# kb

id: terminology-of-transgender-anatomy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminology_of_transgender_anatomy-0.md
category: reference
title: Terminology of transgender anatomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminology_of_transgender_anatomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:07.626494+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: terminology-of-transgender-anatomy-20260505-0
summary:
Transgender people use a variety of terms to refer to their genitals and other sexually dimorphic body parts and bodily functions. While some may use the standard clinical and colloquial terms (e.g. penis, dick; vagina, pussy), others follow neologistic approaches. These replacement words serve as alternatives to existing names that may conflict with a person's gender identity and trigger gender dysphoria. In medical contexts, providers may use traditional clinical terms, may mirror patients' preferred terms, or may use alternate terms such as internal genitals and external gonads. Common approaches include using terms associated with analogous body parts (e.g. penis for a clitoris or vice versa), modifying conventional terms to mark for gender (e.g. girldick or boy cunt), and novel terms that do not relate to existing terminology (e.g. front hole for a vagina). Some words are humorous, like hen for a transfeminine penis (contrast cock) or chesticles for a transmasculine breast. The naming of body parts is an important component of transgender sexuality. Trans people may pick different words for different contexts. In both colloquial and medical contexts, experts emphasize deferring to individual preference. == Context == Prior to the 2010s, there was little research on the social aspects of


id: trochlea-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trochlea-0.md
category: reference
title: Trochlea
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trochlea
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:08.822532+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: trochlea-20260505-0
summary:
Trochlea (Latin for pulley) is a term in anatomy. It refers to a grooved structure reminiscent of a pulley's wheel. == Related to joints == Most commonly, trochleae bear the articular surface of saddle and other joints: Trochlea of humerus (part of the elbow hinge joint with the ulna) Trochlea of femur (forming the knee hinge joint with the patella) The trochlea tali in the superior surface of the body of talus (part of the ankle hinge joint with the tibia) Trochlear process of the calcaneus In quadrupeds, the trochlea of the radial bone The "knuckles" of the tarsometatarsus which articulate with the proximal phalanges in a bird's foot == Related to muscles == It also can refer to structures which serve as a guide for muscles: Trochlea of superior oblique (see also superior oblique muscle), a mover of the eye which is supplied by the trochlear nerve, or fourth cranial nerve == References ==


id: uberon-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uberon-0.md
category: reference
title: Uberon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uberon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:10.028085+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: uberon-20260505-0
summary:
The Uber-anatomy ontology (Uberon) is a comparative anatomy ontology representing a variety of structures found in animals, such as lungs, muscles, bones, feathers and fins. These structures are connected to other structures via relationships such as part-of and develops-from. One of the uses of this ontology is to integrate data from different biological databases, and other species-specific ontologies such as the Foundational Model of Anatomy. == References == == External links == http://uberon.org


id: wingspan-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wingspan-0.md
category: reference
title: Wingspan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wingspan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:11.270186+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wingspan-20260505-0
summary:
The wingspan (or just span) of a bird or an airplane is the distance from one wingtip to the opposite wingtip. For example, the Boeing 777–200 has a wingspan of 60.93 metres (199 ft 11 in), and a wandering albatross (Diomedea exulans) caught in 1965 had a wingspan of 3.63 metres (11 ft 11 in), the official record for a living bird. The term wingspan, more technically 'extent', is also used for other winged animals such as pterosaurs, bats, insects, etc., and other aircraft such as ornithopters. In humans, the term wingspan also refers to the arm span, which is the distance between the length from the end of an individual's arm (measured at the fingertips) to the individual's fingertips on the other arm when raised parallel to the ground at shoulder height. == Wingspan of aircraft == The wingspan of an aircraft is always measured in a straight line, from wingtip to wingtip, regardless of wing shape or sweep. === Implications for aircraft design and animal evolution === The lift from wings is proportional to their area, so the heavier the animal or aircraft the bigger that area must be. The area is the product of the span times


id: glossary-of-archaeology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_archaeology-0.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of archaeology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_archaeology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:12.956883+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-archaeology-20260505-0
summary:
This page is a glossary of archaeology, the study of the human past from material remains. == A == absolute age The age of an object with reference to a fixed and specific time scale, as determined by some method of absolute dating, e.g. 10,000 BP or 1.9 mya. absolute dating Ascertaining the age of an object with reference to a fixed and specific time scale (e.g. calendar years or radiocarbon years), as opposed to relative dating. aerial archaeology Archaeological investigations conducted from the air, e.g. using aerial photography or satellite imagery. alignment Co-linear arrangement of features or structures with external landmarks or, in archaeoastronomy, an astronomically significant point or axis. antiquarian antiquary A person interested in the collection, curation and/or study of antiquities, particularly in reference to the intellectual tradition that developed in Europe in the 16th–17th centuries and is considered a precursor to modern archaeology. antiquarianism An intellectual tradition of inquiry that developed in Europe in the 16th and early 17th centuries AD as a result of new interests in nature, antiquity, the Renaissance of learning, and the addition of time‐depth to people's view of the world. antiquities Ancient artefacts, particularly in the context of their trade and


id: glossary-of-archaeology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_archaeology-1.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of archaeology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_archaeology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:12.956883+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-archaeology-20260505-0
summary:
henge A type of Neolithic earthwork that has a ring-shaped bank and ditch, with the ditch inside the bank. hillfort A type of earthwork used as a fortified refuge or defended settlement. homology homolog Similarity in style or form owing to a common origin, as opposed to an analog; see also homology (biology). == I == industrial archaeology Subdiscipline devoted to the study of past industry and industrial heritage. industry A typological classification of stone tools, e.g. the Mousterian industry, the Acheulean industry. in situ Features, artefacts and other remains in their original depositional context, cf. unstratified. == J == jar burial Inhumation of whole human remains in a ceramic vessel, as opposed to the more common urn burial, where only ashes from cremation are interred. == K == K–Ar dating Potassium–argon dating; a radiometric dating method useful for samples older than 100,000 years. kerb kerbstone circle A circular retaining wall built around certain types of burial mound. kill site A site where people slaughtered and/or butchered animals, especially in a Palaeolithic context, e.g. Naco Mammoth Kill Site, Cooper Bison Kill Site. killed object An object which has been deliberately broken or damaged in such a way as to make


id: glossary-of-archaeology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_archaeology-2.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of archaeology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_archaeology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:12.956883+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-archaeology-20260505-0
summary:
updraught kiln updraft kiln Type of ceramic kiln which works by drawing hot air from a fire placed adjacent to or below the material to be fired. urban archaeology Subdiscipline devoted to the study of archaeology in major cities and towns. urn Pottery vessel in which cremated remains were placed for interment; sometimes specially made, but often a repurposed domestic container. urnfield Cemetery containing cremation burials in urns. Typical of Late Bronze Age Europe and the eponymous Urnfield culture. use-wear Microscopic traces of wear, damage or residue left on the surface of an artefact from use. Use-wear analysis involves studying these traces to discern the function of a tool. == V == virtual archaeology A subfield of digital archeology that creates and use virtual models and simulations of archaeological sites, artifacts, and processes. == W == watching brief A formal programme of observation and investigation conducted during any operation carried out for non-archaeological reasons. wet sieving The use of flowing water to force excavated sediment through a screen or mesh and recover small artefacts. It is more effective than dry sieving in heavier soils and, as part of the process of flotation, can be used to recover very small organic


id: acropolis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acropolis-0.md
category: reference
title: Acropolis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acropolis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:14.203861+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: acropolis-20260505-0
summary:
An acropolis was the settlement of an upper part of an ancient Greek city, especially a citadel, and frequently a hill with precipitous sides, mainly chosen for purposes of defense. The term is typically used to refer to the Acropolis of Athens, yet nearly every Greek city had an acropolis of its own. The term derives from the homonymous Greek word "Ακρόπολις", composed from "akron" (ἄκρον), which means "top", and "polis" (πόλις), which means "city". Acropolises were used as religious centers and places of worship, forts, and places in which the royal and high-status resided. Acropolises became the nuclei of large cities of classical ancient times, and served as important centers of a community. Some well-known acropolises have become the centers of tourism in the present day, and they are a rich source of archaeological information of ancient Greece, especially, the Acropolis of Athens. == Origin == The plural of acropolis (ακρόπολη) is acropolises, also commonly as acropoleis and acropoles, and ακροπόλεις in Greek. The term acropolis is also used to describe the central complex of overlapping structures, such as plazas and pyramids, in many Maya cities, including Tikal and Copán. Acropolis is also the term used by archaeologists and


id: acropolis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acropolis-1.md
category: reference
title: Acropolis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acropolis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:14.203861+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: acropolis-20260505-0
summary:
=== Tourism === Acropolises today have become the epicenters of tourism and attraction sites in many modern-day Greek cities. The Athenian Acropolis, in particular, is the most famous, and has the best vantage point in Athens, Greece. Today, tourists can purchase tickets to visit the Athenian Acropolis, including walking, sightseeing, and bus tours, as well as a classic Greek dinner. === Cultural ties === Because of its classical Hellenistic and Greco-Roman style, the ruins of Mission San Juan Capistrano's Great Stone Church in California, United States has been called an American Acropolis. The civilization developed its religious, educational, and cultural aspects of the acropolis, and is used today as a location that holds events, such as operas. The neighborhood of Morningside Heights in New York City is commonly referred to as the "Academic Acropolis" due to its high elevation and the concentration of educational institutions in the area, including Columbia University and its affiliates, Barnard College, Teachers College, Union Theological Seminary and the Jewish Theological Seminary of America; Manhattan School of Music; Bank Street College of Education; and New York Theological Seminary. The analogy is also aided by the neoclassical architecture of the Columbia University campus, which was designed by


id: agora-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agora-0.md
category: reference
title: Agora
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agora
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:15.374935+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: agora-20260505-0
summary:
The agora (English: or ; Ancient Greek: ἀγορά, romanized: agorá, meaning "market" in Modern Greek) was a central public space in ancient Greek city-states. The literal meaning of the word "agora" is "gathering place" or "assembly". The agora was the centre of the athletic, artistic, business, social, spiritual, and political life in the city. The Ancient Agora of Athens is the best example. == Origins == Early in Greek history (10th–4th centuries BC), free-born citizens would gather in the agora for military duty or to hear statements of the ruling king or council. Later, the agora also served as a marketplace, where merchants kept stalls or shops to sell their goods amid arcades. This attracted artisans who built workshops nearby. From these twin functions of the agora as a political and a commercial spot came the two Greek verbs ἀγοράζω, agorázō, "I shop", and ἀγορεύω, agoreúō, "I speak in public". == Ancient Agora of Athens == The Ancient Agora of Athens was situated beneath the northern slope of the Acropolis. The Ancient Agora was the primary meeting ground for Athenians, where members of democracy congregated affairs of the state, where business was conducted, a place to hang out, and watch


id: amphora-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphora-0.md
category: reference
title: Amphora
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphora
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:16.557361+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: amphora-20260505-0
summary:
An amphora (; Ancient Greek: ἀμφορεύς, romanized: amphoreús; English pl. amphorae or amphoras) is a type of container with a pointed bottom and characteristic shape and size which fit tightly (and therefore safely) against each other in storage rooms and packages, tied together with rope and delivered by land or sea. The size and shape have been determined from at least as early as the Neolithic Period. Amphorae were used in vast numbers for the transport and storage of various products, both liquid and dry, but mostly for wine. They are most often ceramic, but examples in metals and other materials have been found. Versions of the amphorae were one of many shapes used in Ancient Greek vase painting. The amphora complements a vase, the pithos, which makes available capacities between one-half and two and one-half tons. In contrast, the amphora holds under a half-ton, typically less than 50 kilograms (110 lb). The bodies of the two types have similar shapes. Where the pithos may have multiple small loops or lugs for fastening a rope harness, the amphora has two expansive handles joining the shoulder of the body and a long neck. The necks of pithoi are wide for scooping


id: amphora-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphora-1.md
category: reference
title: Amphora
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphora
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:16.557361+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: amphora-20260505-0
summary:
== Production == Roman amphorae were wheel-thrown terracotta containers. During the production process the body was made first and then left to dry partially. Then coils of clay were added to form the neck, the rim, and the handles. Once the amphora was complete, the maker then treated the interior with resin that would prevent permeation of stored liquids. The reconstruction of these stages of production is based primarily on the study of modern amphora production in some areas of the eastern Mediterranean. Amphorae often were marked with a variety of stamps, sgraffito, and inscriptions. They provided information on the production, content, and subsequent marketing. A stamp usually was applied to the amphora at a partially dry stage. It indicates the name of the figlina (workshop) and/or the name of the owner of the workshop. Painted stamps, tituli picti, recorded the weight of the container and the contents, and were applied after the amphora was filled. Today, stamps are used to allow historians to track the flow of trade goods and recreate ancient trade networks. == Classification == The first systematic classification of Roman amphorae types was undertaken by the German scholar Heinrich Dressel. Following the exceptional amphora deposit uncovered


id: amphora-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphora-2.md
category: reference
title: Amphora
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphora
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:16.557361+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: amphora-20260505-0
summary:
===== Panathenaic prize amphora ===== Another special type is the Panathenaic prize amphora, with black-figure decoration, produced exclusively as prize vessels for the Panathenaia and retaining the black-figure technique for centuries after the introduction of red-figure vase painting. Some examples bear the inscription "ΤΩΝ ΑΘΗΝΗΘΕΝ ΑΘΛΩΝ" meaning "[I am one] of the prizes from [the goddess] Athena". They contained the prize of oil from the sacred olive tree of the goddess Athena for the winners of the athletic contests held to honour the goddess, and were evidently kept thereafter, and perhaps used to store wine, before being buried with the prize-winner. They depicted goddess Athena on one side (as seen on the second image on this page) and the athletic event on the other side, e.g. a scene of wrestling or running contest etc. === Ancient Rome === By the Roman period utilitarian amphorae were normally the only type produced. The first type of Roman amphora, Dressel 1, appears in central Italy in the late 2nd century BC. This type had thick walls and a characteristic red fabric. It was very heavy, although also strong. Around the middle of the 1st century BC the so-called Dressel 2-4 starts to become


id: anthropic-units-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropic_units-0.md
category: reference
title: Anthropic units
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropic_units
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:17.794215+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anthropic-units-20260505-0
summary:
The term anthropic unit (from Greek άνθρωπος, 'human') is used with different meanings in archaeology, in measurement and in social studies. == In archaeology == In archaeology, anthropic units are strata or deposits of material containing a high proportion of man-made detritus. For example: "… 'degraded anthropic units', i.e., deposits produced by weathering and decay of fired bricks and mixed fill with non-selected inclusions …" == In measurement == Following the coinage of the term "anthropic principle" by Brandon Carter in 1973–1974, units of measurement that are on a human scale are occasionally referred to as "anthropic units", as the example here: "… the metre and kilogram occupy a reasonably central position as far as symmetry in positive and negative powers of ten is concerned, emphasising that the SI units are natural anthropic units …" == In social studies == In fields of study such as sociology and ethnography, anthropic units are identifiable groupings of people. For example: "Ethnographers have been accustomed to deal with the 'race', the 'tribe' and the 'nation' as social or anthropic units …" and: "... among the more primitive anthropic units it seems a grave ineptitude for the Chukchees not to adopt the snowhouse building


id: artifact-archaeology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)-0.md
category: reference
title: Artifact (archaeology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:18.953802+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: artifact-archaeology-20260505-0
summary:
An artifact or artefact (British English) is a general term for an item made or given shape by humans, such as a tool or a work of art, especially an object of archaeological interest. In archaeology, the word has become a term of particular nuance; it is defined as an object recovered by archaeological endeavor, including cultural artifacts (of cultural interest). "Artefact" is the general term used in archaeology, while in museums the equivalent general term is normally "object", and in art history perhaps artwork or a more specific term such as "carving". The same item may be called all or any of these in different contexts, and more specific terms will be used when talking about individual objects, or groups of similar ones. Artefacts exist in many different forms and can sometimes be confused with ecofacts and features; all three of these can sometimes be found together at archaeological sites. They can also exist in different types of context depending on the processes that have acted on them over time. A wide variety of analyses take place to analyze artefacts and provide information on them. However, the process of analyzing artefacts through scientific archaeology can be hindered by the


id: artifact-archaeology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)-1.md
category: reference
title: Artifact (archaeology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:18.953802+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: artifact-archaeology-20260505-0
summary:
== Analysis == Artifact analysis is determined by what type of artifact is being examined, the best. Lithic analysis refers to analyzing artifacts that are created with stones and are often in the form of tools. Stone artifacts occur often throughout prehistoric times and are, therefore, a crucial aspect in answering archaeological questions about the past. On the surface, lithic artifacts can help archaeologists study how technology has developed throughout history by showing a variety of tools and manufacturing techniques from different periods of time. However, even deeper questions can be answered through this type of analysis; these questions can revolve around topics that include how societies were organized and structured in terms of socialization and the distribution of goods. The following lab techniques all contribute to the process of lithic analysis: petrographic analysis, neutron activation, x-ray fluorescence, particle-induced x-ray emission, individual flake analysis and mass analysis. Another type of artifact analysis is ceramic analysis, which is based around the archaeological study of pottery. This type of analysis can help archaeologists gain information on the raw materials that were used and how they were utilized in the creation of pottery. Laboratory techniques that allow for this are mainly based around


id: biofact-archaeology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofact_(archaeology)-0.md
category: reference
title: Biofact (archaeology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofact_(archaeology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:20.214138+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biofact-archaeology-20260505-0
summary:
In archaeology, a biofact (or ecofact) is any organic material including flora or fauna material found at an archaeological site that has not been technologically altered by humans yet still has cultural relevance. Biofacts can include but are not limited to plants, seeds, pollen, animal bones, insects, fish bones and mollusks. The study of biofacts, alongside other archaeological remains such as artifacts are a key element to understanding how past societies interacted with their surrounding environment and with each other. Biofacts also play a role in helping archaeologists understand questions of subsistence and reveals information about the domestication of certain plant species and animals which demonstrates, for example, the transition from a hunter-gatherer society to a farming society. Biofacts are differentiated from artifacts in that artifacts are typically considered anything purposefully manipulated or made by human art and workmanship, whereas ecofacts represent matter that has not been made or deliberately influenced by humans yet still has cultural relevance. Biofacts reveal how people respond to their surroundings. There are many different ways that biofacts can be preserved, including through carbonisation, waterlogging, desiccation and mineralization. There are also varying methods of recovering them depending on the location in which they were found.


id: biofact-archaeology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofact_(archaeology)-1.md
category: reference
title: Biofact (archaeology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofact_(archaeology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:20.214138+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biofact-archaeology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Waterlogging === Waterlogging is another form of preservation that occurs when an ecofact or similar archaeological deposit is preserved under the groundwater table, where a reduction in oxygen allows for preservation. Ecofacts found in most waterlogged archaeology sites are often well preserved yet delicate. To result in a high quality preservation, the groundwater level should remain consistent which ensures anaerobic conditions that ultimately prevent the decay of the organic matter. It is possible that both waterlogged and charred ecofacts can be found at the same archaeological site. === Desiccation === Desiccation is another type of preservation that only occurs in highly arid environments where there is a lack of water, such as a desert. Under these conditions, organic materials gain a resistance to high or low temperatures and UV exposure and retain their key biological structures such as their membranes, nucleic acids and proteins. Where an ecofact experiences this type of preservation, it is possible to rehydrate the tissue of the organism to cause it to resume physiological activity. Whilst rare, desiccation is another form of preservation that allows for the study of ecofacts. === Mineralization === Mineralized ecofacts require a specific set of conditions for correct preservation. Mineralization


id: botija-container-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botija_(container)-0.md
category: reference
title: Botija (container)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botija_(container)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:21.533021+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: botija-container-20260505-0
summary:
Botija is a term used by archaeologists for a style of ceramic vessel produced in Seville, Spain from early in the 16th-century through the middle of the 19th century. It was radially symmetrical, widest near the top, tapering down to a rounded or nearly pointed bottom. It had a fairly small mouth, and did not have any handles or protusions. While the measurements of individual botijas vary, they tend to cluster around roughly standard sizes. They were sealed with cork stoppers. Botijas were widely used for shipping and storing liquids and some solids, and whole or broken botijas are found almost everywhere the Spanish Empire reached, as well as areas that the Spanish never controlled. Changes to certain elements of botijas over time, documented from jars found in shipwrecks of known date, allow whole jars and sherds found in archaeological sites to be roughly dated. == Names == Spanish records refer to botijas peruleras, botijas medias, botijuelas, botijuelas peruleras, and botixuelas. In colonial Guatemala, the terms botija de vino (wine), botija da aceite (oil), and botija de aceitunas (olives) are attested. Larger jars were commonly called botijas perulera or just peruleras, while the smaller ones were often called botijuellas. Perulera


id: botija-container-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botija_(container)-1.md
category: reference
title: Botija (container)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botija_(container)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:21.533021+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: botija-container-20260505-0
summary:
=== James === In 1988, Stephen James described more than 1,000 intact ceramic jars recoved from two ships, the Conde de Tolosa and Neustra Senora de Guadalupe, which sank in 1724 in Samana Bay on the north coast of Hispaniola after sailing from Cádiz, Spain. He recognized four forms among the intact jars. They were variously unglazed, glazed only on the interior, or glazed on the interior and exterior. Intact jars from the wrecks were measured, including the volume of water held for jars with interior glazing. Interior glazing is believed to indicate the jar was intended to hold liquids that could be readily absorbed by unglazed ceramics. Sherds from broken jars were examined for paste composition, and were found similar enough to suggest that all of the jars were made from the same source of clay. Form I jars from the wrecks are egg-shaped and the largest found in the shipwrecks, ranging from 47 to 52 cm in height, 29.3 to 32.8 cm diameter at the widest part, and 15 to 20.1 liters in volume. They correspond to Goggin's Middle Style Shape A. Most of the jars have an empty weight of 8.5 to 9.5 kg. The jars have


id: botija-container-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botija_(container)-2.md
category: reference
title: Botija (container)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botija_(container)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:21.533021+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: botija-container-20260505-0
summary:
== Production == The production of botijas was concentrated in Andalusia, with Seville being the most important center of ceramic production in the Iberian Peninsula during the Early modern period. The Casa de Contratación de Indias (the institution that controlled trade with the New World) was established in Seville in 1503, where it remained until it was transferred to Cádiz in 1717. The need for ceramic containers to hold merchandise sent to the New World led to development of potters' neighborhoods in Seville and Cádiz. Ceramic containers similar to botijas were produced in Portuguese centers such as Aveiro and in Spanish possessions in the Americas, but did not necessarily match the standards of jars produced in Seville. Colin Martin suggested that there were "official" and "civilian" botijas, with the official jars being Goggin's Form B (globular) in two sizes, while civilian jars varied considerable in shape. The jars were thrown in two parts. The body of the jars from the base up to the widest part was thrown as one part, and the top was thrown as another. The two parts were then joined with a slip while being turned on a wheel. Busto-Zapico surmises that the potter throwing the


id: botija-container-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botija_(container)-3.md
category: reference
title: Botija (container)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botija_(container)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:21.533021+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: botija-container-20260505-0
summary:
== Uses == Botijas were used to store, conserve, and transport solid and liquid goods. The botija was designed for liquid foods, and was used primarily for shipping wine, olive oil, and vinegar. Botijas were also used for solid items that would fit through the mouth of the jar. The ovoid to elongated top-heavy design of botijas, with pointed or rounded bottoms, is evidence they were not intended for long-term storage of liquids while sitting on the ground. Vessels with flat bottoms and wider mouths, such as tinajas and orzas were more suitable for storing liquids. Orzas were usually made with the same paste as ''botijas, making it difficult to assign many sherds to a particular style of container. Worth suggests that botijas intended for oil were lead-glazed to prevent the oil being absorbed by the walls of the botijas and becoming rancid. Botijas carrying wine were lined with pez (colofonia), a resin which sealed the ceramic from the wine. Pez could be removed and reapplied to the interior of botijas as needed. Spices and herbs could be added to the pez to help disguise the taste of the pez, and the botijas were rinsed with vinegar and water to


id: clausurae-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clausurae-0.md
category: reference
title: Clausurae
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clausurae
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:22.853525+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: clausurae-20260505-0
summary:
Clausurae (sing. clausura) are short, linear cut-off walls—a term modern scholars apply to masonry or earthen barriers erected across valleys, gorges or road corridors in Late Antiquity. == Etymology and definition == The word derives from late-Latin clausura “a closing, barrier,” but philological studies have shown that in military contexts it denoted a discrete obstacle rather than a continuous frontier line. Because contemporary texts used the term variably—sometimes for a gate or fortified town—today’s historians reserve clausurae for short walls, normally a few hundred metres to several kilometres long, that seal natural bottlenecks. == Historical context == An imperial rescript of 443 CE required the magister officiorum to report annually “on the state of the camps and of the clausurae along every frontier,” confirming their recognised role in the late-Roman defence-in-depth system. While earlier scholarship misread clausurae as grand linear ramparts, current consensus treats them instead as tactical choke-points manned by modest detachments and supported by nearby forts or watch-towers. == Construction and typology == Most clausurae were stone walls 1–3 m thick and up to 5 m high, sometimes reinforced with towers and a frontal ditch; lighter barriers of timber and earth are also attested. Their alignments exploit steep


id: cradle-of-civilization-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization-0.md
category: reference
title: Cradle of civilization
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:24.048097+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cradle-of-civilization-20260505-0
summary:
A cradle of civilization is a location and a culture where civilization was developed independently of other civilizations in other locations. A civilization is any complex society characterized by the development of the state, social stratification, urbanization, and symbolic systems of communication beyond signed or spoken languages (namely, writing systems and graphic arts). Scholars generally acknowledge six cradles of civilization: Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt, Ancient India and Ancient China are believed to be the earliest in Afro-Eurasia, while the Caral–Supe civilization of coastal Peru and the Olmec civilization of Mexico are believed to be the earliest in the Americas. All of the cradles of civilization depended upon agriculture for sustenance (except possibly Caral–Supe which may have depended initially on marine resources). All depended upon farmers producing an agricultural surplus to support the centralized government, political leaders, religious leaders, and public works of the urban centers of the early civilizations. == Rise of civilization == The earliest signs of a process leading to sedentary culture can be seen in the Levant to as early as 12,000 BC, when the Natufian culture became sedentary; it evolved into an agricultural society by 10,000 BC. The importance of water to safeguard an abundant and stable


id: cradle-of-civilization-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization-1.md
category: reference
title: Cradle of civilization
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:24.048097+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cradle-of-civilization-20260505-0
summary:
In Mesopotamia (a region encompassing modern Iraq and bordering regions of Southeast Turkey, Northeast Syria and Northwest Iran), the convergence of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers produced rich fertile soil and a supply of water for irrigation. Neolithic cultures emerged in the region from 8000 BC onwards. The civilizations that emerged around these rivers are the earliest known non-nomadic agrarian societies. It is because of this that the Fertile Crescent region, and Mesopotamia in particular, are often referred to as the cradle of civilization. The period known as the Ubaid period (c. 6500 to 3800 BC) is the earliest known period on the alluvial plain, although it is likely earlier periods exist obscured under the alluvium. It was during the Ubaid period that the movement toward urbanization began. Agriculture and animal husbandry were widely practiced in sedentary communities, particularly in Northern Mesopotamia (later Assyria), and intensive irrigated hydraulic agriculture began to be practiced in the south. Around 6000 BC, Neolithic settlements began to appear all over Egypt. Studies based on morphological, genetic, and archaeological data have attributed these settlements to migrants from the Fertile Crescent in the Near East arriving in Egypt and North Africa during the Egyptian and North


id: cradle-of-civilization-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization-2.md
category: reference
title: Cradle of civilization
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:24.048097+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cradle-of-civilization-20260505-0
summary:
=== Northeastern Africa === The region is intermediate between North Africa and East Africa, and encompasses the Horn of Africa (Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia), as well as Sudan, South Sudan, Libya, and Egypt. The region has a very long history of habitation with fossil finds from the early hominids to modern human and is one of the most culturally and linguistically diverse regions of the world, being the home to many civilizations and located on an important trade route that connects multiple continents. A range of linguistic, biological anthropological, archaeological and genetic data have identified shared affinities between early Egypt and northeastern African populations. Genetic evidence has identified the Horn of Africa as a source of a genetic marker "M35/215" Y-chromosome lineage for a significant population component which moved north from that region into Egypt and the Levant. This genetic distribution paralleled the spread of the Afrasian language family with the movement of people from the Horn of Africa into Egypt and added a new demic component to the existing population of Egypt 17,000 years ago. Mainstream scholars have situated the ethnicity and the origins of predynastic, southern Egypt as a foundational community primarily in northeast Africa which included


id: cradle-of-civilization-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization-3.md
category: reference
title: Cradle of civilization
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:24.048097+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cradle-of-civilization-20260505-0
summary:
The developed Neolithic cultures belonging to the phases Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (10,200 BC) and Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (7600 to 6000 BC) appeared in the Fertile Crescent and from there spread eastwards and westwards. Contemporaneously, a grain-grinding culture using the earliest type of sickle blades had replaced the culture of hunters, fishers, and gathering people using stone tools along the Nile. Geological evidence and computer climate modeling studies also suggest that natural climate changes around 8000 BC began to desiccate the extensive pastoral lands of northern Africa, eventually forming the Sahara. Continued desiccation forced the early ancestors of the Egyptians to settle around the Nile more permanently and to adopt a more sedentary lifestyle. The oldest fully developed neolithic culture in Egypt is Fayum A culture that began around 5500 BC. By about 5500 BC, small tribes living in the Nile valley had developed into a series of inter-related cultures as far south as Sudan, demonstrating firm control of agriculture and animal husbandry, and identifiable by their pottery and personal items, such as combs, bracelets, and beads. The largest of these early cultures in northern Upper Egypt was the Badari, which probably originated in the Western Desert; it was known for


id: cradle-of-civilization-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization-4.md
category: reference
title: Cradle of civilization
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:24.048097+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cradle-of-civilization-20260505-0
summary:
The earliest reliably-dated Neolithic site in South Asia is Mehrgarh in the Kacchi Plain of present-day Pakistan dating from 7000 BC. The aceramic Neolithic at Mehrgarh in present-day Pakistan lasts from 7000 to 5500 BC, with the ceramic Neolithic at Mehrgarh lasting up to 3300 BC; blending into the Early Bronze Age. Mehrgarh is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming and herding in the Indian subcontinent. It is likely that the culture centered around Mehrgarh migrated into the Indus Valley in present-day Pakistan and became the Indus Valley Civilisation. The earliest fortified town in the region is found at Rehman Dheri, dated 4000 BC in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa close to River Zhob Valley in present-day Pakistan. Other fortified towns found to date are at Amri (3600–3300 BC), Kot Diji in Sindh, and at Kalibangan (3000 BC) at the Hakra River. The Indus Valley Civilization starts around 3300 BC with what is referred to as the Early Harappan Phase (3300 to 2600 BC), although at the start this was still a village-based culture, leaving mostly pottery for archaeologists. The earliest examples of the Indus script date to this period, as well as the emergence of citadels representing centralised authority


id: cradle-of-civilization-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization-5.md
category: reference
title: Cradle of civilization
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:24.048097+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cradle-of-civilization-20260505-0
summary:
Drawing on archaeology, geology and anthropology, modern scholars do not see the origins of the Chinese civilization or history as a linear story but rather the history of the interactions of different and distinct cultures and ethnic groups that influenced each other's development. The specific cultural regions that developed Chinese civilization were the Yellow River civilization, the Yangtze civilization, and Liao civilization. Early evidence for Chinese millet agriculture is dated to around 7000 BC, with the earliest evidence of cultivated rice found at Chengtoushan near the Yangtze River, dated to 6500 BC. Chengtoushan may also be the site of the first walled city in China. By the beginning of the Neolithic Revolution, the Yellow River valley began to establish itself as a center of the Peiligang culture, which flourished from 7000 to 5000 BC, with evidence of agriculture, constructed buildings, pottery, and burial of the dead. With agriculture came increased population, the ability to store and redistribute crops, and the potential to support specialist craftsmen and administrators. Its most prominent site is Jiahu. Some scholars have suggested that the Jiahu symbols (6600 BC) are the earliest form of proto-writing in China. However, it is likely that they should not be


id: cradle-of-civilization-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization-6.md
category: reference
title: Cradle of civilization
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:24.048097+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cradle-of-civilization-20260505-0
summary:
=== Ancient Peru === The earliest evidence of agriculture in the Andean region dates to around 9000 BC in Ecuador at sites of the Las Vegas culture. The bottle gourd may have been the first plant cultivated. The oldest evidence of canal irrigation in South America dates to 4700 to 2500 BC in the Zaña Valley of northern Peru. The earliest urban settlements of the Andes, as well as North and South America, are dated to 3500 BC at Huaricanga, in the Fortaleza area, and Sechin Bajo near the Sechin River. Both sites are in Peru. The Caral–Supe or Norte Chico civilization is understood to have emerged around 3200 BC, as it is at that point that large-scale human settlement and communal construction across multiple sites becomes clearly apparent. In the early 21st century, Peruvian archaeologist Ruth Shady established Caral–Supe as the oldest known civilization in the Americas. The civilization flourished near the Pacific coast in the valleys of three small rivers, the Fortaleza, the Pativilca, and the Supe. These river valleys each have large clusters of sites. Further south, there are several associated sites along the Huaura River. Notable settlements include the cities of Caral, the largest and most


id: cradle-of-civilization-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization-7.md
category: reference
title: Cradle of civilization
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:24.048097+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cradle-of-civilization-20260505-0
summary:
=== Mesoamerica === Maize is believed to have been first domesticated in southern Mexico about 7000 BC. The Coxcatlan Caves in the Valley of Tehuacán provide evidence for agriculture in components dated between 5000 and 3400 BC. Similarly, sites such as Sipacate in Guatemala provide maize pollen samples dating to 3500 BC. Around 1900 BC, the Mokaya domesticated one of the dozen species of cacao. A Mokaya archaeological site provides evidence of cacao beverages dating to this time. The Mokaya are also thought to have been among the first cultures in Mesoamerica to develop a hierarchical society. What would become the Olmec civilization had its roots in early farming cultures of Tabasco, which began around 5100 to 4600 BC. The emergence of the Olmec civilization has traditionally been dated to around 1600 to 1500 BC. Olmec features first emerged in the city of San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán, fully coalescing around 1400 BC. The rise of civilization was assisted by the local ecology of well-watered alluvial soil, as well as by the transportation network provided by the Coatzacoalcos River basin. This environment encouraged a densely concentrated population, which in turn triggered the rise of an elite class and an associated demand for


id: cradle-of-civilization-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization-8.md
category: reference
title: Cradle of civilization
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:24.048097+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cradle-of-civilization-20260505-0
summary:
== Cradle of Western civilization == There is academic consensus that Classical Greece was a major culture that provided the foundation of modern Western culture, democracy, art, theatre, philosophy, and science. For this reason, it is known as the cradle of Western Civilization. Along with Greece, Rome has sometimes been described as a birthplace or as the cradle of Western Civilization because of the role the city had in politics, republicanism, law, architecture, warfare and Western Christianity. == Other uses == Because the word civilization can be defined widely, the term "cradle of civilization" has also been used to describe the origin-point of a particular cultural group, or as the basis for a national mysticism or the origin myth of a nation. This is separate from the use of the term in the study of human prehistory and the development of complex, sedentary societies. "Cradle of civilization" has been used in Indian nationalism (In Search of the Cradle of Civilization 1995) and Taiwanese nationalism (Taiwan;— The Cradle of Civilization 2002). The terms also appear in esoteric pseudohistory, such as the Urantia Book, claiming the title for "the second Eden", or the pseudoarchaeology related to Megalithic Britain (Civilization One 2004, Ancient


id: desert-kite-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desert_kite-0.md
category: reference
title: Desert kite
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desert_kite
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:25.325383+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: desert-kite-20260505-0
summary:
Desert kites (Arabic: مصائد صحراوية, romanized: maṣāʾid ṣaḥrāwiyya, lit. 'desert traps') are dry stone wall structures found in Southwest Asia (Middle East, but also North Africa, Central Asia and Arabia), which were first discovered from the air during the 1920s. There are over 6,000 known desert kites, with sizes ranging from less than a hundred metres to several kilometres. They typically have a kite shape formed by two convergent "antennae" that run towards an enclosure, all formed by walls of dry stone less than one metre high, but variations exist. Little is known about their ages, but the few dated examples appear to span the entire Holocene. While the majority view holds that these structures were traps for hunting game animals such as gazelles, which were driven into the kites, a minority view suggests they were used for managing livestock. == Appearance == Desert kites are stone structures with a convergent shape, composed of linear piles of stones. The structures have lengths ranging from less than a hundred metres to several kilometres and heights of less than one metre, even accounting for erosion. There often are gaps in the lines, which were presumably either purposeful (left by the builders) or


id: desert-kite-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desert_kite-1.md
category: reference
title: Desert kite
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desert_kite
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:25.325383+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: desert-kite-20260505-0
summary:
Both archaeological studies and ethnographic accounts from the 19th and 20th century indicate that desert kites in the Middle East and North Africa were used as traps for wild game. A minority viewpoint is that they were used for livestock management. The disagreement stems mainly from a lack of factual evidence to support either hypothesis, from disputes on the interpretation of evidence, and from the extinction of traditions involving desert kites. There is almost no evidence of what happened to animals after they were trapped or which animals were targeted, but ethnographic analyses indicate that kites were used to hunt ungulates like gazelles, which live in groups and form defensive formations when threatened. The usage of traps in catching animals in the steppe is mentioned in the Epic of Gilgamesh. The construction of kites would have required coordinated work from multiple people and are thus indicative of social organization, even if the trapping of animals is a comparatively simple hunting technique. The use of kites in trapping animals is depicted in Israeli, Mongolian and Sinai petroglyphs; these drawings may not always be contemporaneous to the actual usage of the kites. Petroglyphs relating to kites have been found on kites. Studies


id: destruction-layer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destruction_layer-0.md
category: reference
title: Destruction layer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destruction_layer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:26.527421+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: destruction-layer-20260505-0
summary:
A destruction layer is an archaeological stratum showing clear evidence of widespread burning, structural collapse, weapon finds, human remains, or other signs of violent or catastrophic events. Such layers may result from warfare, seismic activity, accidental fires, or other disasters. In archaeological interpretation, destruction horizons provide chronological anchors for cultural sequences and may indicate major historical turning points, such as the fall of cities, regional crises, or the collapse of polities. Finding comparable destruction layers across several sites in a region can signal a broader episode of unrest or transition, as in the case of the Late Bronze Age collapse. The archaeologist Sharon Zuckerman emphasized that destruction contexts should be analyzed together with the occupational phases preceding and following them, as part of a long-term cultural process rather than isolated events. == Examples == The city of Troy shows several destruction layers, notably Troy II (c. 2200 BC) and Troy VIIa (c. 1200 BC), the latter often associated with the end of the Late Bronze Age and possibly reflecting conflict in the region. The volcanic eruption of Thera (Santorini) produced a well-preserved destruction layer at Akrotiri, dated to the late 17th century BC. The Late Bronze Age cities of the


id: disjecta-membra-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disjecta_membra-0.md
category: reference
title: Disjecta membra
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disjecta_membra
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:27.707953+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disjecta-membra-20260505-0
summary:
Disjecta membra, also written disiecta membra, is Latin for "scattered fragments" (also scattered limbs, members, or remains) and is used to refer to surviving fragments of ancient poetry, manuscripts, and other literary or cultural objects, including even fragments of ancient pottery. It is derived from disiecti membra poetae, a phrase used by Horace, a Roman poet. == Ancient and medieval poetry, literature, and manuscripts == Fragments of ancient writing, especially ancient Latin poetry found in other works, are commonly referred to as disjecta membra. The terms disiecta membra and disjecta membra are paraphrased from the Roman lyric poet Horace (65 BC – 8 BC), who wrote of disiecti membra poetae in his Satires, 1.4.62, referring to the "limbs of a dismembered poet". In full, the term originally appeared as Invenias etiam disiecti membra poetae, in reference to the earlier Roman poet Ennius. Although Horace's intended meaning remains the subject of speculation and debate, the passage is often taken to imply that if a line from poetry were torn apart and rearranged, the dismembered parts of the poet would still be recognisable. In this sense, in the study of literature, disjecta membra is often used to describe the piecing together of


id: disturbance-archaeology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disturbance_(archaeology)-0.md
category: reference
title: Disturbance (archaeology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disturbance_(archaeology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:28.951367+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disturbance-archaeology-20260505-0
summary:
A disturbance is any change to an archaeological site due to events which occurred after the site was laid down. Disturbances may be caused by natural events or human activity, and may result in loss of archaeological value. In some cases, it can be difficult to distinguish between features caused by human activity in the period of interest, and features caused by later human activity or natural processes. == Causes == === Natural causes === The soil scientist Francis D. Hole identified nine natural processes resulting in soil disturbance, including the movements of animals and plants (known as bioturbation, and including burrowing, root growth and treefalls); freezing and thawing; movement under gravity (including earthflow and rockslides); swelling and shrinking of clays; the actions of wind and water; the growth and dissolution of salt crystals; and movement caused by earthquakes. Different sites are subject to different degrees, combinations, and interactions of these processes, and archaeologists working with a given site must be familiar with the processes in play at that site to avoid the risk of misinterpretation. In some environments, animal activity can completely turn over the surface soil in as few as five to six years. The activity of earthworms,


id: ephyraean-style-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ephyraean_style-0.md
category: reference
title: Ephyraean style
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ephyraean_style
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:30.128916+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ephyraean-style-20260505-0
summary:
The Ephyraean style is a distinctive type of Mycenaean pottery defined by a specific vessel, the Ephyraean goblet. This ware was first identified by archaeologist Carl Blegen during his excavations at Korakou, a site near Corinth. Blegen named the ware after Ephyra (Ancient Corinth), that he thought he was excavating. The style's stratigraphic position places it firmly in the Late Helladic II (LH II) period (approx. 1450–1350 BC), and it is considered a key "date-mark" for this phase of the Mycenaean era. While other shapes, such as jugs, were sometimes decorated in the Ephyraean manner, the goblet is its most characteristic form. == Goblets == === Shape, origin, and fabric === The Ephyraean goblet is a decorated subdivision of Yellow Minyan ware, which itself is a refined development of Middle Helladic Grey Minyan ware. Its characteristic shape—a one- or two-handled goblet with a short stem—is thought to be a direct imitation of metal vessels. This Helladic origin, derived from Minyan goblets, was emphasized by scholars like Persson and Wace, who refuted earlier theories by Arthur Evans that the shape had a Minoan origin. The classic goblet has a specific shape: A short stem with a hollowed foot. A deep bowl


id: favissa-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Favissa-0.md
category: reference
title: Favissa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Favissa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:31.628120+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: favissa-20260505-0
summary:
A favissa is a cultic storage place, usually a pit or an underground cellar, for sacred utensils and votive objects no longer in use. Favissae were located within the sacred temple precincts of the various ancient Mediterranean civilizations. Archaeologists have found such pits in Ancient Egypt, the Roman world and in the Phoenician and Punic world. == Etymology == The term is derived from the Etruscan or related to the Latin fovea "pit". During the time of ancient Rome, the term favissa referred to a cylindrical underground storage space, specifically designed to house votive objects. These repositories were typically located outside the main sanctuary but within the sacred grounds known as temenos. The Roman favissa served a similar purpose as the Greek treasury, functioning as a dedicated space for storing valuable offerings and dedicatory items. == Roman favissae == Similar to other ancient religions, the Romans had a tradition of offering relatively inexpensive objects made of materials like bronze, lead, tin, or common clay as votive offerings to the temple deities. Over time, the quantity of these votive objects became excessive, necessitating their removal. However, it was crucial for priests to ensure these offerings remained within consecrated ground and were


id: foundation-deposit-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundation_deposit-0.md
category: reference
title: Foundation deposit
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundation_deposit
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:32.813442+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: foundation-deposit-20260505-0
summary:
Foundation deposits are the archaeological remains of the ritual burial of materials under the foundations of buildings. == Ancient Egypt == In the case of Ancient Egypt, foundation deposits took the form of ritual mudbrick lined pits or holes dug at specific points under temples or tombs, which were filled with ceremonial objects, usually amulets, scarabs, food, or ritual miniature tools, and were supposed to prevent the building from falling into ruin. == Examples == == See also == Builders' rites Cornerstone Cyrus Cylinder == References ==


id: glyph-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glyph-0.md
category: reference
title: Glyph
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glyph
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:34.076369+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glyph-20260505-0
summary:
A glyph ( GLIF) is any kind of purposeful mark. In typography, a glyph is "the specific shape, design, or representation of a character". It is a particular graphical representation, in a particular typeface (or computer font), of an element of written language. That "element" is called a grapheme – the conceptual abstraction of some letter, number or symbol, which is independent of the glyph designed to represent it in a particular font. == Glyphs, graphemes and characters == In modern English, each symbol (such as a letter or numerical digit) is a grapheme that can be represented by a single glyph that is unique to the font where it used. Detailed differences in the design of each glyph in the repertoire is the distinguishing feature of a typeface (or computer font) but in each case the grapheme being represented is constant. In most languages written in any variety of the Latin alphabet except English, the use of diacritics to signify a sound mutation is common. For example, the grapheme ⟨à⟩ requires two glyphs: the basic |a| and the grave accent |`|. In general, a diacritic is regarded as a glyph, even if it is contiguous with the rest of


id: haltern-cooking-pot-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haltern_cooking_pot-0.md
category: reference
title: Haltern cooking pot
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haltern_cooking_pot
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:35.343034+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: haltern-cooking-pot-20260505-0
summary:
The Haltern cooking pot is an earthenware vessel from the Roman period. Due to its frequent occurrence as utility pottery in eastern Gallic and Rhinelandic settlements and military sites of the 1st century AD, it serves as a type fossil in provincial Roman archaeology for dating archaeological finds. In ceramic typology, the form is referred to as Haltern 91 after its eponymous site, the Haltern Roman camp. == Form == The Haltern cooking pot is a bulbous vessel whose widest diameter is at the shoulder. It is characterized by an inwardly curved, grooved rim with a sharp shoulder angle. It tapers steeply toward the base, with the narrowest part located at the flat base. Early vessels were handmade, but during the Tiberian era, they were replaced by wheel-thrown pots, maintaining the same shape. The vessel surface is often coated with a clay slip, roughened with straw or twigs before firing to improve grip. The sherd is clay-based with sand tempering. Depending on the production site, it is black, light-colored, or reddish. Two variants are distinguished in current literature. Haltern 91 A consists of poorly levigated clay, with reddish-brown to black sherds and a cork-like texture ("cork ware"). In contrast, Haltern


id: holocene-calendar-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocene_calendar-0.md
category: reference
title: Holocene calendar
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocene_calendar
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:36.505459+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: holocene-calendar-20260505-0
summary:
The Holocene calendar, also known as the Holocene Era or Human Era (HE), is a year numbering system that adds exactly 10,000 years to the currently dominant (AD/BC or CE/BCE) numbering scheme, placing its first year near the beginning of the Holocene geological epoch and the Neolithic Revolution, when humans shifted from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to agriculture and fixed settlements. The current year by the Gregorian calendar, AD 2026, is 12026 HE in the Holocene calendar. The HE scheme was first proposed by Cesare Emiliani in 1993 (11993 HE), though similar proposals to start a new calendar at the same date had been put forward decades earlier. Emiliani thereby dismissed his original proposal to align the era with the 7980-year Julian cycles, i.e. start with the epoch in 4713 BCE (5288 HE). == Overview == Cesare Emiliani's proposal for a calendar reform sought to solve a number of alleged problems with the current Anno Domini era, also called the Common Era, which numbers the years of the commonly accepted world calendar. These issues include: The Anno Domini era has no year "zero", with 1 BC followed immediately by AD 1, making calculation of time spans difficult. The years BC/BCE are


id: olive-jar-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olive_jar-0.md
category: reference
title: Olive jar
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olive_jar
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:37.702321+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: olive-jar-20260505-0
summary:
Spanish olive jars are ceramic containers produced in the 15th through the 19th centuries and used for transporting various products to Spanish colonies. Olive jars are commonly found in archaeological sites throughout the former Spanish Empire, including shipwrecks, and have also been found at sites that were never under Spanish control. Variations in the form of individual olive jars have been used by archaeologists to date sites in which olive jars and sherds have been found. == Names == The term "Spanish Olive Jar" was introduced by William Henry Holmes in 1903, as he believed a specific type of sherd found in archaeological sites in America came from jars that had been used to ship olives to America. American archaeologists have since then often called Spanish-produced ceramic containers found at archaeological sites "olive jars" or "Spanish olive jars". They have been inconsistent in their use of "olive jar", varying between "olive jar" as a name for all Spanish ceramics, and as a name for the most common type, the botija, which has a distinctive form and paste. Other types of Spanish ceramics that are sometimes called "olive jars", and sometimes "Spanish storage jars" include the cantimplora, tinaja, and orza. American


id: olive-jar-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olive_jar-1.md
category: reference
title: Olive jar
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olive_jar
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:37.702321+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: olive-jar-20260505-0
summary:
== Archaeological finds == Olive jars found on shipwrecks of known date help establish a time line for changes in styles. Botijas were important shipping containers in the Spanish Empire, but were also used in wider trade networks. They have been found in the British Isles, Brittany, the Netherlands, Poland, Sweden, Caribbean Islands, Mexico, Colombia, Ecuador, Argentina, Canada, the Philippines, Australia, the Solomon Islands, English settlements in North and South Carolina, and at the site of a Native American camp in Nebraska. Olive jars probably were used extensively by the Spanish for travel by land or small water vessels, carrying wine, olive oil, and water. The presence of olive jar sherds at archaeological sites are a good indicator of Spanish presence that lasted long enough for one or more jars to break. On the other hand, the absence of such sherds at archaeological sites that do have other artifacts of Spanish provenance, which may have arrived through trade or as plunder, may indicate that there was no Spanish presence at the site. == References == == Sources == Beaman, Thomas E., Jr.; Mintz, John J. (Summer 1998). "Iberian Olive Jars at Brunswick Town and Other British Colonial Sites: Three Models


id: palace-style-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palace_Style-0.md
category: reference
title: Palace Style
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palace_Style
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:39.082684+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: palace-style-20260505-0
summary:
The Palace Style is an archaeological term, coined by Sir Arthur Evans, for a style of Minoan pottery. It flourished during the Late Minoan II (LMII) period, from approximately 1450 to 1400 BC. This "magnificent" style disappears after the final destruction of the Knossos palace around 1400 BC. The style is characterized by a "grandiose and increasingly formal character" as well as "geometric severity" and "rhythmic, balanced" designs. It is often described as "grand, formal, tectonic, and rather cold" compared to the "fresher" Minoan styles that preceded it, such as the Floral Style and Marine Style. It represents a shift toward more schematic, symmetrical, and "stiff" designs, losing the "vibrancy" of earlier naturalistic art. == Etymology == The term "Palace Style" was chosen because the pottery, primarily large, high-quality storage vessels, was found almost exclusively in the vicinity of the Palace of Knossos. == Characteristics and evolution == The Palace Style is a monumental style that adapts earlier naturalistic motifs into more stylized designs. Motifs are often inspired by decorations found on the palace walls, and many designs reproduce details from metalwork models. Common motifs include: Stylized plants, especially the papyrus (often seen with wave patterns), lilies, and reeds. Marine


id: porticus-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porticus-0.md
category: reference
title: Porticus
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porticus
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:40.237009+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: porticus-20260505-0
summary:
In church architecture, a porticus (Latin for "portico") is usually a small room in a church. Commonly, porticuses form extensions to the north and south sides of a church, giving the building a cruciform plan. They may function as chapels, rudimentary transepts or burial-places. For example, Anglo-Saxon kings of Kent were buried in the south porticus at St Augustine's Abbey in Canterbury, with the exception of Eadberht II, who was buried in a similar location in St Mary's Church, Reculver. This feature of church design originated in the late Roman period and continued to appear in those built on the European continent and, in Anglo-Saxon England, until the 8th century. == Notes == == References == === Citations === === Bibliography === Cherry, B. (1981) [1976], "Ecclesiastical architecture", in Wilson, D.M. (ed.), The Archaeology of Anglo-Saxon England, Cambridge University Press, pp. 151–200, ISBN 0-521-28390-6 Kelly, S. (2008), "Reculver Minster and its early charters", in Barrow, J.; Wareham, A. (eds.), Myth, Rulership, Church and Charters Essays in Honour of Nicholas Brooks, Ashgate, pp. 67–82, ISBN 978-0-7546-5120-8


id: proto-city-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-city-0.md
category: reference
title: Proto-city
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-city
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:41.432872+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: proto-city-20260505-0
summary:
A proto-city is a large, dense Neolithic settlement that is largely distinguished from a city by its lack of planning and centralized rule. The term mega-sites is also used. While the precise classification of many sites considered proto-cities is ambiguous and subject to considerable debate, common examples include sites of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B culture and following cultures in the Fertile Crescent such as Jericho and Çatalhöyük, sites of the Cucuteni-Trypillia culture in Southeast Europe, and of the Ubaid period in Mesopotamia. These sites pre-date the Mesopotamian city-states of the Uruk period that mark the development of the first indisputable urban settlements, with the emergence of cities such as Uruk at the end of the Fourth Millennium, B.C. The emergence of cities from proto-urban settlements is a non-linear development that demonstrates the varied experiences of early urbanization. Whilst the proto-urban sites of the Ubaid period in northern Mesopotamia anticipate the social and political developments of the first Sumerian cities, many proto-cities show little correlation with later urban settlements. The development of cities and proto-cities and the transition away from hunting and gathering toward agriculture is known as the Neolithic Revolution. == Definition == The label of a proto-city is applied


id: proto-city-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-city-1.md
category: reference
title: Proto-city
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-city
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:41.432872+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: proto-city-20260505-0
summary:
== Development of cities == The development of cities from proto-urban sites was not a linear progression in most cases. Rather, proto-cities are defined as "early experiments" in high-density living that "did not develop further", particularly in their level of population, suggesting a more flexible and complex trajectory to urbanisation. Alternatively, a number of proto-urban population centres such as Tell Brak in Northern Mesopotamia in the fourth millennium B.C. can be considered "successful experiments" that adopted new social and political institutions to mitigate internal conflicts. These sites anticipate the administrative practices of Southern Mesopotamian city-states such as Uruk, such as the use of seals to denote ownership or control. At Tell Brak, a stamp sealing with a motif of a lion suggests the authority of a senior official; in later periods Mesopotamians considered the lion a symbol of kingship. By the end of the fourth millennium B.C., the emergence of the city of Uruk in Southern Mesopotamia reflected the social, cultural and political developments of proto-cities in the region during prior centuries. The city can be viewed as "the culmination of a series of increasingly successful experiments in settlement nucleation". Extremely large in scale (250 ha, twice the size of


id: qiance-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qiance-0.md
category: reference
title: Qiance
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qiance
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:43.789970+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qiance-20260505-0
summary:
Qiance, i.e., qiǎncè (Chinese traditional: 遣冊; Chinese simplified: 遣册), is a term for funerary-furnishing inventory list documents excavated from Chinese archaeological sites. == Description == Qiance were usually written on bamboo and wooden slips. According to Professor Qiu Xigui of Fudan University, most of the bamboo and wooden slips unearthed from ancient tombs and frontier fortress sites in China are ancient books and qiance. According to archaeological discoveries and ancient textual evidence, scholars believe that shorter funerary inventory lists, usually with less than one hundred item names, were written on fengfang, a wooden tablet, instead. == Purpose == It has been argued that qiance, together with the other tomb objects, were meant to guarantee the tomb owner's social status in the world beyond. == References ==


id: seriation-archaeology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seriation_(archaeology)-0.md
category: reference
title: Seriation (archaeology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seriation_(archaeology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:44.954311+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: seriation-archaeology-20260505-0
summary:
In archaeology, seriation is a relative dating method in which assemblages or artifacts from numerous sites in the same culture are placed in chronological order. Where absolute dating methods, such as carbon dating, cannot be applied, archaeologists have to use relative dating methods to date archaeological finds and features. Seriation is a standard method of dating in archaeology. It can be used to date stone tools, pottery fragments, and other artifacts. In Europe, it has been used frequently to reconstruct the chronological sequence of graves in a cemetery (e.g. Jørgensen 1992; Müssemeier, Nieveler et al. 2003). == Contextual and frequency seriation == Two different variants of seriation have been applied: contextual seriation and frequency seriation (Renfrew and Bahn 1996, pp. 116–117). Whereas contextual seriation is based on the presence or absence of a design style, frequency seriation relies on measuring the proportional abundance or frequency of a design style. Contextual seriation is often used for reconstructing the chronological sequence of graves as only the presence or absence of a design style or type is important. Frequency seriation is applied in cases of large quantities of objects belonging to the same style. An example of this being assemblages of pottery shards


id: seriation-archaeology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seriation_(archaeology)-1.md
category: reference
title: Seriation (archaeology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seriation_(archaeology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:44.954311+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: seriation-archaeology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Correspondence analysis for seriation purposes === Today, the most popular seriation method both for contextual and frequency problems is based on correspondence analysis. The sequence of the first axis of a correspondence analysis is considered the best seriation order (Shennan 1997, p. 342; Lock 2003, p. 127; Jensen & Høilund Nielsen 1997). Using this technique, not only the sequence of the objects but also those of the design styles is established. Note that external evidence is needed to establish the direction of the sequence calculated, i.e. the method does not tell whether the first object in the sequence is the oldest or the youngest object. Kendall (1971) applied multidimensional scaling to the cemetery data of Münsingen. The resulting scatterplot showed the form of a horse-shoe where the graves were arranged on the curve according to their chronological order. Similarly, a mapping of the component scores for the first two axes of the correspondence analysis result will display a parabola if the design styles considered are controlled by one factor only (like chronology). This is called the arch effect by Hill and Gauch (1980). Both Kendall and Jensen & Høilund Nielsen (1997) created artificial data sets to show that the


id: seriation-archaeology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seriation_(archaeology)-2.md
category: reference
title: Seriation (archaeology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seriation_(archaeology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:44.954311+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: seriation-archaeology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Example 3: Ideal data, seriation and correspondence analysis === The contingency table shows 29 contexts with ideal seriation data as created by Kendall and Jensen & Høilund Nielsen (see above). With each new context a new type appears and another type disappears. For this regular data, it seems reasonable to assume constant time intervals for contexts adjacent in time. The correspondence analysis results shown in the figures below were calculated on the basis of 49 contexts with ideal seriation data. The scatterplot of the first two correspondence analysis axes shows the typical parabola shape. The display of the scores on the first and the third axes exhibits points lying on a third degree polynomial curve. Similarly, the plot of the scores on the first and the fourth axes will show a fourth degree polynomial for ideal data – and so on. Note that the distances of the scores for adjacent contexts on the first axis vary: At the beginning and the end, the distances are extremely small, the largest distances in the centre is about 30 times as large as the smallest distance. Hill and Gauch (1979) created a similar contingency table with a regular structure with each context


id: technofossil-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technofossil-0.md
category: reference
title: Technofossil
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technofossil
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:46.134506+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technofossil-20260505-0
summary:
A technofossil refers to geological evidence of human technological activity preserved in Earth's strata that will persist for millions of years. These anthropogenic materials form distinctive markers in the geological record, with many geologists, paleobiologists, and environmental researchers stating that they would provide future evidence of humanity's industrial and consumer-oriented civilization. Technofossils represent a significant aspect of the proposed Anthropocene epoch, characterized by humanity's profound geological impact on the planet due to the mass production of synthetic resources, modified biological remains, and chemical or radioactive markers. == Concept == The term "technofossil", first coined in 2014, describes manufactured or modified materials that possess sufficient durability to persist in Earth's geological record for millions of years. Unlike traditional biological fossils, technofossils result from human technological processes rather than natural and biological processes. These persistent artifacts form a distinctive stratigraphic signature that several geologists and environmental scientists state will remain identifiable to future geologists or intelligent entities examining Earth's history. University of Leicester Department of Geology professors Jan Zalasiewicz, Mark Williams, and Sarah Gabbott, consider technofossils a defining characteristic of the Anthropocene. Each theorize that their durability and vast global distribution are in the process of creating an unprecedented geological signature distinct


id: technofossil-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technofossil-1.md
category: reference
title: Technofossil
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technofossil
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:14:46.134506+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technofossil-20260505-0
summary:
== Preservation == Like traditional fossils, technofossils will require specific conditions for long-term preservation. Burial beneath sediment, particularly in marine or lacustrine environments, are believed to provide the most favorable conditions for preservation. Subsiding coastal urban areas provide proper conditions for preservation of human infrastructure, as gradually sinking land allows for sediment accumulation that protects artifacts from erosion and weathering. Landfills create artificial preservation environments that inhibit degradation by limiting oxygen exposure and microbial activity. Deep geological formations provide stable preservation environments for subterranean technofossils, protecting them from surface erosional processes. Many technofossils will release chemicals into the environment over geological timeframes, potentially affecting future ecosystems. === Cultural preservation === Some technofossils may unintentionally preserve cultural information. Paper documents demonstrate fossilization potential based on preserved ancient leaves and plant materials that underwent similar preservation processes. Graphite from pencils shows considerable geological stability, potentially preserving written or drawn information. Children's drawings are posited to represent potentially enduring human cultural expressions due to their simple graphite composition and potential for burial in sediments. Digital information storage media, despite their abundance, may prove less durable than older analog technologies, creating a potential gap in the cultural record preserved for future study. == See


