# kb

id: our-homeland-movement-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Our_Homeland_Movement-1.md
category: reference
title: Our Homeland Movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Our_Homeland_Movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:46.285774+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: our-homeland-movement-20260505-0
summary:
=== Social issues === The party strongly opposes LGBT rights. After the release of a children's book, Meseország mindenkié, which features LGBT members and ethnic minorities as characters, Dúró referred to the book as "homosexual propaganda" during a press conference and promptly ripped pages out of the book and then shredded them. The move caused significant controversy and garnered international attention. The party has called for a ban on LGBT pride marches. Eventually, the Fidesz government banned pride marches in the country in 2024, resulting in the largest pride march in the country's history. === Environment === In an interview with Mandiner, Toroczkai described Our Homeland Movement as "a unique green party in Europe", and thus the party is sometimes referred to as supporting some form of green conservatism. Toroczkai further said that "we are unwilling to accept that only anti-social and anti-human liberal parties can be green parties. We think that those who do not want to protect our environment, our forests, our beautiful Great Plain, Lake Balaton, our rivers cannot really love their homeland." === Health === Amidst the COVID-19 pandemic in Hungary, the party protested against lockdown measures set in place by the government, accusing them of


id: party-of-young-people-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Party_of_Young_People-0.md
category: reference
title: Party of Young People
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Party_of_Young_People
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:47.485935+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: party-of-young-people-20260505-0
summary:
The Party of Young People (Romanian: Partidul Oamenilor Tineri; POT, lit. '[I] can/ [They] can') is a political party in Romania, founded by MP Anamaria Gavrilă, who had previously left the Alliance for the Union of Romanians (AUR). POT supported the candidacy of independent Călin Georgescu in the 2024 presidential election, even before Georgescu appeared in opinion polls. == History == The Party of Young People was founded by Anamaria Gavrilă on 31 July 2023. === 2024 elections === In the 2024 local elections, the party won 11 local councillor mandates. The party did not participate in the 2024 European Parliament election. For the 2024 parliamentary election, the party has nominated over 140 candidates from various professions (entrepreneurs, lawyers, drivers, sales specialists, engineers), including many candidates from the diaspora. === Support for Georgescu's candidacy === The Party of Young People attempted to register Anamaria Gavrilă's candidacy for the 2024 presidential election, but later gave up and chose to support Călin Georgescu following an internal poll. The party strongly associates itself with Georgescu and calls on Georgescu voters to vote for it in the parliamentary elections. Party of Young People campaigns heavily on social media, such as TikTok, Instagram and Telegram


id: patriotic-front-bulgaria-2014-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriotic_Front_(Bulgaria,_2014)-0.md
category: reference
title: Patriotic Front (Bulgaria, 2014)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriotic_Front_(Bulgaria,_2014)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:48.682823+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patriotic-front-bulgaria-2014-20260505-0
summary:
Patriotic Front (Bulgarian: Патриотичен фронт) was a nationalist electoral alliance in Bulgaria between political parties VMRO and NFSB. == History == VMRO ran as part of an electoral alliance led by the political party Bulgaria Without Censorship (BWC) during the 2014 European parliamentary election, where both allied parties won a seat in the European Parliament. The signing of the coalition agreement between VMRO and NFSB marked the end of the BWC-VMRO coalition. The coalition agreement forming Patriotic Front was signed on 3 August 2014 and stated its goals to be "a revival of the Bulgarian economy, a fight against monopolies, achieving modern education and healthcare and a fair and uncorrupt judiciary." The members of the alliance included PROUD, National Ideal for Unity, Middle European Class, Association Patriot, Undivided Bulgaria, National Movement BG Patriot, Union of the Patriotic Forces "Defense", Revival of the Fatherland, National Association of Alternate Soldiery "For the Honor of epaulette", National Movement for the Salvation of the Fatherland and National Democratic Party. In 2016, the Patriotic Front successfully lobbied for a ban on the Burqa. == Elections == The coalition's electoral debut took place in the 2014 parliamentary election. === Statistics === == See also == Attack


id: patriotic-front-bulgaria-2021-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriotic_Front_(Bulgaria,_2021)-0.md
category: reference
title: Patriotic Front (Bulgaria, 2021)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriotic_Front_(Bulgaria,_2021)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:49.815132+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patriotic-front-bulgaria-2021-20260505-0
summary:
The Patriotic Front (Bulgarian: Патриотичен фронт; PF) is a Bulgarian nationalist coalition participating in the November 2021 Bulgarian parliamentary election. The coalition includes NFSB, Entire Bulgaria and BDSR. At the same time, the coalition does not include VMRO and Volya, which was in several coalitions before this one: Patriotic Front (2014), United Patriots, and Bulgarian Patriots. == Electoral history == === Parliamentary === === Presidential === == See also == Patriotic Front (2014-2017) United Patriots (2016-2021) Bulgarian Patriots (May–August 2021) == References ==


id: people-s-party-united-states-2017-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People's_Party_(United_States,_2017)-0.md
category: reference
title: People's Party (United States, 2017)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People's_Party_(United_States,_2017)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:51.021207+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: people-s-party-united-states-2017-20260505-0
summary:
The People's Party (formerly the Movement for a People's Party, MPP) is a syncretic political organization in the United States which describes itself as having the goal of "forming a major new political party free of corporate money and influence." Initially a progressive political organization, Nick Brana formed the party after the 2016 presidential election as a successor to the "Draft Bernie for a People's Party" group. Bernie Sanders declined to be the People's Party's figurehead, instead, seeking the presidential nomination in the 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries. In 2023, Brana joined the Robert F. Kennedy Jr. 2024 presidential campaign. == History == In 2017, Nick Brana founded the Movement for a People's Party (MPP) out of the "Draft Bernie for a People's Party" group, which had failed to gain Bernie Sanders's support. Brana had worked on Sanders's 2016 presidential campaign as the National Political Outreach Coordinator. In September 2017, the group gave an invitation with 50,000 signatures to Sanders to lead the creation of the People's Party, which Sanders ignored. In August 2020, the organization held a virtual People's Convention that was viewed by 400,000 people on various platforms. Speakers included former Democratic Party 2020 presidential election candidate Marianne


id: qanon-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon-0.md
category: reference
title: QAnon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:52.850136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qanon-20260505-0
summary:
QAnon is a far-right American political conspiracy theory and political movement that originated in 2017. QAnon centers on fabricated claims made by an anonymous individual or individuals known as "Q Clearance Patriot", more commonly known as "Q". Q's claims have been relayed and developed by online communities and influencers. Their core belief is that a cabal of Satanic, cannibalistic child molesters in league with the deep state is operating a global child sex trafficking ring and that Donald Trump is secretly leading the fight against them. QAnon has direct roots in Pizzagate, another conspiracy theory that appeared on the Internet one year earlier, but also incorporates elements of many different conspiracy theories and unifies them into a larger interconnected theory. QAnon has been described as a cult. During the first presidency of Donald Trump, QAnon followers believed the administration would conduct arrests and executions of thousands of members of the cabal on a day known as "the Storm" or "the Event". QAnon conspiracy believers have named Democratic politicians, Hollywood actors, high-ranking government officials, business tycoons, and medical experts as members of the cabal of pedophiles. QAnon is described as antisemitic or rooted in antisemitic tropes, due to its fixation on


id: qanon-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon-1.md
category: reference
title: QAnon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:52.850136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qanon-20260505-0
summary:
=== Previous "anons" === In its most basic sense, an "anon" is an anonymous or pseudonymous Internet poster. The concept of anons "doing research" and claiming to disclose otherwise classified information, while a key component of the QAnon conspiracy theory, is not exclusive to it. Q was preceded by so-called anons who also claimed to have special government access. On July 2, 2016, the anonymous poster "FBIAnon", a self-described "high-level analyst and strategist" who claimed to have "intimate knowledge of the inner workings of the Clinton case", began posting false information about the 2016 investigation into the Clinton Foundation and claimed that Hillary Clinton would be imprisoned if Trump became president. Around that time, "HLIAnon", standing for "High-Level Insider Anon", hosted long question-and-answer sessions, dispensing various conspiracy theories, including that Princess Diana was murdered after trying to stop the September 11 attacks. Soon after the 2016 United States elections, two anonymous posters, "CIAAnon" and "CIAIntern", falsely claimed to be high-ranking Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) officers, and in late August 2017, "WHInsiderAnon" offered a supposed preview that something was "going to go down" regarding leaks that would affect the Democratic Party. == Origin and spread == A 4chan user named "Q


id: qanon-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon-2.md
category: reference
title: QAnon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:52.850136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qanon-20260505-0
summary:
QAnon first received attention from the mainstream press in November 2017. Newsweek called it "Pizzagate on steroids". Gossip columnist Liz Crokin, a Pizzagate follower, was one of the first public figures to embrace QAnon. She went on to become one of the movement's most prominent influencers. Fox News personality Sean Hannity and comedian Roseanne Barr spread the news about it to their social media followers in early 2018, and the conspiracy theory gained traction on the mainstream right. At this time, InfoWars host and far-right conspiracy theorist Alex Jones claimed to be in personal contact with Q. This led to the presence of QAnon followers at a July 2018 Trump rally for the midterm elections in Tampa, Florida, the first visible presence of the QAnon movement at Trump rallies. Some Christian pastors introduced their congregations to QAnon ideas. The Indiana-based Omega Kingdom Ministry tried to combine QAnon and Christianity, with Q posts and Bible quotes both read during church services. Some Christians, such as pastor Derek Kubilus, call QAnon heresy, but most U.S. pastors have not taken a stand against it. More generally, QAnon's rise coincided with increasing radicalization and violent episodes in American far-right movements. QAnon-related merchandise was widely


id: qanon-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon-3.md
category: reference
title: QAnon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:52.850136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qanon-20260505-0
summary:
=== International following === Marc-André Argentino, a researcher of the movement, noted in August 2020 that QAnon-dedicated Facebook pages existed in 71 countries worldwide. In January 2021, researcher Joel Finkelstein told The Washington Post that the German and Japanese QAnon movements were "strong and growing", though according to a later New York Times report, the Japanese version (also known as "JAnon" [Japanese: Jアノン]) remains a fringe belief even among conspiracy theorists. Three pro-QAnon groups in Japan are known to exist as of 2022: J-Anon, QArmyJapanFlynn and YamatoQ. In April 2022, the Tokyo Metropolitan Police arrested several members of YamatoQ for breaking into a health clinic which provided COVID-19 vaccinations. Between March and June 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, QAnon activity nearly tripled on Facebook and nearly doubled on Instagram and Twitter. By that time, QAnon had spread to Europe, from the Netherlands to the Balkan Peninsula. In Germany, far-right activists and influencers have created a German audience for QAnon on YouTube, Facebook, and Telegram, estimated at 200,000 in 2020. German Reichsbürger groups adopted QAnon to promote its belief that modern Germany is not a sovereign republic but rather a corporation created by Allied nations after World War II, and expressed


id: qanon-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon-4.md
category: reference
title: QAnon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:52.850136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qanon-20260505-0
summary:
Q made thousands of posts on 4chan and 8chan/8kun. These "drops" were often allusive, cryptic, and impossible to verify; some included strings of characters that are allegedly coded messages. Q used a conspiratorial tone, with phrases like "I've said too much" or "Some things must remain classified to the very end". To sustain faith in a final victory over the "cabal", Q used recurring phrases such as "Trust the plan", "Enjoy the show", and "Nothing can stop what is coming". Q's messages typically claimed that everything was going as planned, that Trump was in control, and that all his adversaries would end up in prison. Q also encouraged followers to do their own research by telling them to "Follow the White Rabbit". QAnon followers used the "White Rabbit" reference both as a hashtag and as the name of a Facebook group that had around 90,000 members in 2020. Many early posts advanced claims about "deep state" collusion with foreign powers. In 2018, Q mentioned geopolitical conspiracies such as the Obama administration having planned to send technology to Iran and North Korea. Later, Q found new targets such as Planned Parenthood, which they accused of harvesting fetuses for profit, or Ruth


id: qanon-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon-5.md
category: reference
title: QAnon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:52.850136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qanon-20260505-0
summary:
Joe Biden's inauguration on January 20, 2021, would be an elaborate trap set for the Democrats, who would be arrested en masse and executed while Trump retained power. Trump would be inaugurated on March 4, 2021, as the 19th president. Trump would be inaugurated again on March 20, 2021. After this did not happen, QAnon adherents predicted it would happen on August 13, 2021. The Arizona audit would prove election fraud, handing the state to Trump, and other states would follow suit in a "domino effect", resulting in Trump being reinstated as president. The 2021 California gubernatorial recall election result would be proven fraudulent, which would catalyze a national fraud audit, resulting in Trump returning to power. John F. Kennedy (the 35th president of the United States, who was assassinated in 1963) or his son John F. Kennedy Jr. (who died in a plane crash in 1999) would appear alive in front of a crowd in Dallas on November 2, 2021, and announce Trump's reinstatement as president and the installation of Kennedy Jr. as vice president. === Child sex trafficking and satanic sacrifice === QAnon effectively merged with Pizzagate by incorporating its beliefs – namely that children are being abducted


id: qanon-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon-6.md
category: reference
title: QAnon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:52.850136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qanon-20260505-0
summary:
Due to the overlap between the two movements, some QAnon followers have joined the sovereign citizens, a loose grouping of vexatious litigants and tax protesters whose set of pseudolegal beliefs implies that most laws and taxes are illegitimate and can be safely ignored if one uses the correct procedures. In 2022, the Anti-Defamation League reported that sovereign citizen ideology was attracting a growing number of QAnon adherents, as their belief in the Biden administration's illegitimacy meshed well with sovereign citizens' broader anti-government views. In 2018, Q said that "vaccines [not all]" were part of the Big Pharma conspiracy. Later on, as anxiety and isolation linked to the COVID-19 pandemic fostered a rise of conspiracy theories and anti-vaccine discourse, many in the movement used the pandemic to promote QAnon. Very little of this was directed by Q posts, and Q did not mention the pandemic until March 23, 2020 (when they called COVID-19 the "China virus"), not using the name "COVID-19" until April 8. But influencers in the QAnon community were openly anti-mask and anti-vaccine, and helped spread denialism as well as other misinformation about the pandemic. QAnon conspiracy theorists touted drinking an industrial bleach (known as MMS, or Miracle Mineral


id: qanon-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon-7.md
category: reference
title: QAnon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:52.850136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qanon-20260505-0
summary:
==== Multiple people ==== By 2020, it became accepted among researchers that the pseudonymous entity known as Q has been controlled by multiple people in cooperation. A stylometric analysis has suggested that two people likely wrote Q's posts, and that their "distinct signatures clearly correspond to separate periods in time and different online forums". An analysis of metadata of images posted by Q found that they were likely posted by someone in the Pacific Time Zone. By design, anonymous imageboards such as 4chan and 8chan obscure their posters' identities. Those who wish to prove a consistent identity between posts while remaining anonymous can use a tripcode, which associates a post with a unique digital signature for any poster who knows the password. There have been thousands of posts associated with a Q tripcode. The tripcode associated with Q has changed several times, creating uncertainty about the poster's continuous identity. Passwords on 8chan are also easy to crack, and the Q tripcode has been repeatedly compromised and used by people pretending to be Q. When 8chan returned as 8kun in November 2019 after several months of downtime, the Q posting on 8kun posted photos of a pen and notebook that had


id: qanon-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon-8.md
category: reference
title: QAnon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:52.850136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qanon-20260505-0
summary:
The spread of QAnon has been accompanied by a series of slogans, catchphrases, buzzwords and hashtags that helped boost its popularity and online presence. Terms like the cabal or the Storm, and Q's recurring phrases like "Trust the plan" or "Enjoy the show" are among the most popular. Q's "drops" are also known as "crumbs" (Q has used the term) or "breadcrumbs". In turn, followers of the conspiracy who analyze these posts have called themselves "bakers" who assemble the "crumbs" to make "dough", or "bread", as they weave the clues into a better understanding of the narrative. One early rallying cry among QAnon followers was "Follow the White Rabbit". A popular QAnon slogan is "Where we go one, we go all" (frequently abbreviated as "WWG1WGA"), first used by Q in April 2018. The phrase "Do your own research" (or "Do the research") encourages people to look for "clues" that will confirm QAnon narratives. "Q sent me" has been a declaration of "allegiance" to Q. Other common phrases in QAnon parlance include "white hat" (a Trump supporter), "black hat" (someone in league with the deep state), "Great Awakening" (the point at which the public wakes up to the truth), "red pill"


id: qanon-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon-9.md
category: reference
title: QAnon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:52.850136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qanon-20260505-0
summary:
==== The hidden enemy ==== A central element of QAnon's worldview is the belief in a hidden, malevolent force controlling society. This concept echoes medieval anxieties, such as fears surrounding witchcraft, secret societies, and demonic conspiracies blamed for societal ills. In particular, it closely mirrors accusations from texts like the Malleus Maleficarum, which claimed that witches secretly conspired with Satan to corrupt society from within. Historian Niall Ferguson argues that such moral panics often emerge during times of instability, as societies search for scapegoats and simplified explanations for complex crises. QAnon further incorporates themes from early-Christian Gnosticism, particularly the idea that the true nature of the world is hidden and accessible only to those with special insight or "gnosis". QAnon adherents similarly see themselves as uniquely able to discern the secret evil manipulating events behind the scenes. Additionally, this hidden-enemy narrative frequently overlaps with historical antisemitic tropes, portraying shadowy elites controlling world affairs. The fusion of these elements creates a potent narrative that positions followers as warriors engaged in a cosmic battle against a concealed, all-powerful adversary. ==== Satanic rituals and child victims ==== The Malleus Maleficarum argued that witches forged explicit pacts with the Devil—engaging in spells, nocturnal sabbaths,


id: qanon-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon-10.md
category: reference
title: QAnon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:52.850136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qanon-20260505-0
summary:
Travis View, a researcher who studies QAnon, says that it is as addictive as a video game, and offers the "player" the possibility of being involved in something of world-historical importance. According to View, "You can sit at your computer and search for information and then post about what you find, and Q basically promises that through this process, you are going to radically change the country, institute this incredible, almost bloodless revolution, and then be part of this historical movement that will be written about for generations." View compares this to mundane political involvement in which one's efforts might help to get a state legislator elected. QAnon, says View, competes not in the marketplace of ideas, but in the marketplace of realities. The belief in "The Plan" that Q alleged was in place to defeat the deep state and the cabal boosted the confidence of QAnon followers, who were told that things were happening behind the scenes and that victory would inevitably follow if they trusted Trump and the secret plan. QAnon believers try to solve riddles presented in Q's posts by connecting them to Trump speeches and tweets and other sources. The New Yorker has likened QAnon to


id: qanon-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon-11.md
category: reference
title: QAnon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:52.850136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qanon-20260505-0
summary:
According to an August 2018 Qualtrics poll for The Washington Post, 58% of Floridians were familiar enough with QAnon to have an opinion about it. Of those who had an opinion, most were unfavorable. The average score on the feeling thermometer was just above 20, a very negative rating, and about half of what other political figures enjoy. Positive feelings toward QAnon were strongly correlated with susceptibility to conspiracy thinking. According to a March 2020 Pew survey, 76% of Americans had never heard of QAnon, 20% had heard "a little about it", and 3% said they had heard "a lot". The survey showed 39% of those identifying as liberal democrats knew a little or more about Qanon while only 18% of people who were republican or leaned republican reported knowing a little or more about Qanon. In September 2020, a Pew survey of the 47% of respondents who said they had heard of QAnon found that 41% of Republicans and those who lean Republican believed QAnon was good for the country, compared to 7% of Democrats and those who lean Democratic. An October 2020 Yahoo-YouGov poll found that even if they had not heard of QAnon, a majority of Republicans


id: qanon-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon-12.md
category: reference
title: QAnon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:52.850136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qanon-20260505-0
summary:
After Trump lost the 2020 election, the rate of Q's posts sharply declined and Q stopped posting altogether one month later. The last "drop" for 18 months was on December 8, 2020. Mike Rothschild, author of a book on QAnon, said in 2021 that he doubted Q would ever come back, as the movement had "outgrown the need for new drops" and Trump's election loss had invalidated the core QAnon prophecy, but he added that Q might resume posting if "the community really needed new drops to keep it moving forward". The inauguration of Joe Biden as president was a major disappointment for QAnon followers, who were convinced that Biden had won the election through voter fraud and his victory would be invalidated. Many QAnon adherents believed that something momentous would happen during the ceremony, and Trump would remain in power. The inauguration ultimately went on as planned. According to a book on the psychology of QAnon followers, Pastels and Pedophiles: Inside the Mind of QAnon, "The inauguration was a particularly difficult prophecy to get wrong, and the result has been that some QAnon believers experienced deep melancholy, suicidal ideation, or engaged in self-harm". On inauguration day, Ron Watkins wrote


id: qanon-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon-13.md
category: reference
title: QAnon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:52.850136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qanon-20260505-0
summary:
QAnon followers supported the efforts of Trump's legal team to overturn the election through multiple lawsuits and submitted conspiracy theories of their own. They theorized that voting machines made by Dominion Voting Systems had deleted millions of votes for Trump. This was repeated on the far-right cable news outlet One America News Network, and Trump tweeted the segment to his followers. One specific QAnon-affiliated conspiracy theory, known as Italygate and pushed in the last weeks of Trump's presidency, alleged that the American election had been rigged using technology from the United States Embassy in Rome with the help of an Italian hacker, an Italian general and the Vatican. Several elected leaders, including Congresswoman Marjorie Taylor Greene and Arizona House Election Chairwoman Kelly Townsend were well known QAnon adherents before the 2020 election and who helped lead attempts to overturn the election in the aftermath. In June 2020, Townsend posted a QAnon video with a flaming "Q" to her social media and followed high-profile QAnon accounts. Some local Arizona politics reporters have referred to Townsend as the QAnon Queen of the Legislature. Based on a misinterpretation of the District of Columbia Organic Act of 1871 by the sovereign citizen movement, according


id: qanon-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon-14.md
category: reference
title: QAnon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:52.850136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qanon-20260505-0
summary:
In May 2019, an FBI "Intelligence Bulletin" memo from the Phoenix field office identified QAnon-driven extremists as a domestic terrorism threat. The document cited arrests related to QAnon, some of which had not been publicized before. According to the memo, "This is the first FBI product examining the threat from conspiracy theory-driven domestic extremists and provides a baseline for future intelligence products. ... The FBI assesses these conspiracy theories very likely will emerge, spread, and evolve in the modern information marketplace, occasionally driving both groups and individual extremists to carry out criminal or violent acts." According to FBI's counterterrorism director Michael G. McGarrity's testimony before Congress in May, the FBI divides domestic terrorism threats into four primary categories, "racially motivated violent extremism, anti-government/anti-authority extremism, animal rights/environmental extremism, and abortion extremism", which includes both abortion-rights and anti-abortion extremists. The fringe conspiracy theory threat is closely related to the anti-government/anti-authority subject area. On December 19, 2018, a Californian man whose car contained bomb-making materials he intended to use to "blow up a satanic temple monument" in the Springfield, Illinois, Capitol rotunda to "make Americans aware of Pizzagate and the New World Order, who were dismantling society" was arrested. The FBI said another


id: qanon-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon-15.md
category: reference
title: QAnon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:52.850136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qanon-20260505-0
summary:
In 2019, two Republican congressional candidates expressed support for QAnon theories. In early 2020, Jim Watkins created the "Disarm the Deep State" super PAC, whose stated aim was to "mobilize a community of patriots in order to remove power from Deep State members". In November 2020, it was reported that the PAC had raised just $4,736, including a $500 loan from Watkins's lawyer. In 2020, there were 97 QAnon followers in the primaries, of whom 22 Republicans and two independents ran in the elections of that year. Businesswoman Marjorie Taylor Greene won an August 2020 runoff to become the GOP nominee in the 14th Congressional District in Georgia. In 2020, she said many of Q's claims "have really proven to be true". Months into the Trump presidency, she stated in a video: "There's a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity to take this global cabal of Satan-worshiping pedophiles out, and I think we have the president to do it". Jo Rae Perkins, the 2020 Republican Senate candidate in Oregon, tweeted a video on the night of her May primary victory showing her holding a WWG1WGA sticker and stating that she "[stood] with Q and the team. Thank you Anons, and thank you patriots." She


id: qanon-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon-16.md
category: reference
title: QAnon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:52.850136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qanon-20260505-0
summary:
==== Donald Trump ==== According to Media Matters for America, as of August 2020, Trump had amplified QAnon messaging at least 216 times by retweeting or mentioning 129 QAnon-affiliated Twitter accounts, sometimes multiple times a day. QAnon followers came to refer to Trump as "Q+". On August 24, 2018, Trump hosted Michael William "Lionel" Lebron, a leading QAnon promoter, in the Oval Office for a photo op. Shortly after Christmas 2019, Trump retweeted over a dozen QAnon followers. On August 19, 2020, Trump was asked about QAnon during a press conference; he replied: "I don't know much about the movement, other than I understand they like me very much, which I appreciate." An FBI Field Office in Phoenix has called QAnon a potential domestic terror threat, but Trump called QAnon followers "people who love our country". When a reporter asked Trump if he could support a notion that suggests he "is secretly saving the world from this satanic cult of pedophiles and cannibals", he responded: "Well, I haven't heard that, but is that supposed to be a bad thing or a good thing?" Presidential candidate Joe Biden responded that Trump was aiming to "legitimize a conspiracy theory that the FBI


id: qanon-20260505-17
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon-17.md
category: reference
title: QAnon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:52.850136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qanon-20260505-0
summary:
In August 2019, a "Digital Soldiers Conference" was announced for the next month in Atlanta. The stated purpose was to prepare "patriotic social media warriors" for a coming "digital civil war" against "censorship and suppression". The announcement of the event prominently displayed a Q spelled in stars on the blue field of an American flag, with the three stars making up the tail of the "Q" being highlighted separately to reference Flynn's military status. Scheduled speakers for the event, which was hosted by Yippy CEO Rich Granville, included Flynn and George Papadopoulos, as well as Gina Loudon, a Trump friend and member of his campaign media advisory board, singer Joy Villa, and Bill Mitchell, a radio host and ardent Trump supporter. On July 4, 2020, Flynn posted to his Twitter account a video of himself leading a small group in an oath with the QAnon motto, "Where we go one, we go all". Analysts said the oath was part of QAnon's attempt to organize "digital soldiers" for the political and social apocalypse they see coming. Flynn's apparent declaration of allegiance to QAnon made him the most prominent former government official to endorse the conspiracy theory. Member of Trump's legal team


id: qanon-20260505-18
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon-18.md
category: reference
title: QAnon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:52.850136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qanon-20260505-0
summary:
==== Kelly Townsend ==== Former Arizona State Senator Kelly Townsend is a longtime conspiracy theorist, feeding conspiracies such as the Obama birther conspiracy to Trump before he was elected. She posted the QAnon "Q" symbol to her social media account in 2018 and has consistently aligned with QAnon theories, including calling all vaccines "communist". In 2021, Townsend supported activists active in the election denial movement in a spirit similar to the events that occurred at the U.S. Capitol on January 6, 2021, urging parents to take control of school board meetings related to COVID-19 restrictions and mask mandates. Throughout the process of securing the Arizona audit conducted by QAnon conspiracy theorist Doug Logan from Cyber Ninjas, Townsend worked closely with QAnon adherent Liz Harris, who rented one of her condos to QAnon board owner Ron Watkins so he could run for office in Arizona in 2022. Along with Roger Stone associate Jerome Corsi, Sheriff Joe Arpaio, and 2020 Maricopa County Sheriff candidate and then chief Arpaio staffer Jerry Sheridan, Townsend worked with informant Dennis Montgomery. In 2020, she worked with Corsi again, claiming the 2020 election was stolen from Trump and emailing Corsi a document of Arizona senators endorsing Trump


id: qanon-20260505-19
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon-19.md
category: reference
title: QAnon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:52.850136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qanon-20260505-0
summary:
=== Removal of content === In March 2018, Reddit banned one of its communities discussing QAnon, /r/CBTS_Stream, for "encouraging or inciting violence and posting personal and confidential information". Some followers moved to Discord. Several other communities were formed for discussion of QAnon, leading to further bans on September 12, 2018, in response to these communities "inciting violence, harassment, and the dissemination of personal information", which led to thousands of followers regrouping on Voat, a Switzerland-based Reddit clone that has been described as a hub for the alt-right. In early 2019, Twitter removed accounts suspected of being connected to the Russian Internet Research Agency that had disseminated a high volume of QAnon-related tweets that used the #WWG1WGA slogan. In May 2020, Facebook announced its removal of five pages, 20 accounts, and six groups linked to "individuals associated with the QAnon network" as part of an investigation into "suspected coordinated inauthentic behavior" ahead of the 2020 United States election. On August 19, Facebook expanded its Dangerous Individuals and Organizations policy to address "growing movements that, while not directly organizing violence, have celebrated violent acts, shown that they have weapons and suggest they will use them, or have individual followers with patterns of


id: qanon-20260505-20
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon-20.md
category: reference
title: QAnon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAnon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:52.850136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qanon-20260505-0
summary:
=== Bibliography === Bloom, Mia; Moskalenko, Sophia (2021). Pastels and Pedophiles: Inside the Mind of QAnon. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-1-5036-3029-1. Bloom, Mia; Rollings, Rachael (2022). "Introduction to the Special Issue: Losing My Religion: Evangelicalism and the Gospel of Q". Journal of Religion and Violence. 10 (1): 1–15. doi:10.5840/jrv20221011. Cook, Jesselyn (2024). The Quiet Damage: QAnon and the Destruction of the American Family. Crown Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-593-44325-5. Ingersoll, Julie (2022). "America's Holy Trinity: How Conspiracism, Apocalypticism, and Persecution Narratives Set Us up for Crisis". Journal of Religion and Violence. 10 (1): 73–88. doi:10.5840/jrv202281698. Rothschild, Mike (2021). The Storm Is Upon Us: How QAnon Became a Movement, Cult, and Conspiracy Theory of Everything. Melville House. ISBN 978-1-61219-930-6. Sommer, Will (2023). Trust the Plan: The Rise of QAnon and the Conspiracy That Unhinged America. New York: Harper. ISBN 978-0-06-311448-7. == Further reading == Badham, Van (2022). QAnon and On: A Short and Shocking History of the Internet Conspiracy Cults: A Short and Shocking History of Internet Conspiracy Cults. Melbourne: Hardie Grant Books. ASIN B09JBFDKYZ. ISBN 978-1-74379-787-7. OCLC 1285976834. Beverley, James A. (2020). The QAnon Deception: Everything You Need to Know about the World's Most Dangerous Conspiracy Theory. EqualTime Books.


id: rebel-news-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebel_News-0.md
category: reference
title: Rebel News
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebel_News
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:54.033860+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rebel-news-20260505-0
summary:
Rebel News (also known as The Rebel Media and The Rebel) is a Canadian far-right political and social commentary media website operated by Rebel News Network Ltd. It has been described as a "global platform" for the anti-Muslim ideology known as counter-jihad. It was founded in February 2015 by former Sun News Network personalities Ezra Levant and Brian Lilley. Rebel News broadcasts its content only on the internet and has been compared to Breitbart News in the US. Rebel News has been described as being part of the alt-right movement. Former Sun News reporter Faith Goldy joined Rebel News after its launch, but was fired for her coverage of the 2017 Charlottesville rally and for conducting an interview with The Daily Stormer. A co-founder and two freelancers resigned in protest of the coverage. Gavin McInnes, founder of the far-right neo-fascist organization Proud Boys, was a contributor. McInnes departed in 2017, then temporarily rejoined the site for a period in 2019. In the midst of the 2021 Canadian federal election, Justin Trudeau accused Rebel News of spreading misinformation, especially with regard to COVID-19 vaccines. Rebel News has promoted climate change denial. == History == Prior to the official opening of the


id: rebel-news-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebel_News-1.md
category: reference
title: Rebel News
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebel_News
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:54.033860+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rebel-news-20260505-0
summary:
=== Coverage of Unite the Right Rally === On 12 August 2017, Rebel correspondent Faith Goldy reported from the Unite the Right Rally in Charlottesville, Virginia. Broadcasting on livestream, she gained clear footage of a fatal car attack by a white supremacist against left-wing protestors. Interviewed about the rally and the clip by Israel's Channel 2 News, Goldy opined that, "there is a "culture war" happening between the hard left and hard right and that "many on both sides see this as a civil war – you know the fascists vs. the communists." On Monday August 14, Rebel founder Ezra Levant denounced the element of the "alt-right" which had participated in the rally, stating that it "now effectively means racism, anti-Semitism and tolerance of neo-Nazism." The same day Brian Lilley announced his departure from Rebel News, writing, "What anyone from The Rebel was doing at a so-called 'unite the right' rally that was really an anti-Semitic white power rally is beyond me. Especially not a rally dedicated to keeping up a statue of Robert E. Lee, a man that whatever else he stood for, also fought on the wrong side of history and the wrong side of America's bloodiest conflict."


id: rebel-news-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebel_News-2.md
category: reference
title: Rebel News
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebel_News
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:54.033860+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rebel-news-20260505-0
summary:
=== Advertiser boycott === Beginning in May 2017, the Rebel was the target of a boycott campaign by the social media activist group Sleeping Giants whereby advertisers were pressured to withdraw their adverts from The Rebel Media's YouTube channel and website. Within a three-month period in 2017, the activist group claimed that the Rebel had lost approximately 300 advertisers, including CCM Hockey, Mountain Equipment Co-op, Red Lobster, Reitmans, Penguin Books Canada, Volkswagen Canada and Tangerine Bank, along with PetSmart, the Hudson's Bay Company, General Motors Canada, the Royal Canadian Mint, the Nova Scotia Liquor Corporation, Ottawa Tourism, Porter Airlines, and Whistler Blackcomb ski resort. In June 2017, the city council of Edmonton, following complaints on social media from multiple residents, pulled its online advertisements from Rebel News. City councillor Michael Oshry described content on the website as "hate mongering, or even racist". Another activist group, Hope not Hate, pressured Norwegian Cruise Lines into cancelling a scheduled Caribbean cruise which was to feature talks by The Rebel Media personalities, many of whom have since left the media website. === Rebel Freedom Fund === In December 2017, Wells Asset Management announced the Rebel Freedom Fund, allowing investors to fund Levant's film and


id: rebel-news-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebel_News-3.md
category: reference
title: Rebel News
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebel_News
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:54.033860+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rebel-news-20260505-0
summary:
=== Coverage of anti-vaccine and anti-lockdown movements === In December 2021, Rebel News fundraised to pay for the legal fees of Mehmet Erhan, an Adelaide, Australia resident who was arrested and charged with breaching a health order. The money was to be paid into Rebel News's Fight the Fines fund instead of Erhan's GoFundMe account. Rebel News later cut ties with Erhan, saying that they had discontinued their relationship as Erhan had allegedly "routinely switched lawyers" and acted in bad faith. In early 2022 Rebel News provided favourable coverage of the Canada convoy protest and the Convoy to Canberra, with many of its posts linking to donation pages or fundraising campaigns. Similarweb found that the number of Canadians accessing the Rebel News website had increased by 70% between January and February 2022. Australian traffic increased by 11% over the same time period. Elise Thomas of the Institute for Strategic Dialogue said that groups like Rebel News were utilising the anti-vaccine and anti-lockdown communities to "reinvigorate their following", saying, "The thing about these kind of fringe communities is that they are often really hyper-engaged communities, they're not getting this content anywhere else in their life". === Journalism tax credit ruling ===


id: vaccination-and-religion-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccination_and_religion-0.md
category: reference
title: Vaccination and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccination_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:55.223515+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vaccination-and-religion-20260505-0
summary:
The relationship between vaccination and religion is complex and multifaceted. While most major religions have issued statements supportive of vaccination, and no major religion explicitly prohibits vaccinations, some individuals cite religious adherence as a basis for opting not to vaccinate themselves or their children. Historically, both pro- and anti-vaccination groups have used religious arguments to support their positions. For instance, in Australia, anti-vaccinationists founded the Church of Conscious Living, a "fake church", in an attempt to claim religious exemptions, which ultimately led to the removal of such exemptions in the country. Similarly, a United States pastor has been reported to offer vaccine exemptions in exchange for church membership. == Historical == === Early religious influences on vaccination === One of the earliest documented cases of variolation involved a Buddhist nun (bhikkhuni) between 1022 and 1063 CE. She ground smallpox scabs into a fine powder and administered it through the nostrils of an uninfected person to promote immunity. Centuries later, the 14th Dalai Lama continued the tradition of disease prevention by personally supporting polio vaccination campaigns. === Religious figures and advocacy for vaccination === In 1721, the influential Massachusetts preacher Cotton Mather was the first known person to attempt smallpox inoculation


id: vaccination-and-religion-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccination_and_religion-1.md
category: reference
title: Vaccination and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccination_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:55.223515+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vaccination-and-religion-20260505-0
summary:
==== Support for vaccination ==== Other Christians have supported vaccinations and mask wearing in the wake of COVID-19 to stop the spread of the disease, even using scripture to support the position.In 2021, the former director of the National Institute of Health, Francis Collins, a practicing Christian, expressed his support for the COVID-19 vaccine, stating that the development of vaccines are a “gift from God” and an “answer to prayer”. Additionally, Dr. Peter Mack, a physician at Novant Health South Park Family Physicians, cites Genesis 41, the story of David and Goliath, as a justification that vaccines are a “modern tool from God”. Other religious leaders from around the world, such as the Pope and some American bishops, expressed support for the COVID-19 vaccine during the height of the pandemic. In 2021, then-Pope Francis advocated for individuals to take the COVID-19 injections because it was a "moral obligation" or a "moral responsibility" to protect the health and safety of others. Pope Francis also stated in a series of Tweets that COVID-19 vaccinations are an "act of love" for others, while also suggesting that opposition to the vaccines, no matter the ideological, religious, or political basis, was considered "suicidal denialism, as


id: vaccination-and-religion-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccination_and_religion-2.md
category: reference
title: Vaccination and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccination_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:55.223515+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vaccination-and-religion-20260505-0
summary:
=== Hinduism === Hinduism consists of various denominations that share core beliefs but differ in philosophies and practices. With no single founder, it is known as Sanatan Dharma (the Eternal Tradition) and traces its origins to the Vedic texts of ancient India, dating back to between 1500 BCE and 500 BCE. In Hinduism, the ethical and symbolic meanings of scriptures, as interpreted by spiritually enlightened gurus, are often prioritized over literal interpretations. Vaccination is generally accepted in countries with a predominantly Hindu population. Hindus uphold the principle of non-violence (ahimsa) and value all forms of life, believing that divinity exists in every being, including plants and animals. Many Hindus follow a vegetarian diet to honor higher forms of life, while others consume meat only on specific days. Dietary practices differ across regions and communities. This review did not find any current concerns among Hindus regarding the presence of bovine-derived ingredients in some vaccines. === Buddhism === Buddhism is a religion with a variety of traditions, beliefs, and practices based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, known as the Buddha, which means "the awakened one." The Buddha shared his insights to help people overcome ignorance, desire, and suffering, ultimately leading to


id: vaccination-and-religion-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccination_and_religion-3.md
category: reference
title: Vaccination and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccination_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:55.223515+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vaccination-and-religion-20260505-0
summary:
===== Nigeria ===== In 2003 imams in northern Nigeria advised their followers not to have their children vaccinated with oral polio vaccine, perceived to be a plot by Westerners to decrease Muslim fertility. The boycott caused the number of polio cases to rise not only in Nigeria but also in neighboring countries. The followers were also wary of other vaccinations, and Nigeria reported more than twenty thousand measles cases and nearly six hundred deaths from measles from January through March 2005. In 2006 Nigeria accounted for more than half of all new polio cases worldwide. Outbreaks continued thereafter; for example, at least 200 children died in a late-2007 measles outbreak in Borno State. In 2013, nine health workers administering polio vaccine were targeted and killed by gunmen on motorcycles in Kano, but this was an isolated incident. Local traditional and religious leaders and polio survivors worked to support the vaccination campaign, and Nigeria has not had a polio case since July 24, 2014; in 2016, Nigeria was declared polio-free. ===== Pakistan and Afghanistan ===== In the 2000s, in Pakistan and Afghanistan, some Taliban issued fatwas opposing vaccination as an American plot to sterilize Muslims, and kidnapped, beat, and assassinated vaccination


id: vaccination-and-religion-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccination_and_religion-4.md
category: reference
title: Vaccination and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccination_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:55.223515+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vaccination-and-religion-20260505-0
summary:
=== Recent measles outbreaks in religious communities === Mennonite Community in Texas: In early 2025, a significant measles outbreak occurred in Gaines County, Texas, primarily affecting an under-vaccinated Mennonite community. Despite the church not opposing vaccinations, some members' hesitancy contributed to the outbreak, leading to over 200 infections, hospitalizations, and two deaths. Amish Community in New York: Concurrently, New York's Amish community faced legal challenges regarding religious exemptions to vaccination mandates. After the state's 2019 repeal of religious exemptions following a 2018 measles outbreak, the Amish contested this decision. In March 2025, the Second Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the repeal, emphasizing public health over religious exemptions. === Legislative actions on religious exemptions === West Virginia's Legislative Decision: In March 2025, West Virginia's House of Delegates rejected a bill that would have introduced religious and philosophical exemptions to mandatory childhood vaccinations. This decision was influenced by concerns over public health, especially amid ongoing measles outbreaks in neighboring states. === Declining vaccination rates and public health concerns === Expert Warnings in Texas: Dr. Peter Hotez, co-director of the Center for Vaccine Development, highlighted the dangers of declining vaccination rates in Texas. He warned that reduced immunization could lead to the resurgence


id: revival-bulgaria-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revival_(Bulgaria)-0.md
category: reference
title: Revival (Bulgaria)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revival_(Bulgaria)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:56.424284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: revival-bulgaria-20260505-0
summary:
Revival (Bulgarian: Възраждане, romanized: Vazrazhdane) is a far-right political party in Bulgaria. Founded in August 2014, its chairman is Kostadin Kostadinov. The party is characterised by various analysts and media as ultranationalist, pro-Russian, anti-EU, anti-NATO, being opposed to COVID-19 vaccinations and spreading anti-vaccine and anti-LGBT rhetoric. In the 51st National Assembly of Bulgaria, Revival is the third largest parliamentary group (behind GERB–SDS and PP–DB) and the second largest party (behind GERB). == History == In June 2014, Kostadin Kostadinov told media that there would be a Constituent Assembly on 2 August of the same year in the city of Pliska to create the party "Revival". The founders chose the day due to its significance as being the anniversary of the Ilinden Uprising. Kostadinov founded the party after he became unhappy following Krasimir Karakachanov's reelection as leader of IMRO-BNM in 2012. === Entrance into parliament === The party has grown rapidly due to the Bulgarian political crisis. They first entered the Bulgarian National Assembly after the 2021 general election, gaining 13 seats. A member of Revival's parliamentary group left them in June 2022. The party would more than double its presence in the assembly, gaining 14 more seats in the 2022


id: revival-bulgaria-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revival_(Bulgaria)-1.md
category: reference
title: Revival (Bulgaria)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revival_(Bulgaria)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:56.424284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: revival-bulgaria-20260505-0
summary:
==== Visit to Moscow ==== On 19 February, three Revival MPs visited Moscow at the invitation of the ruling party, United Russia, meeting with members of the State Duma and representatives of the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The visit led the PP-DB parliamentary group to request that the MPs who participated in the visit be excluded from committees with significance for "national security". Additionally, the PP-DB MP Yavor Bozhankov sent a signal to the Prosecutors Office and DANS about potential illegal activity on the part of the three MPs. In response, Revival leader Kostadinov claimed the procedure for the expulsion of MPs from a committee did not exist within the rulebook and insisted that the MPs will continue to attend the committee meetings. On 28 February, the point about the exclusion of two Revival MPs from the Foreign Affairs and Defense parliamentary committees was presented before the parliament by PP-DB, however, the measure was not supported due to the opposition of the other parliamentary parties. === Anti-Euro protests (2025) === On 22 February 2025, thousands of the party's supporters rallied in Sofia in opposition to the planned adoption of the euro. The demonstration began outside the Bulgarian National Bank


id: revival-bulgaria-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revival_(Bulgaria)-2.md
category: reference
title: Revival (Bulgaria)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revival_(Bulgaria)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:56.424284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: revival-bulgaria-20260505-0
summary:
=== Ties to parties outside Europe === Kostadinov, Revival's Chairman, has also claimed that the party has "begun friendly relations" with the African National Congress. A Revival delegation, led by party vice-chairman Tsoncho Ganev, visited China between the 24 and 26 November 2024 as part of an official visit organised by the CCP. The party has maintained relations with the Republicans for National Renewal, a donor organisation linked with the United States Republican Party, including a meeting between the head of the organisation, Mark Ivanyo, and Kostadin Kostadinov in November 2023. In 2024, the party also had meetings with Republican Congressman Paul Gosar and officials from the 2024 Donald Trump presidential campaign. The party expressed "full support" for Trump following the attempted assassination of Donald Trump. The party has also voiced support for Trump's proposed annexation of Canada, Greenland and the Panama Canal by the United States. In April 2025, a Revival delegation met with Republican Congressmen Barry Moore and Keith Self and expressed support for replacing the euro on Bulgaria's currency board with the United States dollar, therefore tying the Bulgarian lev to the dollar. Revival MEP Rada Laykova has also cooperated with Republican Congressman Andy Ogles on opposing


id: russophiles-for-the-revival-of-the-fatherland-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russophiles_for_the_Revival_of_the_Fatherland-0.md
category: reference
title: Russophiles for the Revival of the Fatherland
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russophiles_for_the_Revival_of_the_Fatherland
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:57.591114+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: russophiles-for-the-revival-of-the-fatherland-20260505-0
summary:
Russophiles for the Revival of the Fatherland (Bulgarian: Русофили за възраждане на Отечеството, romanized: Rusofili za vazrazhdane na Otechestvoto) is a Bulgarian political party. The leader of the party is Nikolay Malinov. == History == On November 1, 2008, a congress was held to create Revival of the Fatherland with 500 generals and officers of the Bulgarian Land Forces in attendance. The two founding groups of the party were two Veterans' organizations; "For the Honor of the Epaulette" and the "Green Alliance" with the party officially being founded in 2009 and receiving court recognition on February 11, 2010. In 2014, the party became part of the Patriotic Front coalition. In 2019, the party has been part of the Coalition for Bulgaria led by the Alternative for Bulgarian Revival. In the 2019 Bulgarian local elections the party saw 64 councilors and 8 mayors elected. During the party's congress on September 5, 2020, the party elected Nikolay Malinov as its leader and four members of its Russophile wing were elected to the party's executive board. For the 2021 Bulgarian general election the party was part of the Left Union for a Clean and Holy Republic coalition and signed a memorandum of cooperation


id: sanseit-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanseitō-0.md
category: reference
title: Sanseitō
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanseitō
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:58.929577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sanseit-20260505-0
summary:
Sanseitō (Japanese: 参政党, lit. 'Political Participation Party'; self-rendered as Party of Do It Yourself in English, DIY) is an ultraconservative, right-wing populist political party in Japan. It is on the far-right of the political spectrum. The party was founded in 2020 by Sohei Kamiya, the current secretary general of the party, and won a seat in the 2022 House of Councillors election, also becoming an official political party by winning more than 2% of the vote in the election. Sanseitō gained international media attention during the 2022 House of Councillors election due to Kamiya's antisemitic rhetoric during public appearances and campaign rallies. In the 2024 general election, the party won 3 seats. In the 2025 House of Councillors election, the party won more than 14 seats and came in third in the national popular vote. According to the party's leader Kamiya, it is the Japanese equivalent of Trumpism in the United States. The party promotes COVID-19 misinformation. The party's president, Manabu Matsuda, has called COVID-19 vaccines a "murder weapon". The party is against same-sex marriage and LGBT rights. The party strongly opposes immigration, claiming that foreigners bring crime and receive better treatment than native citizens. It proposes the creation of


id: sanseit-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanseitō-1.md
category: reference
title: Sanseitō
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanseitō
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:58.929577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sanseit-20260505-0
summary:
=== Constitution === The party is in favour of "creating" a new Constitution, instead of reforming the Constitution. The party also criticizes the current Japanese Constitution, saying that it was "established under the supervision of GHQ during the occupation," and advocates "constitutional creation" in which the Japanese people should create a constitution that reflects the values of the Japanese people themselves. In May 2025, the Party announced the "New Constitution of Japan (Conceptual Draft)" on its official website as the result of its "Constitution Creation Project". The draft simplifies the current Constitution's 103 articles to 33 articles. The main contents of the proposed Constitution by Sanseitō include the lack of any provisions on human rights such as equality of citizens or freedom of religion, and the simplification of provisions on the Diet, Cabinet, and courts. It does not include the words "sovereignty of the people" or "fundamental human rights", and it stipulates that "the nation shall possess sovereignty". It also stipulates that "Japan is a nation in which the Emperor and the people are one, governed by the Emperor", and that the Emperor is the subject of governing power. It states that the "national polity" is a family state in


id: sanseit-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanseitō-2.md
category: reference
title: Sanseitō
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanseitō
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:11:58.929577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sanseit-20260505-0
summary:
==== Cultural industry ==== The party supports giving authority to the Agency for Cultural Affairs to restrict the content of manga, anime, and video games, drawing criticism from creators including Hideki Arai, Hiro Arikawa and Hikaru Yuzuki. ==== Health ==== ===== Vaccine and mask wearing ===== The party advocated the ability to opt out of both wearing masks and taking vaccines during the COVID-19 pandemic, and has "characterized the pandemic as being staged". The party promotes a range of conspiracy theories regarding vaccines. In the 2022 Japanese House of Councillors election the party proposed the "liberalisation of mask wearing" as their policy on coronavirus. Analysis found that as of 2022 their voter overlap with young people and child-rearing generation suffering from pandemic fatigue, especially in regions with lower vaccination rate. For these reasons, the party has been criticized and labeled as a far-right political party with adherence to conspiracy theories ==== Perspective of history and education ==== The party calls the Pacific War the "Greater East Asia War" and claims that it was "not a war of aggression". It also claims that its purpose was to liberate Asian countries from the West. Regarding the Battle of Okinawa, it believes that


id: nicole-shanahan-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicole_Shanahan-0.md
category: reference
title: Nicole Shanahan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicole_Shanahan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:00.158933+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nicole-shanahan-20260505-0
summary:
Nicole Ann Shanahan (born September 26, 1985) is an American attorney and entrepreneur. She was the running mate of Robert F. Kennedy Jr. in his campaign in the 2024 U.S. presidential election. Born in California, Shanahan graduated from the University of Puget Sound and the Santa Clara University School of Law. Before law school, she worked as a paralegal and then as a patent specialist at the defensive patent aggregator RPX Corp. She was a fellow at Stanford Law School's CodeX, Stanford Center for Legal Informatics. Shanahan married Google co-founder Sergey Brin in 2018; they separated in 2021 and divorced in 2023. She reportedly has a net worth of over $1 billion, primarily as a result of her marriage to Brin. In 2019, she established a private foundation, Bia-Echo, that promotes research to lengthen the human reproductive lifespan. In March 2024, Kennedy named Shanahan as his running mate in his presidential campaign. Shanahan has questioned the scientific consensus on vaccine safety and efficacy. == Early life == Nicole Ann Shanahan was born to Shawn and Amy Shanahan (née Wong) in Placer County, California, on September 26, 1985. She grew up in Oakland, California. In a 2023 interview, she said she


id: nicole-shanahan-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicole_Shanahan-1.md
category: reference
title: Nicole Shanahan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicole_Shanahan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:00.158933+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nicole-shanahan-20260505-0
summary:
=== Early role in campaign === In May 2023, when Robert F. Kennedy Jr. was running for the 2024 Democratic presidential nomination, Shanahan donated the maximum of $6,600 to his campaign. After Kennedy dropped out of the Democratic primaries in October 2023, announcing that he would run in the general election as an independent candidate, Shanahan said she was "incredibly disappointed" and would not support his candidacy. In early 2024, she reversed course, and resumed backing Kennedy. Through Planeta Management LLC, Shanahan donated $4 million to a super PAC to pay for a 30-second television Super Bowl ad, aired during Super Bowl LVIII, supporting the campaign. In addition to funding the ad, Shanahan was also a "creative force" behind it, the total cost of which was variously said to be $5 million or (according to the super PAC's co-founder) $7 million. Kennedy said that his campaign was not directly involved with the ad, as coordination between independent expenditure groups and campaigns is illegal. Shanahan separately donated (also through Planeta Management LLC) half a million dollars to a different super PAC supporting Kennedy's campaign. === Vice-presidential running mate === In March 2024, Kennedy's campaign manager and daughter-in-law, Amaryllis Fox Kennedy, confirmed


id: nicole-shanahan-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicole_Shanahan-2.md
category: reference
title: Nicole Shanahan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicole_Shanahan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:00.158933+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nicole-shanahan-20260505-0
summary:
== Personal life == In 2014, Shanahan married Jeremy Asher Kranz, a San Francisco Bay Area investor and finance executive. They had dated since 2011. Weeks before their marriage, she began an affair with Sergey Brin, a co-founder of Google, which Kranz discovered from texts on her phone. Kranz and Shanahan divorced in 2015. Shanahan had met Brin at a yoga festival in Lake Tahoe in 2014; they married in 2018. They have a daughter together, born in 2018. Brin and Shanahan maintained an estate at Point Dume in Malibu, California, purchased in 2020. Shanahan and Brin's daughter was diagnosed with autism in 2020. In 2022, Shanahan sought the advice of Dr. Jack Kruse, a neurosurgeon turned paleo-diet advocate and wellness guru. Kruse blamed Shanahan and Brin for their daughter's autism, claiming that it was because Shanahan allowed her infant to receive vaccines and be exposed to artificial light and electromagnetic radiation. Kruse also accused Brin of participating in a plot by the U.S. government and "Big Tech" to use blue light to control the population. Shanahan took his advice and modified her home to limit non-sun light, as well as Wi-Fi and cellular signals. She also converted her swimming


id: shots-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shots!!!-0.md
category: reference
title: Shots!!!
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shots!!!
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:01.329841+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: shots-20260505-0
summary:
"Shots!!!" is the third episode of the twenty-third season of the American animated television series South Park. The 300th episode overall of the series, it premiered on Comedy Central in the United States on October 9, 2019. In the episode, Randy Marsh revels in a milestone reached by his marijuana farm, much to the ire of his wife. Meanwhile, in a parody of the antivaccine movement, Eric Cartman, terrified of needles, seeks to avoid a required immunization by citing fear that vaccines might make him "artistic", an eggcorn play on the word autistic, that is literally realized in the episode. == Plot == Randy Marsh celebrates the milestone $300,000 in profit that his business, Tegridy Farms, has made selling marijuana by organizing a parade and producing a television commercial touting the new customer base resulting from his recent deal with the Chinese government. However his wife, Sharon, is angered at him for undertaking these endeavors without considering their cost or consulting her, despite the fact that they purchased the farm together to avoid the type of business it has now become. She is also upset that the Chinese government purchases their product to use it to frame Chinese protesters in


id: swiss-democracy-czech-republic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_Democracy_(Czech_Republic)-0.md
category: reference
title: Swiss Democracy (Czech Republic)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_Democracy_(Czech_Republic)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:03.758217+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: swiss-democracy-czech-republic-20260505-0
summary:
Swiss Democracy (Czech: Švýcarská demokracie) is a Czech political party advocating for direct democracy and the adoption of a new constitution inspired by the Swiss model, founded in 2021. == History == Swiss Democracy was founded in 2021, during the COVID-19 pandemic, as a party opposing the imposed anti-pandemic restrictions. It contested the 2021 Czech parliamentary election, led by molecular geneticist and anti-vaccination activist Soňa Peková and its founder Tomáš Ráždík, and presented lists in all 14 electoral regions. The party earned 0.31% of the vote, and failed to meet the electoral threshold. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the party participated in protests challenging the anti-pandemic restrictions in place, led by the Chcípl PES movement and together with Tricolour, Svobodní, Free bloc and other parties in organisations. In 2022, Swiss Democracy took part in a series of anti-governmental protest under banner of Czech Republic First!, criticising the Cabinet of Petr Fiala. It contested the 2024 European Parliament election together with the Party of the State of Direct Democracy – Party of Labour, running on a eurosceptic platform. It gained 0.09% of the vote and no seats in the European Parliament. The party contested 4 out of 27 districts in the 2024


id: tsargrad-tv-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsargrad_TV-0.md
category: reference
title: Tsargrad TV
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsargrad_TV
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:04.940603+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tsargrad-tv-20260505-0
summary:
Tsargrad TV (Russian: Царьград ТВ) is a Russian television channel owned by Konstantin Malofeev. It was named after Tsargrad, the old Slavic name for Constantinople, now modern Istanbul. It is known for its pro-Kremlin and Russian Orthodox stances. == History == Konstantin Malofeev hired former Fox News news director John "Jack" Hanick (Russian: Джек Хэник born 1950), who, with producer Roger Ailes, co-founded Fox News, was its news director from 1996 to 2011 and moved to Moscow in 2013 to help Malofeev launch the channel. From at least 2013 until 2018, Hanick supported Malofeev in several schemes. Beginning in the fall of 2014, Hanick worked for Ilya Kuzmenkov (Russian: Илья Кузьменков), who was the general director and editor-in-chief of the channel. The channel started broadcasting on 12 April 2015 with Andrei Afanasiev (Russian: Андрей Афанасьев, born 1988 or 1989), who graduated from both MGIMO and Complutense University of Madrid and was a former RT employee from 2010 to 2014, as the news anchor. Aleksandr Dugin was named chief editor the same year. He has since been replaced by Elena Sharoykina. The channel is known for being conservative, mixing Russian Orthodox Christianity with Soviet nationalism, and supporting president Vladimir Putin. Vladimir


id: union-of-patriotic-forces-and-militaries-of-the-reserve-defense-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_of_Patriotic_Forces_and_Militaries_of_the_Reserve_Defense-0.md
category: reference
title: Union of Patriotic Forces and Militaries of the Reserve Defense
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_of_Patriotic_Forces_and_Militaries_of_the_Reserve_Defense
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:06.076933+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: union-of-patriotic-forces-and-militaries-of-the-reserve-defense-20260505-0
summary:
The Union of Patriotic Forces and Militaries of the Reserve Zashtita (Sajuz na Patrioticnite Sili i Voinite ot Zapaca Zaštita, abbreviated as SPSZ) is a nationalist political party in Bulgaria founded in December 1998. Since 2021, SPSZ was part of Bulgarian Patriots nationalist electoral alliance. == External links == Official site


id: united-patriots-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Patriots-0.md
category: reference
title: United Patriots
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Patriots
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:07.266240+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: united-patriots-20260505-0
summary:
The United Patriots (OP; Bulgarian: Обединени Патриоти; ОП, romanized: Obedineni Patrioti; OP) was a nationalist electoral alliance in Bulgaria formed by three political parties: VMRO, Attack (until 25 July 2019), and the National Front for the Salvation of Bulgaria (NFSB). The coalition between the three parties was created by the agreement put forward a joint candidacy for the 2016 presidential election. The coalition's candidates for president and vice president were the then Deputy Chairmen of the National Assembly Krasimir Karakachanov (for President) and Yavor Notev (for Vice President). On July 25, 2019, Volen Siderov, Desislav Chukolov and Pavel Shopov were expelled from the parliamentary group. The coalition was part of the Third Borisov Government. All parties in the coalition were defeated in the 2021 Bulgarian parliamentary election and failed to gain any seats in the National Assembly. == Electoral history == == See also == Patriotic Front (Bulgaria) Nationalist electoral alliance (2016–2017) == References ==


id: vaccine-choice-canada-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_Choice_Canada-0.md
category: reference
title: Vaccine Choice Canada
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_Choice_Canada
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:08.470559+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vaccine-choice-canada-20260505-0
summary:
Vaccine Choice Canada (VCC) is Canada's main anti-vaccination group. It was founded in 1986 under the name Association for Vaccine Damaged Children, became the Vaccination Risk Awareness Network in 1994 and adopted its current name in 2014. The group has been contributing to vaccine hesitancy in Canada, encouraging citizens to forgo immunization and legislators to support anti-vaccine regulations and legislation. == Vaccine hesitancy == VCC spreads the discredited hypothesis that vaccination causes autism and denies that the introduction of vaccines led to a decline of the targeted diseases. They blame vaccination for a variety of ailments, including autism spectrum disorders, learning disabilities, ADHD, allergies, and asthma. The group argues incorrectly that a vaccine against COVID-19 is unnecessary. Late in the pandemic, it still repeated the discredited myth that the pandemic is no more severe than the flu. Although a small fraction of vaccine doses provoke serious adverse reactions, health professionals agree the benefits of being protected against a wide range of infectious diseases far outweigh the risks. Responding directly to communications from Vaccine Choice Canada, the Public Health Agency of Canada stated that the science on vaccines is unequivocal, but laments the actions of "a small but vocal anti-vaccination community


id: velichie-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velichie-0.md
category: reference
title: Velichie
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velichie
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:09.697918+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: velichie-20260505-0
summary:
Velichie (Bulgarian: Величие, lit. 'Greatness') is a Bulgarian political party founded in 2023, with strong connections to the Bulgarian businessman Ivelin Mihaylov. The party has a strong position in Vetrino Municipality and received parliamentary representation following the June 2024 Bulgarian parliamentary election. Following the October snap election, the party won 3.999% of the vote, falling short by 21 votes of the 4% threshold required to gain representation in the 51st National Assembly. However, after the Constitutional Court ruled that Velichie passed the threshold following a recount, the party gained 10 seats in parliament. == History == === Origin === The Velichie party was founded in summer 2023 in Vetrino Municipality. It has been reported that the founder was Ivelin Mihaylov. In an interview with Radio Free Europe, Mihaylov recounted that the party was founded by Vetrino locals in response to plans to build a wind energy production site in the municipality. The party contested the 2023 Bulgarian local elections, in which it gained 40.51% of the votes in Vetrino. === Nikolay Markov === In 2024, the party began an association with Nikolay Markov, who was often called the party's leader, although not legally holding the position. Markov, a National Guard


id: velichie-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velichie-1.md
category: reference
title: Velichie
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velichie
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:09.697918+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: velichie-20260505-0
summary:
=== Parliamentary activity === The Velichie party had 13 seats at the start of the 50th National Assembly, with Nikolay Markov being selected as the chair of the parliamentary group. Prior to the convention of the National Assembly, Markov did not deny the possibility of Velichie negotiating with GERB; however, he clarified that they would only negotiate with GERB leader Boyko Borisov. Ultimately, the party did not attend the meeting organised by the GERB negotiation team on 18 June. During the first session of the National Assembly, the Velichie parliamentary group nominated its own candidates for the position of Speaker, although both candidacies failed to gather support outside of the grouping. During the first session, Markov, the chief of the parliamentary group, arrived late; it was later alleged by Velichie MP Darin Georgiev that the reason for Markov's lateness was due to alleged attempts at blackmail by GERB. Markov, in the days following, seemed to confirm the allegations, stating that a contact group representing "three political parties" had threatened to release an audio tape implicating himself and the party's founder, Ivelin Mihaylov, if Velichie did not give political support to GERB. On 21 June, during a vote for who should


id: velichie-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velichie-2.md
category: reference
title: Velichie
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velichie
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:09.697918+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: velichie-20260505-0
summary:
=== October 2024 parliamentary election === Velichie ran alone in the October 2024 Bulgarian parliamentary election. It opened its electoral campaign in the town of Troyan, with founder Ivelin Mihaylov claiming that Velichie's programme would be focused on creating a long-term plan for Bulgaria's development. During the campaign period, the party office of Velichie in Varna was set on fire by unknown assailants. In a video on Facebook, party founder and candidate Ivelin Mihaylov implied that the assailants might be connected to GERB and may have done it due to Mihaylov's revelation of alleged vote-buying schemes in Varna. Following the publication of the provisional final results from the electoral commission, Velichie was shown as being just below the 4% threshold to enter parliament, receiving 3.999%. In a number of publications on the party's Facebook page and by party candidates, it was implied that the percentage received by Velichie was intentionally lowered by the Central Electoral Commission, under pressure from external actors, in order to prevent Velichie from entering parliament. In an address on the party-affiliated news channel Free Voice, Ivelin Mihaylov claimed that the election had been "stolen", both due to alleged mass vote buying and manipulations of the voting


id: velichie-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velichie-3.md
category: reference
title: Velichie
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velichie
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:09.697918+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: velichie-20260505-0
summary:
=== Allegations of electing illegitimate MPs === On 30 October 2025, Radostin Vassilev, leader of the parliamentary party MECh, alleged that one of the MPs elected from the Velichie list had not signed the necessary declaration confirming her will to become a member of parliament, with the document instead being signed by another MP, Stiliyana Bobcheva. He cited a signal sent by the civic organisation "Bulgarian anti-mafia league", as well as a review conducted by lawyers associated with MECh. Subsequently, Radostin Vassilev called on Mariya Ilieva to resign. On 12 November, Radostin Vassilev played a 4-minute audio recording in the National Assembly which was an extract of a telephone conversation between Velichie MP Stiliyana Bobcheva and a member of the civic organisation "Bulgarian Anti-Mafia League", Grigor Zdravkov. He alleged that the recording depicted Stiliyana Bobcheva as being complicit in the forgery of documents related to the election of MPs. Vassilev further claimed that the extract was part of a 40 minute long recording, which had been deposited to the general prosecutors office, and called for law enforcement intervention. Mariya Ilieva, as well as politicians affiliated with Velichie, have denied the claims raised by Vassilev. After the publication of the allegations,


id: eduardo-ver-stegui-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduardo_Verástegui-0.md
category: reference
title: Eduardo Verástegui
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduardo_Verástegui
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:10.899216+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eduardo-ver-stegui-20260505-0
summary:
José Eduardo Verastegui (Spanish pronunciation: [eˈðwaɾðo βeˈɾasteɣi]; born May 21, 1974) is a Mexican actor, activist, singer, and producer. He was part of the band Kairo and later embarked on a solo music career before he started appearing in Mexican telenovelas and eventually feature films like Chasing Papi, Bella, and Little Boy, the latter two produced by his own production company, Metanoia. Various media outlets have described his political ideas as ultra-conservative, far-right and social-darwinist. Currently, Verástegui directs the Viva México movement. On September 7, 2023, he registered as an independent candidate for the 2024 Mexican presidential election. He was later disqualified from the election as he did not meet the required signatures. Verástegui is active on social media, and has an active YouTube channel of nearly 300,000 subscribers. == Early life == Verástegui was born on May 21, 1974, in Ciudad Mante, Tamaulipas, Mexico, and grew up in Xicoténcatl. The son of José Jesús Verástegui Treviño (1950–2022), a sugarcane farmer, and Alicia Córdoba, Verástegui was raised in a practicing Catholic family and has been interested in the world of entertainment since his childhood. After studying law for a time, Verástegui instead decided to try his hand at modeling, acting,


id: eduardo-ver-stegui-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduardo_Verástegui-1.md
category: reference
title: Eduardo Verástegui
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduardo_Verástegui
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:10.899216+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eduardo-ver-stegui-20260505-0
summary:
== Political activism == Verástegui is an advocate through the organization Manto de Guadalupe, which he helped get started. He has said that while researching his role in Bella, he visited an abortion clinic, where he spoke with a Hispanic couple who were there for an abortion. According to his account, they recognized him from his telenovela work on Mexican television and listened as he described his upcoming role and the film's plot. He said the couple then decided not to proceed with the abortion and returned home. After their child was born, they contacted him to share the news, thank him, and ask permission to name the baby Eduardo after him. He later met the child, whom he referred to as "little Eduardo". In 2008, he released a lengthy video message criticizing the high abortion rate among Hispanic communities in the United States and accusing the Barack Obama campaign of targeting Hispanic communities with pro-abortion messages during the presidential race. He has also been active in anti-abortion organizations and founded Manto de Guadalupe, an anti-abortion organization based in Los Angeles that operates a crisis pregnancy center. On September 15, 2020, US President Donald Trump announced his intention to appoint


id: virulent-the-vaccine-war-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virulent:_The_Vaccine_War-0.md
category: reference
title: Virulent: The Vaccine War
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virulent:_The_Vaccine_War
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:12.102479+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: virulent-the-vaccine-war-20260505-0
summary:
Virulent: The Vaccine War is a 2022 documentary produced by Laura Davis and directed by Tjardus Greidanus which explores the history, dangers and impact of the anti-vaccination movement in the United States at the time of the COVID-19 pandemic. == Description == Virulent: The Vaccine War explores the history of vaccines and the perspectives of the opposition in light of the COVID-19 pandemic. The film posits that vaccine hesitancy is largely caused by two unconnected reasons, one is personal freedom and the other is opposition to anything that is seen as unnatural. The movie also explores conspiracy theories about vaccination created and spurred on by the anti-vaccination movement. Davis said that she was surprised to learn how complicated vaccine hesitancy is: "I really thought it was going to be easy to dismiss vaccine skeptics as not educated. It’s much subtler than I thought". The film includes commentary by many medical experts, including the film's credited medical consultant, Paul Offit, and also identifies the big names and organizations in the anti-vaccine movement, including Del Bigtree, the CEO of the Informed Consent Action Network, and Robert F. Kennedy Jr., founder of Children's Health Defense who is interviewed in the film. Virulent highlights


id: vox-political-party-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_(political_party)-0.md
category: reference
title: Vox (political party)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_(political_party)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:13.262498+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vox-political-party-20260505-0
summary:
Vox (Spanish pronunciation: [boks]; Latin for 'voice'; often stylized in all caps) is a national conservative political party in Spain. Founded in 2013, it is led by party president Santiago Abascal, and vice president and secretary-general Ignacio Garriga. Vox has been described as far-right or radical right. The party entered the Spanish parliament for the first time after winning seats in the April 2019 general election. Later that year, it received 3.6 million votes in the November 2019 general election, winning 52 seats and becoming the third-largest party in the Congress of Deputies. Its public support reached its peak within the next few years, according to the results of subsequent regional elections and opinion polling, but in the 2023 Spanish general election showed worse results: a loss of 19 seats in parliament (albeit remaining the third-largest political party in Spain with roughly 3 million votes). In the European Parliament, the six deputies of Vox are members of Patriots for Europe after a stint in the European Conservatives and Reformists Group. == History == === Early years === ==== Origins (2013–2014) ==== Vox was founded on 17 December 2013, and publicly launched at a press conference in Madrid on 16 January


id: vox-political-party-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_(political_party)-1.md
category: reference
title: Vox (political party)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_(political_party)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:13.262498+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vox-political-party-20260505-0
summary:
==== COVID-19 pandemic (2020–2021) ==== At the beginning of 2020, during the onset of the global COVID-19 pandemic, Vox called for travel restrictions between China and Spain, and later between Italy and Spain, to safeguard against the "Chinese virus". At the time, the epidemic was already in full swing in those countries, but it was prior to any COVID cases being officially confirmed within Spain in significant numbers. This position found no support among other parties, and it was criticized as xenophobic rhetoric. The party claims that serious counter-COVID measures were deliberately delayed in Spain by the government, which hid the information and downplayed known risks to allow for mass public events on International Women's Day (8 March) to take place, as these events were important for the left wing agenda of the newly formed coalition government of PSOE and UP. At the same time, Vox went forward with their own global party conference on 8 March in Vistalegre, where party supporters from all parts of Spain were invited. The conference resulted in numerous cases of COVID infection, including confirmed cases of COVID transmission between members of Vox leadership. This fact was often brought up by Vox opponents to criticize


id: vox-political-party-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_(political_party)-2.md
category: reference
title: Vox (political party)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_(political_party)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:13.262498+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vox-political-party-20260505-0
summary:
==== Entering regional governments (2022–2023) ==== On 13 February 2022, Vox came third in the 2022 Castilian-Leonese regional election, raising its representation from 1 up to 13 seats, and becoming the key player for the rival People's Party (PP), who won the elections, to form a government. Following this election result, and an unfolding leadership crisis in PP, Vox for the first time was recognized as the Spain's second political force, according to some opinion polls for the next general elections. In March 2022, it was announced that Vox would form government with the PP in Castile and León, taking three of ten ministerial positions including vice president for regional leader Juan García-Gallardo. Vox member Carlos Pollán was elected President of the Cortes of Castile and León, the position of speaker. This represents the first participation of Vox in any regional government. On 19 June 2022, Vox came third in the 2022 Andalusian regional elections. With Macarena Olona as the leading candidate, the party improved over the previous regional elections, gaining about 100,000 more votes, and two more seats in the Parliament of Andalusia, but failed short of the expectations to achieve significantly better results and become the key to


id: vox-political-party-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_(political_party)-3.md
category: reference
title: Vox (political party)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_(political_party)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:13.262498+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vox-political-party-20260505-0
summary:
Vox identifies as a "right-wing without complexes" and regards itself as an alternative to both the "cowardly right" of the People's Party and the "orange fickle" of Citizens. In November 2018, during a party event in Murcia, party leader Santiago Abascal defined his party as "antifascist, anti-Nazi and anti-communist". The party has been described as simply right-wing, a populist radical-right (in contrast to an extreme right), far-right, and also neo-Francoist. According to certain analysis, the main tenets in Vox's ideology are: (i) a strong anti-immigration stance and advocacy for stricter law and order policies; (ii) a strong defence of the unity of Spain against all who allegedly want to break or undermine it; (iii) an opposition to what it labels the "progressive dictatorship"; and (iv) a strong defence of Catholicism and traditional values. Guillermo Fernández Vázquez, who described Vox as "economically anti-statist and neoliberal" as well as "morally authoritarian", believes that the party holds positions similar to Jörg Haider's Freedom Party of Austria or Jean Marie Le Pen's National Front, likening its emergence to an archaic radical right party more worried about modernizing their image. Vox's approach to cultural issues would be in line with old school Spanish nationalist parties,


id: vox-political-party-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_(political_party)-4.md
category: reference
title: Vox (political party)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_(political_party)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:13.262498+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vox-political-party-20260505-0
summary:
==== LGBT rights ==== Vox opposes same-sex marriage but supports same-sex civil unions. While not openly opposed to homosexual adoption, party members want to prioritise heterosexual couples. Vox opposes the Ley Trans approved by the Spanish government in June 2021, believing that the law "attacks the rights of women, children, biology, and common sense". Vox congratulated the Hungarian parliament for passing legislation that would ban media and educational content which may be seen by minors from depicting LGBT individuals or addressing LGBT issues. Vox has been accused of homophobia, which the party denies. Party leader Santiago Abascal has denied said allegations by stating that Vox merely opposes "LGBT ideology", going on to say that many homosexuals are party members, and that he personally has gay friends. José María Marco, a gay conservative, contested the April 2019 Senate election in Madrid as Vox's candidate, and also ran second in the party list for the 2019 Madrilenian regional election. In some discourses, party leaders have suggested that their opposition to mass immigration from Islamic countries effectively protects the LGBT community, as homosexuality is largely prosecuted in Islamic cultures, and that most immigrants do not alter their attitude upon arrival to Spain. ===


id: vox-political-party-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_(political_party)-5.md
category: reference
title: Vox (political party)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_(political_party)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:13.262498+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vox-political-party-20260505-0
summary:
==== Energy and environment ==== The party's discourse about the environment has changed over time, going from climate change denial to a conservationist approach. However, the party still opposes the mainstream environmental views, labelling them as "Green religion", and has voted against the Law for Climate Change and Energy Transition, which was adopted anyway. Vox supports nuclear energy and wants to stop the closure of nuclear plants. === Foreign policy === Vox is opposed to globalization and advocates a strong nation-state, wishing to recover national sovereignty. The party wants to emphasise bilateralism in international relations, and supports abandoning supranational organizations opposed to Spain's interests. It supports increasing military spending. ==== Europe ==== Vox's views on the European Union have been described as either Eurosceptic or Soft Eurosceptic, arguing that Spain should make no sovereignty concessions to the EU in order to guarantee national sovereignty. The party is strongly opposed to the EU becoming a federal superstate and instead argues for a Europe of "strong and sovereign states" that "defends its borders and its Christian roots and opposes multiculturalism and mass immigration". Political scientists Andrés Santana and Lisa Zanotti noted that out of all the parties in Spain, Vox's voters and


id: vox-political-party-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_(political_party)-6.md
category: reference
title: Vox (political party)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_(political_party)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:13.262498+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vox-political-party-20260505-0
summary:
Vox was initially close to Matteo Salvini's Lega Nord party in Italy but, by 2021, it grew closer to Giorgia Meloni's Brothers of Italy party instead. In October 2021, Abascal said that Vox has an "unbreakable" alliance with the Portuguese Chega party. Vox has connections to the Serbian People's Party. In the European Parliament, Vox joined the European Conservatives and Reformists (ECR) after the 2019 elections. As a member of the ECR, Vox shared group with parties such as the Polish Law and Justice, Brothers of Italy, and the Sweden Democrats. In July 2024, Vox left the ECR in favour of the Patriots for Europe group, aligning with longstanding partners of Vox such as the French National Rally, the Hungarian Fidesz and Chega. However, upon doing so, it insisted that Giorgia Meloni's Brothers of Italy would remain a "friend and ally". Abascal and Vox also expressed "full support" for Alternative for Germany, a member of Europe of Sovereign Nations, in the 2025 German federal election. In the United States, Vox is strongly supportive of Donald Trump and his political ideals. Trump has virtually addressed the annual Viva conference hosted by Vox, and Vox has invited pro-Trump factions of the Republican


id: vox-political-party-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_(political_party)-7.md
category: reference
title: Vox (political party)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_(political_party)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:13.262498+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vox-political-party-20260505-0
summary:
Francoism History of the far-right in Spain Sociological Francoism == Notes == == References == == Bibliography == Arroyo Menéndez, Millán (2020). "Las causas del apoyo electoral a VOX en españa". Política y Sociedad. 57 (3). Madrid: 693–717. doi:10.5209/poso.69206. S2CID 241063503. Carmona Pascual, Pablo (2020). "Vox y el dilema de las derechas". Familia, raza y nación en tiempos de posfascismo (PDF). Traficantes de Sueños. pp. 161–186. ISBN 978-84-121259-4-8. Casals, Xavier (2020). "El ultranacionalismo de Vox. Cinco claves para comprender 'la España viva'". Grand Place. Pensamiento y Cultura. 13. Zarautz: Mario Onaindia Fundazioa: 27–35. ISSN 2386-429X. Esteban Fernández, Nacho (2023). Por rojos y maricones: homofobia y transfobia en el Partido Popular y el resto de la derecha española. Egales. 104-134. ISBN 978-84-19728-03-6. Ferreira, Carles (2019). "Vox como representante de la derecha radical en España: un estudio sobre su ideología" [Vox as Representative of the Radical Right in Spain: A study of its Ideology]. Revista Española de Ciencia Política (in Spanish). 51 (51): 73–98. doi:10.21308/recp.51.03. ISSN 2173-9870. Mendes, Mariana; Dennison, James (2021). "Explaining the emergence of the radical right in Spain and Portugal: Salience, Stigma and Supply". West European Politics. 44 (4): 752–775. doi:10.1080/01402382.2020.1777504. Lebourg, Nicolas; Camus, Jean-Yves (2020). Las extremas derechas


id: we-voice-from-the-people-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/We_–_Voice_from_the_People-0.md
category: reference
title: We – Voice from the People
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/We_–_Voice_from_the_People
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:14.408926+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: we-voice-from-the-people-20260505-0
summary:
The We – Voice from the People (Serbian: Ми — Глас из народа, Mi — Glas iz naroda, abbrev. MI–GIN) is a populist political organisation in Serbia. Until the 2024 split, the main representative of MI–GIN was Branimir Nestorović, a prominent pulmonologist and conspiracy theorist. MI–GIN gained national representation in the National Assembly of Serbia and City Assembly of Belgrade following the 2023 Serbian parliamentary election and 2023 Belgrade City Assembly election. == History == === Background and formation === In the 2022 Serbian parliamentary election, Branimir Nestorović supported the Dveri–POKS list, which helped this list in attracting votes. After the election, Nestorović said that he was dissatisfied with the Dveri list, and that Serbia "deserves a national, non-partisan, honest and decent option. With people who will not trade mandates and votes after the election". Nestorović announced the creation of the movement on 23 June 2023. === 2023 election === The movement announced that it would participate in the 2023 Serbian parliamentary election on 27 October 2023. Prior to that, it was mainly centered around a YouTube channel. On 26 November 2023, the movement submitted 10 thousand signatures to the Republican Electoral Commission of Serbia, and on 27 November it


id: jeanette-wilson-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeanette_Wilson-0.md
category: reference
title: Jeanette Wilson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeanette_Wilson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:15.640359+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jeanette-wilson-20260505-0
summary:
Jeanette Wilson (born 1962 or 1963) is a New Zealand medium, reiki practitioner, and spiritual healer. She says she is able to heal people with the assistance of spirits. She has been criticised for promoting anti-vaccination views, unproven supplements, anti-5G claims, and dangerous COVID-19 health advice. == Early life and family == Wilson was born in the United Kingdom. She worked as a Lloyds Bank manager in the UK until she began working as a psychic healer, reiki healer, and medium. She says her grandfather was the first dead person to contact her. She moved from the UK to New Zealand in 1999. Her partner is Andrew Carter and they live in Orewa in Auckland. == Mediumship and psychic healing == Wilson has said that she is able to communicate with spirits who help her to conduct spiritual healing. She has stated that her psychic healing abilities include curing arthritis and the healing of vision impairments that require glasses. She has also stated that she has treated paralysis, blindness in one eye, and many cases of life-threatening cancer. Wilson has said she never discourages her clients from seeking medical care. When asked whether curing people of medical conditions was accurate,


id: jeanette-wilson-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeanette_Wilson-1.md
category: reference
title: Jeanette Wilson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeanette_Wilson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:15.640359+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jeanette-wilson-20260505-0
summary:
== Dietary supplements == In July 2020, RNZ reported that Wilson was claiming that a bluetooth device called the Healy Resonance she sells for the starting price of $780 can dose vitamins "vibrationally." In a sales-pitch, Wilson says "This is the best investment you'll probably make your whole life, for what it can do for you and your family". The Consumer NZ head of research said Wilson's claims were "a load of nonsense and unfortunately these kinds of claims are rife and enforcement is lacking which means shonky traders are making advantage of the situation". Physics professor Richard Easther of the University of Auckland says that claims being made about the product are not valid, and that he "wouldn't touch this with a barge pole." A Medsafe spokesman said Healy was being sold by Wilson as a medical device, therefore its promotion via testimonial was not permitted. The statement went on to warn that consumers with serious health conditions should speak to a healthcare professional before buying a device like the Healy. At her shows, Wilson advertises a dietary supplement, called alfa PXP Royale, made from micronised black rice. The supplement is sold by Enzacta, a multi-level marketing company for


id: your-baby-s-best-shot-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Your_Baby's_Best_Shot-0.md
category: reference
title: Your Baby's Best Shot
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Your_Baby's_Best_Shot
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:16.808152+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: your-baby-s-best-shot-20260505-0
summary:
Your Baby's Best Shot: Why Vaccines are Safe and Save Lives is a 2012 pro-vaccine book, published by Rowman and Littlefield, and written by E. Allison Hagood, a psychology professor, and Stacy Mintzer Herlihy, a freelance writer from Roseland, New Jersey. The foreword was written by Paul Offit. == Summary == The book's introduction states: "I hope that anyone reading this book will read it and gain an understanding why vaccines are so vitally important to the health and well being of all of us." Chapter 1 describes who the authors are, their own experiences with vaccines, and what motivated them to write this book. Chapter 2 focuses on the story of Edward Jenner and the development of the first vaccine. Chapter 3 discusses the biological mechanisms by which vaccines work, as well as the concept of herd immunity. Chapter 4 discusses the anti-vaccine claims about how vaccines contain "dangerous ingredients" such as formaldehyde and polymyxin B. == Reviews == Kristen Kemp of Parents called the book a "great resource", and Publishers Weekly wrote that it was "extensively researched and forceful." Another positive review came from Booklist, where Karen Springen wrote that "This thoroughly researched book should convince even ardent


id: gregory-d-zimet-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_D._Zimet-0.md
category: reference
title: Gregory D. Zimet
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_D._Zimet
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:17.998878+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gregory-d-zimet-20260505-0
summary:
Gregory D. Zimet is an American clinical psychologist and academic researcher known for his work on vaccination attitudes and behavior, particularly regarding human papillomavirus vaccination (HPV), and for co-developing the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS). He is professor emeritus of Pediatrics and Psychiatry at Indiana University School of Medicine, where he served on the faculty for three decades. == Early life and education == Zimet earned his Bachelor of Arts degree in psychology from Vassar College in 1978. He went on to receive both his Master of Arts (1981) and Doctor of Philosophy (1985) in clinical psychology from Duke University. He completed a predoctoral internship and postdoctoral training at Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine from 1984 to 1986. == Career == After his postdoctoral training, Zimet joined Case Western Reserve University as an Assistant Professor of Psychiatry (1986–1987), then as Assistant Professor of Pediatrics, a position he held from 1987 to 1993. In 1993, Zimet joined the faculty at Indiana University School of Medicine in the Department of Pediatrics, Division of Adolescent Medicine. He was promoted to full Professor of Pediatrics in 1999 and also held appointments in the Department of Psychiatry, the Department of Psychology


id: scientific-diving-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific diving
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:19.738870+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-diving-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific diving is the use of underwater diving techniques by scientists to perform work underwater in the direct pursuit of scientific knowledge. The legal definition of scientific diving varies by jurisdiction. Scientific divers are normally qualified scientists first and divers second, who use diving equipment and techniques as their way to get to the location of their fieldwork. The direct observation and manipulation of marine habitats afforded to scuba-equipped scientists have transformed the marine sciences generally, and marine biology and marine chemistry in particular. Underwater archeology and geology are other examples of sciences pursued underwater. Some scientific diving is carried out by universities in support of undergraduate or postgraduate research programs, and government bodies such as the United States Environmental Protection Agency and the UK Environment Agency carry out scientific diving to recover samples of water, marine organisms and sea, lake or riverbed material to examine for signs of pollution. Equipment used varies widely in this field, and is generally selected based on cost, effectiveness, availability and risk factors. Open-circuit scuba is most often used as it is widely available and cost-effective, and is the entry-level training mode in most places, but since the late 1990s the use of rebreather


id: scientific-diving-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientific diving
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:19.738870+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-diving-20260505-0
summary:
=== Contribution of scientific diving to research === Underwater diving interventions, particularly on scuba, provide the capacity for scientists to make direct observations on site and in real time, which allow for ground-truthing of larger scale observations and occasional serendipitous observations outside the planned experiment. Human dexterity remains less expensive and more adaptable to unexpected complexities in experimental setup than remotely operated and robotic alternatives in the shallower depth ranges. Scuba has also provided insights which would be unlikely to occur without direct observation, where hypotheses produced by deductive reasoning have not predicted interactive and behavioural characteristics of marine organisms, and these would not be likely to be detected from remote sensing or video or other methods which do not provide the full context and detail available to the diver. Scuba allows the scientist to set up the experiment and be present to observe unforeseen alternatives to the hypothesis. The field of global change biology includes investigation of evidence relating to global warming and ocean acidification. Many of the measurable changes in global climate occur in the sea. Coral bleaching is an example of an indicator of change, and scuba diving has provided a large amount of low-impact observational data


id: scientific-diving-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving-2.md
category: reference
title: Scientific diving
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:19.738870+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-diving-20260505-0
summary:
==== Diving activities in support of research ==== Sampling: Diving is highly selective and useful for sampling delicate materials or organisms, and for collecting from specific locations or associations, it can be more efficient than sampling methods relying on chance, and can be cost-effective compared with the use of research vessels. In some cases there is no other way to gain access to the specimen, or the specimen must be actively searched for and visually identified, before extracting it from a complex environment without damage. Diving can produce higher quality samples with less collateral damage. Specimen collection of animals is more prevalent, but algal specimen and sediment core collection by diver can produce better quality samples in many cases. Survey and quantitative observation: Surveys and quantitative assessments may comprise quantitative descriptions of biotic assemblages, distribution or abundance of a species or group or other feature, or relate the topography of the seafloor to the distribution of a species or group. There are examples where ROVs and video surveys have been used for these purposes, and the alternatives each have their advantages. Animal behaviour: Behaviour tends to be studied by direct observation, video or time lapse photography. In many cases the


id: scientific-diving-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving-3.md
category: reference
title: Scientific diving
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:19.738870+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-diving-20260505-0
summary:
=== Branches of science frequently using diving === Fisheries science – Academic discipline of managing and understanding fisheries Freshwater biology – Scientific study of freshwater ecosystems and biology Hydrology – Science of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on Earth Limnology – Science of inland aquatic ecosystems Marine biology – Scientific study of ocean life Ocean chemistry – Chemistry of oceans and seas Marine ecology – The study of the interactions between organisms and environment in the sea Marine geology – Study of the history and structure of the ocean floor Oceanography – Scientific study of the ocean Underwater archaeology – Study of human activity via evidence found underwater === Other fields which may use scientific diving === Aquaculture – Farming of aquatic organisms Environmental protection – Practice of protecting the natural environment === Citizen science === Several citizen science projects use observational input from recreational divers to provide reliable data on presence and distribution of marine organisms. The ready availability of digital underwater cameras makes collection of such observations easy and the permanence of the record allows peer and expert review. Such projects include the Australian-based Reef Life Survey, and the more international iNaturalist project, based in California,


id: scientific-diving-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving-4.md
category: reference
title: Scientific diving
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:19.738870+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-diving-20260505-0
summary:
The first recorded U.S. scientific diver was Dr. William H. Longley, starting in 1910, and who made the first underwater colour photograph with National Geographic staff photographer Charles Martin in 1926 off the Florida Keys in the Gulf of Mexico. By the middle of the 20th century, scientific diving was being done around the U.S. in surface supplied shallow water helmets and standard diving dress. During WWII Jacques Cousteau and Frédéric Dumas used the Aqua-Lung for underwater archaeology to excavate a large mound of amphorae near Grand Congloué, an island near Marseilles. The first scientific diver at Scripps Institution of Oceanography was Cheng Kwai Tseng, a biologist from China and graduate student during World War II, who used Japanese surface-supplied equipment to collect algae off the San Diego coast in 1944. In 1947, Frank Haymaker made observations in Scripps Canyon using a similar surface-supplied diving helmet. In 1949 Conrad Limbaugh introduced scientific scuba diving at Scripps Institution of Oceanography. While a doctoral student in 1954 he became Scripps' first diving safety officer, his research diving course was the first civilian diver training programme in the U.S. and he wrote the first scientific diving manual. Limbaugh and researcher Andreas Rechnitzer purchased


id: scientific-diving-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving-5.md
category: reference
title: Scientific diving
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:19.738870+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-diving-20260505-0
summary:
=== Diving control board === The American system has a diving control board taking overall responsibility for all scientific diving work done by an organisation. The diving safety officer is responsible to the board for operational, diving and safety matters. For each dive, one scientist, designated as the lead diver, must be present at the site during that entire operation, and is responsible for management of the dive, including dive planning, briefing, emergency planning, equipment and procedures. The divers operate in a strict buddy diving system. === Dive planning === As scientific diving is by definition done in pursuit of scietific knowledge, there is a purpose to each dive and therefore there will be a plan to safely and effectively achieve that purpose. == Standard and emergency diving procedures == The standard procedures for scuba and surface-supplied diving are essentially the same as for any other similar diving operation using similar equipment in a similar environment, by both recreational, technical and other professional divers. There are a few special cases where scientific diving operations are carried out in places where other divers would generally not go, such as blue-water diving. Scientific dives tend to be more task oriented than recreational


id: scientific-diving-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving-6.md
category: reference
title: Scientific diving
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:19.738870+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-diving-20260505-0
summary:
Circular search – a diver swims at a series of distances (radii) around a fixed reference point. The circular search is simple and requires little equipment. It is useful where the position of the objects of the search is known with reasonable accuracy. Pendulum searches – a variation on the circular search where the diver stops and changes direction at the end of each arc. Jackstay search – divers swim along a search line – the jackstay, while searching to the sides. There are various techniques for performing a jackstay search. Compass searches – search patterns controlled by compass directions. Towed searches – divers are towed behind a boat while searching visually. Sonar assisted searches – Divers search using a sonar transponder. Active transponders that emit a signal and measure the return signal strength to determine obstructions in a given direction, or passive transponders which measure a signal emitted by the target can be used. === Collection, sampling, tagging and recording === Most scientific fieldwork involves some form of data collection. In some cases, it is on-site measurement of physical data, and sometimes it involves taking samples, usually recording the circumstances in some detail. Video, still photography and manual listing


id: scientific-diving-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving-7.md
category: reference
title: Scientific diving
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:19.738870+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-diving-20260505-0
summary:
== Demographics == In the United States scientific diving is done by research institutions, universities, museums, aquaria, and consulting companies for purposes of research, education and environmental monitoring. As of 2005 there were an estimated 4000 scientific divers, of which a small number are career scientific divers, with an average age of around 40 years, and a larger number of students in the 18 to 34 year age group. There is no specific upper age limit providing the diver remains medically fit to dive. The lower limit is determined by the age of students qualifying for training. About a quarter are female. == Regulation of scientific diving == Scientific diving is generally considered to be occupational diving, and is usually regulated as such except where specifically exempted. === Exemptions === In the US, scientific diving is exempted from the requirements of the Federal Occupational Safety and Health regulations, provided that it complies with the requirements specified for the exemption. === Governance and representation organisations === Scientific diving governance organizations include: The Australian Scientific Divers Association The American Academy of Underwater Sciences – American diving standards organisation The European Scientific Diving Panel – A panel of the European Network of Marine


id: scientific-diving-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving-8.md
category: reference
title: Scientific diving
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:19.738870+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-diving-20260505-0
summary:
Diving first aid, including cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and oxygen administration to diving casualties. Standard emergency procedures and diving casualty management. Scuba rescue techniques and management of casualties in and under the water. Further training for special equipment, such as closed circuit mixed gas rebreathers, extended range, or special tasks may be required. As of 2016 there were three sets of rebreather standards for scientific diving in the US, those of the American Academy of Underwater Sciences (AAUS), National Park Service (NPS) and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). All three organisations require full scientific diver status with nitrox certification as prerequisite, NOAA requires certification to 130 feet (40 m) and 100 open water dive, while AAUS and NPS require 100 feet (30 m) and 50 open water dives. Each agency specifies stepwise certification to increasing depths, and certification is valid only for the rebreather type trained on, for environmental conditions similar to those during training. Classroom training includes theory review of topics included in open circuit training, and decompression and dive planning appropriate to the chosen unit. More technical topics include system design and operation, pre-dive setup and testing, post-dive break down and maintenance, oxygen exposure and decompression management, dive


id: scientific-diving-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving-9.md
category: reference
title: Scientific diving
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:19.738870+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-diving-20260505-0
summary:
=== South Africa === In South Africa, scientific diving is considered a form of commercial diving and is within the scope of the Diving Regulations 2009 and the Code of Practice for Scientific Diving published by the Chief Inspector of the Department of Employment and Labour, Under DR 2009 the Codes of Practice are guidance and not compulsory practice. They are provided as recommended good practice, and in theory need not be followed providing an acceptable level of safety is achieved in terms of the Occupational Health and Safety Act No.85 of 1993. However, in this case the onus is on the diving contractor to ensure acceptable safety during the diving operation based on risk assessment. The level of safety required is specified in the OHS act as "reasonably practicable" taking into account a number of factors, including cost effectiveness, availability of technology for mitigation and available knowledge of hazards. Use of the relatively flexible scientific code rather than the default Code of Practice for Inshore Diving is restricted to clients which are registered as organisations engaged in either scientific research or higher education. The qualification required to dive at work in South Africa is linked to the mode of


id: scientific-diving-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving-10.md
category: reference
title: Scientific diving
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:19.738870+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-diving-20260505-0
summary:
=== United States === In the United States scientific diving is permitted by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) to operate under an alternative consensual standard of practice that is maintained by the American Academy of Underwater Sciences. 29 CFR Part 1910 – Subpart T "Commercial Diving Operations," establishes mandatory occupational safety and health requirements for commercial diving operations which apply wherever OSHA has statutory jurisdiction. This covers the inland and coastal territorial waters of the United States and possessions. The United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America petitioned the Federal Government in 1975 to issue an emergency temporary standard covering all professional diving operations, which was issued on June 15, 1976, to be effective from July 15, 1976. This was challenged in the US Court of Appeals and was withdrawn in November 1976. A permanent standard for commercial diving was subsequently formulated which became effective from October 20, 1977. The American Academy of Underwater Sciences applied for an exemption for scientific diving, citing 20 years of self-regulation and a lower accident rate than the commercial diving industry. An exemption was issued effective from November 28, 1982, after negotiation. To be able to avail itself of the Scientific


id: scientific-diving-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving-11.md
category: reference
title: Scientific diving
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_diving
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:19.738870+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-diving-20260505-0
summary:
Belgium (statutory member) Bulgaria (member) Croatia (member) Finland (statutory member) France (statutory member) Germany (statutory member) Greece (candidate member) Italy (member) Norway (statutory member) Poland (candidate member) Portugal (member) Slovenia (candidate member) Sweden (statutory member) United Kingdom (statutory member) The ESDP is intended to maintain and develop a system for recognition of scientific diving competencies issued by member states, which may be issued under various training routes and levels of national legislation, to facilitate participation and mobility by diving scientists in European research programmes, and to improve diving safety, quality of science, and underwater techniques and technologies. Two levels of scientific diver registration are recognised: the European Scientific Diver (ESD) and the Advanced European Scientific Diver (AESD). AESDs are qualified to lead scientific diving trips, while ESDs are only permitted to take part. These represent the minimum level of training and competence required to allow scientists to participate freely throughout the countries of the European Union in underwater research projects diving using scuba. Certification or registration by an authorized national agency is a prerequisite, and depth and breathing gas limitations may apply. This competence may be gained either through a formal training program, by in the field training and experience


id: 1992-cageless-shark-diving-expedition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992_cageless_shark-diving_expedition-0.md
category: reference
title: 1992 cageless shark-diving expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992_cageless_shark-diving_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:21.019727+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 1992-cageless-shark-diving-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
The 1992 cageless shark-diving expedition was the world's first recorded intentionally cageless dive with great white sharks, contributing to a change in public opinions about the supposed ferocity of these animals. == History == The dive took place in January 1992, during the filming of the National Geographic documentary Blue Wilderness, at Dyer Island, South Africa. After 8-10 large Great White sharks had been kept around their boat for about 6 hours using chum and sea mammal flesh, four scuba divers carried out the world's first recorded dive amongst these animals without a safety cage, or any other protection, like chain-mail suits. The divers were Ron and Valerie Taylor, notable Australian film-makers and pioneers of underwater exploration, their friend George Askew, a South African diver and photographer, and Piet 'PJ' van der Walt, who had founded the South African cage-diving industry in 1988. The Taylors and Askew, recognised shark experts and authorities, were testing their hypothesis that these animals had a much fiercer reputation than they deserved. Their hypothesis was based on many years of experiences with various types of shark, including face to face encounters underwater. In 1978, Askew had written an article entitled "The Jaws fish - Myth


id: continental-shelf-station-two-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_Shelf_Station_Two-0.md
category: reference
title: Continental Shelf Station Two
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_Shelf_Station_Two
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:25.633827+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: continental-shelf-station-two-20260505-0
summary:
Continental Shelf Station Two or Conshelf Two was an attempt at creating an environment in which people could live and work on the sea floor. It was the successor to Continental Shelf Station One (Conshelf One). The alternate designation Precontinent has also been used to describe the set of projects to build an underwater "village" carried out by Jacques-Yves Cousteau and his team. The projects were named Precontinent I (Conshelf One), Precontinent II (Conshelf Two) and Precontinent III (Conshelf Three). Each following project was aimed at increasing the depth at which people continuously lived under water. == Precontinent I == Precontinent I was constructed offshore from Marseille, France, in 1962. Two scuba divers spent two weeks in a small chamber 12 meters deep on the seabed. == Precontinent II == In 1963, six oceanauts lived 10 metres down in the Red Sea, at Sha’ab Rumi off Sudan, in a starfish-shaped house for 30 days. The undersea living experiment also had two other structures, one a submarine hangar that housed a small, two man submarine referred to as the "diving saucer" for its resemblance to a science fiction flying saucer, and a smaller "deep cabin" where two oceanauts lived at a


id: mission-31-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mission_31-0.md
category: reference
title: Mission 31
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mission_31
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:30.297023+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mission-31-20260505-0
summary:
Mission 31 was an undersea expedition organized by Fabien Cousteau. It was originally scheduled for November 2013, but was delayed to June 2014. On June 1, Cousteau and six crew members descended to the undersea laboratory Aquarius in the Florida Keys. Halfway through the expedition, three of crew were replaced, as had been planned. After 31 days, Cousteau and the crew ascended on July 2. Throughout Mission 31, Cousteau's team conducted extended scuba diving expeditions to collect scientific data and IMAX footage. They hosted various one-day guests, conversed live with classrooms, and kept in touch with the outside world via social media. Cousteau estimated that his team collected the equivalent of two years' worth of surface dive data, enough for 10 scientific papers. Mission 31 was envisioned as a tribute to Cousteau's grandfather, Jacques Cousteau, who spent 30 days living underwater in 1963. Fabien Cousteau thus beat his grandfather's record for time spent underwater by a film crew by one day. == Background == In 1963, French oceanographer and filmmaker Jacques Cousteau spent 30 days living underwater in Conshelf Two, in the Red Sea. The footage was turned into the Academy Award-winning film World Without Sun. Subsequently, his television show,


id: 1928-great-barrier-reef-expedition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1928_Great_Barrier_Reef_expedition-0.md
category: reference
title: 1928 Great Barrier Reef expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1928_Great_Barrier_Reef_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:35.045965+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 1928-great-barrier-reef-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
1928 Great Barrier Reef expedition, also known as the Yonge Expedition or the Low Isles Expedition was a thirteen-month scientific program beginning in 1928, which was promoted to study the Australian Great Barrier Reef. == Origins == The Great Barrier Reef Expedition was a scientific study suggested by Sir Matthew Nathan and Professor Henry Richards who led the Australian Great Barrier Reef Committee from its establishment in 1922. With support from the British Barrier Reef Committee and the Association for the Advancement of Science in England, there was considerable interest in conducting zoological studies of Australia's Great Barrier Reef, to investigate theories put forward by Charles Darwin and others. It was also planned to determine the economic importance of the reef's marine life. This largely British expedition of scientists sought financial support from the Australian government, universities and the public to fund the expedition and study biological and geological life in a number of sections of the Reef. == Personnel == C. Maurice Yonge, a marine invertebrate researcher, was encouraged to join a proposed expedition to Australia's Great Barrier Reef in 1927. He was eventually appointed its leader. Twelve scientists including Yonge, his wife Dr Mattie Yonge who would act


id: 1948-american-australian-scientific-expedition-to-arnhem-land-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948_American-Australian_Scientific_Expedition_to_Arnhem_Land-0.md
category: reference
title: 1948 American-Australian Scientific Expedition to Arnhem Land
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948_American-Australian_Scientific_Expedition_to_Arnhem_Land
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:36.209933+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 1948-american-australian-scientific-expedition-to-arnhem-land-20260505-0
summary:
The American-Australian Scientific Expedition to Arnhem Land (also known as the Arnhem Land Expedition) remains one of the most significant, most ambitious and least understood expeditions. Commenced in February 1948, it was one of the largest scientific expeditions to have taken place in Australia and was conducted by a team of Australian and American researchers and support staff. == Background == A number of publications, including H. H. Finlayson’s The Red Centre: Man and Beast in the Heart of Australia (1935), and Walkabout travel and geographical magazine (1934–1974), revised Australians' concept of 'The Centre" from the picture presented in J. W. Gregory's The Dead Heart of Australia (1909). Leader-to-be of the Arnhem Land Expedition, Charles P. Mountford and his wife Bessie travelled over four months from Ernabella to Uluru in 1940, with Lauri Sheard and skilled cameleer Tommy Dodd undertaking an extensive study of the art and mythology surrounding Uluru and Kata Tjuta. The results of this endeavour were showcased through photographic exhibitions and a prize-winning film created in 1940, which subsequently became the foundation for Mountford's first publication Brown Men and Red Sand (1948), and his 1945 lecture tour in the United States which paved the way for the


id: 1948-american-australian-scientific-expedition-to-arnhem-land-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948_American-Australian_Scientific_Expedition_to_Arnhem_Land-1.md
category: reference
title: 1948 American-Australian Scientific Expedition to Arnhem Land
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948_American-Australian_Scientific_Expedition_to_Arnhem_Land
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:36.209933+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 1948-american-australian-scientific-expedition-to-arnhem-land-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == May, Sally K. in press 2009. Collecting Indigenous Cultures: myth, politics and collaboration in the 1948 Arnhem Land Expedition. California: Altamira. May, Sally K. 2008 ‘The Art of Collecting: Charles Pearcy Mountford’. In Nicholas Peterson, Lindy Allen, and Louise Hamby, The Makers and Making of Indigenous Australian Museum Collections. Melbourne: Museum Victoria. May, Sally K. with Donald Gumurdul, Jacob Manakgu, Gabriel Maralngurra and Wilfred Nawirridj. 2005. 'You Write it Down and Bring it Back... That's What We Want" - Revisiting the 1948 Removal of Human Remains from Gunbalanya (Oenpelli), Australia', in Smith, Claire & Wobst, H. Martin (eds). Indigenous Peoples and Archaeology. London: Routledge. May, Sally K. 2005 ‘Collecting the ‘Last Frontier’’, in Hamby, Louise (ed). Twined Together. Melbourne: Museum Victoria. May, Sally K, Jennifer McKinnon and Jason Raupp, 2009. ‘Boats on Bark: an analysis of Groote Eylandt bark paintings featuring Macassan praus from the 1948 Arnhem Land Expedition’, International Journal of Nautical Archaeology. May, Sally K. 2003 'Colonial Collections of Portable Art and Intercultural Encounters in Aboriginal Australia', in Paul Faulstich, Sven Ouzman, and Paul S.C. Taçon (eds), Before Farming: the archaeology and anthropology of hunter-gatherers. California: Altamira. 1, 8, p. 1-17. May, Sally K.


id: 1955-gough-expedition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1955_Gough_Expedition-0.md
category: reference
title: 1955 Gough Expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1955_Gough_Expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:37.444301+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 1955-gough-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
The 1955 Gough Island Scientific Survey was a scientific expedition undertaken in 1955 through 1956 from England to Gough Island in the South Atlantic Ocean. The expedition’s purpose was to study various aspects of the island's flora and fauna and to perform geological and cartographic surveys. It was led by John B. Heaney. The book "Mountains in the Sea" was written by one of the expedition crew about the expedition. == Origins == The expedition started after a suggestion from Dr. B.B. Roberts of the Scott Polar Research Institute. Other team members were sourced from British universities, except for J.J. van der Merwe of South Africa. Funding came from the Scott Polar Research Institute, the Royal Geographical Society, the Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh and others. R.J.H. Chambers took over as leader of the expedition after doctors persuaded John Heaney to remain in England for his health. == Expedition == The expedition sailed from Britain to South Africa, and from there to Tristan. There, they stayed for some time until there was a sufficient weather window. They saw local dances and attempted to summit the mountain. They landed on October 1, 1955. After six weeks they found a weather window


id: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804-0.md
category: reference
title: American Expedition 1799–1804
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:39.811011+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-0
summary:
The American Expedition (1799–1804) was a scientific exploration of Spanish America conducted by the Prussian naturalist Alexander von Humboldt and the French botanist Aimé Bonpland. Over the course of five years, the expedition traversed across present-day Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Cuba, Mexico, and parts of the United States. Humboldt and Bonpland conducted pioneering research in fields including geography, biology, geology, meteorology, and ethnography. They were the first Europeans to scientifically describe vast regions of South and Central America, mapping rivers like the Orinoco and investigating the Andes Mountains—including an attempt to climb Chimborazo. Their observations of plant and animal life, atmospheric phenomena, and indigenous cultures laid the foundations for modern biogeography and ecology. Humboldt’s meticulous measurements of altitude, climate, and geology, as well as his analyses of social and economic conditions, greatly expanded European knowledge of the New World. The expedition’s findings were later published in a series of influential works that shaped scientific thought and inspired generations of explorers and naturalists. == Background == By the mid 1790s Humboldt had devoted himself wholly into scientific research. Despite being offered a promotion and an increase of pay he resigned his position as a mining official in the Prussian civil service


id: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804-1.md
category: reference
title: American Expedition 1799–1804
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:39.811011+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-0
summary:
== The Journey to South America == On 5 June 1799, the Pizarro departed from the port of La Coruña after a period of delay caused by unfavorable weather. The ship, commanded by Captain Cagigal, left in the early afternoon and encountered difficulties navigating the harbor due to contrary winds, nearly running aground before eventually clearing the port. The vessel passed Castle San Antonio and the Tower of Hercules by the evening, then altered its course to avoid a British naval squadron operating offshore, a precaution necessitated by ongoing hostilities and blockades associated with the European wars of the period. Spain, originally allied with Britain and other monarchies against revolutionary France, had made peace with France in 1795. If the Pizarro had been captured at sea, the ship would likely have been taken to Portugal, a British ally, resulting in the loss of passage for the expedition’s civilian passengers to the New World. During the voyage, Humboldt and Bonpland initiated scientific work, including the use of a dip needle to measure the Earth’s magnetic inclination and water-temperature readings, confirming previous observations by Franklin and Williams regarding ocean temperatures. The Pizarro sailed past Cape Finisterre and, on 8 June 1799, encountered


id: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804-2.md
category: reference
title: American Expedition 1799–1804
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:39.811011+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-0
summary:
=== Tenerife === Upon landing on Tenerife, Humboldt and Bonpland were received by local officials and noted the distinctive flora of the island, including bananas, papaws, and ornamental plants. On June 20, before dawn,Bonpland an Humboldt departed with guides and mules for La Orotava, near the Teide volcano. They passed through San Cristébal, built on a basalt ridge around the Peak of Tenerife, and paused to inspect rocks, eventually arriving at La Laguna, the capital of Tenerife. After the climbing Humboldt and his party left La Laguna, traversing a landscape rich in plant diversity, including palms, orange trees, vines, and cacti. The region’s natural beauty was contrasted by socio-economic inequality, with land concentrated among a few wealthy planters and the indigenous population living in poverty. The group passed through Juan de la Rambla, Victoria, and Matanza, sites of both agricultural abundance and historical conflict with Spanish conquest in the fifteenth century. In La Orotava, they visited the botanical garden and met Monsieur LeGros, the French vice-consul, who had lived on Tenerife since being shipwrecked and agreed to guide their ascent of Pico del Teide. On 21 June 1799, the climbing party, which included LeGros, other local guides, and consular staff,


id: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804-3.md
category: reference
title: American Expedition 1799–1804
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:39.811011+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-0
summary:
== Route and Major Stages == === Venezuela === ==== Cumaná ==== On the morning of July 16, 1799, the Pizarro anchored at Cumana, and even those weakened by typhus managed to witness their arrival. Humboldt, eager to immerse himself in the new environment, immediately visited the home of their native guide, disregarding the captain's reminder about the need to present credentials to the Governor first. In the shade of a mimosa tree, surrounded by unfamiliar tropical fragrances and the daily life of their host’s family, Humboldt found the experience more rewarding than any official audience could provide. The town of Cumana, or what remained of it after a devastating earthquake, presented a scene of partial ruin. Governor Don Vicente Emparán, a progressive and scientifically minded official, welcomed the explorers warmly. As head of New Andalusia, then part of the Spanish colony of New Granada, Emparán took pride in introducing Humboldt and Bonpland to local crafts, especially textiles and furniture made from native materials. His appreciation for science ensured that Humboldt and Bonpland received favorable treatment during their South American travels. The natural scenery, with its mist-shrouded mountains, vibrant birds, and luxuriant plant life, left Humboldt and Bonpland exhilarated and


id: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804-4.md
category: reference
title: American Expedition 1799–1804
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:39.811011+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-0
summary:
==== Llanos and tropical ecology ==== In February 1800, Humboldt and Bonpland departed the Caribbean coast, setting their sights on the Orinoco River. This important northern neighbor of the Amazon promised a gateway into the equatorial jungles, famed for their extraordinary biodiversity and dense tropical vegetation. For Humboldt, the journey offered a long-awaited opportunity to conduct magnetic measurements at latitudes where Earth’s magnetism would differ significantly from what he had found in Europe. The expedition also carried the excitement of possibly confirming the rumored connection between the Orinoco and Amazon or Rio Negro river systems—a geographical mystery that had fascinated explorers for years. The most direct route from Caracas to the Orinoco would have been to cross the southern mountain chain between Baruta and Salamanca, traverse the savannahs of Ocumare, and embark at Cabruta near the Rio Guarico’s mouth. However, this shortcut would have denied the travelers the chance to survey the most fertile and cultivated regions of the province—the valleys of Aragua—along with valuable opportunities to measure the elevation of the coastal mountain chain by barometer and to descend the Rio Apure to its meeting point with the Orinoco. From Puerto Cabello, Humboldt and Bonpland made their way across


id: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804-5.md
category: reference
title: American Expedition 1799–1804
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:39.811011+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-0
summary:
Nights were spent camping on riverbanks, where hammocks were usually slung between trees or, when trees were absent, from canoe paddles or on ox-hides. This exposed the expedition to risks from snakes, alligators, and jaguars, which were especially prevalent and feared by local Natives. Nighttime was often unsettled due to animal activity, including monkeys, peccaries, sloths, and birds.Shortly after departure, a sudden squall nearly overturned the canoe, but a shift in wind stabilized the vessel. The following morning, the expedition encountered a Carib family traveling from the mouth of the Orinoco to collect turtle eggs, an event that attracted hundreds of Natives from various tribes and a few white traders. The eggs were rendered for oil, used for cooking and lighting, though overharvesting threatened the turtle population. At the Island of the Tortoises, Native tribes gathered annually to harvest turtle eggs, each tribe distinguished by unique body paint. Humboldt observed the process and noted that the previous Jesuit supervisors had ensured some eggs were left to hatch, but that their successors, the Franciscans, did not exercise such care, causing a decline in the turtle population. The Native crew from San Fernando departed at the turtle islands, as they lacked experience


id: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804-6.md
category: reference
title: American Expedition 1799–1804
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:39.811011+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-0
summary:
Humboldt credited Bonpland’s energy and courage. The climate damaged a significant portion of their botanical collection. Shortly after arrival in Angostura, Humboldt, Bonpland, and a servant became seriously ill, likely with typhoid. Humboldt recovered quickly, but Bonpland’s illness was severe and slow to resolve. After a month, Bonpland was fit enough for the journey across the Llanos to the coast. Their return was delayed by a privateer, but British naval intervention rescued them. By late August 1800, they reached Cumana, concluding the first phase of their South American expedition after nearly a year away.


id: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804-7.md
category: reference
title: American Expedition 1799–1804
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:39.811011+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-0
summary:
=== Cuba (1800–1801) === On November 24, 1800, Humboldt and Bonpland departed the Venezuelan coast for Havana in a small vessel, enduring a perilous, storm-ridden journey of twenty-five days. Upon arrival, Havana presented a crowded and unsanitary environment, with a population of 44,000, half of whom were people of African descent. The city, nearly as large as New York due to its suburbs, was afflicted by yellow fever. The travelers were welcomed with receptions and enjoyed the hospitality of the local elite. Humboldt undertook a survey of the harbor, the principal commercial and naval base of Spanish colonial power in the Caribbean, correcting its geographic position. Humboldt and Bonpland then traveled into the Cuban interior, visiting sugar plantations, factories, and fields of indigo, tobacco, and cotton. They observed the harsh conditions under which enslaved people labored. Humboldt aimed to make an objective comparison between Cuba and South American societies. His observations culminated in the Political Essay on the Island of Cuba, a comprehensive geographic study examining the island’s physical and economic conditions, as well as the social realities of slavery. Published in 1828, the work was notable for its data and its condemnation of slavery, resonating during the Latin American


id: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804-8.md
category: reference
title: American Expedition 1799–1804
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:39.811011+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-0
summary:
=== New Granada (Colombia) === Sailing southeast, the sloop entered the Gulf of Batabano, passing Isla de Pinos and navigating the challenging Jardines y Jardinillos archipelago, a region earlier named by Columbus. Humboldt measured latitudes and studied water characteristics, noting the solitude of the area, which was once frequented by fishermen. The journey was slow, with stops for geological and botanical observations. The crew’s cruelty toward wildlife disturbed Humboldt. After several days, the ship entered open water and was driven off course by winds toward the Cayman Islands before resuming its route to the Colombian coast. On March 24, the ship arrived in the Gulf of Santa Marta, enduring rough weather before seeking shelter near the Rio Sint. The travelers landed in a remote area, where locals regarded them with suspicion. Humboldt met a fellow German among palm wine workers, who offered insights about the climate but little else. After collecting botanical specimens, the travelers faced further storms at sea, nearly capsizing before finally finding shelter. Humboldt attempted to make astronomical observations to determine longitude but was prevented by the captain due to difficult terrain. An encounter with escaped enslaved people left Humboldt reflecting on the region’s hardships and the


id: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804-9.md
category: reference
title: American Expedition 1799–1804
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:39.811011+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-0
summary:
==== Climbing Chimborazo ==== Humboldt and Bonpland began their ascent of Chimborazo from the plain of Tapia, situated at 3,163 yards (2,892 m) above sea level. The route led through a high plateau between the eastern and western chains of the Andes, passing sparse vegetation such as cacti and Schinus molle, as well as herds of llamas. The altitude caused agricultural difficulties, since nocturnal cooling often resulted in frozen crops. Before reaching Calpi, they visited Lican, once an important settlement before the Spanish conquest, but now reduced to a small village. Indigenous people believed that wild llamas on Chimborazo descended from domesticated herds scattered after the destruction of Lican. The travelers spent the night in Calpi, which Humboldt measured at 3,452 yards (3,157 m) meters above sea level. On June 23, they began the main phase of their Chimborazo expedition, choosing a south-southeast route favored by their Indigenous guides, though only a few guides had reached the limits of the perpetual snow. Humboldt observed that Chimborazo was surrounded by step-like, grass-covered plateaus, which he compared to former lake beds and similar terrace formations in the Alps. The flora of these grasslands was dominated by grass species common in northern Europe,


id: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804-10.md
category: reference
title: American Expedition 1799–1804
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:39.811011+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-0
summary:
=== Peru === The travelers gradually descended into the cinchona forests and former Inca territories. In Riobamba, they stayed with Montufar’s brother, where Humboldt accessed rare sixteenth-century manuscripts written in an extinct dialect and later translated into Spanish. These documents described pre-conquest events and the major eruption of Nevado de Altar volcano, which affected nearby towns with ash for seven years. Traveling from Riobamba to Cuenca across the Paramo of Azuay, Humboldt studied the remains of the Inca road, notable for its precise porphyry paving and straightness, comparable to Roman roads, leading to Cuzco. He also visited the ruins of Inca Tapayupangi’s palace and its summer house carved from rock, which offered impressive views and prompted Humboldt to admire Inca public works. Southward, the group had to ford the Rio Guancabamba, a tributary of the Amazon, twenty-seven times. Although not wide, the river’s strong current endangered their mules, which carried important collections. Humboldt described the anxiety of watching their passage. Further along, he observed the local postal system known as “el correo que nada,” where a messenger swam downstream with mail secured in a cotton handkerchief, sometimes using a balsa log to rest and stopping at huts for food and


id: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804-11.md
category: reference
title: American Expedition 1799–1804
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:39.811011+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-0
summary:
On Christmas Eve, Humboldt and his party departed from Callao for Guayaquil, traveling slowly along the coast. During the voyage, Humboldt took regular oceanographic measurements of the cold current along the Peruvian coast. Although local fishermen had known of this current for centuries, Humboldt was the first to systematically study its properties. Over time, despite his protests, this current came to be widely known as the Humboldt Current, and it remains a principal geographical feature associated with his name. On February 15, 1803, Humboldt sailed from Guayaquil to Mexico. Even two hundred miles offshore, he heard the eruption of Cotopaxi. After thirty-three days at sea, the ship approached Acapulco. Humboldt discovered that standard charts had mislocated the port, a significant error given Acapulco’s importance as a hub for Spanish Pacific trade. On March 22, 1803, the ship anchored, and Humboldt began immediate astronomical observations to determine the port’s precise location. He confirmed that Acapulco was situated up to five miles west of its position on existing maps, prompting necessary revisions to the cartography of New Spain. Acapulco, with its natural harbor, had been settled by indigenous peoples for thousands of years and later established as a port by Hernán Cortés


id: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804-12.md
category: reference
title: American Expedition 1799–1804
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:39.811011+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-0
summary:
In early April, Humboldt and his companions prepared for their journey to Mexico City, enduring harsh conditions as they crossed the Sierra Madre del Sur, where temperatures reached 104 degrees Fahrenheit and the path was dusty and rocky. At Chilpancingo, they experienced a cooler climate and the scent of pine. Throughout the journey, Humboldt meticulously charted their route, using instruments to record geologic and geographic data. His systematic surveying produced the first geological cross-section based on precise instrument readings, a significant innovation in geological science. The group next visited Taxco, a renowned mining town famous for its silver mines. Humboldt observed the extensive mining operations and learned about the legendary fortunes and losses of miners like Jose de Laborde. He studied local mining techniques and later published critical observations in his "Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain," condemning the harsh treatment of indigenous laborers and outdated, dangerous mining practices. Humboldt was struck by the poor conditions underground, where men and children worked in hazardous environments. Taxco’s mining traditions persisted into Humboldt's time, but he noted improvements in workers' well-being compared to earlier periods. The town preserved memories of Humboldt’s visit, including the house where he stayed and the


id: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804-13.md
category: reference
title: American Expedition 1799–1804
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:39.811011+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-0
summary:
=== United States (1804) === On 29 April 1804, Alexander von Humboldt, accompanied by Bonpland and Monttfar, embarked from Havana on the Spanish frigate Concepcion en route to Philadelphia. They endured a week-long storm in the Bahama Straits, raising concerns for the safety of their scientific collections. After 24 days, they reached the calm waters of Delaware, where they had their first views of the United States. The landscape featured low, forest-covered shores punctuated with marshland, and as they neared Philadelphia, attractive farmhouses came into sight amidst the forest clearings. However, upon closer approach, the waterfront revealed an unsightly scene of wooden warehouses and refuse. Behind this façade lay a well-organized city of 75,000 residents, reminiscent of European towns. Its cobblestone streets lined with poplar trees, elegant three-storey red-brick houses, and well-furnished interiors stood in stark contrast to the initial impression. The main public building, aside from the State House, was Philosophic Hall, home to the American Philosophical Society, which played a crucial role in arranging for Humboldt's visit. Despite Philadelphia losing its capital status to Washington, it remained the cultural and scientific heart of the burgeoning republic. Humboldt and his companions were accommodated in an inn near the harbor


id: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804-14.md
category: reference
title: American Expedition 1799–1804
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:39.811011+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-0
summary:
On 1 June, Humboldt and his party arrived in Washington, which had become the United States capital in 1800. The city was still under construction, with fewer than 5,000 inhabitants and about 800 houses clustered around the Capitol, the President’s residence, and the Navy Yard along the Potomac River. The Executive Mansion, where Humboldt was invited to lunch with President Thomas Jefferson, was also incomplete and surrounded by unfinished grounds. Jefferson’s study, serving as his Cabinet room, was filled with a variety of personal and official items, including his books, maps, gardening tools, and a cage for his favorite mockingbird. It was in this space that Jefferson and Humboldt engaged in detailed discussions. Jefferson, at sixty-one, was known for his unpretentious lifestyle and devotion to family. The luncheon, attended by figures such as Charles Willson Peale, was informal, focusing on topics like natural history and international customs rather than politics. Jefferson and Humboldt quickly developed mutual respect, sharing scientific interests and political ideals. Jefferson was knowledgeable in various scientific fields, having conducted meteorological studies, experimented with agricultural techniques, and designed a plow. He was well-acquainted with the works of leading European scientists and demonstrated expertise in astronomy and paleontology. He


id: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804-15.md
category: reference
title: American Expedition 1799–1804
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:39.811011+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-0
summary:
== Aftermath == After returning to France in August 1804, Alexander von Humboldt and Aimé Bonpland arrived in Bordeaux after a swift Atlantic crossing. Their return after six years abroad was marked by the need to adjust to changed circumstances and reintegrate into European life. During quarantine, Humboldt wrote to the Institut National in Paris, informing them of his safe arrival. This news caused surprise, as rumors of his death had circulated in Europe. Humboldt reached Paris in late August, looking healthy and energetic. He was warmly welcomed by friends and family, with accounts noting he appeared unchanged by his long absence. Parisian society celebrated Humboldt as a hero. He was honored at scientific meetings and social gatherings, gaining widespread public attention for his South American explorations. His collections and drawings, exhibited at the Jardin des Plantes, attracted large crowds. Within six weeks, the Institut National held a special meeting where Humboldt presented his scientific results, receiving enthusiastic applause. In mid-October, Humboldt presented the first reports of his journey at a meeting of the Institut National des Sciences et Arts, a French government organisation created in 1795 to promote science, the beaux arts, and literature. The meeting was crowded and


id: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804-16.md
category: reference
title: American Expedition 1799–1804
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Expedition_1799–1804
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:39.811011+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: american-expedition-1799-1804-20260505-0
summary:
== Contributions to Science == Alexander von Humboldt’s scientific achievements are notable for their scope, empirical rigor, and transformative impact across the natural sciences. His American expedition (1799–1804) produced a vast array of new data and observations, which he synthesized in a remarkable body of published work. Humboldt’s enduring reputation is grounded in his relentless fieldwork, his innovative methods of data visualization, and above all in his vision of nature as a unified and dynamic system. His contributions to plant geography are evident in his Essai sur la géographie des plantes (1805), which introduced the idea that plant distributions are determined by environmental factors such as climate, elevation, and soil. This groundbreaking work was based on his ascent of equatorial mountains like Chimborazo and Pichincha, where he meticulously recorded changes in vegetation corresponding to altitude and temperature. Humboldt’s iconic “Chimborazo profile” visually mapped plant zones along the mountain’s slopes, integrating botanical, meteorological, and physical data. By demonstrating that the same climatic zones could produce similar vegetation types on different continents, Humboldt laid the foundations for modern biogeography and ecology, moving beyond Linnaean taxonomy to a dynamic understanding of the relationship between organisms and their environment. The methods and concepts presented


id: austrian-expedition-to-brazil-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austrian_expedition_to_Brazil-0.md
category: reference
title: Austrian expedition to Brazil
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austrian_expedition_to_Brazil
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:41.050714+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: austrian-expedition-to-brazil-20260505-0
summary:
The Austrian expedition to Brazil (German: Österreichische Brasilien-Expedition) was a scientific expedition which explored Brazil. It was organized and financed by the Austrian Empire from 1817 to 1835. == History == The expedition had as its main supporter the Austrian statesman Prince Metternich and the expedition was associated with the politically significant marriage of Dom Pedro of Brazil and Archduchess Leopoldine of Austria. Overall planning was overseen by Metternich and scientific planning was undertaken by Carl Franz von Schreibers. The contingent of fourteen naturalists included Johann Christian Mikan, Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius, Giuseppe Raddi, Heinrich Wilhelm Schott, Johann Baptist von Spix, Johann Baptist Emanuel Pohl, Johann Natterer, Ferdinand Dominik Sochor (Imperial hunter and a skilled taxidermist) and the artists Thomas Ender and Johann Buchberger. A thirteen-room "Brazilian Museum" containing 133,000 objects from the expedition was opened to the public. It was closed in 1836 and the contents integrated with those of the Hof-Naturalienkabinette, now the Natural History Museum of Vienna. == References == Kann, Bettina: Die österreichische Brasilienexpedition 1817 - 1836 unter besonderer Berücksichtigung ethnographischen Ergebnisse. Diplomarbeit Wien 1992 Riedl-Dorn, Christa: Johann Natterer und die österreichische Brasilienexpedition. Petrópolis 1999 Steinle, Robert: Historische Hintergründe österreichischen Brasilienexpedition (1817-1835) mit einer Dokumentation


id: dennis-r-bell-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennis_R._Bell-0.md
category: reference
title: Dennis R. Bell
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennis_R._Bell
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:42.191543+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dennis-r-bell-20260505-0
summary:
Dennis R. "Tink" Bell (15 July 1934 – 26 July 1959) was a British meteorologist who worked for the then Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey (FIDS). He accidentally fell and died in a crevasse at King George Island while on an Antarctica mission in 1959, though his remains were not recovered until 2025. == Early life and career == Dennis Bell, who was also known as Dennis Tink Bell, was born in 1934 and was the oldest of three siblings. He obtained his secondary school education from Harrow County School for Boys. After high school, he joined the Royal Air Force for National Service where he received training as a radio operator. In 1958, he joined FIDS as a meteorologist and his initial posting was a two-year term at Admiralty Bay, a small United Kingdom research base staffed by about six people, located on King George Island in the South Shetland Islands, approximately 120 kilometres off the northern coast of the Antarctic Peninsula. == Death == On 26 July 1959, Bell, accompanied by three colleagues and two dog sledges, departed from the base to ascend a glacier for survey and geological work. While climbing, the party crossed a crevassed section covered


id: dana-expeditions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dana_expeditions-0.md
category: reference
title: Dana expeditions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dana_expeditions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:43.343122+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dana-expeditions-20260505-0
summary:
The Dana expeditions were four Danish research expeditions from 1920 to 1930. The first two were undertaken by the Dana I and the third by the Dana II. They were funded in part by the Carlsberg Foundation and led by Johannes Schmidt. The first three expeditions took place from 1920 to 1922 and the fourth and final was from 1928 to 1930. They centered around investigating the breeding of eels. The first two expeditions allowed Schmidt to prove his theory that European eels migrate to the Sargasso Sea to spawn. The final expedition traveled to the Indian Ocean and gathered numerous samples. == First expeditions (1920–1922) == === Planning === From 1920 to 1922, Dana undertook a series of three expeditions that were led by the marine biologist Johannes Schmidt. Schmidt and C. F. Dreschel had first proposed an expedition that would explore the deep sea of the Atlantic Ocean in 1916. Although the two men originally envisioned a single large expedition, in January 1917 Schmidt had suggested instead running two expeditions with the first focusing on the Atlantic and the second circumnavigating the world over the course of two years. The two decided to focus first on the Atlantic


id: dana-expeditions-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dana_expeditions-1.md
category: reference
title: Dana expeditions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dana_expeditions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:43.343122+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dana-expeditions-20260505-0
summary:
=== Third === Schmidt's third expedition earned him a reputation "as a first rate marine scientist." In autumn 1920 the Danish government purchased a new research ship for marine research in Great Britain. It was transported to Denmark, overhauled, and renamed R/V Dana or Dana II. The boat had 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) of metal wire, allowing it to "fish deeper than anyone before." The expedition began in late 1921, arriving near Portugal and Spain in September, where they investigated the strait of Gibraltar. Over the course of ten months, the expedition did work. In early December, the Carlsberg Foundation agreed to fund an extension of the expedition to travel through the Panama Canal, which it did on 10 January. In the Pacific, Dana II took numerous samples that revealed the Pacific Ocean was cooler and less salty than the Atlantic. They also found an oxygen minimum zone around 500 metres (1,600 ft) below the surface, making those aboard Dana II the first researchers to document such a phenomenon. High plankton densities helped the expedition observe upwelling and deep-level samples gave them an image of species richness greater than that in the Atlantic. On 20 January, they left the Pacific


id: dunbar-and-hunter-expedition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunbar_and_Hunter_Expedition-0.md
category: reference
title: Dunbar and Hunter Expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunbar_and_Hunter_Expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:44.482469+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dunbar-and-hunter-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
The Dunbar and Hunter Expedition, also known as the Grand Expedition, was an expedition led by William Dunbar and Dr. George Hunter with the purpose of exploring the lower portion of the Louisiana Purchase. The expedition was given the orders by U.S. President Thomas Jefferson to explore parts of Mississippi and Missouri. The members of the expedition recorded information about the Ouachita River, and studied things such as the hot springs in present-day Arkansas and provided one of the earliest descriptions of Arkansas and Louisiana. == Motivations == William Dunbar was a Scottish immigrant and scientist living in Natchez, Mississippi, when Jefferson contacted him about the proposed expedition. Jefferson wanted the expedition to travel through the southern area of the Louisiana Purchase. Specifically, he wanted the expedition to follow the rivers in the area, such as the Red River or the Arkansas River. The other leading member of the expedition, George Hunter, was recruited by Jefferson and was instructed to "make observations, to note courses," and to study the same things as Dunbar, but to keep his own account in case their observations differed from one another. In 1804, a boat was built for the expedition to travel up the


id: fahnestock-south-sea-expeditions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fahnestock_South_Sea_Expeditions-0.md
category: reference
title: Fahnestock South Sea Expeditions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fahnestock_South_Sea_Expeditions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:46.888869+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fahnestock-south-sea-expeditions-20260505-0
summary:
The Fahnestock South Sea Expeditions were three scientific expeditions to the Pacific Ocean during 1935–1937, 1940 and 1941, organised and led by brothers Sheridan and Bruce Fahnestock. The Fahnestocks collected plant and animal specimens for museums in the United States, made recordings of traditional songs and music from Pacific Islands, and on the third expedition collected intelligence for the United States armed forces after the outbreak of World War 2. == First expedition 1935–1937 == The first expedition sailed from New York on 1 January 1935, in the 65ft schooner Director. The captain of the expedition was 21-year-old James Sheridan Fahnestock, and his brother Bruce (25) was director. Four other men specialising in various fields were also part of the expedition: herpetologist and photographer Hugh Davis, director of the Mohawk Zoo in Tulsa; ornithologist and artist Dennis Puleston from England; Wilson Glass and George Harris. Later participants included John Green and artist Edward Dair. The expedition aimed to study flying fish in the Pacific, as well as insects and birds. The Fahnestocks’ widowed mother, Mary Sheridan Fahnestock, joined the expedition during its eight-month stay in Tahiti and subsequently wrote a book called I Ran Away To Sea At Fifty. After


id: fahnestock-south-sea-expeditions-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fahnestock_South_Sea_Expeditions-1.md
category: reference
title: Fahnestock South Sea Expeditions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fahnestock_South_Sea_Expeditions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:46.888869+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fahnestock-south-sea-expeditions-20260505-0
summary:
This expedition also sent back habitat specimens to the AMNH for dioramas being constructed for the Whitney Hall of Oceanic Birds to showcase specimens collected during the Whitney South Sea Expedition. Sheridan Fahnestock noted that:Care is taken to get these groups exactly right, down to the last grain of sand. Specimens are preserved by five different methods. Plaster casts are made of the flowers, leaves, etc., to preserve shape. Then formalin specimens are kept. The groups are also sketched in water colours and are photographed in black and white. Dried specimens are also collected. Whole trees are shifted to be transplanted into the very same earth in which they formerly rested in their native surroundings. The voyage was cut short when Director II hit a reef at Gladstone, Queensland and sank in October 1940. Sheridan Fahnestock blamed the reef collision on 200-year-old marine charts. He said that the Australian authorities had been reluctant to provide up-to-date charts because they were worried about a possible attack by Japan, which had begun expanding into Southeast Asia. == Third expedition 1941 == The Fahnestock brothers met President Franklin D. Roosevelt in January 1941, ostensibly to discuss their recent expedition. In fact, the president


id: lewis-and-clark-expedition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition-0.md
category: reference
title: Lewis and Clark Expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:48.040203+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lewis-and-clark-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
The Lewis and Clark Expedition, also known as the Corps of Discovery Expedition, was the United States expedition to cross the newly acquired western portion of the country after the Louisiana Purchase. The Corps of Discovery was a select group of U.S. Army and civilian volunteers under the command of Captain Meriwether Lewis and his close friend Second Lieutenant William Clark. Clark, along with 30 others, set out from Camp Dubois (Camp Wood), Illinois, on May 14, 1804, met Lewis and ten other members of the group in St. Charles, Missouri, then went up the Missouri River. The expedition crossed the Continental Divide of the Americas near the Lemhi Pass, eventually coming to the Columbia River, and the Pacific Ocean in 1805. The return voyage began on March 23, 1806, at Fort Clatsop, Oregon, ending six months later on September 23. President Thomas Jefferson commissioned the expedition, shortly after the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, to explore and detail as much of the new territory as possible. Furthermore, he wished to find a practical travel route across the western half of the continent—directly avoiding the hot and desolate desert southwest—and to establish an American presence in the new lands before European


id: lewis-and-clark-expedition-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition-1.md
category: reference
title: Lewis and Clark Expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:48.040203+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lewis-and-clark-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
It was impossible to find a character who to a complete science in botany, natural history, mineralogy & astronomy, joined the firmness of constitution & character, prudence, habits adapted to the woods & a familiarity with the Indian manners and character, requisite for this undertaking. All the latter qualifications Capt. Lewis has. In 1803, Jefferson sent Lewis to Philadelphia to study medicinal cures under Benjamin Rush, a physician and former leader in the American Revolution. He also arranged for Lewis to be further educated by Andrew Ellicott, an astronomer who instructed him in the use of a sextant, among other navigational instruments. From Benjamin Smith Barton, Lewis learned how to describe and preserve plant and animal specimens; from Robert Patterson, refinements in computing latitude and longitude, and Caspar Wistar covered fossils, and the search for possible living remnants. Lewis, however, was not ignorant of science, having demonstrated a marked capacity to learn, especially with Jefferson as his teacher. At Monticello, Jefferson possessed an enormous library on the subject of North American geography, to which Lewis had full access. He spent time consulting maps and books, as well as conferring with Jefferson. The keelboat used for the first year of the


id: lewis-and-clark-expedition-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition-2.md
category: reference
title: Lewis and Clark Expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:48.040203+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lewis-and-clark-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
The Corps of Discovery departed from Camp Dubois (Camp Wood) at 4 pm on May 14, 1804. Under Clark's command, they traveled up the Missouri River in their keelboat and two pirogues to St. Charles, Missouri, where Lewis joined them six days later. The expedition set out the next afternoon, May 21. While accounts vary, it is believed the Corps had as many as 45 members, including the officers, enlisted military personnel, civilian volunteers, and York, an African-American man enslaved by Clark. From St. Charles, the expedition followed the Missouri through what is now Kansas City, Missouri, and Omaha, Nebraska. On August 20, 1804, Sergeant Charles Floyd died, apparently from acute appendicitis. He had been among the first to sign up with the Corps of Discovery and was the only member to die during the expedition. He was buried at a bluff by the river, now named after him, in what is now Sioux City, Iowa. His burial site was marked with a cedar post on which was inscribed his name and day of death. 1 mile (2 km) up the river, the expedition camped at a small river which they named Floyd's River. During the final week of August,


id: lewis-and-clark-expedition-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition-3.md
category: reference
title: Lewis and Clark Expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:48.040203+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lewis-and-clark-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
The expedition sighted the Pacific Ocean for the first time on November 7, 1805, arriving two weeks later. The expedition faced the beginning of its second bitter winter camped on the north side of the Columbia River, in a storm-wracked area Clark called Dismal Nitch. Lack of food was a major factor. The elk, the party's main source of food, had retreated from their usual haunts into the mountains, and the party was now too poor to purchase enough food from neighboring tribes. On November 24, 1805, the majority of the party voted to move their camp to the south side of the Columbia River near modern Astoria, Oregon. Both Sacagawea and the enslaved York participated in the vote. On the south side of the Columbia River, 2 miles (3 km) upstream on the west side of the Netul River (now Lewis and Clark River), they constructed Fort Clatsop. They did this not just for shelter and protection, but also to officially establish the American presence there, with the American flag flying over the fort. During the winter at Fort Clatsop, Lewis committed himself to writing. He filled many pages of his journals with valuable knowledge, mostly about botany, because


id: lewis-and-clark-expedition-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition-4.md
category: reference
title: Lewis and Clark Expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:48.040203+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lewis-and-clark-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
The Lewis and Clark Expedition gained an understanding of the geography of the Pacific Northwest and produced the first accurate maps of the area. During the journey, Lewis and Clark drew about 140 maps. Stephen Ambrose says the expedition "filled in the main outlines" of the area. The expedition documented natural resources and plants that had been previously unknown to European Americans, though not to the indigenous peoples. Lewis and Clark were the first Americans to cross the Continental Divide, and the first Americans to see Yellowstone, enter into Montana, and produce an official description of these different regions. Their visit to the Pacific Northwest, maps, and proclamations of sovereignty with medals and flags were legal steps needed to claim title to each indigenous nation's lands under the discovery doctrine. The expedition was sponsored by the American Philosophical Society (APS). Lewis and Clark received some instruction in astronomy, botany, climatology, ethnology, geography, meteorology, mineralogy, ornithology, and zoology. During the expedition, they made contact with over 70 Native American tribes and described more than 200 new plant and animal species. Thomas Jefferson had the expedition declare "sovereignty" and demonstrate their military strength to ensure native tribes would be subordinate to the


id: lewis-and-clark-expedition-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition-5.md
category: reference
title: Lewis and Clark Expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:48.040203+00:00
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parent: lewis-and-clark-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
=== Observations === As the expedition encountered the various Native American tribes during the course of their journey, they observed and recorded information regarding their lifestyles, customs and the social codes they lived by, as directed by President Jefferson. By European standards, the Native American way of life seemed harsh and unforgiving as witnessed by members of the expedition. After many encounters and camping in close proximity to the Native American nations for extended periods of time during the winter months, they soon learned first hand of their customs and social orders. One of the primary customs that distinguished Native American cultures from those of the West was that it was customary for the men to take on two or more wives if they were able to provide for them and often took on a wife or wives who were members of the immediate family circle, e.g. men in the Minnetaree and Mandan tribes would often take on a sister for a wife. Chastity among women was not held in high regard. Infant daughters were often sold by the father to men who were grown, usually for horses or mules. Women in Sioux nations were often bartered away for horses


id: lewis-and-clark-expedition-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition-6.md
category: reference
title: Lewis and Clark Expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:48.040203+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lewis-and-clark-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
Two months passed after the expedition's end before Thomas Jefferson made his first public statement to Congress, giving a one-sentence summary about the success of the expedition before offering justification for the expenses involved. Over the course of their journey, the Corps of Discovery acquired a knowledge of numerous tribes of Native Americans previously unknown to Europeans or Americans; they informed themselves of the trade which may be carried on with them, the best channels and positions for it, and they were able to describe the geography of the route they took with accuracy. Upon their return, the botanical and zoological discoveries drew the intense interest of the American Philosophical Society who requested specimens, various artifacts traded with the Native Americans, and reports on plants and wildlife along with various seeds obtained. Jefferson used seeds from "Missouri hominy corn" along with a number of other unidentified seeds to plant at Monticello which he cultivated and studied. He later reported on the "Indian corn" he had grown as being an "excellent" food source. The expedition helped establish the U.S. presence in the newly acquired territory and beyond and opened the door to further exploration, trade and scientific discoveries. Lewis and Clark


id: lewis-and-clark-expedition-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition-7.md
category: reference
title: Lewis and Clark Expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:48.040203+00:00
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parent: lewis-and-clark-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
The Far Horizons, a 1955 film about the expedition Gateway Arch National Park Lewis and Clark Pass (Montana) – the only non-motorized pass on the expedition's route Lewis and Clark's Keelboat The Red River Expedition (1806) and the Pike Expedition were also commissioned by Jefferson James Kendall Hosmer, American history professor and librarian who edited and published Nicholas Biddle's account of Lewis and Clark's journal Timeline of the Lewis and Clark Expedition == Notes == == References == == Bibliography == Allen, Paul (1902). History of the expedition under the command of Captains Lewis and Clark, Vol I. Toronto: George N. Morang & Co. Ltd. —— (1902). History of the expedition under the command of Captains Lewis and Clark, Vol II. Toronto:George N. Morang & Co. Ltd. —— (1902). History of the expedition under the command of Captains Lewis and Clark, Vol III. Toronto: George N. Morang & Co. Ltd. Ambrose, Stephen E. (1996). Undaunted Courage: Meriwether Lewis, Thomas Jefferson, and the Opening of the American West. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 511. ISBN 9780684811079. Bennett, George D. (2002). The United States Army: Issues, Background and Bibliography. Nova Publishers. p. 229. ISBN 9781590333006. Bergon, Frank (1989). The Journals of


id: lewis-and-clark-expedition-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition-8.md
category: reference
title: Lewis and Clark Expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:48.040203+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lewis-and-clark-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
=== Primary sources === Lewis, Meriwether; Clark, William (2004). The Journals Of Lewis And Clark. Kessinger Publishing. p. 312. ISBN 9781419167997. E'books, Full view Lewis, Meriwether; Clark, William; Floyd, Charles; Whitehouse, Joseph (1905). Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, 1804–1806, Vol. 6. New York: Dodd, Mead & Co. p. 280. Lewis, Meriwether; Clark, William (2003). Bergon, Frank (ed.). The Journals of Lewis & Clark. Penguin. p. 560. ISBN 9780142437360. Lewis, Meriwether (1811). The Travels of Captains Lewis and Clarke, from St. Louis, by way of the Missouri and Columbia Rivers, to the Paciﬁc Ocean; performed in the Years 1804, 1805, and 1806. By Order of the Government of the United States; containing Delineations of the Manners, Customs, Religion, &c. of the Indians; compiled from various authentic Sources and original Documents; and a summary of the Statistical View of the Indian Nations, from the official communication of Meriwether Lewis. In 8vo. illustrated with a Map of the Country inhabited by the Tribes of Western Indians. ("This is an interesting volume, and exhibits not only some valuable geographical notices, but very copious and amusing details respecting the manners, habits, and divisions of the India North America Tribes.") Modern Publications, and


id: morea-expedition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition-0.md
category: reference
title: Morea expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:49.439726+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
The Morea expedition (French: Expédition de Morée) is the name given to the land intervention of the French Army in the Peloponnese between 1828 and 1833, at the time of the Greek War of Independence, with the aim of expelling the Ottoman-Egyptian occupation forces from the region. It was also accompanied by a scientific expedition mandated by the French Academy. After the fall of Messolonghi in 1826, the Western European powers decided to intervene in favour of revolutionary Greece. Their primary objective was to force Ibrahim Pasha, the Ottoman Empire's Egyptian ally, to evacuate the occupied regions and the Peloponnese. The intervention began when a Franco-Russo-British fleet was sent to the region and won the Battle of Navarino in October 1827, destroying the entire Turkish-Egyptian fleet. In August 1828, a French expeditionary corps of 15,000 men led by General Nicolas-Joseph Maison landed in the southwestern Peloponnese. During October, soldiers took control of the principal strongholds still held by the Turkish troops. Although the bulk of the troops returned to France in early 1829 after an eight month-deployment, the French kept a military presence in the area until 1833. The French army would suffer about 1,500 dead, mainly due to fever


id: morea-expedition-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition-1.md
category: reference
title: Morea expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:49.439726+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
In 1828, Ibrahim Pasha thus found himself in a difficult situation: he had just suffered a defeat at Navarino; the joint fleet enforced a blockade which prevented him from receiving reinforcements and supplies; and his Albanian troops, whom he could no longer pay, had returned to their country under the protection of Theodoros Kolokotronis' Greek troops. On 6 August 1828, a convention had been signed at Alexandria between the viceroy of Egypt, Muhammad Ali, and the British admiral Edward Codrington. By its terms, Ibrahim Pasha was required to evacuate his Egyptian troops and leave the Peloponnese to the few Turkish troops (estimated at 1,200 men) remaining there, but he refused to honour the agreement and continued to control various Greek regions: Messenia, Navarino, and Patras as well as several other strongholds—and even ordered the systematic destruction of Tripolitza. Meanwhile, the French government of Charles X was beginning to have doubts about its Greek policy. Ibrahim Pasha himself noted this ambiguity when he met General Maison in September. Eventually a pro-Greek liberal movement, inspired by what was then happening in Greece, began to develop in France. The longer France waited to act, the more delicate her position vis-à-vis Metternich became. The


id: morea-expedition-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition-2.md
category: reference
title: Morea expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:49.439726+00:00
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parent: morea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
The Chamber of Deputies authorised a loan of 80 million gold francs to allow the government to meet its obligations for the expedition. An expeditionary corps of 13,000–15,000 men commanded by Lieutenant-General Nicolas Joseph Maison was formed. It was composed of nine infantry regiments distributed in three brigades commanded by the maréchaux de camp Tiburce Sébastiani (brother of Marshal Horace Sébastiani, soldier, diplomat and minister, 1st brigade), Philippe Higonet (2nd brigade), and Virgile Schneider (3rd brigade). The Chief of the General Staff was General Antoine Simon Durrieu. Also departing were the 3rd Chasseur Regiment (1st brigade, 286 men, commanded by Colonel Paul-Eugène de Faudoas-Barbazan), four companies of artillery (484 men, with 12 battery pieces for sieges, 8 for campaigns, and 12 for mountains) of the 3rd and 8th Artillery Regiments, and two companies of military engineers that included 800 sappers (combat engineers) and miners. A transport fleet protected by warships was organised; sixty ships sailed in all. Equipment, victuals, munitions and 1,300 horses had to be brought over, as well as arms, munitions and money for the Greek provisional government of Ioannis Kapodistrias. France wished to support the first steps of free Greece by helping it developing its own army.


id: morea-expedition-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition-3.md
category: reference
title: Morea expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:49.439726+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
According to the Convention of Alexandria (6 August 1828), signed by the viceroy of Egypt, Muhammad Ali, and the British admiral Edward Codrington, Ibrahim Pasha was required to evacuate his Egyptian troops and leave the Peloponnese to the few Turkish troops (estimated at 1,200 men) remaining there. He used a number of pretexts to delay the evacuation: problems with food supply or transport, or unforeseen difficulties in handing over the strongholds. The French officers had problems restraining the fighting zeal of their soldiers, who for example had become excited at the (false) news of an imminent march on Athens. The impatience of the French troops was perhaps decisive in convincing the Egyptian commander to respect his obligations. Moreover, the French soldiers began to suffer from the autumnal rains that drenched the tents pitched in their camps and favoured the spread of fever and dysentery. On 24 September, Louis-Eugène Cavaignac wrote that thirty men of 400 in his company of military engineers were already affected by fever. General Maison wished to be able to set up his men in the fortresses' barracks. On 7 September, following a long conference aboard the ship Conquérant, in the presence of General Maison and the


id: morea-expedition-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition-4.md
category: reference
title: Morea expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:49.439726+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
It was more difficult to take Koroni. General Tiburce Sébastiani showed up there on 7 October with a part of his 1st brigade and announced the taking of the fortresses of Navarino and Methoni. The fort commander's response was similar to those given at Navarino and Methoni. Sébastiani sent his sappers, who were pushed back by rocks thrown from atop the walls. A dozen men were wounded, among them Cavaignac and, more seriously, a captain (Boutauld), a sergeant and three sappers. The other French soldiers felt insulted and their general had great difficulty in preventing them from opening fire and taking the stronghold by force. The Amphitrite, the Breslaw and the Wellesley came to assist the ground troops. The threat they posed led the Ottoman commander to surrender. On October 9, the French entered Koroni and seized 80 cannon and guns, along with a store of victuals and munitions. The fortress was then given to the Greek troops of General Nikitaras who settled there. ===== Patras ===== Patras had been controlled by Ibrahim Pasha's troops since his evacuation of the Peloponnese. The 3rd brigade commanded by General Virgile Schneider had been sent by sea to take the city, located in


id: morea-expedition-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition-5.md
category: reference
title: Morea expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:49.439726+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
On 5 November 1828, the last Turks and Egyptians had definitely left Morea. 2,500 men and their families were placed aboard French vessels headed for Smyrna. Therefore 26-27,000 men in total were forced to leave the country and the strongholds in a few days. The capture of the Morea strongholds by the French expeditionary force had only required a month:Our operations were successful in all aspects: we do not find military glory there, without any doubt; but the object for which we have come, the liberation of Greece, will have been more successful and prompt; Morea will have been purged of its enemies. — Lieutenant-General Nicolas-Joseph MaisonThe French and British ambassadors had set themselves up at Poros in September 1828 and invited Constantinople to send a diplomat there so as to conduct negotiations over the status of Greece. Because the Porte persisted in refusing to participate in conferences, General Maison explicitly suggested Greek Governor Ioannis Kapodistrias (on 5 October) pursuing military operations and extending them to Attica and Euboea. France supported this project and had for that initially given instructions to General Maison on 27 August 1828. But the British Prime Minister, the Duke of Wellington, opposed this plan (he


id: morea-expedition-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition-6.md
category: reference
title: Morea expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:49.439726+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
Fortifications were raised (like those at Methoni or Navarino), barracks were built (the "Maison's building" in Navarino's fortress, which houses nowadays the new archaeological museum of Pylos), bridges were constructed (such as those over the Pamissos River between Navarino and Kalamata), the road Navarino–Methoni was built (the first road of independent Greece, which is still used today), hospitals (in Navarino, Modon and Patras) and health commissions were established for the Greek population (as during the plague epidemic in the mountainous villages of Kalavryta and Vrachni in December 1828, which was contained by the General Higonet). Finally, many improvements were made to the Peloponnesian cities (schools, postal services, printing companies, bridges, squares, fountains, gardens, etc.). The military engineering commander of the Morea expedition, Lieutenant-Colonel Joseph-Victor Audoy, was commissioned by the Governor of Greece Ioannis Kapodistrias to design the first urban framework plan of the country's modern history. Audoy built from the spring of 1829 the new cities of Modon (today Methoni) and Navarino (today Pylos) outside the walls of the fortresses, on the model of the bastides of Southwest France (from where he originated) and of the cities of the Ionian Islands (which share common features, such as a central geometrical


id: morea-expedition-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition-7.md
category: reference
title: Morea expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:49.439726+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
Despite the brevity of the military operations and the small number of battles, the human cost of the French expedition was extremely heavy: between 1 September 1828 and 1 April 1829, the Chief Medical Officer of the expeditionary corps, Dr. Gaspard Roux, officially reported 4,766 illnesses and 1,000 deaths (numbers confirmed by Doctor Charles-Joseph Bastide, Surgeon-Major of the 16th Line Infantry Regiment). Thus, almost a third of French troops were affected by fevers, diarrhea and dysentery, which had been mostly contracted between October and December 1828 in the camps established within the marshy plains of Petalidi, in the mouth of the river Djalova (in Navarino Bay) or in Patras. This epidemic of fever, characterized by a large majority of tertian fevers (occurring every two days), periodic, with a high rate of relapse, dazzling and accompanied by shivering, jaundice, convulsions, headache and neurological and digestive disorders, certainly corresponds to malaria (word that originates from medieval Italian: mala aria—"bad air"; the disease was formerly called ague or marsh fever due to its association with swamps and marshland) which was endemic to the region at that time (it was definitively eradicated in Greece in 1974). The epidemic began during the warm season, on


id: morea-expedition-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition-8.md
category: reference
title: Morea expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:49.439726+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
...take advantage of the presence of our soldiers who were occupying Morea to send a scholarly commission. It did not have to equal that attached to the glory of Napoleon […] It did however need to render eminent services to the arts and sciences. The Interior minister of King Charles X, the power behind the throne and real head of the government at the time, the Viscount of Martignac, charged six academicians of the Institut de France (Académie des Sciences: Georges Cuvier and Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire. Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-lettres: Charles-Benoît Hase and Desiré-Raoul Rochette. Académie des Beaux-arts: Jean-Nicolas Hyot and Jean-Antoine Letronne) to appoint the chief-officers and members of each section of the Scientific Committee. Jean-Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent was thus appointed director of the commission on December 9, 1828. They also determined the routes and objectives. As Bory will write later: Messrs. De Martignac and Siméon had asked me expressly not to restrict my observations to Flies and Herbs, but to extend them to places and to menThe expedition, composed of nineteen scientists, was divided into three sections (Physical Sciences, Archaeology, Architecture-Sculpture), each placed under the direction of Jean-Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent (Physical Sciences section), Léon-Jean-Joseph Dubois


id: morea-expedition-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition-9.md
category: reference
title: Morea expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:49.439726+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
One of the first objectives fixed by the French government had been to draw precise maps of the Peloponnese, with a scientific purpose, but also for economic and military reasons. The Minister of War, the Vicomte de Caux, had written to General Maison on January 6, 1829: All the maps of Greece are very imperfect and were drawn up based on more or less inaccurate templates; it is thus essential to fix them. Not only will geography be enriched by this research, but we will in the process support France's commercial interests by making her relations easier, and it will above all be useful for our ground and naval forces, who may find themselves involved in this part of Europe. The only maps available at the time were those made by Jean-Denis Barbié du Bocage (1808, in 1:500,000 scale), whose map was relatively imperfect, and that of Pierre Lapie (1826, in 1:400,000 scale), which was more exact for a detailed layout and was used by the members of the expedition. Captain Pierre Peytier, of the topographic service in the French army, had already been invited to Greece by Governor Ioannis Kapodistrias when the latter had come to Paris in October


id: morea-expedition-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition-10.md
category: reference
title: Morea expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:49.439726+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
==== Botany and Zoology ==== Jean Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent led the Morea scientific expedition, and made detailed botanical observations. He gathered a multitude of specimens: Flore de Morée (1832) lists 1,550 plants, of which 33 were orchids and 91 were grasses (just 42 species had not yet been described); Nouvelle Flore du Péloponnèse et des Cyclades (1838) described 1,821 species. In Morea, Bory de Saint-Vincent limited himself to collecting only the plants. He proceeded to their classification, identification and description upon his return to the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle de Paris. He was then helped, not by his collaborators from Greece, but by the eminent botanists of his time, Louis Athanase Chaubard, Jean-Baptiste Fauché and Adolphe-Théodore Brongniart. Similarly, the well-known naturalists Étienne and his son Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire helped him to write and edit the expedition's scientific works, under the supervision of Georges Cuvier at the institute. As the gathering process went along, they sent the plants, as well as birds and fish, to France. In zoological matters, relatively few new species were described. However, the Morea expedition identified for the first time the species of jackal, Canis aureus, or golden jackal, that populates the region. Although earlier travel narratives


id: morea-expedition-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition-11.md
category: reference
title: Morea expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:49.439726+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
==== Itineraries ==== The publication of the works on archaeology and art followed the same pattern as with the publication of the works on physical and natural sciences: that of an itinerary with descriptions of the roads travelled, noteworthy monuments along these routes, and descriptions of their destinations. Hence, volume I of Expédition de Morée. Section des Beaux Arts describes Navarino (pp. 1–7) with six pages of drawings (fountains, churches, the fortress of Navarino and the city of Nestor); then on pages 9–10, the road Navarino-Methoni is detailed with four pages of plates (a church in ruins and its frescoes, but also bucolic landscapes reminding the reader that the scene is not so far from Arcadia); and finally three pages on Methoni with four pages of drawings. The bucolic landscapes were rather close to the "norm" that Hubert Robert had proposed for the depictions of Greece. The presence of the troops from the expeditionary corps was important, alternating with that of the Greek shepherds: "[...] their generous hospitality and simple and innocent manners reminded us of the beautiful period of pastoral life which fiction calls the Golden age, and which seemed to offer the real characters of the Theocritus' and


id: morea-expedition-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition-12.md
category: reference
title: Morea expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:49.439726+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
Then, the expedition spent six weeks, starting on May 10, 1829, in Olympia. Léon-Jean-Joseph Dubois (Archaeology section) and Abel Blouet (Architecture and Sculpture section) undertook the first excavations there. They were accompanied by the painters Frédéric de Gournay, Pierre Achille Poirot, Pierre Félix Trézel and Amaury-Duval, as well as a troop of more than a hundred workers. The site of Olympia had been rediscovered in 1766 by the English antiquarian Richard Chandler. Since then, it had been visited by many other travellers such as Fauvel, Pouqueville, Gell, Cokerell and Leake. Its general identification by the archaeologists of the Morea expedition was made possible thanks to the more precise descriptions of Edward Dodwell (for Dubois) and John Spencer Stanhope (for Blouet). Most of the buildings were invisible, because as Abel Blouet noted, they must have been covered with a thick layer of sediment due to the frequent overflows of rivers Alfeios and Kladeos. Only a single large fragment of a Doric column was visible. It had already been spotted by the previous travellers because the inhabitants of neighboring villages had dug trenches there to remove the stone, but none of them had attributed it with certainty to the temple of Zeus.


id: morea-expedition-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition-13.md
category: reference
title: Morea expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:49.439726+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
=== End of the scientific mission === The vast majority of members of the scientific expedition paid a heavy price for the fevers they suffered during their sojourn in Morea. Many were forced to shorten their stay on the peninsula and to be repatriated to France before the beginning of 1830. The topographic brigade was severely affected: out of eighteen officers who had been successively employed in the topographical works of the Morea, three had died there and ten, whose health was ruined, were forced to retire. Captain Peytier wrote in 1834: "It is geodesy that ruins my health and I do not want anymore to do it in the mountains, at any cost whatsoever." They were therefore reduced to work only during the cool season and to stop for summer, the season during which they drew their maps. Jean-Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent, meanwhile wrote: "The horrible heat that beset us in July placed the entire topographic brigade in disarray. These gentlemen, having worked in the sun, have nearly all taken ill, and we grieved to see M. Dechièvre die at Napoli eight days ago." Émile Puillon Boblaye wrote: "Out of twelve officers employed in the geodetic service, two are


id: morea-expedition-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition-14.md
category: reference
title: Morea expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:49.439726+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
Nouvelle Flore du Péloponnèse et des Cyclades Bory de Saint-Vincent, Reviewed edition, augmented by the Flore de Morée. de 1832, F.G. Levrault, Paris, 1838 Recherches géographiques sur les ruines de Morée Émile Puillon Boblaye, F.G. Levrault, Paris, 1836. Notice sur les opérations géodésiques exécutées en Morée, en 1829 et 1830, MM. Peytier, Puillon-Boblaye et Servier; suivie d’un catalogue des positions géographiques des principaux points déterminés par ces opérations, Pierre Peytier, Émile Puillon Boblaye et Aristide-Camille Servier, in the Bulletin de la Société de géographie, vol. 19 n° 117–122 (Jan–June 1833) The Peytier Album, Liberated Greece and the Morea Scientific Expedition, in the Stephen Vagliano Collection, Album by Pierre Peytier, National Bank of Greece, Athens, 1971. Percement de l'isthme de Corinthe Pierre Théodore Virlet d'Aoust, p. 408–421, Bulletin de la Société de géographie, vol. 2, 1881. ==== Archaeology section ==== De la Grèce moderne, et de ses rapports avec l'antiquité by Edgar Quinet, F.G. Levrault, Paris, 1830. Souvenirs (1829-1830) Eugène Emmanuel Amaury Duval, Librairie Plon, E. Plon, Nourrit et Cie, imprimeurs-éditeurs, Paris, 1885. Journal de voyage de M. Trézel (unpublished), by Pierre Félix Trézel, National Library of France–BnF, n. acq. fr. 1849, fol. 19r, 21 July 1829. Jean-Baptiste Vietty et l'Expédition


id: morea-expedition-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition-15.md
category: reference
title: Morea expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morea_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:49.439726+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
== Bibliography == Baloti Xeni D., Le maréchal N.J. Maison (1771–1840) – Un Grand Philhellène, editions Helliniki Euroekdotiki, Athens, 1993. Bourguet Marie-Noëlle, Lepetit Bernard, Nordman Daniel, Sinarellis Maroula, L’Invention scientifique de la Méditerranée. Égypte, Morée, Algérie., Editions EHESS, 1998. ISBN 2-7132-1237-5 (in French) Brewer David, The Greek War of Independence : The Struggle for Freedom from Ottoman Oppression and the Birth of the Modern Greek Nation, New York, The Overlook Press, 393 p. 2001. ISBN 978-1-58567-395-7 Brunet de Presle Wladimir and Alexandre Blanchet, Grèce depuis la conquête romaine jusqu’à nos jours, Paris, Firmin Didot, 589 p., 1860. (in French) Contogeorgis Georges, Histoire de la Grèce, Paris, Hatier, coll. Nations d'Europe, 477 p., 1992. ISBN 978-2-218-03841-9 (in French) Dakin Douglas, The Greek Struggle for Independence, 1821–1833, University of California Press, 1973. Driault Édouard and Lhéritier Michel, Histoire diplomatique de la Grèce, de 1821 à nos jours, volume I and II, Les presses universitaires de France, Paris, 1925. (in French) Gioanni Stéphane, Jean-Baptiste Vietty et l'Expédition de Morée (1829). À propos de deux manuscrits retrouvés, Journal des Savants, De Boccard, 2 (1), pp. 383–429, 2008. doi:10.3406/jds.2008.5891 (in French) Hugo Abel, France militaire. Histoire des armées françaises de terre et de mer de


id: norwegian-scientific-expedition-to-tristan-da-cunha-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_Scientific_Expedition_to_Tristan_Da_Cunha-0.md
category: reference
title: Norwegian Scientific Expedition to Tristan Da Cunha
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_Scientific_Expedition_to_Tristan_Da_Cunha
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:50.638156+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: norwegian-scientific-expedition-to-tristan-da-cunha-20260505-0
summary:
The Norwegian Scientific Expedition to Tristan Da Cunha was a scientific and cultural exploration of the most remote inhabited archipelago in the world, in the south Atlantic Ocean, 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi) from the nearest inhabited land, Saint Helena. The expedition arrived on the island in December 1937 and left in March 1938. == History == Captained by botanist Erling Christophersen, the thirteen man crew included three University of Oslo Ph.D. students conducting research for their dissertations, which were published shortly after their return; these included sociologist Peter A. Munch, ornithologist Yngvar Hagen, and phycologist Egil Baardseth. Also among the crew were a geologist, a marine biologist, an ichthyologist, a dentist, and a doctor. A late addition to the crew was topological surveyor Allan Crawford, a British engineer who was recruited by the captain en route to Cape Town, and who would later come to be regarded as a leading authority on Tristan Da Cunha. Based on observations made during the voyage, Christophersen published Tristan da Cunha, the Lonely Isle (1938) and the comprehensive Norwegian Scientific Expedition to Tristan Da Cunha, 1937-1938 (1945), while the Ph.D. students published their work and achieved their degrees. Munch published Sociology of Tristan da


id: operation-drake-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Drake-0.md
category: reference
title: Operation Drake
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Drake
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:51.779420+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: operation-drake-20260505-0
summary:
Operation Drake (1978–1980) was a round-the-world voyage with the participation of young people from many countries, sailing in the brigantine Eye of the Wind. She left Plymouth in October 1978 and returned to London two years later, in December 1980. Named after Sir Francis Drake, who had circumnavigated the world 400 years earlier on the Golden Hind, Operation Drake was divided into nine ocean- and one land-based phases, each lasting about 3 months. On each phase, a number of Young Explorers aged between seventeen and twenty-four, selected from countries all over the world, worked together on serious scientific exploration, research and community projects. The expedition was mounted by the Scientific Exploration Society, and the expedition leader was Colonel John Blashford-Snell. Charles, Prince of Wales, (now King Charles III), was the Patron of Operation Drake. Amongst the works produced on the voyage were series of specimens, including bats obtained in New Guinea, that were deposited and examined at the British Museum of Natural History. == Books == Blashford-Snell, John (1981). Operation Drake. London: W. H. Allen & Co. ISBN 0-491-02965-9. "In the Eye of the Wind", by Roger Chapman (Hamish Hamilton, London 1982, ISBN 0-241-10764-4) Mitchell, Andrew W. (1982). Operation Drake,


id: operation-hazen-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Hazen-0.md
category: reference
title: Operation Hazen
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Hazen
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:52.929040+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: operation-hazen-20260505-0
summary:
Operation Hazen was a Canadian programme of meteorological, glaciological and geological work undertaken as part of the International Geophysical Year. The investigations took place between 1957 and 1959 at Lake Hazen on Ellesmere Island, Nunavut, Canada. The programme was led by English-born geologist Geoffrey Hattersley-Smith. Organised by the Defence Research Board, twenty scientists took part in the operation, including officers from the Fisheries Research Board, the Geological Survey, the Human History and Natural History branches of the National Museum, the Canadian Wildlife Service, and members of McGill University, the University of Toronto, the University of Alberta, and Michigan State University. == Name == In 1882 American polar explorer Adolphus Greely was the first European to discover Lake Hazen during his 1881–1883 expedition and named the lake in honour of General William Babcock Hazen who had organized the expedition. Operation Hazen took its name from the lake. == 1957–58 == Between 28 April and 3 May the Royal Canadian Air Force flew in seven members of the party. A bulldozer dropped from the first flight was used to clear nine inches of snow to form a 3,500 foot airstrip. Two tractors, two dog teams and 35 tonnes of supplies and equipment


id: operation-sunshine-uss-nautilus-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Sunshine_(USS_Nautilus)-0.md
category: reference
title: Operation Sunshine (USS Nautilus)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Sunshine_(USS_Nautilus)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:54.239677+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: operation-sunshine-uss-nautilus-20260505-0
summary:
Operation Sunshine was a scientific expedition conducted by the United States Navy in the summer of 1958. A crew of just over 100 sailors piloted USS Nautilus (SSN-571) under the North Pole. Nautilus was chosen for the mission because her nuclear reactor allowed her to remain submerged longer than a conventional submarine. The mission was completed successfully on August 3, 1958, when Nautilus and crew crossed under the North Pole. == Vanguard == One of the "fronts" of the Cold War was a technology race between the governments of the United States and the Soviet Union. There was tension between the two governments over nuclear weapons, and a "space race" developed during the late 1950s, in which each government aimed to demonstrate its superiority through demonstrations of scientific and technological advances. Russia celebrated the successful launch of their Sputnik I satellite into orbit in October 1957. Shortly after, the United States attempted to launch their Vanguard I satellite, which exploded before lifting off. Soviet researchers were ahead of their U.S. counterparts in rocket technology, and the American public was aware of this technology gap. There was concern that the Soviet government would be able to use the same rockets that


id: red-river-expedition-1806-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_River_Expedition_(1806)-0.md
category: reference
title: Red River Expedition (1806)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_River_Expedition_(1806)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:55.436019+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: red-river-expedition-1806-20260505-0
summary:
The Red River Expedition, also known as the Freeman–Custis Expedition, Freeman Red River Expedition, Sparks Expedition, and officially Exploring Expedition of Red River, was one of the first civilian scientific expeditions to explore the Southwestern United States. The 1806 expedition was ordered to find the headwaters of the Red River (Red River of the South) from the Mississippi River as a possible trading route to Santa Fe, which was then under Spanish colonial control in New Mexico; to contact Native American peoples for trading purposes; to collect data on flora, fauna, and topography, and map the country and river; and to assess the land for settlement. The Spanish officials intercepted the expedition 615 miles upriver, in what is now northeastern Texas, and turned it back before the party had achieved all of its goals. == Planning == The third US President, Thomas Jefferson, ranked the Red River Expedition in importance second only to the Lewis and Clark Expedition to reach the Pacific Ocean through the Northwest. The Red River stretches west from its confluence with the Mississippi River across what is now the state of Louisiana and part of south-western Arkansas. Further west, the river forms the present-day southern border


id: red-river-expedition-1806-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_River_Expedition_(1806)-1.md
category: reference
title: Red River Expedition (1806)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_River_Expedition_(1806)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:55.436019+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: red-river-expedition-1806-20260505-0
summary:
On April 19, 1806, the now-24-member party (Freeman and his two assistants; Sparks, who commanded the military party, with two officers, seventeen privates, and a servant) pushed off in two flat-bottomed barges and a pirogue from Fort Adams, near Natchez, Mississippi, and turned into the Red River to go upstream to the west. The group gradually took on soldiers along the route in response to rumors of a possible attack by Spanish troops and soon numbered 45. By July 28, the party was 615 miles upriver, near what is now New Boston, Texas, and heard gunfire in the distance that indicated the presence of Spanish troops. "Hoping to provoke an international confrontation for personal gain," U.S. General James Wilkinson of the Louisiana Territory had secretly notified Spain of the Freeman expedition (he had had separate dealings with it earlier) and sent two teams of soldiers to intercept the party. The Freeman party was stopped at what has since been called "Spanish Bluff" on the river. Both the Spanish commander and Freeman undertook a parlay. The Spanish said that they had been ordered to fire on any foreign armed troops passing through Spanish territory. In response, Freeman demanded for the Spanish


id: ross-expedition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ross_expedition-0.md
category: reference
title: Ross expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ross_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:56.586532+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ross-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
The Ross expedition was a voyage of scientific exploration of the Antarctic in 1839 to 1843, led by James Clark Ross, with two unusually strong warships, HMS Erebus and HMS Terror. It explored what is now called the Ross Sea and discovered the Ross Ice Shelf. On the expedition, Ross discovered the Transantarctic Mountains and the volcanoes Mount Erebus and Mount Terror, named after each ship. The young botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker made his name on the expedition. The expedition confirmed the existence of the continent of Antarctica, inferred the position of the South Magnetic Pole and made substantial observations of the zoology and botany of the region, resulting in a monograph on the zoology and a series of four detailed monographs by Hooker on the botany, collectively called Flora Antarctica, published in parts between 1843 and 1859. Among the expedition's biological discoveries was the Ross seal, a species confined to the pack ice of Antarctica. The expedition was also the last major voyage of exploration made wholly under sail. == Expedition == === Background === In 1838, the British Association for the Advancement of Science (BA) proposed an expedition to carry out magnetic measurements in the Antarctic. Sir James


id: ross-expedition-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ross_expedition-1.md
category: reference
title: Ross expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ross_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:56.586532+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ross-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
=== Botany === The expedition's botanical discoveries were documented in Joseph Dalton Hooker's four-part Flora Antarctica (1843–1859). It totalled six volumes (parts III and IV each being in two volumes), covered about 3000 species, and contained 530 plates figuring in all 1095 of the species described. It was throughout "splendidly" illustrated by Walter Hood Fitch. The parts were: Part I Botany of Lord Auckland's Group and Campbell's Island (1844–1845) Part II Botany of Fuegia, the Falklands, Kerguelen's Land, Etc. (1845–1847) Part III Flora Novae-Zelandiae (1851–1853) (2 volumes) Part IV Flora Tasmaniae (1853–1859) (2 volumes) Hooker gave Charles Darwin a copy of the first part of the Flora; Darwin thanked him, and agreed in November 1845 that the geographical distribution of organisms would be "the key which will unlock the mystery of species". == Influence == In 1912, the Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen wrote of the Ross expedition that "Few people of the present day are capable of rightly appreciating this heroic deed, this brilliant proof of human courage and energy. With two ponderous craft – regular "tubs" according to our ideas – these men sailed right into the heart of the pack [ice], which all previous explorers had regarded as


id: thayer-expedition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thayer_Expedition-0.md
category: reference
title: Thayer Expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thayer_Expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:57.724844+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: thayer-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
The Thayer Expedition was an American scientific expedition to Brazil, sponsored by Boston businessman Nathaniel Thayer Jr. It was a biological and geological expedition undertaken by multiple scientists, several based at Harvard University, between April 1865 and August 1866. Scientists collected tens of thousands of specimens, some later recognized as new species. Most of the specimens collected during the expedition ended up in the collections of Harvard's Museum of Comparative Zoology, founded by Louis Agassiz, the leader of the expedition. The Thayer Expedition took place at the end of the American Civil War, with the ocean voyage from New York City to Rio de Janeiro beginning on April 2, just a week prior to Lee's surrender at Appomattox. The expedition sailed on board the S.S. Colorado, owned by the Pacific Mail Steamship Company, and docked in Rio de Janeiro on April 23. They explored Brazil from the coast to the Tocantins River and along its tributaries to the borders of Colombia and Peru. == Participants == The expedition included the following named participants: Louis Agassiz, Swiss-American zoologist, ichthyologist, geologist, and leader of the expedition. His primary goal for the expedition was the collection of Brazilian freshwater fish specimens. Elizabeth Cabot


id: whitney-south-sea-expedition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitney_South_Sea_Expedition-0.md
category: reference
title: Whitney South Sea Expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitney_South_Sea_Expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:58.978217+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: whitney-south-sea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
The Whitney South Sea Expedition (1920 - 1941) to collect bird specimens for the American Museum of Natural History (AMNH), under the initial leadership of Rollo Beck, was instigated by Dr Leonard C. Sanford and financed by Harry Payne Whitney, a thoroughbred horse-breeder and philanthropist. It was administered by a committee at the AMNH and became a focus for attracting funds for research on the biota of the Pacific islands. The expedition visited islands in the south Pacific region and eventually returned with over 40,000 bird specimens, many plant specimens and an extensive collection of anthropological items and photographs. Using the 75-ton schooner France, with many different scientists and collectors participating over more than a dozen years, the expedition visited thousands of islands throughout Oceania, Micronesia, Polynesia and Melanesia. The France was sold in 1932 when funds ran out. Specimens from the expedition were displayed in a hall at the AMNH funded by Harry Whitney. == Aims of the expedition == The expedition's main aim was to collect birds from various South Pacific islands and the Pacific Ocean, on behalf of the American Museum of Natural History. The AMNH cooperated with the Bishop Museum in Hawaii and the United States


id: whitney-south-sea-expedition-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitney_South_Sea_Expedition-1.md
category: reference
title: Whitney South Sea Expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitney_South_Sea_Expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:58.978217+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: whitney-south-sea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
The expedition was led by Rollo H. Beck (1920–1928), Hannibal Hamlin (1928–1930), William F. Coultas (1930–1935), Lindsay Macmillan (1935–1940), and G. Reid Henry (1941). Beck, an expert bird collector himself, hired Ernest H. Quayle to assist with collecting, including the botanical specimens collected by the expedition. Quayle was a Stanford University graduate with a geology degree. Beck, his wife Ida and Quayle based themselves in Papeete in 1920, and in 1922 Charles Curtis, who had been working on a plantation in Tahiti, joined the expedition as Beck was readying to leave Tahiti in the France. Curtis spent five months with the expedition before returning to his previous job. José Correia and his wife Virginia joined the Whitney South Sea Expedition in 1922 to replace Ernest Quayle, with Correia acting as expedition leader for six months in 1923 while Beck was away in New York. Correia was a cooper by trade. While on a trip to the Antarctic as a cooper in 1911, he had met Dr Robert Murphy of the AMNH, who taught him how to prepare bird specimens. Correia then took part in other AMNH expeditions as a bird collector. The Correias left the Whitney expedition at the end


id: whitney-south-sea-expedition-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitney_South_Sea_Expedition-2.md
category: reference
title: Whitney South Sea Expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitney_South_Sea_Expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:58.978217+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: whitney-south-sea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
The expedition travelled between island groups by ship, either getting passage on local vessels, using the schooner France that they had purchased, or chartering other vessels such as the Pato, a schooner hired by Coultas in 1933. Bird specimens were collected by various methods. On the ocean, the expedition's ship might pass by a flock of birds which could be shot from on board. On reaching an island, expedition members would go ashore by rowboat to shoot birds along the coast, or walk and climb into the interior of the island to seek out and shoot land birds and other specimens. On inhabited islands, the team would consult the local people to find out about the types and habits of various birds, and would employ local guides to take them to nesting areas. Local people were also paid to collect specimens for the expedition. Specimens had to be processed quickly before they decomposed. Sometimes the expedition members would set up a base on land and process the birds there, but otherwise skinning was typically done by the light of benzine lamps in the hold of the France. Supplies needed for processing birds included arsenic, alum, benzine, cornmeal, needles, bone cutters,


id: whitney-south-sea-expedition-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitney_South_Sea_Expedition-3.md
category: reference
title: Whitney South Sea Expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitney_South_Sea_Expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:58.978217+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: whitney-south-sea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
That an extensively equipped foreign collecting expedition on such a scale and with permission to kill the extravagant number of birds allowed should be given entirely unrestricted liberty, except by a few valueless written conditions, amongst our birds, some of which are on the verge of extinction, is unthinkable, a slur on the regard which the people of New Zealand are evincing in the welfare of their heritage, the care of which is entrusted to your department. Your action is also a slight to the operations of this society, and it seems idle and hypocritical for us to continue further work and collect subscriptions from school children and others in the face of such departmental lassitude. We think, moreover, it would only have been courtesy had you consulted us before issuing permits to destroy any of the extremely rare species included in the list to be killed, as, for instance, the Chatham Island bell bird, Auckland Island duck, Chatham Island fern bird and pigeon, sand plover (ten is out of all reason), Chatham Island snipe, Southern Merganser, and half a dozen other species which are on the verge of extinction and should not have been allowed to be killed under


id: whitney-south-sea-expedition-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitney_South_Sea_Expedition-4.md
category: reference
title: Whitney South Sea Expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitney_South_Sea_Expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:58.978217+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: whitney-south-sea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
He is unable to work even to the best advantage, or to inspire [the men's] cooperation and loyalty. A feeling of loyalty to the Museum, or to someone else abroad has kept men on this thing, as in the case of sailors a contract, when otherwise they would have made sudden and speedy departure. Drowne also believed that it was important to establish friendly relations with the local people when entering their territory.The France faced gales and storms and high seas in the Pacific Ocean. On 2 June 1926 the expedition met particularly bad weather, which the captain recorded in his logbook: "Sky extremely ugly [...] Squalls at frequent intervals of severe intensity and with heavy rain, hail, lightning and thunder. Sea high and confused.[...] Water spout passed very close ahead.[....] Vessel shipped considerable amount of water [...] Suspect the above, to be passing very close to centre of cyclonic system". Jose Correia used more colourful language to describe the storm: “…we ran into the center of a strong cyclone on June 2nd. Everybody in the ship thought that they were never going to see land again, but God did not forget us in the middle of the furious ocean.”


id: whitney-south-sea-expedition-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitney_South_Sea_Expedition-5.md
category: reference
title: Whitney South Sea Expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitney_South_Sea_Expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:12:58.978217+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: whitney-south-sea-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
== Legacy == The expedition was important for several reasons. The specimens and data collected provided a large database for subsequent studies of birds in the Pacific. The expedition was able to confirm the role of geographical isolation in the development of new species, as described by Darwin in his studies of finches in the Galapagos Islands almost a hundred years earlier. In 1938, Murphy stated that the expedition had so far identified 196 new species and sub-species of birds. One of the birds collected during the expedition was Procellaria munda (as named by Kuhl in 1820). A specimen of this bird was collected and sketched during Captain Cook's first world voyage in 1769, but there had been no further documented sightings until Beck saw the bird, a type of shearwater, on 16 February 1926. The expedition was also able to confirm the long-distance migration patterns of various sea birds including the long-tailed cuckoo (Urodynamis taitensis). In 1929, Sanford asked the Whitneys to fund a new wing for the American Museum of Natural History, which would house the many specimens being collected by the South Sea expedition and other expeditions in Africa and South America. Construction of the Whitney Wing


id: polar-exploration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_exploration-0.md
category: reference
title: Polar exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:00.463267+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: polar-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
Polar exploration is the process of exploration of the polar regions of Earth – the Arctic region and Antarctica – particularly with the goal of reaching the North Pole and South Pole, respectively. Historically, this was accomplished by explorers making often arduous travels on foot or by sled in these regions, known as a polar expedition. More recently, exploration has been accomplished with technology, particularly with satellite imagery. From 600 BC to 300 BC, Greek philosophers theorized that the planet was a Spherical Earth with North and South polar regions. By 150 AD, Ptolemy published Geographia, which notes a hypothetical Terra Australis Incognita. However, due to harsh weather conditions, the poles themselves would not be reached for centuries after that. When they finally were reached, the achievement was realized only a few years apart. There are two claims, both disputed, about who were the first persons to reach the geographic North Pole. Frederick Cook, accompanied by two Inuit men, Ahwelah and Etukishook, claimed to have reached the Pole on April 21, 1908, although this claim is generally doubted. On April 6, 1909, Robert Peary claimed to be the first person in recorded history to reach the North Pole, accompanied by


id: arctic-exploration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_exploration-0.md
category: reference
title: Arctic exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:01.610599+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: arctic-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
Arctic exploration is the physical exploration of the Arctic region of the Earth. It refers to the historical period during which mankind has explored the region north of the Arctic Circle. Historical records suggest that humankind have explored the northern extremes since 325 BC, when the ancient Greek sailor Pytheas reached a frozen sea while attempting to find a source of the metal tin. Dangerous oceans and poor weather conditions often fetter explorers attempting to reach polar regions, and journeying through these perils by sight, boat, and foot has proven difficult. == Ancient history == === Indo-European hypothesis === A controversial hypothesis, often regarded as pseudohistory, sets the home of the mythical people Hyperboreans in the Arctic. The scientist and author John G. Bennett talked about it in his research paper "The Hyperborean Origin of the Indo-European Culture" (1963). The theory was originally put forth by William F. Warren, the first President of Boston University, in his Paradise Found or the Cradle of the Human Race at the North Pole. Later, Indian independence activist Bal Gangadhar Tilak resurrected Warren's theory in his The Arctic Home in the Vedas (1903), which was dedicated to philologist and indologist Max Müller, with whom


id: arctic-exploration-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_exploration-1.md
category: reference
title: Arctic exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:01.610599+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: arctic-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
Exploration to the north of the Arctic Circle in the Renaissance was both driven by the rediscovery of the Classics and the national quests for commercial expansion, and hampered by limits in maritime technology, lack of stable food supplies, and insufficient insulation for the crew against extreme cold. === Renaissance advancements in cartography === A seminal event in Arctic exploration occurred in 1409, when Ptolemy's Geographia was translated into Latin, thereby introducing the concepts of latitude and longitude into Western Europe. As a result navigators were better able to chart their positions. The Inventio Fortunata, a lost book, describes in a summary written by Jacobus Cnoyen but only found in a letter from Gerardus Mercator, voyages as far as the North Pole. One widely disputed claim is that two brothers from Venice, Niccolo and Antonio Zeno, allegedly made a map of their journeys to that region, which were published by their descendants in 1558. === Northwest Passage === The Northwest Passage connects the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans via the Arctic Ocean. Since the discovery of the American continent was the product of the search for a route to Asia, exploration around the northern edge of North America continued for the


id: arctic-exploration-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_exploration-2.md
category: reference
title: Arctic exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:01.610599+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: arctic-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
In the first half of the 19th century, parts of the Northwest Passage were explored separately by a number of different expeditions, including those by John Ross, William Edward Parry, James Clark Ross; and overland expeditions led by John Franklin, George Back, Peter Warren Dease, Thomas Simpson, and John Rae. Sir Robert McClure was credited with the discovery of the Northwest Passage by sea in 1851 when he looked across M'Clure Strait from Banks Island and viewed Melville Island. However, the strait was blocked by young ice at this point in the season, and not navigable to ships. The only usable route, linking the entrances of Lancaster Sound and Dolphin and Union Strait was first used by John Rae in 1851. Rae used a pragmatic approach of traveling by land on foot and dog sled, and typically employed less than ten people in his exploration parties. At this time, Arctic exploration was catching the interest of the public, notably in Britain, and many articles and images circulated among the many journals interested in travelogues. The Northwest Passage was not completely conquered by sea until 1906, when the Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen, who had sailed just in time to escape creditors


id: arctic-exploration-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_exploration-3.md
category: reference
title: Arctic exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:01.610599+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: arctic-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
== See also == Farthest North List of polar explorers List of Arctic expeditions List of Arctic exploration vessels List of firsts at the Geographic North Pole Great Northern Expedition List of Antarctic expeditions Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration List of Antarctic exploration ships from the Heroic Age, 1897–1922 History of Antarctica History of research ships List of Russian explorers Timeline of European exploration Drifting ice station Deep-sea exploration Space exploration Nikolai Pinegin == Notes == === Bibliography === Berton, Pierre (1989) [1988]. The Arctic Grail: The Quest for the North West Passage and the North Pole, 1818-1909. New York, NY: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-011680-9. Edinger, Ray (2014). Love and Ice: The Tragic Obsessions of Dr. Elisha Kent Kane, Arctic Explorer. Savannah, Georgia: Frederic C. Beil. ISBN 978-1-929490-38-7. McCannon, John (2012). A History of the Arctic: Nature, Exploration and Exploitation. London: Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1-78023-076-4. McCannon, John (1998). Red Arctic: Polar Exploration and the Myth of the North in the Soviet Union, 1932-1939. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-511436-2. Robinson, Michael F. (2006). The Coldest Crucible: Arctic Exploration and American Culture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-72187-3. Sale, Richard (2002). To the Ends of the Earth: The History


id: bothie-dog-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bothie_(dog)-0.md
category: reference
title: Bothie (dog)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bothie_(dog)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:02.803408+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bothie-dog-20260505-0
summary:
Bothie, also known as Bothie the Polar Dog, was a long-haired Jack Russell Terrier who was the only dog to travel to both the South and North Poles. Bothie was owned by Ranulph Fiennes and Ginny Fiennes and accompanied the team on the circumpolar Transglobe Expedition from 1979 to 1982. == Expedition == The Transglobe Expedition (1979–1982) was the first successful longitudinal (north–south) circumnavigation of the Earth using only surface transport, traversing both the South and North Poles. The expedition was conceived by Ginny Fiennes and led by her husband Ranulph Fiennes. Bothie, a stray long-haired brown-and-white Jack Russell Terrier, was given to the Fiennes couple in 1977, two years before the expedition. He was flown to join the Transglobe crew following the Africa segment, which was considered too hot for him. Bothie accompanied Ginny Fiennes throughout the rest of the expedition. This included enduring an Antarctic winter during his nine-month stay on the continent, and spending six weeks at the pole. During this period Bothie participated in the first cricket match ever held at the South Pole. To help him with the cold temperatures Bothie was kitted with tailor-made red coat, balaclava facemask, and boots, though he was said


id: mile-danco-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Émile_Danco-0.md
category: reference
title: Émile Danco
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Émile_Danco
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:04.853104+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mile-danco-20260505-0
summary:
Émile Danco (29 November 1869 - 5 June 1898) was a Belgian polar explorer. He was a lieutenant in the Belgian artillery and trained at the Royal Military Academy in Brussels, Belgium. He was a personal friend of Adrien de Gerlache de Gomery and became the first recruit for the Belgian Antarctic Expedition aboard the Belgica. Danco took part in several excursions during the first period in Antarctica, notably in early February 1898, when he joined de Gerlache, Amundsen, Cook and Arctowski on the expedition’s first camping trip, to an island west of the Antarctic Peninsula they named Brabant Island. He served as the geophysicist for the expedition, which became the first to overwinter in Antarctica. Émile Danco died of a heart condition aboard the Belgica on 5 June, 1898. His observations and work were taken up by Georges Lecointe, the Belgica's second in command. == Honors == Danco Island in the Gerlache Strait was named by Adrien de Gerlache de Gomery for Émile Danco The asteroid (9812) Danco was named for him == References == == External links == Media related to Émile Danco at Wikimedia Commons


id: explorer-film-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explorer_(film)-0.md
category: reference
title: Explorer (film)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explorer_(film)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:06.011368+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: explorer-film-20260505-0
summary:
Explorer is a 2022 biographical documentary film about the life and exploits of British explorer Sir Ranulph Fiennes, directed by Matthew Dyas. It was critically acclaimed as a "compelling portrait" of Fiennes. == Synopsis == The film includes both contemporary and archive footage and covers many of aspects of Fiennes' life including self-amputation of his fingers due to frostbite, involvement in the Dhofar Rebellion, leading the Transglobe expedition, being booted out of the SAS, running 7 marathons on 7 days on 7 continents, auditioning for James Bond, and reflections on his personal and family life. == Cast == Ranulph Fiennes as himself Anton Bowring as himself HM King Charles III as himself == Release == === Box office === Explorer was released to theatres on 14 July 2022. It was released to video on 30 August 2022. === Critical reception === On Rotten Tomatoes the film has a 100% rating based on reviews from 16 critics. On Metacritic it has score of 81 out of 100 based on reviews from 5 critics "universal acclaim". It has a 3 star review by Cath Clarke for the Guardian and a 5 star review by Robbie Collin for the Telegraph. Wendy Ide of


id: global-warrior-project-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Warrior_Project-0.md
category: reference
title: Global Warrior Project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Warrior_Project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:07.192383+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: global-warrior-project-20260505-0
summary:
The Global Warrior Project (formerly Ice Warrior Project) is an organisation founded in 2001 by the explorer Jim McNeill. Its remit is to develop people from all walks of life and echelons of society into modern-day explorers; to discover change in the world’s most remote and extreme regions under the guidance of partner leading scientific authorities; and deliver these discoveries in an engaging, human manner to audiences around the globe. The organisation provides raw, scientific data for others to go on and interpret in order to monitor these regions, which were described by Nobel peace prize nominee Sheila Watt-Cloutier as "clearly one of the most important regions when it comes to climate change." The project's founder Jim McNeill maintains that without such knowledge humans cannot be true guardians of the planet and we cannot establish whether the actions we are taking to mitigate climate change are having any lasting impact. As an organisation it has an altruistic project side which relies on corporate sponsorship and involves charitable work and also an underpinning commercial side. Global Warrior Project is made up of 5 extreme environments - Ice, Ocean, Desert, Mountain and Jungle. == See also == Jim McNeill - the founder


id: explorer-s-grand-slam-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explorer's_Grand_Slam-0.md
category: reference
title: Explorer's Grand Slam
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explorer's_Grand_Slam
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:08.370006+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: explorer-s-grand-slam-20260505-0
summary:
The Explorer's Grand Slam, also known as the Adventurer's Grand Slam, is an adventurer goal to reach the North Pole and South Pole, as well as climb the Seven Summits: Everest, Aconcagua, Denali, Kilimanjaro, Elbrus, Vinson, and Puncak Jaya or Kosciuszko. The reason for a choice of Puncak Jaya or Kosciuszko was to give Explorer's Grand Slam participants a choice in following the Bass List (Kosciuszko) or the Messner List (Puncak Jaya) when choosing their seventh summit. For more information see paragraph entitled Controversy in Eight Summits. Heo Young-Ho, a South Korean Alpinist, was the first person to complete the Explorer's Grand Slam, after he reached the South Pole from Berkner Island in January 1997. British Explorer, David Hempleman-Adams, unaware of Heo Young-Ho's achievements, claimed he was the first person, but this has proven to be incorrect. The top three to complete the Explorer's Grand Slam are: first, Heo Young-Ho, South Korean Alpinist, finishing with the South Pole in January 1997, second, Russian Survivalist Fyodor Konyukhov finishing with Denali in May 1997, and third, David Hempleman-Adams finishing with the geographic North Pole in 1998. == History == The original concept involved the polar trips starting from accepted coastal points, involving


id: international-polar-foundation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Polar_Foundation-0.md
category: reference
title: International Polar Foundation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Polar_Foundation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:09.470842+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-polar-foundation-20260505-0
summary:
Based in Brussels, Belgium, the International Polar Foundation (IPF) communicates and educates on polar science and polar research as a way to understand key environmental and climate mechanisms. The foundation also promotes innovative and multifaceted responses to the complex challenges raised by the need for action on sustainable development, and designed, built and operates the first zero emission Antarctic scientific research station Princess Elisabeth Antarctica. The IPF was founded in 2002 by polar explorers Alain Hubert, Hugo Decleir and André Berger. == Partnerships == The foundation is an active member of the University of the Arctic. UArctic is an international cooperative network based in the Circumpolar Arctic region, consisting of more than 200 universities, colleges, and other organizations with an interest in promoting education and research in the Arctic region. == See also == Princess Elisabeth Base == References == == External links == International Polar Foundation Belgian Antarctic Research Station - Princess Elisabeth Station


id: mackenzie-river-expedition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mackenzie_River_expedition-0.md
category: reference
title: Mackenzie River expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mackenzie_River_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:10.651313+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mackenzie-river-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
The Mackenzie River expedition of 1825–1827 was the second of three Arctic expeditions led by explorer John Franklin and organized by the Royal Navy. Its goal was the exploration of the North American coast between the mouths of the Mackenzie and Coppermine rivers and Bering Strait, in what is now present-day Alaska, Yukon, the Northwest Territories, and Nunavut. Beginning at the Great Bear Lake, it started with a descent of the Mackenzie River. Franklin was accompanied by George Back and John Richardson, both of whom he had previously collaborated with in the disastrous Coppermine expedition of 1819–1821. Unlike Franklin's previous expedition, this one was largely successful, and the expedition mapped more than 1,000 km (620 mi) of new coastline between the Coppermine River and Prudhoe Bay, Alaska, an area that until then had remained largely unexplored by Europeans. == Background == The Northwest Passage, a supposed sea route to the Pacific Ocean by way of the Arctic Ocean, had long been sought by European explorers as a possible trade route to East Asia and the East Indies. During the Age of Exploration, the presupposed existence of the passage motivated much of European exploration in North America. Beginning in the early


id: mackenzie-river-expedition-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mackenzie_River_expedition-1.md
category: reference
title: Mackenzie River expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mackenzie_River_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:10.651313+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mackenzie-river-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
=== Departure and first season === Franklin and the other naval officers, including Back and Richardson, departed Liverpool on 16 February 1825. Landing in New York City on 15 March, they then followed standard travelling routes through the state of New York, across the Niagara River and Lake Ontario, then through Upper Canada to Fort William on the shores of Lake Superior. After traversing numerous lakes and river systems, the party arrived at Cumberland House on the Saskatchewan River on 15 June. From there, they reached Methye Portage, mostly by way of the Churchill River system. Simultaneously, most of the expedition's supplies were sent from York Factory on Hudson Bay up the Hayes River, reaching the officers at Methye Portage on 29 June. The party descended the Clearwater and Athabasca Rivers, arriving at Fort Chipewyan on 15 July. The party's expeditious pace can be attributed to their intense rowing efforts: during their last push to Great Slave Lake, they had been paddling for thirty-six of the thirty-nine preceding hours. At Fort Resolution, Franklin met with Keskarrah, older brother of Franklin's friend and former ally Akaitcho, and Humpy of the Yellowknives (Coppermine Indians). After coasting the southern shore of Great Slave


id: mackenzie-river-expedition-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mackenzie_River_expedition-2.md
category: reference
title: Mackenzie River expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mackenzie_River_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:10.651313+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mackenzie-river-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
=== Spring and the parties split === The expedition's plans for the coming summer were ambitious. Franklin, leading the western detachment, aimed to get as far as Icy Cape, which had previously been visited by James Cook in 1778. Richardson's journey would involve coasting the shore of the ocean as far east as the mouth of the Coppermine River. He would then ascend the river and cross overland to Great Bear Lake, ideally arriving at Fort Franklin before the onset of winter. The party made quick progress in descending the Mackenzie River, reaching its delta by early July. The western detachment was to consist of two boats, Lion and Reliance, commanded by Franklin and Back, respectively. The eastern detachment consisted of the boats Dolphin and Union, commemorated in the Dolphin and Union Strait. In the early morning of 4 July, the parties split. ==== Western detachment ==== The western detachment quickly faced difficulty at the hands of the Inuit. When the boats became grounded due to the river's shallowness, Franklin, while observing the location's longitude, discovered a nearby Inuit settlement. After instructing Back and the others to be prepared to take up arms should the Inuit prove hostile, Franklin departed


id: mackenzie-river-expedition-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mackenzie_River_expedition-3.md
category: reference
title: Mackenzie River expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mackenzie_River_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:10.651313+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mackenzie-river-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
By September, the party was ascending the Mackenzie River, and on 4 September had reached Point Separation, where the two detachments had originally split. They recovered a small depot of supplies, stowed by the party the previous July, before pressing on. The mouth of the Great Bear River was reached on 16 September; five days later, Fort Franklin was reached. Over the course of their journey, the western party had travelled a total distance of 3,296 km (2,048 mi) in 80 days, with an average distance of about 41 km (25 mi) per day. ==== Eastern detachment ==== Consisting of twelve individuals, the eastern detachment proceeded down the Mackenzie, and eventually to open ocean. Encounters with the Inuit were relatively amicable, with the task of interpretation given to the group's Inuit companion, Ooligbuck. After traversing the maze of islands that comprise the delta of the Mackenzie, open sea was reached on 7 July. That same day, a band of Inuit were encountered. Quelling their initial fears by presenting gifts, Richardson established relations with the group, but found their disposition impolite. Ooligbuck, apparently distrusting the band, urged Richardson to depart; upon doing so, the party was trailed by the Inuit. These


id: mackenzie-river-expedition-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mackenzie_River_expedition-4.md
category: reference
title: Mackenzie River expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mackenzie_River_expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:10.651313+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mackenzie-river-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
=== Second winter and departure === During the party's absence from Fort Franklin, those still inhabiting the dwelling were directed to make repairs, which were completed by the time Franklin arrived. Upon his arrival, however, Franklin became concerned at the depletion of the fort's food stores, and dispatched Kendall to requisition some food and other supplies from Fort Norman. Kendall returned to the fort on 8 October, carrying an abundance of food and other supplies, which were of particular benefit to the eastern detachment, who had been forced to sacrifice much of their equipment during their overland crossing between the Coppermine and Dease Rivers. The party's second winter offered few events of note. By mid-November, ice on Great Bear Lake rendered it unnavigable. By early January, temperatures dipped to −47 °C (−53 °F), and by February, to −50 °C (−58 °F). The fort's larder at that point consisted of some tens of thousands of fish and nearly 11 t (24,000 lb) of meat. Franklin endeavoured to depart from the fort much earlier than in the previous season. He quit the fort on 20 February, carrying most of his supplies, including all of the expedition's charts, journals, and drawings, on a


id: ocean-explorers-grand-slam-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_Explorers_Grand_Slam-0.md
category: reference
title: Ocean Explorers Grand Slam
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_Explorers_Grand_Slam
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:11.831660+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ocean-explorers-grand-slam-20260505-0
summary:
The Ocean Explorers Grand Slam is an adventurer goal to complete open-water crossings on all five oceans using human-powered vessel. == History == In 2019, Icelandic explorer Fiann Paul led the first human-powered transit (by rowing) across the Drake Passage (The Impossible Row) and, in doing so, he completed the row on his fifth ocean, and became the first person to achieve the Ocean Explorers Grand Slam. The Ocean Explorers Grand Slam was defined by Guinness World Records adjudicators as completing open-water crossings on all five oceans using human-powered vessels. Fiann achieved the title with his completed crossings on the following oceans: Atlantic (date of completion: 2011), Indian (2014), Pacific (2016), Arctic (2017), and Southern (2019). Completion of this quest took him 9 years. The definition "Rows on the Polar Open Waters" applies only to pure rowing expeditions across major water basins above the Polar Circle in the Arctic or within the actual boundaries of the Southern Ocean, from land to land, excluding any use of sail, paddling on kayaks or canoes, as well as rows around islands, within archipelagos and coastal rows, i.e. within vicinity of land and possibility to get ashore. The definition "Ocean Crossing on the Polar


id: polar-medal-canada-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_Medal_(Canada)-0.md
category: reference
title: Polar Medal (Canada)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_Medal_(Canada)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:12.939968+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: polar-medal-canada-20260505-0
summary:
The Polar Medal (French: Médaille polaire) is a Canadian medal intended to honour explorers of Canada's polar regions and defenders of the country's sovereignty in the north. The medal was initially conceived by Governor General Adrienne Clarkson as the Governor General's Northern Medal and created on September 15, 2005, to award those who served with distinction in northern Canada. It was replaced by the Polar Medal on June 23, 2015. == History == Until 1967, Canadians were eligible for the United Kingdom's Polar Medal (known as the Arctic Medal until 1904), since Canada had not yet promulgated its own system of honours and employed that of the United Kingdom. On September 15, 2005, Governor General Adrienne Clarkson created the Governor General's Northern Medal. That medal was incorporated into and replaced by the new Canadian Polar Medal on June 23, 2015, the 145th anniversary of the transfer to Canada of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory (today the Northwest Territories). The first medals were presented at a ceremony in the Yukon Territory on July 8, 2015. == Design == The Governor General's Northern Medal was designed by Cathy Bursey-Sabourin. It was set in a crystal base and depicted on its obverse


id: polar-t3-syndrome-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_T3_syndrome-0.md
category: reference
title: Polar T3 syndrome
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_T3_syndrome
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:14.107307+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: polar-t3-syndrome-20260505-0
summary:
Polar T3 syndrome is a condition found in polar explorers, caused by a decrease in levels of the thyroid hormone T3. Its effects include forgetfulness, cognitive impairment and mood disturbances. It can exhibit itself in a fugue state known as the Antarctic stare. Effects of polar environment conditions (long time coldness or bioactive factors) are proposed as hypothetical causes of this syndrome. It is regarded as one of the contributory causes of winter-over syndrome. == See also == Antarctica: A Year on Ice == References ==


id: polartrec-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PolarTREC-0.md
category: reference
title: PolarTREC
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PolarTREC
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:15.369819+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: polartrec-20260505-0
summary:
PolarTREC (Teachers and Researchers Exploring and Collaborating) is a program for K-12 teachers to participate in field research in the polar regions in order to improve their knowledge of polar science and expand the reach of current scientific research beyond the scientific community. Teachers involved in PolarTREC spend about two to six weeks at their polar sites, collaborating with scientific research teams and connecting with students and the public via online media. PolarTREC is funded by the National Science Foundation and managed by the Arctic Research Consortium. == Overview == The purpose of PolarTREC is to stimulate polar science education and awareness. == Expeditions == Notable past PolarTREC expeditions include: •Carbon Balance in Warming and Drying Tundra (2013), which studied the effects of warming and drying on tundra carbon balance •Airborne Survey of Polar Ice (2013), a six-year NASA mission, which is the largest airborne survey of Earth's polar ice ever conducted •Tectonic History of the Transantartic Mountains (2012), which deciphered the tectonic history of the Transantarctic Mountains and the Wilkes Subglacial Basin •Greenland Education Tour (2012), part of an initiative to foster enhanced international scientific cooperation between Greenland and the US •In 2011, PolarTREC teacher John Wood lived in


id: rigny-bjerg-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigny_Bjerg-0.md
category: reference
title: Rigny Bjerg
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigny_Bjerg
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:17.062214+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rigny-bjerg-20260505-0
summary:
Mount Rigny (Danish: Rigny Bjerg, Rignys Bjerg) is a mountain peak in East Greenland. It is located in King Christian IX Land, Sermersooq Municipality. The mountain was named by Jules de Blosseville, after French naval officer Marie Henri Daniel Gauthier, comte de Rigny (1782–1835). == Geography == Mount Rigny is the highest peak in a mountainous area east of the Sortebrae Glacier close to the Blosseville Coast. Reaching 2,734 m (8,970 ft), Rigny Bjerg was marked on Jules de Blosseville's map of 1833 which also contained a drawing of the mountain's profile as seen from the sea. The mountain was then identified by the 1895-96 Ingolf Expedition led by C.F. Wandel, and its approximate position determined by the 1898–1900 Carlsbergfund Expedition to East Greenland led by G.C. Amdrup. This mountain's elevation and position are incorrect in the Defense Mapping Agency Greenland Navigation charts. In Rigny Berg there are routes popular with mountaineers, such as "Snow Falcon", as well as neighboring peaks in the region such as RHARPeak. The first successful ascent in 1998 by Russ Hore and Al Read. The first full ascent of Rigny Bjerg was made on 19 July 2003 by the 'Midnight Sun 03 Expedition'. Certain studies


id: sledging-ration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sledging_ration-0.md
category: reference
title: Sledging ration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sledging_ration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:18.219534+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sledging-ration-20260505-0
summary:
Sledging rations are a type of meal consumed by members of polar expeditions. These rations are designed for the use of sledging parties travelling long distances without support vehicles. They are meant to be calorically dense and provide a balanced diet. They must optimize weight and portability, as well as nutritional benefit. Typically, sledging rations are dehydrated to cut down on weight. == Composition == === Staples === Sledging biscuits are an essential component of sledging rations. These hard, long-life biscuits are made of flour, salt, butter, water and baking soda. Sledging biscuits are popular on expeditions in Antarctica because they are high in energy. Plasmon biscuits were taken in large quantities by Ernest Shackleton in his Antarctic Expedition of 1902, and were also favored by Douglas Mawson. Plasmon itself was a powdered milk extract used as a fortifying agent that was utilized in early sledging rations. Hoosh (occasionally spelled hooch) is a stew made of sledging biscuits, pemmican and water. More broadly, it may be a mix of water with dried meat, fat, and a grain-based thickening agent. It was the common food of early twentieth century Antarctic expeditions, used, for example, by the expeditions of Robert Falcon Scott


id: operation-tabarin-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Tabarin-0.md
category: reference
title: Operation Tabarin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Tabarin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:19.516881+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: operation-tabarin-20260505-0
summary:
Operation Tabarin was the code name for a secret British expedition to the Antarctic during World War Two, operational 1943–1946. Conducted by the Admiralty on behalf of the Colonial Office, its primary objective was to strengthen British claims to sovereignty of the British territory of the Falkland Islands Dependencies (FID), to which Argentina and Chile had made counter claims since the outbreak of war. This was done by establishing permanently occupied bases, carrying out administrative activities such as postal services and undertaking scientific research. The meteorological observations made aided Allied shipping in the South Atlantic Ocean. Following Cabinet approval in January 1943, there was an intensive period of planning, recruitment and procurement, before the expedition left the UK in November 1943, led by Lieutenant-Commander James Marr. Two bases were established in early 1944 – firstly, Base B, at Deception Island, South Shetland Islands, and later the main base, Base A, at Port Lockroy, Wiencke Island. A variety of science and mapping work was carried out. 14 men over-wintered in 1944. In the Antarctic summer of 1944/45, Captain Andrew Taylor became leader, following the resignation of Marr due to ill health. A base hut was built on Coronation Island, South Orkney


id: operation-tabarin-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Tabarin-1.md
category: reference
title: Operation Tabarin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Tabarin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:19.516881+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: operation-tabarin-20260505-0
summary:
=== Planning and preparation === In May 1943, following a number of interdepartmental meetings, planning started for an expedition to occupy sites in the Falkland Islands Dependencies (FID). A meeting on 27 May set the objective of establishing permanent bases on Deception Island, South Shetland Islands, and on Signy Island, South Orkney Islands, funded through sales of a new FID stamp issue to philatelists, though in the event most costs were met through the Admiralty. During the planning stage the priority for the location of the second base was changed to Hope Bay, since it was on the mainland, with an option to erect a hut on Signy Island if resources allowed. Final instructions were issued in November 1943, clarifying the physical and political objectives, importance of the issuing of stamps, appointment of magistrates and other acts of sovereignty. In the field the expedition was under the authority of the Governor of the Falkland Islands, who received instructions from the Secretary of State for the Colonies. An Expedition Committee was established in June 1943, chaired by A.B. Acheson, Colonial Office Under-Secretary, with members from the Colonial Office, Foreign Office, Admiralty, Treasury, Crown Agents, Ministry of War Transport and Discovery Investigations.


id: operation-tabarin-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Tabarin-2.md
category: reference
title: Operation Tabarin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Tabarin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:19.516881+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: operation-tabarin-20260505-0
summary:
=== Journey south === On 12 November 1943 Bransfield finally sailed from London, joining a small coastal convoy bound for Falmouth. Problems arose almost immediately and she had to put in to Portsmouth for repairs. She continued on 25 November but proved unseaworthy during a gale on the voyage west. Meanwhile, the Marquesa, on leaving Liverpool wharf, had grounded on a submerged wreck and the Tabarin contingent were ordered to re-join the rest of the expedition. Forced to abandon the Bransfield, the expedition was trans-shipped to the troop ship Highland Monarch at Avonmouth in Bristol on 8 December. She was taking a relief garrison to the Falkland Islands and sailed on 14 December, calling at Gibraltar and Montevideo before reaching Port Stanley on 26 January. Waiting for them, to replace Bransfield, was HMS William Scoresby. Built for whale marking work by the Discovery Investigations, she had been requisitioned by the Royal Navy for mine sweeping duties in the South Atlantic during the war. She had very limited cargo capacity but the Falkland Islands Company vessel SS Fitzroy had also been assigned to the expedition to transport cargo and most of the personnel. The Fitzroy had already collected the cargo carried


id: operation-tabarin-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Tabarin-3.md
category: reference
title: Operation Tabarin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Tabarin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:19.516881+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: operation-tabarin-20260505-0
summary:
The main hut, named Bransfield House in memory of their original expedition ship, was a prefabricated design by the Norwich firm of Boulton and Paul. On 15 February the generator was successfully installed, enabling wireless communication with Stanley and Base B to be established. Three extensions to the hut were added between February and April, using materials brought from Deception Island or found nearby, and also a Nissen hut for storage. The postmarking of mail at Port Lockroy began on 12 February, indicating the importance given to philatelic duties. Falkland Islands stamps overprinted with the inscription "Graham Land, Dependency of" were used. The William Scoresby and Fitzroy left the new base on 17 February for Base B, Deception Island, before visiting Signy Island, arriving on 20th. A landing was made and a Union flag nailed to a disused whaling hut. Mail was processed using South Orkney overprinted stamps. From there the vessels sailed to Grytviken, South Georgia, where the Hooley family disembarked, before returning to the Falkland Islands, taking official mail. William Scoresby visited Base A twice more before winter set in. On 19 March she brought Falkland Islander John Blyth, who joined the team as a cook/handyman in place


id: operation-tabarin-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Tabarin-4.md
category: reference
title: Operation Tabarin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Tabarin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:19.516881+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: operation-tabarin-20260505-0
summary:
Gordon J. Lockley – base leader, meteorologist, zoologist – British Antarctic Survey – Operation Tabarin List of personnel John K. Biggs – handyman Norman F. Layther – wireless operator mechanic Francis White – cook – British Antarctic Survey – Operation Tabarin List of personnel Base B, Deception Island – British Antarctic Survey – Operation Tabarin List of personnel Alan W. Reece – base leader, meteorologist Samuel Bonner – handyman James E.B.F. Farrington - senior wireless operator mechanic Charles Smith - cook Base D, Hope Bay – British Antarctic Survey – Operation Tabarin List of personnel Andrew Taylor – expedition commander, base leader, surveyor Lewis Ashton – carpenter Eric H. Back – medical officer, meteorologist A. Thomas Berry – storeman, cook John Blyth – cook Gwion Davies – handyman, scientific assistant Thomas Donnachie – wireless operator mechanic William R. Flett – geologist David P. James – surveyor Elke Mackenzie Lamb (then known as Ivan Mackenzie Lamb) – botanist Norman B. Marshall – zoologist John Matheson – handyman Victor I. Russell – surveyor === 3rd year – Antarctic summer 1945/46 === On 14 January 1946, William Scoresby, Fitzroy and 300-ton sealer Trepassey began evacuating the members of the expedition to the Falklands.


id: transglobe-expedition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transglobe_Expedition-0.md
category: reference
title: Transglobe Expedition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transglobe_Expedition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:20.755819+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transglobe-expedition-20260505-0
summary:
The Transglobe Expedition (1979–1982) was the first expedition to make a longitudinal (north–south) circumnavigation of the Earth using only surface transport. British adventurer Sir Ranulph Fiennes led a team, including Oliver Shepard and Charles R. Burton, that attempted to follow the Greenwich meridian over both land and water. They began in Greenwich in the United Kingdom in September 1979 and travelled south, arriving at the South Pole on 15 December 1980. Over the next 14 months, they travelled north, reaching the North Pole on 11 April 1982. Travelling south once more, they arrived again in Greenwich on 29 August 1982. It required traversing both of the poles and the use of boats in some places. Oliver Shepard took part in the Antarctic leg of the expedition. Ginny Fiennes handled all communications between the land team and their support, and ran the polar bases. == Planning == The original idea for the expedition was conceived by Ginny Fiennes in February 1972. The trip was entirely funded through sponsorships and the free labour of the expedition members, which took seven years to organize. Before the expedition, they had to limit the food that they ate. They brought a large amount of bread,


id: uss-whale-ssn-638-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Whale_(SSN-638)-0.md
category: reference
title: USS Whale (SSN-638)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Whale_(SSN-638)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:21.871209+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: uss-whale-ssn-638-20260505-0
summary:
USS Whale (SSN-638) was a Sturgeon-class submarine nuclear-powered attack submarine of the United States Navy. She was the second ship of that name, after the whale family of aquatic mammals. == Construction and commissioning == Whale's keel was laid down on 27 May 1964, at the General Dynamics Quincy Shipbuilding Division shipyard, in Quincy, Massachusetts. She was launched on 14 October 1966, sponsored by Mrs. Russell B. Long, the wife of United States Senator Russell B. Long, of Louisiana, and commissioned on 12 October 1968. == Service history == === 1968 === Whale arrived in her first home port, Charleston, South Carolina, on 2 November 1968, and, after a week in port, put to sea on 9 November 1968, for shakedown training, which she completed in November and December 1968, along with a series of post-commissioning tests, trials, and qualifications. In January 1969, she began normal operations out of Charleston, with attack submarine training along the southeastern coast of the United States. === 1969 === On 18 March 1969, Whale stood out of Charleston, on her way north to operations above the Arctic Circle. She reached the North Pole, on 6 April 1969, and surfaced there in commemoration of the


id: uss-whale-ssn-638-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Whale_(SSN-638)-1.md
category: reference
title: USS Whale (SSN-638)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Whale_(SSN-638)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:21.871209+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: uss-whale-ssn-638-20260505-0
summary:
=== 1975–1976 === Whale spent the next 11 months engaged in operations out of Groton. Various tests and evaluations occupied January, and the first half of February 1975. Between then and June 1975, she provided training services for various units of the Atlantic Fleet and for prospective commanding officers. Whale also served as a training platform for midshipmen during indoctrination cruises held late in the summer. On 29 September 1975, she stood out of Groton, for another deployment with the Sixth Fleet. During that cruise, she took part in a major Second Fleet exercise, "Ocean Safari", and after joining the Sixth Fleet in the Mediterranean Sea, took part in a succession of unilateral, bilateral, and multilateral exercises with units of the navies of Greece, France, Italy, and the Netherlands. She completed her tour of duty with the Sixth Fleet during the second week in March 1976, and arrived at Groton on 25 March 1976. === 1976–1978 === Whale resumed normal United States East Coast operations until 9 September 1976, when she entered the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard at Kittery, Maine, for a refueling overhaul. That overhaul concluded on 7 July 1978. Whale then spent the remainder of 1978 in refresher training


id: uss-whale-ssn-638-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Whale_(SSN-638)-2.md
category: reference
title: USS Whale (SSN-638)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Whale_(SSN-638)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:21.871209+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: uss-whale-ssn-638-20260505-0
summary:
In 1992, Whale participated in UNITAS XXXIII, an expedition around South America while under the command of Commander Andrew V. Harris, Jr., During UNITAS XXXIII she made port calls in Puerto Rico, Brazil, Argentina, Chile, Ecuador, Panama, and Colombia. The port visit in Panama was a somber one due to the sudden loss of the ship's chief yeoman due to a heart attack. During UNITAS Whale again crossed the Equator, and transited the Panama Canal, (South to North), returning to port in November. In 1993, Whale visited Bermuda, while transiting from the Autec Torpedo Firing Range, and Florida ports of call, conducted a scientific exercise under the ice cap at the North Pole and in the North Atlantic. Following the final Change of Command in January 1994, Whale deployed to the Arctic with HMS Trenchant (S91) in support of combined United States and Royal Navy testing of submarine equipment as well as collection of environmental data in the polar region. JOINTSUBICEX 1-94 saw Whale's second North Pole surfacing on 16 April 1994, 25 years and 10 days, after her first polar surfacing in 1969. Around this time, Whale circumnavigated the globe by circling the North Pole underwater to earn each


id: windsled-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WindSled-0.md
category: reference
title: WindSled
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WindSled
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:23.055465+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: windsled-20260505-0
summary:
The WindSled or Inuit WindSled is a wind-powered vehicle designed by Spanish polar explorer Ramón Hernando de Larramendi for travel and transportation of equipment in polar regions. The vehicle is based on Inuit tradition, which Larramendi has combined with large kites so that it may progress through the interior of the Arctic and Antarctic plateau, driven by aeolian energy. It is able to transport up to 2,000 kg (4,400 lb) of weight. As of 2017, the vehicle has successfully covered more than 20,000 km (12,000 mi), driven only by the wind, reaching the Geographic South Pole, the South Pole of Inaccessibility and the highest altitude in the interior of Greenland. The Inuit WindSled has been improving for the last 18 years, during which it has served as a scientific platform for projects of different Spanish and international scientific institutions. Its purpose is to develop scientific and geographic exploration projects with zero emissions in polar regions. == Layout == The Inuit WindSled is composed of four articulated modules, each of them made up with wooden rails and crossbars between 3 and 4.5 m (9.8 and 14.8 ft) in length and 3.7 to 4 m (12 to 13 ft) in width. This


id: winter-over-syndrome-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winter-over_syndrome-0.md
category: reference
title: Winter-over syndrome
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winter-over_syndrome
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:24.229703+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: winter-over-syndrome-20260505-0
summary:
The winter-over syndrome is a condition that occurs in individuals who "winter over" throughout the Antarctic (or Arctic) winter, which can last seven to eight months. It has been observed in inhabitants of research stations in Antarctica, as well as in polar bases such as Thule, Alert and Eureka. It consists of a variety of behavioral and medical disturbances, including irritability, depression, insomnia, absentmindedness, aggressive behavior, and irritable bowel syndrome. == Contributing factors == The Antarctic winter is a period of little to no sunlight, no physical contact with other continents or Antarctic stations, including no airplanes, ships, or mail. The area has the driest desert climate on Earth, a low air pressure, and an oxygen-poor atmosphere. It is completely cut off during winter, with a mean temperature of −51 °C (−60 °F), and the lowest recorded temperature is −85 °C (−121 °F). For these reasons, the immobility, monotony, harsh physical environment, sexual deprivation, and the general isolation are believed to contribute to increased anxiety and depression among the residents of Antarctic stations. Several studies have been done over the years to determine the contributing causes, or stresses, of "winter-over" syndrome. These include stress, social isolation, subsyndromal seasonal affective disorder


id: space-exploration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_exploration-0.md
category: reference
title: Space exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:25.734834+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: space-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
Space exploration is the physical investigation of outer space by uncrewed robotic space probes and through human spaceflight. While the observation of objects in space, known as astronomy, predates reliable recorded history, it was the development of large and relatively efficient rockets during the mid-twentieth century that allowed physical space exploration to become a reality. Common rationales for exploring space include advancing scientific research, national prestige, uniting different nations, ensuring the future survival of humanity, and developing military and strategic advantages against other countries. The early era of space exploration was driven by a "Space Race" in which the Soviet Union and the United States vied to demonstrate their technological superiority. Landmarks of this era include the launch of the first human-made object to orbit Earth, the Soviet Union's Sputnik 1, on 4 October 1957, and the first Moon landing by the American Apollo 11 mission on 20 July 1969. The Soviet space program achieved many of the first milestones, including the first living being in orbit in 1957, the first human spaceflight (Yuri Gagarin aboard Vostok 1) in 1961, the first spacewalk (by Alexei Leonov) on 18 March 1965, the first automatic landing on another celestial body in 1966,


id: space-exploration-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_exploration-1.md
category: reference
title: Space exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:25.734834+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: space-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
=== First astronomical body space explorations === The first artificial object to reach another celestial body was Luna 2 which reached the Moon in 1959. The first soft landing on another celestial body was performed by Luna 9 landing on the Moon on 3 February 1966. Luna 10 became the first artificial satellite of the Moon, entering in a lunar orbit on 3 April 1966. The first crewed landing on another celestial body was performed by Apollo 11 on 20 July 1969, landing on the Moon. There have been a total of six spacecraft with humans landing on the Moon starting from 1969 to the last human landing in 1972. The first interplanetary flyby was the 1961 Venera 1 flyby of Venus, though the 1962 Mariner 2 was the first flyby of Venus to return data (closest approach 34,773 kilometers). Pioneer 6 was the first satellite to orbit the Sun, launched on 16 December 1965. The other planets were first flown by in 1965 for Mars by Mariner 4, 1973 for Jupiter by Pioneer 10, 1974 for Mercury by Mariner 10, 1979 for Saturn by Pioneer 11, 1986 for Uranus by Voyager 2, 1989 for Neptune by Voyager 2. In


id: space-exploration-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_exploration-2.md
category: reference
title: Space exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:25.734834+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: space-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
Venus was the first target of interplanetary flyby and lander missions and, despite one of the most hostile surface environments in the Solar System, has had more landers sent to it (nearly all from the Soviet Union) than any other planet in the Solar System. The first flyby was the 1961 Venera 1, though the 1962 Mariner 2 was the first flyby to successfully return data. Mariner 2 has been followed by several other flybys by multiple space agencies often as part of missions using a Venus flyby to provide a gravitational assist en route to other celestial bodies. In 1967, Venera 4 became the first probe to enter and directly examine the atmosphere of Venus. In 1970, Venera 7 became the first successful lander to reach the surface of Venus and by 1985 it had been followed by eight additional successful Soviet Venus landers which provided images and other direct surface data. Starting in 1975, with the Soviet orbiter Venera 9, some ten successful orbiter missions have been sent to Venus, including later missions which were able to map the surface of Venus using radar to pierce the obscuring atmosphere. === Earth === Space exploration has been used as


id: space-exploration-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_exploration-3.md
category: reference
title: Space exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:25.734834+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: space-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
The Russian space mission Fobos-Grunt, which launched on 9 November 2011, experienced a failure leaving it stranded in low Earth orbit. It was to begin exploration of the Phobos and Martian circumterrestrial orbit, and study whether the moons of Mars, or at least Phobos, could be a "trans-shipment point" for spaceships traveling to Mars. === Asteroids === Until the advent of space travel, objects in the asteroid belt were merely pinpricks of light in even the largest telescopes, their shapes and terrain remaining a mystery. Several asteroids have now been visited by probes, the first of which was Galileo, which flew past two: 951 Gaspra in 1991, followed by 243 Ida in 1993. Both of these lay near enough to Galileo's planned trajectory to Jupiter that they could be visited at acceptable cost. The first landing on an asteroid was performed by the NEAR Shoemaker probe in 2000, following an orbital survey of the object, 433 Eros. The dwarf planet Ceres and the asteroid 4 Vesta, two of the three largest asteroids, were visited by NASA's Dawn spacecraft, launched in 2007. Hayabusa was a robotic spacecraft developed by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency to return a sample of material from


id: space-exploration-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_exploration-4.md
category: reference
title: Space exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:25.734834+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: space-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
=== Pluto === The dwarf planet Pluto presents significant challenges for spacecraft because of its great distance from Earth (requiring high velocity for reasonable trip times) and small mass (making capture into orbit difficult at present). Voyager 1 could have visited Pluto, but controllers opted instead for a close flyby of Saturn's moon Titan, resulting in a trajectory incompatible with a Pluto flyby. Voyager 2 never had a plausible trajectory for reaching Pluto. After an intense political battle, a mission to Pluto dubbed New Horizons was granted funding from the United States government in 2003. New Horizons was launched successfully on 19 January 2006. In early 2007 the craft made use of a gravity assist from Jupiter. Its closest approach to Pluto was on 14 July 2015; scientific observations of Pluto began five months prior to closest approach and continued for 16 days after the encounter. === Kuiper Belt Objects === The New Horizons mission also performed a flyby of the small planetesimal Arrokoth, in the Kuiper belt, in 2019. This was its first extended mission. === Comets === Although many comets have been studied from Earth sometimes with centuries-worth of observations, only a few comets have been closely visited.


id: space-exploration-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_exploration-5.md
category: reference
title: Space exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:25.734834+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: space-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
The research that is conducted by national space exploration agencies, such as NASA and Roscosmos, is one of the reasons supporters cite to justify government expenses. Economic analyses of the NASA programs often showed ongoing economic benefits (such as NASA spin-offs), generating many times the revenue of the cost of the program. It is also argued that space exploration would lead to the extraction of resources on other planets and especially asteroids, which contain billions of dollars' worth of minerals and metals. Such expeditions could generate substantial revenue. In addition, it has been argued that space exploration programs help inspire youth to study in science and engineering. Space exploration also gives scientists the ability to perform experiments in other settings and expand humanity's knowledge. Another claim is that space exploration is a necessity to humankind and that staying on Earth will eventually lead to extinction. Some of the reasons are lack of natural resources, comets, nuclear war, and worldwide epidemic. Stephen Hawking, renowned British theoretical physicist, said, "I don't think the human race will survive the next thousand years, unless we spread into space. There are too many accidents that can befall life on a single planet. But I'm an


id: space-exploration-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_exploration-6.md
category: reference
title: Space exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:25.734834+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: space-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
Astrobiology is the interdisciplinary study of life in the universe, combining aspects of astronomy, biology and geology. It is focused primarily on the study of the origin, distribution and evolution of life. It is also known as exobiology (from Greek: έξω, exo, "outside"). The term "Xenobiology" has been used as well, but this is technically incorrect because its terminology means "biology of the foreigners". Astrobiologists must also consider the possibility of life that is chemically entirely distinct from any life found on Earth. In the Solar System, some of the prime locations for current or past astrobiology are on Enceladus, Europa, Mars, and Titan. === Human spaceflight and habitation === To date, the longest human occupation of space is the International Space Station which has been in continuous use for 25 years, 184 days. Valeri Polyakov's record single spaceflight of almost 438 days aboard the Mir space station has not been surpassed. The health effects of space have been well documented through years of research conducted in the field of aerospace medicine. Analog environments similar to those experienced in space travel (like deep sea submarines), have been used in this research to further explore the relationship between isolation and extreme


id: space-exploration-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_exploration-7.md
category: reference
title: Space exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:25.734834+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: space-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
===== Women ===== The first woman to go to space was Valentina Tereshkova. She flew in 1963 but it was not until the 1980s that another woman entered space again. All astronauts were required to be military test pilots at the time and women were not able to join this career. This is one reason for the delay in allowing women to join space crews. After the rule changed, Svetlana Savitskaya became the second woman to go to space, she was also from the Soviet Union. Sally Ride became the next woman in space and the first woman to fly to space through the United States program. Since then, eleven other countries have allowed women astronauts. The first all-female space walk occurred in 2018, including Christina Koch and Jessica Meir. They had both previously participated in space walks with NASA. The first woman to go to the Moon is planned for 2026. Despite these developments, women are underrepresented among astronauts and especially cosmonauts. Issues that block potential applicants from the programs, and limit the space missions they are able to go on, include: agencies limiting women to half as much time in space than men, arguing that there may be


id: timeline-of-space-exploration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_space_exploration-0.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of space exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_space_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:27.048289+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-space-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
This is a timeline of space exploration which includes notable missions, achievements, first accomplishments and milestones in humanity's exploration of outer space. This timeline generally does not distinguish achievements by a specific country or private company, as it considers humanity as a whole. See otherwise the timeline of private spaceflight or look for achievements by each space agency. == Pre-20th century == == 1900–1956 == == 1957–1959 == == 1960–1969 == == 1970–1979 == == 1980–1989 == == 1990–1999 == == 2000–2009 == == 2010–2019 == == Since 2020 == == Notes == == See also == Discovery and exploration of the Solar System List of spaceflight records List of spaceflight records#Human spaceflight firsts Timeline of Solar System exploration – A comprehensive list of events in the exploration of the Solar System. Timeline of artificial satellites and space probes – A comprehensive list of artificial satellites and space probes. Timeline of space travel by nationality Timeline of spaceflight – Chronological list of events in spaceflight broken down as a separate article for each year Timeline of private spaceflight – For first achievements by private space companies == References == == External links == Chronology of Space Exploration Archived 2017-05-25 at


id: outline-of-space-exploration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_space_exploration-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of space exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_space_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:28.190599+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-space-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to space exploration. Space exploration – use of astronomy and space technology to explore outer space. Physical exploration of space is conducted both by human spaceflights and by robotic spacecraft. == Essence of space exploration == Space exploration Big science – Term used to describe a series of changes in science which occurred in industrial nations Exploration – Investigating an unfamiliar area High tech – Most advanced technology available Space – Void between celestial bodies Spaceflight – Flight into or through outer space == Branches of space exploration == Human spaceflight – Spaceflight with a crew or passengers Uncrewed spaceflight – Autonomous space travel without human == History of space exploration == Remote sensing of Earth Exploration of the Moon Apollo program Moon landings Robotic exploration of the Moon Exploration of Mercury Exploration of Venus Exploration of Mars Mars landings Mars rovers Mars Rotorcrafts Mars flyby Exploration of Jupiter Exploration of Saturn Exploration of Uranus Exploration of Neptune History of human spaceflight Project Mercury Project Gemini Apollo program Space Shuttle program Vostok program Voskhod program Soyuz program Shenzhou program List of human spaceflights List of Space Shuttle missions


id: outline-of-space-exploration-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_space_exploration-1.md
category: reference
title: Outline of space exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_space_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:28.190599+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-space-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
=== Lists === List of spacecraft List of crewed spacecraft List of Solar System probes List of active Solar System probes List of proposed Solar System probes List of lunar probes List of Mars landers List of Mars orbiters List of space telescopes List of proposed space telescopes List of cargo spacecraft List of Falcon 9 first-stage boosters List of heaviest spacecraft List of spacecraft called Sputnik List of spacecraft powered by non-rechargeable batteries List of spacecraft with electric propulsion List of spaceplanes List of upper stages List of spacecraft deployed from the International Space Station Assembly of the International Space Station Space Shuttle crews List of Apollo astronauts List of Apollo missions List of Artemis missions List of artificial objects on extra-terrestrial surfaces List of astronauts by name List of astronauts by selection List of communication satellite companies List of communications satellite firsts List of Constellation missions List of Cosmos satellites List of crewed spacecraft List of cumulative spacewalk records List of Earth observation satellites List of human spaceflight programs List of human spaceflights List of human spaceflights to the International Space Station List of interplanetary voyages List of ISS spacewalks List of International Space Station expeditions List of


category: reference
title: Agreement Concerning Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for Peaceful Purposes
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:29.396523+00:00
instance: kb-cron
id:
agreement-concerning-cooperation-in-the-exploration-and-use-of-outer-space-for-peaceful-purposes-20260505-0

file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agreement_Concerning_Cooperation_in_the_Exploration_and_Use_of_Outer_Space_for_Peaceful_Purposes-0.md

summary:
The Agreement Concerning Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for Peaceful Purposes was an agreement between the United States (US) and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) which established a legal framework for the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) and refined the means and methods for sharing data between these two parties. It was written in the days leading up to May 24, 1972. Having been agreed upon months earlier, it was signed by US President Richard Nixon and USSR. Premier A. N. Kosygin in Moscow during a three-day state visit. This agreement was of particular significance as it furthered efforts towards cooperation in space between the US and the USSR. during the Cold War. == Key points == The Agreement enumerates areas in which the US and the USSR. would cooperate, notably exploration, space meteorology, environmental sciences, celestial bodies, and space medicine. It describes the means to accomplish these goals, listing among other things, "delegations [and] meetings of scientists and specialists of both countries." It also broadly outlines the goals and time frame of the ASTP, stating that "[t]he parties have agreed to carry out projects for developing compatible rendezvous and docking systems [...] in order

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agreement_Concerning_Cooperation_in_the_Exploration_and_Use_of_Outer_Space_for_Peaceful_Purposes

parent:
agreement-concerning-cooperation-in-the-exploration-and-use-of-outer-space-for-peaceful-purposes-20260505-0


id: beijing-institute-of-tracking-and-telemetry-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beijing_Institute_of_Tracking_and_Telemetry_Technology-0.md
category: reference
title: Beijing Institute of Tracking and Telemetry Technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beijing_Institute_of_Tracking_and_Telemetry_Technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:32.883080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: beijing-institute-of-tracking-and-telemetry-technology-20260505-0
summary:
The Beijing Institute of Tracking and Telecommunications Technology (Chinese: 北京跟踪与通信技术研究所; pinyin: Běijīng Gēnzōng yǔ Tōngxìn Jìshù Yánjiūsuǒ) aka BITTT is a research institution of the Aerospace Force of the People's Liberation Army. The head office is located in the Beijing Space City in the north of Haidian district. The head of the institute, Dong Guangliang (董光亮), is also the Technical Director of the Control and Communication Systems of the Manned Space Program of the PRC since September 2015. The BITTT is an observer member of the Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems. == History == The "Research Institute for Orbit Tracking and Communication Technology" was founded in May 1965 in connection with Project 651, the program to build and launch a Chinese satellite that began in January 1965.As part of this project, the institute was initially responsible for planning the radar facilities at the Jiuquan Launch site, the facilities of the ground stations of the Chinese Space Control Network, and its headquarters, which was located in Weinan at the time. After China's first satellite, Dongfanghong 1, was successfully launched into space on 24 April 1970, the institute took on a leading role in the further expansion of the space control


id: benefits-of-space-exploration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benefits_of_space_exploration-0.md
category: reference
title: Benefits of space exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benefits_of_space_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:34.024332+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: benefits-of-space-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
As the space race came to an end, a new rationale for investment in space exploration emerged, focused on the pragmatic use of space for improving life on Earth. The legacy of the space race is that nations continue to pursue space exploration to enhance their prestige. As the justification for government-funded space programs shifted to "the public good", space agencies began to articulate and measure the wider socio-economic benefits that might derive from their activities, including both the direct and indirect (or less obvious) benefits of space exploration. However, such programs have also been criticized with several drawbacks cited. == Direct and indirect benefits of space exploration == Space agencies, governments, researchers and commentators have isolated a large number of direct and indirect benefits of space exploration programs including: New technologies that can be utilized in other industries and society (such as the development of communications satellites) Improved knowledge of space and the origin of the universe Cultural benefits In an attempt to quantify the benefits derived from space exploration, NASA calculated that 444,000 lives have been saved, 14,000 jobs have been created, $5 billion in revenue has been generated, and there has been $6.2 billion in cost reductions


id: benefits-of-space-exploration-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benefits_of_space_exploration-1.md
category: reference
title: Benefits of space exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benefits_of_space_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:34.024332+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: benefits-of-space-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
== Knowledge of space == Since Sputnik 1 entered orbit in 1957 to perform Ionospheric experiments, the human understanding of Earth and space has increased. The missions to the Moon begin as early as 1958 and continued into the current age. A few successful lunar missions by the USSR include missions such as the Luna 1 spacecraft that completed the first flyby of the Moon in 1959, the Luna 3 lunar probe that took the first pictures of the far side of the Moon in 1959, the Luna 10 orbiter that was the first orbiter of the Moon in 1966, the Zond 5 circumlunar mission which flew the first Earthlings (two tortoises) to the Moon and safely returned them to Earth, and the Lunokhod 1 lunar rover in 1970, which was the first rover to explore the surface of a world beyond Earth. United States firsts include Apollo 8 in 1968, which carried the first three humans into lunar orbit, and the historic 1969 Apollo 11 mission which first landed humans on the Moon. Missions to the Moon have collected samples of lunar materials and there are now multiple satellites such as ARTEMIS P1 that currently orbit the Moon and


id: benefits-of-space-exploration-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benefits_of_space_exploration-2.md
category: reference
title: Benefits of space exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benefits_of_space_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:34.024332+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: benefits-of-space-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
== Criticisms and drawbacks == There are three main types of criticism levied against space exploration: the cost, ideological criticism, and social criticism. The calculations of the benefits of space exploration have frequently been criticized due to a conflict of interests argument (the agencies responsible are the ones who calculate the benefits) and the complexity of quantifying the benefits. As Matthew Williams stated: "How do you put a dollar value on scientific knowledge, inspiration, or the expansion of our frontiers?" While some commentators have argued that space exploration is a lifeboat strategy to avoid annihilation of the human race, others have countered that it misses the point. Amitai Etzioni – Professor at The George Washington University and an adviser to the US's Carter administration – countered in Humanity Would Be Better off Saving Earth, Rather Than Colonizing Mars that: "It is better to hold off disasters at home than to assume all is lost". Etzioni also pointed out the vast cost of colonization of extraterrestrial planets by citing that Elon Musk, an advocate of space exploration and colonization, had calculated the cost of sending the first 12 astronauts to Mars at £10 billion per person. The Mars Climate Orbiter is


id: chasing-new-horizons-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chasing_New_Horizons-0.md
category: reference
title: Chasing New Horizons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chasing_New_Horizons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:35.180280+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chasing-new-horizons-20260505-0
summary:
Chasing New Horizons: Inside the Epic First Mission to Pluto is a book by American planetary scientist Alan Stern and astrobiologist and non-fiction writer David Grinspoon, published in 2018. Grinspoon acts as a narrator, though the book is written from Alan Stern's perspective; he is the principal investigator of New Horizons mission to Pluto. == Background and reception == The book tells a story of a space probe to Pluto, that was proposed by the author, Alan Stern, in the early 1990s. The mission had been cancelled several times, and there were a harsh competition between Stern's group and that of JPL to get approval of the mission design from NASA. Kirkus reviews called the book "an exploration of the fascinating science and complex bureaucracy behind the first journey to Pluto", and pointed that the authors "deliver a meticulously detailed, riveting chronicle of America’s history-making mission to Pluto, escorting readers through the immense hurdles and hard work involved in the landmark mission." Another review praised the book saying that "Stern and Grinspoon recreate the mission’s highs and lows in a compulsively readable tale. In the hands of less gifted storytellers, much of the early years— the internal competition for funds,


id: institute-for-earth-space-exploration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Earth_&_Space_Exploration-0.md
category: reference
title: Institute for Earth & Space Exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Earth_&_Space_Exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:36.348099+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: institute-for-earth-space-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
The Centre for Planetary Science and Exploration (CPSX) is an academic unit operating at the University of Western Ontario (UWO). Founded in 2007, and dedicated in 2008 alongside the Canadian Lunar Research Network, it is the largest single group of planetary scientists (and related research professionals) working at an educational institution within Canada. Research focuses on planetary atmospheres, surfaces, and interiors along with cosmochemistry, dynamics, astrobiology, space systems, telerobotics, and the history of space exploration. In 2008, CPSX became the first international partner of the NASA Lunar Science Institute, and become a node of the Canadian Lunar Research Network. In addition to its research facilities, CPSX offers degree programs through UWO for undergraduate and graduate students at umbrella programs. Graduate students enrolling must be admitted into either the Physics and Astronomy program or the Geology or Geophysics programs in order to transfer into the CPSX graduate degree programs. In June, 2019, CPSX became the Institute for Earth & Space Exploration. == References == == External links == CPSX Home Canadian Lunar Research Network CPSX Digest


id: criticism-of-space-exploration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_space_exploration-0.md
category: reference
title: Criticism of space exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_space_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:37.554197+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criticism-of-space-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
Human space exploration has been criticized on several grounds. Opponents point to the substantial financial costs, suggesting that funds allocated for space exploration could be better spent addressing urgent issues on Earth, such as poverty, healthcare, education, and environmental degradation. Critics express concerns about risks to human life, environmental impacts like potential contamination of celestial bodies, and the possibility of militarizing space, which could exacerbate geopolitical tensions. These critiques reflect ongoing debates over resource allocation, technological priorities, and the responsibilities of humanity both on Earth and in outer space. == History == === Apollo missions === In 1963, years before the 1969 Apollo 11 Moon landing, German-American critical theorist Hannah Arendt argued: The conquest of space and the science that made it possible have come perilously close to this point. If they ever should reach it in earnest, the stature of man would not simply be lowered by all standards we know of but have been destroyed. Throughout the 1960s, Students for a Democratic Society organized anti-NASA protests on college campuses. Sit-ins occurred at Columbia University's Pupin Physics Laboratories and MIT's Instrumentation Laboratory, as both conducted NASA research which was implemented by the United States military in Vietnam. In July


id: deep-space-exploration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_space_exploration-0.md
category: reference
title: Deep space exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_space_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:38.713020+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: deep-space-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
Deep-space exploration is the branch of astronomy, astronautics, and space technology that is involved with exploring the distant regions of outer space. However, little consensus has been reached on the meaning of "distant" regions. In some contexts, it is used to refer to interstellar space. The International Telecommunication Union defines deep space to start at a distance of 2 million km (1.2 million mi) (about 0.01 AU) from Earth's surface. NASA's Deep Space Network has variously used criteria of 16,000–32,000 km (10,000–20,000 mi) from Earth. Physical exploration of space is conducted both by human spaceflights (deep-space astronautics) and by robotic spacecraft. At present the farthest space probe humankind has constructed and launched from Earth is Voyager 1, which was announced on December 5, 2011, to have reached the outer edge of the Solar System, and entered interstellar space on August 25, 2012. Deep space exploration further than this vessel's capacity is not yet possible due to limitations in the propulsion technology currently available. Some of the best candidates for future deep space engine technologies include nuclear fusion propulsion, laser/maser propulsion, and antimatter. The latter, beamed propulsion, appears to be the best candidate for deep space exploration presently available, since it


id: expedition-69-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_69-0.md
category: reference
title: Expedition 69
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expedition_69
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:39.939536+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expedition-69-20260505-0
summary:
Expedition 69 was the 69th long-duration expedition to the International Space Station. The expedition began with the uncrewed departure of Soyuz MS-22 in March 2023 with Russian cosmonaut Sergey Prokopyev continuing his ISS command from Expedition 68. It ended with his departure onboard Soyuz MS-23 with his crewmates on 27 September 2023. == Background, Crew, and Events == Initially, the expedition consisted of Prokopyev and his two Soyuz MS-22/23 crewmates, Dmitry Petelin from Russia and American astronaut Francisco Rubio, as well as SpaceX Crew-6 crewmates, American astronauts Stephen G. Bowen and Warren Hoburg, Emirati astronaut Sultan Al Neyadi, and another Russian cosmonaut Andrey Fedyaev, who launched on March 2, 2023 and were transferred from Expedition 68 alongside the Soyuz MS-22/23 crew. The departure of the MS-22 spacecraft with its crew was ultimately canceled because of a coolant leak in December 2022. The decision was made to return Soyuz MS-22 uncrewed and launch Soyuz MS-23 uncrewed as its replacement. By the time the MS-22/23 crew returned to Earth on 27 September 2023, which was the end of Expedition 69, they had spent more than a year in space due to their mission extension. The manifest changes do not affect US crew


id: future-of-space-exploration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_of_space_exploration-0.md
category: reference
title: Future of space exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_of_space_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:41.112960+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: future-of-space-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
The future of space exploration involves both telescopic and physical explorations of space by robotic spacecraft and human spaceflight. Near-term physical exploration missions, focused on obtaining new information about the Solar System, are planned and announced by both national and private organisations. Tentative plans for crewed orbital and landing missions to the Moon and Mars to establish scientific outposts will later enable permanent and self-sufficient settlements. Further exploration will potentially involve expedition and the other planets and settlements on the Moon, as well as establishing mining and fueling outposts, particularly in the asteroid belt. Physical exploration outside the Solar System will be robotic for the foreseeable future. == Benefits of space exploration == Investment in space exploration has dramatically shifted since the 20th century Space race. Space exploration of the late 20th century was driven by competition between the Soviet Union and the United States to achieve the first spaceflight. Now, the private sector and national governments are again investing in space exploration. However, this time they are motivated by protecting human life from catastrophic events and leveraging the resources of space. === Colonize outer space === It has been argued that space colonization is a means of ensuring the


id: future-of-space-exploration-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_of_space_exploration-1.md
category: reference
title: Future of space exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_of_space_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:41.112960+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: future-of-space-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
Planetary Transits and Oscillations of Stars (PLATO) is a space telescope under development by the European Space Agency for launch in 2026. The mission goals are to search for planetary transits across up to one million stars, and to discover and characterize rocky extrasolar planets around yellow dwarf stars (like the Sun), subgiant stars, and red dwarf stars. The emphasis of the mission is on Earth-like planets in the habitable zone around Sun-like stars where water can exist in liquid state. It is the third medium-class mission in ESA's Cosmic Vision programme and named after the influential Greek philosopher Plato, the founding figure of Western philosophy, science and mathematics. A secondary objective of the mission is to study stellar oscillations or seismic activity in stars to measure stellar masses and evolution and enabling the precise characterization of the planet host star, including its age. == Crewed missions == === SpaceX Starship === The SpaceX Starship is planned to be a spacecraft launched as the second stage of a reusable launch vehicle. The concept is under development by SpaceX, as a private spaceflight project. It is being designed to be a long-duration cargo- and passenger-carrying spacecraft. While it will be tested


id: future-of-space-exploration-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_of_space_exploration-2.md
category: reference
title: Future of space exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_of_space_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:41.112960+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: future-of-space-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
According to NASA, isolation in space can have detrimental effects on the human psyche. Behavioral issues, such as low morale, mood-swings, depression, and decreasing interpersonal interactions, irregular sleeping rhythms, and fatigue occur independently to the level of training, according to a set of NASA's social experiments. The most famous of which, Biosphere 2, was a 2 year long, 8 person crew experiment in the 1990s, in an attempt to study human necessities and survival in an isolated environment. The result of which were stressed interpersonal interactions and aloof behavior, including limiting and even ceasing contact between crew members, along with failing to sustain a lasting air-recycling system and food supply. ==== Resources and sustenance ==== Considering the future possibility of extended, crewed missions, food storage and resupply are relevant limitations. From a storage point of view, NASA estimates a 3-year Mars mission would require around 24 thousand pounds (11 t) of food, most of it in the form of precooked, dehydrated meals of about 1.5 pounds (0.68 kg) a portion. Fresh produce would only be available in the beginning of the flight, since there would not be refrigeration systems. Water's relative heavy weight is a limitation, so on the International


id: future-of-space-exploration-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_of_space_exploration-3.md
category: reference
title: Future of space exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_of_space_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:41.112960+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: future-of-space-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
==== Stereo vision for collision avoidance ==== For this project, NASA's goal is to implement stereo vision for collision avoidance in space systems to work with and support autonomous operations in a flight environment. This technology uses two cameras within its operating system that have the same view, but when put together offer a large range of data that gives a binocular image. Because of its duo-camera system, NASA's research indicate that this technology can detect hazards in rural and wilderness flight environments. Because of this project, NASA has made major contributions toward developing a completely autonomous UAV. Currently, Stereo Vision can construct a stereo vision system, process the vision data, make sure the system works properly, and lastly performs tests figuring out the range of impeding objects and terrain. In the future, NASA hopes this technology can also determine the path to avoid collision. The near-term goal for the technology is to be able to extract information from point clouds and place this information in a historic map data. Using this map, the technology could then be able to extrapolate obstacles and features in the stereo data that are not in the map data. This would aid with the


id: future-of-space-exploration-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_of_space_exploration-4.md
category: reference
title: Future of space exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_of_space_exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:41.112960+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: future-of-space-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
==== New Glenn ==== The larger variant of the New Shepard, Blue Origin seeks to increase their payload capabilities by developing a 95-meter-tall rocket capable of reusable flight to space. Its payload is expected to be satellites or to provide humans with the opportunity to view space without astronaut training. Blue Origin intends the rocket's reusability to last 25 flights into space alleviating costs increasing the possibility of commercialized travel. ==== Blue Moon ==== Blue Origin's lunar lander is designed to be a flexible lander with capabilities to send both cargo and crew to the lunar surface. This habitat will provide a sustained human presence by providing necessities such as life support systems and lunar rovers to excavate and scout the surrounding lunar surface. Further developments on this project include a Human Landing system which are detachable living quarters intended to attach and depart from the Blue Moon Lunar Lander. ==== Bigelow Aerospace Expandable Activity Module ==== The Bigelow Aerospace Corporation founded by Robert Bigelow is headquartered in Las Vegas. A research and development company with emphasis on constructing space architecture capable of housing humans and creating living conditions suitable for living in space. The company has sent two subscale


id: human-presence-in-space-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_presence_in_space-0.md
category: reference
title: Human presence in space
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_presence_in_space
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:42.269825+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: human-presence-in-space-20260505-0
summary:
Human presence in space (also anthropogenic presence in space or humanity in space) is the direct and mediated presence or telepresence of humans in outer space, and in an extended sense across space including astronomical objects. Human presence in space, particularly through mediation, can take many physical forms from space debris, uncrewed spacecraft, artificial satellites, space observatories, crewed spacecraft, art in space, to human outposts in outer space such as space stations. While human presence in space, particularly its continuation and permanence can be a goal in itself, human presence can have a range of purposes and modes from space exploration, commercial use of space to extraterrestrial settlement or even space colonization and militarisation of space. Human presence in space is realized and sustained through the advancement and application of space sciences, particularly astronautics in the form of spaceflight and space infrastructure. Humans have achieved some mediated presence throughout the Solar System, but the most extensive presence has been in orbit around Earth. Humankind reached outer space mediated in 1944 (MW 18014) and have sustained mediated presence since 1958 (Vanguard 1), as well as having reached space directly for the first time on 12 April 1961 (Yuri Gagarin) and since


id: human-presence-in-space-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_presence_in_space-1.md
category: reference
title: Human presence in space
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_presence_in_space
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:42.269825+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: human-presence-in-space-20260505-0
summary:
Space activity is legally based on the Outer Space Treaty, the main international treaty. Though there are other international agreements such as the significantly less ratified Moon Treaty. The Outer Space Treaty established the basic ramifications for space activity in article one: "The exploration and use of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, shall be carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries, irrespective of their degree of economic or scientific development, and shall be the province of all mankind." And continued in article two by stating: "Outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means." The development of international space law has revolved much around outer space being defined as common heritage of mankind. The Magna Carta of Space presented by William A. Hyman in 1966 framed outer space explicitly not as terra nullius but as res communis, which subsequently influenced the work of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS). The United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs and the International Telecommunication Union are international


id: human-presence-in-space-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_presence_in_space-2.md
category: reference
title: Human presence in space
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_presence_in_space
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:42.269825+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: human-presence-in-space-20260505-0
summary:
Since the very beginning of human outer space activities in 1944, and possibly before that, life has been present with microscopic life as space contaminate and after 1960 as space research subjects. Prior to crewed spaceflight non-human animals had been subjects of space research, specifically bioastronautics and astrobiology, being exposed to ever higher testflights. The first animals (including humans) and plant seeds in space above the 100 km Kármán line were corn seeds and fruit flies, launched for the first time on 9 July 1946, with the first fruit flies launched and returned alive in 1947. In 1949 Albert II, became the first mammal and first primate reaching the 100 km Kármán line, and in 1957 the dog Laika became the first animal in orbit, with both also becoming the first fatalities of spaceflight and in space, respectively. In 1968, on Zond 5 Russian tortoises, worms, flies and seeds became the first multicelular life from Earth to be flown to, as well as returned safely from, deep space. In 2019 Chang'e 4 landed fruit flies on the Moon, the first extraterrestrial stay of non-human animals. Visits of organisms to extraterrestrial bodies have been a significant issue of planetary protection, as


id: human-presence-in-space-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_presence_in_space-3.md
category: reference
title: Human presence in space
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_presence_in_space
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:42.269825+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: human-presence-in-space-20260505-0
summary:
A permanent human presence in space depends on an established space infrastructure which harbours, supplies and maintains human presence. Such infrastructure has originally been Earth ground-based, but with increased numbers of satellites and long-duration missions beyond the near side of the Moon space-to-space based infrastructure is being used. First simple interplanetary infrastructures have been created by space probes particularly when employing a system which combines a lander and a relaying orbiter. Space stations are space habitats which have provided a crucial infrastructure for sustaining a continuous direct human, including non-human, presence in space. Space stations have been continuously present in orbit around Earth from Skylab in 1973, to the Salyut stations, Mir and eventually ISS. The current Artemis program includes a lunar station to research longer extraterrestrial stays and their effects. === Spiritual and artistic === Human presence has also been expressed through spiritual and artistic installations in outer space or on the Moon. Apollo 15 Mission Commander David Scott left for example a Bible on their Lunar Roving Vehicle during an extravehicular activity on the Moon. Space has furthermore been the site of people taking part in religious festivities such as Christmas on the International Space Station. == Locations


id: human-presence-in-space-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_presence_in_space-4.md
category: reference
title: Human presence in space
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_presence_in_space
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:42.269825+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: human-presence-in-space-20260505-0
summary:
Bioastronautics, space medicine, space technology and space architecture are fields which are occupied with alleviating the effects of space on humans and non-humans. === Culture === Research has begun into the culture and "microsocieties" that are formed in space, with space archeologists analyzing residue from space environments to learn about astronaut life. A few incidents of astronauts from different countries having difficulties in getting along have also been studied. == Impact, environmental protection and sustainability == Human space activity, and its subsequent presence, can and has been having an impact on space as well as on the capacity to access it. This impact of human space activity and presence, or its potential, has created the need to address its issues regarding planetary protection, space debris, nuclear hazards, radio pollution and light pollution, to the reusability of launch systems, for space not to become a sacrifice zone. Sustainability has been a goal of space law, space technology and space infrastructure, with the United Nations seeing the need to advance long-term sustainability of outer space activities in space science and application, and the United States having it as a crucial goal of its contemporary space policy and space program. Human presence in


id: human-presence-in-space-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_presence_in_space-5.md
category: reference
title: Human presence in space
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_presence_in_space
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:42.269825+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: human-presence-in-space-20260505-0
summary:
Space and human presence in it has been the subject of different agendas. The pursued of the realization of spaceflight developed particularly during high modernity. This was fueled and enabled by the accumulated knowledge about space since the invention and first use (1609, Galileo Galilei) of the telescope for astronomical observations early into modernity. Fiction and utopian literature started to explore space, giving rise to science-fiction and space as an envisioned realm reachable by living humans. New coherent world views, with the scales of space (and time) in mind, developed, such as the transhumanist cosmism movement, which have been significantly influential in the pursued of spaceflight ever since, particularly the groundbreaking Soviet space program. That said human presence in space at its beginnings, was fueled by the Cold War and its outgrowing the Space Race. During this time technological, nationalist, ideological and military competition were dominant driving factors of space policy and the resulting activity and, particularly direct human, presence in space. With the waning of the Space Race, concluded by cooperation in human spaceflight, focus shifted in the 1970s further to space exploration and telerobotics, having a range of achievements and technological advances. Space exploration meant by then also


id: lattice-confinement-fusion-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lattice_confinement_fusion-0.md
category: reference
title: Lattice confinement fusion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lattice_confinement_fusion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:43.954013+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lattice-confinement-fusion-20260505-0
summary:
Lattice confinement fusion (LCF) is a type of nuclear fusion in which deuteron-saturated metals are exposed to high energy photons or ion beams avoiding the confined high-temperature plasmas used in other methods of fusion. == History == In 2020, a team of NASA researchers seeking a new energy source for deep-space exploration missions published the first paper describing a method for triggering nuclear fusion in the space between the atoms of a metal solid, an example of screened fusion. The experiments did not produce self-sustaining reactions, and the electron source itself was energetically expensive. == Technique == The reaction is fueled with deuterium (2H), a stable isotope of hydrogen composed of one proton, one neutron, and one electron. The deuterium is confined in the space between the atoms of a metal solid such as erbium or titanium. Erbium can indefinitely maintain 1023 cm−3 deuterium atoms at room temperature. The deuteron-saturated metal forms an overall neutral plasma. The electron density of the metal reduces the likelihood that two deuterium nuclei (deuterons) will repel each other as they get closer together. A dynamitron electron-beam accelerator generates an electron beam that hits a tantalum target and produces gamma rays, irradiating titanium deuteride or


id: space-law-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_law-0.md
category: reference
title: Space law
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_law
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:45.167693+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: space-law-20260505-0
summary:
Space law or astrolaw is the body of law governing space-related activities, encompassing both international and domestic agreements, rules, and principles. The parameters of space law include space exploration, liability for damage, weapons use, rescue efforts, environmental preservation, information sharing, new technologies, and ethics. Other fields of law, such as administrative law, intellectual property law, arms control law, insurance law, environmental law, criminal law, and commercial law, are also integrated within space law. The origins of space law date back to 1919, with international law recognizing each country's sovereignty over the airspace directly above their territory, later reinforced at the Chicago Convention in 1944. The onset of domestic space programs during the Cold War propelled the official creation of international space policy (i.e., the International Geophysical Year) initiated by the International Council of Scientific Unions. The Soviet Union's 1957 launch of the world's first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, directly spurred the United States Congress to pass the Space Act, thereby establishing the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). As space exploration required crossing transnational boundaries, this era witnessed the emergence of space law as a distinct field, independent from traditional aerospace law. Since the Cold War, the Treaty on Principles


id: space-law-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_law-1.md
category: reference
title: Space law
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_law
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:45.167693+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: space-law-20260505-0
summary:
The Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Uses of Outer Space (1963) All space exploration will be done with good intentions and is equally open to all States that comply with international law. No one nation may claim ownership of outer space or any celestial body. Activities carried out in space must abide by the international law and the nations undergoing these said activities must accept responsibility for the governmental or non-governmental agency involved. Objects launched into space are subject to their nation of belonging, including people. Objects, parts, and components discovered outside the jurisdiction of a nation will be returned upon identification. If a nation launches an object into space, they are responsible for any damages that occur internationally. Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (1979) The agreement, also called Moon Treaty, exists to promote the exploration of outer space, but to keep the Moon and other celestial bodies in pristine conditions for the common heritage of mankind, meaning that no nation may claim sovereignty over any part of space. All countries should have equal rights to conduct research on the Moon or other celestial


id: space-law-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_law-2.md
category: reference
title: Space law
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_law
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:45.167693+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: space-law-20260505-0
summary:
The Principles Governing the Use by States of Artificial Earth Satellites for International Direct Television Broadcasting (1982) Activities of this nature must be transpired in accordance with the sovereign rights of States. Said activities should "promote the free dissemination and mutual exchange of information and knowledge in cultural and scientific fields, assist in educational, social and economic development, particularly in the developing countries, enhance the qualities of life of all peoples and provide recreation with due respect to the political and cultural integrity of States". All States have equal rights to pursue these activities and must maintain responsibility for anything carried out under their boundaries of authority. State's planning activities need to contact the Secretary-General of the United Nations with details of the undergoing activities. The Principles Relating to Remote Sensing of the Earth from Outer Space (1986) Fifteen principles are stated under this category. The basic understanding comes from these descriptions given by the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs: (a) The term "remote sensing" means the sensing of the Earth's surface from space by making use of the properties of electromagnetic waves emitted, reflected or: diffracted by the sensed objects, for the purpose of improving natural resources


id: space-law-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_law-3.md
category: reference
title: Space law
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_law
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:45.167693+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: space-law-20260505-0
summary:
== National law == Space law also encompasses national laws, and multiple countries have passed national space legislation in recent years. The Outer Space Treaty gives responsibility for regulating space activities, including both government and private sector, to the individual countries where the activity is taking place. If a national of, or an organization incorporated in one country launches a spacecraft in a different country, interpretations differ as to whether the home country or the launching country has jurisdiction. The Outer Space Treaty also incorporates the UN Charter by reference, and requires parties to ensure that activities are conducted in accordance with other forms of international law such as customary international law (the custom and practice of states). The advent of commercial activities like space mining, space tourism, private exploration, and the development of multiple commercial spaceports, is leading a number of countries to consider how to regulate private space activities. The challenge is to regulate these activities in a manner that does not hinder or preclude investment, while still ensuring that commercial activities comply with international law. Developing nations are concerned that the spacefaring nations will monopolize space resources. Royalties paid to developing countries is one reason the United


id: space-law-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_law-4.md
category: reference
title: Space law
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_law
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:45.167693+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: space-law-20260505-0
summary:
Space Heritage can be understood to mean traces of human existence, together with their archaeological and natural contexts that occur in outer space, including on the Moon and other celestial bodies. Conceptually, this definition can be interpreted to include any human-made material in space and as humanity continues to increase the pace of exploratory and commercial missions to the Moon and beyond. Thus, protocols must be established to manage Space Heritage for two different reasons: first so that relevant cultural heritage, which is so important to build kinship amongst humans, is preserved; and second to assure that the concept of heritage is not abused by national space actors. Human heritage in outer space includes Tranquility Base (Apollo 11's lunar landing site) and the robotic and crewed sites that preceded and followed Apollo 11. This also comprises all the Luna programme vehicles, including the Luna 2 (first object) and Luna 9 (first soft-landing) missions, the Surveyor program and the Yutu rovers. Human heritage in outer space also includes satellites like Vanguard 1 and Asterix-1 which, though nonoperational, remain in orbit. Currently, these sites are not recognized as cultural heritage or protected in any way under international law. They are addressed in


id: space-law-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_law-5.md
category: reference
title: Space law
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_law
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:45.167693+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: space-law-20260505-0
summary:
While this field of the law is still in its infancy, it is in an era of rapid change and development. Arguably, the resources of space are infinite. If commercial space transportation becomes widely available, with substantially lower launch costs, then all countries will be able to directly reap the benefits of space resources. In that situation, it seems likely that consensus will be much easier to achieve with respect to commercial development and human settlement of outer space. High costs are not the only factor preventing the economic exploitation of space: it is argued that space should be considered as a pristine environment worthy of protection and conservation, and that the legal regime for space should further protect it from being used as a resource for Earth's needs. Debate is also focused on whether space should continue to be legally defined as part of the "Common heritage of mankind", and therefore unavailable for national claims, or whether its legal definition should be changed to allow private property in space. As of 2013, NASA's plans to capture an asteroid by 2021 has raised questions about how space law would be applied in practice. In 2016, the nation of Luxembourg has


id: space-law-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_law-6.md
category: reference
title: Space law
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_law
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:45.167693+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: space-law-20260505-0
summary:
=== Legal Profession === There is a growing emphasis on space law in academia. Since 1951, the McGill Faculty of Law in Montreal, Canada has hosted the Institute of Air and Space Law, and offers an LL.M. in Air and Space law. The University of Mississippi School of Law publishes the world's only law journal devoted to space law, the Journal of Space Law. The University of Mississippi School of Law is also the only ABA-accredited law school in the world to offer an LL.M. in Air and Space Law, a Graduate Certificate and a JD Concentration in Air and Space Law. Michelle Hanlon serves as the executive director of the Center for Air and Space Law at the university. In 2008, the University of Nebraska College of Law launched its space, cyber, and telecommunications law program, offering courses and specializations to JD students and an LL.M. in Space, Cyber, and Telecommunications. Over the last decade, other universities have begun to offer specialized courses and programs in the US, UK, France, the Netherlands, and Australia. In September 2012, the Space Law Society (SLS) at the University of Maryland Francis King Carey School of Law was established. A legal resources team


id: leslie-cantwell-collection-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leslie_Cantwell_collection-0.md
category: reference
title: Leslie Cantwell collection
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leslie_Cantwell_collection
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:46.289018+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: leslie-cantwell-collection-20260505-0
summary:
The Leslie Cantwell collection is a collection of large-format images of space and space exploration, signed and inscribed by astronauts from the Apollo Space programme. It was assembled by British collector Leslie Cantwell, who became interested in the history of space exploration in the late 1990s. The collection has been exhibited at the Proud Galleries of London, the Kansas Cosmosphere, and the New Mexico Museum of Art. The collection comprises both originals and reprints of official NASA photographs, including images of all six Apollo Moon landings. Some images are original Hasselblad photographs (the official camera used on all Apollo missions). Many of the photographs were taken in space by the astronauts themselves; others were taken by NASA employees on the ground. == References ==


id: museum-of-space-exploration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_Space_Exploration-0.md
category: reference
title: Museum of Space Exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_Space_Exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:47.957406+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: museum-of-space-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
The Museum of Space Exploration is a museum in Ukraine that is located in a former church. It is one of over 30 museums in the "museum city" of Pereiaslav. The church was originally built in 1891, moved in 1971 when the region it was built in was flooded, and reconstructed in 1973. == Location == The museum is located in the "museum city" of Pereiaslav, Ukraine, where it is one of over 30 museums as part of the "Museum of Folk Architecture and Life of the Middle Dnieper National Historical-Ethnographic Reserve". == Church == The building used for the museum was originally a wooden village church named after Saint Paraskeva. It was originally built in 1891. When the region that the church was originally located in was flooded in 1971, the church was moved and was reconstructed in 1973. The church has a crucifix layout, with a bell tower made with pine scaffold. It has a porch on three sides; the one on the fourth side was lost when the museum was relocated. == Museum == The museum opened in the hall of the relocated church in 1979. It has memorial rooms that recreate the times of Sergei Korolev


id: new-space-race-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Space_Race-0.md
category: reference
title: New Space Race
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Space_Race
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:49.165067+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: new-space-race-20260505-0
summary:
The New Space Race or Second Space Race describes the renewed competition in space exploration and technological development in the 21st century. This modern race is characterized by a broad range of objectives, including establishing a permanent moonbase, the long-term goal of crewed missions to Mars, the deployment of large satellite constellations, and advancements in reusable launch technology. Unlike the Cold War-era Space Race, which was primarily a geopolitical rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union to achieve superior spaceflight capability, the New Space Race features a more complex and multipolar landscape, including national space programs from China, India, Japan, and Europe, as well as increasing involvement of private aerospace companies, such as SpaceX and Blue Origin. == Rivalries == The primary race is between the government space agencies of the United States and China. In the 2020s, both the US and China are engaged in an effort to establish a permanent presence on the Moon, with an emphasis on the Lunar south pole, as a proving ground and stepping stone to Mars. The US uses its Artemis program and China uses its Chinese Lunar Exploration Program. Other nations, such as Russia, India, Japan, as well as European


id: order-of-gagarin-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_Gagarin-0.md
category: reference
title: Order of Gagarin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_Gagarin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:50.317493+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: order-of-gagarin-20260505-0
summary:
The Order of Gagarin is a high-ranking Russian award established to recognize outstanding contributions to the advancement of the Russian and Soviet space program. Named after the Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin, who became the first human to journey into space in 1961, the Order of Gagarin was created in 2023 in honor of the 60th anniversary of Valentina Tereshkova's solo mission on the Vostok 6 on 16 June 1963 and the 62nd anniversary of Yuri Gagarin's historic spaceflight aboard the Vostok 1 spacecraft. == History == On April 12, 2023, Yuri Borisov, the Director General of Roscosmos, announced that Russian President Vladimir Putin had approved the proposal by Roscosmos to establish the order in the name of Gagarin. According to the statute approved by the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation on May 27, 2023, No. 385, the Order of Gagarin is awarded to Russian citizens primarily for successful crewed spaceflight, crewed spaceflight programs for exploration, development, and utilization of space. The primary objective of the Order of Gagarin is to acknowledge individuals and organizations that have significantly contributed to the field of space exploration and related scientific disciplines. The order is worn on the left side of


id: population-of-space-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_of_space-0.md
category: reference
title: Population of space
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_of_space
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:51.487442+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: population-of-space-20260505-0
summary:
The last time when no people were in space was 30 October 2000. After this, Expedition 1 to the International Space Station (ISS) launched. Since then, the station has been continually occupied. Human population records in orbit developed from 1 in 1961, 2 in 1962, 3 in 1964, 4 in 1965, 5 and 7 in 1969, 8 and 11 in 1984, 12 in 1990 and 13 in 1995, to 14 in 2021, 17 in 2023 and 19 in 2024, developing into a continuous population of no less than 10 people on two space stations since 5 June 2022 (as of 2024). == Timeline of records == After Yuri Gagarin's first space flight in 1961, the population reached two with the first close approach of two crewed spacecraft (Vostok 3 and Vostok 4) in 1962. In 1964 a flight of three, in one spacecraft (Voskhod), followed. In December 1965, the record of the most people in space became four, with the launch and close approach in space of both Gemini 6A and Gemini 7. In early 1969, the first docking and crew transfer (the only time via a spacewalk) in history, by Soyuz 4 and Soyuz 5, increased the population record


id: project-phoenix-seti-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Phoenix_(SETI)-0.md
category: reference
title: Project Phoenix (SETI)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Phoenix_(SETI)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:52.655117+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: project-phoenix-seti-20260505-0
summary:
Project Phoenix was a SETI project to search for extraterrestrial intelligence by analyzing patterns in radio signals. It was run by the independently funded SETI Institute of Mountain View, California, U.S. Project Phoenix started work in February 1995 with the Parkes radio telescope located in New South Wales, Australia, the largest telescope in the Southern Hemisphere. Between September 1996 and April 1998, the Project used the National Radio Astronomy Observatory, Green Bank in Green Bank, West Virginia, U.S. Rather than attempting to scan the whole sky for messages, the Project concentrated on nearby systems that are similar to our own. Project Phoenix's targets comprised about 800 stars with a 200 light-year range. The Project searched for radio signals as narrow as 1 Hz between 1,000 and 3,000 MHz: a broad bandwidth compared with most SETI searches. In March 2004 the Project announced that after checking the 800 stars on its list, it had failed to find any evidence of extraterrestrial signals. Project leader Peter Backus remarked that they had been forced to conclude that "we live in a quiet neighborhood". == See also == HabCat == References == == External links == Project Phoenix Project Phoenix project at Jodrell Bank


id: school-of-earth-and-space-exploration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_of_Earth_and_Space_Exploration-0.md
category: reference
title: School of Earth and Space Exploration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_of_Earth_and_Space_Exploration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:53.871824+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: school-of-earth-and-space-exploration-20260505-0
summary:
The School of Earth and Space Exploration (SESE) is an academic unit of The College of Liberal Arts and Sciences at Arizona State University. It was established in 2006 by university president Michael M. Crow. As part of Crow's New American University model, the focus areas of SESE include research in both Earth and space exploration. The school is located on ASU's Tempe campus and is primarily housed in Interdisciplinary Science and Technology Building 4. == Academics == The School of Earth and Space Exploration offers eight undergraduate degrees and twelve graduate programs in a variety of interdisciplinary fields, including astronomy, geology, and systems engineering. As of 2025, there were 1,069 undergraduates and 119 graduate students in SESE programs, while over 6,000 students were enrolled in at least one class offered by the school. == Involvement in space exploration missions == The School of Earth and Space Exploration has been involved in a number of space exploration missions, including Psyche (which was led by the school), OSIRIS-REx, and Europa Clipper. Through SESE, ASU is in the top 2% for NASA-funded research expenditures. In 2022, the US Space Force selected ASU and SESE to be a member of its University Partnership


id: solar-gravitational-lens-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_gravitational_lens-0.md
category: reference
title: Solar gravitational lens
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_gravitational_lens
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:55.003987+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: solar-gravitational-lens-20260505-0
summary:
A solar gravitational lens or solar gravity lens (SGL) is a theoretical method of using the Sun as a large lens with a physical effect called gravitational lensing. It is considered one of the best methods to directly image habitable exoplanets. == History == The solar gravitational lens is characterized by remarkable properties: it offers brightness amplification of up to a factor of ~1011 (at 1 μm) and extreme angular resolution (~10−10 arcsec). Albert Einstein predicted in 1936 that rays of light from the same direction that skirt the edges of the Sun would converge to a focal point approximately 542 AUs from the Sun. A probe positioned at this distance from the Sun could use it as a gravitational lens for magnifying distant objects on the opposite side of the Sun. The probe's location could shift around as needed to select different targets relative to the Sun. In 1979, Von R. Eshleman was the first author proposing to use the Sun as a large lens. The Sun's gravitational field bends light more prominently the closer it gets to the Sun. Light rays passing on opposite sides of the Sun meet at a focal point, forming a series of points


id: space-diplomacy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_diplomacy-0.md
category: reference
title: Space diplomacy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_diplomacy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:56.274139+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: space-diplomacy-20260505-0
summary:
Space diplomacy refers to the integration of the collaboration of the knowledge, technology, and legislation involved in science diplomacy as applied to the expanded exploration of space. As diplomatic relationships are integral to the mitigation of various health, scientific, natural or technological issues across nations, space diplomacy is a growing field in which various nations can come to a consensus on what is fair when it comes to the exploration and commercialization of space travel. == Background == Space travel is a necessary resource for people around the world, especially when considering the use of satellites in areas like research or telecommunications. With the exploration of space, major issues are merging, such as environmental concerns and pollution or the monopolization of space travel. Space diplomacy allows for the consideration of such concerns, as officials, scientists, environmental activists, and private corporations can come together in order for both national and private space exploration to prosper. As a term, space diplomacy dates back to at least the 1960s. Space diplomacy policy and legislation have evolved to accommodate novel space activities and challenges. Initially, from 1959 to 1980, U.S.-Soviet Cold War considerations drove the emergence of the majority of space diplomacy in the


id: space-diplomacy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_diplomacy-1.md
category: reference
title: Space diplomacy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_diplomacy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:56.274139+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: space-diplomacy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Rising pressure to reform space law treaties and principles === As the Outer Space Treaty was signed in 1967 as a consequence of the space race between the United States and the Soviet Union, continuous updates to the international agreement to space accounts for the great expansion of space travel in the past 20 years. Despite the attempts to preserve space as a global commons, demands due to technological and science advancements in space, including space exploration and private spaceflight, like in the other global commons domains, have been threatening the guidelines set by the Outer Space Treaty. The “New Space” sector of private industry, which refers to civilian space activities funded by companies such as SpaceX, has been an increasingly competitive entity in the exploration and commercialization of space travel. Representing a contemporaneous space race, the growing network of privatized space flight requires legislation that would facilitate the union between both the public and private sectors of space travel and research across nations. Coupled with growing orbital and suborbital launches across the world, there is a growing need to reform the established legislation set by the United Nations. Another consideration for law reform is the increase in space


id: space-diplomacy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_diplomacy-2.md
category: reference
title: Space diplomacy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_diplomacy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:56.274139+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: space-diplomacy-20260505-0
summary:
==== SpaceX ==== SpaceX was created in 2002 by entrepreneur, engineer, and inventor Elon Musk with the mission of taking humans to Mars and revolutionizing space technology. Over the past two decades, the company specialized in the manufacture and launch of rockets that directly competed with the United Launch Alliance, the contract holder for the launch of NASA and Department of Defense rocket launches. SpaceX was the first private company to dock a ship at the International Space Station (ISS), with the development of the Falcon 9 launch and Dragon spacecraft. SpaceX designed the Falcon Heavy to not only launch future satellites into space and carry cargo, but to launch people to destinations like the Moon, or even Mars. SpaceX's ability to design a successful orbital transport system and Falcon 9 launch success at one-third the price of a traditional NASA-contracted launch demonstrates the private-sector capability to fulfill many current NASA functions at a fraction of the cost. Such achievement frees up NASA to concentrate on its core research and exploration missions in space and allows the private sector to invest in a self-sustaining space-based industry. ==== Blue Origin ==== Blue Origin was founded by Amazon's CEO, Jeff Bezos, in


id: space-diplomacy-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_diplomacy-3.md
category: reference
title: Space diplomacy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_diplomacy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:56.274139+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: space-diplomacy-20260505-0
summary:
=== International space privatization === Space privatization is not only becoming prominent in the U.S.: competition amongst space programs in Russia, Europe, Japan, India, and China has been growing significantly. The European Space Agency was established before the alliance between Russia and the U.S. in 1975, following many years of independent aeronautical engineering research by individual nations. Similarly, Chinese, Japanese and Indian space agencies began in the 1960s. A number of smaller countries, including the United Arab Emirates, also are participating in the space competition. China became the third nation to independently launch a human into orbit, in 2003, and its capabilities have since grown. China's visions include sending people to the Moon and building a space station as well as creating its own robotic explorer. Meanwhile, India launched its first unmanned mission to Mars in late 2013, and its probe entered Mars's orbit in September 2014. Since then, the Indian Space Research Organization has reached an agreement with NASA on subsequent explorations of Mars. China and the United Arab Emirates successfully sent spacecraft to orbit Mars in February 2021, which was when NASA landed its rover there. The advancements of transportation infrastructure by both national and international private players


id: space-diplomacy-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_diplomacy-4.md
category: reference
title: Space diplomacy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_diplomacy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:56.274139+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: space-diplomacy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Space junk === Space junk is human made debris in the form of the remnants of rockets and spaceships; there exists no international agreement on the best way to remove it. This is problematic as four thousand active and inactive satellites in space are in danger of being struck by space debris. Space equipment affected in this way, as well as space junk itself, can plummet towards Earth and harm its environment and people. Removing such space junk is problematic because with the increasing amount of space equipment deployed by increasingly numerous countries, it is difficult to know if one piece of space junk targeted for removal is actually another country's active space property. Although the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs has developed space debris mitigation guidelines where space launches should have a plan to remove the junk produced within 25 years, it is voluntary and is followed by only 40% of all space missions. == The Space2030 Agenda == Rooted in the realization that space is a frontier transcending national boundaries and interests, with benefits that should be accessible to all countries, The Space2030 Agenda underscores the importance of international cooperation and the peaceful use of


id: space-diplomacy-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_diplomacy-5.md
category: reference
title: Space diplomacy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_diplomacy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:56.274139+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: space-diplomacy-20260505-0
summary:
==== Challenges ==== The implementation of the Space2030 Agenda faces significant hurdles, including geopolitical tensions, resource limitations, and the complexities of space exploration. A major issue is ensuring equitable access to space, as disparities in technological advancement among nations persist. The growth of the space sector, driven by private enterprise, has led to increased space data usage for societal benefits but also exacerbated challenges like space debris, orbital congestion and increasing greenhouse gas emissions. This situation creates a 'space sustainability paradox,' where efforts to achieve Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) through space could become counterproductive due to environmental impacts on Earth and in space. Current regulations are insufficient, risking a 'tragedy of the commons' in space, where unregulated exploitation leads to resource depletion. Sustainable space development must consider three pillars: 1) addressing global challenges through space; 2) preserving space as a resource; and 3) protecting Earth from the impacts of space activities. Without comprehensive international policies and regulation, the long-term accessibility and safety of space are jeopardized, underlining the need for immediate action to ensure space's sustainable use. === Future Direction === In the future the Space2030 Agenda imagines a world in which space exploration and technology play a key role


id: space-dust-measurement-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_dust_measurement-0.md
category: reference
title: Space dust measurement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_dust_measurement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:57.590893+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: space-dust-measurement-20260505-0
summary:
Space dust measurement refers to the study of small particles of extraterrestrial material, known as micrometeoroids or interplanetary dust particles (IDPs), that are present in the Solar System. These particles are typically of micrometer to sub-millimeter size and are composed of a variety of materials including silicates, metals, and carbon compounds. The study of space dust is important as it provides insight into the composition and evolution of the Solar System, as well as the potential hazards posed by these particles to spacecraft and other space-borne assets. The measurement of space dust requires the use of advanced scientific techniques such as secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS), optical and atomic force microscopy (AFM), and laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) to accurately characterize the physical and chemical properties of these particles. == Overview == From the ground, space dust is observed as scattered sun light from myriads of interplanetary dust particles and as meteoroids entering the atmosphere. By observing a meteor from several positions on the ground, the trajectory and the entry speed can be determined by triangulation. Atmospheric entry speeds of up to 72,000 m/s have been observed for Leonid meteors. Even sub-millimeter sized meteoroids hitting spacecraft at speeds around 300 m/s


id: space-dust-measurement-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_dust_measurement-1.md
category: reference
title: Space dust measurement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_dust_measurement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:57.590893+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: space-dust-measurement-20260505-0
summary:
Zodiacal light observations at different heliocentric distances were performed by the Zodiacal light photometer instruments on Helios 1 and 2 and the Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11 space probes, ranging between 0.3 AU and 3.3 AU from the sun. This way, the heliocentric radial profile was determined, and shown to vary by a factor of about 100 over that distance. The Asteroid Meteoroid Detector (AMD) on Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11 used the optical detection and triangulation of individual meteoroids to get information on their sizes and trajectories. Unfortunately, the trigger threshold was set too low, and noise corrupted the data. Zodiacal light observations at visible light wavelengths use the light scattered by interplanetary dust particles, which constitute only a few percent of the incoming light. The remainder (over 90%) is absorbed and reradiated at infrared wavelengths. The zodiacal dust cloud is much brighter at infrared wavelengths than visible wavelengths. However, on the ground, most of these infrared wavelengths are blocked by atmospheric absorption bands. Therefore, most infrared astronomy observations are done from space observatory satellites. The Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS) mapped the sky at wavelengths of 12, 25, 60, and 100 micrometers. Between wavelengths of 12 and 60 microns,


id: space-dust-measurement-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_dust_measurement-2.md
category: reference
title: Space dust measurement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_dust_measurement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:57.590893+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: space-dust-measurement-20260505-0
summary:
Most instruments on a spacecraft flying through a dense dust environment will experience effects of dust impacts. A prominent example of such an instrument was the Plasma Wave Subsystem (PWS) on the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecraft. PWS provided useful information on the local dust environment. Initially, the Asteroid Meteoroid Detector (AMD) previously flown on Pioneer 10 and 11 was preliminarily selected for the Voyager payload. However, because there were doubts about its performance, the instrument was deselected and, hence, no dedicated dust instrument was carried by either Voyager 1 or 2. During the Voyager 2 flythrough of the Saturn system, PWS detected intense impulse noise centered on the ring plane at 2.88 Saturn radii distance, slightly outside of the G ring. This noise was attributed to micron sized particles hitting the spacecraft. In-situ dust detections by the Cassini Cosmic Dust Analyzer and camera observations of the outer rings confirmed the existence of an extended G ring. Also during Voyager's flybys of Uranus and Neptune, dust concentrations in the equatorial planes were observed. During the flyby of comet 21P/Giacobini–Zinner by the International Cometary Explorer, dust impacts were observed by the plasma wave instrument. Though plasma wave instruments on various


id: space-dust-measurement-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_dust_measurement-3.md
category: reference
title: Space dust measurement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_dust_measurement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:57.590893+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: space-dust-measurement-20260505-0
summary:
== Dust composition analyzers == The Helios Micrometeoroid Analyzer was the in-situ instrument to analyze the composition of cosmic dust. In 1974, the instrument was carried by the Helios spacecraft from the Earth's orbit down to 0.3 AU from the Sun. The goal of the Micrometeoroid Analyzer was to determine the spatial distribution of the dust in the inner planetary system, and to search for variations in the compositional and physical properties of micrometeoroids. The instrument consisted of two impact ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometers (Ecliptic and South sensor) with a total target area of about 0.01 m2. One sensor was shielded by the spacecraft rim from direct sunlight, whereas the other sensor was protected by a thin aluminized parylene film from intense solar radiation. These Micrometeoroid Analyzers were calibrated with a wide range of materials at the dust accelerators of the Max Planck Institute for Nuclear Physics in Heidelberg and the Ames Research Center in Moffet Field. The mass resolution of the mass spectra of the Helios sensors was low: R = M Δ M ≈ 10 {\displaystyle R={\cfrac {M}{\Delta M}}\approx 10} . There was an excess of impacts recorded by the South sensor compared to the Ecliptic sensor. On


id: space-dust-measurement-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_dust_measurement-4.md
category: reference
title: Space dust measurement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_dust_measurement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:57.590893+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: space-dust-measurement-20260505-0
summary:
A Dust Telescope is an instrument to perform dust astronomy. It not only analyses the signals and ions that are generated by a dust impact on the sensitive target, but also determines the dust trajectory prior to the impact. The latter is based on the successful measurement of the dust electric charge by Cassini's Cosmic Dust Analyzer (CDA). A Dust Trajectory Sensor consists of four planes of parallel position sensing wire electrodes. Dust accelerator tests show that dust trajectories can be determined to an accuracy of 1% in velocity and 1° in direction. The second element of a Dust Telescope is a Large-area Mass Analyzer: a reflectron type time-of-flight mass analyzer with a sensitive area of up to 0.2 m2 and a mass resolution R > 150. It consists of a circular plate target with the ion detector behind the center hole. In front of the target is an acceleration grid. Ions generated by an impact are reflected by a paraboloid shaped grid onto the center ion detector. Prototypes of dust telescope have been built at the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics (LASP) of the University of Colorado, Boulder, USA and at the Institute of Space Systems of the


id: space-dust-measurement-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_dust_measurement-5.md
category: reference
title: Space dust measurement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_dust_measurement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:57.590893+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: space-dust-measurement-20260505-0
summary:
During March–May 2000 and July–December 2002, the spacecraft was in a favorable position to collect interstellar dust on the back side of the sample collector. Once the sample capsule was returned in January 2006, the collector trays were inspected and thousands of grains from Comet Wild 2 and seven probable interstellar grains were identified. These grains are available for teaching and research from the NASA Astromaterials Curation Office. The first asteroid samples were returned by the JAXA Hayabusa missions. Hayabusa encountered asteroid 25143 Itokawa in November 2005, picked up surface samples, and returned to Earth in June 2010. Despite some problems during sample collection, thousands of 10–100 micron sized particles were collected and are available for research in the laboratories. The second Hayabusa2 mission rendezvoused with asteroid 162173 Ryugu in June 2018. About 5 g of surface and sub-surface material from this primitive C-type asteroid were returned. JAXA shares about 10% of the collected samples with NASA sample curation. The Rosetta space probe orbited comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko from August 2014 to September 2016. During this time, Rosetta's instruments analyzed the nucleus, dust, gas, and plasma environments. Rosetta carried a suite of miniaturized sophisticated lab instruments to study collected cometary dust particles.


id: the-space-explorers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Space_Explorers-0.md
category: reference
title: The Space Explorers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Space_Explorers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:13:59.636402+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-space-explorers-20260505-0
summary:
The Space Explorers is an American animated film created by Fred Ladd that was later turned into a cartoon serial and spawned a sequel series, New Adventures of the Space Explorers. The film aired in 1958; the sequel series aired the following year. For accuracy, both animated feature films used a consultant from Hayden Planetarium. == Synopsis == The cartoon, which featured Jimmy, Smitty and Professor Leon Nordheim on board the Polaris spaceship, taught space-related concepts. == Production == The films were originally created for the education market, to be shown in classrooms. They were made under the technical guidance of Franklyn M. Branley, Associate Astronomer, American Museum of Natural History-Hayden Planetarium. It may have been rushed into production to "capitalize on the Sputnik craze". The material comes primarily from three foreign films: Various animation sequences come from the 1951 Russian film "Universe" by the late Soviet director Pavel Klushantsev. Images of the rocket Polaris come from footage of German film "Weltraumschiff 1 Startet" (Anton Kutter, 1937). Except for images of the interior of the spaceship, images of the characters and from the walk on planet were extracted from a Russian cartoon film "Polet na lunu" (Flight to the moon),


id: space-race-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Race-0.md
category: reference
title: Space Race
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Race
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:14:01.305584+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: space-race-20260505-0
summary:
The Space Race (Russian: космическая гонка, romanized: kosmicheskaya gonka, IPA: [kɐsˈmʲitɕɪskəjə ˈɡonkə]) was a 20th-century competition between the Cold War rivals, the United States and the Soviet Union, to achieve superior spaceflight capability. It had its origins in the ballistic missile-based nuclear arms race between the two nations following World War II and the onset of the Cold War. The technological advantage demonstrated by spaceflight achievement was seen as necessary for national security, particularly in regard to intercontinental ballistic missile and satellite reconnaissance capability, but also became part of the cultural symbolism and ideology of the time. The Space Race brought pioneering launches of artificial satellites, robotic landers to the Moon, Venus, and Mars, and human spaceflight in low Earth orbit and ultimately to the Moon. Public interest in space travel originated in the 1951 publication of a Soviet youth magazine and was promptly picked up by US magazines. The competition began on July 29, 1955, when the United States announced its intent to launch artificial satellites for the International Geophysical Year. Five days later, the Soviet Union responded by declaring they would also launch a satellite "in the near future". The launching of satellites was enabled by developments in


