# kb

id: social-effects-of-evolutionary-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_effects_of_evolutionary_theory-1.md
category: reference
title: Social effects of evolutionary theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_effects_of_evolutionary_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:22.590814+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-effects-of-evolutionary-theory-20260505-0
summary:
The Roman Catholic Church, beginning in 1950 with Pope Pius XII's encyclical Humani Generis, took up a neutral position with regard to evolution. "The Church does not forbid that...research and discussions, on the part of men experienced in both fields, take place with regard to the doctrine of evolution, in as far as it inquires into the origin of the human body as coming from pre-existent and living matter." In an October 22, 1996, address to the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, Pope John Paul II updated the Church's position, recognizing that Evolution is "more than a hypothesis" - "In his encyclical Humani Generis, my predecessor Pius XII has already affirmed that there is no conflict between evolution and the doctrine of the faith regarding man and his vocation... Today, more than a half-century after the appearance of that encyclical, some new findings lead us toward the recognition of evolution as more than an hypothesis. In fact it is remarkable that this theory has had progressively greater influence on the spirit of researchers, following a series of discoveries in different scholarly disciplines." === Islamic views on evolution === === Jewish views on evolution === == Evolutionary theory and the political left


id: spinhenge-home-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinhenge@Home-0.md
category: reference
title: Spinhenge@Home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinhenge@Home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:27.760224+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: spinhenge-home-20260505-0
summary:
Spinhenge@home was a volunteer computing project on the BOINC platform, which performs extensive numerical simulations concerning the physical characteristics of magnetic molecules. It is a project of the Bielefeld University of Applied Sciences, Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, in cooperation with the University of Osnabrück and Ames Laboratory. The project began beta testing on September 1, 2006, and used the Metropolis Monte Carlo algorithm to calculate and simulate spin dynamics in nanoscale molecular magnets. On September 28, 2011, a hiatus was announced while the project team reviewed results and upgraded hardware. As of July 10, 2022 the hiatus continues and it is likely that the project has been closed down permanently. == See also == Spintronics BOINC List of volunteer computing projects == References == == External links == Project Website Spinhenge@home screensaver video on YouTube More Information about Spinhenge@Home Project Statistics at BOINCStats


id: el-sue-o-de-arqu-medes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Sueño_de_Arquímedes-0.md
category: reference
title: El Sueño de Arquímedes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Sueño_de_Arquímedes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:29.067246+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: el-sue-o-de-arqu-medes-20260505-0
summary:
El Sueño de Arquímedes was a Spanish science podcast and radio program which was broadcast by Radio Nacional de España (RNE) from September 2006 until June, 2007. The program was created by Ángel Rodríguez Lozano. A total of 35 programs are still available for download. In addition to El Sueño de Arquímedes, Ángel Rodríguez Lozano also hosted Vanguardia de la Ciencia, which was broadcast weekly without interruption from April 1995 until June 2007. The name of the program means "the dream of Archimedes", and alludes to Archimedes' statement that given a lever and a fixed point, he could move the world. To Ángel Rodríguez Lozano, the dream was moving the world by popularizing and sharing knowledge. == Format == Before the startup of El Sueño de Arquímedes, Ángel Rodríguez Lozano had been hosting Vanguardia de la Ciencia for more than a decade. When RNE asked if he would host a second popular science program, Ángel Rodríguez Lozano realised that the scheduled timing, Sundays between 3 and 4 p.m, meant that it would be sandwiched between sports broadcasts. Therefore, he would have to capture the attention of listeners who were not looking for this type of program. The intention was therefore


id: theskynet-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TheSkyNet-0.md
category: reference
title: TheSkyNet
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TheSkyNet
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:30.235971+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: theskynet-20260505-0
summary:
theSkyNet was a research project that used volunteer Internet-connected computers to carry out research in astronomy. It was an initiative of the International Centre for Radio Astronomy Research (ICRAR), a joint venture of Curtin University and the University of Western Australia. theSkyNet had two projects, Sourcefinder and POGS. Both projects have been completed. theSkyNet Sourcefinder aimed to test and refine automatic radio sourcefinding algorithms in preparation for radio galaxy surveys using the Australian Square Kilometre Array Pathfinder and the Square Kilometre Array. theSkyNet POGS used Spectral Energy Distribution fitting to calculate characteristics of many galaxies using images taken by the Pan-STARRS PS1 optical telescope in Hawaii. == History == theSkyNet Sourcefinder project was introduced publicly on 13 September 2011, operating on a Java-based user platform, processing data using new distributed computing software called Nereus. One year later, theSkyNet celebrated its first birthday and at the same time theSkyNet POGS project became the first public Australian based project to participate in the well established volunteer computing platform BOINC. The acronym POGS is a reference to a game played with discs that originated on Maui, Hawaii, in the 1920s, and the fact that the Pan-STARRS PS1 telescope, is situated on Mount Haleakala,


id: university-technology-transfer-offices-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_technology_transfer_offices-0.md
category: reference
title: University technology transfer offices
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_technology_transfer_offices
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:31.561922+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: university-technology-transfer-offices-20260505-0
summary:
University technology transfer offices (TTOs), or technology licensing offices (TLOs), are responsible for technology transfer and other aspects of the commercialization of research that takes place in a university. TTOs engage in a variety of commercial activities that are meant to facilitate the process of bringing research developments to market, often acting as a channel between academia and industry. Most major research universities have established TTOs in the past decades in an effort to increase the impact of university research and provide opportunities for financial gain. While TTOs are commonplace, many studies have questioned their financial benefit to the university. == History == The history of technology transfer is intimately linked with the history of the science policy of the United States. The foundation for modern American science policy laid way out in Vannevar Bush's letter in response to President Roosevelt's query about whether the US should maintain the high level of research funding it had been pouring into the Office of Scientific Research and Development, which had coordinated large private-public partnership research projects as part of the war effort, including the Manhattan Project. Bush's answer was Science - the Endless Frontier. In that letter, Bush advocated that the US


id: university-technology-transfer-offices-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_technology_transfer_offices-1.md
category: reference
title: University technology transfer offices
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_technology_transfer_offices
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:31.561922+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: university-technology-transfer-offices-20260505-0
summary:
== Structure and organization == The structure and organization of TTOs can affect its overall performance and can vary among universities. Since TTOs deal with both academic research and industry, they consist of a diverse set of individuals, including scientists, lawyers, analysts, licensing experts, and business managers. By having individuals (particularly different scientists, engineers, and analysts) with varying sets of expertise in research, TTOs attempt to more effectively assess, protect, and profit from the research developments taking place in multiple disciplines throughout the university. TTOs can by classified into three different types: internal: existing as an integrated part of the university and controlled by university administration external: existing as an independent company that does not operate under the control of university administration mixed: having components of both internal and external TTOs As of 2012 the "internal" type was most common in the US. TTOs of different universities can also collaborate between them to grow, thus originating new organizational structures. Such structures are: Network structure: the existing organizational forms of each TTO are maintained and the single organizations operate together in a virtual manner creating a subset of links between the existing TTOs involved in the consortium Strong Hub structure: a


id: va-public-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VA_(Public_&_Science)-0.md
category: reference
title: VA (Public & Science)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VA_(Public_&_Science)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:33.027037+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: va-public-science-20260505-0
summary:
VA (Public & Science) (Swedish: "Vetenskap & Allmänhet") is a Sweden-based non-profit association focusing on citizen science, responsible research and innovation, and science communication to the Swedish and European public. Its projects include: web games, books, and festivals for public engagement; studies and surveys to measure public scientific knowledge and engagement; and national and international research policy advocacy. == Projects == VA is currently a partner in three EU-funded Horizon 2020 projects SciShops: ORION, Open Responsible research and Innovation to further Outstanding Knowledge, is aimed at fostering RRI and open science in research performing and research funding organisations. SciShops will expand the ecosystem of Science Shops in Europe and BLOOM is aimed at raising public awareness and interest in the bioeconomy through dialogue and co-creation activities. == Membership == VA's members consist of some 100 organizations, authorities, universities, companies and associations. In addition, it has a number of individual members. The organization is funded through membership fees, project grants and a grant from the Swedish Ministry of Education and Research. VA is a member of EUSEA (European Science Events Association), ECSA (European Citizen Science Association) and the Living Knowledge network. == Board of Representatives == VA's board consists of representatives


id: list-of-volunteer-computing-projects-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_volunteer_computing_projects-0.md
category: reference
title: List of volunteer computing projects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_volunteer_computing_projects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:34.359366+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-volunteer-computing-projects-20260505-0
summary:
Volunteer computing projects are a type of distributed computing where volunteers donate computing time to specific causes. The donated computing power comes from idle CPUs and GPUs in personal computers, video game consoles, and Android devices. Each project seeks to utilize the computing power of many internet connected devices to solve problems and perform large scale computational research in a cost-effective manner. == Active projects == == Completed projects == == See also == == References ==


id: world-community-grid-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-0.md
category: reference
title: World Community Grid
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:35.746920+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-community-grid-20260505-0
summary:
World Community Grid (WCG) is an effort to create the world's largest volunteer computing platform to perform scientific research that benefits humanity. Launched on November 16, 2004, with proprietary Grid MP client from United Devices and adding support for Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) in 2005, World Community Grid eventually discontinued the Grid MP client and consolidated on the BOINC platform in 2008. In September 2021, it was announced that IBM transferred ownership to the Krembil Research Institute of University Health Network in Toronto, Ontario. World Community Grid uses unused processing power of consumer devices (PCs, Laptops, Android Smartphones, etc.) to analyse data created by the research groups that participate in the grid. WCG projects have analysed data related to the human genome, the human microbiome, HIV, dengue, muscular dystrophy, cancer, influenza, Ebola, Zika virus, virtual screening, rice crop yields, clean energy, water purification and COVID-19, among other research areas. There are currently four active projects and 28 completed projects. Several of these projects have published peer-reviewed papers based on the analysis of the data generated by WCG. These include an OpenZika project paper on the discovery of a compound (FAM 3) that inhibits the NS3 Helicase protein


id: world-community-grid-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-1.md
category: reference
title: World Community Grid
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:35.746920+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-community-grid-20260505-0
summary:
== Statistics and competition == The contributions of each user are recorded and user contribution statistics are publicly available. Due to the fact that the processing time of each workunit varies from computer to computer, depending on the difficulty of the workunit, the speed of the computer, and the amount of idle resources available, contributions are usually measured in terms of points. Points are awarded for each workunit depending on the effort required to process it. Upon completing a workunit, the BOINC client will request the number of points it thinks it deserves based on software benchmarks (see BOINC Credit System#Cobblestones). Since multiple computers process the same workunit to ensure accuracy, the World Community Grid servers can look at the points claimed by each of those computers. The WCG servers disregard statistical outliers, average the remaining values and award the resulting number of points to each computer. Within the grid, users may join teams that have been created by organizations, groups, or individuals. Teams allow for a heightened sense of community identity and can also inspire competition. As teams compete against each other, more work is done for the grid overall. == Outreach == World Community Grid recognizes companies and


id: world-community-grid-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-2.md
category: reference
title: World Community Grid
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:35.746920+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-community-grid-20260505-0
summary:
In February 2014, the Help Fight Childhood Cancer project scientists announced the discovery of 7 compounds that destroy neuroblastoma cancer cells without any apparent side effects. This discovery, made with the support of the WCG volunteers, is a positive step towards a new treatment. The project has announced that it is seeking a collaboration with a pharmaceutical company in order to develop the compounds into treatments. Given the success of the project, the scientists have stated that they are already planning a follow-up project which will focus on other pediatric cancers, possibly in collaboration with a newly formed Pan-Asian oncology group, of which they are a founding member. As of July 2012, the Human Proteome Folding Project has published several papers using data from WCG. These include a paper on validation methods and a new database of protein structure and function predictions; a paper on the identification of proteins that regulate human processes; a paper on the analysis of the genomes from five plant families and their proteomes, for which WCG was used in the creation of over 29,000 protein structures; a paper on the proteome of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The GO Fight Against Malaria project reported the discovery of several


id: world-community-grid-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-3.md
category: reference
title: World Community Grid
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:35.746920+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-community-grid-20260505-0
summary:
=== OpenPandemics - COVID-19 === On April 1, 2020, IBM announced OpenPandemics - COVID-19. The project aims to identify possible treatments for the Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) which is responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic. WCG will partner with Scripps Research, with whom it has partnered in the past, notably in FightAIDS@Home projects. The project runs on CPUs and GPUs and will also serve to create a "fast-response, open source tool that will help all scientists quickly search for treatments for future pandemics." The project launched on May 14, 2020. === Mapping Cancer Markers === Mapping Cancer Markers (launched November 8, 2013). The project aims to identify the markers associated with various types of cancer, and is analyzing millions of data points collected from thousands of healthy and cancerous patient tissue samples. These include tissues with lung, ovarian, prostate, pancreatic and breast cancers. By comparing these different data points, researchers aim to identify patterns of markers for different cancers and correlate them with different outcomes, including responsiveness to various treatment options. The project is focusing on 4 types of cancer, with the first focus being on lung cancer, and will move on to ovarian cancer, prostate cancer and


id: world-community-grid-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-4.md
category: reference
title: World Community Grid
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:35.746920+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-community-grid-20260505-0
summary:
=== AfricanClimate@Home === The mission of AfricanClimate@Home was to develop more accurate climate models of specific regions in Africa. It was intended to serve as a basis for understanding how the climate will change in the future so that measures designed to alleviate the adverse effects of climate change could be implemented. World Community Grid's tremendous computing power was used to understand and reduce the uncertainty with which climate processes were simulated over Africa. Phase 1 of African Climate@Home launched on September 3, 2007, and ended in July 2008. === Help Conquer Cancer === Help Conquer Cancer project (launched November 1, 2007) is sponsored by the Ontario Cancer Institute (OCI), Princess Margaret Hospital and University Health Network of Toronto, Canada. The project involves X-ray crystallography. The mission of Help Conquer Cancer is to improve the results of protein X-ray crystallography, which helps researchers not only annotate unknown parts of the human proteome, but importantly improves their understanding of cancer initiation, progression and treatment. The HCC project was the first WCG project benefiting from graphics processing units (GPU)s which helped finish it a lot earlier than initially projected due to the massive power of GPUs. In the April 2013 status report


id: world-community-grid-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-5.md
category: reference
title: World Community Grid
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:35.746920+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-community-grid-20260505-0
summary:
World Community Grid and researchers supported by Decrypthon, a partnership between AFM (French Muscular Dystrophy Association), CNRS (French National Center for Scientific Research), Universite Pierre et Marie Curie, and IBM were investigating protein–protein interactions for more than 2,200 proteins whose structures are known, with particular focus on those proteins that play a role in neuromuscular diseases. Phase 2 was launched on May 12, 2009, and completed on September 26, 2012. The database of information produced will help researchers design molecules to inhibit or enhance binding of particular macromolecules, hopefully leading to better treatments for muscular dystrophy and other neuromuscular diseases. Phase 2 of the Help Cure Muscular Dystrophy project began once the results from the first phase had been analyzed. Phase 2 ran on the BOINC platform. === Discovering Dengue Drugs – Together – Phase 2 === Discovering Dengue Drugs – Together – Phase 2 (launched February 17, 2010) is sponsored by The University of Texas Medical Branch (UTMB) in Galveston, Texas, United States and the University of Chicago in Illinois, USA. The mission is to identify promising drug candidates to combat the Dengue, Hepatitis C, West Nile, Yellow Fever, and other related viruses. The extensive computing power of World


id: world-community-grid-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-6.md
category: reference
title: World Community Grid
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:35.746920+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-community-grid-20260505-0
summary:
FightAIDS@Home (launched November 19, 2005) was World Community Grid's second project and its first to target a single disease. Each individual computer processes one potential drug molecule and tests how well it would dock with HIV protease, acting as a protease inhibitor. Scripps Research Institute published its first peer-reviewed scientific paper about the results of FightAIDS@Home on April 21, 2007. This paper explains that the results up to that point will primarily be used to improve the efficiency of future FightAIDS@Home calculations. === FightAIDS@Home Phase 2 === FightAIDS@Home Phase 2 (launched September 30, 2015) is looking more closely at the results of Phase 1. The project has two goals in the early experiments; the simulation architecture is functioning correctly and giving reliable results, and using BEDAM and AutoDock together provides better results than using just BEDAM or AutoDock. === Microbiome Immunity Project === Microbiome Immunity Project (launched August 2017) is a study of proteins in bacteria located in and on the human body; the human microbiome, which comprises around 3 million separate bacterial genes. By studying bacterial genes, researchers can determine their individual shapes, which in turn dictate the function of the bacteria. Collaborative institutions includes the University of California


id: ufluids-home-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UFluids@Home-0.md
category: reference
title: UFluids@Home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UFluids@Home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:37.026183+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ufluids-home-20260505-0
summary:
μFluids@Home is a computer simulation of two-phase flow behavior in microgravity and microfluidics problems at Purdue University, using the Surface Evolver program. == About == The project's purpose is to develop better methods for the management of liquid rocket propellants in microgravity, and to investigate two-phase flow in microelectromechanical systems, taking into account factors like surface tension. Systems using electrowetting, channel geometry, and hydrophobic or hydrophilic coatings to allow the smooth passage of fluids can then be designed. Such systems include compact medical devices, biosensors, and fuel cells. == Computing platform == μFluids@Home uses the BOINC volunteer computing platform. Application notes There is no screensaver. Work unit CPU times are generally less than 20 hours. Work units average in size around 500 kB. You must run many work units to get levels of credit comparable to SETI@home or climateprediction.net BOINC projects. == References == == External links == Website archive


id: geographic-information-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_information_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Geographic information science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_information_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:38.718052+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geographic-information-science-20260505-0
summary:
Geographic information science (GIScience, GISc) or geoinformation science is a scientific discipline at the crossroads of computational science, social science, and natural science that studies geographic information, including how it represents phenomena in the real world, how it represents the way humans understand the world, and how it can be captured, organized, and analyzed. It is a sub-field of geography, specifically part of technical geography. It has applications to both physical geography and human geography, although its techniques can be applied to many other fields of study as well as many different industries. As a field of study or profession, it can be contrasted with geographic information systems (GIS), which are the actual repositories of geospatial data, the software tools for carrying out relevant tasks, and the profession of GIS users. That said, one of the major goals of GIScience is to find practical ways to improve GIS data, software, and professional practice; it is more focused on how GIS is applied in real life as opposed to being a geographic information system tool in and of itself. The field is also sometimes called geographical information science. British geographer Michael Goodchild defined this area in the 1990s and summarized its


id: geomatics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomatics-0.md
category: reference
title: Geomatics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomatics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:40.068770+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geomatics-20260505-0
summary:
Geomatics is defined in the ISO/TC 211 series of standards as the "discipline concerned with the collection, distribution, storage, analysis, processing, presentation of geographic data or geographic information". Under another definition, it consists of products, services and tools involved in the collection, integration and management of geographic (geospatial) data. Surveying engineering was the common name used for geomatics engineering in the past. The term was placed by the UNESCO Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems under the branch of technical geography, which is geared towards interpreting and communicating spatial data. In Germany, "geodesy and geoinformatics" or "geodesy and geoinformation" is commonly used for describing this discipline. In addition, geospatial engineering is an alternative term to geomatic(s) engineering. == History and etymology == The term was proposed in French ("géomatique") at the end of the 1960s by scientist Bernard Dubuisson to reflect at the time recent changes in the jobs of surveyor and photogrammetrist. On June 1, 1971, 'geomatics' was first employed in a French Ministry of Public Works memorandum instituting a "standing committee of geomatics" in the government. At the centennial congress of the Canadian Institute of Surveying (now known as the Canadian Institute of Geomatics) in April 1982, the new


id: geomatics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomatics-1.md
category: reference
title: Geomatics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomatics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:40.068770+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geomatics-20260505-0
summary:
Global navigation satellite systems are a collection of geospatial systems that provide global coverage. The technology has a variety of purposes from communications to mobile navigation. The six GNSS constellations in operation are the U.S. GPS Operational Constellation, GLObal NAvigation Satellite System (GLONASS) stemming from Russia, the European Galileo, China's BeiDou/Compass, Japan's Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS), and The Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS). == Geomatics engineering == Geomatics engineering is a rapidly developing engineering discipline which focuses on spatial information (i.e. information that has a location). The location is the primary factor used to integrate a very wide range of data for spatial analysis and visualization. Geomatics engineers design, develop, and operate systems for collecting and analyzing spatial information about the land, the oceans, natural resources, and manmade features. Geomatics engineers or geomatician apply engineering principles to spatial information and implement relational data structures involving measurement sciences, thus using geomatics and acting as spatial information engineers. They sit at the nexus of geography and computer science. A geomatician practices geomatics, by combining "geo", (the earth) with information and automation. Geomatics engineers manage local, regional, national and global spatial data infrastructures. Geomatics engineering also involves aspects of Computer Engineering, Software


id: theories-of-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: Theories of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:44.901095+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: theories-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Theories of technological change and innovation attempt to explain the factors that shape technological innovation as well as the impact of technology on society and culture. Some of the most contemporary theories of technological change reject two of the previous views: the linear model of technological innovation and other, the technological determinism. To challenge the linear model, some of today's theories of technological change and innovation point to the history of technology, where they find evidence that technological innovation often gives rise to new scientific fields, and emphasizes the important role that social networks and cultural values play in creating and shaping technological artifacts. To challenge the so-called "technological determinism", today's theories of technological change emphasize the scope of the need of technical choice, which they find to be greater than most laypeople can realize; as scientists in philosophy of science, and further science and technology often like to say about this "It could have been different." For this reason, theorists who take these positions often argue that a greater public involvement in technological decision-making is desired. == Sociological theories == Sociological theories and researches of the Society and the Social focus on how human and technology actually interact and


id: theories-of-technology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology-1.md
category: reference
title: Theories of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:44.901095+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: theories-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Approaches of the critical theory === Critical theory attempts, according to some, to go beyond the descriptiveness of one account that may show of how things are, the exam and question of why they have come to be that way and how they might otherwise be. Critical theory asks whose interests are being served by the questioned status quo and assesses the potentials of a future, that alternates and propose "to better" both the technological service, and even social justice. Here Geuss's definition is given, where "a critical theory, then, is a reflective theory which gives agents a kind of knowledge inherently productive of enlightenment and emancipation" (1964). Thus Marcuse argued that while technology matters and design are often presented as neutral technical choices, in fact, they manifest political or moral values. Critical theory is seen as a "form of archaeology" that attempt to get beneath common-sense understandings in order to reveal the power relationships and interests determining particular technological configuration and use. Perhaps the most developed contemporary critical theory of technology is contained in the works of Andrew Feenberg included in his book 'Transforming Technology' (2002). Values in Design asks how do we ensure a place for values


id: theories-of-technology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology-2.md
category: reference
title: Theories of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:44.901095+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: theories-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Other Stances === Additionally, many authors have posed technology so as to critique and or emphasize aspects of technology as addressed by the mainline theories. For example, Steve Woolgar (1991) considers technology as text in order to critique the sociology of scientific knowledge as applied to technology and to distinguish between three responses to that notion: the instrumental response (interpretive flexibility), the interpretivist response (environmental/organizational influences), the reflexive response (a double hermeneutic). Pfaffenberger (1992) treats technology as drama to argue that a recursive structuring of technological artifacts and their social structure discursively regulate the technological construction of political power. A technological drama is a discourse of technological "statements" and "counterstatements" within the processes of technological regularization, adjustment, and reconstitution. An important philosophical approach to technology has been taken by Bernard Stiegler, whose work has been influenced by other philosophers and historians of technology including Gilbert Simondon and André Leroi-Gourhan. In the Schumpeterian and Neo-Schumpeterian theories technologies are critical factors of economic growth (Carlota Perez). == Analytical theories == There are theories of technological change and innovation which are not defined or claimed by a proponent, but are used by authors in describing existing literature, in contrast to their own


id: all-models-are-wrong-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_models_are_wrong-0.md
category: reference
title: All models are wrong
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_models_are_wrong
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:46.672506+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: all-models-are-wrong-20260505-0
summary:
"All models are wrong" is a common aphorism in statistics. It is often expanded as "All models are wrong, but some are useful". The aphorism acknowledges that statistical models always fall short of the complexities of reality but can still be useful nonetheless. The aphorism is generally attributed to George E. P. Box, a British statistician, although the underlying concept predates Box's writings. == History == The phrase "all models are wrong" was attributed to George Box who used the phrase in a 1976 paper to refer to the limitations of models, arguing that while no model is ever completely accurate, simpler models can still provide valuable insights if applied judiciously. In their 1983 book on generalized linear models, Peter McCullagh and John Nelder stated that while modeling in science is a creative process, some models are better than others, even though none can claim eternal truth. In 1996, an Applied Statistician's Creed was proposed by M.R. Nester, which incorporated the aphorism as a central tenet. The longer form appears on in a 1987 book by Box and Norman Draper in a section "The Use of Approximating Functions,": "The fact that the polynomial is an approximation does not necessarily detract


id: and-yet-it-moves-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/And_yet_it_moves-0.md
category: reference
title: And yet it moves
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/And_yet_it_moves
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:47.928795+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: and-yet-it-moves-20260505-0
summary:
E pur si muove or Eppur si muove [epˈpur si ˈmwɔːve] ('And yet it moves' or 'Although it does move') is an Italian phrase commonly attributed to the Italian physicist and astronomer Galileo Galilei (1564–1642). The Catholic Church persecuted Galileo for promoting the Copernican model of the Solar System in which the Earth moves around the Sun, which contradicted Catholic orthodoxy that the Earth remained fixed in the center of the universe. According to popular legend, Galileo muttered this in 1633 after the Roman Inquisition forced him to recant his claims, though this is likely apocryphal. == History == According to Stephen Hawking, some historians believe this episode might have happened upon Galileo's transfer from house arrest under the watch of Archbishop Ascanio Piccolomini to "another home, in the hills above Florence". This other home was also his own, the Villa Il Gioiello, in Arcetri. The earliest biography of Galileo, written by his disciple Vincenzo Viviani in 1655–1656, does not mention this phrase, and records of his trial do not cite it. Some authors say it would have been imprudent for Galileo to have said such a thing before the Inquisition. The event was first reported in English print in


id: houston-we-have-a-problem-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston,_we_have_a_problem-0.md
category: reference
title: Houston, we have a problem
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston,_we_have_a_problem
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:56.441472+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: houston-we-have-a-problem-20260505-0
summary:
"Houston, we have a problem" is a popular misquote of a phrase spoken during Apollo 13, a NASA mission in the Apollo space program and the third mission intended to land on the Moon. After an explosion occurred on board the spacecraft en route to the Moon around 56 hours into the mission, Jack Swigert, the command module pilot, reported to Mission Control Center in Houston, Texas: "Okay, Houston ... we've had a problem here." After Swigert was prompted to repeat his words by Jack R. Lousma, the capsule communicator at Mission Control, Jim Lovell, the mission commander, responded: "Ah, Houston, we've had a problem." The 1995 film Apollo 13 used the slight misquotation "Houston, we have a problem" in its dramatization of the mission, since it had become the popularly expected phrase. The phrase has been informally used to describe the emergence of an unforeseen problem, often with a sense of ironic understatement. == Background == The Apollo 13 Flight Journal lists the timestamps and dialogue between the astronauts and Mission Control. 055:55:19 Swigert: Okay, Houston ... 055:55:19 Lovell: ... Houston... 055:55:20 Swigert: ... we've had a problem here. [Pause.] 055:55:28 Lousma: This is Houston. Say again, please. 055:55:35


id: information-wants-to-be-free-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_wants_to_be_free-0.md
category: reference
title: Information wants to be free
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_wants_to_be_free
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:58.783994+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: information-wants-to-be-free-20260505-0
summary:
"Information wants to be free" is an expression that means either that all people should be able to access information freely, or that information (formulated as an actor) naturally strives to become as freely available among people as possible. It is often used by technology activists to criticize laws that limit transparency and general access to information. People who criticize intellectual property law say the system of such government-granted monopolies conflicts with the development of a public domain of information. The expression is often credited to Stewart Brand, who was recorded saying it at a Hackers Conference in 1984. == History == The phrase is attributed to Stewart Brand, who, in the late 1960s, founded the Whole Earth Catalog and argued that technology could be liberating rather than oppressing. What is considered the earliest recorded occurrence of the expression was at the first Hackers Conference in 1984, although the video recording of the conversation shows that what Brand actually said is slightly different. Brand told Steve Wozniak: On the one hand you have—the point you’re making Woz—is that information sort of wants to be expensive because it is so valuable—the right information in the right place just changes your life.


id: knismesis-and-gargalesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knismesis_and_gargalesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Knismesis and gargalesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knismesis_and_gargalesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:00.103754+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: knismesis-and-gargalesis-20260505-0
summary:
Knismesis and gargalesis are the scientific terms, coined in 1897 by psychologists G. Stanley Hall and Arthur Allin, used to describe the two types of tickling. Knismesis refers to the light, feather-like type of tickling. This type of tickling generally does not induce laughter and is often accompanied by an itching sensation. Gargalesis refers to harder, laughter-inducing tickling, and involves the repeated application of high pressure to sensitive areas. While the two terms are used in academic papers, they do not appear in many dictionaries and their origin is rarely declared. The term knismesis comes from the Ancient Greek κνισμός (knismós) meaning 'itching'. The term gargalesis stems from the Ancient Greek γαργαλίζω (gargalízō) meaning 'to tickle'. The suffix -esis is used to form nouns of action or process. == Knismesis == The knismesis phenomenon requires low levels of stimulation to sensitive parts of the body, and can be triggered by a light touch or by a light electric current. Knismesis can also be triggered by crawling insects or parasites, prompting scratching or rubbing at the ticklish spot, thereby removing the pest. It is possible that this function explains why knismesis produces a similar response in many different kinds of animals.


id: knowledge-is-power-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_is_power-0.md
category: reference
title: Knowledge is power
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_is_power
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:01.253718+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: knowledge-is-power-20260505-0
summary:
The phrase "scientia potentia est" (or "scientia est potentia" or also "scientia potestas est") is a Latin aphorism meaning "knowledge is power", commonly attributed to Sir Francis Bacon. The expression "ipsa scientia potestas est" ('knowledge itself is power') occurs in Bacon's Meditationes Sacrae (1597). The exact phrase "scientia potentia est" (knowledge is power) was written for the first time in the 1668 version of Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes, who was a secretary to Bacon as a young man. The related phrase "sapientia est potentia" is often translated as "wisdom is power". == History == === Origins and parallels === A proverb in practically the same wording is found in Hebrew, in the Biblical Book of Proverbs (24:5): גֶּבֶר-חָכָם בַּעוֹז; וְאִישׁ-דַּעַת, מְאַמֶּץ-כֹּחַ. This was translated in the Latin Vulgata as "vir sapiens fortis est et vir doctus robustus et validus" and in the King James Version as "A wise man is strong, a man of knowledge increaseth strength". The Persian poet Ferdowsi (940–1019/1025) wrote توانا بود هر که دانا بود (tavânâ bûd har ke dânâ bûd) "Mighty is the one who has knowledge." === Thomas Hobbes === The first known reference of the exact phrase appeared in the Latin edition of


id: knowledge-is-power-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_is_power-1.md
category: reference
title: Knowledge is power
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_is_power
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:01.253718+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: knowledge-is-power-20260505-0
summary:
=== Wissen ist Macht in Germany === After the 1871 unification of Germany, "Wissen ist Macht, geographisches Wissen ist Weltmacht" (Knowledge is power, geographical knowledge is world power) was often used in German geopolitics and the public discussion to support efforts for a German colonial empire after 1880. Julius Perthes, for example, used the motto for his publishing house. However, this installation of geographical research followed popular requests and was not imposed by the government. In particular, Count Bismarck was not much interested in German colonial adventures; his envoy Gustav Nachtigal started with the first protectorates, but was more interested in ethnological aspects. After World War I, German geopolitics tried to contribute to efforts to regain world power. Scholars like Karl Haushofer, a former general, and his son Albrecht Haushofer (both in close contact with Rudolf Hess) got worldwide attention with their concept of geopolitics. Associations of German geographers and schoolteachers welcomed the Machtergreifung and hoped to get further influence in the new regime. Germany's postwar geopolitics was much more cautious; concepts of political geography and projection of power had not been widespread scholarly topics in Germany until 1989. Geographical knowledge is however still of importance in Germany. Germans tend


id: noli-turbare-circulos-meos-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noli_turbare_circulos_meos!-0.md
category: reference
title: Noli turbare circulos meos!
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noli_turbare_circulos_meos!
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:04.783858+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: noli-turbare-circulos-meos-20260505-0
summary:
"Nōlī turbāre circulōs meōs!" is a Latin phrase, meaning "Do not disturb my circles!" It is said to have been uttered by Archimedes—in reference to a geometric figure he had outlined on the sand—as he was about to be killed by a Roman soldier during the Siege of Syracuse. == Origin == According to Valerius Maximus, the phrase was uttered by the ancient Greek mathematician and astronomer Archimedes. When the Romans conquered the city of Syracuse after the siege of 214–212 BC, the Roman general Marcus Claudius Marcellus gave the order to retrieve Archimedes. Some soldiers entered the house of Archimedes and one of the soldiers asked Archimedes who he was. But, according to Valerius Maximus (Facta et dicta memorabilia, Book VIII.7), Archimedes just answered "Noli, obsecro, istum disturbare" ("Do not, I entreat you, disturb that (sand)"), because he was so engrossed in the circles drawn on the sand in front of him. After that, one of the soldiers killed Archimedes, despite the order of Marcus Claudius Marcellus. == Authenticity == Plutarch does not mention the quote in his Parallel Lives. Valerius Maximus (Facta et dicta memorabilia, Book VIII.7) attests the Latin form "noli ... istum disturbare" ("I ask you


id: one-small-step-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_small_step-0.md
category: reference
title: One small step
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_small_step
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:08.419555+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: one-small-step-20260505-0
summary:
On July 21, 1969, when Neil Armstrong became the first person to set foot on the Moon, he said "That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind". Recordings of Armstrong's Apollo 11 transmission do not provide evidence for the indefinite article "a" before "man", leading to some controversy about whether he said the word or not. After years of Armstrong and NASA insisting that the static obscured it, Armstrong conceded that he must have dropped the "a" after carefully listening to the recording. Several scientific analyses have been conducted with some suggesting that he did say the "a" and others suggesting that he did not. As a result, the "a" is often included in brackets in the quote. == Background == The Lunar Module Eagle landed on the Moon as part of Apollo 11 in 1969. After Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin were ready to go outside, Eagle was depressurized, the hatch was opened, and Armstrong made his way down the ladder. At the bottom of the ladder, while standing on a Lunar Module landing pad, Armstrong said, "I'm going to step off the LM now." He turned and set his left boot on the lunar surface


id: standing-on-the-shoulders-of-giants-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants-0.md
category: reference
title: Standing on the shoulders of giants
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:10.755565+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: standing-on-the-shoulders-of-giants-20260505-0
summary:
The phrase "standing on the shoulders of giants" is a metaphor which means "using the understanding gained by major thinkers who have gone before in order to make intellectual progress". It is a metaphor of a person who wants to reach higher, standing on the shoulders of giants (Latin: nani gigantum humeris insidentes) and expresses the meaning of "discovering truth by building on previous discoveries". This concept has been dated to the 12th century and, according to John of Salisbury, is attributed to Bernard of Chartres. Its most familiar and popular expression occurs in a 1675 letter by Isaac Newton: "if I have seen further [than others], it is by standing on the shoulders of giants." == Early references == === Middle Ages === The earliest documented attestation of this aphorism appears in 1123 in William of Conches's Glosses on Priscian's Institutiones grammaticae. Where Priscian says quanto juniores, tanto perspicaciores (young men simply can see more sharply), William comments: The ancients had only the books which they themselves wrote, but we have all their books and moreover all those which have been written from the beginning until our time.… Hence we are like a dwarf perched on the shoulders of


id: standing-on-the-shoulders-of-giants-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants-1.md
category: reference
title: Standing on the shoulders of giants
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:10.755565+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: standing-on-the-shoulders-of-giants-20260505-0
summary:
Diego de Estella took up the quotation in his 1578 commentary on Gospel of Luke and by the 17th century it had become commonplace. Robert Burton, in the second edition of The Anatomy of Melancholy (1624), quotes Stella thus: I say with Didacus Stella, a dwarf standing on the shoulders of a giant may see farther than a giant himself. Later editors of Burton misattributed the quotation to Lucan; in their hands Burton's attribution Didacus Stella, in luc 10, tom. ii "Didacus on the Gospel of Luke, chapter 10; volume 2" became a reference to Lucan's Pharsalia 2.10. No reference or allusion to the quotation is found there. In 1634, Marin Mersenne quoted the expression in his Questions harmoniques: ... comme l'on dit, il est bien facile, & mesme necessaire de voir plus loin que nos devanciers, lors que nous sommes montez sur leur espaules ...Blaise Pascal, in the "Preface to the Treatise on the Vacuum" expresses the same idea, without talking about shoulders, but rather about the knowledge handed down to us by the ancients as steps that allow us to climb higher and see farther than they could:C'est de cette façon que l'on peut aujourd'hui prendre d'autres sentiments


id: tyranny-of-numbers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyranny_of_numbers-0.md
category: reference
title: Tyranny of numbers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyranny_of_numbers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:33.598080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tyranny-of-numbers-20260505-0
summary:
The tyranny of numbers was a problem faced in the 1960s by computer engineers. Engineers were unable to increase the performance of their designs due to the huge number of components involved. In theory, every component needed to be wired to every other component (or at least many other components) and were typically strung and soldered by hand. In order to improve performance, more components would be needed, and it seemed that future designs would consist almost entirely of wiring. == History == The first known recorded use of the term in this context was made by the Vice President of Bell Labs in an article celebrating the 10th anniversary of the invention of the transistor, for the "Proceedings of the IRE" (Institute of Radio Engineers), June 1958 [1]. Referring to the problems many designers were having, he wrote: For some time now, electronic man has known how 'in principle' to extend greatly his visual, tactile, and mental abilities through the digital transmission and processing of all kinds of information. However, all these functions suffer from what has been called 'the tyranny of numbers.' Such systems, because of their complex digital nature, require hundreds, thousands, and sometimes tens of thousands


id: international-scientific-vocabulary-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_scientific_vocabulary-0.md
category: reference
title: International scientific vocabulary
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_scientific_vocabulary
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:35.496652+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-scientific-vocabulary-20260505-0
summary:
International scientific vocabulary (ISV) is the set of scientific and specialized words that are in current use in several modern languages. Although the language of origin of ISV may or may not be certain, they are used translingually, whether in naturalized, loanword, or calque forms. The name "international scientific vocabulary" was first used by Philip Gove in Webster's Third New International Dictionary (1961). As noted by David Crystal, science is an especially productive field for new coinages. It is also especially predisposed to immediate translingual sharing of words owing to its very nature: scientists working in many countries and languages, reading each other's latest articles in scientific journals (via foreign language skills, translation help, or both), and eager to apply any reported advances to their own context. == Instances == According to Webster's Third, "some ISV words (like haploid) have been created by taking a word with a rather general and simple meaning from one of the languages of antiquity, usually Latin and Greek, and conferring upon it a very specific and complicated meaning for the purposes of modern scientific discourse." An ISV word is typically a classical compound or a derivative which "gets only its raw materials, so to


id: scientific-terminology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_terminology-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific terminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_terminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:36.701353+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific terminology refers to the specialized vocabulary used by scientists and engineers in their professional fields. It encompasses words and expressions created to name newly discovered or invented concepts, materials, methods, and phenomena. In the early modern period, scientific terminology was predominantly Latin, resulting in naming practices that have persisted into the present. In science, "naming a particle [or concept] is not just convenient; it marks a leap forward in our understanding of the world". Thus, new technical terms, neologisms, often arise whenever science advances. For example, the term nanotechnology was coined in 1974 to describe precise engineering at the atomic scale. More generally, neologisms have long been driven by technology and science: "technological advances are among the main drivers of word creation… In many cases, neologisms come about as names for new objects". Likewise, language scholars observe that "science is an especially productive field for new coinages," and scientific terms often spread immediately across languages through research publications. Over time, many such technical terms (e.g. laser, radar, DNA) enter common usage, though at first, they denote concepts known mainly within the field. == New concepts == Scientists frequently introduce new names for novel concepts or discoveries. Every time a


id: scientific-terminology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_terminology-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientific terminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_terminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:36.701353+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
== Classical and non-vernacular terms and expressions == In modern science and its applied fields such as technology and medicine, a knowledge of classical languages is not as rigid a prerequisite as it used to be. However, traces of their influence remain. Firstly, languages such as Greek, Latin and Arabic – either directly or via more recently derived languages such as French – have provided not only most of the technical terms used in Western science, but also a de facto vocabulary of roots, prefixes and suffixes for the construction of new terms as required. Echoes of the consequences sound in remarks such as "Television? The word is half Latin and half Greek. No good can come of it." (referring to it being a hybrid word). A special class of terminology that overwhelmingly is derived from classical sources, is biological classification, in which binomial nomenclature still is most often based on classical origins. The derivations are arbitrary however and can be mixed variously with modernisms, late Latin, and even fictional roots, errors and whims. However, in spite of the chaotic nature of the field, it still is helpful to the biologist to have a good vocabulary of classical roots. Branches


id: scientific-terminology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_terminology-2.md
category: reference
title: Scientific terminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_terminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:36.701353+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
A good example is the word laser, an acronym for "Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation", and therefore all its letters should be capitalized. However, because of frequent use, this acronym became a neologism, i.e., it has integrated into English and most other languages. Consequently, laser is commonly written in small letters. It has even produced secondary acronyms such as LASIK (Laser-ASsisted in Situ Keratomileusis). A related acronym and neologism maser (Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) is much less known. Nevertheless, it is commonly written in small letters. On the contrary, acronym SPASER (Surface Plasmon Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) is capitalized. Many scientific acronyms or abbreviations reflect the artistic sense of their creators, e.g., AMANDA – Antarctic Muon And Neutrino Detector Array, a neutrino telescope BLAST – Balloon-borne Large Aperture Submillimeter Telescope COMICS – COoled Mid-Infrared Camera and Spectrometer FROG - Frequency-resolved optical gating MARVEL – Multi-object Apache Point Observatory Radial Velocity Exoplanet Large-area Survey, a NASA-funded project to search for exoplanets METATOY – METAmaTerial fOr raYs – a material that changes the direction of transmitted light rays PLANET – Probing Lensing Anomalies NETwork, a program to search for microlensing events SCREAM – Single Crystal


id: homogeneity-and-heterogeneity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity-0.md
category: reference
title: Homogeneity and heterogeneity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:38.201372+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: homogeneity-and-heterogeneity-20260505-0
summary:
Homogeneity and heterogeneity are concepts relating to the uniformity of a substance, process or image. A homogeneous feature is uniform in composition or character (i.e., color, shape, size, weight, height, distribution, texture, language, income, disease, temperature, radioactivity, architectural design, etc.); one that is heterogeneous is distinctly nonuniform in at least one of these qualities. == Etymology and spelling == The words homogeneous and heterogeneous come from Medieval Latin homogeneus and heterogeneus, from Ancient Greek ὁμογενής (homogenēs) and ἑτερογενής (heterogenēs), from ὁμός (homos, "same") and ἕτερος (heteros, "other, another, different") respectively, followed by γένος (genos, "kind"); -ous is an adjectival suffix. Alternate spellings omitting the last -e- (and the associated pronunciations) are common, but mistaken: homogenous is strictly a biological/pathological term which has largely been replaced by homologous. But use of homogenous to mean homogeneous has seen a rise since 2000, enough for it to now be considered an "established variant". Similarly, heterogenous is a spelling traditionally reserved to biology and pathology, referring to the property of an object in the body having its origin outside the body. == Scaling == The concepts are the same to every level of complexity. From atoms to galaxies, plants, animals, humans, and other living


id: organic-model-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_(model)-0.md
category: reference
title: Organic (model)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_(model)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:40.657010+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: organic-model-20260505-0
summary:
Organic describes forms, methods and patterns found in living systems such as the organisation of cells, to populations, communities, and ecosystems. Typically organic models stress the interdependence of the component parts, as well as their differentiation. Other properties of organic models include: the growth, life or development cycle the ability to adapt, learn, and evolve emergent behaviour or emergent properties steady change or growth, as opposed to instant change regulatory feedback composed of heterogeneous (diverse) parts Organic models are used especially in the design of artificial systems, and the description of social systems and constructs. == Uses == In the social sciences, the organic model has been drawn upon for ideas such as mechanical and organic solidarity and organic unity. Carl Ritter advanced the idea of Lebensraum using the metaphor of an organic, growing state. In computer science, organic networks grow in an ad hoc manner, while organic computing is autonomous and able to self-organise and heal. Bionics (biomimicry) is the engineering of technology through the use of systems found in biology. Organic architecture stresses interrelatedness as it combines the site, buildings, furnishings, and surroundings into a unified whole, each adapted to the others. Examples include the use of passive


id: phlegmatizer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phlegmatizer-0.md
category: reference
title: Phlegmatizer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phlegmatizer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:41.899071+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: phlegmatizer-20260505-0
summary:
A phlegmatizer is a compound that minimizes the explosive tendency of another compound or material. The term is derived from the word phlegmatic, meaning 'not easily excited'. Many chemical compounds that are potentially explosive have useful non-explosive applications. One large family of phlegmatizers are phthalate esters, which are used as solvents to minimize the explosive tendency of organic peroxides, such as dibenzoyl peroxide and MEKP, which are widely used initiators for polymerizations. == See also == Phlegmatized explosive == References ==


id: photochemical-action-plots-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photochemical_action_plots-0.md
category: reference
title: Photochemical action plots
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photochemical_action_plots
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:43.267480+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: photochemical-action-plots-20260505-0
summary:
Photochemical action plots are a scientific tool used to understand the effects of different wavelengths of light on photochemical reactions. The methodology involves exposing a reaction solution to the same number of photons at varying monochromatic wavelengths, monitoring the conversion or reaction yield of starting materials and/or reaction products. Such global high-resolution analysis of wavelength-dependent chemical reactivity has revealed that maxima in absorbance and reactivity often do not align. Photochemical action plots are historically connected to (biological) action spectra. == Historical development == The study of biological responses to specific wavelengths dates back to the late 19th century. Research primarily focused on assessing photodamage from solar radiation using broad-band lamps and narrow filters. These studies quantified effects such as cell viability, production of erythema, vitamin D3 degradation, DNA changes, and skin cancer appearance. The first biological action spectrum was recorded by Engelmann, who used a prism to produce different colors of light and then illuminated cladophora in a bacteria suspension. He discovered the effects of different light wavelengths on photosynthesis, marking the first recorded action spectrum of photosynthesis. Critical evaluations of active wavelength regions in these studies helped identify contributing chromophores to processes such as photosynthesis. These chromophores are key


id: list-of-science-magazines-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_magazines-0.md
category: reference
title: List of science magazines
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_magazines
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:44.972295+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-science-magazines-20260505-0
summary:
A science magazine is a periodical publication with news, opinions, and reports about science, generally written for a non-expert audience. In contrast, a periodical publication, usually including primary research and/or reviews, that is written by scientific experts is called a "scientific journal". Science magazines are read by non-scientists and scientists who want accessible information on fields outside their specialization. Articles in science magazines are sometimes republished or summarized by the general press. == Examples of general science magazines == === Africa === === Asia === ==== Bangladesh ==== Byapon – Youth Science Magazine in Bengali Bigganchinta[1] BigganBarta (বিজ্ঞানবার্তা) – Free PDF Science Magazine in Bengali Bangachi (ব্যাঙাচি) – Free Science Magazine in Bengali published by Banger Chhater Biggan Biggan Ananda (বিজ্ঞান আনন্দ) - Published by Bangladesh Science Fiction Society (BSFS) Zero to Infinity (জিরো টু ইনফিনিটি) ==== India ==== Resonance, published by Indian Academy of Sciences Current Science Dream 2047, published by Vigyan Prasar Jnan o Bijnan, published by Bangiya Bijnan Parishad Sandarbh Science Reporter Safari ==== Japan ==== Newton press Nikkei Science ==== Kazakhstan ==== OYLA ==== Pakistan ==== Global Science ==== South Korea ==== Donga Science ==== Turkey ==== Bilim ve Teknik === Europe === EuroScientist ==== Austria


id: science-and-technology-in-the-discovery-of-america-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Technology_in_the_Discovery_of_America-0.md
category: reference
title: Science and Technology in the Discovery of America
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Technology_in_the_Discovery_of_America
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:46.111693+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-in-the-discovery-of-america-20260505-0
summary:
Science and Technology in the Discovery of America (Spanish: La ciencia y la técnica en el descubrimiento de América), is a work by the historian and mathematician Julio Rey Pastor, published in Spanish in 1945, in Buenos Aires, by the Espasa-Calpe publishing. A second, "improved and corrected" edition was published in 1945. A third and fourth edition were published in 1951 and 1970, respectively. == Description == In this book, Rey Pastor analyzes the role of science and technology in the discovery of America, with special attention to the contributions of disciplines such as geography, cartography, nautical science and cosmography, which were decisive for the realization of transoceanic expeditions, such as that of Christopher Columbus, whom Rey Pastor considers a man of science, taking into account what was understood in his time by "man of science". The work reviews the scientific situation prior to the discovery and the evolution of latitude measurement and geographical representation techniques, highlighting how these innovations allowed the navigation challenges of the time to be faced. He insists on the enormous disproportion between the magnificent results of the discoverers and the poverty of the means at their disposal. The book highlights the leading role of Spanish


id: sonnet-to-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonnet_to_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Sonnet to Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonnet_to_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:47.355600+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sonnet-to-science-20260505-0
summary:
"Sonnet to Science" (originally "Sonnet — To Science") is an 1829 poem by Edgar Allan Poe, published in Al Aaraaf, Tamerlane, and Minor Poems. == Summary == Poe asks why science preys on the poet. Science is peering, destructive and interested only in cold realities. It will not allow the poet to soar in fantasy or even to sit peacefully dreaming beneath a tree. == Publication history == In mid-November 1829, Poe agreed with the Baltimore firm Hatch and Dunning to publish his second volume of poetry, entitled Al Aaraaf, Tamerlane, and Minor Poems. This volume was the first instance in which Poe published his verse under his own name as opposed to his first publication, Tamerlane and Other Poems, which was only attributed to “a Bostonian”. A later published version of this poem includes the following note, “Private reasons—some of which have reference to the sin of plagiarism, and other to the date of Tennyson’s first poems—have induced me, after some hesitation, to re-publish these, the crude compositions of my earliest boyhood. They are printed verbatim—without alteration from the original edition—the date of which is too remote to be judiciously acknowledged.” == References == == External links == An


id: unesco-science-report-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_Science_Report-0.md
category: reference
title: UNESCO Science Report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_Science_Report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:52.718844+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: unesco-science-report-20260505-0
summary:
The UNESCO Science Report is a global monitoring report published regularly by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Every five years, this report maps the latest trends and developments in national and regional policy landscapes, against the backdrop of shifting socio-economic, geopolitical and environmental realities. Each edition is typically released on 10 November, which is World Science Day for Peace and Development. The most recent edition was released on 11 June 2021. == History == In 1987, the General Conference of UNESCO approved the launch of the Organization's first world reports, the World Communication Report, which first appeared two years later. In 1989, the General Conference approved the launch of the World Education Report, which appeared in 1991, 1993, 1995, 1998 and 2000. The launch of these two reports created a momentum to generalize the world reports to all of UNESCO's fields of competence. The World Science Report (as the UNESCO Science Report was originally known) was the next title to appear, in 1993. The first World Information Report followed in 1997 then the World Social Science Report in 1999, as well as two World Culture Reports in 1998 and 2000. Two existing reports were merged to produce


id: unesco-science-report-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_Science_Report-1.md
category: reference
title: UNESCO Science Report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_Science_Report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:52.718844+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: unesco-science-report-20260505-0
summary:
== Geographical coverage == Each edition has added geographic detail. The 2021 edition of the UNESCO Science Report provided data for 193 countries, with contributions from more than 70 authors from 52 countries. Published in June 2021, the seventh report in the series arrived at a crucial juncture, as countries were one-third of the way to the 2030 deadline for achieving their Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The report revealed that countries of all income levels shared a common agenda at this time for transitioning to digital and 'green' economies. Themes covered in 2021 included our relationship with advanced technologies and the resources and energy they require, the Fourth Industrial Revolution, the effect of Brexit on science and technology and the status of women in science and Industry 4.0. For the first time, an analysis of scientific output broke down the broad field of cross-cutting strategic technologies into its sub-fields, such as artificial intelligence and robotics, energy and nanotechnology. The report found that the COVID-19 pandemic had energized knowledge production systems. This dynamic built on the trend towards greater international scientific collaboration, which bodes well for tackling this and other global challenges such as climate change and biodiversity loss. However, sustainability


id: outline-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:54.489612+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as a topical overview of science: Science is a systematic discipline that builds and organises knowledge in the form of testable hypotheses and predictions about the universe. Modern science is typically divided into two – or three – major branches: the natural sciences, which study the physical world, and the social sciences, which study individuals and societies. While referred to as the formal sciences, the study of logic, mathematics, and theoretical computer science are typically regarded as separate because they rely on deductive reasoning instead of the scientific method as their main methodology. Meanwhile, applied sciences are disciplines that use scientific knowledge for practical purposes, such as engineering and medicine. == Study and experimentation == Experimentation is the use of controlled conditions to test an idea. A single independent variable is altered while all other conditions are kept the same to test the alteration's effect on a dependent variable. Design of experiments History of experiments Descriptive and normative science are contrasting methods to explain scientific ideas. Descriptive science explains ideas objectively while normative science explains what should be true using value judgments. Empirical research is conducted using observation and experimentation instead of theory. Empirical evidence


id: outline-of-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Outline of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:54.489612+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Alchemy is the historical study of what is now associated with chemistry. It was accepted as a science until the end of the 17th century. Astrology is a method used in ancient and medieval times to study the social sciences through physical phenomena. Cosmogony is the study of Earth's origins through divine creation. Natural history is the historical name for study of subjects that are now associated with biology. Natural philosophy is the historical name for study of subjects that are now associated with physics and astronomy. == Philosophy of science == Philosophy of science encompasses the questions, assumptions, foundations, methods and implications of science. Anti-realism is the opposition to scientific realism. Anti-realists believe that scientific theories cannot be objectively true or that they do not correlate to objectively real phenomena. Antiscience is a criticism and rejection of modern science and the scientific community. Denialism is the rejection of scientific facts that conflict with one's previous beliefs. Empiricism is the belief that truth is obtained from sense experience. Empiricists believe that science is a systematic and detailed application of common everyday thought and inquiry. Constructive empiricism is the belief that scientific theories can be true but successful testing does not


id: outline-of-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Outline of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:54.489612+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Consensus is general agreement among scientists on a conclusion or finding. Demarcation is the division of scientific and non-scientific ideas, and the resulting dispute over how to divide them. Different fields of study may be evaluated on the level of experimental rigor, how much they engage in abstraction, how closely related they are with the humanities, or other qualities. Funding of science can come from governments and donors. Junk science is the presentation of uncertain scientific claims as facts, typically to a legal or political end. List of topics characterized as pseudoscience Meta-analysis is the comparing of several studies on the same topic to draw conclusions. A paradigm is the overall understanding and accepted system of how science functions. Paradigm shifts are historical periods of total change in how science is practiced. The concept was introduced by Thomas Kuhn. Peer review is a process in which an academic provides feedback on scientific writing, often anonymously, before publication. Pseudoscience is unscientific practice or belief that is presented as scientific or uses scientific language to suggest credibility. History of pseudoscience Regulation of science involves the use of policy to limit scientific activity that regulators determine to be dangerous, unethical, or ineffective. Scientific


id: outline-of-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Outline of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:54.489612+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== References == Agassi, Joseph (1981). Science and Society: Studies in the Sociology of Science. D. Reidel. ISBN 978-90-277-1244-8. Armstrong, Jon Scott; Green, Kesten C. (2022). The Scientific Method: A Guide to Finding Useful Knowledge. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-009-09642-3. Bird, Alexander (2005). Philosophy of Science. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-85728-504-8. Browne, Janet; Porter, Roy; Bynum, William F., eds. (1981). Dictionary of the History of Science. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-29316-4. Collocott, Thomas C., ed. (1971). Dictionary of Science and Technology. W. & R. Chambers. ISBN 978-0-550-13202-4. Daintith, John; Martin, Elizabeth (2010) [1984]. Oxford Dictionary of Science (6th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-956146-9. Erickson, Mark (2005). Science, Culture and Society: Understanding Science in the 21st Century. Polity. ISBN 978-0-7456-2974-2. Godfrey-Smith, Peter (2003). Theory and Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-30062-7. Hagstrom, Warren O. (1965). The Scientific Community. Basic Books. LCCN 65-10539. Heilbron, J. L., ed. (2003). The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-511229-0. Morris, Christopher G., ed. (1992). Academic Press Dictionary of Science and Technology. Elsevier Science. ISBN 978-0-12-200400-1. Pigliucci, Massimo; Boudry, Maarten, eds. (2013). Philosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem. The University of Chicago Press. ISBN


id: list-of-adiabatic-concepts-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_adiabatic_concepts-0.md
category: reference
title: List of adiabatic concepts
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_adiabatic_concepts
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:55.628982+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-adiabatic-concepts-20260505-0
summary:
Adiabatic (from Gr. ἀ negative + διάβασις passage; transference) refers to any process that occurs without heat transfer. This concept is used in many areas of physics and engineering. Notable examples are listed below. == Automobiles == Engine braking, a feature of some diesel engines, uses adiabatic expansion to diminish the vehicle's forward momentum. == Meteorology == Adiabatic lapse rate, the change in air temperature with changing height, resulting from pressure change. == Quantum chemistry == Adiabatic invariant Born–Oppenheimer approximation == Thermodynamics == Adiabatic process Adiabatic ionization Adiabatic index Adiabatic accessibility == Quantum mechanics == Adiabatic theorem Adiabatic quantum motor == Electronics == Adiabatic circuit Adiabatic logic == References ==


id: list-of-laser-applications-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications-0.md
category: reference
title: List of laser applications
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:56.948990+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-laser-applications-20260505-0
summary:
Many scientific, military, medical and commercial laser applications have been developed since the invention of the laser in 1958. The coherency, high monochromaticity, and ability to reach extremely high powers are all properties which allow for these specialized applications. == Scientific == In science, lasers are used in many ways, including: A wide variety of interferometric techniques Raman spectroscopy Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy Atmospheric remote sensing Investigating nonlinear optics phenomena Holographic techniques employing lasers also contribute to a number of measurement techniques. Laser based lidar (LIght raDAR) technology applications in geology, seismology, remote sensing and atmospheric physics. Three-dimensional structural modifications and writing inside technological materials. Lasers have been used aboard spacecraft such as in the Cassini-Huygens mission. In astronomy, lasers have been used to create artificial laser guide stars, used as reference objects for adaptive optics telescopes. Lasers may also be indirectly used in spectroscopy as a micro-sampling system, a technique termed Laser ablation (LA), which is typically applied to ICP-MS apparatus resulting in the powerful LA-ICP-MS. The principles of laser spectroscopy are discussed by Demtröder. === Spectroscopy === Most types of laser are an inherently pure source of light; they emit near-monochromatic light with a very well defined range


id: list-of-laser-applications-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications-1.md
category: reference
title: List of laser applications
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:56.948990+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-laser-applications-20260505-0
summary:
Powerful lasers producing ultra-short (in the tens of femtoseconds) and ultra-intense (up to 1023 W/cm2) laser pulses offer much greater acceleration gradients than that of conventional accelerators. This fact is exploited in several plasma acceleration techniques used for accelerating both electrons and charged ions to high energies. === Microscopy === Confocal laser scanning microscopy and Two-photon excitation microscopy make use of lasers to obtain blur-free images of thick specimens at various depths. Laser capture microdissection use lasers to procure specific cell populations from a tissue section under microscopic visualization. Additional laser microscopy techniques include harmonic microscopy, four-wave mixing microscopy and interferometric microscopy. == Military == === Directly as an energy weapon === A laser weapon is directed-energy weapon based on lasers. === Defensive countermeasures === Defensive countermeasure applications can range from compact, low power infrared countermeasures to high power, airborne laser systems. IR countermeasure systems use lasers to confuse the seeker heads on infrared homing missiles. === Disorientation === Some weapons simply use a laser to disorient a person. One such weapon is the Thales Green Laser Optical Warner. === Guidance === Laser guidance is a technique of guiding a missile or other projectile or vehicle to a target by


id: list-of-laser-applications-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications-2.md
category: reference
title: List of laser applications
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:56.948990+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-laser-applications-20260505-0
summary:
Industrial laser applications can be divided into two categories depending on the power of the laser: material processing and micro-material processing. In material processing, lasers with average optical power above 1 kilowatt are used mainly for industrial materials processing applications. Beyond this power threshold there are thermal issues related to the optics that separate these lasers from their lower-power counterparts. Laser systems in the 50-300W range are used primarily for pumping, plastic welding and soldering applications. Lasers above 300W are used in brazing, thin metal welding, and sheet metal cutting applications. The required brightness (as measured in by the beam parameter product) is higher for cutting applications than for brazing and thin metal welding. High power applications, such as hardening, cladding, and deep penetrating welding, require multiple kW of optical power, and are used in a broad range of industrial processes. Micro material processing is a category that includes all laser material processing applications under 1 kilowatt. The use of lasers in Micro Materials Processing has found broad application in the development and manufacturing of screens for smartphones, tablet computers, and LED TVs. A detailed list of industrial and commercial laser applications includes: Laser cutting Laser welding Laser drilling Laser


id: list-of-applications-of-stainless-steel-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel-0.md
category: reference
title: List of applications of stainless steel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:58.174785+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-applications-of-stainless-steel-20260505-0
summary:
Stainless steel is used in a multitude of fields including architecture, art, chemical engineering, food and beverage manufacture, vehicles, medicine, energy and firearms. == Architecture == The use of stainless steel in buildings can be both practical and aesthetic. In vogue during the Art Deco period, the most famous use of stainless steel can be seen in the upper portion of the Chrysler Building. Thanks to its durability, many of these buildings have retained their original appearance. Stainless steel is used in the construction of modern buildings, such as the exterior of the Petronas Twin Towers and the Jin Mao Building. The Parliament House of Australia in Canberra has a stainless steel flagpole weighing over 220 metric tons (240 short tons). The largest stainless steel building in North America is the aeration building in the Edmonton Composting Facility. La Geode in Paris has a dome composed of 6433 polished stainless steel triangles that form the sphere that reflects the sky. The development of high-strength stainless steel grades, such as "lean duplex" grades, has led to increasing use in structural applications. Thanks to its low reflectivity, stainless steel is used as a roofing material for airports, which prevents pilots from being


id: list-of-applications-of-stainless-steel-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel-1.md
category: reference
title: List of applications of stainless steel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:58.174785+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-applications-of-stainless-steel-20260505-0
summary:
== Food and beverage == Austenitic (300 series) stainless steel, particularly Types 304 and 316, is the material of choice for the food and beverage industry, though martensitic and ferritic (400 series) steels are also used. Stainless steels are advantageous because they do not affect the taste of the product, are easily cleaned and sterilized to prevent bacterial contamination of the food, and are durable. Within the food and beverage industry, stainless steel is extensively used in cookware, commercial food processing, commercial kitchens, brewing beer, winemaking, and meat processing. Stainless steel's superiority over plastic in preserving flavor is reportedly why McDonald's traditionally procures soft drink syrup for its soda fountains from The Coca-Cola Company in stainless steel tanks, rather than the bag-in-box technology preferred by most fast food restaurant chains. Acidic foods with high salt additions, such as tomato sauce, and highly salted condiments, such as soy sauce, may require higher-alloyed stainless steels such as 6% Mo superaustenitics to prevent pitting corrosion by chloride. == Vehicles == === Automobiles === The Allegheny Ludlum Corporation worked with Ford on various concept cars with stainless steel bodies from the 1930s through the 1970s to demonstrate the material's potential. The 1957 and 1958


id: list-of-applications-of-stainless-steel-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel-2.md
category: reference
title: List of applications of stainless steel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:58.174785+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-applications-of-stainless-steel-20260505-0
summary:
Surgical tools and medical equipment are usually made of stainless steel, because of its durability and ability to be sterilized in an autoclave. In addition, surgical implants such as bone reinforcements and replacements (e.g. hip sockets and cranial plates) are made with special alloys formulated to resist corrosion, mechanical wear, and biological reactions in vivo. Stainless steel is used in a variety of applications in dentistry. It is common to use stainless steel in many instruments that need to be sterilized, such as needles, endodontic files in root canal therapy, metal posts in root canal-treated teeth, temporary crowns and crowns for deciduous teeth, and arch wires and brackets in orthodontics. Surgical stainless steel alloys (e.g., 316 low-carbon steel) were also used in some early dental implants. == Energy == Stainless steels are extensively used in all types of power stations, from nuclear to solar. Stainless steels are ideally suited as mechanical supports for power generation units when the permeation of gases or liquids are required, such as filters in cooling water or hot gas clean up or as structural supports in electrolytic power generation. Stainless steel is used in electrolysers (proton exchange membranes and solid oxide electrolysers being the most


id: list-of-asteroid-discovering-observatories-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_asteroid-discovering_observatories-0.md
category: reference
title: List of asteroid-discovering observatories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_asteroid-discovering_observatories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:59.427938+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-asteroid-discovering-observatories-20260505-0
summary:
The list of asteroid-discovering observatories contains a section for each observatory which has discovered one or more asteroids, along with a list of those asteroids. For each numbered asteroid, the Minor Planet Center lists one or more discoverers who have been given credit for the discovery. Sometimes these are individuals (by modern rules there can be no more than three co-discoverers), and sometimes the credit is given to an organization (for instance, Purple Mountain Observatory). == Observatories == === Andrushivka Astronomical Observatory === The Andrushivka Astronomical Observatory is a private observatory near Andrushivka in Zhytomyr oblast, Ukraine. The observatory has IAU observatory code A50. It has discovered the following asteroids: === Bohyunsan Optical Astronomy Observatory === The Korean Bohyunsan Optical Astronomy Observatory (BOAO), located at Mount Bohyeon near the city of Yeongcheon, is a member of the East-Asian Planet Search Network, an international collaboration between Korea, China and Japan. Each facility, BOAO (Korea), Xinglong Station (NAOC) (China), and Okayama Astrophysical Observatory (Japan), has a 2 m class telescope, a high dispersion echelle spectrograph, and an iodine absorption cell for precise RV measurements, looking for extrasolar planets. It has discovered the following asteroids: === Cerro El Roble Astronomical Station === Between


id: atmospheric-optics-ray-tracing-codes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_optics_ray-tracing_codes-0.md
category: reference
title: Atmospheric optics ray-tracing codes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_optics_ray-tracing_codes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:00.633352+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: atmospheric-optics-ray-tracing-codes-20260505-0
summary:
Atmospheric optics ray tracing codes - this article list codes for light scattering using ray-tracing technique to study atmospheric optics phenomena such as rainbows and halos. Such particles can be large raindrops or hexagonal ice crystals. Such codes are one of many approaches to calculations of light scattering by particles. == Geometric optics (ray tracing) == Ray tracing techniques can be applied to study light scattering by spherical and non-spherical particles under the condition that the size of a particle is much larger than the wavelength of light. The light can be considered as collection of separate rays with width of rays much larger than the wavelength but smaller than a particle. Rays hitting the particle undergoes reflection, refraction and diffraction. These rays exit in various directions with different amplitudes and phases. Such ray tracing techniques are used to describe optical phenomena such as rainbow of halo on hexagonal ice crystals for large particles. Review of several mathematical techniques is provided in series of publications. The 46° halo was first explained as being caused by refractions through ice crystals in 1679 by the French physicist Edmé Mariotte (1620–1684) in terms of light refraction Jacobowitz in 1971 was the first to


id: atmospheric-radiative-transfer-codes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_radiative_transfer_codes-0.md
category: reference
title: Atmospheric radiative transfer codes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_radiative_transfer_codes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:01.956359+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: atmospheric-radiative-transfer-codes-20260505-0
summary:
An atmospheric radiative transfer model, code, or simulator calculates radiative transfer of electromagnetic radiation through a planetary atmosphere. == Methods == At the core of a radiative transfer model lies the radiative transfer equation that is numerically solved using a solver such as a discrete ordinate method or a Monte Carlo method. The radiative transfer equation is a monochromatic equation to calculate radiance in a single layer of the Earth's atmosphere. To calculate the radiance for a spectral region with a finite width (e.g., to estimate the Earth's energy budget or simulate an instrument response), one has to integrate this over a band of frequencies (or wavelengths). The most exact way to do this is to loop through the frequencies of interest, and for each frequency, calculate the radiance at this frequency. For this, one needs to calculate the contribution of each spectral line for all molecules in the atmospheric layer; this is called a line-by-line calculation. For an instrument response, this is then convolved with the spectral response of the instrument. A faster but more approximate method is a band transmission. Here, the transmission in a region in a band is characterised by a set of pre-calculated coefficients (depending


id: azeotrope-tables-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azeotrope_tables-0.md
category: reference
title: Azeotrope tables
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azeotrope_tables
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:04.389530+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: azeotrope-tables-20260505-0
summary:
This page contains tables of azeotrope data for various binary and ternary mixtures of solvents. The data include the composition of a mixture by weight (in binary azeotropes, when only one fraction is given, it is the fraction of the second component), the boiling point (b.p.) of a component, the boiling point of a mixture, and the specific gravity of the mixture. Boiling points are reported at a pressure of 760 mm Hg unless otherwise stated. Where the mixture separates into layers, values are shown for upper (U) and lower (L) layers. The data were obtained from Lange's 10th edition and CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 44th edition unless otherwise noted (see color code table). A list of 15825 binary and ternary mixtures was collated and published by the American Chemical Society. An azeotrope databank is also available online through the University of Edinburgh. == Binary azeotropes == == Ternary azeotropes == Tables of various ternary azeotropes (that is azeotropes consisting of three components). Fraction percentages are given by weight. ‡Saddle azeotrope ‡Saddle azeotrope == References ==


id: list-of-balzan-prize-recipients-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Balzan Prize recipients
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:09.436892+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-balzan-prize-recipients-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of recipients of the Balzan Prize, one of the world's most prestigious academic awards. The International Balzan Prize Foundation awards four annual monetary prizes to people or organizations who have made outstanding achievements in the humanities, natural sciences, culture, and peace on an international level. The Prizes are awarded in four subject areas: "two in literature, the moral sciences and the arts" and "two in the physical, mathematical and natural sciences and medicine." The special Prize for Humanity, Peace and Fraternity is presented at intervals of every three years or longer. == 1960s–1970s == 1961 Nobel Foundation (Sweden) --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples 1962 Andrey Kolmogorov (Soviet Union) --- Mathematics Karl von Frisch (Austria) --- Biology Paul Hindemith (Germany) --- Music Samuel Eliot Morison (United States) --- History Pope John XXIII (Vatican) --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples 1978 Mother Teresa of Calcutta (India) --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples 1979 Ernest Labrousse (France) and Giuseppe Tucci (Italy) --- History Jean Piaget (Switzerland) --- Social and political sciences Torbjörn Caspersson (Sweden) --- Biology == 1980s == 1980 Enrico Bombieri (Italy) --- Mathematics Hassan Fathy (Egypt) --- Architecture and town planning Jorge Luis


id: list-of-balzan-prize-recipients-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients-1.md
category: reference
title: List of Balzan Prize recipients
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:09.436892+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-balzan-prize-recipients-20260505-0
summary:
== 2000s == 2000 Ilkka Hanski (Finland) --- Ecological sciences Martin Litchfield West (United Kingdom) --- Classical antiquity Michael Stolleis (Germany) --- Legal history since 1500 Michel G.E. Mayor (Switzerland) --- Instrumentation and techniques in astronomy and astrophysics Abdul Sattar Edhi (Pakistan) --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples 2001 Claude Lorius (France) --- Climatology James Sloss Ackerman (United States) --- History of architecture (including town planning and landscape design) Jean-Pierre Changeux (France) --- Cognitive neurosciences Marc Fumaroli (France) --- Literary history and criticism (post 1500) 2002 Anthony Grafton (United States) --- History of the humanities Dominique Schnapper (France) --- Sociology Walter J. Gehring (Switzerland) --- Developmental biology Xavier Le Pichon (France) --- Geology 2003 Eric Hobsbawm (United Kingdom) --- European history since 1900 Reinhard Genzel (Germany) --- Infrared astronomy Serge Moscovici (France) --- Social psychology Wen-Hsiung Li (Taiwan / United States) --- Genetics and evolution 2004 Andrew Colin Renfrew (United Kingdom) --- Prehistoric Archaeology Michael Marmot (United Kingdom) --- Epidemiology Nikki R. Keddie (United States) --- The Islamic world from the end of the 19th to the end of the 20th century Pierre Deligne (Belgium) --- Mathematics Community of Sant'Egidio --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples 2005 Lothar


id: list-of-balzan-prize-recipients-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients-2.md
category: reference
title: List of Balzan Prize recipients
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:09.436892+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-balzan-prize-recipients-20260505-0
summary:
== 2020s == 2020 Susan Trumbore (US / Germany) --- Earth System Dynamics Jean-Marie Tarascon (France) --- Environmental Challenges: Materials Science for Renewable Energy Joan Martinez Alier (Spain) --- Environmental Challenges: Responses from the Social Sciences and the Humanities Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade (Brazil) --- Human Rights 2021 Saul Friedländer (France / US) --- Holocaust and Genocide Studies Jeffrey I. Gordon (US) --- Microbiome in Health and Disease Alessandra Buonanno (Italy / US) and Thibault Damour (France) --- Gravitation: physical and astrophysical aspects Giorgio Buccellati and Marilyn Kelly-Buccellati (Italy / USA) --- Art and Archaeology of the Ancient Far East 2022 Robert Langer (US) --- Biomaterials for Nanomedicine and Tissue Engineering Martha Nussbaum (US) --- Moral Philosophy Dorthe Dahl-Jensen (Denmark) and Hans Oerlemans (Netherlands) --- Glaciation and Ice-Sheet Dynamics Philip Bohlman (US) --- Ethnomusicology 2023 David Damrosch (US) --- World Literature Jean-Jacques Hublin (France) --- Evolution of Humankind: Paleoanthropology Eske Willerslev (Denmark) --- Evolution of Humankind: Ancient DNA and Human Evolution Heino Falcke (Germany) --- High resolution images: from planetary to cosmic objects 2024 John Braithwaite (Australia) --- Restorative Justice Lorraine Daston (US / Germany) --- History of Modern and Contemporary Science Michael N. Hall (US / Switzerland) --- Biological


id: outline-of-biochemistry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_biochemistry-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of biochemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_biochemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:10.642506+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-biochemistry-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to biochemistry: Biochemistry, or biological chemistry (distinct from chemical biology), is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. A sub-discipline of both chemistry and biology, biochemistry may be divided into three fields: structural biology, enzymology, and metabolism. Over the last decades of the 20th century, biochemistry has become successful at explaining living processes through these three disciplines. Almost all areas of the life sciences are being uncovered and developed through biochemical methodology and research. Biochemistry focuses on understanding the chemical basis that allows biological molecules to give rise to the processes that occur within living cells and between cells, in turn relating greatly to the understanding of tissues and organs as well as organism structure and function. Biochemistry is closely related to molecular biology, the study of the molecular mechanisms of biological phenomena. == Applications of biochemistry == Testing Ames test – salmonella bacteria is exposed to a chemical under question (a food additive, for example), and changes in the way the bacteria grows are measured. This test is useful for screening chemicals to see if they mutate the structure of DNA and by


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:12.104269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The following index is provided as an overview of and topical guide to science: Links to articles and redirects to sections of articles which provide information on each topic are listed with a short description of the topic. When there is more than one article with information on a topic, the most relevant is usually listed, and it may be cross-linked to further information from the linked page or section. Science (from Latin scientia, meaning "knowledge") is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. The branches of science, also referred to as scientific fields, scientific disciplines, or just sciences, can be arbitrarily divided into three major groups: The natural sciences (biology, chemistry, physics, astronomy, and Earth sciences), which study nature in the broadest sense; The social sciences (e.g. psychology, sociology, economics, history) which study people and societies; and The formal sciences (e.g. mathematics, logic, theoretical computer science), which study abstract concepts. Disciplines that use science, such as engineering and medicine, are described as applied sciences. == A == Abiology – Life arising from non-living matterPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of inanimate, inorganic, or lifeless


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:12.104269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== B == Bacteriology – Subdiscipline of microbiology that studies bacteria Ballistics – Science of the motion of projectiles Balneology – Method of treating diseases by bathingPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – science of the therapeutic use of baths. Barodynamics – science of the support and mechanics of heavy structures Barology – study of gravitational force. Bathymetry – Study of underwater depth of lake or ocean floors Batology – Study of brambles Batrachology – Branch of herpetology that studies amphibians Behavioural genetics – Study of genetic-environment interactions influencing behaviour Behavioral neuroscience – Study of biological and neural mechanisma in behaviour Bibliology – Organized listing of books and the systematic description of them as objects Bibliotics – study of documents to determine authenticity. Bioecology – Study of interrelations of plants and animals with their environment Biogeochemistry – Study of chemical cycles of the earth related to biological activity Biology – Scientific study of life Biochemistry – Study of chemical processes of living organisms Biomechanics – Study of the mechanics of biological systems Biometrics – Metrics related to human characteristics Bionomics – Term with different meanings in ecology or economics – study of organisms interacting in their environments. Biophysics –


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:12.104269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== D == Dactyliology – study of finger rings. Dactylography – Scientific study of fingerprints Dactylology – Form of communication using one or both handsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of sign language. Data science – Field of study to extract knowledge from data – study of analyzing, processing, interpreting and extracting data. Demography – Study of human populations and their structures Demology – study of human populations and behaviour. Dendrochronology – Method of dating based on the analysis of patterns of tree rings Dendrology – Science and study of woody plants Dermatoglyphics – Scientific study of finger- and toeprints Dermatology – Field of medicine dealing with the hair, nails, skin, and its diseases Desmology – Study of ligaments Dialectology – Scientific study of linguistic dialect Dietetics – Study of diet and nutrition in relation to health and disease Dioptrics – Science of light and lenses Diplomatics – Academic study of the protocols of documents – science of deciphering ancient writings and texts. Dosiology – study of dosage of drugs. Dynamics – Study of forces and their effect on motion Dysgenics – Decrease in genetic traits deemed desirable and study thereof. == E == Eccrinology – Sweat


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:12.104269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== G == Garbology – Study of modern refuse Gastroenterology – Branch of medicine focused on the digestive system and its disorders Gastronomy – Study of the relationship between food and culture Gemmology – Science dealing with natural and artificial gemstone materialsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of gems and jewels Gender studies – Interdisciplinary field of study – study of gender Genealogy – Study of individual descent and bloodline – study of descent of families Genesiology – study of reproduction and heredity Genetics – Science of genes, heredity and variation Geochemistry – Science that applies chemistry to analyze geological systems – study of chemistry of the Earth's crust Geochronology – Science of determining the age of rocks, sediments and fossils – study of measuring geological time Geography – Study of Earth's spatial information – study of surface of the earth and its inhabitants Geology – Scientific study of Earth's physical composition – study of the rocks of a planet Geometry – Branch of mathematics – study the sizes, shapes, positions, angles and dimensions of things. Geomorphogeny – study of the characteristics, origins, and development of land forms Geomorphology – Scientific study of landforms – study of


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-4.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:12.104269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== I == Iamatology – Obsolete synonym for the study of therapies. Iatrology – treatise or text on medical topics; study of medicine Ichnography – Architectural drawing showing interior layout of a buildingPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – art of drawing ground plans; a ground plan Ichnology – Study of trace fossils Ichthyology – Scientific study of fish Iconography – Branch of art history – study of drawing symbols Iconology – Method of interpretation in cultural history – study of icons; symbols Ideogeny – study of origins of ideas Ideology – Set of beliefs or values – science of ideas; system of ideas used to justify behaviour Idiomology – study of idiom, jargon or dialect Idiopsychology – study of the psychology of one's own mind Immunochemistry – Study of the chemistry of the immune system Immunogenetics – Branch of medical genetics – study of genetic characteristics of immunity Immunology – Branch of medicine studying the immune system Immunopathology – Branch of medicine that deals with immune responses associated with disease Information science – Academic field concerned with collection and analysis of information Information technology (IT) – Computer-based technology Insectology – Scientific study ofi insects, or relationships between insects


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-5.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:12.104269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== M == Macroeconomics – Study of an economy as a whole – branch of economics dealing with the performance, structure, behavior, and decision-making of the whole economy Magnetics – Class of physical phenomenaPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of magnetism Magnetohydrodynamics – Model of electrically conducting fluids – study of electrically conducting fluids Magnetostatics – Branch of physics about magnetism in systems with steady electric currents – study of magnetic fields in systems where the currents are steady Malacology – Study of molluscs Malariology – Study of the mosquito borne disease, malaria Mammalogy – Study of mammals Marine biology – Scientific study of ocean life – study of the ocean's ecosystem Mastology – Study of mammals – study of mammals Mathematics – Field of study – study of magnitude, number, and forms Mazology – mammalogy; study of mammals Mechanics – Science concerned with physical bodies subjected to forces or displacements Meconology – study of or treatise concerning opium Media studies – Field of study that deals with media Medicine – Diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of illness Melissopalynology – Study of pollen contained in honey Melittology – Scientific study of bees Melology – Scholarly study of musicPages


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-6.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:12.104269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== O == Obstetrics – Medical specialty concerning pregnancy and childbirth Oceanography – Scientific study of the ocean Oceanology – Scientific study of the ocean Odontology – Scientific study of teeth Odonatology – Study of dragonflies and damselflies Oenology – Study of wine and winemaking Oikology – science of housekeeping Olfactology – study of the sense of smell Ombrology – study of rain Oncology – Branch of medicine dealing with, or specializing in, cancer Oneirology – Scientific study of dreams Onomasiology – Branch of linguistics concerned with how to express a given concept – study of nomenclature Onomastics – Study of proper names Ontology – Philosophical study of being – science of pure being; the nature of things Oology – Branch of ornithology studying bird eggs, nests and breeding behavior Ophiology, also known as ophidiology – Branch of herpetology that studies snakes Ophthalmology – Field of medicine treating eye disorders Optics – Branch of physics that studies light Optology – study of sight Optometry – Field of medicine treating eye disorders – science of examining the eyes Orbital mechanics – Field of classical mechanics concerned with the motion of spacecraft Orchidology – Scientific study of orchids Ornithology – Scientific study


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-7.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:12.104269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== P == Paedology – Study of children's behavior and development Paidonosology – study of children's diseases; pediatrics Palaeoanthropology – Study of ancient humans Palaeobiology – Study of organic evolution using fossils Palaeoclimatology – Study of changes in ancient climate Palaeoichthyology – study of ancient fish Palaeolimnology – Scientific study of ancient lakes and streams Palaeontology – Study of life before the Holocene epoch Palaeopedology – Discipline studying soils of the past eras Paleobotany – Study of organic evolution of plants based on fossils Paleo-osteology – study of ancient bones Paleoseismology – Study of earthquakes that happened in the past Palynology – Study of pollen and other acid-resistant microoscopic organic material Papyrology – Scientific study of ancient manuscripts Paradoxology – Logically self-contradictory statementPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of paradoxes Parapsychology – Study of paranormal and psychic phenomena Parasitology – Study of parasites, their hosts, and the relationship between them Paroemiology – study of proverbs Parthenology – study of virgins Particle physics – Study of subatomic particles and forces Pathology – Study of disease Pedagogics – Theory and practice of educationPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Pedology – Study of soils in their natural environment Pelology


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-8.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:12.104269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== R == Radiobiology – Study of effects of radiation on living tissues – study of the scientific principles, mechanisms, and effects of the interaction of ionizing radiation with living matter Radiochemistry – Chemistry of radioactive materials – study of ordinary chemical reactions under radioactive circumstances Radiology – Medical specialty for imaging procedures Rheology – Study of the flow of matter, primarily in a fluid state Rheumatology – Medical speciality of inflammatory diseases Rhinology – Study of the nose and sinuses Rhochrematics – science of inventory management and the movement of products Robotics – Design, construction, use, and application of robots Rodentology – Study of rodents Runology – Study of Runic alphabets == S == Sarcology – study of fleshy parts of the body Scatology – Study of faeces – study of excrement or obscene literature Schematonics – art of using gesture to express tones Sciagraphy – Study of perspective shadow projection – art of shading Scientific modelling – Scientific activity that produces models – study of application of models to understand a particular problem Scientific programming – Language for controlling a computer – study of programming Scripophily – Study and collection of stock and bond certificates Sedimentology – Study


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-9.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:12.104269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== T == Taxidermy – Stuffing and mounting dead animals for display – art of curing and stuffing animals Taxonomy – Science of classifying organisms Tectonics – Process of evolution of Earth's crust Teleology – Thinking in terms of destiny or purpose – study of final causes; analysis in terms of purpose Telmatology – Branch of physical geography concerned with the study of wetlands Tempestology – The study of cyclones, hurricanes and similar extreme weather events Teratology – Study of developmental anomalies Terrestrial ecology – Study of terrestrial ecosystems and the biotic and abiotic things that occupy them. Teuthology – Study of cephalopods Textology – Identification of textual variants – study of the production of texts Thalassography – science of the seas and gulfs Thanatology – Scientific study of death and its aspects Thaumatology – The study of miracles – study of miracles Theology – Study of the nature of deities and religious beliefs - study of religion Theoretical computer science – Subfield of computer science and mathematics Theriogenology – Veterinary specialty concerning reproduction Thermodynamics – Physics of heat, work, and temperature Thermokinematics – study of motion of heat Thermology – study of heat Therology – Study of mammals Thremmatology


id: list-of-cities-by-scientific-output-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cities_by_scientific_output-0.md
category: reference
title: List of cities by scientific output
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cities_by_scientific_output
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:13.426430+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cities-by-scientific-output-20260505-0
summary:
The following article lists the cities and metropolitan areas with the greatest scientific output, according to the Nature Index. The Nature Index attempts to objectively measure the scientific output of institutions, cities and countries by the amount of scientific articles and papers published in leading journals. Differences in quality are taken into account. Only articles published in 82 selected quality journals are counted. All these journals are in the English language. They were selected by a committee. If authors from several institutions from different cities are involved in a scientific article, it is divided accordingly, assuming that all researchers were equally involved in the article. In 2019, Beijing was the city in the world with the largest scientific output, accounting for 2.8% of the world's total. New York City was second in the world, with about 2% of the world's total. Overall, China has the most cities in the top 100 list with 28, followed by the United States with 27. == List == Listed below are the top 100 cities and metropolitan areas with the highest share of articles published in scientific journals in 2024, according to the Nature Index 2025 Science Cities: == Leading cities in different fields


id: list-of-citizen-science-projects-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_citizen_science_projects-0.md
category: reference
title: List of citizen science projects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_citizen_science_projects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:14.711151+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-citizen-science-projects-20260505-0
summary:
Citizen science projects are activities sponsored by a wide variety of organizations so non-scientists can meaningfully contribute to scientific research. == Precis == Activities vary widely from transcribing old ship logbooks to digitize the data as part of the Old Weather project to observing and counting birds at home or in the field for eBird. Participation can be as simple as playing a computer game for a project called Eyewire that may help scientists learn more about retinal neurons. It can also be more in depth, such as when citizens collect water quality data over time to assess the health of local waters, or help discover and name new species of insects. An emerging branch of Citizen Science are Community Mapping projects that utilize smartphone and tablet technology. For example, TurtleSAT is a community mapping project that is mapping freshwater turtle deaths throughout Australia. This list of citizen science projects involves projects that engage all age groups. There are projects specifically aimed at the younger age demographic like iTechExplorers which was created by a 14 year old in the UK to assess the effects of bedtime technology on the body's circadian rhythm and can be completed in a classroom setting.


id: codes-for-electromagnetic-scattering-by-cylinders-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codes_for_electromagnetic_scattering_by_cylinders-0.md
category: reference
title: Codes for electromagnetic scattering by cylinders
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codes_for_electromagnetic_scattering_by_cylinders
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:16.015297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: codes-for-electromagnetic-scattering-by-cylinders-20260505-0
summary:
Codes for electromagnetic scattering by cylinders – this article list codes for electromagnetic scattering by a cylinder. Majority of existing codes for calculation of electromagnetic scattering by a single cylinder are based on Mie theory, which is an analytical solution of Maxwell's equations in terms of infinite series. == Classification == The compilation contains information about the electromagnetic scattering by cylindrical particles, relevant links, and applications. === Codes for electromagnetic scattering by a single homogeneous cylinder === == Relevant scattering codes == Discrete dipole approximation codes Codes for electromagnetic scattering by spheres == See also == Computational electromagnetics List of atmospheric radiative transfer codes == References == == External links == SCATTERLIB: Collection of light scattering codes


id: codes-for-electromagnetic-scattering-by-spheres-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codes_for_electromagnetic_scattering_by_spheres-0.md
category: reference
title: Codes for electromagnetic scattering by spheres
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codes_for_electromagnetic_scattering_by_spheres
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:17.289566+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: codes-for-electromagnetic-scattering-by-spheres-20260505-0
summary:
Codes for electromagnetic scattering by spheres - this article list codes for electromagnetic scattering by a homogeneous sphere, layered sphere, and cluster of spheres. == Solution techniques == Majority of existing codes for calculation of electromagnetic scattering by a single sphere is based on Mie theory which is an analytical solution of Maxwell's equations in terms of infinite series. Other approximations to scattering by a single sphere include: Debye series, ray tracing (geometrical optics), ray tracing including the effects of interference between rays, Airy theory, Rayleigh scattering, diffraction approximation. There are many phenomena related to light scattering by spherical particles such as resonances, surface waves, plasmons, near-field scattering. Even though Mie theory offers convenient and fast way of solving light scattering problem by homogeneous spherical particles, there are other techniques, such as discrete dipole approximation, FDTD, T-matrix, which can also be used for such tasks. == Classification == The compilation contains information about the electromagnetic scattering by spherical particles, relevant links, and applications. === Codes for electromagnetic scattering by a single homogeneous sphere === === Codes for electromagnetic scattering by a layered sphere === Algorithmic literature includes several contributions === Codes for electromagnetic scattering by cluster of spheres === ==


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-0.md

summary:
Each entry on this list of common misconceptions is worded as a correction; the misconceptions themselves are implied rather than stated. These entries are concise summaries; the main subject articles can be consulted for more detail. == Astronomy and spaceflight == There is no scientific evidence that the motion of stars, planets, and other celestial bodies influences the fates of humans, and astrology has repeatedly been shown to have no explanatory power in predicting future events. Astronauts in orbit have the sensation of being weightless because they are in free fall around the Earth, not because they are so far away from the Earth that its gravitational pull is negligible. For example, on the International Space Station the Earth's gravity is nearly 90% as strong as at the surface. Objects orbiting in space would not remain in orbit if not for the gravitational force, and gravitational fields extend even into the depths of intergalactic space. The dark side of the Moon receives about the same amount of light from the Sun as the near side. The far side is called "dark" not because it never receives light but because it had never been seen until humans sent spacecraft around the

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-1
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-1.md

summary:
=== Mammals === Bats are not blind. While about 70% of bat species, mainly in the microbat family, use echolocation to navigate, all bat species have eyes and are capable of sight. In addition, almost all bats in the megabat or fruit bat family cannot echolocate and have excellent night vision. Bulls are not enraged by the color red, used in capes by professional bullfighters. Cattle are dichromats, so red does not stand out as a bright color. It is not the color of the cape, but the perceived threat by the bullfighter that incites it to charge, along with the spearing of the bull and mental agitation and abuse it endures beforehand. Camels do not store water in their humps, but rather fatty tissue which can be used as a reserve source of calories. While they can go long periods without water, the water is stored in the animal's bloodstream, not their humps. Domestic cats' behavioral and personality traits cannot be predicted from their coat color. Rather, these traits depend on a complex interplay between genetic and environmental factors. Not all cats are attracted and intoxicated by catnip, which affects only about two thirds of them. Alternatives exist, such

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-2
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
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parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-2.md

summary:
The bold, powerful cry commonly associated with the bald eagle in popular culture is actually that of a red-tailed hawk. Bald eagle vocalizations are much softer and chirpier, and bear far more resemblance to the calls of gulls. Despite the saying "dumb as a dodo", the dodo's intelligence was above average for an avian, as it was a member of the family Columbidae (pigeons). The perceived stupidity of the dodo, a medium-sized flightless bird that was native to Mauritius, is due to naivety and passivity from living in isolation without significant predators. Many believe that the dodo was hunted to extinction by European settlers due to its high culinary value. However, the dodo's meat was stated to be inedible by historical accounts, as one of its early names given by the Dutch was Walghvoghel (repulsive bird). The dodo's decline was caused more by predation of their eggs from invasive species as opposed to direct predation from humans. A duck's quack actually does echo, although the echo may be difficult to hear for humans under some circumstances. Despite this, a British panel show compiling interesting facts was named Duck Quacks Don't Echo. Ostriches do not stick their heads in the sand

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-3
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-3.md

summary:
It is not true that aerodynamic theory predicts that bumblebees should not be able to fly; the physics of insect flight is quite well understood. The misconception appears to come from a calculation based on a fixed-wing aircraft mentioned in a 1934 book, and was further popularized in the 2007 film Bee Movie. While certainly critical to the pollination of many plant species, European honey bees are not essential to human food production, despite claims that without their pollination, humanity would starve or die out "within four years". In fact, the most essential staple food crops on the planet, like wheat, maize, rice, soybeans and sorghum, are wind-pollinated or self-pollinating, and only slightly over 10% of the total human diet of plant crops is dependent upon insect pollination. Bees do not always die if they use their sting. This happens for only a very small minority of species, which includes the honey bee, when they sting mammals, as they have thick skin. They are able to survive when they sting other insects. Cockroaches would not be the only organisms capable of surviving in an environment contaminated with nuclear fallout. While cockroaches have a much higher radiation resistance than vertebrates, they


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-4
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-4.md

summary:
The word theory in "the theory of evolution" does not imply scientific doubt regarding its validity; the concepts of theory and hypothesis have specific meanings in a scientific context. While theory in colloquial usage may denote a hunch or conjecture, a scientific theory is a set of principles that explains an observable phenomenon in natural terms. Scientific facts and theories are not mutually exclusive, and evolution is a theory in the same sense as germ theory or the theory of gravitation. The theory of evolution does not attempt to explain the origin of life or the origin and development of the universe. The theory of evolution deals primarily with changes in successive generations over time after life has already originated. The scientific model concerned with the origin of the first organisms from organic or inorganic molecules is known as abiogenesis, and the prevailing theory for explaining the early development of the universe is the Big Bang model. Evolution is not a progression from inferior to superior organisms, and it also does not necessarily result in an increase in complexity. Evolution through natural selection only causes successive generations of a population of organisms to become more fit for their environment than


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-5
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-5.md

summary:
== Chemistry and materials science == Himalayan salt does not have lower levels of sodium than conventional table salt. Glass does not flow at room temperature as a high-viscosity liquid. Although glass shares some molecular properties with liquids, it is a solid at room temperature and begins to flow only at hundreds of degrees above room temperature. Old glass which is thicker at the bottom than at the top comes from the production process, not from slow flow; no such distortion is observed in other glass objects of similar or even greater age. Diamonds are not formed from highly compressed coal. Almost all commercially mined diamonds were formed in the conditions of extreme heat and pressure about 150 kilometers (93 mi) below the earth's surface. Coal is formed from prehistoric plants buried much closer to the surface, and is unlikely to migrate below 3.2 kilometers (2.0 mi) through geological processes. Most diamonds that have been dated are older than the first land plants, and are therefore older than coal. Neither "tin" foil nor "tin" cans still use tin as a primary material. Aluminum foil has replaced tin foil in almost all uses since the 20th century; tin cans now primarily


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-6
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-6.md

summary:
Contemporary global warming is driven by human activities, despite claims that it is not occurring, lacks strong scientific consensus, or that warming is mostly caused by non-human factors. No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with the decades-old, near-complete scientific consensus on climate change. Global warming is primarily a result of the increase in atmospheric greenhouse-gas concentrations (like CO2 and methane) via the burning of fossil fuels as well as other human activities such as deforestation, with secondary climate change feedback mechanisms (such as the melting of the polar ice increasing the Earth's absorption of sunlight) assisting to perpetuate the change. Global warming is not caused by the hole in the ozone layer. Ozone depletion is a separate problem caused by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which have been released into the atmosphere. CFCs are strong greenhouse gases; however, the hole in the ozone layer is shrinking and in 2019 was the smallest it had been since 1982, while global warming continues. Cooling towers in power stations and other facilities do not emit smoke, harmful fumes, or radiation; they emit water vapor and do not contribute to climate change. Nuclear power is one of the safest sources of energy, resulting in


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-7
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-7.md

summary:
The total number of people living in extreme absolute poverty globally decreased by two-thirds from 1990 to 2025 (measured using the international poverty line), with other poverty measurements showing similar trends. However, most people surveyed in several countries incorrectly think it has increased or stayed the same. Although the human population of Earth is increasing, the rate of human population growth is decreasing and the world population is expected to peak and then begin falling during the 21st century. Improvements in agricultural productivity and technology are expected to be able to meet anticipated increased demand for resources, making a global human overpopulation scenario unlikely. For any given production set, there is not a set amount of labor input (a "lump of labor") to produce that output. This fallacy is commonly seen in Luddite and later, related movements as an argument either that automation causes permanent, structural unemployment, or that labor-limiting regulation can decrease unemployment. In fact, changes in capital allocation, efficiency, and economies of learning can change the amount of labor input for a given set of production. Income is not a direct factor in determining credit score in the United States. Rather, credit score is affected by the amount


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-8
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
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file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-8.md

summary:
It is not just heavy metals which can be toxic; other metals (for example beryllium and lithium) can be toxic too. Sleeping in a closed room with an electric fan running does not result in "fan death", as is widely believed in South Korea among older people. As of 2019, this belief was in decline. Nocturia (waking up at night to urinate) is equally prevalent in women and men, although it is more common among both men and women over 50. Waking up a sleepwalker does not harm them. Sleepwalkers may be confused or disoriented for a short time after awakening, but the health risks associated with sleepwalking are from injury or insomnia, not from being awakened. Seizures cannot cause a person to swallow their own tongue, and it is dangerous to attempt to place a foreign object into a convulsing person's mouth. Instead it is recommended to gently lay a convulsing person on their side to minimize the risk of asphyxiation. Drowning is often inconspicuous to onlookers. In most cases, the instinctive drowning response prevents the victim from waving or yelling (known as "aquatic distress"), which are therefore not dependable signs of trouble; indeed, most drowning victims undergoing the


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-9
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-9.md

summary:
It is not true that more people have died from the COVID-19 vaccine than from COVID-19 itself. Severe adverse reactions from the vaccine are rare, and an "exceedingly small" number of deaths have been caused by the vaccine. Meanwhile, the death toll from the disease itself is in the millions. Tuberculosis is not purely a disease of the lungs that has symptoms of coughing. It may instead infect a wide range of other organs in the body. Cancer cannot be treated by restricting food intake and so supposedly "starving" tumors. Rather, the health of people with cancer is best served by maintaining a healthy diet. The common cold and the common flu are caused by viruses, not exposure to cold temperatures. However, low temperatures may somewhat weaken the immune system, and someone already infected with a cold or influenza virus but showing no symptoms can become symptomatic after they are exposed to low temperatures. Viruses are more likely to spread during the winter for a variety of reasons such as dry air, less air circulation in homes, people spending more time indoors, and lower vitamin D levels in humans. Antibiotics will not cure a cold; they treat bacterial diseases and


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-10
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
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file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-10.md

summary:
=== Nutrition, food, and drink === Diet has little influence on the body's detoxification, and there is no evidence that detoxification diets rid the body of toxins. Toxins are metabolized and removed from the bloodstream by the liver and kidneys, and they are primarily removed from the body in urine and bile (excreted with the feces). Drinking milk or consuming other dairy products does not increase mucus production. As a result, they do not need to be avoided by those with the flu or cold congestion. However, milk and saliva in one's mouth mix to create a thick liquid that can briefly coat the mouth and throat. The sensation that lingers may be mistaken for increased phlegm. Drinking eight glasses (2–3 liters) of water a day is not needed to maintain health. The amount of water needed varies by person, weight, diet, activity level, clothing, and the ambient temperature and humidity. Water requirements can be met from liquids such as juices, tea, milk, soups, etc., and from foods including fruits and vegetables. Drinking coffee and other caffeinated beverages does not cause dehydration for regular drinkers, although it can for occasional drinkers. Eating disorders do not exclusively affect women; women are


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-11
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-11.md

summary:
=== Sexuality and reproduction === Older adults are not necessarily sexually inactive nor have they lost interest in sex; although the frequency of sexual activity tends to decline with age. One survey in England of people aged 60–69 recorded 86% of men and 60% of women as sexually active. It is not possible to get pregnant from semen released in a commercial swimming pool without penetration. The sperm cells would be quickly killed by the chlorinated water and would not survive long enough to reach the vagina. An examination of the hymen is not an accurate or reliable indicator that a woman or girl has had penetrative sex, because the tearing of the hymen may have been the result of some other event, and some women are born without one. Virginity tests, such as the "two-finger" test, are unscientific. Hand size and foot size do not correlate with human penis size, but finger length ratio may. While pregnancies from sex between first cousins do carry a slightly elevated risk of birth defects, this risk is often exaggerated. The risk is 5–6% (similar to that of a woman in her early 40s giving birth), compared with a baseline risk of 3–4%.


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-12
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-12.md

summary:
== Inventions == James Watt did not invent the steam engine, nor were his ideas on steam engine power inspired by a kettle lid pressured open by steam. Watt improved upon the already commercially successful Newcomen atmospheric engine (invented in 1712 by Thomas Newcomen) in the 1760s and 1770s, making certain improvements critical to its future usage; his new steam engine later gained huge fame as a result. Although the guillotine was named after the French physician Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, he neither invented nor was executed with this device. He died peacefully in his own bed in 1814. Rather, it was Guillotin's speech favoring beheadings over other forms of execution that led to the device being referred to as "La machine Guillotine" and later simply guillotine. Thomas Crapper did not invent the flush toilet. A forerunner of the modern toilet was invented by the Elizabethan courtier Sir John Harington in the 16th century, and in 1775 the Scottish mechanic Alexander Cumming developed and patented a design for a toilet with an S-trap and flushing mechanism. Crapper, however, did much to increase the popularity of the flush toilet and introduced several innovations in the late 19th century, holding nine patents, including one


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-13
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-13.md

summary:
The lift force is not generated by the air taking the same time to travel above and below an aircraft's wing. This misconception, sometimes called the equal transit-time fallacy, is widespread among textbooks and non-technical reference books, and even appears in pilot training materials. In fact, the air moving over the top of an aerofoil generating lift is always moving much faster than the equal transit theory would imply, as described in the incorrect and correct explanations of lift force. Blowing over a curved piece of paper does not demonstrate Bernoulli's principle. Although a common classroom experiment is often explained this way, Bernoulli's principle applies only within a flow field, and the air above and below the paper are in different flow fields. The paper rises because the air follows the curve of the paper and a curved streamline will develop pressure differences perpendicular to the airflow. The Coriolis effect does not cause water to consistently drain from basins in a clockwise/counter-clockwise direction depending on the hemisphere. The common myth often refers to the draining action of flush toilets and bathtubs. In fact, rotation is determined by whatever minor rotation is initially present at the time the water starts to


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-14
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-14.md

summary:
=== Mental disorders === Vaccines do not cause autism. There have been no successful attempts to reproduce fraudulent research by British ex-doctor Andrew Wakefield, where the misconception likely originates. Wakefield's research was ultimately shown to have been manipulated. Dyslexia is not defined or diagnosed as mirror writing or reading letters or words backwards. Mirror writing and reading letters or words backwards are behaviors seen in many children (dyslexic or not) as they learn to read and write. Dyslexia is a neurodevelopmental disorder of people who have at least average intelligence and who have difficulty in reading and writing that is not otherwise explained by low intelligence. Self-harm is not generally an attention-seeking behavior. People who engage in self-harm are typically very self-conscious of their wounds and scars and feel guilty about their behavior, leading them to go to great lengths to conceal it from others. They may offer alternative explanations for their injuries, or conceal their scars with clothing. There is no evidence that a chemical imbalance or neurotransmitter deficiency is the sole factor in depression and other mental disorders, but rather a combination of biological, psychological, and social factors. Schizophrenia does not involve split or multiple personalities. It is


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-15
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-15.md

summary:
== Toxicology == Smokeless tobacco is not a "safe" alternative to conventional tobacco; smokeless tobacco products contain nicotine and are therefore highly addictive. They also can cause various harmful effects such as dental disease, oral cancer, oesophagus cancer, and pancreas cancer, coronary heart disease, as well as negative reproductive effects including stillbirth, premature birth and low birth weight. Swallowing gasoline does not generally require special emergency treatment, as long as it goes into the stomach and not the lungs. This does not mean gasoline is safe to drink; it is very dangerous when consumed. Inducing vomiting can make it worse. A chloroform-soaked rag cannot instantly incapacitate a person. It takes at least five minutes of inhaling an item soaked in chloroform to render a person unconscious. Most criminal cases involving chloroform also involve another drug being co-administered, such as alcohol or diazepam, or the victim being found to have been complicit in its administration. The misconception that chloroform can be used as an incapacitating agent has been popularized by crime fiction authors. Although bananas contain naturally occurring radioactive isotopes, particularly potassium-40 (40K), which emit ionizing radiation when undergoing radioactive decay, the levels of such radiation are far too low to


id: index-of-computing-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_computing_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of computing articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_computing_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:19.880704+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-computing-articles-20260505-0
summary:
Originally, the word computing was synonymous with counting and calculating, and the science and technology of mathematical calculations. Today, "computing" means using computers and other computing machines. It includes their operation and usage, the electrical processes carried out within the computing hardware itself, and the theoretical concepts governing them (computer science). See also: List of programmers, List of computing people, List of computer scientists, List of basic computer science topics, List of terms relating to algorithms and data structures. Topics on computing include: == 0–9 == 1.TR.6 – 100BaseVG – 100VG-AnyLAN – 10BASE-2 – 10BASE-5 – 10BASE-T – 120 reset – 1-bit computing – 16-bit computing – 16550 UART – 1NF – 1TBS – 20-GATE – 20-GATE – 2B1D – 2B1Q – 2D – 2NF – 3-tier (computing) – 32-bit application – 32-bit computing – 320xx microprocessor – 386BSD – 3Com Corporation – 3DO – 3D computer graphics – 3GL – 3NF – 3Station – 4.2BSD – 4-bit computing – 404 error – 431A – 473L system – 486SX – 4GL – 4NF – 51-FORTH – 56 kbit/s line – 5ESS switch – 5NF – 5th Glove – 6.001 – 64-bit computing – 680x0 – 6x86 – 8-bit clean –


id: index-of-computing-articles-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_computing_articles-1.md
category: reference
title: Index of computing articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_computing_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:19.880704+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-computing-articles-20260505-0
summary:
== I == IA-32 – IA-64 – IBM PC – Interactive computation – IBM – iBook – iCab – iCal – Icon – iDVD – IEEE 802.2 – IEEE 802.3 – IEEE floating-point standard – iMac – Image processing – iMovie – Indentation style Inform – Instruction register – Intel 8008 – Intel 80186 – Intel 80188 – Intel 80386 – Intel 80486SX – Intel 80486 – Intel 8048 – Intel 8051 – Intel 8080 – Intel 8086 – Intel 80x86 – Intel – INTERCAL – International Electrotechnical Commission – Internet Explorer – Internet – iPhoto – iPod – iResQ – Irreversible circuit – iSync – iTunes == J == J (programming language) – Java Platform, Enterprise Edition – Java Platform, Micro Edition – Java Platform, Standard Edition – Java API – Java – Java virtual machine (JVM) – JavaScript (standardized as ECMAScript) – JPEG == K == K&R – KDE – Kilobyte – KL-ONE – Kleene star – Klez – Kotlin == L == LALR parser – Lambda calculus – Lasso – LaTeX – Leet – Legal aspects of computing – Lex – LibreOffice – Limbo – Linked list – Linux – Lisp – List of IBM products –


id: list-of-scientific-constants-named-after-people-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_constants_named_after_people-0.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific constants named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_constants_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:21.261962+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-constants-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of physical and mathematical constants named after people. Eponymous constants and their influence on scientific citations have been discussed in the literature. Apéry's constant – Roger Apéry Archimedes' constant (π, pi) – Archimedes Avogadro constant – Amedeo Avogadro Balmer's constant – Johann Jakob Balmer Belphegor's prime – Belphegor (demon) Bohr magneton – Niels Bohr Bohr radius – Niels Bohr Boltzmann constant – Ludwig Boltzmann Brun's constant – Viggo Brun Cabibbo angle – Nicola Cabibbo Chaitin's constant – Gregory Chaitin Champernowne constant – D. G. Champernowne Chandrasekhar limit – Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar Copeland–Erdős constant – Paul Erdős and Peter Borwein Eddington number – Arthur Stanley Eddington Dunbar's number – Robin Dunbar Embree–Trefethen constant Erdős–Borwein constant Euler–Mascheroni constant ( γ {\displaystyle \gamma } ) – Leonhard Euler and Lorenzo Mascheroni Euler's number ( e {\displaystyle e} ) – Leonhard Euler Faraday constant – Michael Faraday Feigenbaum constants – Mitchell Feigenbaum Fermi coupling constant – Enrico Fermi Gauss's constant – Carl Friedrich Gauss Graham's number – Ronald Graham Hartree energy – Douglas Hartree Hubble constant – Edwin Hubble Josephson constant – Brian David Josephson Kaprekar's constant – D. R. Kaprekar Kerr constant – John Kerr Khinchin's constant – Aleksandr Khinchin


