# kb

id: a-w-peet-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._W._Peet-2.md
category: reference
title: A. W. Peet
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._W._Peet
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:29.538842+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: a-w-peet-20260505-0
summary:
"Dilaton black holes near the horizon". Physical Review D. 46 (12): R5223–R5227. arXiv:hep-th/9209116. Bibcode:1992PhRvD..46.5223K. doi:10.1103/PHYSREVD.46.R5223. PMID 10014959. S2CID 12581419. Peet, AW; Susskind, L; Thorlacius, L (1992). "Information loss and anomalous scattering". Physical Review D. 46 (8): 3435–3443. arXiv:hep-th/9205114. Bibcode:1992PhRvD..46.3435P. doi:10.1103/PHYSREVD.46.3435. PMID 10015288. S2CID 16352761. Kallosh, R; Linde, A; Ortín, T; Peet, AW; Van Proeyen, A (1992). "Supersymmetry as a cosmic censor". Physical Review D. 46 (12): 5278–5302. arXiv:hep-th/9205027. Bibcode:1992PhRvD..46.5278K. doi:10.1103/PHYSREVD.46.5278. PMID 10014916. S2CID 15736500. == References == == External links == Centre for Inquiry Canada (11 July 2010). String Theory for the Scientifically Curious with Dr. A. W. Peet. Archived from the original on 20 October 2022. Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics (8 May 2015). A.W. Peet Public Lecture: String Theory Legos for Black Holes. Archived from the original on 20 October 2022.


id: lev-pontryagin-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lev_Pontryagin-0.md
category: reference
title: Lev Pontryagin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lev_Pontryagin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:30.778240+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lev-pontryagin-20260505-0
summary:
Lev Semyonovich Pontryagin (Russian: Лев Семёнович Понтрягин, also written Pontriagin or Pontrjagin, first name sometimes anglicized as Leon) (3 September 1908 – 3 May 1988) was a Soviet mathematician. Completely blind from the age of 14, he made major discoveries in a number of fields of mathematics, including algebraic topology, differential topology and optimal control. == Early life and career == Pontryagin was born in Moscow and lost his eyesight completely due to an unsuccessful eye surgery after a primus stove explosion when he was 14. His mother Tatyana Andreyevna, who did not know mathematical symbols, read mathematical books and papers (notably those of Heinz Hopf, J. H. C. Whitehead, and Hassler Whitney) to him, and later worked as his secretary. His mother used alternative names for math symbols, such as "tails up" for the set-union symbol ∪ {\displaystyle \cup } . In 1925 he entered Moscow State University, where he was strongly influenced by the lectures of Pavel Alexandrov who would become his doctoral thesis advisor. After graduating in 1929, he obtained a position at Moscow State University. In 1934 he joined the Steklov Institute in Moscow. In 1970 he became vice president of the International Mathematical Union. ==


id: sextil-pu-cariu-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextil_Pușcariu-0.md
category: reference
title: Sextil Pușcariu
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextil_Pușcariu
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:32.069502+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sextil-pu-cariu-20260505-0
summary:
Sextil Iosif Pușcariu (4 January 1877 – 5 May 1948) was an Austro-Hungarian-born Romanian linguist and philologist, also known for his involvement in administrative and party politics. A native of Brașov educated in France and Germany, he was active in Transylvania's cultural life and worked as a Romanian-language professor at Czernowitz in the Duchy of Bukovina. He began his scholarly career in 1906, when he was tasked with compiling a general dictionary of the Romanian language. Interested in a variety of disciplines, Pușcariu published widely and brought new ideas into Romania, as well as overseeing two monumental projects related to the language: advancing his dictionary to the letter "L", and creating an atlas of the language. As a soldier in the Austro-Hungarian Army during World War I, Pușcariu embraced the creation of Greater Romania at its conclusion, heading the department of foreign affairs in the provisional government representing Bukovina Romanians. He was also the founder of Glasul Bucovinei, a newspaper which helped channel Romanian nationalism in that region, and, with Ion Nistor, oversaw Bukovina's union with Romania in November 1918. Under Romanian rule, he led efforts to create a new university in Cluj, where he also set up a research


id: sextil-pu-cariu-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextil_Pușcariu-1.md
category: reference
title: Sextil Pușcariu
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextil_Pușcariu
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:32.069502+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sextil-pu-cariu-20260505-0
summary:
=== Debut in academia and World War I experience === Pușcariu made frequent crossings into the Kingdom of Romania (the "Old Kingdom", in later reference). He was elected a corresponding member of the Romanian Academy in 1906, becoming a titular member in 1914. He also became one of several Transylvanian affiliates of Sămănătorul, the Romanian traditionalist and ethnic nationalist review in Bucharest, finding his ideas on linguistics and history challenged by Densusianu and Ion Aurel Candrea. Pușcariu's scholarly work was featured in the mainstream review Convorbiri Literare, signaling the latter's own transition toward Sămănătorist nationalism. While at Leipzig, he came into contact with Wilhelm Meyer-Lübke, under whom he began his university career and who offered him a post at the University of Fribourg. Pușcariu declined, citing a wish to be closer to the Romanian lands. In 1903 Pușcariu began courting Leonora Maria Dima. In keeping up with the Pușcariu family tradition, which favored consanguine marriage, she was his mother's grandniece. Leonora had studied music in Brașov; her father, a mathematics teacher at Pușcariu's high school, was the elder brother of composer Gheorghe Dima. They were married on 5 September 1905, selecting academics Ion Bianu and Virgil Cioflec as their godfathers.


id: sextil-pu-cariu-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextil_Pușcariu-2.md
category: reference
title: Sextil Pușcariu
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextil_Pușcariu
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:32.069502+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sextil-pu-cariu-20260505-0
summary:
By October 1918, Pușcariu had regained Bukovina, joining the Romanian nationalist caucus forming in that region. As reported by eyewitness Teodor Bălan, his presence there was a "great fortune" for Romanian groups, since Pușcariu indicated the "straight path ahead" for his conationals. On 12 October, he founded the newspaper Glasul Bucovinei, which had as its limited initial goal the protection of rights for the province's Romanians, who formed an overall minority of the local population. However, Glasul also preserved a hidden agenda, namely: "to shatter the respect and fear inspired by the Austrian Empire and to militate for the ideal of pan-Romanian unification." Events quickly evolved, and Pușcariu served as a vice president of the Romanian National Council (CNR) that worked for the union of Bukovina with Romania. This initiative pitted Pușcariu against the loyalist Aurel Onciul, who vetoed all projects for Bukovina's merger with Romania. Pușcariu was also co-opted by the General Congress of Bukovina, a CNR body which claimed to be the provisional parliament of Bukovina, in opposition to the Ukrainian assembly; from 27 October 1918, he served on its foreign policy committee, alongside Alexandru Hurmuzachi and Gheorghe Grigorovici. On 9 November, he helped Ilie Lazăr organize armed


id: sextil-pu-cariu-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextil_Pușcariu-3.md
category: reference
title: Sextil Pușcariu
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextil_Pușcariu
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:32.069502+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sextil-pu-cariu-20260505-0
summary:
=== University administrator and anti-Semitic campaign === Following these events, which marked the culmination of Greater Romania's creation, Pușcariu could return to Transylvania, being named as the first rector of the Superior Dacia University in Cluj. A Franz Joseph University already existed in the city, but its Hungarian faculty departed as a bloc and an entirely new professorial corps and administrative structure were required. The revamped university had two founders, the idealistic Ghibu and the more practical Pușcariu. Chosen by the Directing Council, Transylvania's provisional government, the latter headed a twenty-man committee charged with the seemingly insurmountable task of setting up four faculties (Literature and Philosophy, Medicine, Science, Law) and recruiting professors within a few months. As a native Transylvanian, Pușcariu was familiar with the Austro-Hungarian milieu; he also had relations with academics in Western Europe and was close to a number of figures in the Old Kingdom, especially Nicolae Iorga. Set up in July 1919, the committee included twelve professors from the Universities of Iași and Bucharest, and eight Transylvanians. At the time, Pușcariu recommended that intellectuals in Bukovina and Transylvania steer away from any involvement in the Old Kingdom's party politics. Despite pressures from the PNR, he announced


id: sextil-pu-cariu-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextil_Pușcariu-4.md
category: reference
title: Sextil Pușcariu
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextil_Pușcariu
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:32.069502+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sextil-pu-cariu-20260505-0
summary:
Between 1922 and 1926, Pușcariu served as part of Romania's delegation to the League of Nations. This allowed him to leave the country regularly, and also cemented his friendship with diplomat Nicolae Titulescu, whom Pușcariu called "charming". Together, they defended the Romanian cause against property claims made in Transylvania by Hungarian citizens. In 1923, Pușcariu also helped art historian George Oprescu take office art the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation, of which he himself was a member. The following year, Pușcariu put out Cultura magazine from Cluj. It enshrined his affiliation to Europeanism and support for the League of Nations. From around 1922, Pușcariu approached various intellectuals and politicians with the goal of creating new institutions for the preservation of cultural identity. With Vintilă Brătianu and Nistor, he set up the Brătianu Foundation, which financed a network of summer schools for adult education. With Iorga's assistance, Pușcariu established the Museum of the Romanian Language, a research institute he had conceived in early 1917, while on the front. The large group of collaborators and students who advanced the language as an academic discipline came to be known as the Cluj School of linguistics. Rather than confine himself to a narrow field,


id: sextil-pu-cariu-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextil_Pușcariu-5.md
category: reference
title: Sextil Pușcariu
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextil_Pușcariu
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:32.069502+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sextil-pu-cariu-20260505-0
summary:
=== FOR and Iron Guard === By 1931, Lia Pușcariu had married Grigore Manoilescu, brother of the influential ideologue, Mihail Manoilescu. Encouraged by his Manoilescu in-laws, Pușcariu was briefly a sympathizer of Iorga's Democratic Nationalist Party, and spent some time as director of its regional mouthpiece, Drumul Nou. He is also credited as the newspaper's founder, while schoolteacher Ioan Costea was its editor. The circle he created around him was noted for enthusiastically supporting Romania's authoritarian King, Carol II. Pușcariu also attempted to go into national politics as a university representative in the Senate of Romania. He presented himself in the June 1931 election, but lost to the more popular Nicolae Bănescu; this conflict prolonged itself into a local scandal, with Pușcariu accusing Bănescu of opportunism. Pușcariu had another row with historian Alexandru Lapedatu, whom he challenged to a duel with swords in October 1931. That outcome was eventually averted when they agreed to reconcile. In tandem, Pușcariu was becoming critical of Iorga's behavior—already in 1923, he complained that his former mentor was "dictatorial". In keeping with his Orthodoxist agenda, Pușcariu also helped Nicolae Ivan set up the Romanian Orthodox Fraternity (FOR), which, as noted by historian Lucian Nastasă, was


id: sextil-pu-cariu-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextil_Pușcariu-6.md
category: reference
title: Sextil Pușcariu
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextil_Pușcariu
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:32.069502+00:00
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parent: sextil-pu-cariu-20260505-0
summary:
=== Berlin institute === A year into World War II, Hungarian territorial demands received backing from Germany, limiting Romania's choices. In August 1940, Pușcariu attended a crisis meeting of Transylvanian notabilities. He took a conciliatory position, supporting a voluntary exchange of territories with Hungary. Following the Nazi-mediated Second Vienna Award, a large area, defined as "Northern Transylvania", was re-annexed by Hungary. The political crisis originating from this event also had the unlikely consequence of bringing the Iron Guard to power, producing the "National Legionary State". Slightly earlier, in August 1940, Pușcariu had proposed the founding of the Berlin-headquartered Romanian Institute in Germany, becoming its first president and serving until 1943. The purpose of this body was to counter Hungarian propaganda, particularly as related to Northern Transylvania. Pușcariu, who made generous financial contributions to the Guard's coffers, based his hiring at the institute on whether applicants belonged to the movement, and according to one of his employees there, was a member of the Guard's senate. Grigore Manoilescu, who had returned to politics as an Iron Guard figure, became the institute's director; Maximilian Hacman, former rector at Cernăuți, was an old friend; among the younger hires was Constantin Noica. The order for


id: sextil-pu-cariu-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextil_Pușcariu-7.md
category: reference
title: Sextil Pușcariu
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextil_Pușcariu
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:32.069502+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sextil-pu-cariu-20260505-0
summary:
=== Final years === A member of the Permanent Committee of Linguists, Pușcariu was admitted to the Saxonian Academy of Sciences and Humanities in 1936 and in 1939 became the second Romanian, after Dimitrie Cantemir, to join the Prussian Academy of Sciences. In addition to his activity as a propagandist, he worked on his definitive tract of sociolinguistics, Limba română ("The Romanian Language"), put out by Editura Fundațiilor Regale. According to philologist Pompiliu Constantinescu, the work exceeded "the narrow bounds of specialization", turning the historical development of language and into the ethnographic "mirror" of Romanian culture and civilization. Limba română, which saw print in 1940, investigated proto-Romanian (designated by Pușcariu under the name of străromână), and spoke of a large Sprachbund comprising all Eastern Romance languages; his theory identifying Istro-Romanian as a Western variety of the language was since corrected by his pupil Petrovici. His views on the topic were also being challenged from 1941 by Alexandru Rosetti, who noted that Aromanian was highly distinct from its point of origin. Other parts of the book broke ground in the professional study of the Romanian lexis, with a phonaesthetic retrospective on the national poet Mihai Eminescu and a sociological analysis of


id: sextil-pu-cariu-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextil_Pușcariu-8.md
category: reference
title: Sextil Pușcariu
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextil_Pușcariu
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:32.069502+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sextil-pu-cariu-20260505-0
summary:
== Legacy == For the first two decades after his death, linguists largely avoided using Pușcariu's work in their publications. Dumitru Macrea cited him as early as 1956, followed by Romulus Todoran and, later, Emil Petrovici. Challenging Communist censorship, Petrovici also attempted to obtain for the second volume of Limba română to be released for print, and earned endorsement from Alexandru Graur and Iorgu Iordan. At the time, the manuscript had been handed back to the Pușcariu family. Other collaborators, many of them facing their own difficulties with the regime, did not bring up their former mentor; these included Capidan and Lacea, as well as George Giuglea and Silviu Dragomir. In 1959, the latter made oblique references to Pușcariu's treatment of Eastern Romance as a single dialect, highlighting yet again that Aromanian was more distantly related to Romanian. Work on the dictionary was moved to Bucharest, while the museum and Dacoromania were disbanded. There was a colloquium held about Pușcariu's life at the Brașov County Museum in 1977, to mark the centenary of his birth. His reputation did not fully revive until after the Romanian Revolution of 1989, with his rehabilitation embodied by an international conference held at Cluj-Napoca in


id: al-qasabani-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Qasabani-0.md
category: reference
title: Al-Qasabani
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Qasabani
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:33.304895+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: al-qasabani-20260505-0
summary:
Abu Al-Qasim Al-Fadl bin Mohammed bin Ali bin Al-Fadl Al-Qasabani (Arabic: أبو القاسم الفضل بن محمد بن علي بن الفضل القصباني) (died 444 AH), was a well known Arab philologist and grammarian of the Abbasid Caliphate. == Life == He was born in Basra, in the Bani Haram neighborhood, where he spent his entire life. He was blind, and many students of knowledge studied under him, the most famous of whom were: Al-Hariri, Al-Khatib Al-Tabrizi, and the judge of Basra, Abu Al-Faraj Al-Basri. He used to sell reeds, so he was nicknamed Al-Qasabani. He was also a poet. He died during the era of the Caliphate of Al-Qa'im bi-amri 'llah in 444 AH/1052 AD. == Works == Among his works are the following: Muqadimah fi al-Nahw Kitab Al-Amali Al-Safwa fi Ashaar Al-Arab w Mukhtareha Al-Hawashi ala Al-Idhah Al-Hawashi ala Al-Sihah == See also == List of pre-modern Arab scientists and scholars == References ==


id: francisc-rainer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisc_Rainer-0.md
category: reference
title: Francisc Rainer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisc_Rainer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:34.566297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: francisc-rainer-20260505-0
summary:
Francisc Iosif Rainer (December 28, 1874 – August 4, 1944) was an Austro-Hungarian-born Romanian pathologist, physiologist and anthropologist. From an immigrant family, he earned early recognition for his experimental work in anatomy, and helped reform Romanian medical science. He spent much of his youth training himself in anatomical pathology and the various areas of natural science, gaining direct experience as a microbiologist, surgeon, and military physician. With teaching positions at the University of Iași and the University of Bucharest, where he established specialized sections, Rainer became a noted promoter of science and an innovator in his field. He notably favored and introduced the anatomical study of "functional structures", and was in particular preoccupied with issues pertaining to ontogenesis and kinesiology. An intellectual influence on several generations of doctors, his wife was Marta Trancu-Rainer, Romania's first female surgeon. In addition to his experimental approach, Rainer is remembered as a talented pedagogue and public speaker, who took public stances in defense of his social and cultural ideals. Vilified by the far-right for his left-wing stances, he blended progressivism with genetic determinism, and, although an adept of eugenics, condemned scientific racism. He was notably involved with Dimitrie Gusti's project of rural sociology, contributing


id: francisc-rainer-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisc_Rainer-1.md
category: reference
title: Francisc Rainer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisc_Rainer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:34.566297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: francisc-rainer-20260505-0
summary:
=== Iași career and World War I === Upon his return in 1912, Rainer became assistant professor at Bucharest. The following year, with referrals from Constantin Ion Parhon, he became chairman of the anatomy department at the University of Iași medical faculty. Soon after his appointment, with the outbreak of the Second Balkan War, he was mobilized in the Romanian Land Forces medical service. He barely escaped with his life when his automobile fell off the pontoon bridge at Nikopol. Upon his return, he busied himself with organizing his Iași department, supplying the microscopes, microtomes, thermostats, magazine collections and a projector for the faculty. Meanwhile, during this period, he was involved in scientific publication, sitting on the editorial board of Spitalul, writing for Romania Medicală and, in 1911, helping found the Paris-based Annales de Biologie. According to Marta Rainer's own account, her husband's move to Iași at age forty marked the end of a "prolonged adolescence", settling Rainer on the path to professional success. As Rainer himself noted, teaching was a major responsibility: "I have always held the belief that there is no feeling so great, no thought so vast and deep, that they may not reach out to young


id: francisc-rainer-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisc_Rainer-2.md
category: reference
title: Francisc Rainer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisc_Rainer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:34.566297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: francisc-rainer-20260505-0
summary:
In 1920, Rainer was employed by the new anatomy and embryology department set up at Bucharest University. Affected by deafness, attributed to his long-term exposure to formaldehyde, he continued to work at the same pace, but was noticeably withdrawn from public life. The anatomy section existed only in name when Rainer took over. Rainer took personal charge of furnishing it, in the end setting up a large collection of craniums and full skeletons that earned the respect of Western colleagues such as Eugène Pittard, Carleton S. Coon, Henri Victor Vallois, and Kurt Warnekros. He was seconded by his devoted disciple and godson, the endocrinologist Ștefan Milcu (he eventually left Rainer's team in 1932, after developing an allergy to formaldehyde). Other important presences among Rainer's students and collaborators were George Emil Palade and Vintilă Ciocâlteu, distinguished for their work in the United States. At various intervals, the team also included surgeon Ion Țurai, pharmacologist Alfred Teitel, embryologist Benedict M. Menkeș, and anatomist Zalman Iagnov. After his move, Rainer began expanding the scope of his contribution, and passed on to his students a particular view of science, decisively materialistic, rationalist, and anti-metaphysical. In particular, Rainer rejected the intuitionism of Henri Bergson, which


id: francisc-rainer-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisc_Rainer-3.md
category: reference
title: Francisc Rainer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisc_Rainer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:34.566297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: francisc-rainer-20260505-0
summary:
Rainer's views eventually placed him at odds with the emerging far-right and antisemitic movement of the 1920s. At a time when the Iași-based National-Christian Defense League (LANC), seeking to purge Jews from Romanian universities, was gaining momentum in Bucharest, a student identified Rainer as a Jew, and issued claims denying merit to his scholarship. According to Vitner, Rainer was the diametrical opposite of a Iași rival, the racist and LANC affiliate Nicolae Paulescu, who stood for "dark and backward scientism". Vitner also recalls that Rainer was even shot at by far-right affiliates, so that he would no longer popularize his "democratic convictions". For a while, Rainer was under the permanent protection of a Gendarme guard. Nevertheless, Rainer was himself an active proponent of "hereditary determinism" and eugenics, which he understood as the cornerstone of social welfare policy. As he put it: "In the colorful mass of genes that carry those characteristics we inherit from our forerunners, one may find embedded [...] even our very destinies as men." A committed physiognomist, he believed that "only the phenotype may be influenced, to a certain extent, by our environment and our education." In June 1929, the newspaper Adevărul published one of Rainer's critical


id: francisc-rainer-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisc_Rainer-4.md
category: reference
title: Francisc Rainer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisc_Rainer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:34.566297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: francisc-rainer-20260505-0
summary:
With his activity in academia, Rainer reacted against cronyism, taking a public stand against arbitrary appointments in teaching, and ruining his relationship with the establishment. At a time when the Romanian school of anthropology was being divided between centrists and supporters of the fascist Iron Guard, he was again confronted by the far-right. Rainer was opposed to the fascist youth, whose members instigated in favor of academic censorship in his university curriculum. At one such incident in early 1938, Rainer stood unmoved at his desk as some of his fascist students, including the son of painter Nicolae Tonitza, lit firecrackers and threw eggs in his direction. However, he refused to ask for sanctions against them, and eventually received their letter of apology. After 1939, although Romania was formally aligned with Nazi Germany, Rainer spoke out against Nazi racial science. In his public lectures, he dismissed the Nazi claim that cephalic indexes were good predictors of intelligence. His publicized texts, deemed "courageous" by historian Adrian Majuru, accepted the idea of race, but denied the concept of a "pure race", rejected the scientific claims of Aryanism, and argued that European civilization owed its existence to Semitic peoples. According to Rainer, races were


id: francisc-rainer-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisc_Rainer-5.md
category: reference
title: Francisc Rainer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisc_Rainer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:34.566297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: francisc-rainer-20260505-0
summary:
== Legacy == Rainer was generally well regarded by the communist regime, which existed in Romania until the 1989 Revolution. His texts on science and society were collected and preserved, against Rainer's final wish that they should all be burned. Some were carried in the first issues of Contemporanul review, from September 1946. In 1948, the corpus was published by the academy as four volumes, together with critical essays and memoirs edited by Marta Rainer and Mihail Sevastos. However, his anthropological museum, assigned to Popa and later to Milcu, was poorly staffed by the communist supervisors and faced closure. Communist supervisors such as Mihail Roller suspected that Rainer had created the anthropology research center to promote racism, but Milcu was able to convince them otherwise, and even obtained funds for an anthropological study of Romanian ethnogenesis. Despite other political obstacles and the communist rejection of anthropology as an "abstract intellectual game", cultural anthropologist Vasile Caramelea was able to obtain approval for further research, and expanded the institute's contribution to social science. A biography of Rainer was published by Ilie Th. Riga, in 1966, at Editura Științifică. It revealed to the public glimpses of Rainer's diaries, which had been preserved by


id: eugen-relgis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis-0.md
category: reference
title: Eugen Relgis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:35.929415+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eugen-relgis-20260505-0
summary:
Eugen D. Relgis (backward reading of Eisig D. Sigler; first name also Eugenio, Eugène or Eugene, last name also Siegler or Siegler Watchel; 22 March 1895 – 24 May 1987) was a Romanian writer, pacifist philosopher and anarchist militant, known as a theorist of humanitarianism. His internationalist dogma, with distinct echoes from Judaism and Jewish ethics, was first shaped during World War I, when Relgis was a conscientious objector. Infused with anarcho-pacifism and socialism, it provided Relgis with an international profile, and earned him the support of pacifists such as Romain Rolland, Stefan Zweig and Albert Einstein. Another, more controversial, aspect of Relgis' philosophy was his support for eugenics, which centered on the compulsory sterilization of "degenerates". The latter proposal was voiced by several of Relgis' essays and sociological tracts. After an early debut with Romania's Symbolist movement, Relgis promoted modernist literature and the poetry of Tudor Arghezi, signing his name to a succession of literary and political magazines. His work in fiction and poetry alternates the extremes of Expressionism and didactic art, giving artistic representation to his activism, his pacifist vision, or his struggle with a hearing impairment. He was a member of several modernist circles, formed around Romanian


id: eugen-relgis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis-1.md
category: reference
title: Eugen Relgis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis
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=== From Umanitatea to Mântuirea === After training in architecture, Relgis was enrolled at the University of Bucharest, where he took courses in Philosophy. During the period, he first left Romania on a trip to the Ottoman Empire and Kingdom of Greece. He interrupted his studies shortly after Romania entered the war, in the second half of 1916. Back in Iași after the Central Powers stormed into southern Romania, he was reportedly drafted into the Romanian Land Forces, but refused to take up arms as a conscientious objector; briefly imprisoned as a result, he was in the end discharged for his deafness. Resuming his publishing activity upon the end of war, Eugen Relgis began publicizing his humanitarianist and pacifist agenda. In summer 1918, Relgis became one of the contributors to the Iași-based review Umanitatea ("The Humanity" or "The Human Race"). Historian Lucian Boia, who notes that Umanitatea was published when Romania's temporary defeat seemed to announce sweeping political reforms, believes that the magazine mainly reflected the "nebulous" agenda of a senior editor, the Bessarabian journalist Alexis Nour. In addition to Relgis and Nour, Umanitatea enlisted contributions from Ludo and Avram Steuerman-Rodion. The short-lived magazine, Boia writes, supported land reform, labor


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis-2.md
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title: Eugen Relgis
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=== Sburătorul and Umanitarismul === Also during the early 1920s, Eugen Relgis came into contact with the Bucharest-based Sburătorul circle, which stood for modernist literature and aesthetic relativism. The eponymous magazine published samples of his lyrical poetry. With his humanitarian literature, Relgis was a singular figure among the many Sburătorul factions, as later noted by literary historian Ovid Crohmălniceanu in discussing the studied eclecticism of Sburătorul doyen Eugen Lovinescu. Another Romanian researcher, Henri Zalis, notes that Relgis was one of the many Jewish intellectuals whom Lovinescu cultivated in reaction to the tradition of ethno-nationalist discrimination. However, according to critic Eugen Simion, Lovinescu also greatly exaggerated Relgis' literary worth. Relgis' contribution to Romanian literature was renewed in 1926, when he published Melodiile tăcerii ("Melodies of Silence") and the collection Poezii ("Poems"), followed in 1927 by Glasuri în surdină ("Muted Voices"). The latter novel, later republished with a foreword by Austrian author Stefan Zweig, chronicled Relgis' own difficulties with his post-lingual deafness. At that stage in his career, Eugen Relgis was also a contributor to the Bucharest left-wing dailies Adevărul and Dimineața, part of a new generation of radical or pacifist authors cultivated by the newspaper (alongside Zamfirescu, Ion Marin Sadoveanu and


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis-3.md
category: reference
title: Eugen Relgis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis
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=== Travels abroad and Șantier affiliation === The Romanian writer traveled extensively to promote his ideas of social change. By 1928, he was in regular correspondence with French writer and human rights activist Romain Rolland, who answered in writing to Relgis' various inquiries. He was a delegate to pacifist reunions in Hoddesdon, England and Sonntagberg, Austria (1928). Relgis also exchanged letters with various other prestigious left-wing intellectuals: Zweig, Upton Sinclair, Henri Barbusse, Max Nettlau etc. His various inquiries also enlisted positive replies from other international supporters of pacifism: physicist Albert Einstein, biologist Auguste Forel, writer Heinrich Mann and anarchist militant Paul Reclus. He became a contributor to Sébastien Faure's Anarchist Encyclopedia, with the "Humanitarianism" entry. In 1929, Delpeuch company published his French-language essay L'Internationale pacifiste ("The Pacifist International"), reissued the same year in Valencia, Spain, as La Internacional Pacifista. Around 1930, Relgis was in Paris, where he met with Han Ryner, and in Berlin, where he conversed with his mentor Nicolai. In its new translated editions, Apel către... was signed by a number of leading pacifist intellectuals of various persuasions, among them Zweig, Sinclair, Barbusse, Campio Carpio, Manuel Devaldès, Philéas Lebesgue, Rabindranath Tagore. While in France, where his work was


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis-4.md
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title: Eugen Relgis
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=== World War II, persecution and departure === Eugen Relgis was still active on the literary scene during the first two years of World War II, before Romania formalized its military alliance with the Axis powers. The Phoney War caught him in France, but he returned to Romania shortly after, exposing himself to persecution by the growing Romanian fascist movements. In February 1940, he gave a retrospective lecture, republished by the newspaper L'Indépendance Roumaine, on the work of Austrian psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud. Another book of his political prose, Spiritul activ ("The Active Spirit"), saw print the same year. The emergence of antisemitic and fascist regimes (see Romania in World War II, Holocaust in Romania) signified the beginning of Relgis' marginalization. During the short-lived National Legionary State, established by the Iron Guard fascists between 1940 and early 1941, the author lived in seclusion. His Biblioteca Cercului Libertatea was banned in 1940, but Relgis secretly moved the books into a stable. After the Guard fell from power, the Ion Antonescu dictatorship still included Relgis on a nationally circulated list of banned Romanian Jewish authors, but Relgis continued to write. His texts of the time include a posthumous praise of his pacifist disciple


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis-5.md
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title: Eugen Relgis
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=== South American career === With noted help from anarchist translator Vladimiro Muñoz, Relgis began his new career as a Spanish-language writer and publicist with a succession of works. Umanitarism și eugenism was translated into a Spanish edition: Humanitarismo y eugenismo, Ediciones Universo, Toulouse, 1950. The same imprint released his essay Las aberraciones sexuales en la Alemania nazi ("Sexual Aberrations in Nazi Germany"), which discussed in some depth the characteristics of Nazi eugenics. Also in 1950, with his Montevideo printing office Ediciones Humanidad, Relgis released a Spanish edition of his Principiile, a version of Max Nettlau's World Peace volume, as well as reissuing Cosmometápolis. Two years later, Ediciones Humanidad published Relgis' biographical essay Stefan Zweig, cazador de almas ("Stefan Zweig, the Soul Hunter"), followed in 1953 by a Hachette version of De mis peregrinaciones europeas ("From My Wanderings in Europe"). Relgis also tried to get his contributions translated into Portuguese, asking anarchist philosopher José Oiticica for assistance. He was at the time employed by El Plata daily, editing its Wednesday literary page, and helping to discover, in 1954, the twelve-year-old poet Teresa Porzecanski. In 1954, Relgis printed another biographical study, on Romain Rolland: El hombre libre frente a la barbarie


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis-6.md
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title: Eugen Relgis
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=== Main ideas === Throughout his career, Relgis was the proponent of anarchism. The Romanian writer spoke about the negativity of "state fetishism", seeking to overturn it and create "universal fraternity", and, in Diario de otoño, postulated a necessary distinction between Law ("which may be interpreted for or against") and Justice ("elementary" and unavoidable). Relgis likewise believed that war could be overcome once humanity shall have toppled "the three idols: State, Property, Money." Political philosopher Ángel Cappelletti argues: "Relgis was not an anarchist militant, but was always close to libertarian ideas". According to Stefan Zweig, Relgis fought "tirelessly for the great goal of spiritual fraternity." The sentiment was echoed by Romain Rolland, who recognized in Relgis his disciple: "There is no other European man in whose hands I could place, with as much confidence, [...] my pacifist and universalist idea, for it to be passed on into the future. For none other has such far-reaching intelligence to this goal, and none other would feel this idea so intimately connected to his being." Speaking from the cultural mainstream, Romanian literary historian George Călinescu observed Relgis' anti-establishment and anti-artistic rhetoric, but described it as mere "idealist reverie", "without any daring proposals that


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis-7.md
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title: Eugen Relgis
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=== Judaism, Zionism, Jewish culture === Beginning in the late 1920s, Relgis was also a supporter of Zionism, convinced that the path of Jewish assimilation was unsatisfactory for the affirmation of Jewish talents. He also adhered to philosopher Martin Buber's ideas about reuniting the three paths chosen by diaspora Jews: universalism, Zionism and Conservative Judaism. In his 1929 Avodah conference, he analyzed the ongoing Jewish resettlement into the Land of Israel, and investigated the causes of violent clashes between Jewish migrants and the Palestine Arabs. In other public statements, Relgis proudly stated his Judaic faith, noting that he had never actually left Judaism, "being integrated into its vast reality by the very reality of my own preoccupations, sociological and ethical, humanitarianist and pacifist." However, he explained to Iosif Gutman that joining a Zionist organization was not worth the effort, since membership was a form of captivity, and elsewhere suggested that Zionism was justified only as long as it did not follow "the restrictive methods of vulgar nationalism." The writer also described himself as committed to Romanian culture, and, as late as 1981, noted that Romanian was still his language of choice. His essays on Judaism (some of which were dedicated


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis-8.md
category: reference
title: Eugen Relgis
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=== On Latin America === After his move to Uruguay, Relgis developed a personal theory on Latin America as a "neohumanist" continent. Earlier, in Europa cea tânără, Relgis had claimed that the European continent needed to revisit its "pathetic history" of violence and imperialism, and reconvert by combining the lessons of Eastern philosophy and United States models of industrialization. Both models, he warned, carried risks: Asia's "spiritual renunciations" were mirrored by a "cancer of machinism" in North America. With Perspectivas culturales en Sudamérica, he expanded on a distinction between civilization and culture: the former as a transitory phase in human development, the latter as a permanent and characteristic sum of ideas; civilization, he argued, was in existence within the New World, but a Latin American culture was still ahead. Relgis identified this as a merit, describing South America in general and Uruguay in particular as exceptionally fertile and a "healthier" example for the whole world, offering safe haven to independent thinkers and defying the ideological divisions of the Cold War era. Summarizing the future links between the Latin American regions and Europe as envisaged by Relgis, William Rose wrote: "the cultural mission of America consists in a careful selection of


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis-9.md
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title: Eugen Relgis
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=== Literary style and principles === Eugen Relgis blended a critique of capitalism, advocacy of internationalism and modern art interest with all his main contributions to literature. In his essays and "all too cerebral" novels, George Călinescu argues, Eugen Relgis was "obsessed with humanitarianism" and self-help techniques. With his 1934 piece for Șantier, Relgis divided the experience and nature of art into a primordial, collective, form and a newer, individualist one: in the past, Relgis noted, creativity was consumed into creating vast anonymous works ("the pyramid, the temple, the cathedral"), often demanding "the silent and tenacious effort of successive generations." Presently, he thought, the combat against the "imperative of Profit" and "vulgar materialism" justified the "ethical and aesthetic individualism". Relgis' essay described industrial society in harsh terms, as directed by "the bloody gods" of "Capitalism and War", and cautioned that the advocacy of anonymity in modern art could lead to kitsch ("serialized production, without the significance it used to carry in bygone days"). Elsewhere, however, Relgis also argued that books needed to have a formative value, and that literature, unlike journalism, "needs to be the expression of length and depth." Some of Relgis' preferences were shaped from his time at


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis-10.md
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title: Eugen Relgis
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=== Poetry === During his time at Fronda, Eugen Relgis and his fellow writers published collective, experimental and unsigned poems, largely echoing the influence of Arghezi and Minulescu, but, according to Cernat, "aesthetically monstrous". This perspective is echoed by Șerban, who notes that Relgis' debut as a poet was largely without "convincing results". In Triumful neființei, the main stylistic reference was, according to Lovinescu, the Romanian Symbolist prose poet Dimitrie Anghel, imitated to the point of "pastiche". With time, Relgis developed a style deemed "the poetry of professions" by George Călinescu. According to Călinescu's classification, Relgis the poet is similar in this respect to fellow Symbolists Alexandru Tudor-Miu and Barbu Solacolu, but also to Simona Basarab, Leon Feraru, Cristian Sârbu and Stelian Constantin-Stelian. The same critic notes that Relgis "attempted, with some beautiful poetic suggestions, to establish a modern-era mythology with abstract gods [...] and other machinist monsters." Lovinescu describes the poet in Relgis as one who "survived" through humanitarian propaganda, returning "in a compact Verhaeren form, rhetorical and accumulative." Lovinescu includes the resulting works in a category of "descriptive" and "social" poems, relating Relgis to Feraru, Alice Călugăru, Aron Cotruș, Vasile Demetrius, Camil Petrescu and I. Valerian. Relgis' poems,


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugen_Relgis-11.md
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title: Eugen Relgis
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== References == Trenton W. Batson, Eugene Bergman, preface and notes to Angels and Outcasts: An Anthology of Deaf Characters in Literature, Gallaudet University Press, Washington, 1985. ISBN 0-930323-17-3 Lucian Boia, "Germanofilii". Elita intelectuală românească în anii Primului Război Mondial, Humanitas, Bucharest, 2010. ISBN 978-973-50-2635-6 Maria Bucur, Eugenics and Modernization in Interwar Romania, University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh, 2002. ISBN 0-8229-4172-4 George Călinescu, Istoria literaturii române de la origini pînă în prezent, Editura Minerva, Bucharest, 1986 Ángel Cappelletti, "Anarquismo latinoamericano", in Carlos M. Rama, El Anarquismo en América Latina, Biblioteca Ayacucho, Caracas, 1990. ISBN 980-276-117-6 Paul Cernat, Avangarda românească și complexul periferiei: primul val, Cartea Românească, Bucharest, 2007. ISBN 978-973-23-1911-6 (in Romanian) Ion Clopoțel, "Discuții și recensii. Eugen Relgis: Bulgaria necunoscută", in Societatea de Mâine, Nr. 7-9/1933, p. 168–169 (digitized by the Babeș-Bolyai University Transsylvanica Online Library) Ovid Crohmălniceanu, Literatura română între cele două războaie mondiale, Vol. I, Editura Minerva, Bucharest, 1972. OCLC 490001217 (in Romanian) Dorel Dorian, Geo Șerban, "Eugen Relgis: un literat provoacă destinul: îngrijorat de învrăjbirile umanității", Realitatea Evreiască supplement, Nr. 310-311 (1010–1011), December 2008 – January 2009: page I, page II, page III, page IV, page V, page VI, page VII, page VIII (in French) Bernard


id: cel-l-eng-r-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celâl_Şengör-0.md
category: reference
title: Celâl Şengör
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celâl_Şengör
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Ali Mehmet Celâl Şengör (Turkish: [ˈali ˈmehmet ˈdʒeɫal ˈʃænɟœɾ]; born 24 March 1955) is a Turkish geologist. He is retired from the faculty at Istanbul Technical University, Department of Geological Engineering. Şengör is a (foreign) member of the American Philosophical Society, Academia Europaea (1990), the United States National Academy of Sciences (2000), the Russian Academy of Sciences, Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts Accademia nazionale delle scienze (2023), and Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities (2024). He is a foreign member of the Russian Academy of Science. He is a recipient of Gustav-Steinmann-Medaille — the highest distinction of the Geologische Vereinigung e.V. == Personal life == Celal Şengör was born on 24 March 1955, in Istanbul, to a muhacir family from Rumelia. After graduating from Robert College, he received his BS (1978), MS (1979), PhD (1982) degrees from the State University of New York, Albany. He writes a weekly popular science column in the center-left daily Cumhuriyet. He is married and has a son. Şengör has been diagnosed with Asperger syndrome. == Controversies == Şengör is vocal in his support of the Turkish military and the 1980 military coup in Turkey. In a very controversial interview published on the website


id: josephine-siao-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josephine_Siao-0.md
category: reference
title: Josephine Siao
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josephine_Siao
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Josephine Siao Fong-fong (simplified Chinese: 萧芳芳; traditional Chinese: 蕭芳芳; pinyin: Xiāo Fāngfāng; Jyutping: siu1 fong1 fong1; born March 13, 1947) is a Hong Kong film star who became popular as a child actress and continued her success as a mature actress, winning numerous awards including Best Actress at the 45th Berlin International Film Festival (for Summer Snow). Since retiring from show business (partly due to her increasing deafness), she has become a writer and a psychologist, known for her work against child abuse. Born in Shanghai, Ciao emigrated to Hong Kong at the age of 2, and began her acting career at the age of 6. In 1955, she appeared alongside Bruce Lee in An Orphan's Tragedy. Her performance in The Orphan Girl (1956) garnered the Best Child Actor Award at the 2nd Southeast Asian Film Festival. Ciao subsequently became one of the biggest teen idols in Hong Kong during the late 1960s, along with frequent co-star Connie Chan Po-chu. The two were often cast in wuxia films and contemporary dramas. Colourful Youth (1966), in which they both appeared, is credited with popularising Cantonese film musicals. Siao briefly retired from acting in 1968 to attend Seton Hall University in the


id: olga-skorokhodova-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olga_Skorokhodova-0.md
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title: Olga Skorokhodova
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source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olga_Skorokhodova
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Olga Ivanovna Skorokhodova (Russian: Ольга Ивановна Скороходова; 24 May [O.S. 11 May] 1911 – 7 May 1982) was a Soviet scientist, therapist, teacher and writer. She lost her vision and hearing at age five due to meningitis, and worked in the Institute for the Handicapped for the USSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences as the world's only deafblind researcher. Skorokhodova created a number of scientific works concerning the development of education and teaching of deafblind children. == Biography == Some sources indicated incorrect information about Skorokhodova's date of birth: it was sometimes referred to 1912 or 1914. However, according to the extracts from Church records, which were found after her death, she was born in 1911 (Julian calendar). Skorokhodova was born in Bilozerka, Kherson Oblast (current-day Ukraine) in a poor peasant family. Her father was mobilized for war in 1914 and never returned, and her mother was forced to work as a housemaid for a priest. Olga began to lose her hearing when she was five years old as a result of meningitis. In 1922 after her mother's death, she was sent to a school for the blind in Odesa. In 1925, almost completely mute, Olga came to the School-Clinic for


id: ume-tange-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ume_Tange-0.md
category: reference
title: Ume Tange
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ume_Tange
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:40.875652+00:00
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Ume (Umeko) Tange (丹下 梅子; 1873–1955) was one of the first three women admitted to a Japanese university in 1913. She previously studied at a women's college. After graduating from university, she traveled to the US to study, gaining a PhD in chemistry from Johns Hopkins University in 1927, one of the first Japanese women awarded a doctorate in science. Tange returned to Japan to teach and do further research at RIKEN, studying vitamins, especially vitamin B2. She gained a second doctorate, in agricultural science, in 1940, from Tokyo Imperial University (now the University of Tokyo). == Early life and education == Ume Tange was the sixth child of seven siblings in a prosperous family in Kagoshima, southern Japan. She was born on March 17, 1873. While playing with one of her sisters, Tange was injured when she fell on a chopstick, losing the sight in one eye. Tange began her career as a primary school teacher. In 1901, when she was 28, Tange began studying home economics at a women's college, Japan Women's University. After graduating, she worked as an assistant there, and became the first woman to pass the secondary teacher examination in chemistry. In 1913, she was


id: konstantin-tsiolkovsky-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstantin_Tsiolkovsky-0.md
category: reference
title: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstantin_Tsiolkovsky
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:42.166993+00:00
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Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky (; Russian: Константин Эдуардович Циолковский, IPA: [kənstɐnʲˈtʲin ɪdʊˈardəvʲɪtɕ tsɨɐlˈkofskʲɪj] ; 17 September [O.S. 5 September] 1857 – 19 September 1935) was a Russian rocket scientist who pioneered astronautics. Along with Hermann Oberth and Robert H. Goddard, he is one of the pioneers of space flight and the founding father of modern rocketry and astronautics. His works later inspired Wernher von Braun and leading Soviet rocket engineers Sergei Korolev and Valentin Glushko, who contributed to the success of the Soviet space program. Tsiolkovsky spent most of his life in a log house on the outskirts of Kaluga, about 200 km (120 mi) southwest of Moscow. A recluse by nature, his unusual habits made him appear eccentric to his fellow townsfolk. == Early life == Tsiolkovsky was born in Izhevskoye (now in Spassky District, Ryazan Oblast), in the Russian Empire, to a middle-class family. His father, Makary Edward Erazm Ciołkowski, was a Polish forester of Roman Catholic faith who relocated to Russia. His Russian Orthodox mother Maria Ivanovna Yumasheva was of mixed Volga Tatar and Russian origin. According to family tradition, Tsiolkovsky family is of the Zaporozhian Cossack descent, related to Cossack Hetman Nalyvaiko. His father was successively a


id: konstantin-tsiolkovsky-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstantin_Tsiolkovsky-1.md
category: reference
title: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstantin_Tsiolkovsky
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summary:
Tsiolkovsky stated that he developed the theory of rocketry only as a supplement to philosophical research on the subject. He wrote more than 400 works including approximately 90 published pieces on space travel and related subjects. Among his works are designs for rockets with steering thrusters, multistage boosters, space stations, airlocks for exiting a spaceship into the vacuum of space, and closed-cycle biological systems to provide food and oxygen for space colonies. Tsiolkovsky's first scientific study dates back to 1880–1881. He wrote a paper called "Theory of Gases," in which he outlined the basis of the kinetic theory of gases, but after submitting it to the Russian Physico-Chemical Society (RPCS), he was informed that his discoveries had already been made 25 years earlier. Undaunted, he pressed ahead with his second work, "The Mechanics of the Animal Organism". It received favorable feedback, and Tsiolkovsky was made a member of the Society. Tsiolkovsky's main works after 1884 dealt with four major areas: the scientific rationale for the all-metal balloon (airship), streamlined airplanes and trains, hovercraft, and rockets for interplanetary travel. In 1892, he was transferred to a new teaching post in Kaluga where he continued to experiment. During this period, Tsiolkovsky began


id: konstantin-tsiolkovsky-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstantin_Tsiolkovsky-2.md
category: reference
title: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstantin_Tsiolkovsky
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:42.166993+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: konstantin-tsiolkovsky-20260505-0
summary:
The result of the first publication was not what Tsiolkovsky expected. No foreign scientists appreciated his research, which today is a major scientific discipline. In 1911, he published the second part of the work "Exploration of Outer Space by Means of Rocket Devices". Here Tsiolkovsky evaluated the work needed to overcome the force of gravity, determined the speed needed to propel the device into the Solar System ("escape velocity"), and examined calculation of flight time. The publication of this article made a splash in the scientific world, and Tsiolkovsky found many friends among his fellow scientists. In 1926–1929, Tsiolkovsky solved the practical problem regarding the role played by rocket fuel in getting to escape velocity and leaving the Earth. He showed that the final speed of the rocket depends on the rate of gas flowing from it and on how the weight of the fuel relates to the weight of the empty rocket. Tsiolkovsky conceived a number of ideas that have been later used in rockets. They include: gas rudders (graphite) for controlling a rocket's flight and changing the trajectory of its center of mass, the use of components of the fuel to cool the outer shell of the spacecraft


id: konstantin-tsiolkovsky-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstantin_Tsiolkovsky-3.md
category: reference
title: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstantin_Tsiolkovsky
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:42.166993+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: konstantin-tsiolkovsky-20260505-0
summary:
In 1964, The Monument to the Conquerors of Space was erected to celebrate the achievements of the Soviet people in space exploration. Located in Moscow, the monument is 107 meters (350 feet) tall and covered with titanium cladding. The main part of the monument is a giant obelisk topped by a rocket and resembling in shape the exhaust plume of the rocket. A statue of Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, the precursor of astronautics, is located in front of the obelisk. The State Museum of the History of Cosmonautics in Kaluga now bears his name. His residence during the final months of his life (also in Kaluga) was converted into a memorial museum a year after his death. The town Uglegorsk in Amur Oblast was renamed Tsiolkovsky by President of Russia Vladimir Putin in 2015. The crater Tsiolkovskiy, the most prominent crater on the far side of the Moon, was named after him. Asteroid 1590 Tsiolkovskaja was named after his wife. The Soviet Union obtained naming rights by operating Luna 3, the first space device to successfully transmit images of the side of the Moon not seen from Earth. The Tsiolkovsky Memorial Apartment. A museum created in Borovsk where he lived and had


id: per-uhl-n-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Per_Uhlén-0.md
category: reference
title: Per Uhlén
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Per_Uhlén
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:43.381582+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: per-uhl-n-20260505-0
summary:
Per Uhlén, born in 1969 in Uppsala, is a Swedish researcher in cell and molecular biology and professor of cell signaling at Karolinska Institute in Stockholm. Uhlén conducts research about cell signaling and how different cues affect important biological processes for cancer and development, such as cell division, cell differentiation and cell death. Uhlén is also conducting research using three-dimensional (3D) imaging with light sheet fluorescence microscopy and tissue clearing to map and characterize intact tumor samples and whole brains. Uhlén began studying engineering physics (Teknisk Fysik) at the Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) in Stockholm in 1993 and graduated with a master's degree in engineering in 1998. He then began doctoral studies at Karolinska Institute and became a doctor of philosophy (PhD) in 2002 with the thesis "Signal Transduction Via Ion Fluxes". After his dissertation, Uhlén moved to the United States to conduct postdoctoral research in Barbara Ehrlich's laboratory at Yale University in New Haven, CT. During his postdoc stay in the United States, Uhlén also conducted research at the Marine Biology Laboratory (MBL) in Woods Hole, MA. In 2006, Uhlén returned to Sweden to establish his own research group at Karolinska Institute. Uhlén became an associate professor (Docent)


id: geerat-j-vermeij-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geerat_J._Vermeij-0.md
category: reference
title: Geerat J. Vermeij
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geerat_J._Vermeij
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:44.611627+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geerat-j-vermeij-20260505-0
summary:
Geerat J. Vermeij (born September 28, 1946) is a Dutch-born paleoecologist and evolutionary biologist in the Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences at the University of California, Davis. He studies marine molluscs, both as fossils and as living creatures, as well as influence creatures have on each other's evolutionary fates, alongside having worked on plants, crabs, extinction, biological invasions, and biogeography. He received a MacArthur Fellowship in 1992, and in 2000, was awarded the Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal from the National Academy of Sciences. He was also a fellow of the California Academy of Sciences in 1992 and was awarded the Fellows Medal from the California Academy of Sciences in 2017. == Early life and education == Vermeij was born in Sappemeer, Netherlands. Blind from the age of three, he studied Braille at the Prins Alexander Stichting Boarding School in Huis Ter Heide. He moved from the Netherlands to Nutley, New Jersey at age 10, and graduated from Nutley High School in 1965. Since the age of 10, Vermeij wanted to be a conchologist. Vermeij had a school teacher who once brought shells from Florida. There were great differences in the characteristics of those shells and the ones he experienced


id: anatoli-vitushkin-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatoli_Vitushkin-0.md
category: reference
title: Anatoli Vitushkin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatoli_Vitushkin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:45.904091+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anatoli-vitushkin-20260505-0
summary:
Anatoli Georgievich Vitushkin (Russian: Анато́лий Гео́ргиевич Виту́шкин) (June 25, 1931 – May 9, 2004) was a Soviet mathematician noted for his work on analytic capacity and other parts of mathematical analysis. == Early life == Anatoli Georgievich Vitushkin was born on 25 June 1931 in Moscow. He was blind. == Career == He entered Moscow State University in 1949 after graduating from the Tula Suvorov Military School where mathematics was taught as part of a broader education for potential officers. He graduated in 1954. He studied under Andrey Kolmogorov and benefited from participation in Alexander Kronrod's circle. He joined the Steklov Institute of Mathematics staff in 1965. For many years he was a member of the editorial board of the Russian journal; Mathematical Notes. He died, at the age of 72, in Moscow on 9 May 2004. == Bibliography == Vitushkin, Anatoli G. (2004). "On Hilbert's thirteenth problem and related questions". Russian Mathematical Surveys. 51 (1): 11–25. Bibcode:2004RuMaS..59...11V. doi:10.1070/RM2004v059n01ABEH000698. S2CID 250837749. Vitushkin, A. G.; Chirka, E.M.; Khenkin, G.M.; Dolbeault, P. (November 1, 1997). Introduction to Complex Analysis. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-540-63005-0. Vitushkin, A. G. (1988). "Uniform approximation of functions by holomorphic functions". Proc. Steklov Inst. Math. (Mathematical Physics and Complex Analysis)


id: elwyn-welch-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elwyn_Welch-0.md
category: reference
title: Elwyn Welch
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elwyn_Welch
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:47.121880+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: elwyn-welch-20260505-0
summary:
Elwyn Owen Arnold Welch (13 January 1925 – 10 December 1961) was a New Zealand farmer, ornithologist, conservationist and Open Brethren missionary. An expert in raising endangered bird chicks, he is best known for his part in the captive breeding of newly re-discovered takahē (Porphyrio hochstetteri) in the 1950s. His efforts live on as Pukaha / Mount Bruce National Wildlife Centre. As an Open Brethren missionary, he served in Nigeria beginning in April 1961. He died in Nigeria at age 36 from polio. == Early life == Welch was born in Masterton, Wairarapa, New Zealand, in 1925. He grew up on the family farm 'Kelvin Grove' on the slopes of Mt Bruce, and was educated as a boarder at Wairarapa College in Masterton. After completing his secondary schooling he returned to the family farm. In his youth he developed a passion for birds, and became one of New Zealand's leading amateur ornithologists. He began his bird conservation work by hand-raising grey teal chicks on the farm. In 1948 he married Shirley Noeline Elizabeth Burridge, and then took over the family farm from his parents. == Bird conservation work == By the mid-1950s, Welch was recognised for his expertise in raising


id: justin-yerbury-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justin_Yerbury-0.md
category: reference
title: Justin Yerbury
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justin_Yerbury
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:48.367404+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: justin-yerbury-20260505-0
summary:
Justin John Yerbury (3 May 1974 – 28 July 2023) was an Australian molecular biologist who was spurred to follow a career in biological research when he discovered that his family has the genetic form of motor neurone disease (MND). He held the position of Professor in Neurodegenerative Disease at the University of Wollongong. He was diagnosed with MND himself in 2016, but continued to research until his death from the disease in 2023. == Education and career == Yerbury grew up in Wollongong, New South Wales, where he attended Oak Flats High School in the southern suburb of Oak Flats. He graduated in 1991. He later said that he "was not much of a scientist at school." He studied for a Bachelor of Commerce and helped to run the family business. In 1995, Yerbury played two games for the Illawarra Hawks in the National Basketball League (NBL). In the late 1990s, several members of Yerbury's extended family were diagnosed and died from motor neurone disease (MND, also known as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) or Lou Gehrig's disease). Ninety to 95 per cent of cases are considered sporadic, occurring randomly in the population. The remaining 5–10% of cases are hereditary.


id: lgbtq-people-in-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_people_in_science-0.md
category: reference
title: LGBTQ people in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_people_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:49.981008+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lgbtq-people-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
LGBT people in science are students, professionals, hobbyists, and anyone else who is LGBT and interested in science. The sexuality of many people in science remains up for debate by historians, largely due to the unaccepting cultures in which many of these people lived. For the most part, we do not know for certain how people in the past would have labelled their sexuality or gender because many individuals lived radically different private lives outside of the accepted gender and sexual norms of their time. One such example of a historical person in science that was arguably part of the LGBT community is Leonardo da Vinci, whose sexuality was later the subject of Sigmund Freud's study. In modern times, LGBTQ+ individuals in science still navigate a landscape shaped by discrimination, social exclusion, and professional devaluation, but increased visibility and advocacy have led to growing efforts for inclusion and equity. Numerous organizations now work to support LGBTQ+ scientists, while companies and institutions are implementing policies aimed at fostering diversity and reducing barriers for underrepresented groups in STEM. Issues such as the "glass closet," where individuals feel pressure to conceal their identities for career advancement, continue to highlight the ongoing need for


id: lgbtq-people-in-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_people_in_science-1.md
category: reference
title: LGBTQ people in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_people_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:49.981008+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lgbtq-people-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
== History of LGBT people in science == Magnus Hirschfeld, a German physician and sexologist, was one of the first advocates for homosexual and transgender rights. Hirschfeld was most well known for his sexual theories and for activism. In 1897 Hirschfeld created the first sexual rights organization, the Scientific Humanitarian Community, which aimed to explore and defend the rights of homosexuals. As one of the first advocates for homosexual rights, Hirschfeld faced a great amount of backlash from newspapers claiming, for example, that "abnormal propensities" should be distanced from "mainstream medicine". Hirschfeld was attacked by Nazis for being gay and Jewish, and he was beaten, sacked, and had his books burned. He was eventually forced into exile in France. John Maynard Keynes, an English economist, changed the ideology and practice of macroeconomics, and his ideas formed the school of thought known as Keynesian economics. Keynes's romantic relationships early in his life were only with other men. He had many sexual encounters with other men and he was open about these affairs. Several communities, in which Keynes was involved with, such as the Bloomsbury Group, and the Cambridge Apostles were accepting towards Keynes's homosexuality. People who opposed Keynes's ideas used his


id: lgbtq-people-in-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_people_in_science-2.md
category: reference
title: LGBTQ people in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_people_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:49.981008+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lgbtq-people-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
Known for her groundbreaking research on heat-resistant corals, Gates aimed to safeguard coral reefs from the devastating effects of ocean warming and acidification. Beyond her scientific achievements, Gates was deeply committed to public outreach, using documentaries like Chasing Coral to raise awareness about the urgent need for climate action. Her legacy continues through her lab, the Coral Resilience Lab, and through initiatives like the Ruth Gates Coral Restoration Innovation Grant, ensuring her mission to protect coral ecosystems lives on. Dr. Gates' work not only transformed reef studies but also inspired others to believe in the possibility of changing the narrative around climate change, making her an influential figure for both the scientific and LGBTQ+ communities. Richard Summerbell is a leading figure in mycology, recognized globally for his research on fungi and their impact on human and environmental health. As a prolific scientist with over 150 peer reviewed publications, Summerbell's work has significantly advanced our understanding of fungi, from their role in forest ecosystems to their involvement in human infections. Beyond his contributions to science, Summerbell was a prominent advocate for the LGBTQ+ community, actively participating in the liberation movement in the 70s and 80s. He co-hosted the Canadian show Coming


id: lgbtq-people-in-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_people_in_science-3.md
category: reference
title: LGBTQ people in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_people_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:49.981008+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lgbtq-people-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Challenges for LGBT people in science == There are traditions and expectations that LGBT people should not study or have careers in science, according to Manil Suri. In 2016 the American Physical Society published a list of ways in which LGBT physicists have a more difficult career experience than their non-LGBT counterparts. Studies have shown that many LGBT faculty and researchers are not out in their departments, and coming out may negatively affect retention. This is of particular issue in the STEM field as the work cultures and professional environments within this field of work can often exclude or alienate the existence of the LGBT community and the individuals within it. A 2021 study identified various inequalities for LGBT people in science. LGBTQ professionals in STEM face a variety of challenges that make their work environments more hostile than those of their non-LGBTQ colleagues. They are more likely to leave their jobs due to higher levels of social exclusion, professional devaluation, and harassment rates up to 30% higher than their peers. LGBTQ individuals also report fewer opportunities for skill development, less access to resources, and less confidence about whistleblowing without retaliation. These issues contribute to higher levels of stress,


id: lgbtq-people-in-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_people_in_science-4.md
category: reference
title: LGBTQ people in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_people_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:49.981008+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lgbtq-people-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== United Kingdom and Europe === Pride in STEM, a charitable organization based in the United Kingdom, co-founded the International Day of LGBTQ+ People in Science, Technology, Engineering and Maths. In Germany, a similar movement was founded under the name LGBTQ STEM Berlin. The Proud Science Alliance is a collective organisation made up of representatives from LGBTQ+ networks from across the healthcare and life sciences sector. The first interdisciplinary conference in the UK for LGBTQ+ people working in STEM fields was the LGBTSTEMinar hosted at the University of Sheffield in 2016. It has been hosted annually since then and in 2020 the Royal Society Athena Prize was awarded for this work. == Corporate Policies & Inclusion Efforts == Corporate policies aimed at promoting LGBTQ+ inclusion have become important for diversity, equity, and innovation in the modern workplace. Achieving true inclusion requires more than surface-level commitments; it involves embedding equity into policies, practices, and cultural norms. === The Value of Inclusive Corporate Policies === Inclusive policies serve as both a moral imperative and a strategic advantage. Research consistently demonstrates that diverse workplaces outperform less inclusive ones by fostering creativity, improving problem-solving, and enhancing employee satisfaction. The 2021 Corporate Equality Index by


id: s-ren-brostr-m-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Søren_Brostrøm-0.md
category: reference
title: Søren Brostrøm
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Søren_Brostrøm
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:51.253005+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: s-ren-brostr-m-20260505-0
summary:
Søren Brostrøm (born 4 June 1965) is a Danish physician-scientist specializing in obstetrics and gynaecology. He was the Director general of the Danish Health Authority between 2015 and 2023, and has been a senior adviser to the Director-General of the WHO in charge of organizational change, since 2023. Brostrøm has previously been a member (from 2017), Vice-chair (from 2018), and Chair (from 2019), of the Standing Committee of the European Regional Committee (SCRC), as well as (ex officio) Deputy Executive president of the WHO Regional Committee for Europe (69th session; 2019–2020). He held these posts during the COVID-19 pandemic, and as chairperson he led the committee's crisis management and response. Before becoming director general in 2015, Brostrøm served, from September 2011, as the Director of the Department of Hospitals and Emergency management, also at the Danish Health Authority. Brostrøm worked as a chief physician at Herlev Hospital and as an associate professor at the University of Copenhagen, before joining the Danish Health Authority. Following the COVID-19 pandemic, Brostrøm became a prominent public figure in Denmark, where he played a key role in the Danish response to COVID-19, which has been described as "one of the most successful in Europe." In


id: s-ren-brostr-m-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Søren_Brostrøm-1.md
category: reference
title: Søren Brostrøm
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Søren_Brostrøm
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:51.253005+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: s-ren-brostr-m-20260505-0
summary:
=== HIV/AIDS impact on Brostrøm === Brostrom spoke in an interview in 2020 about how the HIV and AIDS global epidemic affected his youth: "HIV and AIDS is the disease I myself grew up with. Both as a young gay man and as a young medical student." Brostrøm described how the disease came as a shock and put a damper on the free and uninhibited sexuality that had taken hold in the gay community throughout the 1960s and 70s. Brostrøm said, "In 1992 I was in the US as part of (medical) school, and from that period I remember it very clearly. There was a lot of debate and the disease was shrouded in taboo. There were religious and conservative groups who called HIV and AIDS God's punishment on homosexuals. At that time I saw young beautiful men lying dead. People like myself." == Memberships, chairmanships and organizational work == Brostrøm has been chairman and board member of a number of organizations. List: === Danish === Member of the Board of the Danish Society of Obstetrics and Gynaecology. 2001–2003: President of the Danish Association of Young Gynaecologists and Obstetricians (FYGO). 2008–2011: President of the Danish FIGO-foundation. 2018–2022: Member of the


id: uzi-even-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzi_Even-0.md
category: reference
title: Uzi Even
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzi_Even
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:52.435254+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: uzi-even-20260505-0
summary:
Uzi Even (Hebrew: עוזי אבן; born 18 October 1940) is an Israeli professor emeritus of physical chemistry at Tel Aviv University and a former politician well known for being the first openly gay member of the Knesset (the Israeli Parliament). == Biography == Uzi Even was born in Haifa during the British Mandate era. He earned a BSc and MSc in physics at the Technion, and a PhD at Tel Aviv University. His specializations are spectroscopy of super cold molecules, molecular clusters and cluster impact chemistry, and the quantum properties of helium clusters. He then worked as a scientist at the Negev Nuclear Research Center near Dimona. As a reservist in the Israel Defense Forces he reached the rank of Lieutenant Colonel. He conducted top-secret military research and served as an intelligence officer during the Six-Day War and Yom Kippur War. In 1968 he left his job at the reactor and joined Lekem, an Israeli intelligence agency responsible for collecting scientific and technical information from abroad. In May 1981, Even leaked the news of preparations to carry out "Operation Opera" to opposition leader Shimon Peres. Peres subsequently wrote a letter of protest to Prime Minister Menachem Begin, and the operation


id: andr-k-isaacs-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/André_K._Isaacs-0.md
category: reference
title: André K. Isaacs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/André_K._Isaacs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:53.639016+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: andr-k-isaacs-20260505-0
summary:
André K. Isaacs (born December 20, 1981) is a Jamaican professor of chemistry researching organic and synthetic chemistry at the College of the Holy Cross. He is also a queer science communicator mainly using TikTok and Twitter, where he posts dancing and choreography videos to teach chemistry lessons. Many of his videos have gone viral on these platforms. == Early life and education == Isaacs was born in Kingston, Jamaica, on December 20, 1981. He regularly speaks of his uncle, who taught chemistry and mathematics but died young. Isaacs refers to him as his inspiration in pursuing science education. Although he chose science tracks during his childhood, he was always interested in culture and fashion. In 2005, after finishing schooling in Jamaica, he moved to the United States to pursue a bachelor's degree in chemistry at the College of the Holy Cross. His professors and research advisors encouraged him during his undergraduate education to continue graduate studies due to his skills in organic chemistry. He obtained a PhD in chemistry in 2011 at the University of Pennsylvania under the direction of Jeffrey Winkler. Later, he went to the University of California, Berkeley as a postdoctoral fellow before moving back to


id: g-f-laundon-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G.F._Laundon-0.md
category: reference
title: G.F. Laundon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G.F._Laundon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:54.875626+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: g-f-laundon-20260505-0
summary:
Gillian Fiona Laundon (7 May 1938 – 8 February 1984), also known as Gillian Cox, was a New Zealand-based mycologist with a focus on plant pathology and taxonomy, and a trans activist. == Life and career == Born Geoffry Frank Laundon on 7 May 1938 in Kettering, England to parents Frank and Marjorie, Laundon was educated at the University of Sheffield, receiving a B.Sc. honours degree (second class, 1st division) in Botany in 1959. Later in 1959 she became an assistant mycologist (later mycologist) at the Commonwealth Mycological Institute and specialised on rust fungi. In 1963 she married Margaret Keay Cox, and over the next several years had three children with her. In 1965 she emigrated to New Zealand and became mycologist at the Plant Health & Diagnostic Station at Levin, New Zealand and continued to research the taxonomy and nomenclature of rusts. == Scientific contribution == Laundon specialised on rust fungi (Urediniomycetes), first publishing new species in 1963. Among her most important contributions was a new system of spore terminology published in 1967, which was controversial at the time but was generally accepted by the time of her death. Laundon was an active member of the International Association for


id: yifat-merbl-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yifat_Merbl-0.md
category: reference
title: Yifat Merbl
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yifat_Merbl
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:56.140039+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: yifat-merbl-20260505-0
summary:
Yifat Merbl (Hebrew: יפעת מרבל) is a professor of immunology at the Weizmann Institute of Science. Her research is at the intersection of biochemistry, proteomics, and immunology, and addresses research questions in the fields of cancer and the immune system. == Biography == Marbel grew up in Givat Shmuel. In her compulsory service in the IDF, she served as an officer in the Air Force. In 2003, she received BA in computational biology from Bar-Ilan University. In 2005, she received MA in immunology from the Weizmann Institute of Science as part of Irun R. Cohen's group from the Department of Immunology. In 2010, she received a PhD in systems biology from Harvard University under the supervision of Mark Kirschner. In 2011–2014, she continued her postdoctoral research at Harvard University. In September 2014, she returned to Israel, as head of a research group at the Weizmann Institute of Science studying the proteasome. In parallel with her work at the Weizmann Institute of Science, as of May 2024 she is one of the three founders of the startup company Promise Bio Ltd., which uses a cloud-based artificial intelligence platform to perform large-scale epiproteomic analyses on standard mass spectrometry data to improve disease


id: women-in-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-0.md
category: reference
title: Women in medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:57.865620+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
The presence of women in medicine, particularly in the practicing fields of surgery and as physicians, has been traced to the earliest of history. Women have historically had lower participation levels in medical fields compared to men with occupancy rates varying by race, socioeconomic status, and geography. Women's informal practice of medicine in roles such as caregivers, or as allied health professionals, has been widespread. Since the start of the 20th century, most countries of the world provide women with access to medical education. Not all countries ensure equal employment opportunities, and gender equality has yet to be achieved within medical specialties and around the world. == History == === Ancient medicine === The involvement of women in the field of medicine has been recorded in several early civilizations. An Egyptian of the Old Kingdom of Egypt, Peseshet, described in an inscription as "lady overseer of the female physicians", is the earliest woman named in the history of science. Ubartum lived around 2050 BC in Mesopotamia and came from a family of several physicians. Agamede was cited by Homer as a healer in ancient Greece before the Trojan War. Metrodora was a physician and generally regarded as the first female


id: women-in-medicine-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-1.md
category: reference
title: Women in medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:57.865620+00:00
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=== Medieval Islamic world === For the medieval Islamic world, little information is known about female medical practitioners although it is likely that women were regularly involved in medical practice in some capacity. Male medical writers refer to the presence of female practitioners (a ṭabība) in describing certain procedures or situations. The late-10th to early-11th century Andalusi physician and surgeon al-Zahrawi wrote that certain medical procedures were difficult for male doctors practicing on female patients because of the need to touch the genitalia. The male practitioner was required to either find a female doctor who could perform the procedure, or a eunuch physician, or a midwife who took instruction from the male surgeon. The existence of female practitioners can be inferred, albeit not explicitly, through direct evidence. Midwives played a prominent role in the delivery of women's healthcare. For these practitioners, there is more detailed information, both in terms of the prestige of their craft (ibn Khaldun calls it a noble craft, "something necessary in civilization") and in terms of biographical information on historic women. To date, no known medical treatise written by a woman in the medieval Islamic world has been identified. === Western medicine in China === Traditional


id: women-in-medicine-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-2.md
category: reference
title: Women in medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:57.865620+00:00
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parent: women-in-medicine-20260505-0
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The 1970s marked an increase of women entering and graduating from medical school in the United States. From 1930 to 1970, a period of 40 years, around 14,000 women graduated from medical school. From 1970 to 1980, a period of 10 years, over 20,000 women graduated from medical school. This increase of women in the medical field was due to both political and cultural changes. Two laws in the U.S. lifted restrictions for women in the medical field – Title IX of the Higher Education Act Amendments of 1972 and the Public Health Service Act of 1975, banning discrimination on grounds of gender. In November 1970, the Assembly of the Association of American Medical Colleges rallied for equal rights in the medical field. Throughout the decade women's ideas about themselves and their relation to the medical field were shifting due to the women's feminist movement. A sharp increase of women in the medical field led to developments in doctor-patient relationships, changes in terminology and theory. One area of medical practice that was challenged and changed was gynecology. Author Wendy Kline noted that "to ensure that young brides were ready for the wedding night, [doctors] used the pelvic exam as a


id: women-in-medicine-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-3.md
category: reference
title: Women in medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:57.865620+00:00
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In 1540, Henry VIII of England granted the charter for the Company of Barber-Surgeons; while this led to the specialization of healthcare professions (i.e. surgeons and barbers), women were barred from professional practice. Women did continue to practice during this time without formal training or recognition in England and eventually North America for the next several centuries. Women's participation in the medical professions was generally limited by legal and social practices during the decades while medicine was professionalizing. Women openly practiced medicine in the allied health professions (nursing, midwifery, etc.), and throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, women made significant gains in access to medical education and medical work through much of the world. These gains were sometimes tempered by setbacks; some have documented a decline in women physicians in the US in the first half of the twentieth century, such that there were fewer women physicians in 1950 than there were in 1900. A 2026 study attributed this decline to closures of schools with traditionally high female enrollments, higher admission standards for female applicants to medical schools than male applicants, and the refusal of some medical schools, such as Harvard Medical School, to admit women at all. Through the


id: women-in-medicine-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-4.md
category: reference
title: Women in medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:57.865620+00:00
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parent: women-in-medicine-20260505-0
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=== Glass ceiling === The "glass ceiling" is a metaphor to convey the undefined obstacles that women and minorities face in the workplace. Female physicians of the late 19th-century faced discrimination in many forms due to the prevailing Victorian era attitude that the ideal woman be demure, display a gentle demeanor, act submissively, and enjoy a perceived form of power that should be exercised over and from within the home. Medical degrees were difficult for women to earn, and once practicing, discrimination from landlords for medical offices, left female physicians to set up their practices on "Scab Row" or "bachelor's apartments." The Journal of Women's Health surveyed physician mothers and their physician daughters to analyze the effect that discrimination and harassment have on the individual and their career. This study included 84% of physician mothers that graduated medical school prior to 1970, with the majority of these physicians graduating in the 1950s and 1960s. The authors of this study stated that discrimination in the medical field persisted after the title VII discrimination legislation was passed in 1965. This was the case until 1970, when the National Organization for Women (NOW) filed a class action lawsuit against all medical schools in


id: women-in-medicine-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-5.md
category: reference
title: Women in medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:57.865620+00:00
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Lovisa Årberg (1801–1881) was the first female doctor and surgeon in Sweden; whereas, Amalia Assur (1803–1889) was the first female dentist in Sweden and possibly Europe. Marie Durocher (1809–1893) was a Brazilian obstetrician, midwife and physician. She is considered the first female doctor in Brazil and the Americas. Ann Preston (1813–1872) was the first female to become the dean of a medical school [Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania (WMCP)] in 1866. Elizabeth Blackwell (1821–1910), who was England-born, was the first woman to graduate from medical school in the United States. She obtained her MD in 1849 from Geneva College, New York City. Rebecca Lee Crumpler, (1831–1895) became the first African American female physician in the United States in 1864 upon being awarded her M.D. by New England Female Medical College in Boston. Lucy Hobbs Taylor (1833–1910) was the first female dentist in the United States. Elizabeth Garrett Anderson (1836–1917) was a pioneering feminist in Britain who became the first female doctor in the United Kingdom in 1865 and a co-founder of London School of Medicine for Women. Madeleine Brès (1839–1925) was the first female medical doctor in France. Sophia Jex-Blake (1840–1912) was an English physician, feminist and teacher who was


id: women-in-medicine-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-6.md
category: reference
title: Women in medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:57.865620+00:00
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Maria Montessori (1870–1952), renowned educator and one of the first female medical doctors in Italy. Milica Šviglin Čavov (b. unknown, circa 1870s) was the first Croatian female doctor. She graduated from the Medical School in Zürich in 1893, but was not allowed to work in Croatia. Florence Sabin (1871–1953) was the first woman elected to the United States National Academy of Sciences. Yoshioka Yayoi (1871–1959), one of the first women to gain a medical degree in Japan; founded a medical school for women in 1900. Hannah Myrick (1871–1973) had helped to introduce the use of X-rays at the New England Hospital for Women and Children. Laura Esther Rodriguez Dulanto (1872–1919) was the first female doctor in Peru upon obtaining her medical degree. Marie Equi (1872–1952) was an American doctor and activist for women's access to birth control and abortion. Fannie Almara Quain (1874–1950) was the first woman born in North Dakota to earn a doctor of medicine degree. Karola Maier Milobar (born 1876) became the first female physician to practice in Croatia in 1906. Bertha De Vriese (1877–1958) was the first Belgian woman to obtain a medical degree from Ghent University. Selma Feldbach (1878–1924) was the first Estonian woman to


id: women-in-medicine-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-7.md
category: reference
title: Women in medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:57.865620+00:00
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Ernestina Paper (b. unknown, circa mid–1800s) was the first Italian woman to receive an advanced degree (in medicine) in 1877. Doctor Ethel Constance Cousins (1882–1944) and nurse Elizabeth Brodie were the first European women admitted to Bhutan in 1918 as part of a missionary effort to curtail a cholera outbreak. Muthulakshmi Reddi (1886–1968) was one of the early female medical doctors in India and a major social reformer. María Elisa Rivera Díaz (1887–1981) (1909), Ana Janer (1909), Palmira Gatell (1910), and Dolores Piñero (1892–1975) (1913) were the first women to earn a medical degree in Puerto Rico. María Elisa Rivera Díaz and Ana Janer graduated in the same medical school class in 1909 and thus could both be considered the first female Puerto Rican physicians. Anna Petronella van Heerden (1887–1975) was the first Afrikaner woman to qualify as a medical doctor in South Africa. Her thesis, which she obtained a doctorate on in 1923, was the first medical thesis written in Afrikaans. Matilde Hidalgo (1889–1974) was the first female doctor in Ecuador. Johanna Hellman (1889–1982) was a German physician who specialized in surgery, and the first woman to be a member of the German Society for Surgery. Sun Chau Lee


id: women-in-medicine-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-8.md
category: reference
title: Women in medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:57.865620+00:00
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Ana Aslan (1897–1988) was a Romanian biologist and physician, specialist in gerontology, academician from 1974 and the director of the National Institute of Geriatrics and Gerontology (1958–1988). Marguerite Champendal (1870–1928) was the first woman from Geneva to earn her M.D. at the University of Geneva in 1900. Emily Siedeberg (1873–1968) became the first female doctor in New Zealand in 1896. Ellen Dougherty (1844–1919) became New Zealand's first registered nurse in 1902 whereas Akenehi Hei (1878–1910) was the first Māori female to qualify as a nurse in 1908 in New Zealand. Yu Meide (1874–1960) became the first Chinese Western medicine female doctor in Macau when she started a medical practice in 1906. Oból Voansnac and Sofie Lyberth were the first Western-educated Greenlandic women to train as midwives in Greenland sometime in the early 20th century. Lilian Grandin (1876–1924) was the first female doctor in Jersey. In 1907, Eleanor Diaper became the first nurse to work as a district nurse in Jersey. Grace Pepe Malemo Haleck (1894–1987), Initia Taveuveu and Feiloa'iga Iosefa became the first qualified female nurses in American Samoa upon completing their training in 1916. Dorothy Pantin (1896–1985) was the first woman doctor and surgeon of the Isle of Man.


id: women-in-medicine-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-9.md
category: reference
title: Women in medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:57.865620+00:00
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Widad Kidanemariam (1935–1988) became the first female doctor in Ethiopia during the 1960s. Xhanfize (Frashëri) Basha returned to Albania to become the country's first female doctor upon completing her studies at the University of Philadelphia in 1937. Edna Adan Ismail (born 1937) became Somaliland's first nurse midwife during the 1950s upon completing her training at the then-named Borough Polytechnic in the United Kingdom. Hajah Habibah Haji Mohd Hussain (born 1937) was among the first women in Brunei to work as a nurse after finishing nursing school in 1955. Marguerite Issembe became the first midwife in Gabon in 1940. Ulai Otobed (born 1941) from Palau became the first female doctor in Micronesia. In 2020, Lara Reklai became the first Palauan female to complete her medical studies in Cuba. María Herminia Yelsi and Digna Maldonado de Candía became the first female professional nurses in Paraguay in 1941. Barbara Ross-Lee (born 1942) was the first African American female dean of a U.S. medical school (1993) (Ohio University College of Osteopathic Medicine). Kek Galabru (born 1942) became the first female doctor in Cambodia upon obtaining her medical degree in France in 1968. Choua Thao (born 1943), at the age of 14, was one of


id: women-in-medicine-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine-10.md
category: reference
title: Women in medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:57.865620+00:00
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== See also == == References == == Bibliography == Abram, Ruth Abram., Send Us a Lady Physician: Women Doctors in America, 1835–1920 Benton, John F. (1985). "Trotula, Women's Problems, and the Professionalization of Medicine in the Middle Ages". Bulletin of the History of Medicine. 59 (1): 30–53. JSTOR 44452036. PMID 3886049. ProQuest 1296295309. Blake, Catriona. The Charge of the Parasols: Women's Entry to the Medical Profession Borst, Charlotte G. Catching Babies: Professionalization of Childbirth, 1870–1920 (1995), Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press Elisabeth Brooke, Women Healers: Portraits of Herbalists, Physicians, and Midwives (biographical encyclopedia) Chenevert, Melodie. STAT: Special Techniques in Assertiveness Training for Women in the Health Profession Barbara Ehrenreich and Deirdre English, Witches, Midwives, and Nurses: A History of Women Healers Deirdre English and Barbara Ehrenreich, For Her Own Good (gendering of history of midwifery and professionalization of medicine) Fette, Julie (2007). "Pride and Prejudice in the Professions: Women Doctors and Lawyers in Third Republic France". Journal of Women's History. 19 (3): 60–86. doi:10.1353/jowh.2007.0055. S2CID 144728859. Project MUSE 221409. Grant, Susan-Mary (June 2012). "On the Field of Mercy: Women Medical Volunteers from the Civil War to the First World War". American Nineteenth Century History. 13 (2): 276–278. doi:10.1080/14664658.2012.720092. S2CID


id: index-of-women-scientists-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_women_scientists_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of women scientists articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_women_scientists_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:43:59.105585+00:00
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== A == == B == == C == == D == == E == == F == == G == == H == == I == == J == == K == == L == == M == == N == == O == == P == == R == == S == == T == == U == == V == == W == == X == == Y == == Z == == Trans man scientists who were scientists before transitioning == == Transmasculine non-binary scientists who were scientists before transitioning == == Transfeminine non-binary scientists == == See also == List of female Fellows of the Royal Society List of female mathematicians List of female scientists before the 21st century List of women geologists Women in chemistry Women in computing Women in geology Women in science Women in STEM fields == References == Herzenberg, Caroline L. 1986. Women Scientists from Antiquity to the Present: An Index. Locust Hill Press. ISBN 0-933951-01-9 Howard S. The Hidden Giants, ch. 2, (Lulu.com; 2006) (accessed 22 August 2007) Howes, Ruth H. and Caroline L. Herzenberg. 1999. Their Day in the Sun: Women of the Manhattan Project. Temple University Press. ISBN


id: women-in-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:00.446957+00:00
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The presence of women in science spans the earliest times of the history of science wherein they have made substantial contributions. Historians with an interest in gender and science have researched the scientific endeavors and accomplishments of women, the barriers they have faced, and the strategies implemented to have their work peer-reviewed and accepted in major scientific journals and other publications. The historical, critical, and sociological study of these issues has become an academic discipline in its own right. The involvement of women in medicine occurred in several early Western civilizations, and the study of natural philosophy in ancient Greece was open to women. Women contributed to the proto-science of alchemy in the first or second centuries CE. During the Middle Ages, religious convents were an important place of education for women, and some of these communities provided opportunities for women to contribute to scholarly research. The 11th century saw the emergence of the first universities; women were, for the most part, excluded from university education. Outside academia, botany was the science that benefitted most from women’s contributions in early modern times. The attitude toward educating women in medical fields appears to have been more liberal in Italy than elsewhere.


id: women-in-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:00.446957+00:00
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=== Ancient history === The involvement of women in the field of medicine has been recorded in several early civilizations. An ancient Egyptian physician, Peseshet (c. 2600–2500 B.C.E.), described in an inscription as "lady overseer of the female physicians", is the earliest known female physician named in the history of science. Agamede was cited by Homer as a healer in ancient Greece before the Trojan War (c. 1194–1184 BCE). The study of natural philosophy in ancient Greece was open to women. Recorded examples include Aglaonike, who predicted eclipses; and Theano, mathematician and physician, who was a pupil (possibly also wife) of Pythagoras, and one of the school in Crotone founded by Pythagoras, which included many other women. A passage in Pollux speaks about those who invented the process of coining money, mentioning Pheidon and Demodike from Cyme, wife of the Phrygian king, Midas, and daughter of King Agamemnon of Cyme. A daughter of a certain Agamemnon, king of Aeolian Cyme, married a Phrygian king called Midas. This link may have facilitated the Greeks "borrowing" their alphabet from the Phrygians because the Phrygian letter shapes are closest to the inscriptions from Aeolis. During the period of the Babylonian civilization, around 1200


id: women-in-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
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Margaret Cavendish, a seventeenth-century aristocrat, took part in some of the most important scientific debates of that time. She was, however, not inducted into the English Royal Society, although she was once allowed to attend a meeting. She wrote a number of works on scientific matters, including Observations upon Experimental Philosophy (1666) and Grounds of Natural Philosophy. In these works she was especially critical of the growing belief that humans, through science, were the masters of nature. The observations provided a critique of the experimental science of Bacon and criticized microscopes as imperfect machines. Isabella Cortese, an Italian alchemist, is best known for her book I secreti della signora Isabella Cortese or The Secrets of Isabella Cortese. Cortese was able to manipulate nature in order to create several medicinal, alchemy and cosmetic "secrets" or experiments. Isabella's book of secrets belongs to a larger book of secrets that became extremely popular among the elite during the 16th century. Despite the low percentage of literate women during Cortese's era, the majority of alchemical and cosmetic "secrets" in the book of secrets were geared towards women. This included but was not limited to pregnancy, fertility, and childbirth. Sophia Brahe, sister of Tycho Brahe,


id: women-in-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:00.446957+00:00
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Although women excelled in many scientific areas during the eighteenth century, they were discouraged from learning about plant reproduction. Carl Linnaeus' system of plant classification based on sexual characteristics drew attention to botanical licentiousness, and people feared that women would learn immoral lessons from nature's example. Women were often depicted as both innately emotional and incapable of objective reasoning, or as natural mothers reproducing a natural, moral society. The eighteenth century was characterized by three divergent views towards women: that women were mentally and socially inferior to men, that they were equal but different, and that women were potentially equal in both mental ability and contribution to society. While individuals such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau believed women's roles were confined to motherhood and service to their male partners, the Enlightenment was a period in which women experienced expanded roles in the sciences. The rise of salon culture in Europe brought philosophers and their conversation to an intimate setting where men and women met to discuss contemporary political, social, and scientific topics. While Jean-Jacques Rousseau attacked women-dominated salons as producing 'effeminate men' that stifled serious discourse, salons were characterized in this era by the mixing of the sexes. Lady Mary Wortley Montagu


id: women-in-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-4.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
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In 1741–42 Charlotta Frölich became the first woman to be published by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences with three books in agricultural science. In 1748 Eva Ekeblad became the first woman inducted into that academy. In 1746 Ekeblad had written to the academy about her discoveries of how to make flour and alcohol out of potatoes. Potatoes had been introduced into Sweden in 1658 but had been cultivated only in the greenhouses of the aristocracy. Ekeblad's work turned potatoes into a staple food in Sweden, and increased the supply of wheat, rye and barley available for making bread, since potatoes could be used instead to make alcohol. This greatly improved the country's eating habits and reduced the frequency of famines. Ekeblad also discovered a method of bleaching cotton textile and yarn with soap in 1751, and of replacing the dangerous ingredients in cosmetics of the time by using potato flour in 1752. Émilie du Châtelet, a close friend of Voltaire, was the first scientist to appreciate the significance of kinetic energy, as opposed to momentum. She repeated and described the importance of an experiment originally devised by Willem 's Gravesande showing the impact of falling objects is proportional not


id: women-in-science-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-5.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:00.446957+00:00
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Science remained a largely amateur profession during the early part of the nineteenth century. Botany was considered a popular and fashionable activity, and one particularly suitable to women. In the later eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, it was one of the most accessible areas of science for women in both England and North America. However, as the nineteenth century progressed, botany and other sciences became increasingly professionalized, and women were increasingly excluded. Women's contributions were limited by their exclusion from most formal scientific education, but began to be recognized through their occasional admittance into learned societies during this period. Scottish scientist Mary Fairfax Somerville carried out experiments in magnetism, presenting a paper entitled 'The Magnetic Properties of the Violet Rays of the Solar Spectrum' to the Royal Society in 1826, the second woman to do so. She also wrote several mathematical, astronomical, physical and geographical texts, and was a strong advocate for women's education. In 1835, she and Caroline Herschel were the first two women elected as Honorary Members of the Royal Astronomical Society. English mathematician Ada, Lady Lovelace, a pupil of Somerville, corresponded with Charles Babbage about applications for his analytical engine. In her notes (1842–43) appended to her


id: women-in-science-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-6.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:00.446957+00:00
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parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
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Among the successful scientists were Nadezhda Suslova (1843–1918), the first woman in the world to obtain a medical doctorate fully equivalent to men's degrees; Maria Bokova-Sechenova (1839–1929), a pioneer of women's medical education who received two doctoral degrees, one in medicine in Zürich and one in physiology in Vienna; Julia Lermontova (1846–1919), the first woman in the world to receive a doctoral degree in chemistry; the marine biologist Sofia Pereiaslavtseva (1849–1903), director of the Sevastopol Biological Station and winner of the Kessler Prize of the Russian Society of Natural Scientists; and the mathematician Sofia Kovalevskaia (1850–1891), the first woman in 19th century Europe to receive a doctorate in mathematics and the first to become a university professor in any field. ==== Late nineteenth century in the United States ==== In the later nineteenth century the rise of the women's college provided jobs for women scientists, and opportunities for education. Women's colleges produced a disproportionate number of women who went on for PhDs in science. Many coeducational colleges and universities also opened or started to admit women during this period; such institutions included just over 3000 women in 1875, by 1900 numbered almost 20,000. An example is Elizabeth Blackwell, who became


id: women-in-science-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-7.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:00.446957+00:00
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parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
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In 1892, Ellen Swallow Richards called for the "christening of a new science" – "oekology" (ecology) in a Boston lecture. This new science included the study of "consumer nutrition" and environmental education. This interdisciplinary branch of science was later specialized into what is currently known as ecology, while the consumer nutrition focus split off and was eventually relabeled as home economics, which provided another avenue for women to study science. Richards helped to form the American Home Economics Association, which published a journal, the Journal of Home Economics, and hosted conferences. Home economics departments were formed at many colleges, especially at land grant institutions. In her work at MIT, Ellen Richards also introduced the first biology course in its history as well as the focus area of sanitary engineering. Women also found opportunities in botany and embryology. In psychology, women earned doctorates but were encouraged to specialize in educational and child psychology and to take jobs in clinical settings, such as hospitals and social welfare agencies. In 1901, Annie Jump Cannon first noticed that it was a star's temperature that was the principal distinguishing feature among different spectra. This led to re-ordering of the ABC types by temperature instead of


id: women-in-science-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-8.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:00.446957+00:00
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parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
Wu would later also confirm Albert Einstein's EPR Paradox in the first experimental corroboration, and prove the first violation of Parity and Charge Conjugate Symmetry, thereby laying the conceptual basis for the future Standard Model of Particle Physics, and the rapid development of the new field. Women in other disciplines looked for ways to apply their expertise to the war effort. Three nutritionists, Lydia J. Roberts, Hazel K. Stiebeling, and Helen S. Mitchell, developed the Recommended Dietary Allowance in 1941 to help military and civilian groups make plans for group feeding situations. The RDAs proved necessary, especially, once foods began to be rationed. Rachel Carson worked for the United States Bureau of Fisheries, writing brochures to encourage Americans to consume a wider variety of fish and seafood. She also contributed to research to assist the Navy in developing techniques and equipment for submarine detection. Women in psychology formed the National Council of Women Psychologists, which organized projects related to the war effort. The NCWP elected Florence Laura Goodenough president. In the social sciences, several women contributed to the Japanese Evacuation and Resettlement Study, based at the University of California. This study was led by sociologist Dorothy Swaine Thomas, who directed


id: women-in-science-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-9.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:00.446957+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== Europe after World War II ==== South-African born physicist and radiobiologist Tikvah Alper(1909–95), working in the UK, developed many fundamental insights into biological mechanisms, including the (negative) discovery that the infective agent in scrapie could not be a virus or other eukaryotic structure. French virologist Françoise Barré-Sinoussi performed some of the fundamental work in the identification of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) as the cause of AIDS, for which she shared the 2008 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. In July 1967, Jocelyn Bell Burnell discovered evidence for the first known radio pulsar, which resulted in the 1974 Nobel Prize in Physics for her supervisor. She was president of the Institute of Physics from October 2008 until October 2010. Astrophysicist Margaret Burbidge was a member of the B2FH group responsible for originating the theory of stellar nucleosynthesis, which explains how elements are formed in stars. She has held a number of prestigious posts, including the directorship of the Royal Greenwich Observatory. Mary Cartwright was a mathematician and student of G. H. Hardy. Her work on nonlinear differential equations was influential in the field of dynamical systems. Rosalind Franklin was a crystallographer, whose work helped to elucidate the fine structures


id: women-in-science-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-10.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:00.446957+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
Immediately after the end of World War II, the country saw a "retrenchment of positions for women" as male veterans returned and began filling open job positions. While men benefited from the opportunities of the G.I. Bill, some women had success with programs such as Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service (WAVES), a women's branch of the US Navy Reserve. The Society of Women Engineers held their first meeting in 1950. Although NASA was established in 1958, women were only admitted to the astronaut program in 1983, 25 years later. Kay McNulty, Betty Jennings, Betty Snyder, Marlyn Wescoff, Fran Bilas and Ruth Lichterman were six of the original programmers for the ENIAC, the first general purpose electronic computer. Linda B. Buck is a neurobiologist who was awarded the 2004 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine along with Richard Axel for their work on olfactory receptors. Rachel Carson was a marine biologist from the United States. She is credited with being the founder of the environmental movement. The biologist and activist published Silent Spring, a work on the dangers of pesticides, in 1962. The publishing of her environmental science book led to the questioning of usage of harmful pesticides and other


id: women-in-science-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-11.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:00.446957+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== Australia after World War II ==== Amanda Barnard, an Australia-based theoretical physicist specializing in nanomaterials, winner of the Malcolm McIntosh Prize for Physical Scientist of the Year. Isobel Bennett, was one of the first women to go to Macquarie Island with the Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions (ANARE). She is one of Australia's best known marine biologists. Dorothy Hill, an Australian geologist who became the first female professor at an Australian university. Ruby Payne-Scott, was an Australian who was an early leader in the fields of radio astronomy and radiophysics. She was one of the first radio astronomers and the first woman in the field. Penny Sackett, an astronomer who became the first female chief scientist of Australia in 2008. She is a US-born Australian citizen. Fiona Stanley, winner of the 2003 Australian of the Year award, is an epidemiologist noted for her research into child and maternal health, birth disorders, and her work in the public health field. Michelle Simmons, winner of the 2018 Australian of the Year award, is a quantum physicist known for her research and leadership on atomic-scale silicon quantum devices. ==== Israel after World War II ==== Ada Yonath, the first woman from the


id: women-in-science-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-12.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:00.446957+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Situation in the 1990s === Women appear to do less well than men (in terms of degree, rank, and salary) in the fields that have been traditionally dominated by women, such as nursing. In 1991 women attributed 91% of the PhDs in nursing, and men held 4% of full professorships in nursing. In the field of psychology, where women earn the majority of PhDs, women do not fill the majority of high rank positions in that field. Women's lower salaries in the scientific community are also reflected in statistics. According to the data provided in 1993, the median salaries of female scientists and engineers with doctoral degrees were 20% less than men. This data can be explained as there was less participation of women in high rank scientific fields/positions and a female majority in low-paid fields/positions. However, even with men and women in the same scientific community field, women are typically paid 15–17% less than men. In addition to the gender gap, there were also salary differences between ethnicity: African-American women with more years of experiences earn 3.4% less than European-American women with similar skills, while Asian women engineers out-earn both Africans and Europeans. Women are also under-represented in


id: women-in-science-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-13.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:00.446957+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== In decision-making ==== As of 2015, each step up the ladder of the scientific research system saw a drop in female participation until, at the highest echelons of scientific research and decision-making, there were very few women left. In 2015, the EU Commissioner for Research, Science and Innovation Carlos Moedas called attention to this phenomenon, adding that the majority of entrepreneurs in science and engineering tended to be men. In 2013, the German government coalition agreement introduced a 30% quota for women on company boards of directors. In 2010, women made up 14% of university chancellors and vice-chancellors at Brazilian public universities and 17% of those in South Africa in 2011. As of 2015, in Argentina, women made up 16% of directors and vice-directors of national research centres and, in Mexico, 10% of directors of scientific research institutes at the National Autonomous University of Mexico. In the US, numbers are slightly higher at 23%. In the EU, less than 16% of tertiary institutions were headed by a woman in 2010 and just 10% of universities. In 2011, at the main tertiary institution for the English-speaking Caribbean, the University of the West Indies, women represented 51% of lecturers but only


id: women-in-science-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-14.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:00.446957+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== In engineering and related fields ==== Women are consistently underrepresented in engineering and related fields. In Israel, for instance, where 28% of senior academic staff are women, there are proportionately many fewer in engineering (14%), physical sciences (11%), mathematics and computer sciences (10%) but dominate education (52%) and paramedical occupations (63%). In Japan and the Republic of Korea, women represent just 5% and 10% of engineers. For women who are pursuing STEM major careers, these individuals often face gender disparities in the work field, especially in regards to science and engineering. It has become more common for women to pursue undergraduate degrees in science, but are continuously discredited in salary rates and higher ranking positions. For example, men show a greater likelihood of being selected for an employment position than a woman. In Europe and North America, the number of female graduates in engineering, physics, mathematics and computer science is generally low. Women make up just 19% of engineers in Canada, Germany and the US and 22% in Finland, for example. However, 50% of engineering graduates are women in Cyprus, 38% in Denmark and 36% in the Russian Federation, for instance. In many cases, engineering has lost ground to


id: women-in-science-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-15.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:00.446957+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
During the early 1960s, the first American astronauts, nicknamed the Mercury Seven, were training. At the same time, William Randolph Lovelace II was interested to see if women could manage to go through the same training that the Mercury 7 undergoing at the time. Lovelace recruited thirteen female pilots, called the "Mercury 13", and put them through the same tests that the male astronauts took. As a result, the women actually performed better on these tests than the men of the Mercury 7 did. However, this did not convince NASA officials to allow women in space. In response, congressional hearings were held to investigate discrimination against women in the program. One of the women who testified at the hearing was Jerrie Cobb, the first woman to pass Lovelace's tests. During her testimony, Cobb said:I find it a little ridiculous when I read in a newspaper that there is a place called Chimp College in New Mexico where they are training chimpanzees for space flight, one a female named Glenda. I think it would be at least as important to let the women undergo this training for space flight.NASA officials also had representatives present, notably astronauts John Glenn and Scott Carpenter,


id: women-in-science-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-16.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:00.446957+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== Latin America and the Caribbean ==== Latin America has some of the world's highest rates of women studying scientific fields; it also shares with the Caribbean one of the highest proportions of female researchers: 44%. Of the 12 countries reporting data for the years 2010–2013, seven have achieved gender parity, or even dominate research: Bolivia (63%), Venezuela (56%), Argentina (53%), Paraguay (52%), Uruguay (49%), Brazil (48%) and Guatemala (45%). Costa Rica is on the cusp (43%). Chile has the lowest score among countries for which there are recent data (31%). The Caribbean paints a similar picture, with Cuba having achieved gender parity (47%) and Trinidad and Tobago on 44%. Recent data on women's participation in industrial research are available for those countries with the most developed national innovation systems, with the exception of Brazil and Cuba: Uruguay (47%), Argentina (29%), Colombia and Chile (26%). As in most other regions, the great majority of health graduates are women (60–85%). Women are also strongly represented in science. More than 40% of science graduates are women in each of Argentina, Colombia, Ecuador, El Salvador, Mexico, Panama and Uruguay. The Caribbean paints a similar picture, with women graduates in science being on a


id: women-in-science-20260505-17
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-17.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:00.446957+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== European Union ==== Women make up 33% of researchers overall in the European Union (EU), slightly more than their representation in science (32%). Women constitute 40% of researchers in higher education, 40% in government and 19% in the private sector, with the number of female researchers increasing faster than that of male researchers. The proportion of female researchers has been increasing over the last decade, at a faster rate than men (5.1% annually over 2002–2009 compared with 3.3% for men), which is also true for their participation among scientists and engineers (up 5.4% annually between 2002 and 2010, compared with 3.1% for men). Despite these gains, women's academic careers in Europe remain characterized by strong vertical and horizontal segregation. In 2010, although female students (55%) and graduates (59%) outnumbered male students, men outnumbered women at the PhD and graduate levels (albeit by a small margin). Further along in the research career, women represented 44% of grade C academic staff, 37% of grade B academic staff and 20% of grade A academic staff.11 These trends are intensified in science, with women making up 31% of the student population at the tertiary level to 38% of PhD students and 35% of


id: women-in-science-20260505-18
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-18.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:00.446957+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== Southeast Asia ==== Southeast Asia presents a different picture entirely, with women basically on a par with men in some countries: they make up 52% of researchers in the Philippines and Thailand, for example. Other countries are close to parity, such as Malaysia and Vietnam, whereas Indonesia and Singapore are still around the 30% mark. Cambodia trails its neighbours at 20%. Female researchers in the region are spread fairly equally across the sectors of participation, with the exception of the private sector, where they make up 30% or less of researchers in most countries. The proportion of women tertiary graduates reflects these trends, with high percentages of women in science in Brunei Darussalam, Malaysia, Myanmar and the Philippines (around 60%) and a low of 10% in Cambodia. Women make up the majority of graduates in health sciences, from 60% in Laos to 81% in Myanmar – Vietnam being an exception at 42%. Women graduates are on a par with men in agriculture but less present in engineering: Vietnam (31%), the Philippines (30%) and Malaysia (39%); here, the exception is Myanmar, at 65%. In the Republic of Korea, women make up about 40% of graduates in science and agriculture and


id: women-in-science-20260505-19
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-19.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:00.446957+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== Sub-Saharan Africa ==== Just under one in three (30%) researchers in sub-Saharan Africa is a woman. Much of sub-Saharan Africa is seeing solid gains in the share of women among tertiary graduates in scientific fields. In two of the top four countries for women's representation in science, women graduates are part of very small cohorts, however: they make up 54% of Lesotho's 47 tertiary graduates in science and 60% of those in Namibia's graduating class of 149. South Africa and Zimbabwe, which have larger graduate populations in science, have achieved parity, with 49% and 47% respectively. The next grouping clusters seven countries poised at around 35–40% (Angola, Burundi, Eritrea, Liberia, Madagascar, Mozambique and Rwanda). The rest are grouped around 30% or below (Benin, Ethiopia, Ghana, Swaziland and Uganda). Burkina Faso ranks lowest, with women making up 18% of its science graduates. Female representation in engineering is fairly high in sub-Saharan Africa in comparison with other regions. In Mozambique and South Africa, for instance, women make up more than 34% and 28% of engineering graduates, respectively. Numbers of female graduates in agricultural science have been increasing steadily across the continent, with eight countries reporting the share of women graduates of


id: women-in-science-20260505-20
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-20.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:00.446957+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Underrepresentation of homosexual and bi women, and gender nonconformists in STEM === While there has been a push to encourage more women to participate in science, there is less outreach to lesbian, bi, or gender nonconforming women, and gender nonconforming people more broadly. Due to the lack of data and statistics of LGBTQ members involvement in the STEM field, it is unknown to what exact degree lesbian and bisexual women, gender non-conformers (transgender, nonbinary/agender, or anti-gender gender abolitionists who eschew the system altogether) are potentially even more repressed and underrepresented than their straight peers. But a general lack of out lesbian and bi women in STEM has been noted. Reasons for under-representation of same-sex attracted women and anyone gender nonconforming in STEM fields include lack of role models in K–12, the desire of some transgender girls and women to adopt traditional heteronormative gender roles as gender is a cultural performance and socially-determined subjective internal experience, employment discrimination, and the possibility of sexual harassment in the workplace. Historically, women who have accepted STEM research positions for the government or the military remained in the closet due to lack of federal protections or the fact that homosexual or gender nonconforming expression


id: women-in-science-20260505-21
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-21.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:00.446957+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Societal disadvantages === Despite women's tendency to perform better than men academically, there are flaws involving stereotyping, lack of information, and family influence that have been found to affect women's involvement in science. Stereotyping has an effect, because people associate characteristics such as nurturing, kind, and warm or characteristics like strong and powerful with a particular gender. These character associations lead people to stereotype that certain jobs are more suitable to a particular gender. Lack of information is something that many institutions have worked hard over the years to improve by making programs such as the IFAC project (Information for a choice: empowering women through learning for scientific and technological career paths) which investigated low women participation in science and technology fields at high school to university level. However, not all efforts were as successful, "Science: it's a girl thing" campaign, which has since been removed, received backlash for further encouraging women that they must partake in "girly" or "feminine" activities. The idea being that if women are fully informed of their career choices and employability, they will be more inclined to pursue STEM field jobs. Women also struggle in the sense of lacking role models of women in


id: women-in-science-20260505-22
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-22.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:00.446957+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Efforts to increase participation === A number of organizations have been set up to combat the stereotyping that may encourage girls away from careers in these areas. In the UK The WISE Campaign (Women into Science, Engineering and Construction) and the UKRC (The UK Resource Centre for Women in SET) are collaborating to ensure industry, academia and education are all aware of the importance of challenging the traditional approaches to careers advice and recruitment that mean some of the best brains in the country are lost to science. The UKRC and other women's networks provide female role models, resources and support for activities that promote science to girls and women. The Women's Engineering Society, a professional association in the UK, has been supporting women in engineering and science since 1919. In computing, the British Computer Society group BCSWomen is active in encouraging girls to consider computing careers, and in supporting women in the computing workforce. In the United States, the Association for Women in Science is one of the most prominent organization for professional women in science. In 2011, the Scientista Foundation was created to empower pre-professional college and graduate women in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM), to


id: women-in-science-20260505-23
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-23.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:00.446957+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Notable controversies and developments === A study conducted at Lund University in 2010 and 2011 analysed the genders of invited contributors to News & Views in Nature and Perspectives in Science. It found that 3.8% of the Earth and environmental science contributions to News & Views were written by women even while the field was estimated to be 16–20% female in the United States. Nature responded by suggesting that, worldwide, a significantly lower number of Earth scientists were women, but nevertheless committed to address any disparity. In 2012, a journal article published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) reported a gender bias among science faculty. Faculty were asked to review a resume from a hypothetical student and report how likely they would be to hire or mentor that student, as well as what they would offer as starting salary. Two resumes were distributed randomly to the faculty, only differing in the names at the top of the resume (John or Jennifer). The male student was rated as significantly more competent, more likely to be hired, and more likely to be mentored. The median starting salary offered to the male student was greater than $3,000 over the


id: women-in-science-20260505-24
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-24.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:00.446957+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== Problematic public statements ==== In January 2005, Harvard University President Lawrence Summers sparked controversy at a National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) Conference on Diversifying the Science & Engineering Workforce. Dr. Summers offered his explanation for the shortage of women in senior posts in science and engineering. He made comments suggesting the lower numbers of women in high-level science positions may in part be due to innate differences in abilities or preferences between men and women. Making references to the field and behavioral genetics, he noted the generally greater variability among men (compared to women) on tests of cognitive abilities, leading to proportionally more men than women at both the lower and upper tails of the test score distributions. In his discussion of this, Summers said that "even small differences in the standard deviation [between genders] will translate into very large differences in the available pool substantially out [from the mean]". Summers concluded his discussion by saying:So my best guess, to provoke you, of what's behind all of this is that the largest phenomenon, by far, is the general clash between people's legitimate family desires and employers' current desire for high power and high intensity, that in the special


id: center-for-the-history-of-women-philosophers-and-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_for_the_History_of_Women_Philosophers_and_Scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: Center for the History of Women Philosophers and Scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_for_the_History_of_Women_Philosophers_and_Scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:01.786243+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: center-for-the-history-of-women-philosophers-and-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
The Center for the History of Women Philosophers and Scientists (HWPS) is an interdisciplinary research center at the University of Paderborn, focused on the work of historical women philosophers and scientists. The Center is responsible for the publication of the Journal of the History of Women Philosophers and Scientists. The Center also awards the annual Elizabeth of Bohemia prize, Europe's first prize honoring women philosophers. The Center received a major grant from the Alexander von Humboldt foundation for the study of women philosophers in Ukraine, and also maintains a research network and talk series for researchers working on the history of women philosophers and scientists. == Encyclopedia of Concise Concepts by Women Philosophers == The Encyclopedia of Concise Concepts by Women Philosophers (ECC) is an online encyclopedia that exclusively contains entries on concepts from the work of female philosophers. The ECC is an open access database developed by the Center for the History of Women Philosophers and Scientists that went online on June 15, 2018. Each entry is written by an internationally recognized researcher and peer-reviewed before publication. It will contain a brief explanation of a philosophical concept both either developed or significantly advanced by a woman philosopher as well


id: european-platform-of-women-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Platform_of_Women_Scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: European Platform of Women Scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Platform_of_Women_Scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:02.993582+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: european-platform-of-women-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
The European Platform of Women Scientists EPWS is an umbrella organisation bringing together networks of women scientists and organisations committed to gender equality in research in all disciplines in Europe 27 and the countries associated to the European Union's Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development. The Platform welcomes researchers working in any discipline and working in science in its widest sense, ranging from natural to social sciences, including, but not restricted to, science, engineering and technology. EPWS currently counts more than 100 member organisations, together working for more than 12.000 women researchers all over Europe active in academia and in industrial research. == Purpose == Legally established as an international non-profit organisation under Belgian law (AISBL) in November 2005 and governed by an international, multidisciplinary Board of Administration of 11 high ranking women scientists, EPWS constitutes a new strategic instrument in European research policy, complementing various initiatives taken at the European level to ensure a better participation of women scientists in research and in the research policy process as well as the inclusion of the gender dimension in research. == Goals == The platform's main goals are to: Network existing networks of women scientists and networks engaged in promoting


id: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:04.313192+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
This is a timeline of women in science, spanning from ancient history up to the 21st century. While the timeline primarily focuses on women involved with natural sciences such as astronomy, biology, chemistry, and physics, it also includes women from the social sciences (e.g. sociology, psychology), and the formal sciences (e.g. mathematics, computer science), as well as notable science educators and medical scientists. The chronological events listed in the timeline relate to both scientific achievements and gender equality within the sciences. == Ancient history == 1900 BCE: Aganice, also known as Athyrta, was an Egyptian princess during the Middle Kingdom (about 2000–1700 BCE) working on astronomy and natural philosophy. c. 1505–1458 BCE: Hatshepsut, also known as the Queen Doctor, promoted a botanical expedition searching for officinal plants. 1200 BCE: The Mesopotamian perfume-maker Tapputi-Belatekallim was referenced in the text of a cuneiform tablet. She is often considered the world's first recorded chemist. 500 BCE: Theano was a Pythagorean philosopher. c. 150 BCE: Aglaonice became the first female astronomer to be recorded in Ancient Greece. == Early post-classical history == 1st century BCE: A woman known only as Fang became the earliest recorded Chinese female alchemist. She is credited with "the discovery


id: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:04.313192+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
1561: Italian alchemist Isabella Cortese published her popular book The Secrets of Lady Isabella Cortese. The work included recipes for medicines, distilled oils and cosmetics, and was the only book published by a female alchemist in the 16th century. 1572: Italian botanist Loredana Marcello died from the plague – but not before developing several effective palliative formulas for plague sufferers, which were used by many physicians. 1572: Danish scientist Sophia Brahe (1556–1643) assisted her brother Tycho Brahe with his astronomical observations. 1590: After her husband's death, Caterina Vitale took over his position as chief pharmacist to the Order of St John, becoming the first female chemist and pharmacist in Malta. == 17th century == 1609: French midwife Louise Bourgeois Boursier became the first woman to write a book on childbirth practices. 1636: Anna Maria van Schurman is the first woman ever to attend university lectures. She had to sit behind a screen so that her male fellow students would not see her. 1642: Martine Bertereau, the first recorded female mineralogist, was imprisoned in France on suspicion of witchcraft. Bertereau had published two written works on the science of mining and metallurgy before being arrested. 1650: Silesian astronomer Maria Cunitz published


id: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science
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1702: Pioneering English entomologist Eleanor Glanville captured a butterfly specimen in Lincolnshire, which was subsequently named the Glanville fritillary in her honour. Her extensive butterfly collection impressed fellow entomologist William Vernon, who called Glanville's work "the noblest collection of butterflies, all English, which has sham'd us". Her butterfly specimens became part of early collections in the Natural History Museum. 1702: German astronomer Maria Kirch became the first woman to discover a comet. c. 1702–1744: In Montreal, Canada, French botanist Catherine Jérémie collected plant specimens and studied their properties, sending the specimens and her detailed notes back to scientists in France. 1732: At the age of 20, Italian physicist Laura Bassi became the first female member of the Bologna Academy of Sciences. One month later, she publicly defended her academic theses and received a PhD. Bassi was awarded an honorary position as professor of physics at the University of Bologna. She was the first female physics professor in the world. 1738: French polymath Émilie du Châtelet became the first woman to have a paper published by the Paris Academy, following a contest on the nature of fire. 1740: French polymath Émilie du Châtelet published Institutions de Physique (Foundations of Physics) providing


id: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science
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1808: Anna Sundström began assisting Jacob Berzelius in his laboratory, becoming one of the first Swedish women chemists. 1809: Sabina Baldoncelli earned her university degree in pharmacy but was allowed to work only in the Italian orphanage where she resided. 1815: English archaeologist Lady Hester Stanhope used a medieval Italian manuscript to locate a promising archaeological site in Ashkelon, becoming the first archaeologist to begin an excavation in the Palestinian region. It was one of the earliest examples of the use of textual sources in field archaeology. 1816: French mathematician and physicist Sophie Germain became the first woman to win a prize from the Paris Academy of Sciences for her work on elasticity theory. 1823: English palaeontologist and fossil collector Mary Anning discovered the first complete Plesiosaurus. 1831: Italian botanist Elisabetta Fiorini Mazzanti published her best-known work Specimen Bryologiae Romanae. 1830–1837: Belgian botanist Marie-Anne Libert published her four-volume Plantae cryptogamicae des Ardennes, a collection of 400 species of mosses, ferns, lichen, algae and fungi from the Ardennes region. Her contributions to systemic cryptogamic studies were formally recognized by Prussian king Friedrich Wilhelm III, and Libert received a gold medal of merit. 1832: French marine biologist Jeanne Villepreux-Power invented the first


id: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-4.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science
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1854: Mary Horner Lyell was a conchologist and geologist. She is most well known for her scientific work in 1854, where she studied her collection of land snails from the Canary Islands. She was married to the notable British geologist Charles Lyell and assisted him in his scientific work. It is believed by historians that she likely made major contributions to her husband's work. 1854–1855: Florence Nightingale organized care for wounded soldiers during the Crimean War. She was an English social reformer and statistician, and the founder of modern nursing. Her pie charts clearly showed that most deaths resulted from disease rather than battle wounds or "other causes," which led the general public to demand improved sanitation at field hospitals. 1855: Working with her father, Welsh astronomer and photographer Thereza Dillwyn Llewelyn produced some of the earliest photographs of the moon. 1856: American atmospheric scientist Eunice Newton Foote presented her paper "Circumstances affecting the heat of the sun's rays" at an annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences. She was an early researcher of the greenhouse effect. 1862: Belgian botanist Marie-Anne Libert became the first woman to join the Royal Botanical Society of Belgium. She was


id: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-5.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science
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=== 1890s === 1890: Austrian-born chemist Ida Freund became the first woman to work as a university chemistry lecturer in the United Kingdom. She was promoted to full lecturer at Newnham College, Cambridge. 1890: Popular science educator and author Agnes Giberne co-founded the British Astronomical Association. Subsequently, English astronomer Elizabeth Brown was appointed the director of the association's Solar Section, well known for her studies in sunspots and other solar phenomena. 1890: Mathematician Philippa Fawcett became the first woman to obtain the highest score in the Cambridge Mathematical Tripos examinations, a score "above the Senior Wrangler". (At the time, women were ineligible to be named Senior Wrangler.) 1891: American-born astronomer Dorothea Klumpke was appointed as Head of the Bureau of Measurements at the Paris Observatory. For the next decade, in addition to completing her doctorate of science, she worked on the Carte du Ciel mapping project. She was recognized for her work with the first Prix de Dames award from the Société astronomique de France and named an Officier of the Paris Academy of Sciences. 1892: American psychologist Christine Ladd-Franklin presented her evolutionary theory on the development of colour vision to the International Congress of Psychology. Her theory was the


id: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-6.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:04.313192+00:00
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1900: American botanist Anna Murray Vail became the first librarian of the New York Botanical Garden. A key supporter of the institution's establishment, she had earlier donated her entire collection of 3000 botanical specimens to the garden. 1900: Physicists Marie Skłodowska–Curie and Isabelle Stone attended the first International Congress of Physics in Paris, France. They were the only two women out of 836 participants. 1901: American Florence Bascom became the first female geologist to present a paper before the Geological Survey of Washington. 1901: Czech botanist and zoologist Marie Zdeňka Baborová-Čiháková became the first woman in the Czech Republic to receive a PhD. 1901: American astronomer Annie Jump Cannon published her first catalog of stellar spectra, which classified stars by temperature. This method was universally and permanently adopted by other astronomers. 1903: Grace Coleridge Frankland née Toynbee was an English microbiologist. Her most notable work was Bacteria in Daily Life. She was one of the nineteen female scientists who wrote the 1904 petition to the Chemical Society to request that they should create some female fellows of the society. 1903: Polish-born physicist and chemist Marie Skłodowska–Curie became the first woman to receive a Nobel Prize when she received the Nobel


id: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-7.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:04.313192+00:00
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1911: Polish-born physicist and chemist Marie Curie became the first woman to receive the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, which she received "[for] the discovery of the elements radium and polonium, by the isolation of radium and the study of the nature and compounds of this remarkable element". This made her the first person to win the Nobel Prize twice. As of 2022, she is the only woman to win it twice and the only person to win the Nobel Prize in two scientific fields. 1911: Norwegian biologist Kristine Bonnevie became the first woman member of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters. 1912: American astronomer Henrietta Swan Leavitt studied the bright-dim cycle periods of Cepheid stars, then found a way to calculate the distance from such stars to Earth. 1912: Canadian botanist and geneticist Carrie Derick was appointed a professor of morphological botany at McGill University. She was the first woman to become a full professor in any department at a Canadian university. 1913: Regina Fleszarowa became the first Polish woman to receive a PhD in natural sciences. 1913: Izabela Textorisová, the first Slovakian female botanist, published "Flora Data from the County of Turiec" in the journal Botanikai Közlemények. Her


id: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-8.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science
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1920: Louisa Bolus was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of South Africa for her contributions to botany. Over the course of her lifetime, Bolus identified and named more than 1,700 new South African plant species - more species than any other botanist in South Africa. 1921: Edelmira Inés Mórtola (1894–1973), the first woman to become a geologist in Argentina was awarded her PhD at the University of Buenos Aires, the first woman to received her doctorate there. The university named the Mórtola Mineralogy Museum in her honor. 1923: María Teresa Ferrari, an Argentine physician, earned the first diploma awarded to a woman by the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Paris for her studies of the urinary tract. 1924: Florence Bascom became the first woman elected to the Council of the Geological Society of America. 1925: Mexican-American botanist Ynes Mexia embarked on her first botanical expedition into Mexico, collecting over 1500 plant specimens. Over the course of the next thirteen years, Mexia collected more than 145,000 specimens from Mexico, Alaska, and multiple South American countries. She discovered 500 new species. 1925: American medical scientist Florence Sabin became the first woman elected to the National Academy of Sciences.


id: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-9.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science
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1940: Turkish Archaeologist, Sumerologist, Assyriologist, and writer Muazzez İlmiye Çığ. Upon receiving her degree in 1940, she began a multi-decade career at Museum of the Ancient Orient, one of three such institutions comprising Istanbul Archaeology Museums, as a resident specialist in the field of cuneiform tablets, thousands of which were being stored untranslated and unclassified in the facility's archives. In the intervening years, due to her efforts in the deciphering and publication of the tablets, the museum became a Middle Eastern languages learning center attended by ancient history researchers from every part of the world. 1941: American scientist Ruth Smith Lloyd became the first African-American woman to receive a PhD in anatomy. 1942: Austrian-American actress and inventor Hedy Lamarr and composer George Antheil developed a radio guidance system for Allied torpedoes that used spread spectrum and frequency hopping technology to defeat the threat of jamming by the Axis powers. Although the US Navy did not adopt the technology until the 1960s, the principles of their work are incorporated into Bluetooth technology and are similar to methods used in legacy versions of CDMA and Wi-Fi. This work led to their induction into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2014. 1942:


id: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-10.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science
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1950s: Chinese-American medical scientist Tsai-Fan Yu co-founded a clinic at Mount Sinai Medical Center for the study and treatment of gout. Working with Alexander B. Gutman, Yu established that levels of uric acid were a factor in the pain experienced by gout patients, and subsequently developed multiple effective drugs for the treatment of gout. 1950: Chinese-American particle physicist Chien-Shiung Wu proved the validity of Quantum entanglement which counters Albert Einstein's EPR Paradox and published her work on the new year of the new decade. She also proved the validity of beta decay around this time. 1950: Ghanaian, Matilda J. Clerk became the first woman in Ghana and West Africa to attend graduate school, earning a postgraduate diploma at the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine. 1950: Isabella Abbott became the first Native Hawaiian woman to receive a PhD in any science; hers was in botany. 1950: American microbiologist Esther Lederberg became the first to isolate lambda bacteriophage, a DNA virus, from Escherichia coli K-12. 1951: Ghana's Esther Afua Ocloo became the first person of African ancestry to obtain a cooking diploma from the Good Housekeeping Institute in London and to take the post-graduate Food Preservation Course at Long Ashton


id: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-11.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science
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1960: British primatologist Jane Goodall began studying chimpanzees in Tanzania; her study of them continued for over 50 years. Her observations challenged previous ideas that only humans made tools and that chimpanzees had a basically vegetarian diet. Early 1960s: German-Canadian metallurgist Ursula Franklin studied levels of radioactive isotope strontium-90 that were appearing in the teeth of children as a side effect of nuclear weapons testing fallout. Her research influenced the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty of 1963. 1960s: American mathematician Katherine Johnson calculated flight paths at NASA for crewed space flights. 1961: Indian chemist Asima Chatterjee became the first female recipient of a Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize. She was recognized in the Chemical Sciences category for her contributions to phytomedicine. 1962: Rachel Louise Carson was an American marine biologist, author, and conservationist whose book Silent Spring and other writings are credited with advancing the global environmental movement. 1962: South African botanist Margaret Levyns became the first female president of the Royal Society of South Africa. 1962: French physicist Marguerite Perey became the first female Fellow elected to the Académie des Sciences. 1963: Elsa G. Vilmundardóttir became the first female Icelandic geologist, completing her studies at Stockholm University. 1963: Maria Goeppert


id: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-12.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science
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1980: Japanese geochemist Katsuko Saruhashi became the first woman elected to the Science Council of Japan. 1980: Nigerian geophysicist Deborah Ajakaiye became the first woman in any West African country to be appointed a full professor of physics. Over the course of her scientific career, she became the first female Fellow elected to the Nigerian Academy of Science, and the first female dean of science in Nigeria. 1981: Vera Rubin was the second female astronomer elected to the National Academy of Science. Beginning her academic career as the sole undergraduate in astronomy at Vassar College, Rubin went on to graduate studies at Cornell University and Georgetown University, where she observed deviations from Hubble flow in galaxies and provided evidence for the existence of galactic superclusters. 1982: Nephrologist Leah Lowenstein became the first female dean of a co-educational medical school in the United States. 1982: Janet Vida Watson FRS FGS (1923–1985) was a British geologist. She was a professor of geology at Imperial College, London. A fellow of the Royal Society, she is well known for her contribution to the understanding of the Lewisian complex and as an author and co-author of several books. In 1982 she was elected president of


id: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-13.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science
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=== 2000s === 2000: Venezuelan astrophysicist Kathy Vivas presented her discovery of approximately 100 "new and very distant" RR Lyrae stars, providing insight into the structure and history of the Milky Way galaxy. 2003: American geophysicist Claudia Alexander oversaw the final stages of Project Galileo, a space exploration mission that ended at the planet Jupiter. 2004: American biologist Linda B. Buck received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine along with Richard Axel "for their discoveries of odorant receptors and the organization of the olfactory system". 2006: Chilean biochemist Cecilia Hidalgo Tapia became the first woman to receive the Chilean National Prize for Natural Sciences. 2006: Chinese-American biochemist Yizhi Jane Tao led a team of researchers to become the first to map the atomic structure of Influenza A, contributing to antiviral research. 2006: Parasitologist Susan Lim became the first Malaysian scientist elected to the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. 2006: Merieme Chadid became the first Moroccan person and the first female astronomer to travel to Antarctica, leading an international team of scientists in the installation of a major observatory in the South Pole. 2006: American computer scientist Frances E. Allen won the Turing Award for "pioneering contributions to the theory


id: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-14.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:04.313192+00:00
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=== 2010s === 2010: Marcia McNutt became the first female director of the United States Geological Survey. 2011: Kazakhstani neuroscience student and computer hacker Alexandra Elbakyan launched Sci-Hub, a website that provides users with pirated copies of scholarly scientific papers. Within five years, Sci-Hub grew to contain 60 million papers and recorded over 42 million annual downloads by users. Elbakyan was finally sued by major academic publishing company Elsevier, and Sci-Hub was subsequently taken down, but it reappeared under different domain names. 2011: Taiwanese-American astrophysicist Chung-Pei Ma led a team of scientists in discovering two of the largest black holes ever observed. 2012: Computer scientist and cryptographer Shafi Goldwasser won the Turing award for her contributions to cryptography and complexity theory. 2013: Canadian genetic specialist Turi King identified the 500-year-old skeletal remains of King Richard III. 2013: Kenyan ichthyologist Dorothy Wanja Nyingi published the first guide to freshwater fish species of Kenya. 2013: Canadian teenagers Miranda Wang and Jeanny Yao jointly identify a bacteria in British Columbia's Fraser River that breaks down phthalates. 2014: Norwegian psychologist and neuroscientist May-Britt Moser received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, shared with Edvard Moser and John O'Keefe, "for their discoveries of cells


id: timeline-of-women-in-science-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science-15.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science
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=== 2020s === 2020: The Nigerian Academy of Science elected epidemiologist/parasitologist Ekanem Braide as its first female president. 2020: Brazilian Scientist and Researcher Jaqueline Goes de Jesus, sequenced COVID-19 genome in 12 hours. 2020: Biochemists Jennifer Doudna (American) and Emmanuelle Charpentier (French) received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their work on CRISPR genome editing tool. 2020: Andrea M. Ghez received the Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery of a supermassive compact object. 2020: German-Turkish scientist Özlem Türeci is the co-founder and chief medical officer of BioNTech. Her team developed BNT162b2 (tozinameran (INN)), commonly known as the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine. 2020: British vaccinologist Sarah Gilbert leads the development and testing of a vaccine which becomes the Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine. 2021: Catherine Heymans was appointed as the first female Astronomer Royal for Scotland. 2022: American chemist Carolyn R. Bertozzi received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for her development of Bioorthogonal chemistry. 2023: Australian geomicrobiologist Jillian Banfield became the first female recipient of the van Leeuwenhoek Medal, which she received for her studies of complex microbial communities and their interaction with the environment. 2025: South African-born physicist and space scientist Michele Dougherty is appointed Astronomer Royal for the United Kingdom, becoming


id: wise-campaign-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WISE_Campaign-0.md
category: reference
title: WISE Campaign
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WISE_Campaign
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:05.621983+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wise-campaign-20260505-0
summary:
The WISE Campaign (Women into Science and Engineering) is a United Kingdom-based organization that encourages women and girls to value and pursue science, technology, engineering and maths-related courses in school or college and to move on into related careers and progress. Its mission statement aims to facilitate understanding of these disciplines among women and girls and the opportunities which they present at a professional level. It is operated by UKRC trading as WISE (company number 07533934). == Formation == The campaign began on 17 January 1984, headed by The Baroness Platt of Writtle, a qualified mechanical engineer, at which time women made up 7% of graduate engineers and 3% of professional engineers in the UK. It was a collaboration between the Engineering Council and the Equal Opportunities Commission, originally viewed as a one-year campaign "Women into Science and Engineering" WISE'84. == Activities == One of WISE's main objectives is to listen to students and women qualified or working in these sectors, and understand and voice their opinions to academic institutions, policy-makers and employers. It then works creatively with delivery agencies and others, offering models, tools and approaches to support them in challenging traditional approaches, so as to demonstrate equitable involvement.


id: women-in-antarctica-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_Antarctica-0.md
category: reference
title: Women in Antarctica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_Antarctica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:06.936838+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-antarctica-20260505-0
summary:
Women have been exploring the regions around Antarctica for many centuries. The most celebrated "first" for women in Antarctica was in 1935 when Caroline Mikkelsen became the first woman to set foot on one of Antarctica's islands. Early male explorers, such as Richard Byrd, named areas of Antarctica after wives and female heads of state. As Antarctica moved from a place of exploration and conquest to a scientific frontier, women worked to be included in the sciences. The first countries to have female scientists working in Antarctica were the Soviet Union, South Africa and Argentina. Besides exploring and working as scientists, women have also played supportive roles as wives, fund-raisers, publicists, historians, curators and administrators of organizations and services that support Antarctic operations. Many early women on Antarctica were the wives of explorers. Some women worked with Antarctica from afar, crafting policies for a place they had never seen. Women who wished to have larger roles in Antarctica and on the continent itself had to "overcome gendered assumptions about the ice and surmount bureaucratic inertia". As women began to break into fields in Antarctica, they found that it could be difficult to compete against men who already had the "expeditioner


id: women-in-antarctica-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_Antarctica-1.md
category: reference
title: Women in Antarctica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_Antarctica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:06.936838+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-antarctica-20260505-0
summary:
== Early women involved in Antarctica == Oral records from Oceania indicate that women explorers may have traveled to the Antarctic regions like male explorers Ui-te-Rangiora around 650 CE and Te Ara-tanga-nuku in 1000 CE, but this is unconfirmed. The first western woman to visit the Antarctic region was Louise Séguin, who sailed on the Roland with Yves Joseph de Kerguelen in 1773. The oldest known human remains in Antarctica was a skull that belonged to a young Indigenous Chilean woman on Yamana Beach at the South Shetland Islands, which dates back to 1819 to 1825. Her remains were found by the Chilean Antarctic Institute in 1985. In the early twentieth century, women were interested in going to Antarctica. When Ernest Shackleton advertised his 1914 Antarctic expedition, three women wrote to him, requesting to join. The women never became part of the journey. In 1919, newspapers reported that women wanted to go to Antarctica, writing that "several women were anxious to join, but their applications were refused." Later, in 1929, twenty-five women applied to the British, Australian and New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition (BANZARE). They were also rejected. When a privately funded British Antarctic Expedition was proposed in 1937, 1,300


id: women-in-antarctica-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_Antarctica-2.md
category: reference
title: Women in Antarctica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_Antarctica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:06.936838+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-antarctica-20260505-0
summary:
Women scientists first began researching Antarctica from ships. The first woman scientist, Maria V. Klenova of the Soviet Union, worked on the ships Ob and Lena just off the Antarctic coastline in 1955 to 1956. Klenova's work helped create the first Antarctic atlas. Women served on Soviet Union ships going to Antarctica after 1963. The first women to visit a US station and the first to fly to Antarctica were Pat Hepinstall and Ruth Kelley, Pan Am flight attendants who spent four hours on the ground at the McMurdo Station on 15 October 1957. Often women going to Antarctica had to be approved in both official and unofficial ways. An early candidate for becoming one of the first women scientists to go to Antarctica was geologist Dawn Rodley. She had been approved of not only by the expedition sponsor, Colin Bull, but also by the wives of the male team-members. Rodley was set to go in 1958, but the United States Navy, who were in charge of Operation Deep Freeze, refused to take her to Antarctica. The Navy decided that sending a four-woman team would be acceptable and Bull began to build a team including Lois Jones, Kay Lindsay, Eileen


id: women-in-antarctica-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_Antarctica-3.md
category: reference
title: Women in Antarctica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_Antarctica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:06.936838+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-antarctica-20260505-0
summary:
The National Science Foundation (NSF) started long-range planning in 1978, looking towards facilities that could accommodate a population made up of 25% women. In the 1979–1980 season, there were only 43 women on the continent. By 1981, there were nearly one woman for every ten men in Antarctica. In 1983, the ratio was back to 20 men for every woman. In the 1980s, Susan Solomon's research in Antarctica on the ozone layer and the "ozone hole" causes her to gain "fame and acclaim." In Spain, Josefina Castellví, helped coordinate and also participated in her country's expedition to Antarctica in 1984. Later, after a Spanish base was constructed in 1988, Castellví was put in charge after the leader, Antoni Ballester, had a stroke. The first female station leader on Antarctica was Australian, Diana Patterson, head of Mawson Station in 1989. The first woman station leader in charge of an American Antarctic station was LT Trina Baldwin, CEC, USN (Civil Engineer Corps, United States Navy). The first all-female overwintering group was from Germany and spent the 1990–1991 winter at Georg von Neumayer. The first German female station leader and medical doctor was Monika Puskeppeleit. In 1991 In-Young Ahn was the first female


id: women-in-antarctica-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_Antarctica-4.md
category: reference
title: Women in Antarctica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_Antarctica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:06.936838+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-antarctica-20260505-0
summary:
== Sexual harassment and sexism == When heavy equipment operator, Julia Uberuaga, first went to Antarctica in the late 70s and early 80s, she recalled that "the men stared at her, or leered at her, or otherwise let her know she was unwelcome on the job." Rita Matthews, who went to Antarctica during the same period, said that the "men were all over the place. There were some that would never stop going after you." In 1983, Marilyn Woody described living at McMurdo station and said, "It makes your head spin, all this attention from all these men." Then she said, "You realize you can put a bag over your head and they'll still fall in love with you." Another scientist, Cynthia McFee, had been completely shut out of the "male camaraderie" at her location and had to deal with loneliness for long periods of time. Martha Kane, the second woman to overwinter at the South Pole, experienced "negative pressure" from men with "some viewing her as an interloper who had insinuated herself into a male domain." In the 1990s, some women experienced stigma in Antarctica. These women were labeled "whores" for interacting with men and those who did not


id: absent-minded-professor-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absent-minded_professor-0.md
category: reference
title: Absent-minded professor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absent-minded_professor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:08.614456+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: absent-minded-professor-20260505-0
summary:
The absent-minded professor is a stock character of popular fiction, usually portrayed as a talented scholar whose academic brilliance is accompanied by below-par functioning in other areas, leading to forgetfulness and mistakes. One explanation of this is that highly-talented individuals often have unevenly distributed capabilities, being brilliant in their field of choice but below average on other measures of ability. Alternatively, they are considered to be so engrossed in their field of study that they forget their surroundings. The phrase is also commonly used in English to describe people who are so engrossed in their own world that they fail to keep track of their surroundings. It is a common stereotype that professors get so obsessed with their research that they pay little attention to anything else. The archetype is sometimes mixed with that of the mad scientist, often for comic effect, as in the Jerry Lewis film The Nutty Professor or the Professor Bacterio in the Mortadelo y Filemón comics and movies. However, a distinction is usually made that absent-minded professors are forgetful and careless rather than maliciously causing harm. == Examples of real scholars == The archetype is very old: the ancient Greek biographer Diogenes Laërtius wrote that


id: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory-0.md
category: reference
title: The Big Bang Theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:09.996559+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-0
summary:
The Big Bang Theory is an American television sitcom created by Chuck Lorre and Bill Prady for CBS. It aired from September 24, 2007, to May 16, 2019, running for 12 seasons and 279 episodes. The show originally centered on five characters living in Pasadena, California: Leonard Hofstadter (Johnny Galecki) and Sheldon Cooper (Jim Parsons), both physicists at the California Institute of Technology, who share an apartment; Penny (Kaley Cuoco), a waitress and aspiring actress who lives across the hall; and Leonard and Sheldon's similarly geeky and socially awkward friends and coworkers, aerospace engineer Howard Wolowitz (Simon Helberg) and astrophysicist Raj Koothrappali (Kunal Nayyar). Over time, supporting characters were promoted to starring roles, including neuroscientist Amy Farrah Fowler (Mayim Bialik), microbiologist Bernadette Rostenkowski (Melissa Rauch), and comic book store owner Stuart Bloom (Kevin Sussman). The series was filmed in front of a live audience and produced by Chuck Lorre Productions, with Warner Bros. Television handling distribution. While the first season received mixed reviews, critical reception improved in subsequent seasons. Seven seasons ranked within the top ten of the final-season ratings, and the series reached the No. 1 spot in its eleventh season. It was nominated for the Emmy Award for


id: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory-1.md
category: reference
title: The Big Bang Theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:09.996559+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Johnny Galecki as Leonard Hofstadter: An experimental physicist with an IQ of 173, who received his Ph.D. when he was 24 years old. Leonard is a nerd who loves video games, comic books, and Dungeons & Dragons. Leonard is the straight man of the series, sharing an apartment in Pasadena, CA, with Sheldon Cooper. Leonard is smitten with his new neighbor, Penny, when they first meet, and they eventually marry. Jim Parsons as Sheldon Cooper: Originally from Galveston, Texas, Sheldon was a child prodigy with an eidetic memory who began college at the age of eleven and earned a Ph.D. at age sixteen. He is a theoretical physicist researching quantum mechanics and string theory, and, despite his IQ of 187, he finds many routine aspects of social situations difficult to grasp. He is determined to have his own way, continually boasts of his intelligence, and has an extremely ritualized way of living. Despite these quirks, he begins a relationship with Amy Farrah Fowler, and they eventually marry. Kaley Cuoco as Penny: An aspiring actress from Omaha, Nebraska. Penny moves in across the hall from Sheldon and Leonard. She waits tables and occasionally tends the bar at The Cheesecake Factory. After


id: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory-2.md
category: reference
title: The Big Bang Theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:09.996559+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-0
summary:
The show's pilot episode premiered on September 24, 2007. This was the second pilot produced for the show. A different pilot was produced for the 2006‍–‍07 television season but never aired. The structure of the original unaired pilot was different from the series' eventual form. The only main characters retained in both pilots were Leonard (Johnny Galecki) and Sheldon (Jim Parsons), who are named after Sheldon Leonard, a longtime figure in episodic television as a producer, director, and actor. A minor character, Althea (Vernee Watson), appeared in the first scene of both pilots that was retained generally as-is. The first pilot included two female lead characters - Katie, "a street-hardened, tough-as-nails woman with a vulnerable interior" (played by Canadian actress Amanda Walsh), and Gilda, a scientist colleague and friend of the male characters (played by Iris Bahr). Sheldon and Leonard meet Katie after she breaks up with a boyfriend, and they invite her to share their apartment. Gilda is threatened by Katie's presence. Test audiences reacted negatively to Katie, but they liked Sheldon and Leonard. The original pilot used Thomas Dolby's hit "She Blinded Me with Science" as its theme song. Although the original pilot was not picked up, its


id: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory-3.md
category: reference
title: The Big Bang Theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:09.996559+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-0
summary:
The Canadian alternative rock band Barenaked Ladies wrote and recorded the show's theme song, which describes the history and formation of the universe and the Earth. Co-lead singer Ed Robertson was asked by Lorre and Prady to write a theme song for the show after the producers attended one of the band's concerts in Los Angeles. Coincidentally, Robertson had recently read Simon Singh's 2004 book Big Bang, and at the concert he improvised a freestyle rap about the origins of the universe. Lorre and Prady phoned him shortly thereafter and asked him to write the theme song. Having been asked to write songs for other films and shows, but ending up being rejected because producers favored songs by other artists, Robertson agreed to write the theme only after learning that Lorre and Prady had not asked anyone else. In October 2007, a full-length (1 minute and 45 seconds) version of the song was released commercially. Although some unofficial pages identify the song title as "History of Everything," the cover art for the single identifies the title as "Big Bang Theory Theme." A music video also was released via special features on The Complete Fourth Season DVD and Blu-ray set. The


id: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory-4.md
category: reference
title: The Big Bang Theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:09.996559+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-0
summary:
The four main male characters are all avid fans of nerd culture. Among their shared interests are science fiction, fantasy, comic books, and collecting memorabilia. Star Trek in particular is referred to frequently, and Sheldon identifies strongly with the character of Spock, so much so that when he is given a used napkin signed by Leonard Nimoy as a Christmas gift from Penny, he is overwhelmed with excitement and gratitude ("I possess the DNA of Leonard Nimoy?!"). Star Trek: The Original Series cast members William Shatner and George Takei have made guest appearances, and Leonard Nimoy made a guest appearance as the voice of Sheldon's vintage Mr. Spock action figure. Star Trek: The Next Generation cast members Brent Spiner and LeVar Burton have had guest appearances as themselves, while Wil Wheaton has a recurring role as a fictionalized version of himself. Leonard and Sheldon have had conversations in Klingon. They are also fans of Star Wars, Battlestar Galactica, and Doctor Who. James Earl Jones, Carrie Fisher and Mark Hamill made guest appearances. In the episode "The Ornithophobia Diffusion", when there is a delay in watching Star Wars on Blu-ray, Howard complains, "If we don't start soon, George Lucas is going


id: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory-5.md
category: reference
title: The Big Bang Theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:09.996559+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Leonard and Penny's relationship === One of the recurring plot lines is the relationship between Leonard and Penny. Leonard becomes attracted to Penny in the pilot episode, and his need to do favors for her is a frequent point of humor in the first season. Meanwhile, Penny dates a series of muscular, stereotypically "attractive," unintelligent, and insensitive jocks. Their first long-term relationship begins when Leonard returns from a three-month expedition to the North Pole in the season 3 premiere. However, when Leonard tells Penny that he loves her, she realizes she cannot say it back, and they break up. Both Leonard and Penny go on to date other people, most notably with Leonard dating Raj's sister Priya for much of season 4. This relationship is jeopardized when Leonard mistakenly comes to believe that Raj has slept with Penny, and it ultimately ends when Priya sleeps with a former boyfriend in "The Good Guy Fluctuation". Penny, who admits to missing Leonard in "The Roommate Transmogrification", accepts his request to renew their relationship in "The Beta Test Initiation". After Penny suggests having sex in "The Launch Acceleration", Leonard breaks the mood by proposing to her. Penny says "no" but does not


id: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory-6.md
category: reference
title: The Big Bang Theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:09.996559+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Sheldon and Amy's relationship === In the third-season finale, Raj and Howard sign Sheldon up for online dating to find a woman compatible with Sheldon, and they discover neurobiologist Amy Farrah Fowler. Like Sheldon, she has a history of social ineptitude and participates in online dating only to fulfill an agreement with her mother. This spawns a story line in which Sheldon and Amy communicate daily while insisting to Leonard and Penny that they are not romantically involved. In "The Agreement Dissection", Sheldon and Amy talk in her apartment after a night of dancing, and she kisses him on the lips. Instead of getting annoyed, Sheldon says "fascinating" and later asks Amy to be his girlfriend in "The Flaming Spittoon Acquisition". The same night he draws up "The Relationship Agreement" to verify the ground rules of him as her boyfriend and vice versa (similar to his "Roommate Agreement" with Leonard). Amy agrees but later regrets not having had a lawyer read through it. In "The Launch Acceleration", Amy tries to use her "neurobiology bag of tricks" to increase the attraction between herself and Sheldon. Her efforts appear to be working because Sheldon is not happy, but he makes no


id: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory-7.md
category: reference
title: The Big Bang Theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:09.996559+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Apartment building elevator === In the apartment building where Sheldon, Leonard, and Penny (and later Amy) live, the elevator has been out of order throughout most of the series, forcing characters to have to use the stairs. Stairway conversations between the characters as they walk up the three flights to their apartments occur in almost every episode, often serving as a transition between longer scenes. The Season 3 episode, "The Staircase Implementation" reveals that the elevator was broken when Leonard was experimenting with rocket fuel. In the penultimate episode of the series, the elevator is returned to an operational state, causing Sheldon some angst, until he realizes that the fixed elevator reverted things to the "status quo". === Vanity cards === Like most shows created by Chuck Lorre, The Big Bang Theory ends by showing for one second a vanity card written by Lorre after the credits, followed by the Warner Bros. Television closing logo. These cards are archived on Lorre's website. The series' final vanity card reads simply "The End". == Release == === Broadcast === The Big Bang Theory premiered in the United States on September 24, 2007, on CBS. The series debuted in Canada on CTV


id: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory-8.md
category: reference
title: The Big Bang Theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:09.996559+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== American ratings === The Big Bang Theory started off slowly in the ratings, failing to make the top 50 in its first season (ranking 68th), and ranking 40th in its second season. When the third season premiered on September 21, 2009, however, The Big Bang Theory ranked as CBS's highest-rated show of that evening in the adults 18–49 demographic (4.6/10) along with a then-series-high 12.83 million viewers. After the first three seasons aired at different times on Monday nights, CBS moved the show to Thursdays at 8:00 ET for the 2010‍–‍2011 schedule, to be in direct competition with NBC's Comedy Block and Fox's American Idol (then the longest reigning leading primetime show on American television from 2004 to 2011). During its fourth season, it became television's highest rated comedy, just barely beating out Two and a Half Men (which held the position for the past 8 years). However, in the age 18–49 demographic (the show's target age range), it was the second highest-rated comedy, behind ABC's Modern Family. The fifth season opened with viewing figures of over 14 million. The sixth season boasts some of the highest-rated episodes for the show so far, with a then-new series high set


id: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory-9.md
category: reference
title: The Big Bang Theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:09.996559+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Canadian ratings === The Big Bang Theory initially had moderate success in Canada, but gained wider popularity in later seasons. The series is broadcast on the CTV Television Network, often through simultaneous substitution with cross-border CBS affiliates. It also aired in daily reruns on the Canadian cable channel The Comedy Network. The season 4 premiere garnered an estimated 3.1 million viewers across Canada. This was the largest audience for a sitcom since the series finale of Friends. The show later increased in viewership and became the most-watched entertainment television show in Canada. === Accolades === In August 2009, the sitcom won the best comedy series TCA award and Jim Parsons (Sheldon) won the award for individual achievement in comedy. In 2010, the show won the People's Choice Award for Favorite Comedy, while Parsons won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series. On January 16, 2011, Parsons was awarded a Golden Globe for Best Performance by an Actor in a Television Series – Comedy or Musical, an award that was presented by co-star Kaley Cuoco. On September 18, 2011, Parsons was again awarded an Emmy for Best Actor in a Comedy Series. On January 9,


id: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory-10.md
category: reference
title: The Big Bang Theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Bang_Theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:09.996559+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-big-bang-theory-20260505-0
summary:
In January 2024, it was announced that there will be a spin-off series of Young Sheldon focused on Georgie Cooper and Mandy McAllister The series premiered on CBS on October 17, 2024. ==== Stuart Fails to Save the Universe ==== On April 12, 2023, it was announced that a spin-off of the original series was in development. On October 10, 2024, it was announced that the third spin-off would feature Stuart Bloom, Denise, and Bert Kibbler, with Kevin Sussman, Lauren Lapkus, and Brian Posehn reprising their roles. On March 19, 2025, it was announced that the title of the show would be Stuart Fails to Save the Universe. In the premise of the series, Stuart is "tasked with restoring reality after he breaks a device built by Sheldon and Leonard, accidentally bringing about a multiverse Armageddon." John Ross Bowie will reprise his role as Barry Kripke. Filming for the show began in September 2025 and was completed by February 2026. === Television special === On May 16, 2019, a television special titled Unraveling the Mystery: A Big Bang Farewell aired following the series finale of The Big Bang Theory. It is a backstage retrospective featuring Johnny Galecki and Kaley Cuoco.


id: british-scientists-meme-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_scientists_(meme)-0.md
category: reference
title: British scientists (meme)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_scientists_(meme)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:11.268437+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: british-scientists-meme-20260505-0
summary:
In modern Russian culture, "British scientists" (Russian: Британские учёные, Britanskiye uchyonyye) is a running joke used as an ironic reference to absurd news reports about scientific discoveries: "British scientists managed to establish that..." It has also become a Russian internet meme. A similar joke, "British research" (Chinese: 英国研究 yīngguó yánjiū), exists in Chinese-speaking countries. == Description == The crowdsourced Russian internet subculture encyclopedia Lurkmore defined the term as "a synonym for researchers working on pseudoscientific projects that are bonkers, idiotic and have absolutely no practical value". James Harkin wrote: "When they hear the phrase 'British scientists', Russians don't tend to think of Newton, Darwin or Faraday; nor do they think of Stephen Hawking or Peter Higgs. Instead, they are much more likely to think of psychologist Richard Stephens of Keele University, who determined that swearing can help reduce pain, or Olli Loukola of Queen Mary University of London, who has taught bumblebees how to play football". Typical news about "Британские учёные" [Britanskiye uchyonyye, "British scientists"] report that they: found out that people start lying as early as at 6 years old debunked the myth that mice love cheese invented non-stick bubble gum designed an ideal sandwich developed a universal vaccine


id: the-dreamers-novella-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dreamers_(novella)-0.md
category: reference
title: The Dreamers (novella)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dreamers_(novella)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:12.572907+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-dreamers-novella-20260505-0
summary:
The Dreamers is a novella by Stephen King, first published in King's 2024 collection You Like It Darker. == Plot summary == In June 1971, Vietnam War veteran William Davis is discharged from the military; his wartime experiences have left him "empty", with his "emotions scrubbed". After staying with his mother in Skowhegan, Maine, Davis relocates to Portland, Maine and finds work as a stenographer for Temp-O. The following year, Davis responds to a job advertisement posted by Elgin, a self-described gentleman scientist in Castle Rock, Maine. Elgin hires Davis as an assistant for his experiments, which aim to "go under" the "wall of sleep". Elgin and Davis begin their experiments, which entail administering the hypnotic drug Flurazepam to a human test subject who is instructed to study a picture of a red house with a green door in a forest. The subject is then instructed to dream of the house, and then to enter the house and attempt to lift up the living room floor and see what is beneath. Elgin and Davis watch the subject through a one-way mirror, with Davis transcribing the subject's remarks. Davis witnesses the teeth of the first subject, Althea Gibson, grow larger. After


id: frankenstein-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankenstein-0.md
category: reference
title: Frankenstein
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankenstein
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:15.915246+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: frankenstein-20260505-0
summary:
Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus is an 1818 Gothic novel written by English author Mary Shelley. Frankenstein tells the story of Victor Frankenstein, a young scientist who creates a sapient creature from different body parts in an unorthodox scientific experiment. Shelley started writing the story when she was 18 and staying in Bath, and the first edition was published anonymously in London on 1 January 1818, when she was 20. Her name first appeared in the second edition, which was published in Paris in 1821. Shelley travelled through Europe in 1815, moving along the river Rhine in Germany, and stopping in Gernsheim, 17 kilometres (11 mi) away from Frankenstein Castle, where, about a century earlier, Johann Konrad Dippel, an alchemist, had engaged in experiments. She then journeyed to the region of Geneva, Switzerland, where much of the story takes place. Galvanism and occult ideas were topics of conversation for her companions, particularly for her lover and future husband, Percy Bysshe Shelley. In 1816—at the suggestion of Lord Byron—Mary, Percy, John Polidori and Byron himself, each agreed to try writing a ghost story. After thinking for days, Shelley was inspired to write Frankenstein after imagining a scientist who created life and


id: frankenstein-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankenstein-1.md
category: reference
title: Frankenstein
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankenstein
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:15.915246+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: frankenstein-20260505-0
summary:
Mary Shelley's mother, Mary Wollstonecraft, died from infection eleven days after giving birth to her. Shelley grew close to her father, William Godwin. Godwin hired a nurse, who briefly cared for her and her half-sister, before marrying his second wife, Mary Jane Clairmont, who did not like the close bond between Shelley and her father. The resulting friction caused Godwin to favour his other children. Shelley's father was a famous author of the time, and her education was of great importance to him, although it was not formal. Shelley grew up surrounded by her father's friends, writers, and persons of political importance, who often gathered at the family home. This inspired her authorship at an early age. Mary, at the age of sixteen, met Percy Bysshe Shelley (who later became her husband) while he was visiting her father. Godwin disapproved of the relationship between his daughter and an older, married man, so they fled to France along with her stepsister, Claire Clairmont. On 22 February 1815, Shelley gave birth prematurely to her first child, Clara, who died two weeks later. In the summer of 1816, Mary, Percy, and Claire took a trip to visit Claire's lover, Lord Byron, in Geneva.


id: frankenstein-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankenstein-2.md
category: reference
title: Frankenstein
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankenstein
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:15.915246+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: frankenstein-20260505-0
summary:
During the rainy summer of 1816, the "Year Without a Summer", the world was locked in a long, cold volcanic winter caused by the eruption of Mount Tambora in 1815. Mary Shelley, aged 18, and her lover (and future husband), Percy Bysshe Shelley, visited Lord Byron at the Villa Diodati by Lake Geneva, in the Swiss Alps. The weather was too cold and dreary that summer to enjoy the outdoor holiday activities they had planned, so the group retired indoors until dawn. Sitting around a log fire at Byron's villa, the company amused themselves by reading German ghost stories translated into French from the book Fantasmagoriana. Byron proposed that they "each write a ghost story." Unable to think of a story, Mary Shelley became anxious. She recalled being asked "Have you thought of a story?" each morning, and every time being "forced to reply with a mortifying negative." During one evening in the middle of summer, the discussions turned to the nature of the principle of life. "Perhaps a corpse would be re-animated," Mary noted, "galvanism had given token of such things". It was after midnight before they retired and, unable to sleep, she became possessed by her imagination as


id: frankenstein-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankenstein-3.md
category: reference
title: Frankenstein
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankenstein
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:15.915246+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: frankenstein-20260505-0
summary:
In the novel, the creature is compared to Adam, the first man in the Garden of Eden. The monster also compares himself with the fallen angel. Speaking to Frankenstein, the monster says "I ought to be thy Adam, but I am rather the fallen angel". That angel would be Lucifer (meaning "light-bringer") in Milton's Paradise Lost, which the monster has read. Adam is also referred to in the epigraph of the 1818 edition: Did I request thee, Maker, from my clay To mould Me man? Did I solicit thee From darkness to promote me? Some have posited the creature as a composite of Percy Shelley and Thomas Paine. If the creature's hatred for Victor and his desire to raise a child mirror Percy's filial rebelliousness and his longing to adopt children, his desire to do good and his persecution can be said to echo Paine's utopian visions and fate in England. The Creature has often been mistakenly called Frankenstein. In 1908, one author said "It is strange to note how well-nigh universally the term 'Frankenstein' is misused, even by intelligent people, as describing some hideous monster." Edith Wharton's The Reef (1916) describes an unruly child as an "infant Frankenstein". David


id: frankenstein-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankenstein-4.md
category: reference
title: Frankenstein
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankenstein
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:15.915246+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: frankenstein-20260505-0
summary:
== Publication == Shelley completed her writing in April/May 1817, and Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus was published on 1 January 1818 by the small London publishing house Lackington, Hughes, Harding, Mavor, & Jones. It was issued anonymously, with a preface written for Mary by Percy Bysshe Shelley and with a dedication to philosopher William Godwin, her father. It was published in an edition of just 500 copies in three volumes, the standard "triple-decker" format for 19th-century first editions. A French translation (Frankenstein: ou le Prométhée Moderne, translated by Jules Saladin) appeared as early as 1821. The second English edition of Frankenstein was published on 11 August 1823 in two volumes (by G. and W. B. Whittaker) following the success of the stage play Presumption; or, the Fate of Frankenstein by Richard Brinsley Peake. This edition credited Mary Shelley as the book's author on its title page. On 31 October 1831, the first "popular" edition in one volume appeared, published by Henry Colburn & Richard Bentley. This edition was heavily revised by Mary Shelley, partially to make the story less radical. It included a lengthy new introduction by the author, presenting a somewhat embellished version of the genesis of the


id: frankenstein-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankenstein-5.md
category: reference
title: Frankenstein
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankenstein
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:15.915246+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: frankenstein-20260505-0
summary:
The 1931 film, with Boris Karloff playing the monster, is considered the most well-known portrayal of Frankenstein. The Hammer Horror films focused on the character of Dr Frankenstein (played by Peter Cushing in six films beginning with the 1957 film) rather than his monster. In December 1945, the Gilberton Company issued a comic book version of Frankenstein as No. 26 in its long-running Classics Illustrated series, with illustrations by Robert Hayward Webb and Ann Brewster. The title went through nineteen printings between 1945 and 1971, and has been praised by comics historian Mike Benton as "probably the most faithful adaptation of the original novel -- movies included." Manga artist and writer Junji Ito, best known for his horror work, published a comics adaptation of Frankenstein, which won an Eisner Award in 2019 for “Best Adaptation from Another Medium.” == See also == == Notes == == References == == Sources == == Further reading == Holmes, Richard (21 December 2017). "Out of Control". The New York Review of Books. Archived from the original on 14 December 2017. Retrieved 29 December 2024. After two hundred years, how exactly are we to go back to Mary Shelley's 'Frankenstein' itself, as distinct from


id: graf-zeppelin-march-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graf_Zeppelin_(march)-0.md
category: reference
title: Graf Zeppelin (march)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graf_Zeppelin_(march)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:17.116794+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: graf-zeppelin-march-20260505-0
summary:
"Graf Zeppelin-Marsch" is a German military march, written by military music composer Carl Teike. The name refers to Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin. It was originally composed in 1903 under the title "March of the Teutons" (March of the Teutons). Joachim Toeche-Mittler, a German authority on the history of German military music, regarded the march as an "immortal" piece. The march was published by Carl Fischer Music in the United States under the name "The Conqueror" in 1912, arranged by Canadian composer Louis-Philippe Laurendeau. To avoid confusion, the march was often called "Graf Zeppelin (The Conqueror)" (ツェッペリン伯爵（征服者）) in CDs published in Japan. The march was especially popular in the Soviet Union. It was sometimes called "March of the Air Fleet" (Воздушный флот) in Russian. It was once used as the Swedish navy's parade march. == References == == External links == "Graf Zeppelin" (Teike): Scores at the International Music Score Library Project Video on YouTube


id: the-invisible-man-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Invisible_Man-0.md
category: reference
title: The Invisible Man
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Invisible_Man
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:18.356251+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-invisible-man-20260505-0
summary:
The Invisible Man is an 1897 science fiction novel by H. G. Wells. Originally serialised in Pearson's Weekly in 1897, it was published as a novel the same year. The Invisible Man to whom the title refers is Griffin, a scientist who has devoted himself to research into optics and invents a way to change a body's refractive index to that of air so that it neither absorbs nor reflects light. He carries out this procedure on himself and renders himself invisible, but fails in his attempt to reverse it. A practitioner of random and irresponsible violence, Griffin has become an iconic character in horror fiction. While its predecessors, The Time Machine and The Island of Doctor Moreau, were written using first-person narrators, Wells adopts a third-person objective point of view in The Invisible Man. The novel is considered influential, and helped establish Wells as the "father of science fiction". == Plot summary == A man named Griffin arrives at an inn owned by Mr. and Mrs. Hall of the English village of Iping, West Sussex, during a snowstorm. He wears a wide-brimmed hat, a long-sleeved, thick coat and gloves; his face is hidden entirely by bandages except for a


id: the-invisible-man-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Invisible_Man-1.md
category: reference
title: The Invisible Man
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Invisible_Man
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:18.356251+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-invisible-man-20260505-0
summary:
== Background == According to John Sutherland, Wells and his contemporaries such as Arthur Conan Doyle, Robert Louis Stevenson and Rudyard Kipling "essentially wrote boy's books for grown-ups." Sutherland identifies The Invisible Man as one such book. Wells said that his inspiration for the novella was "The Perils of Invisibility", one of the Bab Ballads by W. S. Gilbert, which includes the couplet "Old Peter vanished like a shot/but then – his suit of clothes did not." Another influence on The Invisible Man was Plato's Republic, a book which had a significant effect on Wells when he read it as an adolescent. In the second book of the Republic, Glaucon recounts the legend of the Ring of Gyges, which posits that, if a man were made invisible and could act with impunity, he would "go about among men with the powers of a god." Wells wrote the original version of the tale between March and June 1896. This version was a 25,000 word short story titled "The Man at the Coach and Horses" with which Wells was dissatisfied, so he extended it. == Scientific accuracy == Russian writer Yakov I. Perelman pointed out in Physics Can Be Fun (1913) that


id: lessons-in-chemistry-miniseries-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lessons_in_Chemistry_(miniseries)-0.md
category: reference
title: Lessons in Chemistry (miniseries)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lessons_in_Chemistry_(miniseries)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:19.570540+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lessons-in-chemistry-miniseries-20260505-0
summary:
Lessons in Chemistry is an American period drama miniseries created by Lee Eisenberg, based on the novel of the same name by Bonnie Garmus. It stars Brie Larson as chemist Elizabeth Zott who begins hosting her own feminist cooking show in 1950s America. The series began streaming on Apple TV on October 13, 2023 and ended November 22, 2023. It received positive reviews from critics, and received nominations for two Golden Globe Awards, Best Limited or Anthology Series and Best Actress – Miniseries for Larson. In 2024 Sarah Adina Smith won the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Movies for Television and Limited Series for directing the second episode "Her and Him". == Premise == After being fired from her job as a lab tech, chemist Elizabeth Zott uses her new job hosting a 1950s television cooking show titled Supper at Six to educate housewives on scientific topics. == Cast == === Main === Brie Larson as Elizabeth Zott Lewis Pullman as Calvin Evans Aja Naomi King as Harriet Sloane Stephanie Koenig as Fran Frask Patrick Walker as Reverend Curtis Wakely === Recurring === Derek Cecil as Dr. Robert Donatti Thomas Mann as Boryweitz Andy Daly


id: the-lost-world-doyle-novel-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lost_World_(Doyle_novel)-0.md
category: reference
title: The Lost World (Doyle novel)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lost_World_(Doyle_novel)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:20.824585+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-lost-world-doyle-novel-20260505-0
summary:
The Lost World is an adventure and science fiction novel by British writer Sir Arthur Conan Doyle recounting an expedition to a remote plateau in the Amazon basin of South America where dinosaurs and other prehistoric animals still survive, along with a tribe of vicious ape-like creatures that are in conflict with a group of indigenous Indians. The work introduces the character of Professor Challenger, who leads the expedition (and who would appear in later Conan Doyle stories), and is narrated in the first person by the journalist member (Edward Malone) of the exploration party. The Lost World appeared in serial form in the Strand Magazine, illustrated by New-Zealand-born artist Harry Rountree, during the months of April through November 1912 and also was serialized in magazines in the United States from March to November 1912. Hodder & Stoughton published the first book edition in October 1912 in Great Britain (London), with printings as well in the United States (New York) and in Canada (Toronto). When he was working on The Lost World, Doyle explained to his editor Herbert Greenhough Smith: "My ambition is to do for the boys' book what Sherlock Holmes did for the detective story". Doyle cast the


id: the-lost-world-doyle-novel-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lost_World_(Doyle_novel)-1.md
category: reference
title: The Lost World (Doyle novel)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lost_World_(Doyle_novel)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:20.824585+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-lost-world-doyle-novel-20260505-0
summary:
Running the gauntlet of hostile tribes, the expedition finally reaches the lost world with the aid of indigenous guides, who are superstitiously scared of the area. Summerlee retains his arrogance and his skepticism, until a pterodactyl flies down and is seen by all at close range, as it steals the companions’ dinner. After this, Summerlee apologises to Challenger. The group explores the entire base of the plateau to find a way to the top and discover that a former route up is now blocked by a rock slide. They also encounter human bones at one spot at the base of the cliff, identified as James Colver, Maple White’s companion, who, it would seem, somehow fell to his death. With the cliffs to the plateau apparently unscalable, an adjacent pinnacle is climbable but separated by a wide gap. Challenger determines that a tall tree on the pinnacle can be cut down and used as a bridge, which allows the four explorers to cross over to the plateau. However, they are almost immediately trapped on the other side, thanks to the treachery of one of their hired porters, Gomez—who, as it turns out, is a former slaver whose brother had previously been


id: the-lost-world-doyle-novel-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lost_World_(Doyle_novel)-2.md
category: reference
title: The Lost World (Doyle novel)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lost_World_(Doyle_novel)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:20.824585+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-lost-world-doyle-novel-20260505-0
summary:
== Characters == Professor George Edward Challenger – An energetic British zoologist with a volatile temper; his hairy, burly body and his thick beard are a source of humor in the story, including a resemblance to the king of the ape-men, who treats him like a brother after he is captured Edward D. Malone – A reporter at the Daily Gazette of Irish background; an athletic rugby player McArdle – Malone's editor at the Daily Gazette Professor Summerlee – An older British zoologist who is skeptical of Challenger’s claims Lord John Roxton – A widely traveled adventurer and skilled big-game hunter, an opponent of slavery Gomez – Brother to an enslaver whom Roxton killed Manuel – Gomez's friend Zambo – South American black man loyal to the explorers Gladys Hungerton – Edward Malone's love interest Jessie Challenger – Challenger's wife, who objects to his belligerent behavior Maple White – Deceased explorer who discovered the lost world The Accala Indians – The native human inhabitants of the lost world plateau == Prehistoric animals encountered == Iguanodon – Large plant-eating dinosaurs: "they looked like monstrous kangaroos, twenty feet in length, and with skins like black crocodiles"; treated like cattle by the tribe


id: the-lost-world-doyle-novel-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lost_World_(Doyle_novel)-3.md
category: reference
title: The Lost World (Doyle novel)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lost_World_(Doyle_novel)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:20.824585+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-lost-world-doyle-novel-20260505-0
summary:
=== Television === Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's The Lost World (1999–2002; TV series) Dinosaur Island (2002 animated film) Adventures in Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's The Lost World (2002) (Canadian-French-Luxembourger animated series) The Lost World (2001; television film) === Documentary === The Real Lost World (2006) === Audio === The Lost World (1944; radio) John Dickson Carr as Narrator (all characters) The Lost World (1949; BBC Light Programme radio serial) With Abraham Sofaer, Ivor Barnard, Lewis Stringer, Cyril Gardiner Dinosaurs! (1966, an audio dramatic version of The Lost World adapted and directed by Ronald Liss and recorded by permission of the Estate of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle; MGM/Leo the Lion Records C/CH-1016) Basil Rathbone as Professor Challenger Leo Marion as Dr. Summerlee Peter Fernandez as Edward Malone (The character of Lord John Roxton was not included in this adaptation.) The Lost World (1975 BBC Radio 4 Classic Serial) Francis de Wolff as Professor Challenger Gerald Harper as Lord John Roxton Kevin McHugh as Edward Malone Carleton Hobbs as Professor Summerlee The Lost World (2011; BBC Radio 4 Classic Serial) David Robb as Professor Challenger Jamie Glover as Lord John Roxton Jonathan Forbes as Edward Malone Jasmine Hyde as Dr. Diana Summerlee


id: statue-of-marie-victorin-kirouac-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statue_of_Marie-Victorin_Kirouac-0.md
category: reference
title: Statue of Marie-Victorin Kirouac
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statue_of_Marie-Victorin_Kirouac
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:22.025105+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: statue-of-marie-victorin-kirouac-20260505-0
summary:
The Marie-Victorin Statue (French: Monument au Frère Marie-Victorin, pronounced [mɔnymɑ̃ o fʁɛʁ maʁi viktɔʁɛ̃]), created by Sylvia Daoust, is a monument in the Botanical Garden of Montreal, Quebec, Canada. The monument to Brother Marie-Victorin (Marie-Victorin Kirouac) was unveiled by Maurice Duplessis and Paul-Émile Léger on September 18, 1954. == References == == External links == Media related to Statue of Brother Marie-Victorin at Wikimedia Commons Inauguration de la statue du frère Marie-Victorin


id: the-martians-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Martians_(scientists)-0.md
category: reference
title: The Martians (scientists)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Martians_(scientists)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:23.298561+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-martians-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
"The Martians" (Hungarian: "A marslakók") were a group of prominent scientists (mostly, but not exclusively, physicists and mathematicians) of Hungarian Jewish descent who emigrated from Europe to the United States in the early half of the 20th century. Leo Szilard jokingly suggested that Hungary was a front for aliens from Mars. In an answer to the question of why there is no evidence of intelligent life beyond Earth (called the Fermi paradox) despite its high probability of existence, Szilárd responded: "They are already here among us – they just call themselves Hungarians." This account is featured in György Marx's book The Voice of the Martians. == Men included in the description == Individuals considered members of The Martians group include: == Origin of the name == The original story from György Marx's book The Voice of the Martians: The universe is vast, containing myriads of stars ... likely to have planets circling around them. ... The simplest living things will multiply, evolve by natural selection and become more complicated till eventually active, thinking creatures will emerge. ... Yearning for fresh worlds ... they should spread out all over the Galaxy. These highly exceptional and talented people could hardly overlook such


id: the-monstrumologist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Monstrumologist-0.md
category: reference
title: The Monstrumologist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Monstrumologist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:24.656339+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-monstrumologist-20260505-0
summary:
The Monstrumologist is a young adult horror novel written by American author Rick Yancey. It was published on September 22, 2009 by Simon & Schuster Children's Publishing. It is the first book in The Monstrumologist series, followed by The Curse of the Wendigo. The story follows Will Henry, an orphaned assistant to Dr. Pellinore Warthrop, a man who specializes in monstrumology, the study of monsters. The novel received the 2010 Michael L. Printz Honor Award for excellence in young adult literature. == Reception == The review in Publishers Weekly said, "Yancey's elegant depiction of an America plagued with monsters, human and otherwise, spares no grisly detail. ... Horror lovers will be rapt." The reviewer in the School Library Journal wrote "Though the pace sometimes falters beneath the weight of Will's verbose observations, the author folds surprising depth and twists into the plot and cast alike, crafts icky bits that can be regarded as comically over-the-top (or not), and all in all dishes up an escapade fully 'capable,' as Will puts it, 'of fulfilling our curious and baffling need for a marauding horror of malicious intent'". == Sequels == The monstrumologist had three subsequent books in the saga. These books are


id: murder-madness-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murder_Madness-0.md
category: reference
title: Murder Madness
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murder_Madness
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:25.974657+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: murder-madness-20260505-0
summary:
Murder Madness is a science fiction novel by American author Murray Leinster. It was first published in book form in 1931 by Brewer and Warren, marking Leinster's debut novel. Prior to its book publication, the story was serialized in four installments in the magazine Astounding SF beginning in May 1930. == Plot summary == The story centers on a brilliant but ruthless scientist who develops a chemical agent capable of inducing madness in anyone who is exposed to it. Seeking to manipulate society and seize global power, he spreads the drug covertly, causing widespread fear and chaos. The narrative follows a group of protagonists, including journalists and law enforcement figures, who gradually uncover his scheme and attempt to stop him before civilization collapses. The novel explores the consequences of scientific hubris, the moral implications of controlling human behavior, and the social instability that arises when fear and irrationality are unleashed on a population. Leinster’s story blends elements of suspense, adventure, and early speculative science fiction. == Characters == **The Villain** – The unnamed scientist who invents the madness-inducing drug and seeks to dominate the world. **Protagonists** – A team of investigators and journalists working to expose and halt the villain's


id: the-nutty-professor-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Nutty_Professor-0.md
category: reference
title: The Nutty Professor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Nutty_Professor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:27.298654+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-nutty-professor-20260505-0
summary:
The Nutty Professor may refer to: The Nutty Professor (1963 film), a comedy directed by and starring Jerry Lewis The Nutty Professor (1996 film), a comedy starring Eddie Murphy The Nutty Professor (soundtrack), soundtrack album for the 1996 film The Nutty Professor (2008 film), animated comedy and sequel to the 1963 film The Nutty Professor (character), the titular character in the above media The Nutty Professor (franchise), encompassing the above media and their sequels


id: the-platonic-permutation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Platonic_Permutation-0.md
category: reference
title: The Platonic Permutation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Platonic_Permutation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:28.516537+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-platonic-permutation-20260505-0
summary:
"The Platonic Permutation" is the ninth episode of the ninth season of The Big Bang Theory. The 192nd episode overall, it first aired on CBS on November 19, 2015. The story follows the characters throughout Thanksgiving. The first storyline explores Sheldon and Amy's relationship as they meet-up, after being broken up. The next subplot follows Bernadette, Raj, Emily and Howard where they volunteer at a soup kitchen and the last follows Leonard and Penny after they have a minor conflict as Penny forgets Leonard's birthday. "The Platonic Permutation" features a guest appearance of South-African American entrepreneur and business magnate, Elon Musk as himself. Critics had mixed reviews of the episode. Critics praised Sheldon and Amy's storyline, but were critical of the other two subplots and Musk's appearance. == Plot == With Sheldon Cooper and Amy Farrah Fowler still broken up and all of his friends busy for Thanksgiving, Sheldon tries to give Amy tickets he bought them to Thanksgiving dinner at the aquarium, but Amy suggests they can still go as friends. Along the way, Sheldon asks Amy questions about her current dating life and plays a game about fish. Despite the initial awkwardness, Amy answers his questions, and the


id: bust-of-spock-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bust_of_Spock-0.md
category: reference
title: Bust of Spock
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bust_of_Spock
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:29.739251+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bust-of-spock-20260505-0
summary:
The bust of Spock is a bronze sculpture in the town of Vulcan in Alberta, Canada, placed at the corner of Centre Street and 2nd Avenue S. The monument consists of a bust of Spock, a character from science fiction television series Star Trek: The Original Series, portrayed by actor Leonard Nimoy. It also features a plaque with his handprint cast in bronze, performing the Vulcan salute. It was unveiled on April 23, 2010. The sculpture celebrates the coincidental similarity of the town's name to the fictional homeworld of extraterrestrial species of Vulcans, with Spock being its member. == History == The monument dedicated to Spock, the one of main characters from science fiction television series Star Trek: The Original Series, was unveiled in Vulcan, Alberta, on April 23, 2010, by Leonard Nimoy, who portrayed him. The sculpture celebrates the coincidental similarity of the town's name to the fictional homeworld of extra-terrestrial species of Vulcans, with Spock being its member. During the ceremony, Nimoy left a handprint of his right hand, to be cast in bronze and later added to the monument. It was imprinted performing the Vulcan salute, with open hand, and fingers parted between the middle and ring.


id: stanis-aw-staszic-memorial-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanisław_Staszic_Memorial-0.md
category: reference
title: Stanisław Staszic Memorial
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanisław_Staszic_Memorial
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:31.052599+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stanis-aw-staszic-memorial-20260505-0
summary:
The Stanisław Staszic Memorial (Polish: Pomnik Stanisława Staszica) is a memorial in Warsaw, Poland, placed at the campus of the Warsaw University of Life Sciences, at 159 Nowoursynowska Street, in the neighbourhood of Stary Służew within the district of Ursynów. It is dedicated to Stanisław Staszic, a leading figure of the Polish Enlightenment in the 18th century, a writer, activist, geologist and geographer. The monument consists of a bust carved into a side of a large rock. It was made by sculptor Stanisław Lipski and unveiled in 1976 in front of the Primate Palace at 13/15 Senatorska Street, before being moved to its current location in 2007. == History == The monument, made by Stanisław Lipski, was erected in 1976, on the 150th anniversary of Stanisław Staszic's death. It was placed next to the Primate Palace at 13/15 Senatorska Street, owned by the Warsaw University of Life Sciences. The monument was proposed by the Society of the Friends of Warsaw, and financed, among other donors, by the association of school's alumni. The monument has the form of a large glacial erratic rock, donated by the Museum of the Earth of the Polish Academy of Sciences, with a bust of Staszic


id: nikola-tesla-in-popular-culture-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesla_in_popular_culture-0.md
category: reference
title: Nikola Tesla in popular culture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesla_in_popular_culture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:32.357328+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nikola-tesla-in-popular-culture-20260505-0
summary:
Nikola Tesla (10 July 1856 – 7 January 1943) is portrayed in many forms of popular culture. The Serbian-American engineer has particularly been depicted in science fiction, a genre which is well suited to address his inventions; while often exaggerated, the fictionalized variants build mostly upon his own alleged claims or ideas. A popular, growing fixation among science fiction, comic book, and speculative history storytellers is to portray Tesla as a member of a secret society, along with other luminaries of science. The impacts of the technologies invented by Nikola Tesla are a recurring theme in the steampunk genre of alternate technology science-fiction. == Board games == In the alternate World War I setting in the board game Tannhäuser, Nikola Tesla is a major figure in the Russian Matriarchy faction, where his inventions have not only been used to create deadly weaponry but also harness the power of otherworldly forces. == Books == === Appearances === Weldon J. Cobb's novel To Mars With Tesla; or, the Mystery of the Hidden World (1901) is an adventure where Tesla, aided by Young Edison (Thomas Edison's fictional nephew) and a couple of scientists, seeks to communicate with Mars. An adaptation of this "lost


id: nikola-tesla-in-popular-culture-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesla_in_popular_culture-1.md
category: reference
title: Nikola Tesla in popular culture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesla_in_popular_culture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:32.357328+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nikola-tesla-in-popular-culture-20260505-0
summary:
=== Appearances === In The Light and Darkness War (1988–89) by Tom Veitch and Cam Kennedy, Tesla appears as a supporting character who has been transported, upon death, to another dimension where other deceased human warriors and scientists, such as Leonardo da Vinci, are engaged in a never-ending battle against the forces of Outer Darkness. A biography of Tesla featured in the second issue in order to introduce Tesla to contemporary readers unfamiliar with the scientist. In the eight-issue Serbian comic book series Generation Tesla (1995), created by writer Milan Konjević, and artists Siniša Radović and Zdravko Zupan, Tesla evades his own death by transferring himself to another plane of existence. In 2020, he resurrects a number of humans slain by the evil Kobalt, transforming them into superhumans who can counter the threats of such villains. He is founder and mentor of super-hero team Generation Tesla. In Matt Fraction and Steven Sanders' graphic novel The Five Fists of Science (2006), Tesla teams up with Mark Twain to battle Thomas Edison. The Inventor: The Story of Tesla (2012) written by Ravé Mehta with art by Erik Williams, is a graphic novel based on the story of Nikola Tesla. It begins with


id: nikola-tesla-in-popular-culture-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesla_in_popular_culture-2.md
category: reference
title: Nikola Tesla in popular culture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesla_in_popular_culture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:32.357328+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nikola-tesla-in-popular-culture-20260505-0
summary:
In 1941, the first of Max Fleischer's Superman cartoons (titled The Mad Scientist or just Superman) depicted Superman fighting a character named "Mad Scientist", which is very similar to Tesla (a 1999 VHS release of the movie was titled Superman vs. Tesla). The Secret of Nikola Tesla (1980; Serbo-Croatian: Tajna Nikole Tesle), a Yugoslav film directed by Krsto Papić and notable for its inclusion of Orson Welles as banking baron J.P. Morgan, touches on Tesla's psychic powers and lost vision of the future. David Bowie portrayed Tesla in the movie The Prestige (2006), in which one of the main characters gets Tesla to develop a remarkable electro-replicating device for him. An independent Tesla film, Fragments from Olympus-The Vision of Nikola Tesla, producers of the film made news by using part of their budget to make a $33,333 donation to help save Tesla's Wardenclyffe lab during a crowd-funding campaign started by the popular internet comic known as The Oatmeal. The story of Wardenclyffe and the effort to save it was the subject of a documentary from the same filmmakers called Tower to the People – Tesla's Dream at Wardenclyffe Continues in 2014. Red Giant Entertainment's Benny Powell was working on a


id: nikola-tesla-in-popular-culture-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesla_in_popular_culture-3.md
category: reference
title: Nikola Tesla in popular culture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesla_in_popular_culture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:32.357328+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nikola-tesla-in-popular-culture-20260505-0
summary:
== Stage productions == A number of live theatrical plays based on Tesla's life have been produced and staged worldwide. === Opera === Australian composer Constantine Koukias's two-act opera Tesla - Lightning in His Hand, about the life and times of Nikola Tesla, premiered at the 10 Days on the Island Festival in Hobart, Tasmania, in 2003. Violet Fire is an opera centered on Tesla, with score by Jon Gibson and libretto by Miriam Seidel. It premiered on July 9-15, 2006 at the National Theater in Belgrade, as part of the celebration of Tesla's 150th birthday. The 2021 opera Les Éclairs, by Philippe Hersant, is based on a fictionalized version of Tesla's biography; the Tesla figure is named 'Gregor'. == Television == === Appearances === Nikola Tesla was a Yugoslav TV series in 1977 which featured Rade Šerbedžija as Tesla, as well as Mustafa Nadarević, Špiro Guberina, Izet Hajdarhodžić, Ljuba Tadić, Ivo Serdar, and a number of other nationally renowned actors. Tesla: Master of Lightning, a 2003 documentary by Robert Uth, featuring Stacy Keach as the voice of Tesla. Tesla was a crucial character in the pilot episode, "Power" (January 20, 2008), of Canadian television period drama Murdoch Mysteries, in


id: nikola-tesla-in-popular-culture-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesla_in_popular_culture-4.md
category: reference
title: Nikola Tesla in popular culture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesla_in_popular_culture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:32.357328+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nikola-tesla-in-popular-culture-20260505-0
summary:
=== Appearances === In the Command & Conquer Red Alert series of video games, Nikola Tesla is a scientist working for the USSR, and "Tesla" is the name of the technology the Soviets use to generate power and for their lightning-based weapons. Perhaps the most widely known example is the Tesla Coil defense structure, capable of sending short electric arcs towards oncoming units, also in their arsenal are Tesla troopers, who carry portable tesla coil-based weaponry and tesla tanks, which have a large glowing blue sphere that ejects great bolts of electricity (the Red Alert 2 version is a small tracked vehicle with a pair of forward-facing, miniature Tesla coils mounted on a turret). Nikola Tesla is also one of the characters in the game Martian Dreams, by Origin, which is part of the Worlds of Ultima series. In Frostpunk, an alternate history Nikola Tesla is the founder and leader of Tesla City, a possible location to discover in-game. It appears that Tesla became an authoritarian dictator of his city, exiling many unfit individuals and attempting to shield his city from a perpetual winter using electricity, which ends up killing everyone inside Tesla City. Later, a group of exiles finds


id: trouble-with-lichen-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trouble_with_Lichen-0.md
category: reference
title: Trouble with Lichen
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trouble_with_Lichen
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:33.645935+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: trouble-with-lichen-20260505-0
summary:
Trouble with Lichen (published 1960) is a science fiction novel by British writer John Wyndham. The plot concerns a young female biochemist who discovers that a chemical extracted from an unusual strain of lichen can be used to slow down the ageing process, enabling people to live to around 200–300 years. Wyndham speculates how society would deal with this prospect. == Plot summary == The two central characters are Diana Brackley and Francis Saxover, two biochemists who run parallel investigations into the properties of a specific species of lichen after Diana notices that a trace of the specimen prevents some milk turning sour. She and Francis separately manage to extract from the lichen a new drug, dubbed Antigerone, which slows down the body's ageing process. While Francis uses it only on himself and his immediate family (without their knowledge), Diana founds a cosmetic spa, and builds up a clientele of some of the most powerful women in England, giving them low doses of Antigerone, preserving their beauty and youth. When Francis finds out about the spas, he erroneously assumes that Diana's motive is profit. Diana's aim, however, is actually female empowerment, intending to gain the support of these influential women,


id: portrait-of-thomas-young-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portrait_of_Thomas_Young-0.md
category: reference
title: Portrait of Thomas Young
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portrait_of_Thomas_Young
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:34.845871+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: portrait-of-thomas-young-20260505-0
summary:
Thomas Young is an 1822–6 oil painting of the polymathic scientist Thomas Young (1773–1829) by the English painter Sir Thomas Lawrence (1769–1830). A number of portraits of Thomas Young, based on the original Lawrence painting, have been made in various media, such as oil paintings, engravings, and mezzotints, including for illustrations in books and magazines. == Paintings == The original painting is in a private collection. The antiquarian Hudson Gurney (1775–1864), who had been educated by Young, among others, and was a close friend, owned the original Lawrence portrait; it hung in his home, Keswick Hall, southwest of Norwich in Norfolk. There are several other portrait paintings of Thomas Young, largely based on the Lawrence portrait. Henry Perronet Briggs (1791–1844) painted a copy of the original portrait by Lawrence. Thomas Young was elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1794. This portrait was commissioned by Hudson Gurney (the owner of the original Lawrence portrait), and presented to the Royal Society in 1842, after Young's death. This version of the portrait was used for the cover of the 2006 1st UK edition and the 2023 2nd UK edition of the Thomas Young biography The Last Man Who Knew Everything


id: billy-barr-naturalist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy_Barr_(naturalist)-0.md
category: reference
title: Billy Barr (naturalist)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy_Barr_(naturalist)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:36.406885+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: billy-barr-naturalist-20260505-0
summary:
Billy Barr, stylized as billy barr, is an American amateur scientist known for his collection of over 50 years of data on snow levels, temperatures and animal migration in the Colorado Rocky Mountains. Barr's data collection is recognized as critical evidence of the effects of climate change. == Life and work == Barr grew up in Trenton, New Jersey. In 1972, as a student researcher from Rutgers University, he took a short-term job at the Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory measuring water quality near Crested Butte in the West Elk Mountains, Colorado. After some time, he featured in a local newspaper as an eccentric mountain hermit. In the mid 1970s, with the initial intention of escaping the boredom of living in the remote location of Gothic, Barr began meticulously collecting environmental data by measuring the snow depth, temperatures and noting the arrival of different species in the spring. Around the same time, he became "an unofficial caretaker" of the Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory. In late 1990s, the lab's resident ecologist David Inouye recognized the significance of Barr's data and began sharing it with other scientists. Since then, Barr's records have been used in numerous scientific articles on climate change. The 2016


id: karl-bleyl-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Bleyl-0.md
category: reference
title: Karl Bleyl
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Bleyl
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:37.599151+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: karl-bleyl-20260505-0
summary:
Karl Bleyl (4 December 1908 – 28 April 1995) was an amateur German entomologist who specialised in Hymenoptera. His collection of Hymenoptera (Apoidea) is held by the German Entomological Institute. His Lepidoptera are in the collection of Thomas Lehmann in Oranienbaum. Bleyl was born on Gut Seeben near Halle, Germany. He began collecting insects at the age of 6. Bleyl was influenced by entomologist and Hymenoptera researcher Ernst Heidenreich. He died in Oranienbaum, Germany on 28 April 1995. == References == == Further reading == Lehmann, T. 1995: [Bleyl, K.] Naturwiss. Beitr. Mus. Dessau 1995 5-6, Portr.


id: tim-friede-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Friede-0.md
category: reference
title: Tim Friede
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Friede
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:38.843896+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tim-friede-20260505-0
summary:
Timothy Friede (born c. 1968) is an American mechanic and snake collector who intentionally exposed himself to various forms of snake venom in order to acquire immunity. A lifelong enthusiast of snakes, he began injecting himself with snake venom in 2000 after taking a venom extraction class. After being bitten by two cobras on the same night in 2001 and being left comatose for four days, he resolved to develop an advanced immunity to a variety of snakebites, amassing a collection of over sixty snakes and teaching himself immunology. He injected himself with snake venom over 800 times, and was bitten around 200. After receiving perennial media attention over the 2000s and 2010s, he was contacted by immunologist and biotechnology researcher Jacob Glanville, who saw his acquired resistance as crucial to the development of a broad-spectrum snake antivenom. In a 2025 study published in Cell, two of these antibodies, combined with the anti-inflammatory agent varespladib, proved effective in countering thirteen out of nineteen venoms in a sample of nineteen snake venoms, and was partially effective against the remaining six. He works as the director of herpetology at Glanville's biotechnology company, Centivax. == Biography == Timothy Friede was born around 1968.


id: alan-leishman-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Leishman-0.md
category: reference
title: Alan Leishman
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Leishman
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:40.064280+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alan-leishman-20260505-0
summary:
Alan Leishman is a now retired Australian garden administrator and amateur ornithologist. He previously worked for the Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney. He is a bird-bander and has had a long association with the Australian Bird Study Association, serving as foundation editor of its journal Corella 1977–1983, and production editor 1984–1989. In 1998 he was awarded the RAOU's John Hobbs Medal for outstanding contributions to Australian ornithology as an amateur. == See also == List of ornithologists == References == Robin, Libby. (2001). The Flight of the Emu: a hundred years of Australian ornithology 1901–2001. Carlton, Vic. Melbourne University Press. ISBN 0-522-84987-3


id: william-garrow-lettsom-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Garrow_Lettsom-0.md
category: reference
title: William Garrow Lettsom
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Garrow_Lettsom
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:41.257329+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: william-garrow-lettsom-20260505-0
summary:
William Garrow Lettsom (1805 – 14 December 1887) was a British diplomat and scientist. He was instrumental in revealing the text of the secret Treaty of the Triple Alliance between Argentina, the Empire of Brazil and Uruguay. == Early life == Lettsom was born into a Quaker family at Fulham in March 1805. His paternal grandfather John Coakley Lettsom was a famous physician, philanthropist and abolitionist who held that sea-bathing was good for public health. His maternal grandfather − with whom he lived in his youth − was Sir William Garrow the celebrated criminal defender, afterwards a judge, who introduced the phrase "presumed innocent until proven guilty" into the common law and whose life inspired the television drama series Garrow's Law. Lettsom was educated at Westminster School and Cambridge University. == Literary acquaintance == As an undergraduate at Cambridge University Lettsom befriended the author William Makepeace Thackeray and was the (or an) editor of The Snob in which some of Thackeray's earliest work appeared; Lettsom has been identified as the character Tapeworm in Thackeray's novel Vanity Fair, a diplomat who fancies himself as a ladies' man. Lettsom was well acquainted with the cartoonist George Cruikshank, illustrator of the early works


id: william-garrow-lettsom-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Garrow_Lettsom-1.md
category: reference
title: William Garrow Lettsom
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Garrow_Lettsom
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:41.257329+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: william-garrow-lettsom-20260505-0
summary:
In 1864 and early 1865 Paraguayan forces under the orders of Francisco Solano López seized Brazilian and Argentine shipping and invaded the provinces of the Mato Grosso and Rio Grande do Sul (Brazil) and Corrientes (Argentina). On 1 May 1865 Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay signed the Treaty of the Triple Alliance against Paraguay. By Article XVIII of the Treaty its provisions were to be kept secret until its "principal object" should be obtained. One of its provisions concerned the acquisition by Argentina of large tracts of territory then in dispute between it and Paraguay. Lettsom was not satisfied about this and surreptitiously obtained a copy of the Treaty from the Uruguayan diplomat Dr Carlos de Castro. He forwarded it to London and the British government ordered it to be translated into English and published to Parliament. When the text became available in South America there was outrage in several quarters, some because of the Treaty's content, others because it had been published at all. Lettsom has been cited as an exemplar of the nuance with which a substantial part of the British diplomatic corps saw the Paraguayan War. == Later == Lettsom retired from the diplomatic service in 1869. He


id: fellows-of-the-network-science-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellows_of_the_Network_Science_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: Fellows of the Network Science Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellows_of_the_Network_Science_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:43.104574+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fellows-of-the-network-science-society-20260505-0
summary:
Each year since 2018, the Network Science Society (NetSci Society) selects up to 7 members of the network science community to be Fellows based on their enduring contributions to network science research and to the community of network scientists. Fellows are chosen from nominations received by the Network Science Society Fellowship Committee and are announced at the NetSci Conference hosted every year. == 2025 Fellows of the Network Science Society == Francesco Bullo Guanrong Chen Hawoong Jeong János Kertész Renaud Lambiotte Philippa E. Pattison Mason A. Porter Eckehard Schöll Sara A. Solla == 2024 Fellows of the Network Science Society == Katy Börner Albert Díaz-Guilera Sergey Dorogovtsev Shlomo Havlin Petter Holme Cristopher Moore M. Ángeles Serrano == 2023 Fellows of the Network Science Society == Nicholas Christakis Aaron Clauset Tina Eliassi-Rad Ernesto Estrada Marta González Stanley Wasserman == 2022 Fellows of the Network Science Society == Fan Chung Vittoria Colizza Noshir Contractor Santo Fortunato Byungnam Kahng Yamir Moreno Olaf Sporns == 2021 Fellows of the Network Science Society == Lada Adamic Albert-László Barabási Peter Sheridan Dodds Jürgen Kurths Vito Latora Marta Sales-Pardo == 2020 Fellows of the Network Science Society == Alex Arenas Alain Barrat Ginestra Bianconi Jennifer A. Dunne


id: g-nther-laukien-prize-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Günther_Laukien_Prize-0.md
category: reference
title: Günther Laukien Prize
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Günther_Laukien_Prize
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:44.358755+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: g-nther-laukien-prize-20260505-0
summary:
The Günther Laukien Prize is a prize presented at the Experimental Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Conference "to recognize recent cutting-edge experimental NMR research with a high probability of enabling beneficial new applications". The prize was established in 1999 in memoriam to Günther Laukien, who was a pioneer in NMR research. The prize money of $20,000 is financed by Bruker, the company founded by Laukien. == Winners == The recipients of the Günther Laukien Prize have been: 2026: Ago Samoson and Guido Pintacuda 2025: Zhehong Gan 2024: Hashim Al-Hashimi 2023 Lyndon Emsley and Anne Lesage 2022 Michael Garwood 2021 Gareth Morris 2020 Simon Duckett, Konstantin Ivanov, and Warren S. Warren 2019 Geoffrey Bodenhausen, and Christian Griesinger 2018 Gerhard Wagner 2017 Kurt Zilm and Bernd Reif 2016 Robert S. Balaban and Peter van Zijl 2015 Arthur Palmer III 2014 Marc Baldus, Mei Hong, Ann McDermott, Beat H. Meier, Hartmut Oschkinat, and Robert Tycko 2013 Clare Grey 2012 Klaes Golman and Jan Henrik Ardenkjaer-Larsen 2011 Daniel Rugar, John Mamin, and John Sidles 2010 Paul Callaghan 2009 Daniel Weitekamp 2008 Malcolm Levitt 2007 Robert G. Griffin 2006 Thomas Szyperski, Eriks Kupce, Ray Freeman, and Rafael Bruschweiler 2005 Stephan Grzesiek 2004 Lewis E. Kay 2003 Jacob


id: list-of-international-society-for-magnetic-resonance-in-medicine-gold-medal-winners-20260505-0
category: reference
title: List of International Society for Magnetic Resonance in Medicine gold medal winners
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:45.563280+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-international-society-for-magnetic-resonance-in-medicine-gold-medal-winners-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_International_Society_for_Magnetic_Resonance_in_Medicine_gold_medal_winners-0.md

summary:
The ISMRM Gold Medal is the highest honor awarded by the International Society for Magnetic Resonance in Medicine, recognizing individuals who have made major contributions to the development of magnetic resonance techniques in medicine and biology. Recipients are selected by a committee of peers based on the originality and impact of their work in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and spectroscopy (MRS). Past awardees include Robert S. Balaban (1994), Peter J. Basser (2008), Zaver M. Bhujwalla (2019), and Peter A. Bandettini (2020). ✰ – 1991 Nobel Prize in Chemistry ★ – 2003 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine == See also == Günther Laukien Prize, presented at the Experimental Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Conference "to recognize recent cutting-edge experimental NMR research with a high probability of enabling beneficial new applications." == References == == External links == Gold Medal, International Society for Magnetic Resonance in Medicine

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_International_Society_for_Magnetic_Resonance_in_Medicine_gold_medal_winners


id: killam-prize-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killam_Prize-0.md
category: reference
title: Killam Prize
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killam_Prize
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:46.902093+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: killam-prize-20260505-0
summary:
The Killam Prize (previously the Izaak Walton Killam Memorial Prize) was established according to the will of Dorothy J. Killam to honour the memory of her husband Izaak Walton Killam. Five Killam Prizes, each having a value of $100,000, were awarded annually by the Canada Council for the Arts to eminent Canadian researchers who distinguish themselves in the fields of social sciences, humanities, natural sciences, health sciences, or engineering. In August 2021, the Canada Council announced it would transition the administration of the Killam program to the National Research Council Canada (NRC) by March 2022. The restructured Killam Program was officially launched under the administration of the NRC in April 2022. It is now called the National Killam Program and consists of the Killam Prizes, the Dorothy Killam Fellowships and the Killam NRC Paul Corkum Fellowships. == Recipients == == See also == List of medicine awards List of social sciences awards == References == == External links == Killam Laureates website Canada Council for the Arts Killam Prizes webpage Transition to the National Research Council of Canada from the Canada Council for the Arts


id: list-of-ig-nobel-prize-winners-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Ig_Nobel_Prize_winners-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Ig Nobel Prize winners
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Ig_Nobel_Prize_winners
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:48.205129+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ig-nobel-prize-winners-20260505-0
summary:
A parody of the Nobel Prizes, the Ig Nobel Prizes are awarded each year in mid-September, around the time the recipients of the genuine Nobel Prizes are announced, for ten achievements that "first make people laugh, and then make them think". Commenting on the 2006 awards, Marc Abrahams, editor of Annals of Improbable Research and co-sponsor of the awards, said that "[t]he prizes are intended to celebrate the unusual, honor the imaginative, and spur people's interest in science, medicine, and technology". All prizes are awarded for real achievements, except for three in 1991 and one in 1994, due to an erroneous press release. == 1991 == The awards were presented on October 3. Each winner received a medal shaped like a frying pan that made a screaming noise when shaken and Cambridge parking passes that were valid from 3 a.m. – 4 a.m. the day after Christmas. Biology: Robert Klark Graham for his development of the Repository for Germinal Choice, a sperm bank that accepts donations only from Nobel laureates and Olympians. Chemistry: Jacques Benveniste, prolific proselytizer and dedicated correspondent of Nature, for his persistent "discovery" that water, H2O, is an intelligent liquid, and for demonstrating to his satisfaction that


id: list-of-ig-nobel-prize-winners-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Ig_Nobel_Prize_winners-1.md
category: reference
title: List of Ig Nobel Prize winners
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Ig_Nobel_Prize_winners
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:48.205129+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ig-nobel-prize-winners-20260505-0
summary:
== 1993 == Biology: Presented jointly to Paul Williams Jr. of the Oregon State Health Division and Kenneth W. Newel of the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, "bold biological detectives", for their pioneering study, "Salmonella Excretion in Joy-Riding Pigs". Chemistry: Presented jointly to James and Gaines Campbell of Lookout Mountain, Tennessee, "dedicated deliverers of fragrance", for inventing scent strips, the odious method by which perfume is applied to magazine pages. Consumer Engineering: Presented to Ron Popeil, incessant inventor and perpetual pitchman of late night television, for redefining the industrial revolution with such devices as the Veg-O-Matic, the Pocket Fisherman, Mr. Microphone, and the Inside-the-Shell Egg Scrambler. Economics: Presented to Ravi Batra of Southern Methodist University, shrewd economist and best-selling author of The Great Depression of 1990 (ISBN 978-0-440-20168-7) and Surviving the Great Depression of 1990, (ISBN 978-0-671-66324-7) for selling enough copies of his books to single-handedly prevent worldwide economic collapse. Literature: Presented to T. Morrison, E. Topol, R. Califf, F. Van de Werf, P. W. Armstrong, and their 972 co-authors, for publishing a medical research paper which has one hundred times as many authors as pages. The authors are from the following countries: Australia, Belgium, Canada, France, Germany, Ireland, Israel,


id: list-of-ig-nobel-prize-winners-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Ig_Nobel_Prize_winners-2.md
category: reference
title: List of Ig Nobel Prize winners
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Ig_Nobel_Prize_winners
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:48.205129+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ig-nobel-prize-winners-20260505-0
summary:
Chemistry: Presented to Bijan Pakzad of Beverly Hills, for creating DNA Cologne and DNA Perfume, neither of which contain deoxyribonucleic acid, and both of which come in a triple helix bottle. Dentistry: Presented to Robert H. Beaumont, of Shoreview, Minnesota, for his incisive study "Patient Preference for Waxed or Unwaxed Dental Floss". Economics: Presented jointly to Nick Leeson and his superiors at Barings Bank and to Robert Citron of Orange County, California for using the calculus of derivatives to demonstrate that every financial institution has its limits. Literature: Presented to David B. Busch and James R. Starling, of Madison, Wisconsin, for their research report, "Rectal Foreign Bodies: Case Reports and a Comprehensive Review of the World's Literature." The citations include reports of, among other items: seven light bulbs; a knife sharpener; two flashlights; a wire spring; a snuff box; an oil can with potato stopper; eleven different forms of fruits, vegetables and other foodstuffs; a jeweler's saw; a frozen pig's tail; a tin cup; a beer glass; and one patient's remarkable ensemble collection consisting of spectacles, a suitcase key, a tobacco pouch and a magazine. Medicine: Presented to Marcia E. Buebel, David S. Shannahoff-Khalsa, and Michael R. Boyle, for their


id: list-of-ig-nobel-prize-winners-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Ig_Nobel_Prize_winners-3.md
category: reference
title: List of Ig Nobel Prize winners
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Ig_Nobel_Prize_winners
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:48.205129+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ig-nobel-prize-winners-20260505-0
summary:
Astronomy: Presented to Richard C. Hoagland of New Jersey, for identifying artificial features on the Moon and on Mars, including a human face on Mars and ten-mile high buildings on the far side of the Moon. Biology: Presented to T. Yagyu and his colleagues from the University Hospital of Zürich, Switzerland, the Kansai Medical University in Osaka, Japan, and the Neuroscience Technology Research in Prague, Czech Republic, for measuring people's brainwave patterns while they chewed different flavors of gum. Communications: Presented to Sanford Wallace, president of Cyber Promotions of Philadelphia. Nothing has stopped this self-appointed courier from delivering electronic junk mail to all the world. Economics: Presented to Akihiro Yokoi of Wiz Company in Chiba, Japan, and Aki Maita of Bandai Company in Tokyo, for diverting millions of man-hours of work into the husbandry of virtual pets. Entomology: Presented to Mark Hostetler of the University of Florida, for his book, That Gunk on Your Car, (ISBN 978-0-89815-961-5) which identifies the insect splats that appear on automobile windows. Literature: Presented to Doron Witztum, Eliyahu Rips, and Yoav Rosenberg of Israel, and to Michael Drosnin of the United States, for their claimed statistical discovery of a hidden code in the Bible. Medicine:


id: list-of-ig-nobel-prize-winners-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Ig_Nobel_Prize_winners-4.md
category: reference
title: List of Ig Nobel Prize winners
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Ig_Nobel_Prize_winners
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:48.205129+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ig-nobel-prize-winners-20260505-0
summary:
Biology: Presented to Richard Wassersug of Dalhousie University, for his firsthand report, "On the Comparative Palatability of Some Dry-Season Tadpoles from Costa Rica". Chemistry: Presented to Donatella Marazziti, Alessandra Rossi, and Giovanni B. Cassano of the University of Pisa, Italy, and Hagop S. Akiskal of the University of California, San Diego, for their discovery that, biochemically, romantic love may be indistinguishable from having severe obsessive-compulsive disorder. Computer Science: Presented to Chris Niswander of Tucson, Arizona, for inventing PawSense, software that detects when a cat is walking across your computer keyboard. Economics: Presented to The Reverend Sun Myung Moon, for bringing efficiency and steady growth to the mass marriage industry, with, according to his reports, a 36-couple wedding in 1960, a 430-couple wedding in 1968, an 1,800-couple wedding in 1975, a 6,000-couple wedding in 1982, a 30,000-couple wedding in 1992, a 360,000-couple wedding in 1995, and a 36,000,000-couple wedding in 1997. Literature: Presented to Jasmuheen (formerly known as Ellen Greve) of Australia, first lady of Breatharianism, for her book Living on Light, (ISBN 978-3-929512-35-9) which explains that although some people do eat food, they don't ever really need to. Medicine: Presented to Willibrord Weijmar Schultz, Pek van Andel, and Eduard Mooyaart


id: list-of-recipients-of-the-pour-le-m-rite-for-sciences-and-arts-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_recipients_of_the_Pour_le_Mérite_for_Sciences_and_Arts-0.md
category: reference
title: List of recipients of the Pour le Mérite for Sciences and Arts
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_recipients_of_the_Pour_le_Mérite_for_Sciences_and_Arts
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:49.524406+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-recipients-of-the-pour-le-m-rite-for-sciences-and-arts-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of recipients of the Pour le Mérite for Sciences and Arts (German: Pour le Mérite für Wissenschaften und Künste), a German and formerly Prussian honor given since 1842 for achievement in the humanities, sciences, or arts. == Bibliography == Lehmann, Gustaf (1913). "VII Friedensklasse 1842–1913". Die Ritter des Ordens pour le mérite 1812–1913 (in German). Vol. 2. Berlin: Ernst Siegfried Mittler & Sohn. pp. 575–598. == References == == External links == Official website (in German)


id: becquerel-family-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Becquerel_family-0.md
category: reference
title: Becquerel family
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Becquerel_family
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:51.264727+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: becquerel-family-20260505-0
summary:
The Becquerel family is a family of French scientists. The most notable members of them include: Antoine César Becquerel (1788–1878), pioneer in the study of electric and luminescent phenomena, father of Edmond Louis Alfred Becquerel (1814-1862), French physician and medical researcher, son of Antoine Cesar, brother of Edmond Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel (known as Edmond, 1820-1891), studied the solar spectrum, magnetism, electricity, and optics. Discovered photovoltaic effect. Son of Antoine Cesar, father of Henri. Henri Becquerel (1852-1908), discoverer of radioactivity, son of Edmond, father of Jean Jean Becquerel (1878-1953), worked on the optical and magnetic properties of crystals, son of Henri == See also == Becquerel (disambiguation) == References ==


id: bernoulli-family-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernoulli_family-0.md
category: reference
title: Bernoulli family
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernoulli_family
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:52.457525+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bernoulli-family-20260505-0
summary:
The Bernoulli family ( bur-NOO-lee; German: [bɛʁˈnʊli]; Swiss Standard German: [bɛrˈnʊli]) of Basel was a patrician family, notable for having produced eight mathematically gifted academics who, among them, contributed substantially to the development of mathematics and physics during the early modern period. == History == Originally from Antwerp, a branch of the family relocated to Basel in 1620. While their origin in Antwerp is certain, proposed earlier connections with the Dutch family of Italian ancestry called Bornouilla (Bernoullie), or with the Castilian family de Bernuy (Bernoille, Bernouille), are uncertain. The first known member of the family was Leon Bernoulli (d. 1561), a doctor in Antwerp, at that time part of the Spanish Netherlands. His son, Jacob, emigrated to Frankfurt am Main in 1570 to escape from the Spanish persecution of the Protestants. Jacob's grandson, a spice trader, also named Jacob, moved to Basel, Switzerland in 1620, and was granted citizenship in 1622. His son, Niklaus Bernoulli (Nicolaus, 1623–1708), Leon's great-great-grandson, married Margarethe Schönauer. === Notable academic members === Margarethe and Niklaus had four sons, of whom Johann and Hieronymus became the progenitors of the "greater" and the "lesser" branches of the family, respectively. The four sons of Margarethe and Niklaus


id: chandrasekhar-family-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandrasekhar_family-0.md
category: reference
title: Chandrasekhar family
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandrasekhar_family
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:53.735638+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chandrasekhar-family-20260505-0
summary:
The Chandrasekhar family is a distinguished Indian intellectual family, several of whose members achieved eminence, notably in the field of physics. Two members of the family, Sir C. V. Raman and his nephew, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, were Nobel laureates in physics. For many members of the Chandrasekhar family there are multiple possible spellings in use for names. This includes R. Chandrasekhara Iyer; he was named Chandrasekharan (with an "n") but later became known as Chandrasekhara Aiyar (without the "n"). Furthermore, the family caste name "Aiyar" is sometimes spelled "Iyer" or "Ayyar". == Family tree == == First generation == Chandrasekhara Venkata (C. V.) Raman FNA, FASc, FRS, was a distinguished physicist whose achievements in the field of light scattering earned him the 1930 Nobel Prize for Physics. He discovered that when light traverses a transparent material, the wavelengths of some of the deflected light change. This phenomenon, now known as Raman scattering, results from the eponymous effect. Chandrasekhara Ramaswamy FASc (brother of C. V. Raman) was a noted meteorologist who served as Director-General of the Indian Meteorological Department (1965–1967). He conducted research into the regional and global effects of Indian monsoonal patterns. == Second generation == Venkatraman Radhakrishnan FASc (son of


id: conant-family-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conant_family-0.md
category: reference
title: Conant family
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conant_family
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:55.002600+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conant-family-20260505-0
summary:
The Conant family is a distinguished aristocratic family of English origin. == History == The Conant surname is thought to be of Celtic, possibly Breton origin. The earliest known member of the most prominent line of the family was John Conant, a yeoman of East Budleigh, Devon. His son Richard (1548–1630), had eight children including his second son Robert (c. 1583–1638) and his youngest child Roger (c. 1592–1679). Robert Conant's eldest son the Rev. John Conant (1608–1694) was a noted theologian who was Regius Professor of Divinity and Vice-Chancellor of Oxford University. John Conant's great-grandson Nathaniel (1745–1822) served as Chief Magistrate of the Bow Street Magistrates' Court and was knighted in 1813, when he was granted official sanction to use his claimed ancestral arms by virtue of a new grant, as the College of Arms had been unable to establish the family's right to them through its records. In 1862, Nathaniel's grandson Edward Nathaniel Conant (1820–1901) inherited his maternal uncle's estate and family seat at Lyndon Hall in the county of Rutland, where the family continues to reside. Edward's grandson Sir Roger Conant, 1st Baronet (1899–1973) was a Conservative Party Member of Parliament (MP) who served as Comptroller of the


id: curie-family-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curie_family-0.md
category: reference
title: Curie family
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curie_family
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:56.245044+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: curie-family-20260505-0
summary:
The Curie family is a French family from which hailed a number of distinguished scientists. Polish-born Marie Skłodowska-Curie, her French husband Pierre Curie, their daughter, Irène Joliot-Curie, and son-in-law, Frédéric Joliot-Curie, are its most prominent members. Five members of the family in total were awarded a Nobel Prize, with Marie winning twice. Marie and Pierre shared a Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903 and Marie was awarded a second one in chemistry in 1911, making her the first person in history to win a Nobel Prize in two scientific disciplines. To date, only Linus Pauling has followed her in winning prizes in multiple categories, in chemistry and peace. Irène and Frédéric Joliot-Curie won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1935. Henry Richardson Labouisse, Jr., the spouse of Irène's younger sister, Ève Curie, was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1965. The chemical element curium (number 96) is named after Marie and Pierre. While Pierre Curie died at age 46 from an accident, Marie, Irène and Frédéric died from diseases likely caused by their exposure to radiation during their scientific experiments. == Family tree == == See also == Skłodowski family Bernoulli family Langevin family List of second-generation physicists == References


id: darwin-wedgwood-family-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin–Wedgwood_family-0.md
category: reference
title: Darwin–Wedgwood family
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin–Wedgwood_family
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:57.485573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: darwin-wedgwood-family-20260505-0
summary:
The Darwin–Wedgwood family are members of two connected families, each noted for particular prominent 18th-century figures: Erasmus Darwin FRS, a physician and natural philosopher, and Josiah Wedgwood FRS, a noted potter and founder of the eponymous Josiah Wedgwood & Sons pottery company. The Darwin and Wedgwood families were on friendly terms for much of their history and members intermarried, notably Charles Darwin, who married Emma Wedgwood. The most notable member of the family was Charles Darwin, a grandson of both Erasmus Darwin and Josiah Wedgwood. The family also included at least ten Fellows of the Royal Society, and several artists and poets (among whom was the 20th-century composer Ralph Vaughan Williams). Presented below are brief biographical descriptions and genealogical information, and mentions of some notable descendants. (The individuals are listed by year of birth and grouped into generations.) The relationship to Francis Galton, and to his immediate ancestors, is also given. (Note, however, that the data tree below is not intended to include all descendants, nor is it intended to include all prominent descendants. Also note that Ursula Wood died in 2007, Richard Darwin Keynes died in 2010, and Horace Basil Barlow died in 2020.) == The first generation ==


id: darwin-wedgwood-family-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin–Wedgwood_family-1.md
category: reference
title: Darwin–Wedgwood family
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin–Wedgwood_family
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:57.485573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: darwin-wedgwood-family-20260505-0
summary:
Sarah Elizabeth Wedgwood (1793–1880). Josiah Wedgwood (1795–1880) married Caroline Darwin, daughter of Robert Darwin and Susannah Wedgwood. They are grandparents of composer Ralph Vaughan Williams. Mary Ann Wedgwood (1796–1798). Charlotte Wedgwood (1797–1862) was Charles Langton's first wife. After her death he married her cousin, Emily Catherine Darwin; she is the ancestor of Hugh Massingberd, see below. Henry Allen Wedgwood (1799–1885). Francis Wedgwood (1800–1888); married, on 26 April 1832 at Rolleston on Dove, Staffordshire, Frances Mosley, daughter of Rev. John Peploe Mosley and Sarah Maria Paget and granddaughter of Sir John Parker Mosley and Elizabeth Bayley; and was the grandfather of Josiah Wedgwood, 1st Baron Wedgwood and great-grandfather of C. V. Wedgwood and Camilla Wedgwood. Hensleigh Wedgwood (1803–1891), etymologist, philologist and barrister, author of A Dictionary of English Etymology father of Frances Julia Wedgwood (1833–1913), and grandfather of Bishop J. I. Wedgwood. His wife, his first cousin on his mother's side, Frances "Fanny" Wedgwood (née Mackintosh; 1800–1889, daughter of James Mackintosh), was a good friend and correspondent of Harriet Martineau. Frances (Fanny) Wedgwood (1806–1832). Emma Wedgwood (1808–1896); married Charles Darwin, son of Robert Darwin and Susannah Wedgwood. === Thomas Wedgwood === Thomas Wedgwood (1771–1805). Pioneer in developing photography, friend and patron


id: darwin-wedgwood-family-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin–Wedgwood_family-2.md
category: reference
title: Darwin–Wedgwood family
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin–Wedgwood_family
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:57.485573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: darwin-wedgwood-family-20260505-0
summary:
=== Francis Darwin === Francis Darwin (1848–1925) was the botanist son of Charles Darwin and Emma Darwin (née Wedgwood). Francis Darwin married Amy Ruck during 1874, who died during 1876 after the birth of their son Bernard Darwin, an author on golf – see below. Francis married Ellen Crofts during September 1883 and they had a daughter Frances Crofts, who married and became known as the poet Frances Cornford (see below). During 1913 he married his third wife Florence Henrietta Darwin (née Fisher); there were no children of this marriage, but he became step-father to Fredegond Shove née Maitland and Ermengard Maitland. He is buried at the Parish of the Ascension Burial Ground in Cambridge, where he is interred in the same grave as his daughter Frances Cornford. His third wife and his brother Sir Horace Darwin and his wife Lady 'Ida' are interred in the same graveyard, as well as his step-daughter Fredegond Shove but not her sister Ermengard Maitland. === Leonard Darwin === Leonard Darwin (1850–1943) was variously an army officer, Member of Parliament and eugenicist who corresponded with Ronald Fisher, thus being the link between the two great evolutionary biologists. === Horace Darwin === Horace Darwin (1851–1928)


id: darwin-wedgwood-family-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin–Wedgwood_family-3.md
category: reference
title: Darwin–Wedgwood family
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin–Wedgwood_family
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:57.485573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: darwin-wedgwood-family-20260505-0
summary:
=== Horace Barlow === Horace Barlow (1921–2020) was Professor of Physiological Optics and Physiology, Berkeley, California, US (1964–73); Royal Society Research Professor, Physiological Laboratory, Cambridge (1973–87). === John Cornford === John Cornford (1915–1936), was a poet and member of the International Brigades died during the Spanish Civil War. Son of Francis and Frances Cornford, see above. === Christopher Cornford === Christopher Cornford (1917–1993), was an artist and writer. Son of Francis and Frances Cornford, see above. === Henry Galton Darwin === Henry Galton Darwin (1929–1992) was a lawyer and diplomat. Son of Charles Galton Darwin. === Robin Darwin === Robert Vere "Robin" Darwin (1910–1974) was an artist. He is the son of Bernard Darwin, see above. === Quentin Keynes === Quentin Keynes (1921–2003) was a bibliophile and explorer. Son of Margaret Keynes, née Darwin, see above. === Richard Keynes === Professor Richard Darwin Keynes FRS (1919–2010) was a British physiologist. Son of Margaret Keynes, née Darwin, see above. === Ursula Mommens === Ursula Mommens (née Darwin, first married name Trevelyan) (1908–2010) was a well-known potter. Daughter of Bernard Darwin, see above. Her son by Julian Trevelyan is the movie-maker Philip Trevelyan. === Geoffrey Tindal-Carill-Worsley === Air Commodore Geoffrey Tindal-Carill-Worsley (1908–1996)


id: darwin-wedgwood-family-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin–Wedgwood_family-4.md
category: reference
title: Darwin–Wedgwood family
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin–Wedgwood_family
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:57.485573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: darwin-wedgwood-family-20260505-0
summary:
== Coat of arms == These arms were granted to Reginald Darwin, of Fern, Derbyshire, for himself and certain descendants of his father, Sir Francis Sacheverel Darwin, and his uncle Robert Waring Darwin (Father of Charles), on 6 March 1890. As Charles Darwin was part of the destination, they have been used in association with him, despite being granted after his death. Something similar is used by Darwin College, Cambridge. A variant without mullets was being used by the Darwin family long before 1890. Erasmus Darwin used it with the motto E conchis omnia (All things out of shells), reflecting his belief that all life descended from one simple form. Charles' father Robert adopted the same motto, displaying it on his bookplate. Stephen Glover described in 1829 the older variant quartered with the Waring coat of arms (sable, a chevron between three storks' heads erased, argent). == See also == Keynes family Huxley family == Notes == == References == Milner, Richard (1994). Charles Darwin: Evolution of a Naturalist. Makers of Modern Science. New York City: Facts on File, Inc. ISBN 978-0-8160-2557-2. Freeman, Richard Broke (1982). "The Darwin family". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 17 (1): 9–21. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1982.tb02010.x. Berra,


id: de-saussure-family-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Saussure_family-0.md
category: reference
title: De Saussure family
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Saussure_family
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:58.735084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: de-saussure-family-20260505-0
summary:
The De Saussure family is a family from the Geneva patriciate of Huguenot origins hailing from Lorraine, France but being settled in Switzerland since 1556. An American branch was established in South Carolina in the 18th century by Henri de Saussure; among his descendants were Chancellor Henry William de Saussure and US Senator William F. De Saussure. == History == The family originally hails from Saulxures in the Lorraine region of France. During their service as falconers to the duke he ennobled them in 1506. Due to religious persecution for being Huguenot they emigrated to Lausanne and Geneva, where they became citizens in 1556 respectively 1636. == Swiss branch == In Switzerland, as well as in the Republic of Geneva, they soon became politically and socio-economically active holding a variety of public offices. Théodore de Saussure became the mayor of Geneva, his son Nicolas de Saussure (1709-1791), a politician and agronomist. Horace-Bénédict de Saussure (1740 – 1799), an 18th century naturalist, was probably the most notable, his portrait was on the 20 Swiss Francs bill series which were in circulation from 1979 to 1995. His daughter Albertine Necker de Saussure (1766-1841) became an advocate for women s education and his


id: einstein-family-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_family-0.md
category: reference
title: Einstein family
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_family
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:59.934094+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: einstein-family-20260505-0
summary:
The Einstein family is the family of physicist Albert Einstein (1879–1955). Einstein's fourth-great-grandfather, Jakob Weil, was his oldest recorded relative, born in the late 17th century, and the family continues to this day. Albert Einstein's second-great-grandfather, Löb Moses Sontheimer (1745–1831), was also the grandfather of the tenor Heinrich Sontheim (1820–1912) of Stuttgart. Albert's three children were from his relationship with his first wife, Mileva Marić, his daughter Lieserl being born a year before they married. Albert Einstein's second wife was Elsa Einstein, whose mother Fanny Koch was the sister of Albert's mother, and whose father, Rudolf Einstein, was the son of Raphael Einstein, a brother of Albert's paternal grandfather. Albert and Elsa were thus first cousins through their mothers and second cousins through their fathers. == Etymology == Einstein (English: EYEN-styne, German: [ˈaɪnʃtaɪn] ) is either a German habitational surname from various places named with a Middle High German derivative of the verb einsteinen 'to enclose, surround with stone'; or a Jewish (Ashkenazic) adaptation of the German name, or else an ornamental name using the ending -stein 'stone'. == Pauline Einstein (Albert's mother) == Pauline Einstein (née Koch; 8 February 1858 – 20 February 1920) was the mother of the


id: einstein-family-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_family-1.md
category: reference
title: Einstein family
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_family
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:59.934094+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: einstein-family-20260505-0
summary:
=== Work === Albert Einstein’s father, Hermann Einstein, was an engineer and entrepreneur who co-founded an electrical engineering company, Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie. Based initially in Munich, the company manufactured electrical devices such as arc lamps and dynamos, and was involved in the installation of lighting systems throughout southern Germany and parts of northern Italy. Though the business saw early success, it struggled to compete with larger firms like AEG and Siemens. These difficulties eventually forced the company to close, prompting the Einstein family to move to Milan and later to Pavia in the 1890s. Hermann played a significant role in encouraging Albert’s early interest in science and engineering. He often took Albert on factory visits and supported his education despite the family’s financial instability. After the closure of the company, Hermann continued to seek work in the electrical industry but did not achieve the same level of business success again. He died in Milan in 1902, while Albert was still a student in Zürich. Pauline Einstein, Albert’s mother, came from a cultured and middle-class Jewish family. Although she did not pursue formal employment, she was an accomplished pianist and had a strong appreciation for music, literature, and


id: einstein-family-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_family-2.md
category: reference
title: Einstein family
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_family
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:59.934094+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: einstein-family-20260505-0
summary:
Lieserl Einstein (27 January 1902 – September 1903) was the first child of Mileva Marić and Albert Einstein. According to the correspondence between her parents, Lieserl was born on 27 January 1902, a year before her parents married, in Újvidék, Austria-Hungary, present-day Novi Sad, Serbia, and was cared for by her mother for a short time while Einstein worked in Switzerland before Marić joined him there without the child. Lieserl's existence was unknown to biographers until 1986, when a batch of letters between Albert and Mileva Marić was discovered by Hans Albert Einstein's daughter Evelyn. Marić had hoped for a girl, while Einstein would have preferred a boy. In their letters, they called the unborn child "Lieserl", when referring to a girl, or "Hanserl", if a boy. Both "Lieserl" and "Hanserl" were diminutives of the common German names Liese (short for Elizabeth) and Hans. The first reference to Marić's pregnancy was found in a letter Einstein wrote to her from Winterthur, probably on 28 May 1901 (letter 36), asking twice about "the boy" and "our little son", whereas Marić's first reference was found in her letter of 13 November 1901 (letter 43) from Stein am Rhein, in which she referred


id: einstein-family-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_family-3.md
category: reference
title: Einstein family
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_family
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:44:59.934094+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: einstein-family-20260505-0
summary:
Eduard Einstein (28 July 1910 – 25 October 1965) was born in Zürich, Switzerland, the second son of physicist Albert Einstein from his first wife Mileva Marić. Albert Einstein and his family moved to Berlin in 1914. Shortly thereafter the parents separated, and Marić returned to Zürich, taking Eduard and his older brother Hans Albert with her. His father remarried in 1919 and in 1933 immigrated to the United States under the threat of Germany's rising Nazi regime. Eduard was a good student and had musical talent. Some of Eduard's poems, which refer to the same teachers as the biographical sketches in the autobiography of Nobel laureate Elias Canetti, were published in the school newspaper of the gymnasium (grammar school). After gymnasium, he started to study medicine to become a psychiatrist, but by the age of 21 he was diagnosed with schizophrenia. He was institutionalized two years later for the first of several times. Biographers of his father have speculated that the drugs and "cures" of the time damaged rather than aided the young Einstein. His brother Hans Albert Einstein believed that his memory and cognitive abilities had been deeply affected by electroconvulsive therapy treatments Eduard received while institutionalized. After


id: freud-family-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freud_family-0.md
category: reference
title: Freud family
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freud_family
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:45:01.248771+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: freud-family-20260505-0
summary:
The family of Sigmund Freud, the pioneer of psychoanalysis, lived in Austria and Germany until the 1930s before emigrating to England, Canada, and the United States. Several of Freud's descendants and relatives have become well known in different fields. == Freud's parents and siblings == Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) was born to Jewish Galician parents in the Moravian town of Freiberg in Mähren, in what then was the Austrian Empire (now called Příbor and in the Czech Republic). He was the eldest child of Jacob Freud (1815–1896), a wool merchant, and his third wife, Amalia Nathansohn (1835–1930). Jacob Freud was born in Tysmenitz, then part of the Austrian Partition of Poland called the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria (now called Tysmenytsia and in Ukraine), the eldest child of Schlomo and Peppi (Pessel), née Hoffmann, Freud. His two brothers, Abae (c. 1815–c. 1885) and Josef (1825–1897), had difficulties that concerned the family, the former because of his mentally incapacitated children, the latter because his business dealings came under criminal investigation. Jacob Freud had two surviving children from his first marriage to Sally Kanner (1829–1852): Emanuel (1832–1914) Philipp (1836–1911) Jacob's second marriage (1852–1855) to Rebecca (family of origin uncertain) was childless. Amalia Freud


id: freud-family-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freud_family-1.md
category: reference
title: Freud family
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freud_family
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:45:01.248771+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: freud-family-20260505-0
summary:
The systematic persecution of Jews by Nazi Germany and the ensuing Holocaust had a profound effect on the family. Four of Freud's five sisters were murdered in concentration camps: in 1942 Mitzi Freud (eighty-one) and Paula Winternitz (seventy-eight) were transported to Theresienstadt and taken from there to the Maly Trostinets extermination camp, near Minsk, where they were murdered. In 1943 Dolfi Freud died in Theresienstadt of internal bleeding, probably due to advanced starvation and Rosa Graf (eighty-two) was deported to Treblinka, where she was murdered. Freud's brother, Alexander, escaped with his family to Switzerland shortly before the Anschluss and they subsequently emigrated to Canada. Freud's sons Oliver, a civil engineer, and Ernst Ludwig, an architect, lived and worked in Berlin until Hitler came to power in Germany in 1933 after which they fled with their families to France and England respectively. Oliver Freud and his wife later emigrated to the United States. Their daughter Eva Freud had remained in France and died there of an infection contracted during an abortion. Freud and his remaining family left Nazi-occupied Vienna in 1938 after Ernest Jones, the then President of the International Psychoanalytic Association, secured immigration permits for them to move to Britain.


id: freud-family-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freud_family-2.md
category: reference
title: Freud family
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freud_family
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:45:01.248771+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: freud-family-20260505-0
summary:
After Sigmund Freud's death in 1939, Martha and Anna Freud made their home available to relatives and friends fleeing the Nazi occupation of Europe. In 1941, following the death of Martha's sister, Minna, Dorothy Burlingham (1891–1979) became a permanent member of the household. From their first meeting in Vienna in 1925, Anna and Dorothy developed "intimate relations that closely resembled those of lesbians", although Anna "categorically denied the existence of a sexual relationship". Dorothy had been a patient of Freud's and her four children, Bob, Mary (Mabbie), Katrina, and Michael, were among the first of Anna's after she had begun her own psychoanalytic practice. During and after the war they collaborated in establishing the Hampstead War Nursery that provided therapy and residential care for children whose lives had been disrupted by the war. Their work laid the foundations for the post-war Hampstead Child Therapy Course and Clinic, founded in 1952 (later renamed the Anna Freud National Centre for Children and Families). Martin and Walter Freud were both interned in 1940 as enemy aliens. Following a change in government policy on internment, both were subsequently recruited to the Pioneer Corps. After the war, denied recognition as a (Vienna-trained) lawyer by the


id: freud-family-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freud_family-3.md
category: reference
title: Freud family
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freud_family
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:45:01.248771+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: freud-family-20260505-0
summary:
Mathilde Freud (1887–1978) married Robert Hollitscher (1875–1959), and had no children Jean-Martin Freud (1889–1967, known as Martin Freud) married Ernestine (Esti) Drucker (1896–1980), and had two children: Anton Walter Freud (1921–2004) married Annette Krarup (1925–2000) and had three children David Freud (born 1950, later Lord Freud), married Cilla Dickinson and had three children: Andrew Freud Emily Freud Juliet Freud Ida Freud (born 1952), married M. Fairbairn Caroline Freud (born 1955), married L. Penney Sophie Freud (1924–2022), married Paul Loewenstein (1921–1992) and had three children: Andrea Freud Loewenstein Dania Loewenstein, married S. Jekel George Loewenstein Oliver Freud (1891–1969), married (i) Ella Haim; (ii) Henny Fuchs (1892–1971). From his marriage to Henny Fuchs, he had one child: Eva Freud (1924–1944) Ernst L. Freud (1892–1970), married Lucie Brasch (1896–1989), and had three children: Stephan Gabriel Freud (1921–2015, known as Stephen Freud) married (i) Lois Blake (born 1924); (ii) Christine Ann Potter (born 1927). From his marriage to Lois Blake, he had one child: Dorothy Freud Lucian Michael Freud (1922–2011), married (i) Kathleen Garman (1926–2011), two children; (ii) Lady Caroline Blackwood (1931–1996). He also had four children by Suzy Boyt, four by Katherine McAdam (died 1998), two by Bernardine Coverley (died 2011), one by


id: herschel-family-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herschel_family-0.md
category: reference
title: Herschel family
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herschel_family
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:45:02.525883+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: herschel-family-20260505-0
summary:
The Herschel family is a famous Anglo-German family of astronomers who lived from the 18th to the 20th century. The family originated from Pirna in Saxony which lies near Dresden. == Notable members == William Herschel (1738–1822), astronomer and composer, discoverer of Uranus Caroline Herschel (1750–1848), astronomer and singer, sister of Sir William Herschel John Herschel (1792–1871), mathematician and astronomer, son of Sir William Herschel Alexander Stewart Herschel (1836–1907), astronomer, grandson of Sir William Herschel William James Herschel (1833–1917), Pioneer of fingerprinting, grandson of Sir William Herschel John Herschel the Younger (1837–1921), grandson of Sir William Herschel == References ==


