 Sanford, Florida planetarium symposium. In 2016, LaLumiere students Camille Goethals and Oliver McNeil presented a simulation of the entire ring of the Large Hadron Collider at the Notre Dame DVT. To


id: notre-dame-quarknet-center-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notre_Dame_QuarkNet_Center-5.md
category: reference
title: Notre Dame QuarkNet Center
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notre_Dame_QuarkNet_Center
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:04.641333+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: notre-dame-quarknet-center-20260505-0
summary:
In 2023, Kenneth Cecire spoke at the 38th International Cosmic Ray Conference (ICRC2023) in Nagoya, Japan. The talk detailed the building of Cosmic Watches at the Notre Dame QuarkNet Center. Invented by Spencer Axani of MIT, the Cosmic Watch is an inexpensive cosmic ray detector that can be utilized in high school and university physics classes. Before, the Notre Dame QuarkNet Center had a long-term project to build and test larger, tabletop size cosmic ray detectors for use in the classroom. In an effort provide less expensive units that could make up a class set of detectors, Notre Dame QuarkNet teacher Dan Kallenberg of Adams High School had spearheaded the construction of several Cosmic Watches during the summer of 2019. In 2020, just before the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, Cecire and Kallenberg, along with collaborator Joel Klammer, were part of an "Accel Kitchen" workshop held at the Hiroo Gakuen school in Tokyo where they performed Cosmic Watch experiments and demonstrations. In 2022, Kallenberg, with help from Senior Technician Daniel Ruggiero and summer students, built 48 Cosmic Watches that would be provided to local and national QuarkNet teachers for testing. Miki Ohtsuka, a visiting teacher from Waseda Honjo Senior High


id: pathological-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathological_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Pathological science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathological_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:05.888446+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pathological-science-20260505-0
summary:
Pathological science is an area of research where "people are tricked into false results ... by subjective effects, wishful thinking or threshold interactions." The term was coined by Irving Langmuir, Nobel Prize-winning chemist, during a 1953 colloquium at the Knolls Research Laboratory. Langmuir said a pathological science is an area of research that simply will not "go away"—long after it was given up on as "false" by the majority of scientists in the field. He called pathological science "the science of things that aren't so." In his 2002 book, Undead Science, sociology and anthropology Professor Bart Simon lists it among practices that are falsely perceived or presented to be science, "categories ... such as ... pseudoscience, amateur science, deviant or fraudulent science, bad science, junk science, pathological science, cargo cult science, and voodoo science." Examples of pathological science include the Martian canals, N-rays, and cold fusion. The theories and conclusions behind all of these examples are currently rejected or disregarded by the majority of scientists. == Definition == Pathological science, as defined by Langmuir, is a psychological process in which a scientist, originally conforming to the scientific method, unconsciously veers from that method, and begins a pathological process of wishful


id: physics-outreach-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach-0.md
category: reference
title: Physics outreach
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:07.185423+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physics-outreach-20260505-0
summary:
Physics outreach encompasses facets of science outreach and physics education, and a variety of activities by schools, research institutes, universities, clubs and institutions such as science museums aimed at broadening the audience for and awareness and understanding of physics, including through trust-building with non-expert audiences. While the general public may sometimes be the focus of such activities, physics outreach often centers on developing and providing resources and making presentations to students, educators in other disciplines, and in some cases researchers within different areas of physics. == History == Ongoing efforts to expand the understanding of physics to a wider audience have been undertaken by individuals and institutions since the early 19th century. Historic works, such as the Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, and Two New Sciences by Galileo Galilei, sought to present revolutionary knowledge in astronomy, frames of reference, and kinematics in a manner that a general audience could understand with great effect. In the mid-1800s, English physicist and chemist, Michael Faraday gave a series of nineteen lectures aimed towards young adults with the hopes of conveying scientific phenomena. His intentions were to raise awareness, inspire them and generate revenue of the Royal Institution. This series became known


id: physics-outreach-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach-1.md
category: reference
title: Physics outreach
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:07.185423+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physics-outreach-20260505-0
summary:
=== France === Cité des Sciences et de l'Industrie (Paris) is the largest French science museum, and contains permanent exhibits and hands-on experiments. Palais de la Découverte (Paris) contains permanent exhibits and interactive experiments with commentaries by lecturers. It includes a Zeiss planetarium with 15-metre dome. It was created in 1937 by the French Nobel Prize physicist Jean Baptiste Perrin. Musée des Arts et Métiers (Paris) focuses on the preservation of scientific instruments and inventions. Other science museums that are part of the Cultural Center of Science, Technology and Industry (CCSTI) exist all across France : Espace des Sciences (Rennes), La Casemate (Grenoble), the Cité de l'espace (Toulouse). === Germany === Deutsches Museum (Munich) is the world's largest science museum. One of the most popular events is the high voltage demonstration of a Faraday cage as part of their series on electric power. === Islamic Republic of Iran === Iran Science and Technology Museum (Tehran) is the largest science museum in Iran. This museum, by holding varied scientific and educational programs, provides the required situation for creation and propagation of scientific thought in the society. One of these programs is the "Physics Show". === Netherlands === NEMO (Amsterdam) is the


id: physics-outreach-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach-2.md
category: reference
title: Physics outreach
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:07.185423+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physics-outreach-20260505-0
summary:
=== Internet === MinutePhysics is a series of educational videos created by Henry Reich and disseminated through its YouTube channel. It displays a series of pedagogical short videos about various physics phenomena and theories. Physics World publication, run by the Institute of Physics, started explaining scientific concepts through its YouTube channel. Palais de la Découverte in Paris hosts online videos that display various interviews about science, including physics. Unisciel, a French online university, hosts educational videos through its YouTube channel. Veritasium is a series of educational videos created by Derek Muller and disseminated through its YouTube channel. It displays a series of pedagogical short videos about science, including physics. Saint Mary's Physics Demonstrations is an online repository for physics classroom demonstrations. It shows teachers the experiments they can do in class while also hosting videos of said experiments. Periodic Videos is a portal of educational videos explaining the characteristics of each element and supporting topics such as nuclear reactions. The project is sponsored by the University of Nottingham and hosted by Prof. Sir Martyn Poliakoff. == Prominent individuals == === Austria === Fritjof Capra is an Austrian-born American physicist, who attended the University of Vienna, where he earned his Ph.D.


id: physics-outreach-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach-3.md
category: reference
title: Physics outreach
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:07.185423+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physics-outreach-20260505-0
summary:
== Funding sources == American Physical Society awards grants up to $10,000 to help APS members develop new physics outreach activities. Institute for Complex Adaptive Matter (ICAM) provides grants and fellowships for physics outreach. Wellcome Trust, while mostly focused on biological sciences, the Wellcome Trust also touches on physics and encourages physics outreach. They aim to improve biology, chemistry, and physics A levels in the UK. Institute of Physics (IoP) The IoP aims to provide positive and compelling experiences of physics for public audiences through engaging and entertaining activities and events. The public engagement grant scheme is designed to give financial support of up to £1500 to individuals and organisations running physics-based events and activities in the UK and Ireland. == Awards == Kalinga Prize for the Popularization of Science is an award given by UNESCO for exceptional skill in presenting scientific ideas to lay people Klopsteg Memorial Award is presented by the American Association of Physics Teachers and given in memory of the physicist Paul E. Klopsteg Kelvin Prize is awarded by the Institute of Physics to acknowledge outstanding contributions to the public understanding of physics. The Michael Faraday Prize for communicating science to a UK audience is awarded


id: popsicule-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popsicule-0.md
category: reference
title: Popsicule
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popsicule
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:08.424844+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: popsicule-20260505-0
summary:
Popsicule (also referred to as the Popsicule) is the Science in Popular Culture and Entertainment Hub of the Australian National University. Established in 2022 by Anna-Sophie Jürgens, a Senior Lecturer in science communication, it is based within the Australian National Centre for the Public Awareness of Science. Through interdisciplinary research, teaching, and creative public engagement initiatives, the hub focuses on the cultural meanings of science, examining how popular culture shapes public discourse, understanding, and cultural ideas about science, as well as the relationship between science and society. Its activities include courses, publications, film screenings and discussions, the development of science communication formats, and collaborations with scientists, artists, and cultural practitioners. In 2025, Popsicule received the Vice-Chancellor’s Award for Programs that Enhance Learning at ANU. == History == Popsicule was established in 2022 at the Australian National University by Anna-Sophie Jürgens. It developed from Jürgens’s research on the cultural meanings of science, humour, and popular entertainment, as well as from her teaching in science communication and popular culture. From its inception, Popsicule combined research, teaching, and public engagement activities, functioning as a platform for science engagement and research collaboration, a teaching laboratory, and a space for student publications. Its work has


id: popsicule-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popsicule-1.md
category: reference
title: Popsicule
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popsicule
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:08.424844+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: popsicule-20260505-0
summary:
== Research and publications == Popsicule contributes to research on science communication and popular culture, with a focus on the cultural dimensions of how science is communicated and experienced. Its work addresses areas including humour and comic performance in science, portrayals of scientists and scientific knowledge in film and television, visual and artistic approaches to communicating science, and environmental communication and aesthetics. The hub’s research also examines the role of narrative, metaphor, and genre in shaping public perceptions of science, as well as the ways in which popular culture influences trust, authority, and engagement in science–society relations. Through interdisciplinary and collaborative approaches, Popsicule contributes to scholarship in science communication, pop culture studies and related fields through journal articles, edited volumes, and public-facing publications. === Notable publications === ==== Books ==== Judd, K.; Gaul, B.; Jürgens, A.-S. (2025). Women Scientists in American Television Comedy: Beakers, Big Bangs and Broken Hearts. Palgrave Macmillan. Hemkendreis, A.; Jürgens, A.-S. (eds.) (2024). Communicating Ice through Popular Art and Aesthetics. Palgrave Macmillan. Jürgens, A.-S.; Hildbrand, M. (eds.) (2022). Circus and the Avant-Gardes: History, Imaginary, Innovation. Routledge. Jürgens, A.-S. (ed.) (2020). Circus, Science and Technology: Dramatising Innovation. Palgrave Macmillan. ==== Selected articles and book chapters ==== Walsh,


id: popsicule-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popsicule-2.md
category: reference
title: Popsicule
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popsicule
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:08.424844+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: popsicule-20260505-0
summary:
“Cinematic Science: Film screenings that celebrate science, cinema and art”, Chemistry World (2024) “Spielberg, a tuba, and a shark named Bruce — the cultural impact of Jaws”, ABC Radio National (Big Ideas, 2024) “Clowns, horror and science fiction as a research subject”, SBS German (2025) “I didn’t even know my work was considered science communication”, Wissenschaftskommunikation.de (2023) “Science goes pop: where mad scientists meet the world”, ANU Reporter (2025) “Is Beetlejuice the comic king of parasites?”, ANU Reporter (2024) “Episode 2: Dr Anna-Sophie Jürgens/The one on Science”, Cutting Edge podcast (Australasian Humour Studies Research Network, (2024) “Dr Anna-Sophie Jürgens walks the tightrope between pop culture and science”, ANU College of Science & Medicine, Portrait (2023) == Recognition == Popsicule’s teaching model has been recognised by the Australian National University through the 2025 Vice-Chancellor’s Award for Programs that Enhance Learning. In 2024, Popsicule was shortlisted as a finalist in the Science Engagement category of the Falling Walls Global Call, placing it among 30 finalists. Between 2023 and 2024, Popsicule was selected, through a competitive application process, to participate in and present at the Silbersalz Institute’s Science & Media Programme with a collaborative project focused on interdisciplinary science–art engagement. The work of


id: program-conciencia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Program_ConCiencia-0.md
category: reference
title: Program ConCiencia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Program_ConCiencia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:09.737400+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: program-conciencia-20260505-0
summary:
The Program ConCiencia is an initiative of science communication created in 2006 by the Universidad de Santiago de Compostela and the Consorcio de Santiago. It is based on visits to Santiago de Compostela of Nobel Laureates or analogous laureates in mathematics (Fields Medal, Abel Prize) and computer science (Turing Award). Since 2008 this program organizes also the Fonseca Prize of science communication, which so far has been awarded to Stephen W. Hawking, James Lovelock, Sir David Attenborough and Sir Roger Penrose. == Participants == Heinrich Rohrer (Nobel Physics 1986) Torsten N. Wiesel (Nobel Physiology or Medicine 1981) Richard R. Ernst (Nobel Chemistry 1991) Sir Michael Atiyah (Fields Medal 1966, Abel Prize 2004) Frank Wilczek (Nobel Physics 2004) John E. Walker (Nobel Chemistry 1997) Peter Lax (Abel Prize 2005) John F. Nash (Nobel Economy 1994) Harold E. Varmus (Nobel Physiology or Medicine 1989) Frances E. Allen (Turing Award 2006) Gerardus 't Hooft (Nobel Physics 1999) K. Barry Sharpless (Nobel Chemistry 2001 and 2022) Jean-Marie Lehn (Nobel Chemistry 1987) James Watson Cronin (Nobel Physics 1980) Roger David Kornberg (Nobel Chemistry 2006) Albert Fert (Nobel Physics 2007) Sir Harold Walter Kroto (Nobel Chemistry 1996) Sir Richard J. Roberts (Nobel Physiology or Medicine 1993)


id: public-criminology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_criminology-0.md
category: reference
title: Public criminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_criminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:11.062030+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: public-criminology-20260505-0
summary:
Public criminology is an approach to criminology that disseminates criminological research beyond academia to broader audiences, such as criminal justice practitioners and the general public. Public criminology is closely tied with "public sociology", and draws on a long line of intellectuals engaging in public interventions related to crime and justice. Some forms of public criminology are conducted through methods such as classroom education, academic conferences, public lectures, "news-making criminology", government hearings, newspapers, radio and television broadcasting and press releases. Advocates of public criminology argue that the energies of criminologists should be directed towards "conducting and disseminating research on crime, law, and deviance in dialogue with affected communities." Public criminologists focus on reshaping the image of the criminal and work with communities to find answers to pressing questions. Proponents of public criminology see it as potentially narrowing "the yawning gap between public perceptions and the best available scientific evidence on issues of public concern", a problem they see as especially pertinent to matters of crime and punishment. The general response to public criminology has been positive, however several authors have voiced a number of concerns: one set of concerns focuses on the ability of public criminologists to effectively impact policy decisions;


id: public-criminology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_criminology-1.md
category: reference
title: Public criminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_criminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:11.062030+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: public-criminology-20260505-0
summary:
== Criticisms == The response to calls for public criminology has generally been positive, though several authors have expressed a number of concerns. One set of concerns has focused on the ability of public criminologists to effectively impact policy decisions. For example, Michael Tonry has pointed out there exists a broad indifference on the part of policy makers to criminological insights, while Daniel Mears illustrates a similar indifference on the part of academic criminology for policy-making issues. Likewise, British Criminologist Paul Rock has voiced concerns regarding criminologist's lack of experience in policy-making, as well as questioning the integrity of public criminology if it is to be subject to the political spectrum. He argues that "...criminology itself often plays so small a role in what is done. It might be far less important that criminologists endorse a measure than that, at the outset, the judiciary, or heads of other government departments, or chiefs of police, and then later, politicians on both sides of the Houses of Parliament do so." Finally, many public criminologists have taken issue with how little criminologists engage in news reporting. For example, Daniel Crépault acknowledges that while criminological news and research is frequently reported, it is often


id: saganet-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAGANet-0.md
category: reference
title: SAGANet
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAGANet
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:12.325394+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: saganet-20260505-0
summary:
SAGANet (Social Action for Grassroots Astrobiology Network) is a social and collaborative web platform created to connect scientists and science enthusiasts who share interests in the research and culture of astrobiology. == Background == SAGANet was founded in 2011 by Blue Marble Space Institute of Science scientists Zach Adam, Julia DeMarines, Heshan Illangkoon, Betül Kaçar, Sanjoy Som, and Sara Imari Walker. It was officially launched on April 12, 2012 (51 years after the first launch of a human into space and 31 years after the first launch of the Space Shuttle Columbia (STS-1)), and was announced publicly at the 2012 Astrobiology Science Conference. SAGANet is named after the late Carl Sagan (The acronym is used with courtesy of the Carl Sagan Foundation) and builds upon his vision of a citizenry actively engaged in learning about the cosmos. SAGANet is designed to be an immersive virtual community where members interact in an environment of shared learning. SAGANet is currently funded by Blue Marble Space. == Events == SAGANet has organized several events on the site and through various platforms that engage the general public. “Talk to an Astrobiologist” started off as a monthly event where a distinguished scientist is invited to


id: science-communication-observatory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Communication_Observatory-0.md
category: reference
title: Science Communication Observatory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Communication_Observatory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:13.487490+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-communication-observatory-20260505-0
summary:
The Science Communication Observatory (Catalan: Observatori de la Comunicació Científica, Spanish: Observatorio de la Comunicación Científica, OCC) is a Special Research Centre attached to the Department of Communication of the Pompeu Fabra University in Barcelona, Spain, set up in 1994. This centre is specialized in the study and analysis of the transmission of scientific, medical, environmental and technological knowledge to society. The journalist Vladimir de Semir, associated professor of Science Journalism at the Pompeu Fabra University, was the founder and is the current director of the centre. A multidisciplinary team of researchers coming from different backgrounds (i.e. journalists, biologists, physicians, linguists, historians, etc.) is working on various lines of research: science communication; popularization of sciences, risk and crisis communication; science communication and knowledge representation; journalism specialized in science and technology; scientific discourse analysis; health and medicine in the daily press; relationships between science journals and mass media; history of science communication; public understanding of science; gender and science in the mass media, promotion of scientific vocations, science museology, etc. == PCST Network & Academy == The Science Communication Observatory is linked to the international network on Public Communication of Science & Technology (PCST), which includes individuals from around the world


id: science-outreach-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_outreach-0.md
category: reference
title: Science outreach
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_outreach
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:16.178166+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-outreach-20260505-0
summary:
Science outreach, also called education and public outreach (EPO or E/PO) or simply public outreach, is an umbrella term for a variety of activities by research institutes, universities, and institutions such as science museums, aimed at promoting public awareness (and understanding) of science, including trust-building, and making informal contributions to science education. == Scope and history == While there have always been individual scientists interested in educating the public, science outreach has recently become more organized. For example, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) now requires all of its projects to organize suitable outreach activities. Also working to inform the public are organizations such as Communicating Astronomy to the Public and the Washington Declaration on Communicating Astronomy to the Public that organize conferences for the public on science issues and make efforts to put outreach on a more general institutional footing. Recently, an increasing number of projects have hired designated outreach scientists (part-time or full-time) that handle public relations for their project. There are also specialized outreach providers such as the Education branch of the Space Science Institute in Boulder, Colorado and the Education and Public Outreach Group at Sonoma State University which offer to organize a project's outreach


id: scienceupfirst-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ScienceUpFirst-0.md
category: reference
title: ScienceUpFirst
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ScienceUpFirst
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:18.606944+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scienceupfirst-20260505-0
summary:
ScienceUpFirst is a Canadian initiative launched to counter misinformation online, especially about COVID-19. Launched January 25, 2021, it brings together independent scientists, health care providers and science communicators. == Goals and history == The initiative is the result of conversations between Senator Stan Kutcher and Timothy Caulfield, who were discussing ways to counter misinformation about COVID-19. In April 2021, the Government of Canada announced $2.25 million in funding for two new projects to increase uptake of COVID-19 vaccines, one of which was ScienceUpFirst. The initiative received $2,590,682 in new funding through the Canadian Association of Science Centres from the Public Health Agency of Canada's Immunization Partnership Fund. The groups aims at disseminating information created by its members or selected from credible sources. Starting in March 2021, it also plans to track misinformation online and post science-based content to oppose it. In addition to recruiting athletes and celebrities, it's building a network of volunteers to increase the distribution of the selected information. The initiative will be especially active against misinformation about COVID-19 vaccination, which threatens to have an impact on vaccination rates. Caulfield commented that the amount of disinformation circulating in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic is unlike anything experienced


id: soapbox-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soapbox_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Soapbox Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soapbox_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:21.213287+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: soapbox-science-20260505-0
summary:
Soapbox Science is a public outreach platform that promotes women working in science and the research that they do. The events turns public spaces into an area for learning and debate, in the spirit of Hyde Park's Speakers' Corner. Soapbox Science encourages scientists to explain their research to members of the public using non-traditional methods (for example, there is no use of a projector or slides). Speakers typically make props at home to explain the processes behind their research. Soapbox Science launched in London in 2011, where it was led by Seirian Sumner and Nathalie Pettorelli. It aims to showcase eminent female scientists across the world. == History == Soapbox Science launched in London in 2011, led by Seirian Sumner and Nathalie Pettorelli and funded by L'Oreal UNESCO For Women in Science Scheme, Zoological Society of London and the Science & Technology Facilities Council. Soapbox Science formed a partnership with Speakezee in 2016. The first three annual events 2011-2013 ran in London, in 2014 events ran in London, Bristol, Dublin, and Swansea. In 2015 more cities joined including Exeter, Manchester, Newcastle, Belfast and Glasgow, all in the United Kingdom and Ireland. In 2016, Cambridge, Cardiff, Edinburgh, Milton Keynes, Oxford, Galway,


id: the-story-collider-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Story_Collider-0.md
category: reference
title: The Story Collider
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Story_Collider
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:22.669045+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-story-collider-20260505-0
summary:
The Story Collider is a US-based non-profit group dedicated to telling true, personal stories about science. Their mission is to empower both scientists and nonscientists alike with the skills they need to tell these stories and share them through their live shows and podcast, with the goal of exploring the human side of science. == Programs == === Live events === Every year, The Story Collider produces between 40 and 50 live storytelling shows across the United States, United Kingdom, New Zealand, and Canada featuring stories about science that are both "stand-up funny and powerfully confessional," according to The Wall Street Journal. The organization now regularly holds shows in New York, Boston, Washington, D.C., Los Angeles, St. Louis, Atlanta, Toronto, Vancouver, and Wellington, New Zealand. In addition, The Story Collider has worked with various partners to produce one-off shows in other locations. Past and current partnerships include public radio's Studio 360 with Kurt Andersen, St. Louis Public Radio, Springer Nature, Scientific American, the American Geophysical Union, the Society for the Advancement of Chicanos/Hispanics and Native Americans in Science, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the Gulf of Mexico Research Initiative, Fermilab, and universities such as Yale, Cambridge and


id: vert-dider-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vert_Dider-0.md
category: reference
title: Vert Dider
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vert_Dider
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:24.018457+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vert-dider-20260505-0
summary:
Vert Dider is a non-profit volunteer project focused around translating and dubbing scientific and educational videos for Russian-speaking audience. == History == The project was created in 2013 by Ilya Abilov, who himself was engaged in voicing the first videos. The studio is supported and developed by volunteers helping it evolve. The studio’s leading activity is translating and dubbing videos related to science. Over a thousand videos are currently available through the studio’s official public page on VK social media site. The list of translated into Russian and dubbed videos include videos from a number of educational YouTube channels, lectures, debates and documentaries. On January 19, 2016, was the day when Vert Dider started cooperating with BuzzFeed media company. In early 2017 Vert Dider started a YouTube channel for videos in English. That same year the studio joined efforts with the educational project SciOne to conduct interviews with Walter Lewin, Robert Sapolsky, Lawrence Krauss, Richard Dawkins and James Watson. The studio has been a Harry Houdini Awards media partner since the Russian analogue to James Randi’s One Million Dollar Paranormal Challenge was founded. === Lectures === In October 2015, the studio started translating Richard Feynman’s Messenger Lectures into Russian. By


id: youtube-in-education-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTube_in_education-0.md
category: reference
title: YouTube in education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTube_in_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:25.330554+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: youtube-in-education-20260505-0
summary:
YouTube in education refers to the use of the video-sharing platform YouTube for educational purposes in both formal and informal learning environments. A 2018 Pew Research Center survey found that 51% of YouTube users say the platform is very important for helping them learn new skills, representing 35% of all U.S. adults. Since YouTube's launch in 2005, educational institutions like MIT OpenCourseWare and TED have used the platform to distribute content, while independent creators have developed popular educational channels such as Khan Academy, Smarter Every Day, and Vsauce. The platform has been adopted across various educational fields, including medical education, where studies have shown both benefits and limitations in teaching clinical skills and anatomical concepts. YouTube also created YouTube EDU in 2009 as a dedicated repository for educational content from institutions and creators. == History == YouTube was founded as a video sharing platform in 2005 and is now the most visited website in the US as of 2019. Almost immediately after the site's launch, educational institutions, such as MIT OpenCourseWare and TED, were using it for the distribution of their content. Soon after, many independent creators began to experiment with science learning. Some of the most popular early educators


id: scientific-controversy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_controversy-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:27.050932+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
Sustained scientific controversy, sometimes scientific debate is any substantial disagreement among scientists. A scientific controversy may involve issues such as the interpretation of data, which ideas are most supported by evidence, and/or which ideas are most worth pursuing. Controversies between scientific and non-scientific ideas are not within the realm of science and are not true scientific controversies. A genuine scientific controversy entails an ongoing discussion within the wider scientific community. Well known examples include the debate over the existence of the atom that lasted until the turn of the 20th century, the Bohr–Einstein debates, the linguistics wars, and the debate over the causes of ADHD. == Intra-academic debate == Constructive debate within the scientific community is widely viewed as essential to the progress of science as a whole. Critique and debate leads to an environment in which ideas are rigorously and extensively cross-tested and in which mistakes which one individual might not catch are able to be justified by another, and additionally, the environment can push the development of new research programs, discovery of new evidence, and the forward movement of scientific consensus. Debate among scientists within a primarily academic setting can take one of many forms: two important forms,


id: academic-boycott-of-israel-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_boycott_of_Israel-0.md
category: reference
title: Academic boycott of Israel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_boycott_of_Israel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:28.261639+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: academic-boycott-of-israel-20260505-0
summary:
The current campaign for an academic boycott of Israel was launched in April 2004 by the Palestinian Campaign for the Academic and Cultural Boycott of Israel (PACBI) as part of the Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions (BDS) campaign. PACBI argues that Israeli academic institutions are complicit in perpetuating the Israeli occupation and therefore should be subject to boycott in order to advance BDS goals. Since then, proposals for academic boycotts of particular Israeli universities and academics have been made by academics and organizations in Palestine, the United States, the United Kingdom, and other countries. Supporters say the boycotts is intended to pressure Israel to change policies they describe are discriminatory towards the Palestinians. The campaigns for academic boycott of Israel have led to fierce debate. Opponents argue that boycott advocates apply different standards to Israel than other countries, that the boycott is counterproductive, a collective punishment of Israeli academia, a tactic to threaten the existence of the State of Israel, and also that the campaign is antisemitic. Support for academic boycotts of Israel has been more prevalent among faculty in the humanities and social sciences than in the sciences. Despite this debate, academic boycott measures have been undertaken around the world,


id: academic-boycott-of-israel-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_boycott_of_Israel-1.md
category: reference
title: Academic boycott of Israel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_boycott_of_Israel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:28.261639+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: academic-boycott-of-israel-20260505-0
summary:
=== Association of University Teachers === On 22 April 2005, the Council of Association of University Teachers (AUT) voted to boycott two Israeli universities: University of Haifa and Bar-Ilan University. The motions to AUT Council were prompted by the call for a boycott from nearly 60 Palestinian academics and others. The AUT Council voted to boycott Bar-Ilan because it runs courses at colleges in the West Bank (referring to Ariel College) and "is thus directly involved with the occupation of Palestinian territories contrary to United Nations resolutions". It boycotted Haifa because it was alleged that the university had wrongly disciplined Ilan Pappé for supporting a student who wrote about attacks on Palestinians during the founding of the state of Israel. The University denied having disciplined the lecturer. Union members claimed that staff and students [of Israeli universities] who seek to research Israel's history in full are often "victimised". The AUT's decision was immediately condemned by Jewish groups and many members of the AUT. Critics of the boycott within and outside the AUT noted that at the meeting at which the boycott motion was passed the leadership cut short the debate citing a lack of time. Specifically, the Board of Deputies


id: academic-boycott-of-israel-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_boycott_of_Israel-2.md
category: reference
title: Academic boycott of Israel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_boycott_of_Israel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:28.261639+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: academic-boycott-of-israel-20260505-0
summary:
The ironic thing, is if we had put this to delegates a couple of weeks ago, before the international pro-Israeli lobby started this massive campaign emailing delegates and trying to deny us our democratic right to discuss whatever we like, it probably wouldn't have passed. People feel bullied, and what we have seen is a hardening of attitudes. All they achieved was making the delegates determined to debate and pass the motion. Tamara Traubmann and Benjamin Joffe-Walt, reporting for The Guardian, conducted an analysis of "whether the campaigns against such boycotts are actually motivated by concerns for academic freedom, or whether they are using the universalist ideal to stifle critical discussion of Israel". They describe their findings this way: Through discussions with anti-boycott campaigners and a trace of the most common emails (not necessarily abusive) sent to the union and handed over by Natfhe, we found the vast majority of the tens of thousands of emails originated not with groups fighting for academic freedom, but with lobby groups and thinktanks that regularly work to delegitimise criticisms of Israel. === University and College Union === Since 2007, the UCU has been controversially involved in the academic boycotts of Israel and for


id: academic-boycott-of-israel-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_boycott_of_Israel-3.md
category: reference
title: Academic boycott of Israel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_boycott_of_Israel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:28.261639+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: academic-boycott-of-israel-20260505-0
summary:
=== Following Operation Cast Lead === In March 2009, shortly after the Gaza War, a call for an academic boycott in France was published on the web with over 50 signatures, including Daniel Bensaïd, Gérard Toulouse of the Académie des sciences, coauthor in 2003 of Les scientifiques et les droits de l'homme with Lydie Koch-Miramond who had also signed and defended the boycott of Israel in 2002, Mireille Fanon-Mendès-France, and Roland Lombard, President of the Collectif Interuniversitaire pour la Coopération avec les Universités Palestiniennes. They called "in the first place to impose a program of boycott, divestment, and sanctions," following the creation of the French organization BDS France. In the spring of 2009, the Association of Academics for the Respect of International Law in Palestine (AURDIP) was created by the group of academics who had initiated the 2002 call, in alliance with the Palestinian Campaign for the Academic and Cultural Boycott of Israel PACBI and with the British organization British Committee for the Universities of Palestine. AURDIP was created with two primary missions: (1) To promote the application of international law in Israel and Palestine; specifically to oppose Israeli occupation of the Palestinian territories and Israel’s settlement policy, which fly


id: academic-boycott-of-israel-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_boycott_of_Israel-4.md
category: reference
title: Academic boycott of Israel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_boycott_of_Israel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:28.261639+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: academic-boycott-of-israel-20260505-0
summary:
Others may interpret the boycott differently, but I have no problem collaborating with Israeli scholars and artists as long as we do not participate in any Israeli institution or have Israeli state monies support our collaborative work. The reason, of course, is that the academic and cultural boycott seeks to put pressure on all those cultural institutions that have failed to oppose the occupation and struggle for equal rights and the rights of the dispossessed, all those cultural institutions that think it is not their place to criticize their government for these practices, all of them that understand themselves to be above or beyond this intractable political condition. Hamid Dabashi, a professor of Iranian studies at Columbia University, is on the advisory board of the U.S. Campaign for the Academic & Cultural Boycott of Israel. Dabashi supports boycott efforts targeting both Israeli individuals and institutions: The divestment campaign that has been far more successful in Western Europe needs to be reinvigorated in North America – as must the boycotting of the Israeli cultural and academic institutions ... Naming names and denouncing individually every prominent Israeli intellectual who has publicly endorsed their elected officials' wide-eyed barbarism, and then categorically boycotting their


id: academic-boycott-of-israel-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_boycott_of_Israel-5.md
category: reference
title: Academic boycott of Israel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_boycott_of_Israel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:28.261639+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: academic-boycott-of-israel-20260505-0
summary:
Until April 2013, no American school had ever divested from or imposed an academic boycott on Israel despite strong boycott campaigns. Former President of Harvard University Larry Summers has called Israel-boycott efforts "anti-Semitic in their effect if not their intent". In 2007, nearly 300 university presidents across the United States signed a joint statement denouncing the boycott movement. In 2010, a group of 15 American university professors launched a campaign calling for an academic and cultural boycott of Israel. Many universities and prominent scholars criticized the ASA's support of the boycott. Brandeis University, Pennsylvania State University, Indiana University and Kenyon College decided to withdraw from the ASA. The American Council on Education, an umbrella organisation of 1,800 institutions, the American Association of Universities which represents 62 schools across the US and Canada, and the American Association of University Professors all condemned the boycott. Ninety-two university presidents including of Harvard, Brown, Yale, Princeton, Johns Hopkins, Cornell, Duke, Stanford, Boston, Columbia, Chicago, New York University, Dartmouth College, Wesleyan, Florida, University of Miami, Western Kentucky University, University of Connecticut and University of Washington, condemned the boycott and distanced themselves from the ASA. Harvard president Drew Gilpin Faust said, "academic boycotts subvert the academic


id: academic-boycott-of-israel-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_boycott_of_Israel-6.md
category: reference
title: Academic boycott of Israel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_boycott_of_Israel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:28.261639+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: academic-boycott-of-israel-20260505-0
summary:
== Ireland == In April 2013 the Teachers' Union of Ireland (TUI) passed a motion calling for an academic boycott of Israel. Following a referendum among NUI Galway students in March 2014, the NUI Galway Students' Union officially began supporting the campaign of Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions against Israel. In December 2022 the Union of Students in Ireland unanimously passed a motion to support BDS and "denounce the apartheid that Israel is committing in Palestine". The motion also called on the European Students Union (ESU) "to re-evaluate the membership of Israel and support any Palestinian efforts to engage with ESU". Trinity College Dublin cut ties with Israeli institutions in 2025. == South Africa == === Campaign to boycott Ben-Gurion University === On 5 September 2010, a nationwide academic petition was initiated by academics supporting a termination of a partnership agreement between the University of Johannesburg (UJ) and Ben-Gurion University (BGU); a long-standing partnership dating back to apartheid era relations between the two institutions. Well-known academics such as Professors Breyten Breytenbach, John Dugard, Mahmood Mamdani, Antjie Krog and Achille Mbembe are signatories to the academic petition, which is also backed by Vice-Chancellors from four universities in South Africa. Amid widespread public


id: academic-boycott-of-israel-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_boycott_of_Israel-7.md
category: reference
title: Academic boycott of Israel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_boycott_of_Israel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:28.261639+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: academic-boycott-of-israel-20260505-0
summary:
== Criticism == A prominent Palestinian academic, former president of Al-Quds University, Sari Nusseibeh, has argued against academic boycotts of Israel, telling Associated Press "If we are to look at Israeli society, it is within the academic community that we've had the most progressive pro-peace views and views that have come out in favor of seeing us as equals.... If you want to punish any sector, this is the last one to approach." He acknowledges, however, that his view is a minority one among Palestinian academics. A study focusing on the impact of academic boycotts on academic freedom and discourse, based on interviews during the Gaza war that began in 2023, found that Israeli academics faced overt and covert discrimination, obstacles to collaboration, and potential long-term career challenges. Participants in the study stressed the need to keep science separate from politics and preserve cross-border collaboration as essential for advancing research and addressing global challenges. Cary Nelson argues that while boycott resolutions are unlikely to affect Israeli policy, they risk politicizing and damaging the reputation of the humanities, undermining open debate, and shaping public opinion in ways that may harm academia itself. The Nobel laureate Venki Ramakrishnan told the Guardian that


id: alphachip-controversy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AlphaChip_(controversy)-0.md
category: reference
title: AlphaChip (controversy)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AlphaChip_(controversy)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:29.476974+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alphachip-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
The AlphaChip controversy refers to a series of public, scholarly, and legal disputes surrounding a 2021 Nature paper by Google-affiliated researchers. The paper describes an approach to macro placement, a stage of chip floorplanning, based on reinforcement learning (RL), a machine learning method in which a system iteratively improves its decisions by optimizing performance-based reward signals. The primary technical question is whether the new techniques are better than existing (non-AI) techniques. Both internal Google studies and external attempts to replicate the algorithm have failed to show the claimed benefits. No head-to-head comparison is available because the data used in the paper is proprietary, and Google has not released any results from running its algorithm on public benchmarks. This has resulted in considerable skepticism over the paper's claims. In addition, the inability of others (both inside and outside of Google) to replicate the claimed results have sparked concerns about the paper’s methodology, reproducibility, and scientific integrity. The lead researchers of the Nature paper were affiliated with Google Brain, which became part of Google DeepMind, and later spun off into the company Ricursive. == Motivation for research: Macro placement in chip layout == Chip design for modern integrated circuits is a complex,


id: alphachip-controversy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AlphaChip_(controversy)-1.md
category: reference
title: AlphaChip (controversy)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AlphaChip_(controversy)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:29.476974+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alphachip-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Internal dispute at Google and legal proceedings === In 2022, Satrajit Chatterjee, a Google engineer involved in reviewing the AlphaChip work, raised concerns internally and drafted an alternative analysis, (Stronger Baselines) arguing that established methods outperformed the RL approach under fair comparison. In March 2022, Google declined to publish this analysis and terminated Chatterjee's employment. Chatterjee filed a wrongful dismissal lawsuit, alleging that representations related to the AlphaChip research involved fraud and scientific misconduct. According to court documents, Chatterjee's study was conducted "in the context of a large potential Google Cloud deal". He noted that it "would have been unethical to imply that we had revolutionary technology when our tests showed otherwise" and claimed Google was deliberately withholding material information. Furthermore, the committee that reviewed his paper and disapproved its publication was allegedly chaired by subordinates of Jeff Dean, a senior co-author of the Nature paper. Google’s subsequent motion to dismiss was denied, holding that Chatterjee had plausibly alleged retaliation for refusing to engage in conduct he believed would violate state or federal law. === External controversy === The external questions can be summarized in four main points: (a) Are the claims supported by the evidence provided? (b) Did


id: alphachip-controversy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AlphaChip_(controversy)-2.md
category: reference
title: AlphaChip (controversy)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AlphaChip_(controversy)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:29.476974+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alphachip-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
== Nature editorial actions == In April 2022, the peer review file for the Nature article was included as a supplementary information file. In September 2023, Nature added an editor's note to "A graph placement methodology for fast chip design" stating that the paper's performance claims had been called into question and that the editors were investigating the concerns. On 21 September 2023, Andrew B. Kahng's accompanying News & Views article was retracted; the retraction notice said that new information about the methods used in the Google paper had become available after publication and had changed the author’s assessment, and it also said that Nature was conducting an independent investigation of the paper’s performance claims. By late September 2024, the editor's note was removed without explanation, but Nature published an addendum to the original paper (dated 26 September 2024). The addendum introduced the name AlphaChip for the proposed RL technique and described methodological details that critics had previously identified as missing, including the use of initial ( x , y ) {\displaystyle (x,y)} locations. The addendum addressed some methodological details but still lacked the full training and evaluation inputs needed for independent replication. == Author responses and ensuing debate ==


id: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy-0.md
category: reference
title: Ancient Egyptian race controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:30.828998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
The question of the race of the people of ancient Egypt was raised historically as a product of the early racial concepts of the 18th and 19th centuries, and was linked to models of racial hierarchy primarily based on craniometry and anthropometry. A variety of views circulated about the racial identity of the Egyptians and the source of their culture. Some scholars argued that ancient Egyptian culture was influenced by other Afroasiatic-speaking populations in North Africa, the Horn of Africa, or West Asia, while others pointed to influences from various Nubian groups or populations in Europe. In more recent times, some writers continued to challenge the mainstream view, some focusing on questioning the race of specific notable individuals, such as the pharaoh represented in the Great Sphinx of Giza, the native Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamun, the Egyptian queen Tiye, and the Greek Ptolemaic queen Cleopatra VII. Mainstream Western scholars reject the notion that Egypt was a "white" or "black" civilization; they maintain that applying modern notions of black or white races to ancient Egypt is anachronistic. In addition, scholars reject the notion—implicit in a black or white Egypt hypothesis—that ancient Egypt was racially homogeneous; instead, skin colour varied between the peoples


id: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy-1.md
category: reference
title: Ancient Egyptian race controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:30.828998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
In 1839, Jean-François Champollion suggested that: "In the Copts of Egypt, we do not find any of the characteristic features of the ancient Egyptian population. The Copts are the result of crossbreeding with all the nations that successfully dominated Egypt. It is wrong to seek in them the principal features of the old race." This memoir was made in the context of the first tribes that would have inhabited Egypt, his opinion was noted after his return from Nubia. In 1839, Champollion's and Volney's claims were disputed by Jacques Joseph Champollion-Figeac, who blamed a misunderstanding of the ancients for spreading a false impression of a "Negro" Egypt, stating "the two physical traits of black skin and woolly hair are not enough to stamp a race as negro" and "the opinion that the ancient population of Egypt belonged to the Negro African race, is an error long accepted as the truth. ... Volney's conclusion as to the Negro origin of the ancient Egyptian civilization is evidently forced and inadmissible." Gaston Maspero, a 19th-century French Egyptologist, stated that "by the almost unanimous testimony of ancient Greek historians, they (Ancient Egyptians) belonged to the African race, which settled in Ethiopia." Heinrich Karl Brusch,


id: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy-2.md
category: reference
title: Ancient Egyptian race controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:30.828998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
In 2025, members of the UNESCO International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of New Volumes IX, X and IX of General History of Africa reviewed the 1974 Symposium with the availability of new sources of data. This volume featured 60 scholars from 28 countries across every continent, with the International Scientific Committee consisting of 16 member specialists appointed by the UNESCO Director-General, Audrey Azoulay. These committee members included Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch, Paul Lovejoy, Tayeb Chenntouf, Anshan Li, Hilary Beckles and Vanicléia Silva Santos. The international publication featured multidisciplinary views across several chapter sections on the population formation of Egypt. UNESCO International Scientific Committee Chair and archaeologist, Augustin Holl, stated that Egypt was situated in an intersection between Africa and Eurasia but affirmed "Egypt is African" with a fluctuating distribution of African and Eurasian populations depending on historical circumstances. Coordinating reviewer, historian and archaeologist Doulaye Konate stated the volume featured a general review of the archaeology of sub-Saharan Africa and “one of the strengths of the work is an emphasis on the African roots of the Egyptian civilization”. He later stated the Volume II of General History of Africa had integrated the Pharaonic civilization into a ‘Negro-African bosom’. In a chapter review


id: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy-3.md
category: reference
title: Ancient Egyptian race controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:30.828998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
Egyptian historian and archaeological inspector at the Ministry of Antiquities, H. A. A. Ibrahim, examined the megalithic complex of Nabta Playa, Upper Egypt to understand the cultural and population influences of the Holocene on pre-dynastic Egypt. She cited an anthropological study confirming the appearance of a Sub-Saharan high status child in a ceremonial centre and concluded that the megalithic structures had close resemblance to comparable structures in the Sahelian and Sub-Saharan regions of Africa. In another chapter on the population genetics of pharaonic Egypt, geneticist Jean Phillipe Gourdine adduced correlative sources of linguistic, anthropological, paleontological and genetic evidence which demonstrated African affinities with specific Neolithic and predynastic remains at the Naqada, Badari and Adaima sites in Upper Egypt. He referenced a number of studies performed by Eric Crubézy, this included genetic analysis on the modern Upper Egyptian population in Adaima which identified genetic markers common across Africa, with 71% of the Adaima samples carrying E1b1 haplogroup and 3% carrying the L0f mitochondrial haplogroup. This was supported by an anthropological study by Cruzeby in the pre-dynastic cemetery at Adaima (3700 BCE) which found the notable presence of dental markers, characteristic of Khoisan people, (25%) among several children’s teeth." Gourdine also stated


id: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy-4.md
category: reference
title: Ancient Egyptian race controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:30.828998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Views from Egyptologists and African historians === Frank J. Yurco outlined in a 1989 article that "In short, ancient Egypt, like modern Egypt, consisted of a very heterogeneous population". He also wrote in 1990: "When you talk about Egypt, it's just not right to talk about black or white .... To take the terminology here in the United States and graft it onto Africa is anthropologically inaccurate". Yurco added that "We are applying a racial divisiveness to Egypt that they would never have accepted, They would have considered this argument absurd, and that is something we could really learn from." Yurco wrote in 1996 that "the peoples of Egypt, the Sudan, and much of North-East Africa are generally regarded as a Nilotic continuity, with widely ranging physical features (complexions light to dark, various hair and craniofacial types)". British Africanist, Basil Davidson, summarised in 1990, that "It follows that the Ancient Egyptians were Africans even if immigrants also trickled in from Asia and southern Europe. Where the ancient Egyptians were black or as brown in skin colour as other Africans may remain an issue of emotive dispute; probably they were both". Gamal Mokthar, editor of the UNESCO General History of


id: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy-5.md
category: reference
title: Ancient Egyptian race controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:30.828998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
Robert Morkot wrote in 2005: The ancient Egyptians were not 'white' in any European sense, nor were they 'Caucasian'... we can say that the earliest population of ancient Egypt included African people from the upper Nile, African people from the regions of the Sahara and modern Libya, and smaller numbers of people who had come from south-western Asia and perhaps the Arabian peninsula. Felix Chami wrote in 2006 that Egyptian iconography had shown "that their physical type, like most of the people of the African communities, was both black and brown." Fekri Hassan wrote in 2021 in regards to the origins of Egypt that "the original African populations of the Nile Valley, who showed a local gradual change in physical traits from south to north due to distance, hosted peoples who drifted from southwest Asia". William Stiebling and Susan Helft wrote in 2023 on the historical debate concerning the race and ethnicity of the ancient Egyptians in light of recent evidence. They argued that the physical appearances would have varied along a continuum from the Delta to the Nile’s source regions in the south. The authors specified that “some ancient Egyptians looked more Middle Eastern and others looked more Sudanese


id: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy-6.md
category: reference
title: Ancient Egyptian race controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:30.828998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
== Scholarly views on bias == Various scholars have highlighted the role of colonial racism in shaping the attitudes of early Egyptologists, and criticised the continued over-representation of North American and European perspectives in the field. Diop in his work, The African Origin of Civilization argued that the prevailing views in Egyptology were driven by biased scholarship and colonial attitudes. Similarly, Bruce Trigger wrote that early modern scholarship on the Nile Valley populations had been "marred by a confusion of race, language, and culture and by an accompanying racism". Criticism has also been levelled at modern anthropological studies of Nile valley populations. This has related to interpretations of biological Africans. These past approaches have been viewed to subscribe to a narrow craniometric paradigm which classifies certain African populations as “True Negroes”, whilst categorising Egyptians, Nubians, Somalians as non-Africans despite having a shared biocultural evolutionary climate. Smith wrote in 2018 that a common practice among Egyptologists was to "divorce Egypt from its proper northeast African context, instead framing it as fundamentally part of a Near Eastern or "Mediterranean" economic, social and political sphere, hardly African at all or at best a crossroad between the Near East, the eastern Mediterranean and Africa,


id: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy-7.md
category: reference
title: Ancient Egyptian race controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:30.828998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
== Present-day controversies == Today the issues regarding the race of the ancient Egyptians are "troubled waters which most people who write about ancient Egypt from within the mainstream of scholarship avoid." The debate, therefore, takes place mainly in the public sphere and tends to focus on a small number of specific issues. === Greco-Roman accounts of Ancient Egypt === A range of scholars have cited the classical observations of prominent Greeks and Romans as forms of primary evidence to denote the physical appearance of the early Egyptians. Some historical accounts have drawn close physical and cultural resemblances between Egyptians and Ethiopians whereas others have associated them more closely with northern Indians. In the fifth century BCE, Greek historian, Herodotus, described the Egyptians as having “melanchrones skin and wooly hair and secondly, and more reliably for the reason that alone among mankind the Egyptians and the Ethiopians have practiced circumcision since time immemorial.” Herodotus also wrote that the Ammonians of Siwa Oasis are "colonists from Egypt and Aethiopia and speak a language compounded of the tongues of both countries". In the first century BCE, Greek historian Diodorus Siculus, in his work Bibliotheca Historica, reported that the Ethiopians claimed that Egypt


id: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy-8.md
category: reference
title: Ancient Egyptian race controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:30.828998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
Older literature maintained that the label "God's Land", when interpreted as "Holy Land" or "Land of the gods/ancestors", meant that the ancient Egyptians viewed the Land of Punt as their ancestral homeland. Flinders Petrie believed that the Dynastic Race came from or through Punt and that "Pan, or Punt, was a district at the south end of the Red Sea, which probably embraced both the African and Arabian shores." Moreover, E. A. Wallis Budge stated that "Egyptian tradition of the Dynastic Period held that the aboriginal home of the Egyptians was Punt...". James Breasted in 1906 argued that the term Ta netjer was not only applied to Punt, located southeast of Egypt, but also to regions of Asia east and northeast of Egypt, such as Lebanon, which was the source of wood for temples. Modern scholars have noted that the term was applied to the Land of Punt, the exact location had historically been a subject of scholarly debate with a spectrum of views associating Puntland with regions extending from Ethiopia to southern Arabia. Recent consensus has now located the region in modern northeast Africa due to the prevalence of indigenous goods and animals which are reflected in Egyptian reliefs


id: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy-9.md
category: reference
title: Ancient Egyptian race controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:30.828998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
Although modern technology can reconstruct Tutankhamun's facial structure with a high degree of accuracy, based on CT data from his mummy, determining his skin tone and eye color is impossible. The clay model was therefore given a coloring, which, according to the artist, was based on an "average shade of modern Egyptians". Terry Garcia, National Geographic's executive vice president for mission programs, said, in response to some of those protesting against the Tutankhamun reconstruction: The big variable is skin tone. North Africans, we know today, had a range of skin tones, from light to dark. In this case, we selected a medium skin tone, and we say, quite up front, 'This is midrange.' We will never know for sure what his exact skin tone was or the color of his eyes with 100% certainty.... Maybe in the future, people will come to a different conclusion. When pressed on the issue by American activists in September 2007, the Secretary General of the Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities, Zahi Hawass stated "Tutankhamun was not black." In a November 2007 publication of Ancient Egypt magazine, Hawass asserted that none of the facial reconstructions resemble Tut and that, in his opinion, the most accurate


id: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy-10.md
category: reference
title: Ancient Egyptian race controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:30.828998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
The race and skin color of Cleopatra VII, the last active Hellenistic ruler of the Macedonian Greek Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt, established in 323 BC, has also caused some debate, although generally not in scholarly sources. For example, the article "Was Cleopatra Black?" was published in Ebony magazine in 2012, and an article about Afrocentrism from the St. Louis Post-Dispatch mentions the question, too. Mary Lefkowitz, Professor Emerita of Classical Studies at Wellesley College, traces the main origins of the black Cleopatra claim to the 1946 book by J. A. Rogers called World's Great Men of Color, although noting that the idea of Cleopatra as black goes back to at least the 19th century. The black Cleopatra claim was further revived in an essay by afrocentrist John Henrik Clarke, chair of African history at Hunter College, entitled "African Warrior Queens." Lefkowitz refutes Rogers' and Clarke's hypotheses, on various scholarly grounds. Scholars identify Cleopatra as essentially of Greek ancestry with some Persian and Sogdian Iranian ancestry, based on the fact that her Macedonian Greek family (the Ptolemaic dynasty) had intermingled with the Seleucid aristocracy of the time. Michael Grant states that Cleopatra probably had not a drop of Egyptian blood and


id: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy-11.md
category: reference
title: Ancient Egyptian race controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:30.828998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
The identity of the model for the Great Sphinx of Giza is unknown. Most experts believe that the face of the Sphinx represents the likeness of the Pharaoh Khafra, although a few Egyptologists and interested amateurs have proposed different hypotheses. An early description of the Sphinx, "typically negro in all its features", is recorded in the travel notes of a French scholar, Volney, who visited Egypt between 1783 and 1785 along with French novelist Gustave Flaubert. A similar description was given in the "well-known book" by Vivant Denon, where he described the sphinx as "the character is African; but the mouth, the lips of which are thick." Following Volney, Denon, and other early writers, numerous Afrocentric scholars, such as Du Bois, Diop and Asante have characterized the face of the Sphinx as Black, or "Negroid". American geologist Robert M. Schoch has written that the "Sphinx has a distinctive African, Nubian, or Negroid aspect which is lacking in the face of Khafre", but he was described by others such as Ronald H. Fritze and Mark Lehner of being a "pseudoscientific writer". David S. Anderson writes in Lost City, Found Pyramid: Understanding Alternative Archaeologies and Pseudoscientific Practices that Van Sertima's claim that


id: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy-12.md
category: reference
title: Ancient Egyptian race controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:30.828998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
Ancient Egyptian tombs and temples contained thousands of paintings, sculptures, and written works, which reveal a great deal about the people of that time. However, their depictions of themselves in their surviving art and artifacts are rendered in sometimes symbolic, rather than realistic, pigments. As a result, ancient Egyptian artifacts provide sometimes conflicting and inconclusive evidence of the ethnicity of the people who lived in Egypt during dynastic times. In their own art, "Egyptians are often represented in a color that is officially called dark red", according to Diop. Arguing against other theories, Diop quotes Champollion-Figeac, who states, "one distinguishes on Egyptian monuments several species of blacks, differing...with respect to complexion, which makes Negroes black or copper-colored." Regarding an expedition by King Sesostris, Cherubini states the following concerning captured southern Africans, "except for the panther skin about their loins, are distinguished by their color, some entirely black, others dark brown. University of Chicago scholars assert that Nubians are generally depicted with black paint, but the skin pigment used in Egyptian paintings to refer to Nubians can range "from dark red to brown to black". This can be observed in paintings from the tomb of the Egyptian Huy, as well as


id: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy-13.md
category: reference
title: Ancient Egyptian race controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:30.828998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
Manu Ampim, a professor at Merritt College specializing in African and African American history and culture, claims in the book Modern Fraud: The Forged Ancient Egyptian Statues of Ra-Hotep and Nofret, that many ancient Egyptian statues and artworks are modern frauds that have been created specifically to hide the "fact" that the ancient Egyptians were black, while authentic artworks that demonstrate black characteristics are systematically defaced or even "modified". Ampim repeatedly makes the accusation that the Egyptian authorities are systematically destroying evidence that "proves" that the ancient Egyptians were black, under the guise of renovating and conserving the applicable temples and structures. He further accuses "European" scholars of wittingly participating in and abetting this process. Ampim has a specific concern about a wall painting depicting in a scene from the Book of Gates identified as the 4th Division, 5th Hour. an Egyptian funerary text the in the Tomb of Ramesses III (KV11). The Book of Gates is a funerary text appears in a number of New Kingdom tombs, and they were usually provided for the guidance of the soul of the deceased. The Egyptians did not assign a name to this text; it was later termed 'Livre des Portes' (Book


id: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy-14.md
category: reference
title: Ancient Egyptian race controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:30.828998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
==== Fayyum mummy portraits ==== The Roman era Fayum mummy portraits attached to coffins containing the latest dated mummies discovered in the Faiyum Oasis represent a population of both native Egyptians and those with mixed Greek heritage. The dental morphology of the mummies align more with the indigenous North African population than Greek or other later colonial European settlers. ==== Black queen controversy ==== The late British Africanist Basil Davidson stated "Whether the Ancient Egyptians were as black or as brown in skin color as other Africans may remain an issue of emotive dispute; probably, they were both. Their own artistic conventions painted them as pink, but pictures on their tombs show they often married queens shown as entirely black being from the south." Ahmose-Nefertari is an example. In most depictions of Ahmose-Nefertari, she is pictured with black skin, while in some instances her skin is blue or red. In 1939 Flinders Petrie said "an invasion from the south...established a black queen as the divine ancestress of the XVIIIth dynasty" He also said "a possibility of the black being symbolic has been suggested" and "Nefertari must have married a Libyan, as she was the mother of Amenhetep I, who was


id: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy-15.md
category: reference
title: Ancient Egyptian race controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:30.828998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
The Black Egyptian hypothesis is the hypothesis that ancient Egypt was a "Black", homogeneous civilization. At a UNESCO symposium in 1974 there was consensus that Ancient Egypt was indigenous to Africa. However, Diop's hypothesis that Ancient Egypt was a "Black" civilization was met with "numerous objections" in 1974 which revealed "a disagreement which remained profound even though it was not voiced explicitly. In respect of certain sequences, the criticisms arose out of the line of argument put forward." The majority of the objections "raised were of methodological nature" which ranged from the need for reliable statistical data to further research projects in several fields such as archaeology and physical anthropology before final conclusions on the peopling of Egypt could be made. There was also "total disagreement" from the majority of scholars in the 1974 conference on the hypothesis that Ancient Egypt had been a homogenous population until Persian times with several scholars favouring the hypothesis of a mixed population. Subsequent reviewers of the 1974 symposium debate and the UNESCO publication have presented a range of views on the outcome of the debate. Larissa Nordholt argued that Diop's chapter was politically motivated, having been published only due to being in line


id: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy-16.md
category: reference
title: Ancient Egyptian race controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:30.828998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Asiatic race theory === This theory was the most dominant view from the Early Middle Ages (c. 500 AD) until the early 19th century. The descendants of Ham were traditionally considered to be the darkest-skinned branch of humanity, either because of their geographic allotment to Africa or because of the Curse of Ham. Thus, Diop cited Gaston Maspero "Moreover, the Bible states that Mesraim, son of Ham, brother of Chus (Kush) ... and of Canaan, came from Mesopotamia to settle with his children on the banks of the Nile." By the 20th century, the Asiatic race theory and its various offshoots were abandoned but were superseded by two related theories: the Eurocentric Hamitic hypothesis, asserting that a Caucasian racial group moved into North and East Africa from early prehistory subsequently bringing with them all advanced agriculture, technology and civilization, and the Dynastic race theory, proposing that Mesopotamian invaders were responsible for the dynastic civilization of Egypt (c. 3000 BC). In sharp contrast to the Asiatic race theory, neither of these theories proposes that Caucasians were the indigenous inhabitants of Egypt. At the UNESCO "Symposium on the Peopling of Ancient Egypt and the Deciphering of the Meroitic Script" in Cairo


id: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-17
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy-17.md
category: reference
title: Ancient Egyptian race controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_race_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:30.828998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ancient-egyptian-race-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
The Dynastic race theory, which has been rejected by modern scholarship, is the hypothesis that a Mesopotamian force had invaded Egypt in predynastic times, imposed itself on the indigenous Badarian people, and become their rulers. The Mesopotamian-founded state or states were supposed to have conquered both Upper and Lower Egypt and founded the First Dynasty of Egypt. The theory was proposed in the early 20th century by Flinders Petrie, who deduced that skeletal remains found at pre-dynastic sites at Naqada (Upper Egypt) indicated the presence of two different races, with one race differentiated physically by a noticeably larger skeletal structure and cranial capacity. Petrie also noted new architectural styles—the distinctly Mesopotamian "niched-façade" architecture—pottery styles, cylinder seals and a few artworks, as well as numerous predynastic rock and tomb paintings depicting Mesopotamian style boats, symbols, and figures. Based on plentiful cultural evidence, Petrie concluded that the invading ruling elite was responsible for the seemingly sudden rise of Egyptian civilization. In the 1950s, the dynastic race theory was widely accepted. While there is clear evidence the Naqada II culture borrowed abundantly from Mesopotamia, the Naqada II period had a large degree of continuity with the Naqada I period, and the changes which


id: brouwer-hilbert-controversy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brouwer–Hilbert_controversy-0.md
category: reference
title: Brouwer–Hilbert controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brouwer–Hilbert_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:32.158263+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: brouwer-hilbert-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
The Brouwer–Hilbert controversy (German: Grundlagenstreit, lit. 'foundational debate') was a debate in twentieth-century mathematics over fundamental questions about the consistency of axioms and the role of semantics and syntax in mathematics. L. E. J. Brouwer, a proponent of the constructivist school of intuitionism, opposed David Hilbert, a proponent of formalism. Much of the controversy took place while both were involved with Mathematische Annalen, the leading mathematical journal of the time, with Hilbert as editor-in-chief and Brouwer as a member of its editorial board. In 1928, Hilbert had Brouwer removed from the editorial board of Mathematische Annalen. == Background == The controversy started with Hilbert's axiomatization of geometry in the late 1890s. In his biography of Kurt Gödel, John W. Dawson, Jr observed that "partisans of three principal philosophical positions took part in the debate" – these three being the logicists (Gottlob Frege and Bertrand Russell), the formalists (David Hilbert and his colleagues), and the constructivists (Henri Poincaré and Hermann Weyl); within this constructivist school was the radical self-named "intuitionist" L. E. J. Brouwer. === History of Intuitionism === Brouwer founded the mathematical philosophy of intuitionism as a challenge to the prevailing formalism of David Hilbert and his colleagues, Paul Bernays,


id: brouwer-hilbert-controversy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brouwer–Hilbert_controversy-1.md
category: reference
title: Brouwer–Hilbert controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brouwer–Hilbert_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:32.158263+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: brouwer-hilbert-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
=== The law of excluded middle extended to the infinite === Cantor (1897) extended the intuitive notion of "the infinite" – one foot placed after the other in a never-ending march toward the horizon – to the notion of "a completed infinite" – the arrival "all the way, way out there" in one fell swoop, and he symbolized this notion with a single sign ℵ0 (aleph-null). Hilbert's adoption of the notion wholesale was "thoughtless", Brouwer alleged. Brouwer in his (1927a) "Intuitionistic reflections on formalism" states: "SECOND INSIGHT The rejection of the thoughtless use of the logical principle of the excluded middle, as well as the recognition, first, of the fact that the investigation of the question why the principle mentioned is justified and to what extent it is valid constitutes an essential object of research in the foundations of mathematics, and, second, of the fact that in intuitive (contentual) mathematics this principle is valid only for finite systems. THIRD INSIGHT. The identification of the principle of excluded middle with the principle of the solvability of every mathematical problem." This Third Insight is referring to Hilbert's second problem and Hilbert's ongoing attempt to axiomatize all of arithmetic, and with this system,


id: brouwer-hilbert-controversy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brouwer–Hilbert_controversy-2.md
category: reference
title: Brouwer–Hilbert controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brouwer–Hilbert_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:32.158263+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: brouwer-hilbert-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Objections related to the law of the excluded middle and induction === In van Heijenoort's commentary preceding Weyl's (1927) "Comments on Hilbert's second lecture on the foundations of mathematics" Poincaré points out to Hilbert (1905) that there are two types of "induction" (1) the intuitive animal-logic foot-following-foot version that gives us a sense that there's always another footstep after the last footstep, and (2) the formal version – e.g. Peano's version: a string of symbols. Poincaré, Weyl, and Brouwer claimed that Hilbert tacitly, and unjustifiably, adopted formal induction as one of his premises. Poincaré (1905) asserted that, by doing this, Hilbert's reasoning became circular. Weyl's (1927) agreement and Brouwer's polemics ultimately forced Hilbert and his disciples Herbrand, Bernays, and Ackermann to reexamine their notion of "induction" – to eschew the assumption of a "totality of all the objects x of an infinite collection" and (intuitionistically) assume that the general argument proceeds one x after another, ad infinitum (van Heijenoort p. 481, footnote a). This is in fact the so-called "induction schema" used in the notion of "recursion" that was still in development at this time (van Heijenoort p. 493). This schema was acceptable to the intuitionists because it had


id: brouwer-hilbert-controversy-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brouwer–Hilbert_controversy-3.md
category: reference
title: Brouwer–Hilbert controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brouwer–Hilbert_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:32.158263+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: brouwer-hilbert-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
He does not appear to use this in the formalist's sense, but there is some contention around this point. Gödel specifies this symbol string in his I.3., i.e., the formalized inductive axiom appears as shown above – yet even this string can be "numeralized" using Gödel's method. On the other hand, he doesn't appear to use this axiom. Rather, his recursion steps through integers assigned to variable k (cf his (2) on page 602). His skeleton-proof of Theorem V, however, "use(s) induction on the degree of φ," and uses "the induction hypothesis." Without a full proof of this, the "induction hypothesis" could be assumed to be the intuitive version, not the symbolic axiom. His recursion simply steps up the degree of the functions, an intuitive act, ad infinitum. Gödel's proofs being intuitionistically satisfactory and infinitary are not incompatible truths, as long as the law of the excluded middle over the completed infinite isn't invoked anywhere in the proofs. Despite the last-half-twentieth century's continued abstraction of mathematics, the issue has not entirely gone away. A hard look at the premises of Turing's 1936–1937 work led Robin Gandy (1980) to propose his "principles for mechanisms" that have speed of light as a


id: brouwer-hilbert-controversy-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brouwer–Hilbert_controversy-4.md
category: reference
title: Brouwer–Hilbert controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brouwer–Hilbert_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:32.158263+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: brouwer-hilbert-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
== Bibliography == W.S. Anglin 1994, Mathematics: A Concise History and Philosophy, Springer–Verlag, New York. ISBN 0-387-94280-7. Herbert Breger, 2000. "Tacit Knowledge and Mathematical Progress", appearing in E. Groshoz and H. Breger (eds.) 2000, The Growth of Mathematical Knowledge, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht Netherlands, ISBN 0-7923-6151-2, pages 221–230. Martin Davis, 1965. The Undecidable: Basic Papers on Undecidable Propositions, Unsolvable Problems, and Computable Functions, Raven Press, New York, no ISBN. This includes: Emil Post, 1936. "Finite Combinatory Process. Formulation I", with commentary (pages 288ff) Emil Post, 1941 unpublished until 1965. "Absolutely Unsolvable Problems and Relatively Undecidable Propositions: Account of an Anticipation", with commentary, (pages 338ff) van Dalen, Dirk (1990). "The war of the frogs and the mice, or the crisis of the Mathematische annalen". The Mathematical Intelligencer. 12 (4): 17–31. doi:10.1007/BF03024028. S2CID 123400249. On the battle for editorial control of the journal Mathematische Annalen between Hilbert and Brouwer, stemming in part from their foundational differences. Martin Davis, 2000. The Engines of Logic, W. W. Norton, London, ISBN 0-393-32229-7 pbk. Cf. Chapter Five: "Hilbert to the Rescue" wherein Davis discusses Brouwer and his relationship with Hilbert and Weyl with brief biographical information of Brouwer. John W. Dawson, Jr, 1997. Logical Dilemmas: The


id: carbonaceous-sulfur-hydride-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonaceous_sulfur_hydride-0.md
category: reference
title: Carbonaceous sulfur hydride
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonaceous_sulfur_hydride
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:33.436160+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carbonaceous-sulfur-hydride-20260505-0
summary:
Carbonaceous sulfur hydride (CSH) is a potential superconductor that was announced in October 2020 by the lab of Ranga Dias at the University of Rochester, in a Nature paper that was later retracted. It was reported to have a superconducting transition temperature of 15 °C (59 °F) at a pressure of 267 gigapascals (GPa), which would have made it the highest-temperature superconductor discovered. The paper faced criticism due to its non-standard data analysis calling into question its conclusions, and in September 2022 it was retracted by Nature. In July 2023 a second paper by the authors was retracted from Physical Review Letters due to suspected data fabrication, and in September 2023 a third paper by the authors about N-doped lutetium hydride was retracted from Nature. CSH is an uncharacterized ternary polyhydride compound of carbon, sulfur and hydrogen with a chemical formula that is thought to be CH8S. Measurements under extreme pressure are difficult, and in particular the elements are too light for an X-ray determination of crystal structure (X-ray crystallography). == Background == Prior to 1911, all known electrical conductors exhibited electrical resistance, due to collisions of the charge carrier with atoms in the material. Researchers discovered that in certain


id: criticism-of-nonstandard-analysis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_nonstandard_analysis-0.md
category: reference
title: Criticism of nonstandard analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_nonstandard_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:34.626671+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criticism-of-nonstandard-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
Nonstandard analysis and its offshoot, nonstandard calculus, have been criticized by several authors, notably Errett Bishop, Paul Halmos, and Alain Connes. These criticisms are analyzed below. == Introduction == The evaluation of nonstandard analysis in the literature has varied greatly. Paul Halmos described it as a technical special development in mathematical logic. Terence Tao summed up the advantage of the hyperreal framework by noting that it allows one to rigorously manipulate things such as "the set of all small numbers", or to rigorously say things like "η1 is smaller than anything that involves η0", while greatly reducing epsilon management issues by automatically concealing many of the quantifiers in one's argument. The nature of the criticisms is not directly related to the logical status of the results proved using nonstandard analysis. In terms of conventional mathematical foundations in classical logic, such results are quite acceptable although usually strongly dependent on choice. Abraham Robinson's nonstandard analysis does not need any axioms beyond Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory (ZFC) (as shown explicitly by Wilhelmus Luxemburg's ultrapower construction of the hyperreals), while its variant by Edward Nelson, known as internal set theory, is similarly a conservative extension of ZFC. It provides an assurance that the newness


id: criticism-of-nonstandard-analysis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_nonstandard_analysis-1.md
category: reference
title: Criticism of nonstandard analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_nonstandard_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:34.626671+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criticism-of-nonstandard-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
=== Bishop's review === Bishop reviewed the book Elementary Calculus: An Infinitesimal Approach by Howard Jerome Keisler, which presented elementary calculus using the methods of nonstandard analysis. Bishop was chosen by his advisor Paul Halmos to review the book. The review appeared in the Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society in 1977. This article is referred to by David O. Tall (Tall 2001) while discussing the use of nonstandard analysis in education. Tall wrote: the use of the axiom of choice in the non-standard approach however, draws extreme criticism from those such as Bishop (1977) who insisted on explicit construction of concepts in the intuitionist tradition. Bishop's review supplied several quotations from Keisler's book, such as: In 1960, Robinson solved a three-hundred-year-old problem by giving a precise treatment of infinitesimals. Robinson's achievement will probably rank as one of the major mathematical advances of the twentieth century. and In discussing the real line we remarked that we have no way of knowing what a line in physical space is really like. It might be like the hyperreal line, the real line, or neither. However, in applications of the calculus, it is helpful to imagine a line in physical space as a


id: criticism-of-nonstandard-analysis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_nonstandard_analysis-2.md
category: reference
title: Criticism of nonstandard analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_nonstandard_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:34.626671+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criticism-of-nonstandard-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
"The answer given by non-standard analysis, namely a nonstandard real, is equally disappointing: every non-standard real canonically determines a (Lebesgue) non-measurable subset of the interval [0, 1], so that it is impossible (Stern, 1985) to exhibit a single [nonstandard real number]. The formalism that we propose will give a substantial and computable answer to this question." In his 1995 article "Noncommutative geometry and reality" Connes develops a calculus of infinitesimals based on operators in Hilbert space. He proceeds to "explain why the formalism of nonstandard analysis is inadequate" for his purposes. Connes points out the following three aspects of Robinson's hyperreals: (1) a nonstandard hyperreal "cannot be exhibited" (the reason given being its relation to nonmeasurable sets); (2) "the practical use of such a notion is limited to computations in which the final result is independent of the exact value of the above infinitesimal. This is the way nonstandard analysis and ultraproducts are used [...]". (3) the hyperreals are commutative. Katz & Katz analyze Connes' criticisms of nonstandard analysis, and challenge the specific claims (1) and (2). With regard to (1), Connes' own infinitesimals similarly rely on non-constructive foundational material, such as the existence of a Dixmier trace. With regard


id: criticism-of-nonstandard-analysis-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_nonstandard_analysis-3.md
category: reference
title: Criticism of nonstandard analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_nonstandard_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:34.626671+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criticism-of-nonstandard-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
== References == Albeverio, S.; Guido, D.; Ponosov, A.; Scarlatti, S. (1996). "Singular traces and compact operators". J. Funct. Anal. 137 (2): 281–302. doi:10.1006/jfan.1996.0047. S2CID 55846784. Artigue, Michèle (1994), Analysis, Advanced Mathematical Thinking (ed. David O. Tall), Springer-Verlag, p. 172, ISBN 0-7923-2812-4 Bishop, Errett (1975), "The crisis in contemporary mathematics", Historia Math., 2 (4): 507–517, doi:10.1016/0315-0860(75)90113-5 Bishop, Errett (1977), "Review: H. Jerome Keisler, Elementary calculus", Bull. Amer. Math. Soc., 83: 205–208, doi:10.1090/s0002-9904-1977-14264-x Bishop, E. (1983). "Schizophrenia in contemporary mathematics". Written at San Diego, Calif.. Errett Bishop: reflections on him and his research. Contemp. Math. Vol. 39. Providence, RI: Amer. Math. Soc. (published 1985). pp. 1–32. Bos, Henk J. M. (1974), "Differentials, higher-order differentials and the derivative in the Leibnizian calculus", Archive for History of Exact Sciences, 14: 1–90, doi:10.1007/BF00327456, S2CID 120779114 Chihara, C. (2007). "The Burgess–Rosen critique of nominalistic reconstructions". Philos. Math. 15 (1): 54–78. doi:10.1093/philmat/nkl023. Connes, A. (1997). "Brisure de symétrie spontanée et géométrie du point de vue spectral" (PDF). Journal of Geometry and Physics. 23 (3–4): 206–234. Bibcode:1997JGP....23..206C. doi:10.1016/s0393-0440(97)80001-0. Connes, A. (1995). "Noncommutative geometry and reality" (PDF). J. Math. Phys. 36 (11): 6194–6231. Bibcode:1995JMP....36.6194C. doi:10.1063/1.531241. Dauben, J. (1988). "Abraham Robinson and Nonstandard Analysis: History, Philosophy, and Foundations of


id: definition-of-life-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definition_of_life-0.md
category: reference
title: Definition of life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definition_of_life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:35.900039+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: definition-of-life-20260505-0
summary:
The precise definition of life is a contested aspect of it, and several proposals have been advanced. Biology defines and studies life as we know it, but abiogenesis and astrobiology seek wider and more encompassing definitions. Abiogenesis is the process by which life develops from inorganic materials, so a definition aims to establish the frontier between inorganic matter and the earliest lifeforms. Astrobiology seeks extraterrestrial life, which may differ from life on Earth. == Common features == Life does not have a simple definition, because life on Earth has a huge diversity, ranging from microscopic microorganisms to massive plants and trees, and in all sorts of habitats. A common way to define life is by using a number of characteristics that should be common to all life forms. However, those characteristics are not universal, and there are exceptions and possible false positives with all of them. The main ones include: Order: The elements that make up life are not randomly distributed. There is a biological organisation at all levels of life, from the microscopic cell to a full organism and even to the groups of several organisms. However, order is a necessary but not sufficient condition for life, as other


id: definition-of-life-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definition_of_life-1.md
category: reference
title: Definition of life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definition_of_life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:35.900039+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: definition-of-life-20260505-0
summary:
A problem with defining life by a number of characteristics is that it can provide false positives. Long and detailed lists leave potential lifeforms out, and small lists may include things that were not intended to be considered alive. For example, Crystals can grow and tend towards equilibrium, similar to homeostasis, but are not alive. Robert Saphiro and Gerald Feinberg proposed that life is the activity of a biosphere, defining biosphere as "a highly ordered system of matter and energy characterized by complex cycles that maintain or gradually increase the order of the system through the exchange of energy with the environment"; a definition that may be too broad. There are four possible ways to organize a definition. The first one is that there are a number of features and all of them must apply for something to be alive; if something has only some features but not others, then it is not. This is the method used by divulgation outlets. The second is that there is a single necessary and sufficient condition that can define the presence or absence of life. The third is that there are several necessary and sufficient conditions that define life; this is the one


id: definition-of-life-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definition_of_life-2.md
category: reference
title: Definition of life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definition_of_life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:35.900039+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: definition-of-life-20260505-0
summary:
=== Mechanism to vitalism === Aristotelianism was questioned in the 1630s by René Descartes in Treatise on Man, which described living beings as automata, built on muscles, bones, and organs instead of cogs and pistons. Shortly afterwards Isaac Newton postulated the three laws of motion, and final causation was no longer considered valid. However, as the knowledge about plants and animals grew, it soon became clear that their working was fundamentally different to that of artificial machines. Scientists proposed vitalism to explain that a "vital force" made living organisms work. In the 18th century, Immanuel Kant said that living organisms are built with a design, but as nature lacks a designer, it could only mean that living beings are naturally teleological and incapable of being explained purely by a framework of forces like Newton's laws of motion. === Emergentism === In 1828, Friedrich Wöhler synthesised urea, plainly a chemical of life, launching the discipline of organic chemistry. This supported the view that life was built out of chemical reactions. This philosophical viewpoint, later called emergentism, rejected vitalism. It proposed instead that living matter is composed by the same basic physical stuff as non-living matter, and is subject to the laws


id: a-diary-in-the-strict-sense-of-the-term-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Diary_in_the_Strict_Sense_of_the_Term-0.md
category: reference
title: A Diary in the Strict Sense of the Term
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Diary_in_the_Strict_Sense_of_the_Term
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:37.197414+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: a-diary-in-the-strict-sense-of-the-term-20260505-0
summary:
A Diary in the Strict Sense of the Term is a collection of the private diaries of the prominent anthropologist Bronisław Malinowski during his fieldwork in New Guinea and the Trobriand Islands between 1914–1915 and 1917–1918. The collection is composed of two diaries, written in Polish. Published posthumously by his widow Valetta Swann in 1967, the diaries, which repeatedly touch upon intensely personal matters such as sexual desires, as well as his private prejudices against his interlocutors, have remained extremely controversial. The introduction of the book was written by his pupil Raymond Firth. == History and significance == When the diaries were published in 1967, Clifford Geertz called them "gross" and "tiresome", and wrote that they portrayed Malinowski as "a crabbed, self-preoccupied, hypochondriacal narcissist, whose fellow-feeling for the people he lived with was limited in the extreme." Two decades later, however, he praised the collection as a "backstage masterpiece of anthropology, our The Double Helix". Michael W. Young noted that the diaries, "scandalously frank" with regards to topic such as the author's sexual desires and encounters, "debunked the romantic myth that he enjoyed relaxed and friendly rapport with his subjects and it fueled a moral crisis of the discipline in


id: einstein-bergson-debate-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein–Bergson_debate-0.md
category: reference
title: Einstein–Bergson debate
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein–Bergson_debate
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:38.497091+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: einstein-bergson-debate-20260505-0
summary:
On April 6, 1922, the physicist Albert Einstein and the philosopher Henri Bergson met at the Société française de philosophie and discussed the implications of the theory of relativity on the nature of time. This debate, with the broader discussion it set off, has had wide-ranging implications for Western cosmology and for the prestige of the humanities as compared to science. In 1934, Paul Valéry wrote that the meeting between these two thinkers was the "grande affaire" of the twentieth century. == Context == === Bergson === Henri Bergson was widely viewed as an epoch-defining thinker. For William James, Bergson's Creative Evolution was a work as important for Western philosophy as those of George Berkeley or Immanuel Kant; Jean Wahl concurs, placing Bergson alongside Plato, René Descartes and Kant as one of "the four great philosophers." A cult of personality developed around Bergson following the 1907 publication of Creative Evolution: students would make "mystical pilgrimages" to his summer home in Switzerland; he was referred to as "an enchanter" and "the greatest thinker in the world." His biographer Emily Herring refers to him as being in the early twentieth century "the most famous philosopher in the world." Bergson had a deep


id: einstein-bergson-debate-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein–Bergson_debate-1.md
category: reference
title: Einstein–Bergson debate
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein–Bergson_debate
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:38.497091+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: einstein-bergson-debate-20260505-0
summary:
Einstein's theory of relativity and his contributions to quantum theory had made him a household name in the scientific community, and by 1919 he even became a public celebrity after the solar eclipse of May 29, 1919, which helped substantiate Einstein's theory of general relativity, with the New York Times proclaiming: “Revolution in Science/New Theory of the Universe/Newtonian Ideas Overthrown.” The new doctrine was widely regarded as necessitating a total overhaul of current understandings of space and time. Einstein's fame had proliferated through his own efforts as well: he had published popular versions of both his treatises, and his Four Lectures on Relativity (delivered in 1921 at Princeton University) had intensified public interest even further. Einstein was invited to France by Paul Langevin, on behalf of the Collège de France, to help “to restore relations between German and French scholars” after World War I, a conflict whose mechanization had enlisted scientists in the service of bloodshed to a previously unprecedented degree. Einstein had opposed the war. On his arrival at the Gare du Nord, Einstein was greeted by crowds of "photographers, reporters, filmmakers, officials and diplomats," and had to slip out a side door to escape the attention. The debate


id: einstein-bergson-debate-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein–Bergson_debate-2.md
category: reference
title: Einstein–Bergson debate
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein–Bergson_debate
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:38.497091+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: einstein-bergson-debate-20260505-0
summary:
=== Duration and Simultaneity === Later in 1922, Bergson published Duration and Simultaneity, which was explicitly a "confrontation" with Einstein's theory of relativity. It sought to enlist the facts Einstein drew upon in his theories in service of Bergson's vitalist philosophy. He argued that special relativity is rooted in quantifiable clock-time, and that it fails to capture the true essence of time as duration. Distinguishing between "real" time that can be directly experienced and "imaginary" time (i.e. time dilation and relativity of simultaneity) derived form the relativistic formulas, he specifically takes aim at the twin paradox first proposed by Paul Langevin, and calls for the biological aging process to be distinguished from measurable time. In Langevin's example, a traveler makes a round-trip in a rocket for 200 years as measured on Earth, while he himself only experienced 2 years during the flight (see History of the twin paradox). Bergson erroneously rejected this conclusion by claiming that both twins (Peter on Earth and Paul in the rocket) are interchangeable and therefore must be of same age at reunion: p.74: We must now repeat for Paul everything we said about Peter: Since motion is reciprocal, the two people are interchangeable. If, earlier,


id: paul-fillunger-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Fillunger-0.md
category: reference
title: Paul Fillunger
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Fillunger
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:39.830024+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: paul-fillunger-20260505-0
summary:
Paul Fillunger (June 25, 1883 in Vienna – March 7, 1937 in Vienna) was an Austrian geotechnical engineer. Raised in a family of engineers, he studied at the Technische Hochschule in Vienna and took a position in the state-owned railway company in 1906. In 1908 he completed a PhD and then went to teach mathematics, machine industry and then mechanics at the University of Vienna. Fillunger pioneered the study of saturated ground and was made famous by an article published in 1913. He discovered the difference in behaviors of the effective and general stresses in samples of ground, opening the way for further research. He is considered to be a pioneer of the theory of liquid-saturated porous solids. Fillunger's theories put him in heated conflict with Karl von Terzaghi, who is often referred to as "father of soil mechanics", whom Fillunger was accused of slandering. The university blamed Fillunger, who then committed suicide by opening the gas jets in the bathroom with his wife. == References == Reint Boer, The Engineer And The Scandal: A Piece Of Science History, Springer, 2005 Paul Fillunger, "Erdbaumechanik?", Vienna, 1936


id: food-irradiation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_irradiation-0.md
category: reference
title: Food irradiation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_irradiation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:41.113128+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: food-irradiation-20260505-0
summary:
Food irradiation (sometimes called radurization in American English, and radurisation in British English) is the process of exposing food and food packaging to ionizing radiation, such as from gamma rays, x-rays, or electron beams. Food irradiation improves food safety and extends product shelf life (preservation) by effectively destroying organisms responsible for spoilage and foodborne illness, inhibits sprouting or ripening, and is a means of controlling insects and invasive pests. In the United States, consumer perception of foods treated with irradiation is more negative than those processed by other means. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the World Health Organization (WHO), the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) have performed studies that confirm irradiation to be safe. In order for a food to be irradiated in the U.S., the FDA will still require that the specific food be thoroughly tested for irradiation safety. Food irradiation is permitted in over 60 countries, and about 500,000 metric tons of food are processed annually worldwide. The regulations for how food is to be irradiated, as well as the foods allowed to be irradiated, vary greatly from country to country. In Austria, Germany, and many other countries


id: food-irradiation-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_irradiation-1.md
category: reference
title: Food irradiation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_irradiation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:41.113128+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: food-irradiation-20260505-0
summary:
=== Dosimetry === The radiation absorbed dose is the amount energy absorbed per unit weight of the target material. Dose is used because, when the same substance is given the same dose, similar changes are observed in the target material(Gy or J/kg). Dosimeters are used to measure dose, and are small components that, when exposed to ionizing radiation, change measurable physical attributes to a degree that can be correlated to the dose received. Measuring dose (dosimetry) involves exposing one or more dosimeters along with the target material. For purposes of legislation doses are divided into low (up to 1 kGy), medium (1 kGy to 10 kGy), and high-dose applications (above 10 kGy). High-dose applications are above those currently permitted in the US for commercial food items by the FDA and other regulators around the world, though these doses are approved for non commercial applications, such as sterilizing frozen meat for NASA astronauts (doses of 44 kGy) and food for hospital patients. The ratio of the maximum dose permitted at the outer edge (Dmax) to the minimum limit to achieve processing conditions (Dmin) determines the uniformity of dose distribution. This ratio determines how uniform the irradiation process is. == Chemical changes


id: food-irradiation-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_irradiation-2.md
category: reference
title: Food irradiation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_irradiation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:41.113128+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: food-irradiation-20260505-0
summary:
Gamma irradiation is widely used due to its high penetration depth and dose uniformity, allowing for large-scale applications with high throughput. Additionally, gamma irradiation is significantly less expensive than using an X-ray source. In most designs, the radioisotope, contained in stainless steel pencils, is stored in a water-filled storage pool which absorbs the radiation energy when not in use. For treatment, the source is lifted out of the storage tank, and product contained in totes is passed around the pencils to achieve required processing. Treatment costs vary as a function of dose and facility usage. A pallet or tote is typically exposed for several minutes to hours depending on dose. Low-dose applications such as disinfestation of fruit range between US$0.01/lb and US$0.08/lb while higher-dose applications can cost as much as US$0.20/lb. ==== Electron beam ==== Treatment of electron beams is created as a result of high energy electrons in an accelerator that generates electrons accelerated to 99% the speed of light. This system uses electrical energy and can be powered on and off. The high power correlates with a higher throughput and lower unit cost, but electron beams have low dose uniformity and a penetration depth of centimeters. Therefore, electron


id: food-irradiation-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_irradiation-3.md
category: reference
title: Food irradiation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_irradiation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:41.113128+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: food-irradiation-20260505-0
summary:
== Standards and regulations == The Codex Alimentarius represents the global standard for irradiation of food, in particular under the WTO-agreement. Regardless of treatment source, all processing facilities must adhere to safety standards set by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Codex Code of Practice for the Radiation Processing of Food, Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). More specifically, ISO 14470 and ISO 9001 provide in-depth information regarding safety in irradiation facilities. All commercial irradiation facilities contain safety systems which are designed to prevent exposure of personnel to radiation. The radiation source is constantly shielded by water, concrete, or metal. Irradiation facilities are designed with overlapping layers of protection, interlocks, and safeguards to prevent accidental radiation exposure. Meltdowns are unlikely to occur due to low heat production from sources used. === Labeling === The provisions of the Codex Alimentarius are that any "first generation" product must be labeled "irradiated" as any product derived directly from an irradiated raw material; for ingredients the provision is that even the last molecule of an irradiated ingredient must be listed with the ingredients even in cases where the unirradiated ingredient does not appear on the label. The RADURA-logo is


id: food-irradiation-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_irradiation-4.md
category: reference
title: Food irradiation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_irradiation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:41.113128+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: food-irradiation-20260505-0
summary:
==== European Union ==== European law stipulates that all member countries must allow the sale of irradiated dried aromatic herbs, spices and vegetable seasonings. However, these Directives allow Member States to maintain previous clearances food categories the EC's Scientific Committee on Food (SCF) had previously approved (the approval body is now the European Food Safety Authority). Presently, Belgium, Czech Republic, France, Italy, Netherlands, and Poland allow the sale of many different types of irradiated foods. Before individual items in an approved class can be added to the approved list, studies into the toxicology of each of such food and for each of the proposed dose ranges are requested. It also states that irradiation shall not be used "as a substitute for hygiene or health practices or good manufacturing or agricultural practice". These Directives only control food irradiation for food retail and their conditions and controls are not applicable to the irradiation of food for patients requiring sterile diets. In 2021 the most common food items irradiated were frog legs at 65.1%, poultry 20.6% and dried aromatic herbs, spices and vegetables seasoning. Due to the European Single Market, any food, even if irradiated, must be allowed to be marketed in any


id: food-irradiation-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_irradiation-5.md
category: reference
title: Food irradiation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_irradiation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:41.113128+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: food-irradiation-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == World Health Organization publications: Safety and nutritional adequacy of irradiated food, WHO, Geneva, 1994 High-dose irradiation: Wholesomeness of food irradiated with doses above 10 kGy, WHO, Geneva, 1999, Technical Report Series No. 890 Facts about Food Irradiation, A series of Fact Sheets from the International Consultative Group on Food Irradiation (ICGFI), 1999, IAEA, Vienna, Austria at the Wayback Machine (archived 2006-03-16) Diehl, J.F., Safety of irradiated foods, Marcel Dekker, N.Y., 1995 (2. ed.) Satin, M., Food irradiation, Technomic, Lancaster, 1996 (2. ed.) Urbain, W.M., Food irradiation, Academic Press, Orlando, 1986 Molins, R. (ed.), Food irradiation – Principles and applications, Wiley Interscience, N.Y., 2001 Sommers, C.H. and Fan, X. (eds.), Food Irradiation Research and Technology, Blackwell Publishing, Ames, IA, 2006 The Food That Would Last Forever : Understanding the Dangers of Food Irradiation, by Gary Gibbs, Garden City Park, N.Y. : Avery Pub. Group, c1993 anon., Food Irradiation: Available Research Indicates That Benefits Outweigh Risks, RCED-00-217, August 24, 2000, Government Accountability Office, United States General Accounting Office, Resources, Community, and Economic Development Division, Washington, D.C. 20548 "Food Irradiation" Farkas, József; Mohácsi-Farkas, Csilla (March 2011). "History and future of food irradiation". Trends in Food Science & Technology. 22


id: generation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation-0.md
category: reference
title: Generation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:42.472460+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: generation-20260505-0
summary:
A generation is all of the individuals born and living at about the same time, regarded collectively. It also is "the average period, generally considered to be about 20–30 years, during which children are born and grow up, become adults, and begin to have children." In kinship, generation is a structural term, designating the parent–child relationship. In biology, generation also means biogenesis, reproduction, and procreation. Generation is also a synonym for birth/age cohort in demographics, marketing, and social science, where it means "people within a delineated population who experience the same significant events within a given period of time." The term generation in this sense, also known as social generations, is widely used in popular culture and is a basis of sociological analysis. Serious analysis of generations began in the nineteenth century, emerging from an increasing awareness of the possibility of permanent social change and the idea of youthful rebellion against the established social order. Some analysts believe that a generation is one of the fundamental social categories in a society; others consider generation less important than class, gender, race, and education. == Etymology == The word generate comes from the Latin generāre, meaning "to beget". The word generation as


id: generation-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation-1.md
category: reference
title: Generation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:42.472460+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: generation-20260505-0
summary:
=== Generational theory === The sociologist Karl Mannheim was a seminal figure in the study of generations. He elaborated a theory of generations in his 1923 essay The Problem of Generations. He suggested that there had been a division into two primary schools of study of generations until that time. Firstly, positivists such as Comte measured social change in designated life spans. Mannheim argued that this reduced history to "a chronological table". The other school, the "romantic-historical" was represented by Dilthey and Martin Heidegger. This school focused on the individual qualitative experience at the expense of social context. Mannheim emphasised that the rapidity of social change in youth was crucial to the formation of generations, and that not every generation would come to see itself as distinct. In periods of rapid social change a generation would be much more likely to develop a cohesive character. He also believed that a number of distinct sub-generations could exist. According to Gilleard and Higgs, Mannheim identified three commonalities that a generation shares: Shared temporal location: generational site or birth cohort Shared historical location: generation as actuality or exposure to a common era Shared sociocultural location: generational consciousness or entelechy Mannheim elaborated on the


id: generation-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation-2.md
category: reference
title: Generation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:42.472460+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: generation-20260505-0
summary:
Generational analysis has a long and distinguished place in social science, and we cast our lot with those scholars who believe it is not only possible, but often highly illuminating, to search for the unique and distinctive characteristics of any given age group of Americans. But we also know this is not an exact science. We are mindful that there are as many differences in attitudes, values, behaviors, and lifestyles within a generation as there are between generations. But we believe this reality does not diminish the value of generational analysis; it merely adds to its richness and complexity. Another element of generational theory is recognizing how youth experience their generation, and how that changes based on where they reside in the world. "Analyzing young people's experiences in place contributes to a deeper understanding of the processes of individualization, inequality, and of generation." Being able to take a closer looks at youth cultures and subcultures in different times and places adds an extra element to understanding the everyday lives of youth. This allows a better understanding of youth and the role generation and place play in their development. It is not where the birth cohort boundaries are drawn that is


id: generation-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation-3.md
category: reference
title: Generation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:42.472460+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: generation-20260505-0
summary:
The Lost Generation, also known as the "Generation of 1914" in Europe, is a term originating from Gertrude Stein to describe those who fought in World War I. The Lost Generation is defined as the cohort born from 1883 to 1900 who came of age during World War I and the Roaring Twenties. The Greatest Generation, also known in American usage as the "G.I. Generation", includes the veterans who fought in World War II. They were born from 1901 to 1927; older G.I.s (or the Interbellum Generation) came of age during the Roaring Twenties, while younger G.I.s came of age during the Great Depression and World War II. Journalist Tom Brokaw wrote about American members of this cohort in his book The Greatest Generation, which popularized the term. The Silent Generation, also known as the "Lucky Few", is the cohort who came of age in the post–World War II era. They were born from 1928 to 1945. In the U.S., this group includes most of those who may have fought in the Korean War and many of those who may have fought during the Vietnam War. Baby boomers (often shortened to Boomers) are the people born following World War II


id: generation-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation-4.md
category: reference
title: Generation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:42.472460+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: generation-20260505-0
summary:
=== Other areas === In Armenia, people born after the country's independence from the Soviet Union in 1991 are known as the "Independence generation". In the Czech Republic and Slovakia, the generation of people born in Czechoslovakia during the baby boom which started in the early 1970s, during the period of "normalization" are called "Husák's children". The generation was named after the President and long-term Communist leader of Czechoslovakia, Gustáv Husák. This was due to his political program to boost the growth of population. In the People's Republic of China, the "Post-80s" (Chinese: 八零后世代 or 八零后) (born-after-1980 generation) are those who were born in the 1980s in urban areas of mainland China. Growing up in modern China, the Post-80s has been characterised by its optimism for the future, newfound excitement for consumerism and entrepreneurship and acceptance of its historic role in transforming modern China into an economic power. There is also the similarly named "Post-90s" (Chinese: 九零后), those born after 1990. A broader generational classification would be the "one-child generation" born between the introduction of the one-child policy in 1979 and its softening into a "two-child policy" in 2015. The lack of siblings has had profound psychological effects on this


id: generation-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation-5.md
category: reference
title: Generation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:42.472460+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: generation-20260505-0
summary:
In Taiwan, the term Strawberry generation refers to Taiwanese people born after 1981 who "bruise easily" like strawberries—meaning they can not withstand social pressure or work hard like their parents' generation; the term refers to people who are insubordinate, spoiled, selfish, arrogant, and sluggish in work. In the Philippines, the Filipinos who are in Millennials is also known as Batang 90's. In Ukraine, the political scientists Olga Onuch and Henry E. Hale identified people born from about 1975 to 1985 as the "Independence Generation" in their book The Zelensky Effect. This generation were children when Ukraine gained independence in 1991—old enough to recall and understand, but too young to participate—and "came of age politically in an independent Ukraine". Onuch and Hale argue that this generation has played a vital role in the formation of civic national identity in Ukraine.


id: generation-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation-6.md
category: reference
title: Generation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:42.472460+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: generation-20260505-0
summary:
=== Other terminology === The term generation is sometimes applied to a cultural movement, or more narrowly defined group than an entire demographic (such as cuspers between generations). Some examples include: The Stolen Generations, refers to children of Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islander descent, who were forcibly removed from their families by Australian federal and state government agencies and church missions, under Acts of their respective parliaments between approximately 1869 and 1969. The Beat Generation, refers to a popular American cultural movement widely cited by social scholars as having laid the foundation of the pro-active American counterculture of the 1960s. It consisted of Americans born between the two world wars who came of age in the rise of the automobile era, and the surrounding accessibility they brought to the culturally diverse, yet geographically broad and separated nation. Generation Jones is a term coined by Jonathan Pontell to describe the cohort of people born between 1954 and 1965. The term is used primarily in English-speaking countries. Pontell defined Generation Jones as referring to the second half of the post–World War II baby boom. The term also includes first-wave Generation X. MTV Generation, a term referring to the adolescents and young


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-0.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:43.845501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
Consumers, farmers, biotechnology companies, governmental regulators, non-governmental organizations, and scientists have been involved in controversies around foods and other goods derived from genetically modified crops instead of conventional crops, and other uses of genetic engineering in food production. The key areas of controversy related to genetically modified food (GM food or GMO food) are whether such food should be labeled, the role of government regulators, the objectivity of scientific research and publication, the effect of genetically modified crops on health and the environment, the effect on pesticide resistance, the impact of such crops for farmers, and the role of the crops in feeding the world population. In addition, products derived from GMO organisms play a role in the production of ethanol fuels and pharmaceuticals. Specific concerns include mixing of genetically modified and non-genetically modified products in the food supply, effects of GMOs on the environment, the rigor of the regulatory process, and consolidation of control of the food supply in companies that make and sell GMOs. Advocacy groups such as the Center for Food Safety, Organic Consumers Association, Union of Concerned Scientists, and Greenpeace say risks have not been adequately identified and managed, and they have questioned the objectivity of


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-1.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:43.845501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
=== Reviews and polls === An EMBO Reports article in 2003 reported that the Public Perceptions of Agricultural Biotechnologies in Europe project (PABE) found the public neither accepting nor rejecting GMOs. Instead, PABE found that public had "key questions" about GMOs: "Why do we need GMOs? Who benefits from their use? Who decided that they should be developed and how? Why were we not better informed about their use in our food, before their arrival on the market? Why are we not given an effective choice about whether or not to buy these products? Have potential long-term and irreversible consequences been seriously evaluated, and by whom? Do regulatory authorities have sufficient powers to effectively regulate large companies? Who wishes to develop these products? Can controls imposed by regulatory authorities be applied effectively? Who will be accountable in cases of unforeseen harm?" PABE also found that the public's scientific knowledge does not control public opinion, since scientific facts do not answer these questions. PABE also found that the public does not demand "zero risk" in GM food discussions and is "perfectly aware that their lives are full of risks that need to be counterbalanced against each other and against the potential


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-2.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:43.845501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
In May 2012, a group called "Take the Flour Back" led by Gerald Miles protested plans by a group from Rothamsted Experimental Station, based in Harpenden, Hertfordshire, England, to conduct an experimental trial wheat genetically modified to repel aphids. The researchers, led by John Pickett, wrote a letter to the group in early May 2012, asking them to call off their protest, aimed for 27 May 2012. Group member Lucy Harrap said that the group was concerned about spread of the crops into nature, and cited examples of outcomes in the United States and Canada. Rothamsted Research and Sense about Science ran question and answer sessions about such a potential. The March Against Monsanto is an international grassroots movement and protest against Monsanto corporation, a producer of genetically modified organism (GMOs) and Roundup, a glyphosate-based herbicide. The movement was founded by Tami Canal in response to the failure of California Proposition 37, a ballot initiative which would have required labeling food products made from GMOs. Advocates support mandatory labeling laws for food made from GMOs . The initial march took place on May 25, 2013. The number of protesters who took part is uncertain; figures of "hundreds of thousands" and


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-3.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:43.845501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
There are various conspiracy theories related to the production and sale of genetically modified crops and genetically modified food that have been identified by some commentators such as Michael Shermer. Generally, these conspiracy theories posit that GMOs are being knowingly and maliciously introduced into the food supply either as a means to unduly enrich agribusinesses or as a means to poison or pacify the population. A work seeking to explore risk perception over GMOs in Turkey identified a belief among the conservative political and religious figures who were opposed to GMOs that GMOs were "a conspiracy by Jewish Multinational Companies and Israel for world domination." Additionally, a Latvian study showed that a segment of the population believed that GMOs were part of a greater conspiracy theory to poison the population of the country. == Lawsuits == === Foundation on Economic Trends v. Heckler === In 1983, environmental groups and protesters delayed the field tests of the genetically modified ice-minus strain of P. syringae with legal challenges. === Alliance for Bio-Integrity v. Shalala === In this case, the plaintiff argued both for mandatory labeling on the basis of consumer demand, and that GMO foods should undergo the same testing requirements as


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-4.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:43.845501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
=== Reviews === A 2011 analysis by Diels et al., reviewed 94 peer-reviewed studies pertaining to GMO safety to assess whether conflicts of interest correlated with outcomes that cast GMOs in a favorable light. They found that financial conflict of interest was not associated with study outcome (p = 0.631) while author affiliation to industry (i.e., a professional conflict of interest) was strongly associated with study outcome (p < 0.001). Of the 94 studies that were analyzed, 52% did not declare funding. 10% of the studies were categorized as "undetermined" with regard to professional conflict of interest. Of the 43 studies with financial or professional conflicts of interest, 28 studies were compositional studies. According to Marc Brazeau, an association between professional conflict of interest and positive study outcomes can be skewed because companies typically contract with independent researchers to perform follow-up studies only after in-house research uncovers favorable results. In-house research that uncovers negative or unfavorable results for a novel GMO is generally not further pursued. A 2013 review, of 1,783 papers on genetically modified crops and food published between 2002 and 2012 found no plausible evidence of dangers from the use of then marketed GM crops. In a 2014


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-5.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:43.845501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
Regulators check that GM foods are "substantially equivalent" to their conventional counterparts, to detect any negative unintended consequences. New protein(s) that differ from conventional food proteins or anomalies that arise in the substantial equivalence comparison require further toxicological analysis. In 1999, Andrew Chesson of the Rowett Research Institute warned that substantial equivalence testing "could be flawed in some cases" and that current safety tests could allow harmful substances to enter the human food supply. The same year Millstone, Brunner and Mayer argued that the standard was a pseudo-scientific product of politics and lobbying that was created to reassure consumers and aid biotechnology companies to reduce the time and cost of safety testing. They suggested that GM foods have extensive biological, toxicological and immunological tests and that substantial equivalence should be abandoned. This commentary was criticized for misrepresenting history, for distorting existing data and poor logic. Kuiper claimed that it oversimplified safety assessments and that equivalence testing involves more than chemical tests, possibly including toxicity testing. Keler and Lappe supported Congressional legislation to replace the substantial equivalence standard with safety studies. In a 2016 review, Domingo criticized the use of the "substantial equivalence" concept as a measure of the safety of


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-6.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:43.845501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
=== Allergenicity === A well-known risk of genetic modification is the introduction of an allergen. Allergen testing is routine for products intended for food, and passing those tests is part of the regulatory requirements. Organizations such as the European Green Party and Greenpeace emphasize this risk. The use of genes from known allergenic sources is discouraged in the research and development of GM foods. A 2005 review of the results from allergen testing stated that "no biotech proteins in foods have been documented to cause allergic reactions". Regulatory authorities require that new modified foods be tested for allergenicity before they are marketed. The Codex Alimentarius recommends a weight-of-evidence safety approach for assessing the allergenic potential of genetically modified crops, including the history of exposure and safety of the source of the inserted gene, the structure of the protein, its stability to pepsin digestion, and the degree of exposure in the gastrointestinal tract as a function of the abundance of the recombinant protein in the food. In the assessment of the allergenic safety of genetically modified organisms, bioinformatics is used to analyze whether newly expressed proteins show similarity to known human allergens. This process is based on comparing the amino acid


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-7.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:43.845501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
=== Horizontal gene transfer === Horizontal gene transfer is the movement of genes from one organism to another in a manner other than reproduction. The risk of horizontal gene transfer between GMO plants and animals is very low and in most cases is expected to be lower than background rates. Two studies on the possible effects of feeding animals with genetically modified food found no residues of recombinant DNA or novel proteins in any organ or tissue samples. Studies found DNA from the M13 virus, Green fluorescent protein and RuBisCO genes in the blood and tissue of animals, and in 2012, a paper suggested that a specific microRNA from rice could be found at very low quantities in human and animal serum. Other studies however, found no or negligible transfer of plant microRNAs into the blood of humans or any of three model organisms. Another concern is that the antibiotic resistance gene commonly used as a genetic marker in transgenic crops could be transferred to harmful bacteria, creating resistant superbugs. A 2004 study involving human volunteers examined whether the transgene from modified soy would transfer to bacteria that live in the human gut. As of 2012 it was the only


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-8.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:43.845501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
=== Animal feeding studies === Reviews of animal feeding studies mostly found no effects. A 2014 review found that the performance of animals fed GM feed was similar to that of animals fed "isogenic non-GE crop lines". A 2012 review of 12 long-term studies and 12 multigenerational studies conducted by public research laboratories concluded that none had discovered any safety problems linked to consumption of GM food. A 2009 review by Magaña-Gómez found that although most studies concluded that modified foods do not differ in nutrition or cause toxic effects in animals, some did report adverse changes at a cellular level caused by specific modified foods. The review concluded that "More scientific effort and investigation is needed to ensure that consumption of GM foods is not likely to provoke any form of health problem". Dona and Arvanitoyannis' 2009 review concluded that "results of most studies with GM foods indicate that they may cause some common toxic effects such as hepatic, pancreatic, renal, or reproductive effects and may alter the hematological, biochemical, and immunologic parameters". Reactions to this review in 2009 and 2010 noted that Dona and Arvanitoyannis had concentrated on articles with an anti-modification bias that were refuted in peer-reviewed


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-9.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:43.845501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
=== Human studies === While some groups and individuals have called for more human testing of GM food, multiple obstacles complicate such studies. The General Accounting Office (in a review of FDA procedures requested by Congress) and a working group of the Food and Agriculture and World Health organizations both said that long-term human studies of the effect of GM food are not feasible. The reasons included lack of a plausible hypothesis to test, lack of knowledge about the potential long-term effects of conventional foods, variability in the ways humans react to foods and that epidemiological studies were unlikely to differentiate modified from conventional foods, which come with their own suite of unhealthy characteristics. Additionally, ethical concerns guide human subject research. These mandate that each tested intervention must have a potential benefit for the human subjects, such as treatment for a disease or nutritional benefit (ruling out, e.g., human toxicity testing). Kimber claimed that the "ethical and technical constraints of conducting human trials, and the necessity of doing so, is a subject that requires considerable attention." Food with nutritional benefits may escape this objection. For example, GM rice has been tested for nutritional benefits, namely, increased levels of Vitamin A.


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-10.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:43.845501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
In 2007, 2009, and 2011, Gilles-Éric Séralini published re-analysis studies that used data from Monsanto rat-feeding experiments for three modified maize varieties (insect-resistant MON 863 and MON 810 and glyphosate-resistant NK603). He concluded that the data showed liver, kidney and heart damage. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) then concluded that the differences were all within the normal range. EFSA also stated that Séralini's statistics were faulty. EFSA's conclusions were supported by FSANZ, a panel of expert toxicologists, and the French High Council of Biotechnologies Scientific Committee (HCB). In 2012, Séralini's lab published a paper that considered the long-term effects of feeding rats various levels of GM glyphosate-resistant maize, conventional glyphosate-treated maize, and a mixture of the two strains. The paper concluded that rats fed the modified maize had severe health problems, including liver and kidney damage and large tumors. The study provoked widespread criticism. Séralini held a press conference just before the paper was released in which he announced the release of a book and a movie. He allowed reporters to have access to the paper before his press conference only if they signed a confidentiality agreement under which they could not report other scientists' responses to the paper.


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-11.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:43.845501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
== Environment == Genetically modified crops are planted in fields much like regular crops. There they interact directly with organisms that feed on the crops and indirectly with other organisms in the food chain. The pollen from the plants is distributed in the environment like that of any other crop. This distribution has led to concerns over the effects of GM crops on the environment. Potential effects include gene flow/genetic pollution, pesticide resistance and greenhouse gas emissions. === Non-target organisms === A major use of GM crops is in insect control through the expression of the cry (crystal delta-endotoxins) and Vip (vegetative insecticidal proteins) genes from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). Such toxins could affect other insects in addition to targeted pests such as the European corn borer. Bt proteins have been used as organic sprays for insect control in France since 1938 and the US since 1958, with no reported ill effects. Cry proteins selectively target Lepidopterans (moths and butterflies). As a toxic mechanism, cry proteins bind to specific receptors on the membranes of mid-gut (epithelial) cells, resulting in their rupture. Any organism that lacks the appropriate receptors in its gut is unaffected by the cry protein, and therefore is not


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-12.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:43.845501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
=== Gene flow === Genes from a GMO may pass to another organism just like an endogenous gene. The process is known as outcrossing and can occur in any new open-pollinated crop variety. As late as the 1990s this was thought to be unlikely and rare, and if it were to occur, easily eradicated. It was thought that this would add no additional environmental costs or risks - no effects were expected other than those already caused by pesticide applications. Introduced traits potentially can cross into neighboring plants of the same or closely related species through three different types of gene flow: crop-to-crop, crop-to-weedy, and crop-to-wild. In crop-to-crop, genetic information from a genetically modified crop is transferred to a non-genetically modified crop. Crop-to-weedy transfer refers to the transfer of genetically modified material to a weed, and crop-to-wild indicates transfer from a genetically modified crop to a wild, undomesticated plant and/or crop. There are concerns that the spread of genes from modified organisms to unmodified relatives could produce species of weeds resistant to herbicides that could contaminate nearby non-genetically modified crops, or could disrupt the ecosystem, This is primarily a concern if the transgenic organism has a significant survival capacity and


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-13.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:43.845501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
The US has no legislation governing the relationship among mixtures of farms that grow organic, conventional, and GM crops. The country relies on a "complex but relaxed" combination of three federal agencies (FDA, EPA, and USDA/APHIS) and states' common law tort systems to manage coexistence. The Secretary of Agriculture convened an Advisory Committee on Biotechnology and 21st Century Agriculture (AC21) to study coexistence and make recommendations about the issue. The members of AC21 included representatives of the biotechnology industry, the organic food industry, farming communities, the seed industry, food manufacturers, State governments, consumer and community development groups, the medical profession, and academic researchers. AC21 recommended that a study assess the potential for economic losses to US organic farmers; that any serious losses lead to a crop insurance program, an education program to ensure that organic farmers put appropriate contracts in place and that neighboring GMO farmers take appropriate containment measures. Overall the report supported a diverse agriculture system supporting diverse farming systems. The EU implemented regulations specifically governing co-existence and traceability. Traceability has become commonplace in the food and feed supply chains of most countries, but GMO traceability is more challenging given strict legal thresholds for unwanted mixing. Since 2001,


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-14.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:43.845501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
=== Resistant insect pests === Resistance evolves naturally after a population has been subjected to selection pressure via repeated use of a single pesticide. In November 2009, Monsanto scientists found that the pink bollworm had become resistant to first generation Bt cotton in parts of Gujarat, India—that generation expresses one Bt gene, Cry1Ac. This was the first instance of Bt resistance confirmed by Monsanto. Similar resistance was later identified in Australia, China, Spain and the US. One strategy to delay Bt-resistance is to plant pest refuges using conventional crops, thereby diluting any resistant genes. Another is to develop crops with multiple Bt genes that target different receptors within the insect. In 2012, a Florida field trial demonstrated that army worms were resistant to Dupont-Dow's GM corn. This resistance was discovered in Puerto Rico in 2006, prompting Dow and DuPont to stop selling the product there. The European corn borer, one of Bt's primary targets, is also capable of developing resistance. == Economy == GM food's economic value to farmers is one of its major benefits, including in developing nations. A 2010 study found that Bt corn provided economic benefits of $6.9 billion over the previous 14 years in five Midwestern


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-15.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:43.845501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
==== 2014 review ==== A 2014 review, concluded that GM crops' effects on farming were positive. According to The Economist, the meta-analysis considered all published English-language examinations of the agronomic and economic impacts between 1995 and March 2014. The study found that herbicide-tolerant crops have lower production costs, while for insect-resistant crops the reduced pesticide use was offset by higher seed prices, leaving overall production costs about the same. Yields increased 9% for herbicide tolerance and 25% for insect resistance. Farmers who adopted GM crops made 69% higher profits than those who did not. The review found that GM crops help farmers in developing countries, increasing yields by 14 percentage points. The researchers considered some studies that were not peer-reviewed, and a few that did not report sample sizes. They attempted to correct for publication bias, by considering sources beyond academic journals. The large data set allowed the study to control for potentially confounding variables such as fertiliser use. Separately, they concluded that the funding source did not influence study results. ==== 2010 review ==== A 2010 article, supported by CropLife International summarised the results of 49 peer-reviewed studies. On average, farmers in developed countries increased yields by 6% and


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-16.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:43.845501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
=== Intellectual property === Traditionally, farmers in all nations saved their own seed from year to year. However, since the early 1900s hybrid crops have been widely used in the developed world and seeds to grow these crops are purchased each year from seed producers. The offspring of the hybrid corn, while still viable, lose hybrid vigor (the beneficial traits of the parents). This benefit of first-generation hybrid seeds is the primary reason for not planting second-generation seed. However, for non-hybrid GM crops, such as GM soybeans, seed companies use intellectual property law and tangible property common law, each expressed in contracts, to prevent farmers from planting saved seed. For example, Monsanto's typical bailment license (covering transfer of the seeds themselves) forbids saving seeds, and also requires purchasers to sign a separate patent license agreement. Corporations say that they need to prevent seed piracy, to fulfill financial obligations to shareholders, and to finance further development. DuPont spent approximately half its $2 billion research and development (R&D) budget on agriculture in 2011 while Monsanto spends 9–10% of sales on R&D. Detractors such as Greenpeace say that patent rights give corporations excessive control over agriculture. The Center for Ecoliteracy claimed that "patenting


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-17
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-17.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:43.845501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
==== Status ==== In 2014, 64 countries required labeling of all GM foods. These include the European Union, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, Russia, China and India. As of March 2015, Israel was in the process of issuing regulations for labeling of food with ingredients from GMOs. Alaska required labeling of GMO fish and shellfish in 2005, even though no GM fish had been approved by the FDA at the time. A 2014 Vermont law went into effect on July 1, 2016, and some food manufacturers (including General Mills, Mars, Kellogg's, the Campbell Soup Company, PepsiCo, ConAgra, Frito-Lay, and Bimbo Bakeries USA) began distributing products either locally or nationwide with labels such as "Partially produced with Genetic Engineering". Other manufacturers removed about 3,000 non-compliant products from sale in Vermont. The federal government of the United States passed a law at the end of that month pre-empting all state laws, including Vermont's. The law requires labeling regulations to be issued by July 2018, and allows indirect disclosure such as with a phone number, bar code, or web site. It is unclear whether the rules will require labeling of oils and sugars from GM crops, where the final product does not contain any


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-18
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-18.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:43.845501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
==== United States ==== Four federal district court suits have been brought against Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), the agency within USDA that regulates genetically modified plants. Two involved field trials (herbicide-tolerant turfgrass in Oregon; pharmaceutical-producing corn and sugar in Hawaii) and two the deregulation of GM alfalfa. and GM sugar beet. APHIS lost all four cases at trial, with the judges ruling they failed to diligently follow the guidelines set out in the National Environmental Policy Act. However, the Supreme Court overturned the nationwide ban on GM alfalfa and an appeal court allowed the partial deregulation of GM sugar beets. After APHIS prepared Environmental Impact Statements for both alfalfa and sugar beets they were approved. In 2014, Maui County, Hawaii approved an initiative calling for a moratorium on GMO production and research. The initiative specified penalties including fines and jail for knowing violations and did not limit its scope to commercial agriculture. The initiative passed by about 50.2 to 47.9 percent. On December 15, 2015, the New York Times ran an op-ed titled "Are You Eating Frankenfish?", saying that the United States congress will debate whether genetically engineered salmon should be labeled. ==== European Union ==== Until


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-19
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-19.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:43.845501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
==== Philippines ==== A petition filed May 17, 2013, by environmental group Greenpeace Southeast Asia and farmer-scientist coalition Masipag (Magsasaka at Siyentipiko sa Pagpapaunlad ng Agrikultura) asked the appellate court to stop the planting of Bt eggplant in test fields, saying the impacts of such an undertaking to the environment, native crops and human health are still unknown. The Court of Appeals granted the petition, citing the precautionary principle stating "when human activities may lead to threats of serious and irreversible damage to the environment that is scientifically plausible but uncertain, actions shall be taken to avoid or diminish the threat". Respondents filed a motion for reconsideration in June 2013 and on September 20, 2013, the Court of Appeals chose to uphold their May decision saying the bt talong field trials violate the people's constitutional right to a "balanced and healthful ecology". The Supreme Court on December 8, 2015, permanently stopped the field testing for Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) talong (eggplant), upholding the decision of the Court of Appeals which stopped the field trials for the genetically modified eggplant. In April 2023, the Supreme Court of the Philippines issued a Writ of Kalikasan ordering the Philippine Department of Agriculture to stop


id: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-20
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies-20.md
category: reference
title: Genetically modified food controversies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:43.845501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genetically-modified-food-controversies-20260505-0
summary:
India is an agrarian country with around 60% of its people depending directly or indirectly upon agriculture. From 1995 to 2013, a total of 296,438 farmers have killed themselves in India, or an average of 16,469 suicides per year. During the same period, about 9.5 million people died per year in India from other causes including malnutrition, diseases and suicides that were non-farming related, or about 171 million deaths from 1995 to 2013. Activists and scholars have offered a number of conflicting reasons for farmer suicides, such as monsoon failure, high debt burdens, genetically modified crops, government policies, public mental health, personal issues and family problems. There are also accusations of states reporting inaccurate data on farmer suicides. In India, GM cotton yields in Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu resulted in an average 42% increase in yield in 2002, the first year of commercial planting. A severe drought in Andhra Pradesh that year prevented any increase in yield, because the GM strain was not drought tolerant. Drought-tolerant variants were later developed. Driven by substantially reduced losses to insect predation, by 2011 88% of Indian cotton was modified. There are economic and environmental benefits of GM cotton to farmers in India.


id: hobbes-wallis-controversy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobbes–Wallis_controversy-0.md
category: reference
title: Hobbes–Wallis controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobbes–Wallis_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:46.345665+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hobbes-wallis-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
The Hobbes–Wallis controversy was a polemic debate that continued from the mid-1650s well into the 1670s, between the philosopher Thomas Hobbes and the mathematician and clergyman John Wallis. It was sparked by De corpore, a philosophical work by Hobbes in the general area of physics. The book contained not only a theory of mathematics subordinating it to geometry and geometry to kinematics, but a claimed proof of the squaring of the circle by Hobbes. While Hobbes retracted this particular proof, he returned to the topic with other attempted proofs. A pamphleteering exchange continued for decades. It drew in the newly formed Royal Society, and its experimental philosophy to which Hobbes was (on principle) opposed. The sustained nature of the exchanges can be attributed to several strands of the intellectual situation of the time. In mathematics there were open issues, namely the priority (pedagogic, or theoretical) to be assigned to geometry and algebra; and the status of algebra itself, which (from an English standpoint) had been pulled together by the text of William Oughtred, as more than a collection of symbolic abbreviations. Socially, the formation of the group of Royal Society members, and the status of the publication Philosophical Transactions, was


id: hobbes-wallis-controversy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobbes–Wallis_controversy-1.md
category: reference
title: Hobbes–Wallis controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobbes–Wallis_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:46.345665+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hobbes-wallis-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
=== The Elenchus === Wallis's Elenchus geometriae Hobbianae, published in 1655, contained an elaborate criticism of Hobbes's attempt to put the foundations of mathematical science in its place within knowledge. Hobbes had limited his interest to geometry, restricting the scope of mathematics. The book was dedicated to John Owen, and in prefatory remarks Wallis (a Presbyterian) avows that his differences with Hobbes are largely rooted in theology. Hobbes himself wrote to Samuel de Sorbière in the same year, saying the controversy was not merely scientific. He regarded the use of infinite quantities as the thin end of the wedge for a return of scholasticism, and behind Wallis he saw "all the Ecclesiastics of England". Sorbière visited Wallis in Oxford; but his analysis of Wallis as stereotypical pedant helped not at all in the quarrel. Hobbes took care to remove some mistakes exposed by Wallis, before allowing an English translation of the De Corpore to appear in 1656. But he still attacked Wallis in a series of Six Lessons to the Professors of Mathematics, included with the De Corpore translation. Wallis defended himself, and re-confronted Hobbes with his mathematical inconsistencies. Hobbes responded with Marks of the Absurd Geometry, Rural Language, Scottish


id: hobbes-wallis-controversy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobbes–Wallis_controversy-2.md
category: reference
title: Hobbes–Wallis controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobbes–Wallis_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:46.345665+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hobbes-wallis-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
== Second phase: the Dialogus physicus of 1661 == The Dialogus physicus, sive De natura aeris attacked Robert Boyle and other friends of Wallis who were forming themselves into a society (incorporated as the Royal Society in 1662) for experimental research. The full Latin title of the book mentioned Gresham College as the experimental base of Boyle's group (see Gresham College and the formation of the Royal Society), followed immediately by a reference to the duplication of the cube, which in Hobbes's latest version was included as an appendix. Hobbes chose to take as the manifesto of the new academy Boyle's New Experiments touching the Spring of the Air (1660). Hobbes saw the whole approach as a direct contravention of the method of physical inquiry enjoined in the De Corpore. He had reasoned out his own conclusions years before from speculative principles, and he warned them that if they were not content to begin where he had left off, their work would come to naught. This attack from Hobbes was one of several at the time: other opponents of Boyle were Franciscus Linus and Henry More. The issues at stake now had broadened out, and this was a choice Hobbes


id: homosexual-seduction-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction-0.md
category: reference
title: Homosexual seduction
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:47.536114+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: homosexual-seduction-20260505-0
summary:
Homosexual seduction is the pseudoscientific conspiracy theory which suggests homosexuality is spread through intergenerational sex, and that older homosexuals aim to change the sexual orientation of previously heterosexual youth by seducing them. It is related to the LGBT grooming conspiracy theory, the discredited acquired homosexuality theory, the gay agenda conspiracy theory, and the drag panic phenomenon. The idea of homosexual seduction, or that sexuality can be changed, has been debunked multiple times in psychological academic discourse. Although scientific research shows that LGBT people do not molest children at higher rates than heterosexuals, anti-LGBT groups have pushed the purported link in popular culture over multiple decades going back to the times before World War II. The allegation that having an LGBT identity is caused by, causes, or otherwise contributes to pedophilia has continued as a matter of ideological faith into the 21st century. In 2010, 13 US organizations, including the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), signed an open letter which opposed attempts by anti-LGBT groups to promote this conspiracy theory, in order to "protect the safety and emotional well-being of students", including those who are LGBT. According to Sarah Kate Ellis, head of the LGBTQ advocacy group GLAAD, this conspiracy theory


id: homosexual-seduction-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction-1.md
category: reference
title: Homosexual seduction
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:47.536114+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: homosexual-seduction-20260505-0
summary:
== History == The theory originated in the early 20th century's work of German psychologists such as Albert Moll and Emil Kraepelin on adolescent sexuality, and was used in the early work attempting to explain the phenomenon of male prostitution. It played an important role in population regeneration efforts after the First World War in Germany and informed homophobic policies in Nazi Germany. In the 19th century, German psychologists Magnus Hirschfeld and Karl Heinrich Ulrichs had argued for the inborn nature of homosexuality. Challenging the idea of inborn and fixed sexuality, Sigmund Freud theorised that humans were inherently bisexual, and then became either heterosexual or homosexual as a result of childhood experiences. Freud argued that same-sex attraction and experimentation were essential parts of development, with heterosexuality being the preferable outcome. Although he argued that homosexuality should not be thought of as an illness, his focus on how the social environment may shift sexual identity inspired theories behind homosexual seduction. Opposing the inborn nature of sexuality put forward by Hirschfeld and Ulrichs, other psychologists including Max Dessoir, Albert Moll and Emil Kraepelin built on Freud's conception of teenage sexuality as indeterminate and susceptible to social influence. They recognised that same-sex activities


id: homosexual-seduction-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction-2.md
category: reference
title: Homosexual seduction
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:47.536114+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: homosexual-seduction-20260505-0
summary:
The homosexual seduction theory, like the acquired homosexuality and LGBT grooming conspiracy theories, has subsequently been used in homophobic propaganda and by anti-LGBT rights groups to delay the progress of LGBT rights, by portraying homosexual men as "old perverts who prey on children". The theoretical link between homosexual men and predation or child abuse has permeated discussions about levelling the age of consent, anti-discrimination efforts, adoption and fostering rights, marriage equality, LGBT pride events, pediatric healthcare, and inclusion in sports and public spaces. It has created harmful stereotypes around gay and bisexual men, which have led to increasing and disproportionate numbers of anti-LGBT hate crimes, including violence and even mass murder. In some countries, it has also led to anti-LGBT legislation which criminalizes homosexuality; in Uganda, this may even result in a death sentence. According to Bryn Nelson in Scientific American, conspiracy theories based on pedophilia use disgust as a form of "stochastic terrorism", that incites audiences already primed for violence to target the subjects of those conspiracy theories. A 2020 paper by James A. Piazza found that there is a correlation between politicians sharing prejudicial views and rising domestic terrorism. Another study in Warsaw supported this view. The idea


id: homosexual-seduction-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction-3.md
category: reference
title: Homosexual seduction
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexual_seduction
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:47.536114+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: homosexual-seduction-20260505-0
summary:
Utah state Senator Daniel Thatcher has said of the homosexual seduction trope, "This idea of grooming, I'll tell ya, to me — as a survivor of childhood sexual assault — I'll just tell ya, I find it personally deeply offensive." == See also == LGBT grooming conspiracy theory Acquired homosexuality Gay agenda Anti-LGBT rhetoric Environment and sexual orientation Conversion therapy Growing Up Straight Pederasty == References ==


id: khazar-hypothesis-of-ashkenazi-ancestry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-0.md
category: reference
title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:50.039080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: khazar-hypothesis-of-ashkenazi-ancestry-20260505-0
summary:
The Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry, often called the Khazar myth by its critics, is a largely abandoned historical hypothesis that postulated that Ashkenazi Jews were primarily, or to a large extent, descended from converts to Judaism among the Khazars, a multi-ethnic conglomerate of mostly Turkic peoples who formed a semi-nomadic khanate in and around the northern and central Caucasus and the Pontic–Caspian steppe in the late 6th century CE. It is still sometimes used in antisemitic conspiracy theories and in various anti-Zionist approaches. The hypothesis draws on medieval sources such as the Khazar Correspondence, according to which at some point in the 8th–9th centuries, a small number of Khazars were said by Judah Halevi and Abraham ibn Daud to have converted to Rabbinic Judaism. The hypothesis also postulates that after collapse of the Khazar empire, the Khazars fled to Eastern Europe and made up a large part of the Jews there. The scope of the conversion within the Khazar Khanate remains uncertain, but the evidence used to tie the subsequent Ashkenazi communities to the Khazars is meager and subject to conflicting interpretations. Speculation that Europe's Jewish population originated among the Khazars has persisted for two centuries, from at least


id: khazar-hypothesis-of-ashkenazi-ancestry-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-1.md
category: reference
title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:50.039080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: khazar-hypothesis-of-ashkenazi-ancestry-20260505-0
summary:
This conversion of the kingdom of the Khazars has a considerable importance regarding the origin of those Jews who dwell in the countries along the Danube and southern Russia. These regions enclose great masses of Jewish populations which have in all probability nothing or almost nothing that is anthropologically Jewish in them. According to Mari Réthelyi, a Jewish studies teacher writing in the journal Hungarian Cultural Studies, many Hungarian Jews in the late nineteenth century, responding to Magyarization and to Hungarian antisemitism, took up the theory, proposed by Rabbi Samuel Kohn in 1884, that Hungarian Jews, like Hungarian Christians, shared a common ethnic descent from the intermarriage of Khazars and Magyars. Renan's thesis found an echo soon after, in 1885, when Isidore Loeb, a rabbi, historian and secretary of the Alliance Israélite Universelle, arguing for the cause of Jewish emancipation, challenged the notion that nations were based on races, and the Jews therefore, could be excluded as alien. To the contrary, he argued, they were no different from other peoples and nations, all of which arose from miscegenation: the Jews were no exception, and one could assume, he added, that many German and Russian Jews descended from the Khazars. Similarly,


id: khazar-hypothesis-of-ashkenazi-ancestry-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-2.md
category: reference
title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:50.039080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: khazar-hypothesis-of-ashkenazi-ancestry-20260505-0
summary:
=== 1939–1945 === In 1943, Abraham Polak (sometimes referred to as Poliak), later professor of the history of the Middle Ages at Tel Aviv University, published a Hebrew monograph in which he concluded that the East European Jews came from Khazaria. First written as an article in 1941, then as a monograph (1943), it was twice revised in 1944, and then in 1951 with the title Khazaria: History of a Jewish Kingdom in Europe. In Nazi Germany, unlike most race theorists in Germany down to his time, Hans F. K. Günther argued that the Jews were not a pure race, although he nevertheless considered them to be highly inbred. He argued that the Ashkenazi were a mix of Near Eastern, Oriental, East Baltic, Eastern, Inner-Asian, Nordic, Hamite, and Negro peoples and separate from the Sephardim. Günther believed that the conversion of the Khazars, whom he took to have been a Near Eastern race, constituted a further external element in the racial makeup of the Ashkenazi Jews, strengthening its Near Eastern component. Günther's theorizing about racial consequences flowing from the conversion of the Khazars was embraced by Gerhard Kittel. The Karaite claim not to be ethnic Jews, but descendants of the


id: khazar-hypothesis-of-ashkenazi-ancestry-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-3.md
category: reference
title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:50.039080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: khazar-hypothesis-of-ashkenazi-ancestry-20260505-0
summary:
=== 1976–present: Koestler, The Thirteenth Tribe and contemporary views === The Khazar-Ashkenazi hypothesis came to the attention of a much wider public with the publication in 1976 of Arthur Koestler's book The Thirteenth Tribe, which made sweeping claims for a Khazar legacy among the Ashkenazi, and asserted that the Jewish population in Eastern Europe could not have reached 8 million without the contribution of the Khazars. Koestler argued that the Khazar theory would mitigate European racially-based antisemitism. The book received both positive and negative reviews. Israel's ambassador to Britain branded it "an anti-Semitic action financed by the Palestinians", while Bernard Lewis claimed that the idea was not supported by any evidence whatsoever, and had been "abandoned by all serious scholars". Raphael Patai, however, registered some support for the idea that Khazar remnants had played a role in the growth of Eastern European Jewish communities, and several amateur researchers, such as Boris Altschüler (1994) and Kevin Alan Brook, kept the thesis in the public eye. Brook's views evolved as new data became available: in the first edition of his book (1999), he contended that about one-fourth of Ashkenazic ancestry may trace back to the Khazars, whereas in the second edition (2006)


id: khazar-hypothesis-of-ashkenazi-ancestry-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-4.md
category: reference
title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:50.039080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: khazar-hypothesis-of-ashkenazi-ancestry-20260505-0
summary:
=== Behar et al. studies === According to a 2010 study by Doron Behar et al., Ashkenazi Jews form a "tight cluster" overlying non-Jewish samples from the Levant with Sephardic, Middle Eastern and North African Jewish populations and Samaritans, results being "consistent with an historical formulation of the Jewish people as descending from ancient Hebrew and Israelite residents of the Levant". In 2013 Behar et al. published a genetic study that came up with the conclusion that there isn't genetic evidence for the Khazar origin of Ashkenazi Jews, and instead Ashkenazi Jews are genetically closest to other Jewish groups and non-Jewish Middle Eastern and European populations. A 2003 study by Behar et al., found that Haplogroup R1a1a (R-M17) is present in over 50% of Ashkenazi Levites (who comprise 4% of the Ashkenazi Jewish population). In 2008 David Goldstein asserted that based on the study a Khazar connection "now seems to me plausible, if not likely". Faerman (2008) states that "External low-level gene flow of possible Eastern European origin has been shown in Ashkenazim but no evidence of a hypothetical Khazars' contribution to the Ashkenazi gene pool has ever been found.". However, Behar and others made two more genetic studies on


id: khazar-hypothesis-of-ashkenazi-ancestry-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-5.md
category: reference
title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:50.039080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: khazar-hypothesis-of-ashkenazi-ancestry-20260505-0
summary:
==== Criticism of the Elhaik studies ==== Elhaik's 2012 study proved highly controversial. Several noted geneticists, among them Marcus Feldman, Harry Ostrer, Doron Behar, and Michael Hammer have maintained—and the view has gained widespread support among scientists—that the worldwide Jewish population is related and shares common roots in the Middle East, Feldman stated Elhaik's statistical analysis would not pass muster with most scientists; Hammer affirmed it was an outlier minority view without scientific support. Elhaik in reply described the group as "liars" and "frauds", noting Ostrer would not share genetic data that might be used "to defame the Jewish people". Elhaik's PhD supervisor Dan Graur, likewise dismissed them as a "clique", and said Elhaik is "combative" which is what science itself is. Elhaik's 2012 study was criticized in a 2013 paper in Human Biology for its use of Armenians and Azerbaijani Jews as proxies for Khazars and for using Bedouin and Jordanian Hashemites as a proxy for the Ancient Israelites. The former decision was criticized because Armenians were assumed to have a monolithic Caucasian ancestry, when as an Anatolian people (rather than Turkic) they contain many genetically Middle Eastern elements. Azerbaijani Jews are also assumed for the purposes of the


id: khazar-hypothesis-of-ashkenazi-ancestry-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-6.md
category: reference
title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:50.039080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: khazar-hypothesis-of-ashkenazi-ancestry-20260505-0
summary:
Maurice Fishberg and Roland B. Dixon's works were later exploited in racist and religious polemical literature by advocates of British Israelism in the United States. Particularly after the publication of Burton J. Hendrick's The Jews in America (1923) Singerman 2004, pp. 4–5 it began to enjoy a vogue among advocates of immigration restrictions in the 1920s; racial theorists like Lothrop Stoddard; antisemitic conspiracy theorists such as the Ku Klux Klan's Hiram Wesley Evans; and anti-communist polemicists such as John O. Beaty. In 1938, Ezra Pound, then strongly identifying with the Fascist regime of Benito Mussolini, sent a query to fellow poet Louis Zukofsky concerning the Khazars after someone had written to him claiming that the ancient Jews had died out and that modern Jews were of Khazar descent. He returned to the issue in 1955, apparently influenced by a book called Facts Are Facts, which pushed the Jewish-Khazar descent theory, and which for Pound had dug up "a few savoury morsels". The booklet in question, by a Roman Catholic convert from Rabbinic Judaism, Benjamin H. Freedman, was an antisemitic tirade written to David Goldstein after the latter had converted to Catholicism. John O. Beaty was an antisemitic, McCarthyite professor of


id: khazar-hypothesis-of-ashkenazi-ancestry-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry-7.md
category: reference
title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazar_hypothesis_of_Ashkenazi_ancestry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:50.039080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: khazar-hypothesis-of-ashkenazi-ancestry-20260505-0
summary:
=== Germany === The Khazar hypothesis was promoted by the former Nazi scholar Herman Wirth (1885-1981), who wrote an anti-Semitic legal report in 1958 that questioned the origins of the Jewish People and relativized the Holocaust. It was central to his Palestinabuch (Book of Palestine), the extensive manuscript of which was lost for unclear reasons in the 1970s. It was his theory that the Ashkenazi Jews descended from a superstitious slave people (Khazars) on the fringes of a mythical Nordic civilization (Shambhala) in the Gobi Desert. According to Wirth, Christ descended from a lost tribe of the original Aryans, who had left their traces in the Near East in the form of Megalithic monuments. The Palestinabuch was meant as a counterpart to Wirth's Ura Linda Chronicle (1933) on the ancient Frisians, whom he considered direct descendants of the first Aryans and whose origins he located in Palestine. It was officially titled The Riddle of the Palestine's Megalithic Graves: From JAU to Jesus. By 1969 the proposed title had changed into Between the North Sea and the Sea of Genezareth, implicitly referring to an influential book by the 19th-century German reactionary Julius Langbehn. The myth of the lost Palestinabuch was promoted


id: king-of-clones-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_Clones-0.md
category: reference
title: King of Clones
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_Clones
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:51.375999+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: king-of-clones-20260505-0
summary:
King of Clones is a documentary released on Netflix and directed by Aditya Thayi which examines the Hwang affair involving human cloning by South Korean scientist Hwang Woo-suk. == Description == The documentary is described by Netflix as "After rocking the world with work in human cloning, a scientist falls from grace. Now, he's back -- this time with pets and extinct species." == Release == The film was released on 23 June 2023 by Netflix. == Production == King of Clones was directed by London-based Singaporean filmmaker Aditya Thayi via and is a Netflix U.K. commission. Thayi has 20 nominations and five wins at the Asian Television Awards, including two wins for best direction. Thayi described Hwang as a "polarizing figure" in South Korea and wanted to do an objective take on him." According to Variety, Thayi learned about Hwang due to anxiety he had waiting for the birth of his child, due to growing up in India in the 1980s where multiple industrial disasters occurred affecting children's health. He looked into getting genetic testing done and "was amazed by the choices that modern science has put in the hands of prospective parents and the complex ethical questions it


id: lancet-mmr-vaccine-autism-report-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-0.md
category: reference
title: Lancet MMR vaccine-autism report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:52.620897+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lancet-mmr-vaccine-autism-report-20260505-0
summary:
On 28 February 1998, a fraudulent research paper primarily authored by physician Andrew Wakefield, along with twelve other coauthors (titled "Ileal-lymphoid-nodular hyperplasia, non-specific colitis, and pervasive developmental disorder in children"), was published in The Lancet, a British medical journal. The paper falsely claimed causative links between the measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine and colitis, and between colitis and autism. The fraud involved data bias and manipulation, and two undisclosed conflicts of interest. It was exposed in a lengthy Sunday Times investigation by reporter Brian Deer, resulting in the paper's retraction in February 2010 and Wakefield's being discredited and struck off the UK medical register three months later. In the paper, Wakefield fabricated evidence to suggest a new "syndrome" existed, which he called "autistic enterocolitis". Wakefield had been employed by a lawyer representing parents in lawsuits against vaccine producers, and had reportedly earned up to US$43 million per year selling diagnostic kits for the non-existent syndrome he claimed to have discovered. He also held a patent to a rival measles vaccine at the time. The scientific consensus on vaccines and autism is that there is no connection between MMR (or any other vaccine) and autism. == 1998 The Lancet paper


id: lancet-mmr-vaccine-autism-report-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-1.md
category: reference
title: Lancet MMR vaccine-autism report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:52.620897+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lancet-mmr-vaccine-autism-report-20260505-0
summary:
Multiple subsequent studies failed to find any link between the MMR vaccine, colitis, and autism. In March 1998, a panel of 37 scientific experts set up by the Medical Research Council, headed by Professor Sir John Pattison found "no evidence to indicate any link" between the MMR vaccine and colitis or autism in children. Public concern over Wakefield's claims of a possible link between MMR and autism gained momentum in 2001 and 2002, after he published further papers suggesting that the immunisation programme was not safe. These were a review paper with no new evidence, published in a minor journal, and two papers on laboratory work that he said showed that measles virus had been found in tissue samples taken from children who had autism and bowel problems. There was wide media coverage including distressing anecdotal evidence from parents, and political coverage attacking the health service and government peaked with unmet demands that Prime minister Tony Blair reveal whether his infant son, Leo, had been given the vaccine. It was the biggest science story of 2002, with 1257 articles mostly written by non-expert commentators. In the period January to September 2002, 32% of the stories written about MMR mentioned Leo


id: lancet-mmr-vaccine-autism-report-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-2.md
category: reference
title: Lancet MMR vaccine-autism report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:52.620897+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lancet-mmr-vaccine-autism-report-20260505-0
summary:
=== Conflict of interest === Public understanding of the claims sharply changed in February 2004 with revelations by The Sunday Times of an undisclosed conflict of interest on Wakefield's part in that, two years before the paper's publication, he had been approached by Richard Barr, a lawyer of Justice, Awareness and Basic Support, who was looking for an expert witness to start a planned class action regarding alleged "vaccine damage". Barr hired Wakefield at £150 per hour, plus expenses, and only then did they recruit the twelve children, actively seeking the parents of cases that might imply a connection between MMR and autism. Barr and Wakefield convinced the UK Legal Aid Board, a UK government organization to give financial support to people who could not afford access to justice, to assign £55,000 to fund the initial stage of the research. According to journalist Brian Deer, the project was intended to create evidence for the court case, but this only became publicly known six years after the Lancet report, with the newspaper's first disclosures. Based on Deer's evidence, the Lancet's editor-in-chief Richard Horton said Wakefield's paper should have never been published because its findings were "entirely flawed". Although Wakefield maintained that


id: lancet-mmr-vaccine-autism-report-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-3.md
category: reference
title: Lancet MMR vaccine-autism report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:52.620897+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lancet-mmr-vaccine-autism-report-20260505-0
summary:
=== Manipulation of data === The Sunday Times continued the investigation, and on 8 February 2009, Brian Deer reported that Wakefield had "fixed" results and "manipulated" patient data in the Lancet, creating the appearance of a link with autism. Wakefield falsely denied these allegations, and even filed a complaint with the Press Complaints Commission (PCC) over this article on 13 March 2009. The complaint was expanded by a 20 March 2009 addendum by Wakefield's publicist. In July 2009, the PCC stated that it was staying any investigation regarding the Sunday Times article, pending the conclusion of the GMC investigation. Wakefield did not pursue his complaint, which Deer then published along with a statement saying he and The Sunday Times rejected the complaint as "false and disingenuous in all material respects", and that the action had been suspended by the PCC in February 2010. === UK General Medical Council inquiry === Responding to the first Sunday Times reports, the General Medical Council (GMC), which is responsible for licensing doctors and supervising medical ethics in the UK, launched an investigation into the affair. The GMC brought the case itself, not citing any specific complaints, claiming that an investigation was in the public


id: lancet-mmr-vaccine-autism-report-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-4.md
category: reference
title: Lancet MMR vaccine-autism report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:52.620897+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lancet-mmr-vaccine-autism-report-20260505-0
summary:
=== Full retraction and fraud revelations === In an April 2010 report in The BMJ, Deer expanded on the laboratory aspects of his findings recounting how normal clinical histopathology results generated by the Royal Free Hospital were later changed in the medical school to abnormal results, published in the Lancet. Deer wrote an article in The BMJ casting doubt on the "autistic enterocolitis" that Wakefield claimed to have discovered. In the same edition, Deirdre Kelly, President of the European Society of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition and the Editor of the Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition expressed some concern about The BMJ publishing this article while the GMC proceedings were underway. On 5 January 2011, The BMJ published the first of a series of articles by Brian Deer, detailing how Wakefield and his colleagues had faked some of the data behind the 1998 Lancet article. By looking at the records and interviewing the parents, Deer found that for all 12 children in the Wakefield study, diagnoses had been tweaked or dates changed to fit the article's conclusion. Continuing BMJ series on 11 January 2011, Deer said that based upon documents he obtained under freedom of information legislation, Wakefield—in partnership with


id: lancet-mmr-vaccine-autism-report-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report-5.md
category: reference
title: Lancet MMR vaccine-autism report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancet_MMR_vaccine-autism_report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:52.620897+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lancet-mmr-vaccine-autism-report-20260505-0
summary:
== Aftermath == Characterised as "perhaps the most damaging medical hoax of the 20th Century", The Lancet paper led to a sharp drop in vaccination rates in the UK and Ireland. Promotion of the claimed link, which continues in anti-vaccination propaganda despite being refuted, led to an increase in the incidence of measles and mumps, resulting in deaths and serious permanent injuries. Following the initial claims in 1998, multiple large epidemiological studies were undertaken. Reviews of the evidence by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the American Academy of Pediatrics, the Institute of Medicine of the US National Academy of Sciences, the UK National Health Service, and the Cochrane Library all found no link between the MMR vaccine and autism. Physicians, medical journals, and editors have described Wakefield's actions as fraudulent and tied them to epidemics and deaths. Among commentators drawing on Deer's investigation, academic Peter N. Steinmetz summarizes six fabrications and falsifications in the paper itself and in Wakefield's response: findings of non-specific colitis; timing of MMR vaccine administration and first behavioral symptoms; findings of regressive autism; ethics consent statement; conflict of interest statement; and methods of patient referral. Wakefield has continued to defend his research and conclusions,


id: list-of-scientific-debates-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_debates-0.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific debates
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_debates
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:53.929624+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-debates-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of notable scientific debates in the history of science and mathematics. == Biology == Nature versus nurture, long-standing debate in biology on human behavior 1764–1778 Voltaire vs Needham, between Voltaire and John Needham and others on the validity of preformationism. 1830 Cuvier–Geoffroy debate between Georges Cuvier and Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire on animal structure. 1860 Oxford evolution debate between several scientists on Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species. 1860–1862 Great Hippocampus Question, between Thomas Henry Huxley and Richard Owen on the importance of hippocampus minor. == Chemistry and nanoscience == 2001–2003 Drexler–Smalley debate on molecular nanotechnology by K. Eric Drexler and Richard Smalley on the feasibility of molecular assemblers. == Mathematics == 1654–1665 problem of points, correspondence between Blaise Pascal and Pierre de Fermat on games and the fair share of a prize pot. 1655–1679 Hobbes–Wallis controversy, between Thomas Hobbes and John Wallis on geometry and other topics. 1745 Leibniz–Bernoulli correspondence, between Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and Johann Bernoulli on the logarithm of negative numbers. 1902–1924 Nekrasov–Markov conflict, between Pavel Nekrasov and Andrey Markov on the relation between the law of large numbers and free will. 1903–1912 Poincaré vs. Russell, between Henri Poincaré and Bertrand Russell on


id: materialism-controversy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy-0.md
category: reference
title: Materialism controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:55.256236+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: materialism-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
The materialism controversy (German: Materialismusstreit) was a public debate in the mid-19th century about how new developments in the natural sciences might affect existing worldviews. During the 1840s, a new form of materialism emerged, shaped by advances in biology and the decline of idealistic philosophy. This form of materialism sought to explain human beings and their behavior through scientific methods. The central question of the debate was whether scientific discoveries were compatible with traditional ideas such as the existence of an immaterial soul, a personal God, and human free will. The discussion also touched on deeper philosophical issues, such as what kind of knowledge a materialist or mechanical view of the world could offer. In his Physiologische Briefe from 1846, zoologist Carl Vogt argued that mental processes were entirely physical, famously stating that "thoughts stand in the same relation to the brain as bile does to the liver or urine to the kidneys." In 1854, the physiologist Rudolf Wagner criticized this view in a speech to the Göttingen Naturalists' Assembly. He argued that religious belief and science belonged to separate areas of understanding, and that natural science could not answer questions about God, the soul, or free will. Wagner’s comments


id: materialism-controversy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy-1.md
category: reference
title: Materialism controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:55.256236+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: materialism-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
The materialism controversy was sparked in part by the writings of physiologist Carl Vogt, beginning in 1847. His commitment to materialism was shaped by the scientific and political reform movements of the time, as well as his own personal and political development. Vogt was born in Giessen in 1817, into a family with both scientific and revolutionary traditions. His father, Philipp Friedrich Wilhelm Vogt, was a professor of medicine who moved to Bern in 1834 after facing political persecution. On his mother’s side, political activism was also a strong influence: Louise Follen’s three brothers—Adolf, Karl, and Paul Follen—were all involved in nationalist and democratic causes and eventually went into exile. In 1817 Adolf Follen drafted a proposal for a future German constitution and was later arrested for his political activities. He avoided a 10-year prison sentence by fleeing to Switzerland. Karl Follen was suspected of encouraging the assassination of conservative writer August von Kotzebue and escaped to the United States, where he became a professor at Harvard University. The youngest brother, Paul Follen, helped found the Gießener Auswanderungsgesellschaft in 1833, which aimed to establish a German republic in the U.S. Though the plan failed, Paul settled in Missouri as a


id: materialism-controversy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy-2.md
category: reference
title: Materialism controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:55.256236+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: materialism-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
During the summer of 1854, the 31st Naturalists' Meeting was held in Göttingen. A major topic of discussion was the existence of the soul and its compatibility with emerging materialist views in science. During the event, physiologist Rudolf Wagner gave a prominent lecture on human creation and the nature of the soul, in which he sharply criticized materialism. He argued that denying the existence of a soul created by God—and especially the rejection of free will—would undermine the moral foundations of society. Wagner claimed that materialist theories, such as those proposed by Carl Vogt, reduced human beings to passive machines without responsibility, which conflicted with the ethical duties of scientists. Later that year, Wagner published a second paper that expanded on his criticisms. He argued that science and faith occupy separate domains, and that science alone could neither prove nor disprove religious beliefs. He explained that while physiologists can describe the structure and function of physical organs, their findings can be interpreted in different ways. Materialists use these observations to argue that mental functions are based on physical processes, while dualists believe the body interacts with an immaterial soul. Wagner maintained that physiology cannot determine which interpretation is correct. He


id: materialism-controversy-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy-3.md
category: reference
title: Materialism controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:55.256236+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: materialism-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
== Reactions in the 19th century == === Philosophy of neo-Kantianism === Materialism, as promoted by scientists like Carl Vogt, Jakob Moleschott, and Ludwig Büchner, was presented as a direct consequence of empirical scientific research. Following the decline of German idealism, many saw academic philosophy—especially as taught in universities—as disconnected from reality and reduced to speculative thought. Even philosopher Ludwig Feuerbach, once aligned with idealist traditions, placed his trust in the natural sciences to answer longstanding philosophical questions such as the relationship between body and soul. However, a strong philosophical critique of materialism did not emerge until the 1860s, with the rise of Neo-Kantianism. In 1865, Otto Liebmann published Kant und die Epigonen (Kant and His Followers), a work that sharply criticized major post-Kantian thinkers—from German idealists to Arthur Schopenhauer. Liebmann famously ended each chapter with the refrain: "So we must go back to Kant!". The following year,Friedrich Albert Lange published Geschichte des Materialismus (History of Materialism), in which he aligned himself with the Neo-Kantian position. Lange accused the scientific materialists of “philosophical dilettantism”, claiming that they overlooked central insights of Kantian thought. At the core of Kant’s philosophy, particularly in the Critique of Pure Reason, is the question: What


id: materialism-controversy-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy-4.md
category: reference
title: Materialism controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:55.256236+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: materialism-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
Even Ludwig Büchner, initially one of the most prominent advocates of materialism, eventually distanced himself from the term. In a letter to Haeckel dated 1875, he wrote:I ... have therefore never used the term 'materialism', which evokes a completely one-sided idea, for my school of thought and only accepted it here and there later out of necessity because the general public knew no other word for the whole movement ... . The term 'monism' that you suggest is very good in itself, but it is very doubtful whether it will be accepted by the general public. === Political and ideological impact === Although scientific materialism gained considerable popularity among the general public in 19th-century Germany, its proponents—Carl Vogt, Jakob Moleschott, and Ludwig Büchner—faced significant political opposition. All three lost their academic positions largely because of their outspoken advocacy of materialism. Vogt’s revolutionary materialism, in particular, failed to gain traction in the reactionary political climate following the revolutions of 1848. Scientific materialism also struggled to influence broader political movements, in part due to ideological conflicts with Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Marx disparaged Vogt as a “small-university beer bouncer and misguided Barrot of the Reich", and personal denunciations escalated between the


id: materialism-controversy-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy-5.md
category: reference
title: Materialism controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:55.256236+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: materialism-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Primary literature === Beiser, Frederick C. (2014). After Hegel: German philosophy 1840-1900. Princeton, NJ Oxford: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-17371-9. Büchner, Ludwig (1932). Kraft und Stoff (in German) (Pocket ed.). Leipzig: Kröner Verlag. Du Bois-Reymond, Emil; Wollgast, Siegfried (1974). Vorträge über Philosophie und Gesellschaft. Philosophische Bibliothek. Hamburg: F. Meiner. ISBN 978-3-7873-0320-5. Daum, Andreas W. (2002). Wissenschaftspopularisierung im 19. Jahrhundert. Bürgerliche Kultur, naturwissenschaftliche Bildung und die deutsche Öffentlichkeit 1848–1914 (in German) (2 ed.). Munich: Oldenbourg. Feuerbach, Ludwig (1967). Gesammelte Werke (in German). Vol. 3. Berlin: Akademie Verlag. Haeckel, Ernst (1908). Die Welträthsel (in German). Leipzig: Kröner. Helmholtz, Hermann (2003). "Ueber das Sehen des Menschen". Gesammelte Schriften (in German). Vol. 1. Hildesheim: Olms. Lange, Friedrich Albert (1920) [1866]. Geschichte des Materialismus und Kritik seiner Bedeutung in der Gegenwart (in German). J. Baedeker. Marx, Karl (1961). Herr Vogt. Marx-Engels-Werke (in German). Vol. 14. Berlin: Dietz. Vogt, Carl (1856). Köhlerglaube und Wissenschaft. Eine Streitschrift gegen Hofrasth Rudolph Wagner in Göttingen (in German) (4th ed.). Gießen: Rickersche Buchhandlung. Vogt, Carl (1874). Physiologische Briefe (in German) (14 ed.). Gießen: Rickersche Buchhandlung. Wagner, Rudolf (1854a). Menschenschöpfung und Seelensubstanz. Ein anthropologischer Vortrag (in German). Göttingen: G.H. Wigand. Wagner, Rudolf (1854b). Ueber Wissen und Glauben. Mit besonderer Beziehung


id: math-wars-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Math_wars-0.md
category: reference
title: Math wars
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Math_wars
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:56.523902+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: math-wars-20260505-0
summary:
In the United States, math wars are debates over modern mathematics education, textbooks and curricula that were triggered by the publication in 1989 of the Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) and subsequent development and widespread adoption of a new generation of mathematics curricula inspired by these standards. While the discussion about math skills has persisted for many decades, the term "math wars" was coined by commentators such as John A. Van de Walle and David Klein. The debates focus on traditional mathematics versus reform mathematics philosophy and curricula, which differ significantly in approach and content. == Advocates of reform == The largest supporter of reform in the US has been the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. They call for a more inquiry-based approach that emphasizes real-world problem solving and understanding the underlying steps, as opposed to merely applying formulas to arrive at a correct answer. Successful implementation of this approach requires a great deal of expertise in educators; some parents and other stakeholders blame educators saying that failures occur because of this lacking expertise rather than a fundamental design flaw in the curriculum. A backlash, which advocates call


id: math-wars-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Math_wars-1.md
category: reference
title: Math wars
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Math_wars
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:56.523902+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: math-wars-20260505-0
summary:
Mathland (no longer offered) Investigations in Numbers, Data, and Space, criticized for not containing explicit instruction of the standard algorithms Core-Plus Mathematics Project, criticized for failing "to convey critical mathematical concepts and ideas that should and can be within reach for high school students", downplaying "algebraic structure and skills" and "inability to build geometry up from foundations in a mathematically sound and coherent way". Connected Mathematics, criticized for not explicitly teaching children standard algorithms, formulas or solved examples Everyday Mathematics, criticized for putting emphasis on non-traditional arithmetic methods. Critics of reform textbooks say that they present concepts in a haphazard way. Critics of the reform textbooks and curricula support methods such as Singapore math, which emphasizes direct instruction of basic mathematical concepts, and Saxon math, which emphasizes frequent cumulative review. Reform educators have responded by pointing out that research tends to show that students achieve greater conceptual understanding from standards-based curricula than traditional curricula and that these gains do not come at the expense of basic skills. In fact students tend to achieve the same procedural skill level in both types of curricula as measured by traditional standardized tests. More research is needed, but the current state of research seems


id: national-character-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_character-0.md
category: reference
title: National character
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_character
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:57.753313+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-character-20260505-0
summary:
National character refers to a characteristic common personality of the people of a nation. National character has been studied within the fields of anthropology, sociology, and psychology. The question of whether analysis and descriptions of national characters express meaningful content, as opposed to comprising inaccurate stereotypes, is controversial. Most of the research on national character has focused on the content, stability, accuracy, and origins of national character stereotypes. A 1985 cross-national study of national character found fundamental differences between the psychological profiles of the respective national populations of France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Russia, and the United States. Some studies comparing national character stereotypes with assessed personality traits find a moderate relationship between stereotype and reality, while others have found perceptions of national character to be unfounded and poorly related. Academic interest in national character peaked around World War II, with two anthropologists in 1969 identifying 1935 to 1945 as the field's seminal period, and declined in the decades that followed due to changes in academic thought. Jerome Braun wrote in 2014 that "the study of national character nowadays is considered somewhat old-fashioned because the most famous period devoted to this study, the period immediately after World War II, eventually


id: near-death-experience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-0.md
category: reference
title: Near-death experience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:59.024958+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: near-death-experience-20260505-0
summary:
A near-death experience (NDE) is a profound personal experience associated with death or impending death, which researchers describe as having similar characteristics. When positive, which most, but not all reported experiences are, such experiences may encompass a variety of sensations including detachment from the body, feelings of levitation, total serenity, security, warmth, joy, the experience of absolute dissolution, review of major life events, the presence of a light, and seeing dead relatives. While there are common elements, people's experiences and their interpretations of these experiences generally reflect their cultural, philosophical, or religious beliefs. NDEs usually occur during reversible clinical death. Explanations for NDEs vary from scientific to religious. Neuroscience research hypothesizes that an NDE is a subjective phenomenon resulting from "disturbed bodily multisensory integration" that occurs during life-threatening events. Some transcendental and religious beliefs about an afterlife include descriptions similar to NDEs. == Etymology == The equivalent French term expérience de mort imminente ("experience of imminent death") was proposed by French psychologist and epistemologist Victor Egger as a result of discussions in the 1890s among philosophers and psychologists concerning climbers' stories of the panoramic life review during falls. In 1892, a series of subjective observations by workers falling from scaffolds,


id: near-death-experience-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-1.md
category: reference
title: Near-death experience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:59.024958+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: near-death-experience-20260505-0
summary:
==== Assertions of phenomenological diversity ==== The 2022 guidelines stress that the themes of authentic death experiences have little in common with mislabeled NDEs, except perhaps for shallow similarities, like mentioning religious symbols or saying the experience felt peaceful. The physiological context of patients near-death or experiencing death (as defined by cardiopulmonary criteria) leads to a decline in mental clarity and consciousness and, in extreme cases, complete loss of detectable cerebral function. Paradoxically, genuine/authentic near death experiences—characterized by coherence, meaning, purpose, and lucid life review—arise during this state, not under normal conditions of preserved brain metabolism and function. According to the 2022 guidelines, experiences termed "NDE-like" including those induced by ketamine or DMT, reliably display features unlike recalled experiences of death: distorted body sensations, inflated or self-centered perspectives, and varied imagery such as elves, celebrities, geometric forms, aliens, or bright neon scenes. Likewise, dreams and seizures exhibit unrelated, non-authentic NDE themes. ==== Claims of common elements ==== Another author instead claims that similar traits have been identified despite the differences among populations being studied and these include: 50% awareness of being dead. 56% a sense of peace, well-being, painlessness, bliss, euphoria and other positive emotions. 24% an out-of-body experience (OBE).


id: near-death-experience-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-2.md
category: reference
title: Near-death experience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:59.024958+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: near-death-experience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Patients' management and after-effects === Moody described the correct approach to an NDE patient is to "Ask, Listen, Validate, Educate, and Refer". Due to the potential confusion or shock attributed to those who experience near-death experiences, it is important to treat them in a calm and understanding way right after their return from the NDE. NDEs are associated with changes in personality and outlook on life. Ring has identified a consistent set of value and belief changes associated with people who have had an NDE. Among these changes, he found a greater appreciation for life, higher self-esteem, greater compassion for others, less concern for acquiring material wealth, a heightened sense of purpose and self-understanding, desire to learn, elevated spirituality, greater ecological sensitivity and planetary concern, a feeling of being more intuitive, no longer worrying about death, and claiming to have witnessed an afterlife. Although people who have experienced NDEs become more spiritual, it does not mean they become necessarily more religious. Not all after-effects are beneficial, and Greyson describes circumstances in which changes in attitudes and behavior can lead to psychosocial and psychospiritual problems. == Establishment of research framework == To establish a rigorous research framework for the study


id: near-death-experience-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-3.md
category: reference
title: Near-death experience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:59.024958+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: near-death-experience-20260505-0
summary:
=== The Near Death Experience Research Foundation (NDERF) === American radiation oncologist Jeffrey Long has amassed a large database of NDEs through the Near Death Experience Research Foundation (NDERF). 835 out of 1,122 people who had experienced NDE seemed to feel an increase in alertness and consciousness although studies proved no sign of electrical brain activity. His second line of evidence studies the increase of accuracy developed by NDErs defining their resuscitation process with a 97.6% accuracy rate. Long documented seven more lines of evidence that all point to realism in NDE experiences, yet not all of them verifiable or defined by today's medical advances and technology. Having such an abnormally large amount (95.6% of 1,000 participants) of those who had experienced NDE proclaiming NDEs as real experiences, he concludes that although NDE are medically inexplicable, they are most probably a real phenomenon. === Recognition and criticism === According to literature, the field of near-death studies is associated with discovery, challenges, and controversy. Cant and colleagues note that "curiosity about the origin and prevalence of NDEs has escalated as technology and resuscitation techniques have improved". The topic attracts a lot of interest, which is reflected in search engine results, medical


id: near-death-experience-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-4.md
category: reference
title: Near-death experience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:59.024958+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: near-death-experience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Awareness during resuscitation (AWARE) study === While at the University of Southampton, Parnia was the principal investigator of the AWARE Study, which was launched in 2008.[13] The study, which concluded in 2012, included 33 investigators across 15 medical centers in the UK, Austria and the US and tested consciousness, memories and awareness during cardiac arrest. The accuracy of claims of visual and auditory awareness was examined using specific tests. One such test consisted of installing shelves, bearing a variety of images and facing the ceiling, hence not visible to hospital staff, in rooms where cardiac-arrest patients were more likely to occur. The results of the study were published in October 2014. A review article analyzing the results reports that, out of 2,060 cardiac arrest events, 101 of 140 cardiac arrest survivors could complete the questionnaires. Of these 101 patients, 9% could be classified as near-death experiences. Two more patients (2% of those completing the questionnaires) described "seeing and hearing actual events related to the period of cardiac arrest". These two patients' cardiac arrests did not occur in areas equipped with ceiling shelves, hence no images could be used to objectively test for visual awareness claims. One of the two


id: near-death-experience-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-5.md
category: reference
title: Near-death experience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:59.024958+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: near-death-experience-20260505-0
summary:
==== Expectancy model ==== Another psychological theory is called the expectancy model. It has been suggested that although these experiences could appear very real, they had actually been constructed in the mind, either consciously or subconsciously, in response to the stress of an encounter with death (or perceived encounter with death), and did not correspond to a real event. In a way, they are similar to wish-fulfillment: because someone thought they were about to die, they experienced certain things in accordance with what they expected or wanted to occur. Imagining a heavenly place was, in effect, a way for them to soothe themselves through the stress of knowing that they were close to death. Subjects use their own personal and cultural expectations to imagine a scenario that would protect them against an imminent threat to their lives. Subjects' accounts often differed from their own "religious and personal expectations regarding death", which contradicts the hypothesis they may have imagined a scenario based on their cultural and personal background. Although the term NDE was first coined in 1975 and the experience first described then, recent descriptions of NDEs do not differ from those reported earlier than 1975. The only exception is the


id: near-death-experience-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-6.md
category: reference
title: Near-death experience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:59.024958+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: near-death-experience-20260505-0
summary:
==== Neurochemical models ==== Some theories explain reported NDE experiences as resulting from drugs used during resuscitation (in the case of resuscitation-induced NDEs) ─ for example, ketamine ─ or from endogenous chemicals (neurotransmitters) that transmit signals between brain cells: In the early 1980s, Daniel Carr wrote that the NDE has characteristics that are suggestive of a limbic lobe syndrome and that the NDE can be explained by the release of endorphins and enkephalins in the brain. Endorphins are endogenous molecules "released in times of stress and lead to a reduction in pain perception and a pleasant, even blissful, emotional state." Judson and Wiltshaw (1983) noted how the administration of endorphin-blocking agents such as naloxone had been occasionally reported to produce "hellish" NDEs. This would be coherent with endorphins' role in causing a "positive emotional tone of most NDEs". Morse et al. (1989) proposed a model arguing that serotonin played a more important role than endorphins in generating NDEs, "at least with respect to mystical hallucinations and OBEs". A 2019 large-scale study found that ketamine, Salvia divinorum, and DMT (and other classical psychedelic substances) are linked to near-death experiences. While ketamine, and other endogenous chemicals can be a source for NDE,


id: near-death-experience-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience-7.md
category: reference
title: Near-death experience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-death_experience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:54:59.024958+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: near-death-experience-20260505-0
summary:
After-death communication – Spiritual practicePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Beyond and Back – 1978 film Cognitive science of religion – Study of religious thought and behavior Deathbed phenomena – Range of experiences reported by dying people Deism – Belief in a god based on rational thought Form constant – Recurringly observed geometric pattern Lazarus syndrome – Medical phenomenon Near-birth experience – Alleged recollected event which occurred before or during one's own birth Neurotheology – Attempts to explain religious experience in neuroscientific termsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Out-of-body experience – Phenomenon in which the soul (astral body) is said to exit the physical body Pam Reynolds case – Reported near-death experience Passage (Willis novel) – 2001 novel by Connie Willis Proof of Heaven – 2012 nonfiction book by Eben Alexander Psychedelic experience – Altered state of consciousness Resurrection – Concept of coming back to life Saved by the Light – 1994 book by Dannion Brinkley Terminal lucidity – Sign of impending death Zendegi Pas Az Zendegi – Iranian reality TV series (2020–2023) == References == == Further reading == Alcock, James (1979). "Psychology and Near-Death Experiences". Skeptical Inquirer. 3: 25–41. Lee Worth Bailey; Jenny Yates. (1996). The


id: new-family-structures-study-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Family_Structures_Study-0.md
category: reference
title: New Family Structures Study
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Family_Structures_Study
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:00.306505+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: new-family-structures-study-20260505-0
summary:
The New Family Structures Study (abbreviated NFSS) is a sociological study of family structures conducted by sociologist Mark Regnerus of the University of Texas at Austin. The study surveyed over 15,000 Americans of ages 18 to 39. The first research article based on data from the study was published in July 2012 in Social Science Research. The article concluded that people who had had a parent who had been in a same-gender relationship were at a greater risk of several adverse outcomes, including "being on public assistance, being unemployed, and having poorer educational attainment". The study was met with considerable criticism from many academics, scholarly organizations, and medical journals. Of note, only two children in the study (of the 236 counted as having gay parents) had actually lived with homosexually partnered parents for their entire childhoods. Thus, negative outcomes or events cannot be attributed to having same-sex parents, because many of these children also spent their childhoods with opposite-sex parents, and experienced family disruption and parental divorce. A 2015 reanalysis raised serious questions about the validity of the study, finding misclassification of families, inconsistency in answers suggesting mischief, and evidence that many respondents did not live with their non-heterosexual parents.


id: new-family-structures-study-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Family_Structures_Study-1.md
category: reference
title: New Family Structures Study
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Family_Structures_Study
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:00.306505+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: new-family-structures-study-20260505-0
summary:
== Controversy and reanalysis == Cynthia Osborne, who is on the UT-Austin faculty along with Regnerus, argued the study was unable to show "whether same-sex parenting causes the observed differences". She also said that "Children of lesbian mothers might have lived in many different family structures, and it is impossible to isolate the effects of living with a lesbian mother from experiencing divorce, remarriage or living with a single parent." Similarly, Gary Gates of the Williams Institute argued that the study's comparison of children of lesbian mothers was a less fair comparison than, for instance, comparing "children of heterosexual or same-sex couples who were raised in similar homes". Regnerus's former mentor Christian Smith has described the public and academic reaction to the New Family Structures Study as a "witch hunt" and said that the "push-back" to Regnerus's article "is coming simply because some people don't like where the data led". This backlash, Smith argues in his book The Sacred Project of American Sociology, is a result of the content of sociology's "sacred project" (of mitigating oppression, inequality, etc.); Smith holds that the critical reaction, e.g. on methodological issues, displays a set of double standards insofar as work by other scholars


id: political-interference-with-science-agencies-by-the-first-trump-administration-20260505-0
category: reference
title: Political interference with science agencies by the first Trump administration
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:01.706730+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: political-interference-with-science-agencies-by-the-first-trump-administration-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_interference_with_science_agencies_by_the_first_Trump_administration-0.md

summary:
During his first term as president of the United States (2017–2021), Donald Trump and his administration repeatedly politicized science by pressuring or overriding health and science agencies to change their reporting and recommendations so as to conform to his policies and public comments. This was particularly true with regard to the COVID-19 pandemic, but also included suppressing research on climate change and weakening or eliminating environmental regulations. Trump and his appointees pressured federal health and science agencies to take particular actions that Trump favored and to support his public pronouncements. He sometimes claimed that there was a "deep state" conspiracy among federal scientists, whose members delayed approval of COVID-19 vaccines and treatments because they wanted to hurt him politically or prevent his re-election. == Background == Trump, inaugurated as president on January 20, 2017, did not name a Science Advisor to the President until July 2018, when he appointed meteorologist Kelvin Droegemeier to the position. Science advisory committees at multiple agencies including the Department of the Interior, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and the Food and Drug Administration were disbanded. Many of Trump's first cabinet picks were people with a history of opposition to the agency they were named

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_interference_with_science_agencies_by_the_first_Trump_administration


id: political-interference-with-science-agencies-by-the-first-trump-administration-20260505-1
category: reference
title: Political interference with science agencies by the first Trump administration
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:01.706730+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: political-interference-with-science-agencies-by-the-first-trump-administration-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_interference_with_science_agencies_by_the_first_Trump_administration-1.md

summary:
=== Suppressing and altering communications from health agencies === On February 25, 2020, in the earliest days of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, a senior official with the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) said publicly that the spread of the virus in the U.S. was inevitable. This contradicted Trump's more optimistic predictions, and the CDC was largely banned from giving briefings on the coronavirus for the next six months. In April 2020 political strategist and lobbyist Michael Caputo was appointed by the White House as assistant secretary for public affairs of the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), in control of the department's communications strategy. Caputo appointed Paul Alexander, a Ph.D. health researcher, as his top advisor. They and other HHS officials attempted to control the content of information coming from the CDC whenever it was deemed to contradict or undermine what Trump was saying publicly. In May 2020, according to documents released in April 2022 by the United States House Select Oversight Subcommittee on the Coronavirus Crisis, the Trump administration overruled the CDC's proposed guidelines for religious organizations. The CDC had warned that houses of worship were hot spots for coronavirus spread, but the White House

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_interference_with_science_agencies_by_the_first_Trump_administration


id: political-interference-with-science-agencies-by-the-first-trump-administration-20260505-2
category: reference
title: Political interference with science agencies by the first Trump administration
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:01.706730+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: political-interference-with-science-agencies-by-the-first-trump-administration-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_interference_with_science_agencies_by_the_first_Trump_administration-2.md

summary:
On June 20, 2020, Alexander sent a message to CDC Director Redfield, criticizing a CDC report about risks to pregnant women from COVID-19. Alexander said that the report, whose limitations the CDC had acknowledged, would "frighten women" and give the impression that "the President and his administration can't fix this and it is getting worse". He said that in his "opinion and sense" the CDC was "undermining the president by what they put out". On September 16, after the political influence over the CDC was reported, Caputo took a 60-day medical leave of absence and Alexander was fired. In an interview with the Toronto-based Globe and Mail after his departure from HHS, Alexander defended his actions, stating that he had wanted the CDC to make their reports "more upbeat so that people would feel more confident going out and spending money", and that he "did not think agencies should contradict any president's policy". In September, Democrats on the House Oversight and Reform Select Committee on the Coronavirus Crisis launched an investigation into political interference with the CDC's reports and recommendations regarding the coronavirus. Charlotte Kent, the editor of MMWR, told the panel in December that she had been ordered to

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_interference_with_science_agencies_by_the_first_Trump_administration


id: political-interference-with-science-agencies-by-the-first-trump-administration-20260505-3
category: reference
title: Political interference with science agencies by the first Trump administration
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:01.706730+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: political-interference-with-science-agencies-by-the-first-trump-administration-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_interference_with_science_agencies_by_the_first_Trump_administration-3.md

summary:
=== U.S. federal government response to the COVID-19 pandemic === ==== COVID-19 testing ==== At a campaign rally in Tulsa, Oklahoma on June 20, 2020, Trump claimed he had instructed his administration to slow down COVID-19 testing in order to keep the number of confirmed cases down. In August 2020, Trump announced the appointment of radiologist Scott Atlas as a White House advisor on the coronavirus. According to task force official Deborah Birx, Atlas wanted to change testing guidelines to say that people without symptoms did not need to be tested. On August 24, 2020, the testing guidelines on the CDC web page were quietly changed from their earlier recommendation that testing is recommended for anyone who has come into contact with someone who has COVID-19; the new message said that such people do not need to be tested if they do not have symptoms. Multiple public health experts expressed alarm at the new guideline, because people can be contagious even if they have no symptoms, and early testing of exposed people is considered essential to track and suppress the spread of the virus. On September 17, it was reported that the new guidelines had been written by the White


id: political-interference-with-science-agencies-by-the-first-trump-administration-20260505-4
category: reference
title: Political interference with science agencies by the first Trump administration
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:01.706730+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: political-interference-with-science-agencies-by-the-first-trump-administration-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_interference_with_science_agencies_by_the_first_Trump_administration-4.md

summary:
In September, the CDC drafted an order that would require passengers and employees to wear masks on all forms of public and commercial transportation in the United States, including airplanes, trains, buses, subways, and transit hubs. Transportation unions had requested a federal mandate for mask wearing, citing the difficulty of working under a patchwork of rules. HHS Secretary Azar and CDC Director Redfield strongly supported the order. However, the White House's coronavirus task force, which is supposed to sign off on all coronavirus actions, rejected the order, saying that such orders should be left up to states and local governments. ==== Advice on reopening ==== The CDC intended to release on May 1 a 17-page report called Guidance for Implementing the Opening Up America Again Framework, with detailed guidelines for the reopening of businesses, public transit, restaurants, religious organizations, schools, and other public places which had been ordered closed during the pandemic. However, the Trump administration shelved the document; CDC staffers were told the recommendations "would never see the light of day." An unauthorized copy was published by the Associated Press in late April. Six flowcharts were ultimately published on May 15, and a sixty-page set of guidelines was released


id: political-interference-with-science-agencies-by-the-first-trump-administration-20260505-5
category: reference
title: Political interference with science agencies by the first Trump administration
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:01.706730+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: political-interference-with-science-agencies-by-the-first-trump-administration-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_interference_with_science_agencies_by_the_first_Trump_administration-5.md

summary:
==== Vaccine development and approval ==== Trump stressed the need for a COVID-19 vaccine as soon as possible, and said one is being developed at "warp speed" (see Operation Warp Speed). He repeatedly suggested that a COVID-19 vaccine would be available before the end of 2020, possibly before the November 3 election. In mid-September 2020, Trump's chief of staff Mark Meadows predicted that 100 million doses of a vaccine would be available by the end of October, though CDC Director Robert Redfield told the Senate that the public should not expect vaccine distribution before mid-2021. Other federal scientists including Operation Warp Speed chief scientist Moncef Slaoui and NIAID director Fauci also said that Meadows' prediction was unlikely, given the time frame needed for clinical trials. Trump dismissed or contradicted these comments. When Redfield told a congressional committee that wearing a mask could be more effective in halting the spread of the disease than a vaccine, and that a vaccine would not be generally available to the public until the second or third quarter of 2021, Trump said that Redfield had "made a mistake" and that his vaccine prediction was "just incorrect information." Republican allies of the president endorsed Trump's comments;


id: political-interference-with-science-agencies-by-the-first-trump-administration-20260505-6
category: reference
title: Political interference with science agencies by the first Trump administration
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:01.706730+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: political-interference-with-science-agencies-by-the-first-trump-administration-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_interference_with_science_agencies_by_the_first_Trump_administration-6.md

summary:
=== Department of Agriculture === The Trump administration marginalized the role of science at the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and oversaw the mass departure of career USDA scientists. In July 2019, two USDA agencies—the Economic Research Service (ERS) and the National Institute of Food and Agriculture—were directed to move from the USDA's headquarters in Washington, D.C. to the Kansas City metropolitan area. Two-thirds of the USDA employees reassigned chose to quit rather than accept relocation. Current and former employees of the ERS were strongly critical of the relocation to Kansas City and other Trump administration policies, and the exodus of scientific and economic talent and disruption to federal research (especially on climate change and food security) that they had caused. The move to Kansas City area resulted in an attrition rate particularly high in the Resource and Rural Economics Division (90%) and in the Food Economics Division (up to 89%). ERS economists said that the Trump administration's moves were retaliation against the agency for publishing research reports detailing the negative economic effects of Trump's policies, including tariffs and Republican tax legislation, on U.S. agriculture. In April 2018, Agriculture Secretary Sonny Perdue's office ordered ERS and other research components of


id: political-interference-with-science-agencies-by-the-first-trump-administration-20260505-7
category: reference
title: Political interference with science agencies by the first Trump administration
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:01.706730+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: political-interference-with-science-agencies-by-the-first-trump-administration-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_interference_with_science_agencies_by_the_first_Trump_administration-7.md

summary:
On January 24, 2017, it was reported that the Trump administration froze grants and contracts to the EPA, along with employees being unable to speak to reporters or post on social media accounts. In a May 2018 survey, the EPA inspector general's office found that nearly 400 science-related employees said they had experienced, but did not report, potential violations of the EPA's scientific integrity policy. More than 250 employees said their concern was that a manager or senior leader had possibly interfered with science, and nearly 175 said they had experienced "suppression or delay of release of scientific report or information." Commenters said they had observed "suppression, changes, manipulation, or exclusion of scientific information, results, or research." They said people in senior positions, particularly political appointees, often do not understand or adequately consider science in their decisions, and they expressed a belief that their leadership is "greatly influenced by political, industry, state, or regulated groups." ==== Climate change policy ==== Before his election Trump promised to trim the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). At a Republican primary debate in Detroit on March 3, 2016, he said: "Department of Environmental Protection: We are going to get rid of it in almost every


id: political-interference-with-science-agencies-by-the-first-trump-administration-20260505-8
category: reference
title: Political interference with science agencies by the first Trump administration
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:01.706730+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: political-interference-with-science-agencies-by-the-first-trump-administration-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_interference_with_science_agencies_by_the_first_Trump_administration-8.md

summary:
=== Anthony Fauci === After Trump left office, Dr. Anthony Fauci, the director of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) since 1984, spoke of the difficulties that he and other scientists faced under the Trump administration. He described working under the Biden administration as "a refreshing experience", said that he felt "uncomfortable" when Trump publicly made statements that "were not based on scientific fact", and indicated that he had felt silenced under Trump. Fauci, who has served under seven presidents, told The Atlantic, "With every other president, whether they were conservative, moderate, or liberal, the guidepost for everything was a deep respect for science. That was always the case. When I got involved with Trump, it went into a different world, the likes of which I had not experienced. I was used to being in the White House because of my work in previous administrations, but the White House became a different place in the Trump administration." Fauci said that Scott Atlas, brought into the coronavirus task force by Trump, was "a complete foil to poor Debbie Birx" and said, "I felt so bad for her, because he completely undermined her. He didn't undermine me, because I


id: political-interference-with-science-agencies-by-the-first-trump-administration-20260505-9
category: reference
title: Political interference with science agencies by the first Trump administration
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:01.706730+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: political-interference-with-science-agencies-by-the-first-trump-administration-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_interference_with_science_agencies_by_the_first_Trump_administration-9.md

summary:
In May 2020, the House Energy and Commerce Committee heard testimony from Rick Bright, a career scientist who was removed from his position as director of the Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority (BARDA) for warning about problems with the administration's response to the coronavirus. Bright had filed a whistleblower complaint with the Office of Special Counsel. In the complaint, Bright said that his ouster and demotion were illegal retaliation by the Trump administration due to his warnings about the virus, his opposition to political interference in decision-making, and his objections to the promotion of hydroxychloroquine as a COVID-19 treatment without scientific evidence. The U.S. Office of Special Counsel determined that there were "reasonable grounds to believe" that the Trump administration's HHS had unlawfully retaliated against Bright, in violation of the Whistleblower Protection Act, "because he made protected disclosures in the best interest of the American public." The office recommended that Bright be reinstated as head of BARDA while the investigation is undertaken. However, the recommendation was not binding on HHS, and was not honored by the agency. On October 6, 2020, Bright resigned from the government. In an addendum to his whistleblower complaint, Bright stated that, following his demotion,


id: race-and-intelligence-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence-0.md
category: reference
title: Race and intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:04.224493+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: race-and-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
Discussions of race and intelligence—specifically regarding claims of differences in intelligence along racial lines—have appeared in both popular science and academic research since the modern concept of race was first introduced. With the inception of IQ testing in the early 20th century, differences in average test performance between racial groups have been observed, though these differences have fluctuated and in many cases steadily decreased over time. Complicating the issue, modern science has concluded that race is a socially constructed phenomenon rather than a biological reality, and there exist various conflicting definitions of intelligence. In particular, the validity of IQ testing as a metric for human intelligence is disputed. Today, the scientific consensus is that genetics does not explain differences in IQ test performance between groups, and that observed differences are environmental in origin. Pseudoscientific claims of inherent differences in intelligence between races have played a central role in the history of scientific racism. The first tests showing differences in IQ scores between different population groups in the United States were those of United States Army recruits in World War I. In the 1920s, groups of eugenics lobbyists argued that these results demonstrated that African Americans and certain immigrant groups were


id: race-and-intelligence-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence-1.md
category: reference
title: Race and intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:04.224493+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: race-and-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
=== Pioneer Fund and The Bell Curve === In 1937, Draper founded the Pioneer Fund with the mission "to advance the scientific study of heredity and human differences". This fund would become a central driver of research into race and intelligence. The Southern Poverty Law Center lists the Pioneer Fund as a hate group, and numerous scholars have criticized it for promoting scientific racism, eugenics and white supremacy. As the desegregation of the United States gained traction in the 1950s, debate about black intelligence resurfaced. Audrey Shuey, funded by the Pioneer Fund, published a new analysis of Yerkes' tests, concluding that black people really were of inferior intellect to white people. This study was used by segregationists to argue that it was to the advantage of black children to be educated separately from the superior white children. In the 1960s, the debate was revived when William Shockley publicly defended the view that black children were innately unable to learn as well as white children. Arthur Jensen expressed similar opinions in his Harvard Educational Review article, "How Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achievement?," which questioned the value of compensatory education for African-American children. He suggested that poor educational performance


id: race-and-intelligence-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence-2.md
category: reference
title: Race and intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:04.224493+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: race-and-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
The consensus view among geneticists, biologists and anthropologists is that race is a sociopolitical phenomenon rather than a biological one, a view supported by considerable genetics research. Race is a social construct based on folk ideologies that differentiate groups based on social disparities and superficial physical characteristics. A 2023 consensus report from the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine stated: "In humans, race is a socially constructed designation, a misleading and harmful surrogate for population genetic differences, and has a long history of being incorrectly identified as the major genetic reason for phenotypic differences between groups." The concept of human "races" as natural and separate divisions within the human species has also been rejected by the American Anthropological Association. The official position of the AAA, adopted in 1998, is that advances in scientific knowledge have made it "clear that human populations are not unambiguous, clearly demarcated, biologically distinct groups" and that "any attempt to establish lines of division among biological populations [is] both arbitrary and subjective." A more recent statement from the American Association of Physical Anthropologists (2019) declares that "Race does not provide an accurate representation of human biological variation. It was never accurate in the past, and


id: race-and-intelligence-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence-3.md
category: reference
title: Race and intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:04.224493+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: race-and-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
In the United States, Asians on average score higher than White people, who tend to score higher than Hispanics, who tend to score higher than African Americans. There is more variation in IQ scores within each racial group, such as when they are divided by income, than between different ethnic groups when compared as a whole against each other. A 2001 meta-analysis of the results of 6,246,729 participants tested for cognitive ability or aptitude found a difference in average scores between black people and white people of 1.1 standard deviations. Consistent results were found for college and university application tests such as the Scholastic Aptitude Test (N = 2.4 million) and Graduate Record Examination (N = 2.3 million), as well as for tests of job applicants in corporate settings (N = 0.5 million) and in the military (N = 0.4 million). In response to the controversial 1994 book The Bell Curve, the American Psychological Association (APA) formed a task-force of eleven experts, which issued a report "Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns" in 1996. Regarding group differences, the report reaffirmed the consensus that differences within groups are much wider than differences between groups, and that claims of ethnic differences in intelligence should


id: race-and-intelligence-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence-4.md
category: reference
title: Race and intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:04.224493+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: race-and-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
Environmental factors including childhood lead exposure, low rates of breast feeding, and poor nutrition are significantly correlated with poor cognitive development and functioning. For example, childhood exposure to lead — associated with homes in poorer areas — correlates with an average IQ drop of 7 points, and iodine deficiency causes a decline, on average, of 12 IQ points. Such impairments may sometimes be permanent, but in some cases they be partially or wholly compensated for by later growth. The first two years of life are critical for malnutrition, the consequences of which are often irreversible and include poor cognitive development, educability, and future economic productivity. Mackintosh points out that, for American black people, infant mortality is about twice as high as for white people, and low birth weight is twice as prevalent. At the same time, white mothers are twice as likely to breastfeed their infants, and breastfeeding is directly correlated with IQ for low-birth-weight infants. In this way, a wide number of health-related factors which influence IQ are unequally distributed between the two groups. The Copenhagen consensus in 2004 stated that lack of both iodine and iron has been implicated in impaired brain development, and this can affect enormous


id: race-and-intelligence-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence-5.md
category: reference
title: Race and intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:04.224493+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: race-and-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
=== Socioeconomic environment === Different aspects of the socioeconomic environment in which children are raised have been shown to correlate with part of the IQ gap, but they do not account for the entire gap. According to a 2006 review, these factors account for slightly less than half of one standard deviation. Other research has focused on different causes of variation within low socioeconomic status (SES) and high SES groups. In the US, among low SES groups, genetic differences account for a smaller proportion of the variance in IQ than among high SES populations. Such effects are predicted by the bioecological hypothesis—that genotypes are transformed into phenotypes through nonadditive synergistic effects of the environment. Nisbett et al. (2012a) suggest that high SES individuals are more likely to be able to develop their full biological potential, whereas low SES individuals are likely to be hindered in their development by adverse environmental conditions. The same review also points out that adoption studies generally are biased towards including only high and high middle SES adoptive families, meaning that they will tend to overestimate average genetic effects. They also note that studies of adoption from lower-class homes to middle-class homes have shown that such


id: race-and-intelligence-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence-6.md
category: reference
title: Race and intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:04.224493+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: race-and-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
Geneticist Alan R. Templeton argued that the question about the possible genetic effects on the test score gap is muddled by the general focus on "race" rather than on populations defined by gene frequency or by geographical proximity, and by the general insistence on phrasing the question in terms of heritability. Templeton pointed out that racial groups neither represent sub-species nor distinct evolutionary lineages, and that therefore there is no basis for making claims about the general intelligence of races. He argued that, for these reasons, the search for possible genetic influences on the black–white test score gap is a priori flawed, because there is no genetic material shared by all Africans or by all Europeans. Mackintosh (2011), on the other hand, argued that by using genetic cluster analysis to correlate gene frequencies with continental populations it might be possible to show that African populations have a higher frequency of certain genetic variants that contribute to differences in average intelligence. Such a hypothetical situation could hold without all Africans carrying the same genes or belonging to a single evolutionary lineage. According to Mackintosh, a biological basis for the observed gap in IQ test performance thus cannot be ruled out on


id: race-and-intelligence-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence-7.md
category: reference
title: Race and intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:04.224493+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: race-and-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
Spearman's hypothesis states that the magnitude of the black–white difference in tests of cognitive ability depends entirely or mainly on the extent to which a test measures general mental ability, or g. The hypothesis was first formalized by Arthur Jensen, who devised the statistical "method of correlated vectors" to test it. If Spearman's hypothesis holds true, then the cognitive tasks that have the highest g-load are the tasks in which the gap between black and white test takers are greatest. Jensen and Rushton took this to show that the cause of g and the cause of the gap are the same—in their view, genetic differences. Mackintosh (2011, pp. 338–39) acknowledges that Jensen and Rushton showed a modest correlation between g-loading, heritability, and the test score gap, but does not agree that this demonstrates a genetic origin of the gap. Mackintosh argues that it is exactly those tests that Rushton and Jensen consider to have the highest g-loading and heritability, such as the Wechsler test, that have seen the greatest increases in black performance due to the Flynn effect. This likely suggests that they are also the most sensitive to environmental changes, which undermines Jensen's argument that the black–white gap is


id: race-and-intelligence-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence-8.md
category: reference
title: Race and intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:04.224493+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: race-and-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
=== Racial admixture studies === Most people have ancestry from different geographical regions. In particular, African Americans typically have ancestors from both Africa and Europe, with, on average, 20% of their genome inherited from European ancestors. If racial IQ gaps have a partially genetic basis, one might expect black people with a higher degree of European ancestry to score higher on IQ tests than black people with less European ancestry, because the genes inherited from European ancestors would likely include some genes with a positive effect on IQ. Geneticist Alan Templeton has argued that an experiment based on the Mendelian "common garden" design, where specimens with different hybrid compositions are subjected to the same environmental influences, are the only way to definitively show a causal relation between genes and group differences in IQ. Summarizing the findings of admixture studies, he concludes that they have shown no significant correlation between any cognitive ability and the degree of African or European ancestry. Studies have employed different ways of measuring or approximating relative degrees of ancestry from Africa and Europe. Some studies have used skin color as a measure, and others have used blood groups. Loehlin (2000) surveys the literature and argues that


id: science-policy-of-the-second-trump-administration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_policy_of_the_second_Trump_administration-0.md
category: reference
title: Science policy of the second Trump administration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_policy_of_the_second_Trump_administration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:06.653419+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-policy-of-the-second-trump-administration-20260505-0
summary:
During the second presidency of Donald Trump, the US government has seen broad funding freezes and cuts (or proposed cuts). Broad research areas targeted so far have included addiction, climate change, cancer research, vaccine hesitancy, HIV/AIDS research, COVID-19, mental health, and mRNA. The administration has notably paused research funding related to LGBTQ and other gender issues, diversity, equity, and inclusion, race and ethnicity, and other topics deemed "woke". Some of the funding freezes have been used to apply pressure to universities on non-science related matters. For example the University of San Diego, a school that contains a massive research program for students. Due to the budget cuts from the Trump administration, the university experienced a decrease in funding. == Early actions == Early Trump executive orders led to government organizations removing or modifying over 8,000 web pages and approximately 3,000 datasets, many of them science-related. In addition, there were freezes in scientific funding and purges of data related to LGBTQ issues, gender, climate change, and racial diversity. There were also mass firings across federal scientific agencies. The National Science Foundation (NSF) ceased paying out its grants to researchers leaving many without a salary. Grant review panels—in which scientists decide which


id: science-policy-of-the-second-trump-administration-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_policy_of_the_second_Trump_administration-1.md
category: reference
title: Science policy of the second Trump administration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_policy_of_the_second_Trump_administration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:06.653419+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-policy-of-the-second-trump-administration-20260505-0
summary:
The Trump administration ordered a suspension of National Institutes of Health (NIH) grant funding on January 27, which froze much of its $47 billion budget. The order was blocked by courts after legal challenges but continued when the government exploited a loophole in which they refused to publish the agency's meeting plans in the Federal Register. The NIH announced on February 7 that it would cap support for indirect costs in grants to institutions at 15% of a grant's value. Indirect costs cover expenses that are not directly related to research but are necessary to support it, such as rent for facilities, utilities like heat and electricity, or janitorial and administrative staff. Indirect costs typically range from 30% to 70%, and the cuts represent "tens to hundreds of millions of dollars" in lost funding for research institutes that could lead to layoffs, hiring freezes, and ending research projects. The cuts had previously been outlined in Project 2025 to combat what it characterized as subsidies for "leftist agendas" and diversity, equity, and inclusion efforts. In response, 22 state attorneys general filed a lawsuit and the cuts were paused on February 10. The NIH fired 1,000 to 1,200 workers on February 15.


id: science-policy-of-the-second-trump-administration-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_policy_of_the_second_Trump_administration-2.md
category: reference
title: Science policy of the second Trump administration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_policy_of_the_second_Trump_administration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:06.653419+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-policy-of-the-second-trump-administration-20260505-0
summary:
== Budget plans == In April 2025, budget planning documents within the Trump administration indicated the intention to reduce funding for a variety of science agencies in Fiscal Year 2026, which begins on October 1, 2025: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: reduce funding from $9.2 billion to $5.2 billion, a 44% cut. National Aeronautics and Space Administration science directorate: reduce funding from $7.5 billion to $3.9 billion, a 52% cut. National Institutes of Health: reduce funding from $47 billion to $27 billion, a 40% cut. Eliminate National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities and the National Institute of Nursing Research. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration: reduce funding from $6.1 billion to $4.5 billion, a 26% cut. Eliminate the Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research. National Science Foundation: reduce funding from $9 billion to $4, a 55% cut. These budget plans were reported in the press at the "passback" stage, at which the Office of Management and Budget sends its preferred revisions to agency budget requests. These cuts were formalized in the administration's FY 2026 budget, released on May 2. == Scientific publishing == Multiple scientific journals received letters in April 2025 from the Department of Justice under interim


id: soon-and-baliunas-controversy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soon_and_Baliunas_controversy-0.md
category: reference
title: Soon and Baliunas controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soon_and_Baliunas_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:10.438793+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: soon-and-baliunas-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
The Soon and Baliunas controversy involved the publication in 2003 of a review study titled Proxy climatic and environmental changes of the past 1000 years, written by aerospace engineer Willie Soon and astronomer Sallie Baliunas and published in the journal Climate Research. In the review, the authors expressed disagreement with the hockey stick graph and argued that historical temperature changes were related to solar variation rather than greenhouse gas emissions as was the position of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and other researchers. The publication was quickly taken up by the George W. Bush administration as a basis for amending the first Environmental Protection Agency's Report on the Environment. The paper was strongly criticized by numerous scientists for its methodology and for its misuse of data from previously published studies, which prompted concerns about the peer review process of the paper. The controversy resulted in the resignation of half of the editors of the journal and in the admission by its publisher, Otto Kinne, that the paper should not have been published as it was. The article and responses to it featured in further global warming controversy, including questions about funding of the paper. == Background == === IPCC


id: soon-and-baliunas-controversy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soon_and_Baliunas_controversy-1.md
category: reference
title: Soon and Baliunas controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soon_and_Baliunas_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:10.438793+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: soon-and-baliunas-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
== Publication == Chris de Freitas, as an editor at Climate Research, accepted the paper written by Soon and Baliunas and it was published in the small refereed journal on 31 January 2003 under the title Proxy climatic and environmental changes of the past 1000 years. The article reviewed 240 previously published papers and tried to find evidence for temperature anomalies in the last thousand years such as the Medieval warm period (MWP) and the Little Ice Age (LIA). The authors pointed out their disagreement with the Mann, Bradley, and Hughes hockey stick studies; "Our results suggest a different interpretation of the multiproxy climates compared to recent conclusions of Mann et al. (1998, 1999, 2000)." Their abstract concluded that "Across the world, many records reveal that the 20th century is probably not the warmest or a uniquely extreme climatic period of the last millennium". The paper acknowledged funding support from the American Petroleum Institute, the Air Force Office of Scientific Research and NASA, while stating that the views were those of the authors and were independent of the sponsoring agencies. In the Spring of 2003, Soon and Baliunas, with three additional co-authors, published a longer version of the paper in


id: soon-and-baliunas-controversy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soon_and_Baliunas_controversy-2.md
category: reference
title: Soon and Baliunas controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soon_and_Baliunas_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:10.438793+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: soon-and-baliunas-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
== Responses from other scientists, political intervention == Initially, the scientists whose work was being disputed by Soon and Baliunas felt it was one of a series of sceptical papers that, in Mann's words, "couldn't get published in a reputable journal". In March he wrote to Phil Jones that "I believed our only choice was to ignore this paper. They've already achieved what they wanted, the claim of a peer-reviewed paper. There is nothing we can do about that now, but the last thing we want is to bring attention to the paper." Jones replied "I think the sceptics will use this paper to their own ends and it will set paleo back a number of years if it goes unchallenged. I will be emailing the journal to tell them I'm having nothing more to do with it until they rid themselves of this troublesome editor", referring to de Freitas. At the time the second Soon et al. paper was publicised, Mann emailed Fred Pearce to say that it "was absurd, almost laughable (if it wasn't, as is transparently evident, being used as a policy–and politics–driven publicity stunt to support the dubious positions on climate change of some prominent American


id: soon-and-baliunas-controversy-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soon_and_Baliunas_controversy-3.md
category: reference
title: Soon and Baliunas controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soon_and_Baliunas_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:10.438793+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: soon-and-baliunas-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
== Response of journal editors == On 20 June 2003 the publisher of Climate Research, Otto Kinne, agreed to ask de Freitas for copies of the reviewer's evaluations: after studying the response, he advised the editors of his "Conclusions: 1) The reviewers consulted (4 for each ms) by the editor presented detailed, critical and helpful evaluations. 2) The editor properly analyzed the evaluations and requested appropriate revisions. 3) The authors revised their manuscripts accordingly. Summary: Chris de Freitas has done a good and correct job as editor." The journal had 10 editors, who at that time each independently received and accepted manuscripts from authors. One of the editors, Clare Goodess, recalled that many of them were "somewhat confused and still very concerned about what had happened". The paper "had apparently gone to four reviewers none of whom had recommended rejection", and "The review process had apparently been correct, but a fundamentally flawed paper had been published." She and fellow editor Hans von Storch knew of three earlier papers edited by de Freitas where concerns had been raised about the review process. To meet the concerns, Kinne proposed to adopt the more common system where instead of editors acting fully independently,


id: soon-and-baliunas-controversy-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soon_and_Baliunas_controversy-4.md
category: reference
title: Soon and Baliunas controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soon_and_Baliunas_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:10.438793+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: soon-and-baliunas-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
== Subsequent resignations == In a Climate Research editorial pre-published on 5 August 2003, its publisher Otto Kinne expressed regrets about the resignations of von Storch, Goodess, and a third editor, Mitsuru Ando. Kinne described the main conclusions of the Soon and Baliunas paper; that the late 20th century was probably not the warmest period nor uniquely extreme in the last 2,000 years, and most of the proxy records had warmer anomalies at earlier times. He wrote "While these statements may be true, the critics point out that they cannot be concluded convincingly from the evidence provided in the paper. CR should have requested appropriate revisions of the manuscript prior to publication." Kinne told the New York Times that "I have not stood behind the paper by Soon and Baliunas. Indeed: the reviewers failed to detect methodological flaws." On 19 August 2003, Tom Wigley wrote to a colleague that "I have had papers that I refereed (and soundly rejected), under De Freitas’s editorship, appear later in the journal — without me seeing any response from the authors. As I have said before to others, his strategy is first to use mainly referees that are in the anti-greenhouse community, and second,


id: soon-and-baliunas-controversy-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soon_and_Baliunas_controversy-5.md
category: reference
title: Soon and Baliunas controversy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soon_and_Baliunas_controversy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:10.438793+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: soon-and-baliunas-controversy-20260505-0
summary:
In November 2009, emails and documents which had been hacked from a server belonging to the University of East Anglia were distributed on the internet. Many of the emails included communication between climatologists in East Anglia's Climatic Research Unit (CRU) and other scientists, including Michael E. Mann. Several of the emails included conversations about Soon and Baliunas' paper as the controversy was ongoing in 2003 and 2004. In an 18 December 2009 column in The Wall Street Journal, Pat Michaels alleged that pressure from Jones and Mann was responsible for the resignations at Climate Research. On 22 December 2009 von Storch responded in the Wall Street Journal that his resignation as editor of Climate Research had nothing to do with any pressure from Jones, Mann, or anyone else, but instead he "left this post on my own, with no outside pressure, because of insufficient quality control on a bad paper—a skeptic's paper, at that." The Independent Climate Change Email Review, an independent review funded by the University of East Anglia and chaired by Sir Muir Russell, examined allegations that the emails showed attempts to undermine normal procedures of publication. Phil Jones gave evidence that he believed the paper showed self-evident


id: walter-w-stewart-scientist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_W._Stewart_(scientist)-0.md
category: reference
title: Walter W. Stewart (scientist)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_W._Stewart_(scientist)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:11.643469+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: walter-w-stewart-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
Walter W. Stewart (born c. 1945) is an American biomedical scientist who worked at the National Institute of Health in Bethesda, Maryland. Working at the National Institute of Arthritis, Metabolism and Digestive Diseases, he invented Lucifer yellow, a fluorescent dye used for visualizing cells under microscope, in 1979. In 1971, he had also isolated and worked out the chemical structure of tabtoxin, or wildfire toxin, an antibiotic precursor from the bacterium Pseudomonas syringae. He is most popularly known for his efforts in maintaining scientific integrity by fighting against important cases of malpractices. He accompanied James Randi in debunking homeopathic experiment perpetrated by French immunologist Jacques Benveniste in an incidence known as the Benveniste affair in 1988. == The Baltimore case == David Baltimore was a microbiologist at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) who received the 1975 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine (along with Howard Temin and Renato Dulbecco) for the "discoveries concerning the interaction between tumor viruses and the genetic material of the cell." Since 1981, he collaborated with Brazilian immunologist Thereza Imanishi-Kari at the Institute for Genetics in University of Cologne, Germany. By the next year, Imanishi-Kari joined him at MIT and worked on mutations in immunoglobulins. In


id: teissier-affair-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teissier_affair-0.md
category: reference
title: Teissier affair
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teissier_affair
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:12.829522+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: teissier-affair-20260505-0
summary:
The Teissier affair was a controversy that occurred in France in 2001. French astrologer Élizabeth Teissier was awarded a doctorate in sociology by Paris Descartes University for a doctoral thesis in which she argued that astrology was being oppressed by science. Her work was contested by the scientific community within the context of the science wars, and compared to the Sokal hoax. Criticisms included the alleged failure to work within the field of sociology and also lacking the necessary scientific rigour for a doctoral thesis in any scientific field. The university and jury who awarded the degree were harshly criticised, though both they and Teissier had supporters and defenders. == Teissier's doctorate == On April 7, 2001, Elizabeth Teissier defended her thesis entitled Situation épistémologique de l'astrologie à travers l'ambivalence fascination-rejet dans les sociétés postmodernes ("The Epistemological Situation of Astrology in Relation to the Ambivalent Fascination/Rejection of Postmodern Societies") – accounts of the defense have been published. Her studies at the University of Paris Descartes were under the supervision of Michel Maffesoli, an Emeritus Professor of Sociology. The central idea of the thesis was described by The New York Times as being that astrology is being oppressed by science, which


id: tobacco-industry-playbook-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco_industry_playbook-0.md
category: reference
title: Tobacco industry playbook
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco_industry_playbook
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:14.046243+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tobacco-industry-playbook-20260505-0
summary:
The tobacco industry playbook, also called the tobacco disinformation playbook or simply the tobacco strategy, describes a public relations strategy used by the tobacco industry in the 1950s to protect revenues in the face of mounting evidence of links between tobacco smoke and serious illnesses, primarily cancer. Such tactics were used even earlier, beginning in the 1920s, by the oil industry to support the use of tetraethyllead in gasoline. They continue to be used by other industries, notably the fossil fuel industry, even using the same PR firms and researchers. Much of the playbook is known from industry documents made public by whistleblowers or as a result of the Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement. These documents are now curated by the UCSF Truth Tobacco Industry Documents project and are a primary source for much commentary on both the tobacco playbook and its similarities to the tactics used by other industries such as the fossil fuel industry. A 1969 R. J. Reynolds internal memorandum noted, "Doubt is our product since it is the best means of competing with the 'body of fact' that exists in the mind of the general public." In Merchants of Doubt, Naomi Oreskes and Erik Conway documented the


id: untermassfeld-fossil-site-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Untermassfeld_fossil_site-0.md
category: reference
title: Untermassfeld fossil site
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Untermassfeld_fossil_site
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:15.266142+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: untermassfeld-fossil-site-20260505-0
summary:
The Untermaßfeld fossil site is a palaeontological site in Untermaßfeld, Germany. Excavated continuously since its discovery in 1978, it has produced many fossils dating to the late Early Pleistocene or Epivillafranchian geologic period, approximately 1.2 – 0.9 million years before present (BP). Claims that hominins were also present at the site have sparked a major controversy. == Hominin controversy == In a series of papers published between 2013 and 2017, Günter Landeck and Joan Garcia Garriga claimed to have found evidence of a hominin presence at the site in the form of stone tools and butchery marks on bones. If verified, this would be the earliest known occupation of northern Europe by humans, as previous evidence had indicated that Europe was only sporadically occupied, at southerly latitudes, before 500,000 BP. However, these findings have sparked a major controversy. Questions were immediately asked about the provenance of the material, since neither Landeck nor Garcia Garriga had any connection to the Untermassfeld project and had never worked on the excavations at the site. Further doubts were raised in October 2017, in the preprint of a paper later published in the Journal of Paleolithic Archaeology, authored by several palaeontologists and Palaeolithic archaeologists, including


id: who-convened-global-study-of-origins-of-sars-cov-2-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WHO-convened_Global_Study_of_Origins_of_SARS-CoV-2-0.md
category: reference
title: WHO-convened Global Study of Origins of SARS-CoV-2
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WHO-convened_Global_Study_of_Origins_of_SARS-CoV-2
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:16.420960+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: who-convened-global-study-of-origins-of-sars-cov-2-20260505-0
summary:
The WHO-convened Global Study of Origins of SARS-CoV-2 or the Joint WHO-China Study was a collaborative study between the World Health Organization and the Government of China on the origins of COVID-19. The study was commissioned by the Director-General of the World Health Organization following a request by the 2020 World Health Assembly in which 122 WHO members proposed a motion, which included a call for a "comprehensive, independent and impartial" study into the COVID-19 pandemic" The WHO disbanded the team and proposed a new panel called Scientific Advisory Group for Origins of Novel Pathogens. == Background == The World Health Organization has declared that finding where SARS-CoV-2 came from is a priority and that it is "essential for understanding how the pandemic started". In May 2020, the World Health Assembly, which governs the World Health Organization (WHO), passed a motion calling for a "comprehensive, independent and impartial" study into the COVID-19 pandemic. A record 137 countries, including China, co-sponsored the motion, giving overwhelming international endorsement to the study. In mid 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) began negotiations with the government of China on conducting an official study into the origins of COVID-19. In November 2020, the WHO published


id: who-convened-global-study-of-origins-of-sars-cov-2-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WHO-convened_Global_Study_of_Origins_of_SARS-CoV-2-1.md
category: reference
title: WHO-convened Global Study of Origins of SARS-CoV-2
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WHO-convened_Global_Study_of_Origins_of_SARS-CoV-2
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:16.420960+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: who-convened-global-study-of-origins-of-sars-cov-2-20260505-0
summary:
== Reception == WHO director-general Tedros Adhanom, who was not directly involved with the investigation, said he was ready to dispatch additional missions involving specialist experts and that further research was required. He said in a statement, "Some explanations may be more probable than others, but for now all possibilities remain on the table". He also said, "We have not yet found the source of the virus, and we must continue to follow the science and leave no stone unturned as we do." Tedros also called on China to provide "more timely and comprehensive data sharing" as part of future investigations. News outlets noted that though it was unrealistic to expect quick and huge results from the report, it "offered few clear-cut conclusions regarding the start of the pandemic", "failed to audit the Chinese official position at some parts of the report", and was "biased according to critics". Other scientists praised how the report details the pathways that can shed light on the origin, if explored later. After the publication of the report, politicians, talk show hosts, journalists, and some scientists advanced unsupported claims that SARS-CoV-2 may have come from the WIV. In the United States, calls to investigate a


id: archaeological-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Archaeological science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:19.272223+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: archaeological-science-20260505-0
summary:
Archaeological science consists of the application of scientific techniques to the analysis of archaeological materials and sites. It is related to methodologies of archaeology. Martinón-Torres and Killick distinguish 'scientific archaeology' (as an epistemology) from 'archaeological science' (the application of specific techniques to archaeological materials). Martinón-Torres and Killick claim that 'archaeological science' has promoted the development of high-level theory in archaeology. However, Smith rejects both concepts of archaeological science because neither emphasize falsification or a search for causality. Marwick demonstrated that archaeologists' publication habits are more like social scientists than hard sciences such as physics. In the United Kingdom, the Natural and Environmental Research Council provides funding for archaeometry separate from the funding provided for archaeology. == Types of archaeological science == Archaeological science can be divided into the following areas: physical and chemical dating methods which provide archaeologists with absolute and relative chronologies artifact studies environmental approaches which provide information on past landscapes, climates, flora, and fauna; as well as the diet, nutrition, health, and pathology of people mathematical methods for data treatment (including computer-based methods) remote-sensing and geophysical-survey techniques for buried features conservation sciences, involving the study of decay processes and the development of new methods of conservation Techniques


id: conversazione-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversazione-0.md
category: reference
title: Conversazione
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversazione
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:20.470696+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conversazione-20260505-0
summary:
A conversazione is a "social gathering [predominantly] held by [a] learned or art society" for conversation and discussion, especially about the arts, literature, medicine, and science. It would not be easy to devise a happier way [than the conversazione] of bringing novelties at once under practical criticism—of making the outliers of science acquainted with the centre, of enabling investigators to compare operations and discuss facts and speculations, and of giving occasion for renewal of intercourse and removal of misunderstandings. …[The] tangible gain to science [from the conversazione is that] inventors and experimentalists … hear [directly] what contemporaries say of their schemes and experiments, and much can be said and done with advantage amid the free talk of a general gathering which could not be permitted in the formal meeting of a scientific society. (Nature, 5 May 1870.) == Origin == The writer Horace Walpole is credited with the first recorded English use of conversazione in a letter written (from Italy) on 11 November 1739 to Richard West (1716–1742) in which he writes, "After the play we were introduced to the assembly, which they [viz., the Italians] call the conversazione". == Historical usage in Britain == In Italy, the term generally


id: cultural-environmentalism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_environmentalism-0.md
category: reference
title: Cultural environmentalism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_environmentalism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:21.695832+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cultural-environmentalism-20260505-0
summary:
Cultural environmentalism is the movement that seeks to protect the public domain. The term was coined by James Boyle, professor at Duke University and contributor to the Financial Times. The term stems from Boyle's argument that those who seek to protect the public domain are working towards a similar ends as environmentalists. Boyle's contention is that whereas the environmentalist movement illuminated the effects that social decisions can have upon ecology, cultural environmentalists seek to illuminate the effects that intellectual property laws can have upon culture. == References == == External links == Cultural Environmentalism at 10. James Boyle: Cultural environmentalism? A Politics of Intellectual Property: Environmentalism for the Net? An IP Environmentalism for Culture and Knowledge?


id: heritage-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritage_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Heritage science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritage_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:22.870555+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: heritage-science-20260505-0
summary:
Heritage science is the interdisciplinary domain of scientific study of cultural and natural heritage. Heritage science draws on diverse humanities, sciences and engineering disciplines. It focuses on enhancing the understanding, care and sustainable use of heritage so it can enrich people's lives, both today and in the future. Heritage science is an umbrella term encompassing all forms of scientific enquiry into human works and the combined works of nature and humans, of value to people. The above definition was developed though a community consultation organised by ICCROM and the European Research Infrastructure for Heritage Science in 2019. The term has become widely used after 2006, when it became increasingly evident that the more traditional terms conservation science or preservation science inadequately reflected the breadth of research into cultural heritage. Heritage scientists in museums, galleries, libraries, archives, universities and research institutions support conservation (often called conservation science), access (e.g. development of new ICT tools), interpretation, including archaeometry and archaeological science (e.g. dating, provenancing, attribution), heritage management (e.g. development of tools and knowledge supporting strategic or environmental management decisions) and wider societal engagement with heritage (e.g. heritage values and ethics). Heritage science is also an excellent vehicle for public engagement with science


id: heritage-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritage_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Heritage science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritage_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:22.870555+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: heritage-science-20260505-0
summary:
Heritage science is an increasingly lively science domain. Materials and techniques of the past are often very difficult to study and state-of-the-art techniques and methods need to be employed. Discoveries new to science are often the result of such endeavours, e.g. new antibiotics from bacteria discovered in the Cave of Altamira, in Spain. With its wide definition, heritage science spans a significant variety of scientific activities. In order to support conservation, access, interpretation and management, heritage science must be based on an interdisciplinary palette of knowledge, from fundamental sciences (chemistry, physics, mathematics, biology) to arts and humanities (conservation, archaeology, philosophy, ethics, history, art history etc.), including economics, sociology, computer sciences and engineering. In academia, heritage science is often performed by scientists spending a proportion of their time on heritage-related research. The academic field, judged by the number of academic outputs published annually, is steadily increasing. This could be taken to estimate the domain size – with the number of outputs in 2014 being 6,800 (Source: Web of Science), it could be assumed that there are about 3,000 heritage scientists active in the field (publishing on average 2 academic publications per year). This goes against the generally held view that the


id: heritage-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritage_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Heritage science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritage_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:22.870555+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: heritage-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Events == There are major heritage science events including conferences, symposia, and meetings. In addition, conferences organised by the Institute of Conservation, American Institute for Conservation and International Institute for Conservation usually feature heritage science sessions and talks. == Journals == Notable journals often or exclusively publishing academic papers in heritage science include: Heritage Science, open-access & peer-reviewed journal published by SpringerOpen, part of Springer Nature Archaeometry Heritage Journal of Cultural Heritage Journal of the American Institute for Conservation Studies in Conservation == See also == Heritage studies Paleo-inspiration == References == == External links == Heritage science departments Museum Conservation Institute of the Smithsonian Institution, US Department of Conservation and Science of the British Museum, UK Centre for Conservation Research, France Getty Conservation Institute, US Conservation Science Department of the V&A Museum, UK Science Laboratory of the Art Institute of Chicago, US The Netherlands Institute for Conservation, Art and Science, The Netherlands Heritage Science Lab Ljubljana, Slovenia Istituto Superiore per la Conservazione e il Restauro, Italy Opificio delle Pietre Dure, Italy Institute of Heritage Sciences of the National Research Council, Italy Koninklijk Instituut voor het Kunstpatrimonium/Institut Royal du Patrimoine Artistique, Belgium University of Oxford - Resilient Buildings and


id: independent-scientist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_scientist-0.md
category: reference
title: Independent scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:24.082171+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: independent-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
An independent scientist (historically also known as gentleman scientist) is a financially independent scientist who pursues scientific study without direct affiliation to a public institution such as a university or government-run research and development body. The term "gentleman scientist" arose in post-Renaissance Europe, but became less common in the 20th century as government and private funding increased. Most independent scientists have at some point in their career been affiliated with some academic institution, such as Charles Darwin, who was affiliated with the Geological Society of London. == History == Self-funded scientists practiced more commonly from the Renaissance until the late 19th century, including the Victorian era, especially in England, before large-scale government and corporate funding was available. Many early fellows of the Royal Society in London were independent scientists. === Modern === Modern-day independent scientists who fund their own research on an independent basis include, for example, Stephen Wolfram who funds his research through the sale of Mathematica software, Julian Barbour, Aubrey de Grey, Barrington Moore, Susan Blackmore, James Lovelock, and John Wilkinson who funds his research on "molecular synergism in nature" by running a regulatory scientific consultancy in natural products. Peter Rich said of Peter D. Mitchell: "I think


id: institute-for-figuring-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_For_Figuring-0.md
category: reference
title: Institute For Figuring
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_For_Figuring
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:25.364701+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: institute-for-figuring-20260505-0
summary:
The Institute For Figuring (IFF) is an organization based in Los Angeles, California that promotes the public understanding of the poetic and aesthetic dimensions of science, mathematics and the technical arts. Founded by Margaret Wertheim and Christine Wertheim, the institute hosts public lectures and exhibitions, publishes books and maintains a website. == Published works == Robert Kaplan The Figure That Stands Behind Figures: Mosaics of the Mind (2004) Margaret Wertheim A Field Guide to Hyperbolic Space (2005) Margaret Wertheim A Field Guide to the Business Card Menger Sponge (2006) Margaret Wertheim, Christine Wertheim Crochet Coral Reef: A Project (2015) == See also == Mathematics and fiber arts European Society for Mathematics and the Arts == References == == External links == Official website


id: the-neurogenderings-network-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_NeuroGenderings_Network-0.md
category: reference
title: The NeuroGenderings Network
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_NeuroGenderings_Network
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:26.550012+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-neurogenderings-network-20260505-0
summary:
The NeuroGenderings Network is an international group of researchers in neuroscience and gender studies. Members of the network study how the complexities of social norms, varied life experiences, details of laboratory conditions and biology interact to affect the results of neuroscientific research. Working under the label of "neurofeminism", they aim to critically analyze how the field of neuroscience operates, and to build an understanding of brain and gender that goes beyond gender essentialism while still treating the brain as fundamentally material. Its founding was part of a period of increased interest and activity in interdisciplinary research connecting neuroscience and the social sciences. == History == The group, comprising scholars who specialized in feminism, queer theory and gender studies, formed to tackle "neurosexism" as defined by Cordelia Fine in her 2010 book Delusions of Gender: "uncritical biases in [neuroscientific] research and public perception, and their societal impacts on an individual, structural, and symbolic level." Research can suffer from neurosexism by failing to include the social factors and expectations that shape sex differences, which possibly leads to making inferences based on flawed data. By contrast, the network members advocate "neurofeminism", aiming to critically evaluate heteronormative assumptions of contemporary brain research and examine


id: science-in-newly-industrialized-countries-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_newly_industrialized_countries-0.md
category: reference
title: Science in newly industrialized countries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_newly_industrialized_countries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:27.837286+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-in-newly-industrialized-countries-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific research is concentrated in the developed world, with only a marginal contribution from the rest of the world. Many newly industrialized countries have been trying to establish scientific institutions, but with limited success. There is an insufficient dedicated, inspired and motivated labor pool for science and insufficient investment in science education. == The limited success of Newly Industrialized Countries == The reason that there have been so few scientists, who have made their mark globally, from most NIC's (Newly Industrialized Countries) is partly historical and partly social A true scientist is nurtured from the school upwards to scientific establishments. Only if there are inspired and dedicated school science teachers in abundance, there will be a sufficient number of inspired students who would like to take science as a career option and who may one day become a successful scientist. == The common thread == A common thread can indeed be discerned in the state of science in many NICs. Thus although, most of the science establishments in the major NICs can be said to be doing fairly well, none of them have been as successful as the developed countries. After the Second World War, a small technical elite arose


id: science-in-newly-industrialized-countries-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_newly_industrialized_countries-1.md
category: reference
title: Science in newly industrialized countries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_newly_industrialized_countries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:27.837286+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-in-newly-industrialized-countries-20260505-0
summary:
China was a world leader in science and technology until the early years of the Ming dynasty. Chinese discoveries and Chinese innovations such as papermaking, printing, the compass, and gunpowder (the Four Great Inventions) contributed to the economic development in East Asia, the Middle East and Europe. A question that has been intriguing many historians studying China is the fact that China did not develop a scientific revolution and Chinese technology fell behind that of Europe. Many hypotheses have been proposed ranging from the cultural to the political and economic. has argued that China indeed had a scientific revolution in the 17th century and that we are still far from understanding the scientific revolutions of the West and China in all their political, economic and social ramifications. Some like John K. Fairbank are of the opinion that the Chinese political system was hostile to scientific progress. Needham argued, and most scholars agreed, that cultural factors prevented these Chinese achievements from developing into what could be called "science". It was the religious and philosophical framework of the Chinese intellectuals which made them unable to believe in the ideas of laws of nature. More recent historians have questioned political and cultural explanations


id: science-in-newly-industrialized-countries-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_newly_industrialized_countries-2.md
category: reference
title: Science in newly industrialized countries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_newly_industrialized_countries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:27.837286+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-in-newly-industrialized-countries-20260505-0
summary:
The earliest applications of science in India took place in the context of medicine, metallurgy, construction technology (such as ship building, manufacture of cement and paints) and in textile production and dyeing. But in the process of understanding chemical processes, led to some theories about physical processes and the forces of nature that are today studied as specific topics within the fields of chemistry and physics. Many mathematical concepts today were contributed by Indian mathematicians like Aryabhata. There was really no place for scientists in the Indian caste system. Thus while there were/are castes for the learned brahmins, the warriors kshatriyas, the traders vaishyas and the menial workers shudras, maybe even the bureaucrats (the kayasths) there was/is hardly any formal place in the social hierarchy for a people who discover new knowledge or invent new devices based on the recently discovered knowledge, even though scientific temper has always been in India, in the form of logic, reasoning and method of acquiring knowledge. Its therefore no wonder that some Indians quickly learned to value science, especially those belonging to the privileged Brahmin caste during the British colonial rule that lasted over two centuries. Some Indians did succeed to achieve notable success


id: science-week-ireland-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Week_Ireland-0.md
category: reference
title: Science Week Ireland
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Week_Ireland
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:29.101493+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-week-ireland-20260505-0
summary:
Science Week Ireland is an annual week-long event in Ireland each November, celebrating science in our everyday lives. Science Week is an initiative of Science Foundation Ireland (SFI) It is the largest science festival in the country, engaging tens of thousands of members of the general public in workshops, science shows, talks, laboratory demonstrations, science walks and other science-related events. Science Week is a collaboration of events involving industry, colleges, schools, libraries, teachers, researchers and students throughout Ireland. Science Week supports Science Foundation Ireland’s mission to catalyse, inspire and guide the best in science, technology, engineering and maths (STEM) education and public engagement. The ultimate aim of this effort is that Ireland will have the most engaged and scientifically informed public by 2020 as outlined in Science Foundation Ireland’s strategy Agenda 2020. This also aligns to the national science innovation strategy, Innovation 2020. == History == Over the years, Science Week Ireland has grown from a small pilot initiative to a large promotional and event engine to its current identity as a recognised vehicle for regional activity supported by a national promotional campaign. In 1995, a National Science week was organised by the Royal Dublin Society and a number of


id: science-week-ireland-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Week_Ireland-1.md
category: reference
title: Science Week Ireland
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Week_Ireland
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:29.101493+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-week-ireland-20260505-0
summary:
=== 2015 === 2015 marked the 20th anniversary of Science Week, which took place from 8–15 November. The theme was ‘Science Week 2.0 Design Your Future’. It celebrated how science empowers ‘you’ to ‘Design Your Future’. Numerous events were held in every county, and regional festivals took place in Mayo, Sligo, Galway, Waterford, Cork, Limerick and the midlands. === 2016 === Science Week 2016 took place from 13–20 November. The theme was ‘Science Rising’ which looks at how science is key to our success – it is part of our past, an important part of our present and there is endless potential still to be realised. Science Week 2016 reached more people, all over Ireland, across a wider demographic than had been achieved before. Science Week 2016 saw 10 Regional Festivals across the country. === 2017 === Science Week 2017 ran nationwide from 12–19 November 2017. The theme was ‘Believe in Science’. More than 1180 events took place across Ireland. 12 regional science festivals took place in Cavan/Monaghan, Cork, Carlow, Festival of Farming and Food (Teagasc), Galway, Kerry, Limerick, Mayo, the Midlands, Sligo, Southeast and Tipperary. A number of Science Foundation Ireland-funded Science Week events took place throughout the week,


id: world-information-org-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World-Information.Org-0.md
category: reference
title: World-Information.Org
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World-Information.Org
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:31.584117+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-information-org-20260505-0
summary:
The World-Information Institute (WII) is an independent cultural institution based in Vienna, Austria, established in 1999 and officially launched in 2000. The institute conducts research and organizes various events, including conferences and exhibitions, focusing on digital culture and information technologies. The World-Information Institute is an international network of partner institutions and experts collaborating in the fields of information and communication technologies and their social implications. WII’s main research areas involve collecting, organizing, and analyzing information about shared resources and in this context, issues related to intellectual property laws, new ways of creating cultural works, how information is searched and organized, surveillance technologies, big data, and data visualization, cultural and media policies. A recent initiative to improve cultural and media policies is the “Netzpolitischer Konvent” (the Convention of Austrian civil society on net politics), where a list of demands was prepared and shared with the public. == Projects == === World-Information.Org series of projects - launched Brussels 2000 === World-Information.Org was launched as the main media project of the European Capital of Culture 2000 in Brussels. The social, cultural, and political dimensions of the new information and communication technologies were discussed. The World-Information exhibition presented objects and research results on topics


id: world-information-org-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World-Information.Org-1.md
category: reference
title: World-Information.Org
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World-Information.Org
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:31.584117+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-information-org-20260505-0
summary:
=== Wahlkabine.at === Wahlkabine.at was founded in 2002 by the Institute for New Culture Technologies/t0 and was presented for the first time during the National Council elections in the same year. The online polling-booth sees itself as an instrument of political education, which encourages the users to deal with political content playfully and provides factual information and feedback opportunities. Given the fact that increasing personalization nowadays replaces more and more the political content, Wahlkabine.at considers the publication of all party-programs and their scientific contextualization as a fundamental tool for political participation as well as a revealing resource collection for personal reflection on the voting behavior. Wahlkabine.at focuses on elections on Austrian national and regional levels and on EU-level (European Parliament), but also includes elections of the Austrian National Student Union and a few individual cases (e.g. Austrian Economic Chambers / Sector Information and Consulting 2010). In the context of regional elections in Vienna in autumn 2015 (with an electorate of approximately 1.14 million eligible voters) 160,000 users visited the online polling booth. === Future Non Stop === Future Non Stop – started as a project in 2010, online since 2012 – is an extensive archive and an experiment in logics


id: world-information-org-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World-Information.Org-2.md
category: reference
title: World-Information.Org
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World-Information.Org
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:31.584117+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-information-org-20260505-0
summary:
Public Netbase was initiated by the Institute for New Culture Technologies/t0 in the Vienna Museumsquartier in 1994 as a non-profit internet provider and a platform for the participatory use of information and communication technology. With its WWW-server as well as with its workshops, instruction courses, and educational events for the broad public, Public Netbase contributed continually to the evolution of a lively internet scene and a heightened consciousness for the implications of the new communication and information technologies. As a focal point of European and international art, culture, and media networks, the Viennese net culture institute attempted to develop an understanding for the manifold opportunities and the potential of new communication media, but also to look critically at a society that is increasingly determined by technology. In addition to the series of workshops and discussions the activities of Public Netbase included, among others, projects that combined exhibitions, conferences and workshops (e.g. Synworld playwork:hyperspace (1999) and Free Bitflows (2004)), projects in public space (nikeground (2003) and Basecamp (2001/2002)) and activities that strengthened self-organization of independent media initiatives and demanded further development of cultural and media policies (in Austria, but also on European level, e.g. European Cultural Backbone (1999-2003)). Public Netbase was


id: science-education-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education-0.md
category: reference
title: Science education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:33.275050+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-education-20260505-0
summary:
Science education is the teaching and learning of science to school children, college students, or adults within the general public. The field of science education includes work in science content, science process (the scientific method), some social science, and some teaching pedagogy. The standards for science education provide expectations for the development of understanding for students through the entire course of their K-12 education and beyond. The traditional subjects included in the standards are physical, life, earth, space, and human sciences. == Historical background == The first person credited with being employed as a science teacher in a British public school was William Sharp, who left the job at Rugby School in 1850 after establishing science to the curriculum. Sharp is said to have established a model for science to be taught throughout the British public school system. The British Association for the Advancement of Science (BAAS) published a report in 1867 calling for the teaching of "pure science" and training of the "scientific habit of mind." The progressive education movement supported the ideology of mental training through the sciences. BAAS emphasized separate pre-professional training in secondary science education. In this way, future BAAS members could be prepared. The initial


id: science-education-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education-1.md
category: reference
title: Science education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:33.275050+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-education-20260505-0
summary:
Chemistry education is characterized by the study of science that deals with the composition, structure, and properties of substances and the transformations that they undergo. Chemistry is the study of chemicals and the elements and their effects and attributes. Students in chemistry learn the periodic table. The branch of science education known as "chemistry must be taught in a relevant context in order to promote full understanding of current sustainability issues." As this source states chemistry is a very important subject in school as it teaches students to understand issues in the world. As children are interested by the world around them chemistry teachers can attract interest in turn educating the students further. The subject of chemistry is a very practical based subject meaning most of class time is spent working or completing experiments. === Biology education === Biology education is characterized by the study of structure, function, heredity, and evolution of all living organisms. Biology itself is the study of living organisms, through different fields including morphology, physiology, anatomy, behavior, origin, and distribution. Depending on the country and education level, there are many approaches to teaching biology. In the United States, there is a growing emphasis on the ability


id: science-education-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education-2.md
category: reference
title: Science education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:33.275050+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-education-20260505-0
summary:
Preconceptions Prior ideas about how things work are remarkably tenacious and an educator must explicitly address a student's specific misconceptions if the student is to reconfigure his misconception in favour of another explanation. Therefore, it is essential that educators know how to learn about student preconceptions and make this a regular part of their planning. Knowledge organization In order to become truly literate in an area of science, students must, "(a) have a deep foundation of factual knowledge, (b) understand facts and ideas in the context of a conceptual framework, and (c) organize knowledge in ways that facilitate retrieval and application." Metacognition Students will benefit from thinking about their thinking and their learning. They must be taught ways of evaluating their knowledge and what they do not know, evaluating their methods of thinking, and evaluating their conclusions. Some educators and others have practiced and advocated for discussions of pseudoscience as a way to understand what it is to think scientifically and to address the problems introduced by pseudoscience. Educational technologies are being refined to meet the specific needs of science teachers. One research study examining how cellphones are being used in post-secondary science teaching settings showed that mobile technologies can


id: science-education-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education-3.md
category: reference
title: Science education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:33.275050+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-education-20260505-0
summary:
In many U.S. states, K-12 educators must adhere to rigid standards or frameworks of what content is to be taught to which age groups. This often leads teachers to rush to "cover" the material, without truly "teaching" it. In addition, the process of science, including such elements as the scientific method and critical thinking, is often overlooked. This emphasis can produce students who pass standardized tests without having developed complex problem solving skills. Although at the college level American science education tends to be less regulated, it is actually more rigorous, with teachers and professors fitting more content into the same time period. In 1996, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences of the U.S. National Academies produced the National Science Education Standards, which is available online for free in multiple forms. Its focus on inquiry-based science, based on the theory of constructivism rather than on direct instruction of facts and methods, remains controversial. Some research suggests that it is more effective as a model for teaching science. "The Standards call for more than 'science as process,' in which students learn such skills as observing, inferring, and experimenting. Inquiry is central to science learning. When engaging in inquiry, students describe objects


id: science-education-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education-4.md
category: reference
title: Science education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:33.275050+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-education-20260505-0
summary:
==== Next Generation Science Standards ==== Science education curriculum in the United States is outlined by the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) which were released in April 2013. The purpose of the NGSS is to establish a standardized Kindergarten to 12th Grade science curriculum. These standards were instituted in hopes that they would reform the past science education system and foster higher student achievement through improved curriculum and teacher development. The Next Generation Science Standards are made up of three components listed as follows: disciplinary core ideas, science and engineering practices, and crosscutting concepts. These are referred to as the three dimensions of the Next Generation Science Standards. Within these standards, there is emphasis on alignment with K-12 Common Core state standards. The dimension entitled "science and engineering practices" focuses on students' learning of the scientific method. This means that this dimension centers around practicing science in a hands-on manner, giving students the opportunity to observe scientific processes, hypothesize, and observe results. This dimension highlights the empirical methods of science. The dimension entitled "crosscutting concepts" emphasizes the understanding of key themes within the field of science. The "crosscutting concepts" are themes that are consistently relevant throughout many different scientific disciplines,


id: science-education-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education-5.md
category: reference
title: Science education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:33.275050+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-education-20260505-0
summary:
Informal science education is the science teaching and learning that occurs outside of the formal school curriculum in places such as museums, the media, and community-based programs. The National Science Teachers Association has created a position statement on Informal Science Education to define and encourage science learning in many contexts and throughout the lifespan. Research in informal science education is funded in the United States by the National Science Foundation. The Center for Advancement of Informal Science Education (CAISE) provides resources for the informal science education community. Examples of informal science education include science centers, science museums, and new digital learning environments (e.g. Global Challenge Award), many of which are members of the Association of Science and Technology Centers (ASTC). The Franklin Institute in Philadelphia and the Museum of Science (Boston) are the oldest of this type of museum in the United States. Media include TV programs such as NOVA, Newton's Apple, "Bill Nye the Science Guy", "Beakman's World", The Magic School Bus, and Dragonfly TV. Early examples of science education on American television included programs by Daniel Q. Posin, such as "Dr. Posin's Universe", "The Universe Around Us", "On the Shoulders of Giants", and "Out of This World". Examples


id: advancing-secondary-science-education-thru-tetrahymena-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advancing_Secondary_Science_Education_thru_Tetrahymena-0.md
category: reference
title: Advancing Secondary Science Education thru Tetrahymena
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advancing_Secondary_Science_Education_thru_Tetrahymena
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:34.533994+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: advancing-secondary-science-education-thru-tetrahymena-20260505-0
summary:
Advancing Secondary Science Education through Tetrahymena (ASSET) is an organization at Cornell University that is dedicated to expanding the use of the protist Tetrahymena in K-12 classrooms. They are funded by the National Institutes of Health through the SEPA (Science Education Partnership Award) Program. Although their name includes the word "secondary," they have worked in recent years to develop materials for students in elementary, middle and high schools. The group develops modules, which are stand-alone labs or lessons that can be inserted into the curriculum of a class at the discretion of the teacher. == Modules == Modules are designed to be stand-alone lessons that fit into and complement a life science curriculum. The ASSET program ships all the equipment that is needed to complete the modules to the teacher in a reusable plastic container, at ASSET's expense. The teacher who requested the materials can use them for up to two weeks. At the end of the two weeks, the teacher uses a pre-paid return label to send the materials back in the same container. Some materials, such as live cells, may be sent separately to provide for a chance for the culture to be established in the teacher's classroom.


id: agricultural-communication-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_communication-0.md
category: reference
title: Agricultural communication
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_communication
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:35.765984+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: agricultural-communication-20260505-0
summary:
Agricultural communication, or agricultural communications, is a field that focuses on communication about agriculture-related information among agricultural stakeholders and between agricultural and non-agricultural stakeholders and is part of a larger field known as Agricultural Leadership, Education, and Communications typically housed in academic departments in Colleges of Agriculture with other sub-disciplines such as Agricultural Education and Agricultural Leadership. Agriculture is broadly defined in this discipline to include not only farming, but also food, fiber (e.g., cotton), animals, rural issues, and natural resources. Agricultural communication is done formally and informally by agricultural extension, agricultural education teachers, and private communicators and is considered by some to be tangentially related to science communication. However, it is its own professional field pre-dating the formal study of science communications. By definition, agricultural communicators are science communicators that deal exclusively with the diverse, applied science and business that is agriculture. An agricultural communicator is "expected to bring with him or her a level of specialized knowledge in the agricultural field that typically is not required of the mass communicator". Agricultural communication also addresses all subject areas related to the complex enterprises of food, feed, fiber, renewable energy, natural resource management, rural development and others, locally to globally.


id: ap-psychology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AP_Psychology-0.md
category: reference
title: AP Psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AP_Psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:37.046059+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ap-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
Advanced Placement (AP) Psychology (also known as AP Psych) and its corresponding exam are part of the College Board's Advanced Placement Program. This course is tailored for students interested in the field of psychology and as an opportunity to earn Advanced Placement credit or exemption from a college-level psychology course. It was the shortest AP exam until the AP Physics C exam was split into two separate exams in 2006. AP Psychology is often considered one of the easier AP exams; relative to the other tests, the material is rather straightforward and much easier to self-study. Among all the social studies Advanced Placement exams, the Psych exam had the second-highest passing rate in 2018. == Topics covered == The College Board provides a course of study to help educators prepare their students for the AP Psychology exam. The exam covers the following 5 areas. The percentage indicates the portion of the multiple-choice section of the exam focused on each content area: == Exam == The exam includes two sections: a 90-minute multiple choice section (75 questions) and a 70-minute free response section (2 prompts). The multiple choice provides two-thirds of the grade and the free-response provides the remaining third. Additionally,


id: astronomy-education-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy_education-0.md
category: reference
title: Astronomy education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:39.505175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronomy-education-20260505-0
summary:
Astronomy education or astronomy education research (AER) refers both to the methods currently used to teach the science of astronomy and to an area of discipline-based education research that seeks to improve those methods. Specifically, AER includes systematic techniques honed in science and physics education to understand what and how students learn about astronomy and determine how teachers can create more effective learning environments. Education is important to astronomy as it impacts both the recruitment of future astronomers and the appreciation of astronomy by citizens and politicians who support astronomical research. Astronomy has been taught throughout much of recorded human history, and has practical application in timekeeping and navigation. Teaching astronomy contributes to an understanding of physics and the origin of the world around us, a shared cultural background, and a sense of wonder and exploration. It includes education of the general public through planetariums, books, and instructive presentations, plus programs and tools for amateur astronomy, and University-level degree programs for professional astronomers. Astronomy organizations provide educational functions and societies in about 100 nation states around the world. In schools, particularly at the collegiate level, astronomy is aligned with physics and the two are often combined to form a Department


id: balsa-wood-bridge-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balsa_wood_bridge-0.md
category: reference
title: Balsa wood bridge
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balsa_wood_bridge
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:40.731876+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: balsa-wood-bridge-20260505-0
summary:
The building of balsa-wood bridges is often used as an educational technology. It may be accompanied by a larger project involving varying areas of study. Typically classes which would include a balsa wood bridge cover the subject areas of physics, engineering, static equilibrium, or building trades, although it may be done independently of any of these subjects. Building a balsa wood bridge can be done after completing a section or unit covering a related topic or the process of design and building can be used to guide students to a better understanding of the desired subject area. == Requirements == Although there is great variety between different balsa wood bridge projects, students are in general trying to build a bridge that can withstand the greatest weight before it fails. Other restrictions are often applied, but these vary widely from one contest to another. Sample requirements include: restricting the maximum mass of the bridge requiring a minimum span requiring a minimum height of the roadway restricting the physical dimensions of the bridge restricting the size of individual pieces of balsa wood limiting the amount of glue or balsa wood that can be used requiring a driveable roadway that allows passage of


id: biobus-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BioBus-0.md
category: reference
title: BioBus
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BioBus
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:41.910845+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biobus-20260505-0
summary:
Biobus is a novel concept in science education involving a bus that has been equipped as a self-contained, mobile laboratory used to educate K-12 students in biology basics. The bus may also be used for other audiences such as community organizations. Typically, a school or organization requests a visit, and the bus, staffed by scientists, arrives onsite so that it can involve students in participatory science experiments and presentations. The objective is to demonstrate to young people the fun of actual science, as opposed to textbook learning. The first Biobus program was created in 1999 by Georgia State University (GSU), with grant assistance from the National Science Foundation. Since its founding, the GSU Biobus has made 1,000 visits involving over 286,000 people. The concept has spread beyond Georgia, including New York City. == References == == External links == Georgia State University Biobus Archived 2008-08-28 at the Wayback Machine BioBus, Inc. (NYC) Science Edutainment Inspiring a new generation of nanoscientists (SPIE Professional) Ben Dubin-Thaler & Sarah Weisberg: The BioBus Mobile Science Lab


id: biomedical-research-center-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_Research_Center-0.md
category: reference
title: Biomedical Research Center
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_Research_Center
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:43.231716+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biomedical-research-center-20260505-0
summary:
The Biomedical Research Center (BRC) is a research center at Qatar University focusing on biomedical research. BRC was founded in 2014, and partners with the Ministry of Public Health (Qatar), and Hamad Medical Corporation (HMC). == History == The incidence of genetic disorders in Qatar is high, with the top three causes of death in the country being cancer, heart diseases, and diabetes. The government saw the creation of BRC as a strategy for proactively preventing diseases to help foster public health. BRC labs received the ISO/IEC - 17025 accreditation from the American Association for Laboratory Accreditation (A2LA). This research center focus on infectious diseases (virology and microbiology), metabolic disorders, and biomedical omics. == Research == Since its establishment in 2014, the BRC has published over 530 research papers. The centre's research projects encompass a range of areas, including: Antibiotic profiling of antibiotic-resistant microbes in humans and animals. Investigating variations in cases of type 2 diabetes. Studying COVID-19, including the Omicron variant. Conducting genetic sequencing of Qatari falcons, endangered animal species, and the dugong. Exploring nanomedicine as a means of disease prevention. == Zebrafish Research Model == BRC Introduced the use of zebrafish as an animal model in biomedical research


id: body-worlds-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds-0.md
category: reference
title: Body Worlds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:44.511816+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: body-worlds-20260505-0
summary:
Body Worlds (German title: Körperwelten) is a traveling exposition of dissected human bodies, animals, and other anatomical structures of the body that have been preserved through the process of plastination. Gunther von Hagens developed the preservation process which "unite[s] subtle anatomy and modern polymer chemistry", in the late 1970s. A series of Body Worlds anatomical exhibitions has toured many countries worldwide, sometimes raising controversies about the sourcing and display of actual human corpses and body parts. Von Hagens maintains that all human specimens were obtained with full knowledge and consent of the donors before they died, but this has not been independently verified, and in 2004 von Hagens returned seven corpses to China because they showed evidence of being executed prisoners. A competing exhibition, Bodies: The Exhibition, openly sources its bodies from "unclaimed bodies" in China, which can include executed prisoners. In addition to temporary traveling exhibitions, permanent Body Worlds exhibits exists in Berlin, Amsterdam, Heidelberg, Guben, and San Jose, CA. == Description == The exhibit states that its purpose and mission is the education of laypeople about the human body, leading to better health awareness. Each Body Worlds exhibition contains approximately 25 full-body plastinates with expanded or selective organs


id: body-worlds-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds-1.md
category: reference
title: Body Worlds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:44.511816+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: body-worlds-20260505-0
summary:
=== France === In response to the Paris exhibition of Our Body: The Universe Within, two local human rights groups filed a legal complaint against the owner of the exhibit, Gunther Von Hagens. The groups' lawyer Richard Sedillot argued that the existence of exhibits profiting from the display of human bodies creates a supply demand to produce and traffick more bodies through ethically dubious means to supply the exhibits. Potential scenarios given by the lawyer included structural violence such as neglecting medical patients or incentising an increase in death row convictions in China. Sedillot stated "I am convinced that the exhibition is the last step in a horrible traffic [sic] operation of human bodies originating in China." On Tuesday 21 April 2009, Judge Louis-Marie Raingeard ruled that exhibiting dead bodies for profit was a "violation of the respect owed to them". "Under the law, the proper place for corpses is in the cemetery". Raingeard ordered the exhibition to close within 24 hours or face a fine of €20,000 (over $26,000 USD) for each day it stayed open. The judge also ordered authorities to seize the 17 bodies on display and all of the organs on display from an unknown number


id: body-worlds-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds-2.md
category: reference
title: Body Worlds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:44.511816+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: body-worlds-20260505-0
summary:
==== Hawaii ==== In January 2009, Rep. Marcus Oshiro introduced two bills prompted by presentation of the BODIES Exhibition in that state. HB28 Relating to Dead Human Bodies would add to the prohibition against buying dead human bodies, the selling of dead human bodies and defines the term "dead human body" to include plastinated bodies and body parts. It would increase the fine for buying or selling a dead human body to up to $5,000. HB29 Relating to Dead Human Bodies would prohibit the commercial display of dead human bodies without a permit from the Department of Health. ==== New York ==== In June 2008, New York State Senate passed legislation regulating body exhibits. A bill that was sponsored by Senator Jim Alesi requires anyone showing an exhibit that uses real human bodies in New York museums to produce a permit detailing their origin. BODY WORLDS was hosted at Discovery Times Square in New York City. ==== Pennsylvania ==== Representative Mike Fleck's proposed bill would require evidence of informed consent from the decedent or relatives of all humans whose remains are put on display. BODY WORLDS exhibitions have been hosted in Philadelphia at the Franklin Institute and in Allentown at


id: body-worlds-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds-3.md
category: reference
title: Body Worlds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:44.511816+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: body-worlds-20260505-0
summary:
=== Religious objections === Religious groups, including some rabbis have objected to the display of human remains, stating that it is inconsistent with reverence towards the human body. A group of Catholic Christians voiced their opinions towards the Body Worlds exhibition in a reflection paper written by the Archdiocese of Milwaukee. This was in response to the arrival of the Body Worlds Exhibition in the Milwaukee Public Museum in 2014. The group were largely in favour of the exhibition due to its educational goals. But, the paper also discussed fears surrounding whether the exhibit's educational aims were secondary to the experience of voyeurism. There were also concerns over the display of plastinated fetuses, due to beliefs surrounding abortion. === Sex plastinate === In 2003, while promoting a display in the Hamburg Museum of Erotica, von Hagens announced his intention to create a sex plastinate. In May 2009 he unveiled a plastinate of a couple having sex, intended for a Berlin exhibition. === Lessening donor organ availability === In 2007, the Bishop of Manchester launched a campaign to coincide with the opening of Body Worlds in that city, accusing the exhibitors of being "body snatchers" and "robbing the NHS", arguing that


id: body-worlds-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds-4.md
category: reference
title: Body Worlds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:44.511816+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: body-worlds-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == Gottfried Bogusch, Renate Graf, Thomas Schnalke. Auf Leben und Tod Beiträge zur Diskussion um die Ausstellung "Körperwelten", Schriften aus dem Berliner Medizinhistorischen Museum, 2003, VII, 136 S. 62 Abb., Softcover ISBN 978-3798514249. Burns, Lawrence (2007). "Gunther Von Hagens' Body Worlds: Selling Beautiful Education". The American Journal of Bioethics. 7 (4): 12–23. doi:10.1080/15265160701220659. PMID 17454986. S2CID 31456090. Archived from the original on 9 December 2008. Liselotte Hermes da Fonseca: Wissenschaftliche Transzendenz der Körperwelten. Aufhebung der "Beschränkung von Freiheit" durch Leben, Tod und Körper. In: Wolf Gerhard Schmidt (Hg.): Körperbilder in Kunst und Wissenschaft Würzburg 2014, S. 107–138. Liselotte Hermes da Fonseca: "Ich will in meinem Knochenleben endlich zufrieden und glücklich sein": Eschatologie der Körperwelten. In: Dominik Groß, Brigitte Tag und Christoph Schweikardt (Hg.): Who wants to live forever? Frankfurt, New York 2011, S. 197–218. Liselotte Hermes da Fonseca: La plastination, une technique d'incarnation des espoirs scientifiques. In : Annette Leibing et Virginie Tournay (Hg.): Les technologies de l'espoir: La fabrique d'une histoire à accomplir. PUL-Presses de l'Université Laval, 2010. Liselotte Hermes da Fonseca. Wachsfigur – Mensch – Plastinat. Über die Mitteilbarkeit von Sehen, Nennen und Wissen, Deutsche Vierteljahrsschrift für Literaturwissenschaft und Geistesgeschichte (1999), Heft 1. Liselotte Hermes


id: bruce-alberts-award-for-excellence-in-science-education-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Alberts_Award_for_Excellence_in_Science_Education-0.md
category: reference
title: Bruce Alberts Award for Excellence in Science Education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Alberts_Award_for_Excellence_in_Science_Education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:45.722029+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bruce-alberts-award-for-excellence-in-science-education-20260505-0
summary:
The Bruce Alberts Award for Excellence in Science Education is awarded annually by the American Society for Cell Biology. It is awarded to an individual who has demonstrated innovative and sustained contributions to science education, with particular emphasis on the broad local, regional, and/or national impact. == Awardees == 2020 Steven Farber 2020 Jamie Shuda 2019 Mary Pat Wenderoth 2018 Erin Dolan 2017 Kimberly Tanner 2016 David Lopatto 2015 Deborah Harmon Hines 2014 Edison Fowlks 2013 Deborah Allen 2012 L.C. (Cam) Cameron 2011 Peter Bruns 2010 BioQUEST Curriculum Consortium 2009 Manuel Berriozábal and Toby Horn 2008 Wm. David Burns and Karen K. Oates 2007 Patricia J. Pukkila 2006 A. Malcolm Campbell and Sarah C.R. Elgin 2005 Samuel Silverstein 2004 William Wood 2003 Nancy Hutchison 2002 Sandra Mayrand 2001 David Bynum 2000 Virginia Shepherd 1999 Eugenie Scott 1998 Robert DeHaan == References ==


id: canadian-bioinformatics-workshops-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Bioinformatics_Workshops-0.md
category: reference
title: Canadian Bioinformatics Workshops
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Bioinformatics_Workshops
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:46.973813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: canadian-bioinformatics-workshops-20260505-0
summary:
Canadian Bioinformatics Workshops (CBW) are a series of advanced training workshops in bioinformatics offered across Canada since 1999. The program was established in response to a growing need for bioinformatics expertise in the Canadian life sciences sector, identified in policy and workforce reports on biotechnology and computational biology in Canada. The workshops provide intensive short courses combining lectures with hands-on computational training using biological datasets and have trained researchers and students across Canada. == Founding and early workshops in British Columbia (1999–2007) == The Canadian Bioinformatics Workshops series began offering one- and two-week short courses in bioinformatics, genomics and proteomics in 1999, in response to an identified need for a skilled bioinformatics workforce in Canada. In partnership with the Canadian Genetics Diseases Network and Human Resources Development Canada, and under the scientific direction of Director, Francis Ouellette, the CBW series was established. For eight years, the series offered short courses in bioinformatics, genomics and proteomics in various cities across Canada. The courses were taught by top faculty from Canada and the US, and offered small classes and hands-on instruction. == Expansion at the Ontario Institute for Cancer Research (2007–2018) == In 2007, the Canadian Bioinformatics Workshops moved to Toronto and


id: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation-0.md
category: reference
title: Carnot engine explanation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:49.586168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-0
summary:
In 1824 the French military engineer Sadi Carnot laid the foundations of the science of thermodynamics by describing the unsurpassably efficient Carnot engine. His insight has been described as "real genius" and compared to Einstein's, Newton's and Galileo's. Carnot wrote in clear and popular language and meant his theory to be easy to understand. Yet it has been found that, as taught in many academic courses, students have difficulty intuiting his ideas. This article is an introduction for non-specialists. The efficiency of the ideal, or Carnot, engine is surprisingly low. That of real heat engines is worse. == Significance == === Importance === Carnot's innovation has been described as "real genius" and "one of the greatest intellectual achievements of the human mind". For Nobel laureate Richard FeynmanThe science of thermodynamics began with an analysis, by the great engineer Sadi Carnot, of the problem of how to build the best and most efficient engine. In particular it led to the discovery of the Second Law, of which it has been claimed that "Not knowing the Second Law of Thermodynamics is equivalent to never having read a work by Shakespeare". === Clarity === Sadi Carnot died young and published only one work:


id: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation-1.md
category: reference
title: Carnot engine explanation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:49.586168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-0
summary:
== Preliminary outline == Carnot grasped that: all heat engines work by conveying heat from a hotter to a cooler place a heat engine may work in reverse, when it becomes a heat pump the ideally efficient engine would be 100% reversible and it is impossible to have an engine more efficient than that its working substance (steam, air or other fluid) is not critical; on the contrary, the ideal reversible engine's efficiency is limited by its input and output temperatures, and nothing else. He also found the cycle by which the 100% reversible engine could work. It serves as the ideal or benchmark against which all feasible heat engines can be compared. == His reasoning == For Edwin Thompson Jaynes Carnot's reasoning is outstandingly beautiful, because it deduces so much from so little — and with such a sweeping generality that rises above all tedious details — but at the same time with such a compelling logical force. In this respect, I think that Carnot's principle ranks with Einstein's principle of relativity. For historian of science D. S. L. Cardwell, "Nothing unnecessary is included and nothing essential is missed out. It is, in fact, very difficult to think of


id: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation-2.md
category: reference
title: Carnot engine explanation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:49.586168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-0
summary:
The Carnot engine is not one anyone would attempt to build. Its point is that it represents the ideal or extreme limit which cannot be surpassed even in theory. It is a benchmark against which all real engines can be compared. For example, solar cells are heat engines, and "Carnot efficiency appears profusely in the numerous formulae that have been suggested for solar energy conversion". For Carnot, a completely reversible engine has this property. Run forwards as a motor, one cycle can lift a weight a certain distance [generate a certain amount of work] while transferring a certain amount of heat from the hot place to the cool place. Run backwards as a refrigerator, one cycle will exactly restore the original conditions. All real engines fall short of this ideal standard, since along the way they lose a fraction of the heat. The proof is as follows. Suppose there was such a thing as a 'super' engine: one even more efficient than a Carnot engine. Then we could use it to drive a Carnot engine backwards. The Carnot engine would restore the heat from cold to hot place. In effect, the imaginary super engine would be delivering a margin of


id: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation-3.md
category: reference
title: Carnot engine explanation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:49.586168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-0
summary:
For most scientists of Carnot's time the best explanation of heat was the caloric theory. It held that heat is a material fluid that can flow from one place to another: its temperature may vary, but it can never itself be destroyed nor created. The caloric theory was highly developed, mathematically sophisticated, and plausible. The alternative theory, that heat consists in the agitation of a substance's particles — in modern terms, energy — was well known, but did not command much support, mainly for lack of convincing experimental evidence. For historian of science Thomas Kuhn, "To analyze the gas engine Carnot required a developed theory of heat, and in the 1820's the caloric theory was the only one at hand". Several authors have speculated that without the caloric theory and his waterfall analogy Carnot would not have been led to his discovery. Pursuant to this core idea, Carnot taught that all heat entering his engine from the hot source must fall out into the cold sink. But according to new ideas — that were dawning on Carnot himself, and came to be adopted overwhelmingly — this is false. Some of the heat will be consumed on the way: by the


id: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation-4.md
category: reference
title: Carnot engine explanation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:49.586168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-0
summary:
The Carnot cycle as published cannot work since it is wrongly assumed that as much heat should be expelled to the cold sink as came in from the hot source. That is too much: not enough will be left in the engine to complete the cycle. A simple way to correct the mistake was described by James Clerk Maxwell in his Theory of Heat (1871). This was a book meant for "artisans and students" but Maxwell "did not hesitate to include discussions of the latest work in thermodynamics". By that date French engineer Gustave-Adolphe Hirn had confirmed by experiment that, whenever an engine performs mechanical work, less heat emerges from it than goes in. The missing heat is changing into work. But it was easy to see that the quantities (heat in vs. heat out) could not have been equal, said Maxwell. For, supposing they were, how could we explain that the engine, by doing work, can produce yet more heat — e.g. by stirring a liquid to raise its temperature? In that case the engine must somehow be producing more heat than it consumes, contrary to the doctrine that caloric cannot be created. To fix the Carnot cycle, therefore,


id: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation-5.md
category: reference
title: Carnot engine explanation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:49.586168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-0
summary:
Another way to think about entropy is as a measurement of the availability of useful energy in a system. While energy cannot be created or destroyed, as the approaches equilibrium the energy of that system becomes less available for use. The concept entropy, though important in thermodynamics, is not necessary for an intuitive understanding of Carnot's theory. There are many formulations of the Second Law that do not mention entropy at all, including the original Clausius and Thomson versions. == Efficiency == It is sometimes stated that Carnot gave the formula for the efficiency of his engine. He could not have done, since his theory did not embrace the First Law of Thermodynamics, not then known. Carnot himself was able to state that it depended on the temperature difference between the hot source and cold sink, and the temperature of the cold sink.. But he did not give the explicit formula. The efficiency even of the ideal or Carnot engine turns out to be surprisingly poor, and therefore, that of real engines is even worse. It has been said that the Second Law of Thermodynamics imposes an "energy tax", payable to Nature, every time heat is converted to work. ===


id: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation-6.md
category: reference
title: Carnot engine explanation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:49.586168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-0
summary:
== Sources == Andrade, E.N. da C (1928). Engines. London: G. Bell. Barnett, Martin K. (1958). "Sadi Carnot and the Second Law of Thermodynamics". Osiris. 13: 327–357. doi:10.1086/368620. JSTOR 301653. Ben-Naim, Arieh (2019). "Entropy and Information Theory: Uses and Misuses". Entropy. 21 (12): 1170. Bibcode:2019Entrp..21.1170B. doi:10.3390/e21121170. PMC 7514515. Ben-Naim, Arieh (2020). "Entropy and time". Entropy. 22 (4): 430.1=430–18. Bibcode:2020Entrp..22..430B. doi:10.3390/e22040430. PMC 7516914. PMID 33286203. Brundage, Mary Jane; Meltzer, David E.; Singh, Chandraleka (2024). "Investigating introductory and advanced students' difficulties with entropy and the second law of thermodynamics using a validated instrument". Physical Review Physics Education Research. 20 (2) 020110. arXiv:2408.00944. Bibcode:2024PRPER..20b0110B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevPhysEducRes.20.020110. Retrieved 24 April 2026. Bryant, Lynwood (1973). "The Role of Thermodynamics in the Evolution of Heat Engines". Technology and Culture. 14 (2, Part 1): 152–165. doi:10.2307/3102399. JSTOR 3102399. Callendar, H.L. (1912). "The Nature of Heat" (PDF). Science. 36 (924): 321–336. Bibcode:1912Sci....36..321C. doi:10.1126/science.36.924.321. JSTOR 1638548. PMID 17734287. Retrieved 28 March 2026. Čápek, Vladislav; Sheehan, Daniel P. (2005). Challenges to the Second Law of Thermodynamics: Theory and Experiment (PDF). Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. ISBN 1-4020-3016-9. Retrieved 23 April 2026. Cardwell, D.S.L (1965). "Power Technologies and the Advance of Science, 1700-1825". Technology and Culture. 6 (2): 188–207. doi:10.2307/3101073. JSTOR 3101073. Cardwell, D.S.L.


id: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation-7.md
category: reference
title: Carnot engine explanation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnot_engine_explanation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:49.586168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carnot-engine-explanation-20260505-0
summary:
Markvart, Tom (2016). "From steam engine to solar cells: can thermodynamics guide the development of future generations of photovoltaics?". WIREs Energy and Environment. 5 (5): 543–569. Bibcode:2016WIREE...5..543M. doi:10.1002/wene.204. Maxwell, J. Clerk (1871). Theory of Heat (1 ed.). London: Longmans Green. Retrieved 30 March 2026. Mendoza, E. (1961). "A sketch for a history of early thermodynamics" (PDF). Physics Today. 14 (2): 32–42. Bibcode:1961PhT....14b..32M. doi:10.1063/1.3057388. Retrieved 15 March 2026. Meyn, Jan-Peter (2024). "A Contemporary View on Carnot's Réflexions". Entropy. 26 (12: 1002): 1002. Bibcode:2024Entrp..26.1002M. doi:10.3390/e26121002. PMC 11675156. PMID 39766632. Norton, John D. (2022). "How analogy helped create the new science of thermodynamics". Synthese. 200 (4) 269: 1–42. doi:10.1007/s11229-022-03708-9. JSTOR 27324886. Nuvolari, Alessandro; Verspagen, Bart (2005). ""Unravelling the duty": Lean's Engine Reporter and Cornish Steam Engineering". Eindhoven Centre for Innovation Studies Working Paper Series. 200514. Retrieved 4 December 2025. Nuvolari, Alessandro (2010). "The theory and practice of steam engineering in Britain and France, 1800-1850". Documents pour l'histoire des techniques [En ligne]. 19: 189–197. doi:10.4000/dht.1439. hdl:11382/305525. Retrieved 5 December 2025. Ortner, Susan (2023). "A review of structural material requirements and choices for nuclear power plant". Frontiers in Nuclear Engineering. 2 (1253974) 1253974: 1–11. doi:10.3389/fnuen.2023.1253974. Perrin, C.E. (1973). "Lavoisier's Table of the Elements: A Reappraisal".


id: center-for-advanced-materials-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_for_Advanced_Materials-0.md
category: reference
title: Center for Advanced Materials
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_for_Advanced_Materials
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:50.847690+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: center-for-advanced-materials-20260505-0
summary:
The Center for Advanced Materials (CAM) is a research center at Qatar University that hosts faculty members and researchers involved in advanced materials research. It provides the opportunities for collaborative research projects between academic and industry experts, as well between faculty members and students. The Center for Advanced Materials works under Qatar University's Office of Vice President for Research and Graduate Studies. CAM's research clusters are broadly grouped into the following areas: Metallurgy, Sustainable Materials, Corrosion, Polymer Materials and Renewable Energy Resources. In 2022, the UNESCO established a Chair on desalination at Qatar University and hosted in CAM to study water security in the Gulf region and to adapt to drought due to climate changes; The Chair contributes to capacity development to meet the UN SDG6. == References == == External links == Qatar University Qatar University Newsroom Center for Advanced Materials WISE Initiative


id: clubes-de-ciencia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clubes_de_Ciencia-0.md
category: reference
title: Clubes de Ciencia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clubes_de_Ciencia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:52.036098+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: clubes-de-ciencia-20260505-0
summary:
Clubes de Ciencia is a non-profit organization founded in 2014 that organizes hands-on week-long workshops in STEM to kids in developing countries at no cost. The instructors are PhD volunteers from top universities, such as Harvard, Princeton, MIT who organizes the workshops. By combining hands-on experimental learning, on-line exercises and mentorship, Clubes de Ciencia takes a unique approach to educating the millennials in developing countries. In two years, Clubes de Ciencia grew past its Mexico program, to also work in Colombia and Bolivia. Currently, it also operates in Brazil, Paraguay, Peru and Spain. == 2014 == The first edition of Science Clubs was organized in Guanajuato, Mexico, in January 2014, with the support of Universidad de Guanajuato. == 2017 == In 2017, Science Clubs expanded to three new countries: Paraguay, Peru and Brazil [1] The first edition of the Brazilian Chapter (Clubes de Ciência Brasil) was held at Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, in Belo Horizonte, in July 2017. Four clubs in the areas of epidemiology, stem cells and gene editing, immunology and entrepreneurship were organized by researchers from top Universities from the US and Brazil, including Harvard, Northeastern and UFMG for 80 students from six different states of the


id: college-of-science-university-of-baghdad-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_of_Science_–_University_of_Baghdad-0.md
category: reference
title: College of Science – University of Baghdad
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_of_Science_–_University_of_Baghdad
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:53.221475+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: college-of-science-university-of-baghdad-20260505-0
summary:
The College of Science is one of the Colleges of the University of Baghdad in Baghdad, Iraq. It was the first scientific college established in Iraq. The main academic activities held in this college vary between pure and applied science. Beside its eight departments, the college also holds two research units. Being one of the earliest academic institutes formed in the Republic of Iraq, the College of Science establishment date marks the Day of Science in Iraq. The college was established on March 27, 1949, with the name of (The College of Arts and Science). The college was established with five scientific departments, namely: (Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics, Pathology and Anatomy). The Pathology and Anatomy departments were later joined together to form the (Department of Biology). Beside these, another four departments were added during the next fifty years, these are: Department of Geology (1953), Department of Computer Science (1983), Department of Astronomy (1998) and Department of Biotechnology (1999). The eight departments cover a wide range of branches of pure and applied sciences, which attracts many students as well as scientific researchers each year. Therefore, this college is considered as the largest scientific academic institute in the Republic of Iraq. == Departments


id: concept-inventory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept_inventory-0.md
category: reference
title: Concept inventory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept_inventory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:54.449863+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: concept-inventory-20260505-0
summary:
A concept inventory is a criterion-referenced test designed to help determine whether a student has an accurate working knowledge of a specific set of concepts. Historically, concept inventories have been in the form of multiple-choice tests in order to aid interpretability and facilitate administration in large classes. Unlike a typical, teacher-authored multiple-choice test, questions and response choices on concept inventories are the subject of extensive research. The aims of the research include ascertaining (a) the range of what individuals think a particular question is asking and (b) the most common responses to the questions. Concept inventories are evaluated to ensure test reliability and validity. In its final form, each question includes one correct answer and several distractors. Ideally, a score on a criterion-referenced test reflects the degrees of proficiency of the test taker with one or more KSAs (knowledge, skills and/abilities), and may report results with one unidimensional score and/or multiple sub-scores. Criterion-referenced tests differ from norm-referenced tests in that (in theory) the former report level of proficiency relative pre-determined level and the latter reports relative standing to other test takers. Criterion-referenced tests may be used to determine whether a student reached predetermined levels of proficiency (i.e., scoring above some


id: conceptual-question-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conceptual_question-0.md
category: reference
title: Conceptual question
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conceptual_question
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:55:55.784093+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conceptual-question-20260505-0
summary:
Conceptual questions or conceptual problems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education are questions that can be answered based only on the knowledge of relevant concepts, rather than performing extensive calculations. They contrast with most homework and exam problems in science and engineering that typically require plugging in numerical values into previously discussed formulas. Such "plug-and-chug" numerical problems can often be solved correctly by just matching the pattern of the problem to a previously discussed problem and changing the numerical inputs, which requires significant amounts of time to perform the calculations but does not test or deepen the understanding of how the concepts and formulas should work together. Conceptual questions, therefore, provide a good complement to conventional numerical problems because they need minimal or no calculations and instead encourage the students to engage more deeply with the underlying concepts and how they relate to formulas. Conceptual problems are often formulated as multiple-choice questions, making them easy to use during in-class discussions, particularly when utilizing active learning, peer instruction, and audience response. An example of a conceptual question in undergraduate thermodynamics is provided below: During adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas, its temperature increases decreases stays the same Impossible to


