# kb

id: list-of-misidentified-chemical-elements-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_misidentified_chemical_elements-0.md
category: reference
title: List of misidentified chemical elements
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_misidentified_chemical_elements
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:37.916882+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-misidentified-chemical-elements-20260505-0
summary:
Chemical elements that have been mistakenly "discovered". Further investigation showed that their discovery was either mistaken, that they have been mistaken from an already-known element, or mixture of two elements, or that they indicated a failing in theory where a new element had been assumed rather than some previously unknown behaviour. == References ==


id: list-of-chemistry-mnemonics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_mnemonics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of chemistry mnemonics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_mnemonics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:39.238127+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemistry-mnemonics-20260505-0
summary:
A mnemonic is a memory aid used to improve long-term memory and make the process of consolidation easier. Many chemistry aspects, rules, names of compounds, sequences of elements, their reactivity, etc., can be easily and efficiently memorized with the help of mnemonics. This article contains the list of certain mnemonics in chemistry. == Orbitals == === Sequence of orbitals === Sober Physicists Don't Find Giraffes Hiding In Kitchens. Note: After the k shell, they follow alphabetical order (skipping s and p as they came earlier). === Aufbau principle === The order of sequence of atomic orbitals (according to Madelung rule or Klechkowski rule) can be remembered by the following. == Periodic table == === Periods === ==== Periods 1, 2 and 3 ==== Hi Hello Little Beer Bottles Crack Nicely On Freddie's kNee. Nasties Merge All Silly 'People Suffer Clouts Arnti Happy Henry Likes Beans Brownies and Chocolate Nuts Over Friday's News. Naughty Margaret Always Sighs, "Please Stop Clowning Around." Kind Cats Scare Tiny Vicious Creatures, Might Fear Cows & Nice Cute Zebras. Happy Henry Likes Beans Brownies and Chocolate Nuts Over Friday's News. Happy Harry/Henry Listens B B C Network Over France Nevertheless Nothing More Arose So Peter Stopped


id: list-of-chemistry-mnemonics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_mnemonics-1.md
category: reference
title: List of chemistry mnemonics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_mnemonics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:39.238127+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemistry-mnemonics-20260505-0
summary:
Only Strong Athletes In College Study Past Midnight Oh, see(Si), Alfie(Fe) Cannot(Na) Kiss Meg(Mg) As they are present in trace quantities they are measured in parts per million(ppm). === Activity series of metals === Please Stop Calling Me A Cute Zebra Crab I Like Her Call Smart Goat Please Stop Calling Me A Carless Zebra Crab Instead Try Learning How Copper Miners Save Gold Pit Popular Scientists Can Make A Zoo In Low Humid Climate ... Note that carbon and hydrogen are non-metals, used as a baseline. Kangaroos Naturally Muck About in Zoos For Purple Hippos Chasing Aardvarks. Katty's Naughty Cat Mingled with Alice and Zarina; Fearlessly Plundering Her Cupboard of Gold. Papa Said Call Me After Zinc Interacts Tin Leading Hydrogen Co-operate Mr. Sylvester to Gain Popularity. Pretty(Potassium) Sally(Sodium) Could(Calcium) Marry(Magnesium) A(Aluminium) Crazy(Carbon) Zulu(Zinc) IN(Iron/Nickel) Tree(Tin) Lined(Lead) House(Hydrogen) Causing(Copper) Strangely(Silver) Glancing(Gold) People(Platinum). === Electronegativity === Pronounce: FOClN BrIS CHP. (F)irst (O)ff, (Cl)ean (N)ow; (Br)ing (I)n (S)ome (C)lothes, (H)ats, and (P)ants. (First off, clean now. Bring in some caps, hats {and} pants.) === Electrochemical series === Paddy Still Could Marry A Zulu In The Lovely Honolulu Causing Strange Gazes. Passive Sarcasm Can Mutate Angry Zombies InTo Large Hypocritical Cold Sexy


id: list-of-chemistry-mnemonics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_mnemonics-2.md
category: reference
title: List of chemistry mnemonics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_mnemonics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:39.238127+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemistry-mnemonics-20260505-0
summary:
"E" for 'enemies'. i.e. higher priority groups on opposite sides. Z form has higher priority groups on same side. "Z" means 'zame zide' (same side) i.e. high priority groups on same side. === Cis–trans isomerism === Cis starts with a C and the functional groups form a C. Trans, therefore is the other one by default. === Benzene ring: order of substitutes === From R group moving around the ring: Benzene likes to ROMP. == Biochemistry == === Nutrients === The four most common elements in living organisms – carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen – may be remembered with the acronym CHON. An extensions is CHNOPS, which adds phosphorus and sulfur. To remember the elements necessary for agriculture; C (see) Hopkins CaFe, Mighty-good Man, Cu (see your) Money, hope they are Closed or out of Business. For remembering macronutrients; C. HOPKiN'S Ca Mg (C. Hopkins coffee mug). MagiCal CKN SHOP (Magical Chicken SHOP). To remember the elements comprising the human body; Chopin's CaFe I.P. Cohn's CaFe === Essential amino acids === PVT TIM HaLL and TT HALL Very IMPortant. These Ten Valuable Acids Have Long Preserved Life In Men MATT HILL, VP LIFT HIM KIW(V)I TV FILM HW(R)K. FM TK


id: lists-of-molecules-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_molecules-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of molecules
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_molecules
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:40.586169+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-molecules-20260505-0
summary:
This is an index of lists of molecules (i.e. by year, number of atoms, etc.). Millions of molecules have existed in the universe since before the formation of Earth. Three of them, carbon dioxide, water and oxygen were necessary for the growth of life. Although humanity had always been surrounded by these substances, it has not always known what they were composed of. == By century == The following is an index of list of molecules organized by time of discovery of their molecular formula or their specific molecule in case of isomers: List of compounds == By number of carbon atoms in the molecule == List of compounds with carbon number 1 List of compounds with carbon number 2 List of compounds with carbon number 3 List of compounds with carbon number 4 List of compounds with carbon number 5 List of compounds with carbon number 6 List of compounds with carbon number 7 List of compounds with carbon number 8 List of compounds with carbon number 9 List of compounds with carbon number 10 List of compounds with carbon number 11 List of compounds with carbon number 12 List of compounds with carbon number 13 List of compounds


id: list-of-interstellar-and-circumstellar-molecules-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_interstellar_and_circumstellar_molecules-0.md
category: reference
title: List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_interstellar_and_circumstellar_molecules
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:42.079611+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-interstellar-and-circumstellar-molecules-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of molecules that have been detected in the interstellar medium and circumstellar envelopes, grouped by the number of component atoms. The chemical formula is listed for each detected compound, along with any ionized form that has also been observed. == Background == The molecules listed below were detected through astronomical spectroscopy. Their spectral features arise because molecules either absorb or emit a photon of light when they transition between two molecular energy levels. The energy (and thus the wavelength) of the photon matches the energy difference between the levels involved. Molecular electronic transitions occur when one of the molecule's electrons moves between molecular orbitals, producing a spectral line in the ultraviolet, optical or near-infrared parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. Alternatively, a vibrational transition transfers quanta of energy to (or from) vibrations of molecular bonds, producing signatures in the mid- or far-infrared. Gas-phase molecules also have quantised rotational levels, leading to transitions at microwave or radio wavelengths. Sometimes a transition can involve more than one of these types of energy level e.g. ro-vibrational spectroscopy changes both the rotational and vibrational energy level. Occasionally all three occur together, as in the Phillips band of C2 (diatomic carbon), in


id: list-of-na-numbers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_NA_numbers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of NA numbers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_NA_numbers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:43.247450+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-na-numbers-20260505-0
summary:
The NA numbers (North American Numbers) are assigned by the United States Department of Transportation, supplementing the larger set of UN numbers, for identifying hazardous materials. NA numbers largely duplicate UN numbers, however a selection of additional numbers are provided for materials that are not covered by UN numbers as a hazardous material. In a couple of instances NA numbers provide an alternative description than the equivalent UN number. == See also == List of UN numbers NA/UN exceptions - List of specific conflicts between NA numbers and UN numbers. == Notes == == References == "UN/NA Datasheets". CAMEO Chemicals. Retrieved 2019-10-21. "Library - Hazardous Materials Table (HMT)". PHMSA. Retrieved 2017-08-25.


id: list-of-inorganic-compounds-named-after-people-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds_named_after_people-0.md
category: reference
title: List of inorganic compounds named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:44.503558+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inorganic-compounds-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
Well-known inorganic and organometallic compounds and reagents that are named after individuals include: Adams' catalyst (proposed to be PtOx) Adamsite (NH(C6H4)2AsCl) Adkins catalyst (Cu2Cr2O5) Attenburrow's Oxide (MnO2) Arduengo carbene (class of compounds) Baeyer's reagent (KMnO4(aq)) Benedict's reagent Bobbitt's salt (4-(Acetylamino)-2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-1-oxo-piperidinium tetrafluoroborate) Bertrand carbene (class of compounds) Brookhart's acid (H(OEt2)2BArF4) Buckminsterfullerene (C60) Burow's solution (Al(CH3CO2)3(aq)) Calderon catalyst (WCl6/EtAlCl2/EtOH) Caro's acid (H2SO5) Chevreul's salt (Cu3(SO3)2 • 2 H2O) Chugaev's red salt ([Pt(C(NHMe)2N2H2](CNMe)2]Cl2) Chugaev's salt ([Pt(NH3)5Cl]Cl3) Cleve's triammine ([Pt(NH3)3Cl]Cl) Collman's reagent (Na2Fe(CO)4) Collins reagent (CrO3 / py / CH2Cl2) Condy's crystals (KMnO4) Corey–Chaykovsky reagent (O=S(CH2)Me2) Cornforth reagent ([pyH]2[Cr2O7]) Crabtree's catalyst (Ir(COD)(py)(PCy3)+) Creutz–Taube complex ([(NH3)10Ru2(pyrazine)]5+) Etard's reagent (CrO2Cl2) Davy's reagent {(MeS)PS}2S2 Deacon Catalyst (CuO/CuCl2) Dimroth's reagent (B(OAc)2)2O Durrant's Salt (K2[Co2(oxalate)4(OH)2]3H2O] Fehling's solution ([Cu(C4H4O6)2]4−) Fenton's reagent (Fe2+ / H2O2) Fetizon's reagent (Ag2CO3 / celite) Fischer carbene (class of compounds related to [(CO)5Cr=C(CH3)OCH3] Folin–Ciocalteu reagent (H3PMo12O40 / H3PW12O40) Furukawa's cyclopropanation reagent (ZnEt2 / CH2I2) Frémy's salt (Na2NO(SO3)2) Gilman reagents (R2CuLi, class of compounds) Glauber's salt (Na2SO4·10H2O) Gmelin's salt (K3Fe(CN)6) Gingras reagent (Ph3SnF2.NnBu4) Grignard reagents (RMgX, class of compounds) Grubbs catalyst (RuCl2(PCy3)2(CHPh)) Hauser base (R2NMgBr) Hoveyda–Grubbs catalyst (RuCl2(PCy3)(CH(C6H4)OiPr)) Jacobsen's catalyst (derivative of Mn(salen)Cl) Jones reagent (CrO3 / H2SO4(aq) / Me2CO) Jordan's cation ((Cp)2Zr(Me)(THF)+) Kagan's reagent (SmI2) Karstedt's


id: list-of-neurosteroids-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_neurosteroids-0.md
category: reference
title: List of neurosteroids
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_neurosteroids
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:45.691264+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-neurosteroids-20260505-0
summary:
Neurosteroids are natural and synthetic steroids that are active on the mammalian nervous system through receptors other than steroid hormone receptors. It includes inhibitory, excitatory, and neurotrophic neurosteroids as well as pheromones and vomeropherines. In contrast to steroid hormones, neurosteroids have rapid, non-genomic effects through interactions with membrane steroid receptors and can quickly influence central nervous system function. == Inhibitory == === Natural === ==== Cholestanes ==== 25-Hydroxycholesterol: cholest-5-en-3β,25-diol – NMDA receptor negative allosteric modulator ==== Androstanes ==== 3α,5α-Androstanediol (3α-androstanediol): 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator 3α,5β-Androstanediol (etiocholanediol): 5β-androstane-3α,17β-diol – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator 3α-Androstenol: 5α-androst-16-en-3α-ol – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator Androsterone: 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator Etiocholanolone: 5β-androstan-3α-ol-17-one – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator The following are proneurosteroids: Dihydrotestosterone (DHT; androstanolone, stanolone): 5α-androst-17β-ol-3-one – of the above-listed inhibitory androstane neurosteroids Testosterone: androst-4-en-17β-ol-3-one – of the above-listed inhibitory androstane neurosteroids ==== Pregnanes ==== 3α-Dihydroprogesterone (3α-DHP): pregn-4-en-3α-ol-20-one – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator 5α-Dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP; allopregnanedione): 5α-pregnane-3,20-dione – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator 5β-Dihydroprogesterone (5β-DHP; pregnanedione): 5β-pregnane-3,20-dione – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator Allopregnanediol: 5α-pregnane-3α,20α-diol – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator Allopregnanolone (brexanolone; SAGE-547): 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator Dihydrodeoxycorticosterone (DHDOC): 21-hydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one – GABAA


id: list-of-nonmetal-monographs-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nonmetal_monographs-0.md
category: reference
title: List of nonmetal monographs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nonmetal_monographs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:46.930047+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-nonmetal-monographs-20260505-0
summary:
The purpose of this annotated list is to provide a chronological, consolidated list of nonmetal monographs, which could enable the interested reader to further trace classification approaches in this area. Those marked with a ▲ classify these 14 elements as nonmetals: H, N; O, S; the 4 stable halogens; and the 6 naturally occurring noble gases. Steudel R 2020, Chemistry of the Non-metals: Syntheses - Structures - Bonding - Applications, in collaboration with D Scheschkewitz, Berlin, Walter de Gruyter, doi:10.1515/9783110578065. ▲ An updated translation of the 5th German edition of 2013, incorporating the literature up to Spring 2019. Twenty-three nonmetals, including B, Si, Ge, As, Se, Te, and At but not Sb (nor Po). The nonmetals are identified on the basis of their electrical conductivity at absolute zero putatively being close to zero, rather than finite as in the case of metals. That does not work for As however, which has the electronic structure of a semimetal (like Sb). Halka M & Nordstrom B 2010, "Nonmetals", Facts on File, New York, ISBN 978-0-8160-7367-2 A reading level 9+ book covering H, C, N, O, P, S, Se. Complementary books by the same authors examine (a) the post-transition metals (Al, Ga, In,


id: outline-of-organic-chemistry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_organic_chemistry-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of organic chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_organic_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:48.210958+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-organic-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to organic chemistry: Organic chemistry is the scientific study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation (by synthesis or by other means) of carbon-based compounds, hydrocarbons, and their derivatives. These compounds may contain any number of other elements, including hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, the halogens as well as phosphorus, silicon, and sulfur. == General topics == History of organic chemistry IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry Organic reaction Organic compound Organic synthesis Retrosynthetic analysis == Current trends == Current trends in organic chemistry include (as of 2020): Biocatalysis Catalysis Chemosensors Chiral synthesis Flow chemistry Green chemistry Mechanochemistry Photoredox catalysis == Concepts == Acids and bases Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory Acid dissociation constants Lewis acids and bases Chemoselectivity Molecular structure Aromaticity Chemical bonding Covalent bonding Lewis model Molecule shapes Bond angles Resonance structures Conjugated systems Functional groups Stereochemistry Conformational isomerism Diastereomer Stereoisomerism Chirality Optical activity Enantiomers Regioselectivity Stereoselectivity Spectroscopy Infrared spectroscopy Mass spectrometry NMR spectroscopy Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy Organometallic chemistry == Chemical species == Acetals Hemiacetals Thioacetals Ketals Alcohols and diols Haloalkanes Thiols Alkanes and cycloalkanes Alkenes Alkynes Amines Amino acids, peptides, proteins Aromatics Acetophenones Anilines Anisoles Benzene Benzenesulfonic acids Benzophenones Nitrobenzenes


id: list-of-organic-reactions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_organic_reactions-0.md
category: reference
title: List of organic reactions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_organic_reactions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:49.562463+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-organic-reactions-20260505-0
summary:
Well-known reactions and reagents in organic chemistry include == 0-9 == 1,2-Wittig rearrangement 1,3-Dipolar cycloaddition 2,3-Wittig rearrangement == A == Acetalisation Acetoacetic ester condensation Achmatowicz reaction Acylation Acyloin condensation Adams' catalyst Adams decarboxylation Adkins catalyst Adkins–Peterson reaction Akabori amino acid reaction Alcohol oxidation Alder ene reaction Alder–Stein rules Aldol addition Aldol condensation Algar–Flynn–Oyamada reaction Alkylimino-de-oxo-bisubstitution Alkyne trimerisation Alkyne zipper reaction Allan–Robinson reaction Allylic rearrangement Amadori rearrangement Amine alkylation Angeli–Rimini reaction Andrussov oxidation Appel reaction Arbuzov reaction, Arbusow reaction Arens–Van Dorp synthesis, Isler modification Aromatic nitration Arndt–Eistert synthesis Aston–Greenburg rearrangement Auwers synthesis Aza-Cope rearrangement Azo coupling == B == Baeyer–Drewson indigo synthesis Baeyer–Villiger oxidation, Baeyer–Villiger rearrangement Bakeland process (Bakelite) Baker–Venkataraman rearrangement, Baker–Venkataraman transformation Baldwin's rules Bally–Scholl synthesis Balz–Schiemann reaction Bamberger rearrangement Bamberger triazine synthesis Bamford–Stevens reaction Barbier reaction Barbier–Wieland degradation Bardhan–Sengupta phenanthrene synthesis Barfoed's test Bargellini reaction Bartoli indole synthesis, Bartoli reaction Barton decarboxylation Barton reaction Barton–Kellogg reaction Barton–McCombie reaction, Barton deoxygenation Barton-Zard Synthesis Barton vinyl iodine procedure Baudisch reaction Bayer test Baylis–Hillman reaction Bechamp reaction Bechamp reduction Beckmann fragmentation Beckmann rearrangement Bellus–Claisen rearrangement Belousov–Zhabotinsky reaction Benary reaction Benedict's reagent Benkeser reaction Benzidine rearrangement Benzilic acid rearrangement Benzoin condensation Bergman cyclization Bergmann azlactone peptide synthesis Bergmann degradation Bergmann–Zervas carbobenzoxy method Bernthsen


id: list-of-organic-reactions-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_organic_reactions-1.md
category: reference
title: List of organic reactions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_organic_reactions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:49.562463+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-organic-reactions-20260505-0
summary:
== J == Jacobsen epoxidation Jacobsen rearrangement Janovsky reaction Japp–Klingemann reaction Japp–Maitland condensation Jocic reaction Johnson–Claisen rearrangement Johnson–Corey–Chaykovsky reaction Jones oxidation Jordan–Ullmann–Goldberg synthesis Julia olefination, Julia–Lythgoe olefination == K == Kabachnik–Fields reaction Kharasch–Sosnovsky reaction Keck asymmetric allylation Ketimine Mannich reaction Ketone halogenation Kiliani–Fischer synthesis Kindler reaction Kishner cyclopropane synthesis Knoevenagel condensation Knorr pyrazole synthesis Knorr pyrrole synthesis Knorr quinoline synthesis Koch–Haaf reaction Kochi reaction Koenigs–Knorr reaction Kolbe electrolysis Kolbe nitrile synthesis Kolbe–Schmitt reaction Kornblum oxidation Kornblum–DeLaMare rearrangement Kostanecki acylation Kowalski ester homologation Krapcho decarboxylation Krische allylation Kröhnke aldehyde synthesis Kröhnke oxidation Kröhnke pyridine synthesis Kucherov reaction Kuhn–Winterstein reaction Kulinkovich reaction Kumada coupling == L == Larock indole synthesis Lawesson's reagent Lebedev process Lehmstedt–Tanasescu reaction Leimgruber–Batcho indole synthesis Letts nitrile synthesis Leuckart reaction Leuckart thiophenol reaction Leuckart–Wallach reaction Leuckart amide synthesis Levinstein process Ley oxidation Lieben iodoform reaction, Haloform reaction Liebeskind–Srogl coupling Liebig melamine synthesis Lindlar catalyst Lobry de Bruyn–Van Ekenstein transformation Lombardo methylenation Lossen rearrangement Lucas' reagent Luche reduction == M == Maillard reaction Madelung synthesis Malaprade reaction, Periodic acid oxidation Malonic ester synthesis Mannich reaction Markó–Lam deoxygenation Markovnikov's rule, Markownikoff rule, Markownikow rule Marschalk reaction Martinet dioxindole synthesis McDougall monoprotection McFadyen–Stevens reaction McMurry reaction Meerwein arylation Meerwein–Ponndorf–Verley reduction Meisenheimer


id: index-of-pesticide-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_pesticide_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of pesticide articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_pesticide_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:50.801117+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-pesticide-articles-20260505-0
summary:
This is an index of articles relating to pesticides. == 0–9 == == A == == B == == C == == D == == E == == F == == G == == H == == I == == J == == K == == L == == M == == N == == P == == Q == == R == == S == == T == == U == == V == == W, X, Y, Z == == See also == List of fungicides List of herbicides List of insecticides


id: list-of-largest-selling-pharmaceutical-products-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_selling_pharmaceutical_products-0.md
category: reference
title: List of largest selling pharmaceutical products
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_selling_pharmaceutical_products
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:51.992126+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-largest-selling-pharmaceutical-products-20260505-0
summary:
== Best selling pharmaceuticals of U.S. market == The top 5 best selling pharmaceuticals 2015–2019. Sales in billion USD. == Best selling pharmaceuticals of 2017/18 == The top 16 best selling pharmaceuticals of 2017/18. == Largest selling pharmaceutical products of 2015 == Drugs with sales above $5 billion in 2015 included: == Best selling pharmaceuticals of 2013 == For the fourth quarter of 2013, the largest selling drugs were: == See also == List of drugs Lists about the pharmaceutical industry == References ==


id: list-of-phenyltropanes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phenyltropanes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of phenyltropanes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phenyltropanes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:53.479705+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-phenyltropanes-20260505-0
summary:
Phenyltropanes (PTs) are a family of chemical compounds originally derived from structural modification of cocaine. The main feature differentiating phenyltropanes from cocaine is that they lack the ester functionality at the 3-position terminating in the benzene; thus, the phenyl is attached direct to the tropane skeleton (hence the name "phenyl"-tropane) with no further spacer that the cocaine benzoyloxy provided. The original purpose of phenyltropane-related research was to extirpate the cardiotoxicity inherent in the local anesthetic "numbing" capability of cocaine (which stems from the methylated benzoate ester being essential to cocaine's blockage of sodium channels, and which causes topical anesthesia) while retaining stimulant function. Phenyltropane compounds present promising avenues of research into therapeutic applications, particularly in regard to addiction treatment. These compounds' uses vary depending on their construction and structure-activity relationship ranging from the treating of cocaine dependency to understanding the dopamine reward system in the human brain to treating Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. (Since 2008 there have been continual additions to the list and enumerations of the plethora of types of chemicals that fall into the category of this substance profile.) Certain phenyltropanes can even be used as a smoking cessation aid (cf. RTI-29). Many of the compounds were first


id: list-of-phenyltropanes-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phenyltropanes-1.md
category: reference
title: List of phenyltropanes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phenyltropanes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:53.479705+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-phenyltropanes-20260505-0
summary:
==== 2β-Acyl-3β-naphthyl substituted ==== === Ester reduction === Note: p-fluorophenyl is weaker than the others. RTI-145 is not peroxy, it is a methyl carbonate. === 2-Alkane/Alkene === aKi value for displacement of WIN 35428. bIC50 value. === Irreversible covalent (cf. ionic) C2 ligands === Irreversible (phenylisothiocyanate) binding ligand (Murthy, V.; Martin, T. J.; Kim, S.; Davies, H. M. L.; Childers, S. R. (2008). "In Vivo Characterization of a Novel Phenylisothiocyanate Tropane Analog at Monoamine Transporters in Rat Brain". Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 326 (2): 587–595. doi:10.1124/jpet.108.138842. PMID 18492949. S2CID 5996473.) RTI-76: 4′-isothiocyanatophenyl (1R,2S,3S,5S)-3-(4-chlorophenyl)-8-methyl-8-azabicyclo[3.2.1]octane-2-carboxylate. Also known as: 3β-(p-chlorophenyl)tropan-2β-carboxylic acid p-isothiocyanatophenylmethyl ester. ==== C2 Acyl, N8 phenylisothiocyanate ==== HD-205 (Murthy et al., 2007) Note the contrast to the phenylisothiocyanate covalent binding site locations as compared to the one on p-Isococ, a non-phenyltropane cocaine analogue. === Benztropine based (C2-position hetero-substituted) phenyltropanes === === F&B series (Biotin side-chains etc.) === One patent claims a series of compounds with biotin-related sidechains are pesticides. === Miscellany (i.e. Misc./Miscellaneous) C2-substituents === == C2-truncated/descarboxyl (non-ecgonine w/o 2-position-replacement tropanes) == === Aryl-Tropenes === WO 2004113297, Peters, Dan; Olsen, Gunnar M. & Nielsen, Elsebet Oestergaard et al., "Aza-ring derivatives and their use as monoamine neurotransmitter re-uptake inhibitors", published


id: list-of-phenyltropanes-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phenyltropanes-2.md
category: reference
title: List of phenyltropanes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phenyltropanes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:53.479705+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-phenyltropanes-20260505-0
summary:
=== Bridged N-constrained phenyltropanes (fused/tethered) === See: Bridged cocaine derivatives & N8 Tricyclic (2β—crossed-over) N8—to—3β replaced aryl linked (expansive front-bridged) cocaine analogues ==== p-methyl aryl front & back N-bridged phenyltropanes ==== U.S. patent 6,150,376 ɑValue for displacement of [3H]WIN 35,428 binding @ DAT bValue for displacement of [3H]paroxetine binding to SERT cValue for displacement of [3H]nisoxetine from NET Fused tropane-derivatives as neurotransmitter reuptake inhibitors. Singh notes that all bridged derivatives tested displayed 2.5—104 fold higher DAT affinity than cocaine. The ones 2.8—190 fold more potent at DAT also had increased potency at the other two MAT sites (NET & SERT); NET having 1.6—78× increased activity. (+)-128 additionally exhibited 100× greater potency @ SERT, whereas 132a & 133a had 4–5.2× weaker 5-HTT (i.e. SERT) activity. Front-bridged (e.g. 128 & 129) had a better 5-HT/DA reuptake ratio in favor of SERT, while the back-bridged (e.g. 130–133) preferred placement with DAT interaction. U.S. patent 5,998,405 ==== 3,4-Cl2 aryl front-bridged phenyltropanes ==== 1-Chloroethyl chloroformate is used to remove N-methyl of trans-aryltropanes. 2° amine is reacted with Br(CH2)nCO2Et. Base used to abstract proton α- to CO2Et group and complete the tricyclic ring closure step (Dieckmann cyclization). To make a different type of analog (see Kozikowski


id: list-of-phenyltropanes-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phenyltropanes-3.md
category: reference
title: List of phenyltropanes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phenyltropanes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:53.479705+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-phenyltropanes-20260505-0
summary:
=== Transition metal complexes === These compounds include transition metals in their heteroatomic conformation, unlike non-radiolabel intended chelates where their element is chosen for intrinsic affectation to binding and function, these are tagged on by a "tail" (or similar) with a sufficient spacer to remain separated from known binding properties and instead are meant to add radioactivity enough to be easily tracked via observation methods that utilize radioactivity. As for anomalies of binding within the spectrum of the under-written kinds just mentioned: other factors not otherwise considered to account for its relatively lower potency, "compound 89c" is posited to protrude forward at the aryl place on its moiety toward the MAT ligand acceptor site in a manner detrimental to its efficacy. That is considered due to the steric bulk of the eight-position "tail" chelate substituted constituent, overreaching the means by which it was intended to be isolated from binding factors upon a tail, and ultimately nonetheless, interfering with its ability to bind. However, to broach this discrepancy, decreasing of the nitrogen tether at the eight position by a single methylene unit (89d) was shown to bring the potency of the analogous compound to the expected, substantially higher, potency: The N-methyl


id: list-of-phytochemicals-in-food-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phytochemicals_in_food-0.md
category: reference
title: List of phytochemicals in food
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phytochemicals_in_food
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:55.957913+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-phytochemicals-in-food-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of phytochemicals present in foods. == Terpenoids (isoprenoids) == === Carotenoids (tetraterpenoids) === ==== Carotenes ==== orange pigments α-Carotene – to vitamin A: carrots, pumpkins, maize, tangerine, orange β-Carotene – to vitamin A: dark, leafy greens, red, orange and yellow fruits and vegetables. γ-Carotene - to vitamin A δ-Carotene ε-carotene Lycopene: Vietnamese Gac, tomatoes, grapefruit, watermelon, guava, apricots, carrots, autumn olive. Neurosporene: tomato, pink grapefruit,watermelon Phytofluene: star fruit, sweet potato, orange Phytoene: sweet potato, orange ==== Xanthophylls ==== yellow pigments Canthaxanthin: paprika, mushrooms, crustaceans, fish and eggs . β-Cryptoxanthin to vitamin A: mango, tangerine, orange, papaya, peaches, avocado, pea, grapefruit, kiwi Zeaxanthin: wolfberry, spinach, kale, turnip greens, maize, eggs, red pepper, pumpkin, orange Astaxanthin: microalgae, yeast, krill, shrimp, salmon, lobsters, and some crabs Lutein: spinach, turnip greens, romaine lettuce, eggs, red pepper, pumpkin, mango, papaya, oranges, kiwi, peaches, squash, brassicas, prunes, sweet potatoes, honeydew melon, rhubarb, plum, avocado, pear, cilantro Rubixanthin: rose hip === Triterpenoids === Saponins: soybeans, beans, other legumes, maize, alfalfa Oleanolic acid: American pokeweed, honey mesquite, garlic, java apple, cloves, and many other Syzygium species Ursolic acid: apples, basil, bilberries, cranberries, elder flower, peppermint, lavender, oregano, thyme, hawthorn, prunes Betulinic acid: Ber


id: list-of-phytochemicals-in-food-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phytochemicals_in_food-1.md
category: reference
title: List of phytochemicals in food
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phytochemicals_in_food
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:55.957913+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-phytochemicals-in-food-20260505-0
summary:
=== Organosulfides/ Organosulfur compounds === Polysulfides (allium compounds): garlic, onions, leeks, chives, shallots Sulfides Diallyl disulfide garlic, onions, leeks, chives, shallots Alliin garlic Allyl isothiocyanate: horseradish, mustard, wasabi Syn-propanethial-S-oxide: cut onions === Indoles === Indole-3-carbinol: cabbage, kale, brussels sprouts, rutabaga, mustard greens, broccoli 3,3'-Diindolylmethane or DIM: broccoli family, brussels sprouts, cabbage, kale Indole-3-acetic acid: Commonly occurring plant hormone, a part of the auxin family. == Betalains == Betacyanins beets, chard, Amaranthus tricolor betanin isobetanin probetanin neobetanin Betaxanthins (non glycosidic versions) Indicaxanthin: beets, sicilian prickly pear Vulgaxanthin: beets == Chlorophylls == Chlorophyllin: Dark green leafy vegetables like spinach == Other organic acids == Saturated cyclic acids Phytic acid: (inositol hexaphosphate) cereals, nuts, sesame seeds, soybeans, wheat, pumpkin, beans, almonds Quinic acid Oxalic acid: orange, spinach, rhubarb, tea and coffee, banana, ginger, almond, sweet potato, bell pepper Tartaric acid: apricots, apples, sunflower, avocado, grapes, tamarind Anacardic acid: cashews, mangoes Malic acid: apples Caftaric acid: grapes Coutaric acid: grapes Fertaric acid == Amines == Betanin: beetroot == Carbohydrates == === Monosaccharides === Hexose: wheat, barley Pentose: rye, oat === Polysaccharides === Beta-glucan Chitin: fungi includes other edible mushrooms Lentinan: fruit body of shiitake (Lentinula edodes mycelium (LEM)) and other edible mushrooms Fructan Inulins:


id: list-of-progestogens-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_progestogens-0.md
category: reference
title: List of progestogens
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_progestogens
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:57.264255+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-progestogens-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of progestogens that are or that have been used in clinical or veterinary medicine. They are steroids and include derivatives of progesterone and testosterone. == Progesterone derivatives == === Retroprogesterone derivatives === Although an active progestogen, retroprogesterone is not medically used. === 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone derivatives === 17α-hydroxyprogesterone is inactive as a progestogen and is not used medically. The 19-norprogesterone derivatives gestonorone caproate (gestronol hexanoate), nomegestrol acetate, segesterone acetate (nestorone, elcometrine), and norgestomet are also derivatives of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (see below). === 17α-Methylprogesterone derivatives === Although an active progestogen, 17α-methylprogesterone is not medically used. The 19-norprogesterone derivatives demegestone, promegestone, and trimegestone are also derivatives of 17α-methylprogesterone (see below). === Other 17α-substituted progesterone derivatives === === 19-Norprogesterone derivatives === Although an active progestogen, 19-norprogesterone is not medically used. == Testosterone derivatives == Testosterone itself does not have significant progestogenic activity. Testosterone is instead classified as an anabolic-androgenic steroid and is included here purely because it is the parent structure of this group of progestins. === 17α-Ethynyltestosterone derivatives === === 19-Nortestosterone derivatives === While nandrolone (19-nortestosterone) does have significant progestogenic activity, it is not used as a progestogen. It is instead classified as an androgenic-anabolic steroid and is included here purely


id: list-of-reagents-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_reagents-0.md
category: reference
title: List of reagents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_reagents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:01.186595+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-reagents-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of inorganic and organic reagents commonly used in chemistry. == Synopsis == Reagents are "substances or compounds that are added to a system in order to bring about a chemical reaction or are added to see if a reaction occurs." Some reagents are just a single element. However, most processes require reagents made of chemical compounds. Some of the most common ones used widely for specific reactive functions are listed below, but is by no means exhaustive. == Reagent Compounds == == See also == Reagent Limiting reagent Category: Reagents for organic chemistry == References ==


id: list-of-refrigerants-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_refrigerants-0.md
category: reference
title: List of refrigerants
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_refrigerants
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:02.795048+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-refrigerants-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of refrigerants, sorted by their ASHRAE-designated numbers, commonly known as R numbers. Many modern refrigerants are human-made halogenated gases, especially fluorinated gases and chlorinated gases, that are frequently referred to as Freon (a registered trademark of Chemours). Freons are responsible for the formation of the ozone hole. The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol are international agreements that oblige signatory countries to limit the emission of ozone-depleting gases. The Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol furthermore obliges signatory countries to limit the emission of gases with high global warming potential. == Numbering scheme == According to ASHRAE standard 34, the R-number of a chemical refrigerant is assigned systematically according to its molecular structure and has between two and four digits. If there are carbon-carbon multiple bonds, there are four digits in all: the number of these bonds is the first digit and the number of carbon atoms minus one (C − 1) is next. If there is more than one carbon atom but no multiple bonds, there are three digits, and the number of carbon atoms minus one is the first digit. If there is only one carbon atom,


id: rotterdam-convention-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotterdam_Convention-0.md
category: reference
title: Rotterdam Convention
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotterdam_Convention
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:04.010688+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rotterdam-convention-20260505-0
summary:
The Rotterdam Convention (formally, the Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade) is a multilateral treaty to promote shared responsibilities in relation to importation of hazardous chemicals. The convention promotes open exchange of information and calls on exporters of hazardous chemicals to use proper labeling, include directions on safe handling, and inform purchasers of any known restrictions or bans. Signatory nations can decide whether to allow or ban the importation of chemicals listed in the treaty, and exporting countries are obliged to make sure that producers within their jurisdiction comply. In 2012, the Secretariats of the Basel and Stockholm conventions, as well as the UNEP-part of the Rotterdam Convention Secretariat, merged to a single Secretariat with a matrix structure serving the three conventions. The three conventions now hold back to back Conferences of the Parties as part of their joint synergies decisions. The ninth meeting of the Rotterdam Conference was held from 29 April to 10 May 2019 in Geneva, Switzerland. == Substances covered under the Convention == The following chemicals are listed in Annex III to the convention: 2,4,5-T and its salts and esters Alachlor Aldicarb Aldrin Asbestos –


id: list-of-saturated-fatty-acids-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_saturated_fatty_acids-0.md
category: reference
title: List of saturated fatty acids
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_saturated_fatty_acids
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:05.181126+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-saturated-fatty-acids-20260505-0
summary:
Saturated fatty acids are fatty acids that make up saturated fats. == Straight-chain == Saturated straight-chain fatty acids: == Branched-chain == Saturated branched-chain fatty acids: == See also == List of unsaturated fatty acids Carboxylic acid List of carboxylic acids Dicarboxylic acid


id: list-of-schedule-1-substances-cwc-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Schedule_1_substances_(CWC)-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Schedule 1 substances (CWC)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Schedule_1_substances_(CWC)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:08.723385+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-schedule-1-substances-cwc-20260505-0
summary:
Schedule 1 substances, in the sense of the Chemical Weapons Convention, are chemicals which are feasible either to be used directly as chemical weapons or in the manufacture of chemical weapons, and which have very limited to no use outside of chemical warfare. These may be produced or used for research, medical, pharmaceutical or chemical weapon defence testing (called "protective testing" in the treaty) purposes but production above 100 grams per year must be declared to the OPCW in accordance with Part VI of the "Verification Annex". A country is limited to possessing a maximum of one tonne of these materials. Schedule 1 is divided into Part A substances, which are chemicals that can be used directly as weapons, and Part B which are precursors useful in the manufacture of chemical weapons. Examples are mustard and nerve agents, and substances which are solely used as precursor chemicals in their manufacture. A few of these chemicals have very small-scale non-military applications; for example, minute quantities of nitrogen mustard are used to treat certain cancers. The Schedule 1 list is one of three lists. Chemicals which are feasible to use as weapons, and their precursors, but which have legitimate applications as well


id: list-of-schedule-2-substances-cwc-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Schedule_2_substances_(CWC)-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Schedule 2 substances (CWC)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Schedule_2_substances_(CWC)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:10.335309+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-schedule-2-substances-cwc-20260505-0
summary:
Schedule 2 substances, in the sense of the Chemical Weapons Convention, are chemicals that are feasible to use as chemical weapons themselves (Part A), or their manufacturing precursors (Part B), and which have small-scale applications outside of chemical warfare and so can be legitimately manufactured in small quantities. An example is thiodiglycol, which can be used in the manufacture of mustard agents but is also used as a solvent in inks. Manufacture must be declared as their production is subject to declaration to the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) per Part VII of the "Verification Annex", and they may not be exported to countries that are not party to the Convention. The Schedule 2 list is one of three lists. Chemicals that can be used as weapons, or used in their manufacture, but that have no, or almost no, legitimate applications as well are listed in Schedule 1, whilst Schedule 3 is used for chemicals that also have widespread industrial uses. The use of Schedule 1, 2, or 3 chemicals as weapons is banned by the convention. == Guidelines for Schedule 2 == Schedule 2 lists toxic chemicals and precursors – not listed in Schedule 1 –


id: list-of-schedule-3-substances-cwc-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Schedule_3_substances_(CWC)-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Schedule 3 substances (CWC)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Schedule_3_substances_(CWC)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:12.650792+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-schedule-3-substances-cwc-20260505-0
summary:
Schedule 3 substances, in the sense of the Chemical Weapons Convention, are chemicals which have large-scale industrial uses, but are feasible to use as toxic chemical weapons (Part A) or manufacturing precursors (Part B). Plants which manufacture more than 30 tonnes per year must be declared and can be inspected as per Part VIII of the "Verification Annex", and there are restrictions on export to countries which are not CWC signatories. Examples of these substances are phosgene, which has been used as a chemical weapon but which is also a precursor in the manufacture of many legitimate organic compounds, and triethanolamine, used in the manufacture of nitrogen mustard but also commonly used in toiletries and detergents. The Schedule 3 list is one of three lists. Chemicals which can be used as weapons, or used in their manufacture, but which have no, or almost no, legitimate applications as well are listed in Schedule 1, whilst Schedule 2 is used for chemicals which have legitimate small-scale applications. The use of Schedule 1, 2, or 3 chemicals as weapons is banned by the Convention. == Guidelines for Schedule 3 == The criteria for including a chemical in this schedule is that it is


id: list-of-sex-hormonal-medications-available-in-the-united-states-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sex-hormonal_medications_available_in_the_United_States-0.md
category: reference
title: List of sex-hormonal medications available in the United States
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sex-hormonal_medications_available_in_the_United_States
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:14.007543+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-sex-hormonal-medications-available-in-the-united-states-20260505-0
summary:
List of sex-hormonal medications available in the United States may refer to: List of androgens/anabolic steroids available in the United States List of estrogens available in the United States List of progestogens available in the United States == See also == List of combined sex-hormonal preparations List of steroids List of steroid esters == References ==


id: solubility-table-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solubility_table-0.md
category: reference
title: Solubility table
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solubility_table
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:17.689616+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: solubility-table-20260505-0
summary:
The tables below provides information on the variation of solubility of different substances (mostly inorganic compounds) in water with temperature, at one atmosphere pressure. Units of solubility are given in grams of substance per 100 millilitres of water (g/100 ml), unless shown otherwise. The substances are listed in Latin alphabetical order. == Tables == === A === === B === === C === === D and E === === F and G === === H === === I === === L === === M === === N and O === === P === === R === === S === === T === === U, V, and X === === Y === === Z === == References == Chemicalc v4.0 - software that includes data on solubility Learning, Food resources Kaye and Laby Online ChemBioFinder.com(registration required) == External links == Solubility Database - International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry / National Institute of Standards and Technology CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics - Online resource that includes solubility data (requires subscription)


id: standard-electrode-potential-data-page-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_electrode_potential_(data_page)-0.md
category: reference
title: Standard electrode potential (data page)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_electrode_potential_(data_page)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:19.093695+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: standard-electrode-potential-data-page-20260505-0
summary:
The data below tabulates standard electrode potentials (E°), in volts relative to the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE), at: Temperature 298.15 K (25.00 °C; 77.00 °F); Effective concentration (activity) 1 mol/L for each aqueous or amalgamated (mercury-alloyed) species; Unit activity for each solvent and pure solid or liquid species; and Absolute partial pressure 101.325 kPa (1.00000 atm; 1.01325 bar) for each gaseous reagent — the convention in most literature data but not the current standard state (100 kPa). Variations from these ideal conditions affect measured voltage via the Nernst equation. Electrode potentials of successive elementary half-reactions cannot be directly added. However, the corresponding Gibbs free energy changes (∆G°) can be added. Those free energy changes satisfy ∆G° = –zFE°, where z electrons are transferred, and the Faraday constant F is the conversion factor describing Coulombs transferred per mole electrons. For example, from Fe2+ + 2 e− ⇌ Fe(s) (−0.44 V), the energy to form one neutral atom of Fe(s) from one Fe2+ ion and two electrons is 2 × 0.44 eV = 0.88 eV, or 84 907 J/(mol e−). That value is also the standard formation energy (∆Gf°) for an Fe2+ ion, since e− and Fe(s) both have zero formation energy.


id: table-of-standard-reduction-potentials-for-half-reactions-important-in-biochemistry-20260505-0
category: reference
title: Table of standard reduction potentials for half-reactions important in biochemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:20.666557+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: table-of-standard-reduction-potentials-for-half-reactions-important-in-biochemistry-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_standard_reduction_potentials_for_half-reactions_important_in_biochemistry-0.md

summary:
The values below are standard apparent reduction potentials (E°') for electro-biochemical half-reactions measured at 25 °C, 1 atmosphere and a pH of 7 in aqueous solution. The actual physiological potential depends on the ratio of the reduced (Red) and oxidized (Ox) forms according to the Nernst equation and the thermal voltage. When an oxidizer (Ox) accepts a number z of electrons ( e−) to be converted in its reduced form (Red), the half-reaction is expressed as: Ox + z e− → Red The reaction quotient (Qr) is the ratio of the chemical activity (ai) of the reduced form (the reductant, aRed) to the activity of the oxidized form (the oxidant, aox). It is equal to the ratio of their concentrations (Ci) only if the system is sufficiently diluted and the activity coefficients (γi) are close to unity (ai = γi Ci): Q r = a Red a Ox = C Red C Ox {\displaystyle Q_{r}={\frac {a_{\text{Red}}}{a_{\text{Ox}}}}={\frac {C_{\text{Red}}}{C_{\text{Ox}}}}} The Nernst equation is a function of Qr and can be written as follows: E red = E red ⊖ − R T z F ln ⁡ Q r = E red ⊖ − R T z F ln ⁡ a Red a

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_standard_reduction_potentials_for_half-reactions_important_in_biochemistry


id: table-of-standard-reduction-potentials-for-half-reactions-important-in-biochemistry-20260505-1
category: reference
title: Table of standard reduction potentials for half-reactions important in biochemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:20.666557+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: table-of-standard-reduction-potentials-for-half-reactions-important-in-biochemistry-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_standard_reduction_potentials_for_half-reactions_important_in_biochemistry-1.md

summary:
== Formal standard reduction potential combined with the pH dependency == To obtain the reduction potential as a function of the measured concentrations of the redox-active species in solution, it is necessary to express the activities as a function of the concentrations. E h = E red = E red ⊖ − 0.05916 z log ⁡ ( { C } c { D } d { A } a { B } b ) − 0.05916 h z pH {\displaystyle E_{h}=E_{\text{red}}=E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus }-{\frac {0.05916}{z}}\log \left({\frac {\{C\}^{c}\{D\}^{d}}{\{A\}^{a}\{B\}^{b}}}\right)-{\frac {0.05916\,h}{z}}{\text{pH}}} Given that the chemical activity denoted here by { } is the product of the activity coefficient γ by the concentration denoted by [ ]: ai = γi·Ci, here expressed as {X} = γx [X] and {X}x = (γx)x [X]x and replacing the logarithm of a product by the sum of the logarithms (i.e., log (a·b) = log a + log b), the log of the reaction quotient ( Q r {\displaystyle Q_{r}} ) (without {H+} already isolated apart in the last term as h pH) expressed here above with activities { } becomes: log ⁡ ( { C } c { D } d { A } a { B } b )

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_standard_reduction_potentials_for_half-reactions_important_in_biochemistry


id: table-of-standard-reduction-potentials-for-half-reactions-important-in-biochemistry-20260505-2
category: reference
title: Table of standard reduction potentials for half-reactions important in biochemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:20.666557+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: table-of-standard-reduction-potentials-for-half-reactions-important-in-biochemistry-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_standard_reduction_potentials_for_half-reactions_important_in_biochemistry-2.md

summary:
E red = E red ⊖ ′ {\displaystyle E_{\text{red}}=E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus '}} , when C red C ox = 1 {\displaystyle {\frac {C_{\text{red}}}{C_{\text{ox}}}}=1} , because ln ⁡ 1 = 0 {\displaystyle \ln {1}=0} , and that the term γ red γ ox {\displaystyle {\frac {\gamma _{\text{red}}}{\gamma _{\text{ox}}}}} is included in E red ⊖ ′ {\displaystyle E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus '}} . The formal reduction potential makes possible to more simply work with molar or molal concentrations in place of activities. Because molar and molal concentrations were once referred as formal concentrations, it could explain the origin of the adjective formal in the expression formal potential. The formal potential is thus the reversible potential of an electrode at equilibrium immersed in a solution where reactants and products are at unit concentration. If any small incremental change of potential causes a change in the direction of the reaction, i.e. from reduction to oxidation or vice versa, the system is close to equilibrium, reversible and is at its formal potential. When the formal potential is measured under standard conditions (i.e. the activity of each dissolved species is 1 mol/L, T = 298.15 K = 25 °C = 77 °F, Pgas = 1 bar) it becomes de facto a

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_standard_reduction_potentials_for_half-reactions_important_in_biochemistry


id: list-of-steroid-abbreviations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroid_abbreviations-0.md
category: reference
title: List of steroid abbreviations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroid_abbreviations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:22.145662+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-steroid-abbreviations-20260505-0
summary:
The steroid hormones are referred to by various abbreviations in the biological literature. The purpose of this list is to give commonly used abbreviations for steroid hormones, with supporting references to the literature. == Table of abbreviations == == References ==


id: list-of-steroid-esters-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroid_esters-0.md
category: reference
title: List of steroid esters
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroid_esters
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:23.375391+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-steroid-esters-20260505-0
summary:
List of steroid esters may refer to: List of androgen esters – androgen esters List of estrogen esters – estrogen esters List of progestogen esters – progestogen esters List of corticosteroid esters – corticosteroid esters == See also == List of steroids List of sex-hormonal medications available in the United States List of combined sex-hormonal preparations == References ==


id: list-of-steroidal-antiandrogens-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroidal_antiandrogens-0.md
category: reference
title: List of steroidal antiandrogens
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroidal_antiandrogens
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:24.645895+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-steroidal-antiandrogens-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of steroidal antiandrogens. == Progesterone derivatives == 11α-Hydroxyprogesterone = 11α-hydroxyprogesterone Chlormadinone acetate = 17α-acetoxy-6-chloro-δ6-progesterone Clometerone (L-38000) = 6α-chloro-16α-methylprogesterone Cyproterone (SH-80881) = 1,2α-methylene-6-chloro-δ6-17α-hydroxyprogesterone Cyproterone acetate = 1,2α-methylene-6-chloro-δ6-17α-acetoxyprogesterone Edogestrone (PH-218) = 17α-acetoxy-3,3-ethylenedioxy-6-methylpregn-5-en-20-one Medrogestone = 6,17α-dimethyl-δ6-progesterone Megestrol acetate = 17α-acetoxy-δ6-6-methylprogesterone Nomegestrol acetate = 17α-acetoxy-δ6-6-methyl-19-norprogesterone Osaterone acetate (TZP-4238) = 17α-acetoxy-6-chloro-2-oxa-δ6-progesterone == Testosterone derivatives == Abiraterone (CB-7598) = 17-(3-pyridinyl)androsta-5,16-dien-3β-ol Abiraterone acetate = 17-(3-pyridinyl)androsta-5,16-dien-3β-ol acetate Benorterone (SKF-7690, FC-612) = 17α-methyl-B-nortestosterone BOMT (Ro 7-2340) = 6α-bromo-4-oxa-17α-methyl-4,5α-dihydrotestosterone Delanterone (GBR-21162) = 17β-dehydroxy-1α-methyl-δ16-testosterone Dienogest = 17α-cyanomethyl-19-nor-δ9(10)-testosterone Epitestosterone = 17α-epitestosterone Galeterone (TOK-001, VN/124-1) = 17-(1H-benzimidazol-1-yl)androsta-5,16-dien-3β-ol Metogest (SC-14207) = 16,16-dimethyl-19-nortestosterone Mifepristone = 11β-[p-(dimethylamino)phenyl]-17-(1-propynyl)-δ9-19-nortestosterone Oxendolone (TSAA-291) = 16β-ethyl-19-nortestosterone Rosterolone (SH-434, 17α-propylmesterolone) = 1α-methyl-17α-propyl-4,5α-dihydrotestosterone Topterone (WIN-17665) = 17α-propyltestosterone Trimethyltrienolone (R-2956, RU-2956) = 2α,2β,17α-trimethyl-19-nor-δ9,11-testosterone Zanoterone (WIN-49596) = (5α,17α)-1'-(methylsulfonyl)-1'-H-pregn-20-yno[3,2-c]pyrazol-17-ol == Spirolactone derivatives == SC-5233 (spirolactone) = 17α-(2-carboxyethyl)testosterone γ-lactone SC-8109 = 19-norspirolactone Canrenone (aldadiene) = Δ6-spirolactone Dicirenone (SC-26304) = 7α-carboxyisopropylspirolactone Drospirenone = 6β,7β:15β,16β-dimethylenespirolactone Mespirenone (ZK-94679) = Δ1-7α-acetylthio-15β,16β-methylenespirolactone Mexrenone (ZK-32055, SC-25152) = 7α-(methoxycarbonyl)spirolactone Prorenone (SC-23133) = 6α,7α-methylenespirolactone Spironolactone = 7α-acetylthiospirolactone Spirorenone (ZK-35973) = Δ1-6β,7β:15β,16β-dimethylenespirolactone Spiroxasone = 7α-acetylthiospirolactone with the ketone group removed from the C17α spirolactone ring == Cortisol derivatives == 9,11-Dehydrocortexolone 17α-butyrate (CB-03-04) = 17α-(butyryloxy)-9,11-didehydrodeoxycorticosterone Clascoterone (CB-03-01; cortexolone 17α-propionate, 11-deoxycortisol 17α-propionate) = 17α-(propionyloxy)deoxycorticosterone == Others == Guggulsterone = pregna-4,17-diene-3,16-dione Nordinone = 11α-hydroxy-17,17-dimethyl-18-norandrosta-4,13-dien-3-one ==


id: list-of-sgt-cannabinoids-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_SGT_cannabinoids-0.md
category: reference
title: List of SGT cannabinoids
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_SGT_cannabinoids
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:27.341275+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-sgt-cannabinoids-20260505-0
summary:
Many synthetic cannabinoids were designed by Stargate International, a now defunct New Zealand company in the 2000s and 2010s, and feature an alphanumeric code beginning with the prefix "SGT". PB-22 (SGT-21) is credited with being the first synthetic cannabinoid to feature a quinoline substructure with an ester linker at the indole 3-position. The mainly N-cumyl-indazole-3-carboxamide derivatives are best known. Many SGT compounds are banned as designer drugs in various jurisdictions, such as Japan. == Chemical structures of SGT cannabinoid compounds == == See also == List of AM cannabinoids List of CP cannabinoids List of HU cannabinoids List of JWH cannabinoids List of miscellaneous designer cannabinoids == External links == Cannabinoid collection, isomerdesign.com == References ==


id: list-of-stoffs-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_stoffs-0.md
category: reference
title: List of stoffs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_stoffs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:28.497127+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-stoffs-20260505-0
summary:
During World War II, Germany fielded many aircraft and rockets whose fuels, and oxidizers, were designated (letter)-Stoff (pronounced [ʃtɔf]). The following list of stoffs refers to the World War II aerospace meanings if not noted otherwise. == Meaning of stoff == The German word Stoff (plural Stoffe), like the English word stuff, derives from Old French estoffe, however the meanings are somewhat different. Stoff has a fairly broad range of meanings, including "chemical substance" or "matter", "fuel" and "cloth", depending on the context. The German names of the common elements hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen are Wasserstoff, Sauerstoff and Stickstoff ("hydrogen" being a scientific Greek neologism for "constituent of water", "oxygen" for "constituent of acids", "nitrogen" for "constituent of nitre", i.e. saltpeter - although the German root stick- is derived from ersticken, "to smother, suffocate", referring to its property of not supporting combustion and respiration). Stoff was used in chemical code names in both world wars. Some code names were reused between the wars and had different meanings at different times; for example, T-Stoff meant a rocket propellant in World War II, but a tear gas (xylyl bromide) in World War I. == List == A-Stoff (World War I): chloroacetone (tear


id: table-of-explosive-detonation-velocities-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_explosive_detonation_velocities-0.md
category: reference
title: Table of explosive detonation velocities
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_explosive_detonation_velocities
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:29.781547+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: table-of-explosive-detonation-velocities-20260505-0
summary:
This is a compilation of published detonation velocities for various high explosive compounds. Detonation velocity is the speed with which the detonation shock wave travels through the explosive. It is a key, directly measurable indicator of explosive performance, but depends on density which must always be specified, and may be too low if the test charge diameter is not large enough. Especially for little studied explosives there may be divergent published values due to charge diameter issues. In liquid explosives, like nitroglycerin, there may be two detonation velocities, one much higher than the other. The detonation velocity values presented here are typically for the highest practical density which maximizes achievable detonation velocity. The velocity of detonation is an important indicator for overall energy and power of detonation, and in particular for the brisance or shattering effect of an explosive which is due to the detonation pressure. The pressure can be calculated using Chapman–Jouguet theory from the velocity and density. == See also == TNT equivalent RE factor == References ==


id: list-of-unsaturated-fatty-acids-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsaturated_fatty_acids-0.md
category: reference
title: List of unsaturated fatty acids
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsaturated_fatty_acids
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:31.224086+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsaturated-fatty-acids-20260505-0
summary:
== Fatty acid molecular species == === Mono-unsaturated fatty acid === The following fatty acids have one unsaturated bond. == See also == List of saturated fatty acids Carboxylic acid List of carboxylic acids Dicarboxylic acid == References ==


id: list-of-vegetable-oils-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils-0.md
category: reference
title: List of vegetable oils
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:33.641143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-vegetable-oils-20260505-0
summary:
Vegetable oils are triglycerides extracted from plants. Some of these oils have been part of human culture for millennia. Edible vegetable oils are used in food, both in cooking and as supplements. Many oils, edible and otherwise, are burned as fuel, such as in oil lamps and as a substitute for petroleum-based fuels. Some of the many other uses include wood finishing, oil painting, and skin care. == Definition == The term "vegetable oil" can be narrowly defined as referring only to substances that are liquid at room temperature, or broadly defined without regard to a substance's state (liquid or solid) at a given temperature. While a large majority of the entries in this list fit the narrower of these definitions, some do not qualify as vegetable oils according to all understandings of the term. == Classification == Vegetable oils can be classified in several ways. For instance, by their use or by the method used to extract them. In this article, vegetable oils are grouped in common classes of use. === Extraction method === There are several types of plant oils, distinguished by the method used to extract the oil from the plant. The relevant part of the plant


id: list-of-vegetable-oils-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils-1.md
category: reference
title: List of vegetable oils
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:33.641143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-vegetable-oils-20260505-0
summary:
=== Citrus oils === A number of citrus plants yield pressed oils. Some, such as lemon and orange oil, are used as essential oils, which is uncommon for pressed oils. The seeds of many if not most members of the citrus family yield usable oils. Grapefruit seed oil, extracted from the seeds of grapefruit (Citrus × paradisi). Grapefruit seed oil was extracted experimentally in 1930 and was shown to be suitable for making soap. Lemon oil, similar in fragrance to the fruit. One of a small number of cold pressed essential oils. Used as a flavoring agent and in aromatherapy. Orange oil, like lemon oil, cold pressed rather than distilled. Consists of 90% d-Limonene. Used as a fragrance, in cleaning products and in flavoring foods. === Oils from melon and gourd seeds === Members of the Cucurbitaceae include gourds, melons, pumpkins, and squashes. Seeds from these plants are noted for their oil content, but little information is available on methods of extracting the oil. In most cases, the plants are grown as food, with dietary use of the oils as a byproduct of using the seeds as food. Bitter gourd oil, from the seeds of Momordica charantia. High in α-Eleostearic


id: list-of-vegetable-oils-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils-2.md
category: reference
title: List of vegetable oils
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:33.641143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-vegetable-oils-20260505-0
summary:
Coriander seed oil, from coriander seeds, used in a wide variety of flavoring applications, including gin and seasoning blends. Recent research has shown promise for use in killing food-borne bacteria, such as E. coli. Date seed oil, extracted from date pits. Its low extraction rate and lack of other distinguishing characteristics make it an unlikely candidate for major use. Dika oil, from Irvingia gabonensis seeds, native to West Africa. Used to make margarine, soap and pharmaceuticals, where is it being examined as a tablet lubricant. Largely underdeveloped. False flax oil made of the seeds of Camelina sativa. One of the earliest oil crops, dating back to the 6th millennium B.C. Produced in modern times in Central and Eastern Europe; fell out of production in the 1940s. Considered promising as a food or fuel oil. Grape seed oil, a cooking and salad oil, also sprayed on raisins to help them retain their flavor. Hemp oil, a high quality food oil also used to make paints, varnishes, resins and soft soaps. Kapok seed oil, from the seeds of Ceiba pentandra, used as an edible oil, and in soap production. Kenaf seed oil, from the seeds of Hibiscus cannabinus. An edible oil similar


id: list-of-vegetable-oils-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils-3.md
category: reference
title: List of vegetable oils
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:33.641143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-vegetable-oils-20260505-0
summary:
A number of oils are used for biofuel (biodiesel and Straight Vegetable Oil) in addition to having other uses. Other oils are used only as biofuel. Although diesel engines were invented, in part, with vegetable oil in mind, diesel fuel is almost exclusively petroleum-based. Vegetable oils are evaluated for use as a biofuel based on: Suitability as a fuel, based on flash point, energy content, viscosity, combustion products and other factors Cost, based in part on yield, effort required to grow and harvest, and post-harvest processing cost === Multipurpose oils also used as biofuel === The oils listed immediately below are all (primarily) used for other purposes – all but tung oil are edible – but have been considered for use as biofuel. Castor oil, lower cost than many candidates. Kinematic viscosity may be an issue. Coconut oil (copra oil), promising for local use in places that produce coconuts. Colza oil, from Brassica rapa, var. oleifera (turnip) is closely related to rapeseed (or canola) oil. It is a major source of biodiesel in Germany. Corn oil, appealing because of the abundance of maize as a crop. Cottonseed oil, the subject of study for cost-effectiveness as a biodiesel feedstock. False flax


id: list-of-vegetable-oils-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils-4.md
category: reference
title: List of vegetable oils
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:33.641143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-vegetable-oils-20260505-0
summary:
Amur cork tree fruit oil, pressed from the fruit of the Phellodendron amurense. It has been studied for insecticidal use. Artichoke oil, extracted from the seeds of the artichoke fruit, is an unsaturated semi-drying oil with potential applications in making soap, shampoo, alkyd resin and shoe polish. Astrocaryum murumuru butter is employed in lotions, creams, soaps hair conditioners, facial masks, shampoo, oils and emulsions, skin moisturizer, products for the nutrition of the hair and restore damaged hair, depilatory waxes. Balanos oil, pressed from the seeds of Balanites aegyptiaca, was used in ancient Egypt as the base for perfumes. Bladderpod oil, pressed from the seeds of Physaria fendleri, native to North America. Rich in lesquerolic acid, which is chemically similar to the ricinoleic acid found in castor oil. Many industrial uses. Possible substitute for castor oil as it requires much less moisture than castor beans. Brucea javanica oil, extracted from the seeds of the Brucea javanica. The oil has been shown to be effective in treating certain cancers. Burdock oil (Bur oil) extracted from the root of the burdock. Used as an herbal remedy for scalp conditions. Buriti oil, extracted from the Mauritia flexuosa fruit, is high in carotenoids and monounsaturated


id: list-of-vegetable-oils-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils-5.md
category: reference
title: List of vegetable oils
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:33.641143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-vegetable-oils-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == "Fats and Cholesterol: Out with the Bad, In with the Good". The Nutrition Source. Harvard School of Public Health. Retrieved 2011-10-22. "Bulk Oil Trading". Retrieved 2006-07-25.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link) An older version of this site was very helpful in making this list more comprehensive. "Vegetable Oil Yields and Characteristics". Retrieved 2011-10-24. Compiles useful information on vegetable oils from a number of sources. "Castor Oil". Archived from the original on 2006-07-15. Retrieved 2006-07-25. The site contains a large set of resources on castor oil and many other oils, particularly those used to make biodiesel. Botanical Garden of Indian Republic (BGIR) (April 5, 2004). "Database of Oil Yielding Plants" (PDF). Botanical Survey of India. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-21. Retrieved 2010-10-19. List of about 300 plants that grow in India, and that yield oil. Also includes common names in languages spoken in India. Macmillan, H.F. (1989). "Oils and Vegetable Fats". Handbook of Tropical Plants. Herbdata New Zealand. ISBN 978-81-7041-177-2. Archived from the original on 2011-07-21. Old reference with basic information on an unusually large variety of plant oils. Ashurst, P. R. (1999). Food Flavorings. Springer. ISBN 978-0-8342-1621-1. Retrieved 2014-10-05. Comprehensive information on


id: list-of-viscosities-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_viscosities-0.md
category: reference
title: List of viscosities
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_viscosities
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:35.037462+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-viscosities-20260505-0
summary:
Dynamic viscosity is a material property which describes the resistance of a fluid to shearing flows. It corresponds roughly to the intuitive notion of a fluid's 'thickness'. For instance, honey has a much higher viscosity than water. Viscosity is measured using a viscometer. Measured values span several orders of magnitude. Of all fluids, gases have the lowest viscosities, and thick liquids have the highest. There is evidence of solid flow as result of Brownian motion in condition of extremes such as high temperature, high pressure, and extremely long time scales as theorized for the motion of the Earth's solid metal core. The values listed in this article are representative estimates only, as they do not account for measurement uncertainties, variability in material definitions, or non-Newtonian behavior. Kinematic viscosity is dynamic viscosity divided by fluid mass density. This page lists only dynamic viscosity. == Units and conversion factors == For dynamic viscosity, the SI unit is Pascal-second. In engineering, the unit is usually Poise or centiPoise, with 1 Poise = 0.1 Pascal-second, and 1 centiPoise = 0.01 Poise. For kinematic viscosity, the SI unit is m^2/s. In engineering, the unit is usually Stoke or centiStoke, with 1 Stoke = 0.0001 m^2/s,


id: list-of-water-miscible-solvents-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_water-miscible_solvents-0.md
category: reference
title: List of water-miscible solvents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_water-miscible_solvents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:36.279272+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-water-miscible-solvents-20260505-0
summary:
The following compounds are liquid at room temperature and are completely miscible with water; they are often used as solvents. Many of them are hygroscopic. == Organic compounds == == Inorganic compounds == == See also == Category:Alcohol solvents == External links == Solvent miscibility table [1] Diethylenetriamine [2] Hydrazine [3]


id: women-in-chemistry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_chemistry-0.md
category: reference
title: Women in chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:37.588580+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of women chemists. It should include those who have been important to the development or practice of chemistry. Their research or application has made significant contributions in the area of basic or applied chemistry. == Nobel laureates == Source: 1911 – Marie Sklodowska-Curie – discovery of radium & polonium 1935 – Irène Joliot-Curie – artificial radioactivity 1964 – Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin – protein crystallography 2009 – Ada E. Yonath – structure & function of the ribosome 2018 – Frances Arnold – directed evolution to engineer enzymes 2020 – Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna – for CRISPR gene editing 2022 - Carolyn R. Bertozzi - for bioorthogonal chemistry Eight women have won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry (listed above), awarded annually since 1901 by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Marie Curie was the first woman to receive the prize in 1911, which was her second Nobel Prize (she also won the prize in physics in 1903, along with Pierre Curie and Henri Becquerel – making her the only woman to be award two Nobel prizes). Her prize in chemistry was for her "discovery of the elements radium and polonium, by the isolation of radium and the


id: women-in-chemistry-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_chemistry-1.md
category: reference
title: Women in chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:37.588580+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
=== 20th century === Elly Agallidis (1914–2006), Greek physical chemist Nancy Allbritton, American analytical and biochemist Marianne Angermann (1904-1977), German-Spanish-New Zealand biochemist Valerie Ashby, American chemist Barbara Askins (born 1939), American chemist Kim K. Baldridge, American computational chemist Alice Ball (1892–1916), American chemist Carolyn Bertozzi (born 1966), American biochemist Cynthia Burrows, American physical organic chemist Asima Chatterjee (1917–2006), Indian organic chemist Astrid Cleve (1875–1968), Swedish chemist Mildred Cohn (1913–2009), American chemist Janine Cossy (born 1950), French organic chemist Maria Skłodowska-Curie (1867–1934), Polish-French physicist and chemist (discoverer of polonium and radium, pioneer in radiology); Nobel laureate in physics 1903, and in chemistry 1911 Jillian Lee Dempsey (born 1983), American chemist Vy M. Dong, American organic chemist Abigail Doyle (born 1980), American organic chemist Odile Eisenstein (born 1949), French, theoretical chemist Gertrude B. Elion (1918–1999), American biochemist (Nobel prize in Physiology or Medicine 1988 for drug development) Margaret Faul, Irish/American organic chemist Mary Peters Fieser (1909–1997), American organic chemist Marye Anne Fox (1947–2021), American physical organic chemist Rosalind Franklin (1920–1957), British physical chemist and crystallographer Helen Murray Free (1923–2021), American chemist Gunda I. Georg, German-trained medicinal chemist, professor of medicinal chemistry in the US Ellen Gleditsch (1879–1968), Norwegian radiochemist Paula T. Hammond


id: women-in-chemistry-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_chemistry-2.md
category: reference
title: Women in chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:37.588580+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
=== 21st century === Heather C. Allen, American chemist whose research focuses air-liquid interfaces Rommie Amaro, American chemist focusing on development of computational methods in biophysics for applications to drug discovery. Emily Balskus, American organic and biological chemist, and microbiologist. Recipient of the 2020 Alan T. Waterman Award for her work on understanding the chemistry of metabolic processes. Professor at Harvard University. Natalie Banerji, Swiss chemist and Professor of Chemistry at the University of Bern who studies organic and hybrid materials using ultrafast spectroscopies. Jane P. Chang, chemical engineer, materials scientist and professor at UCLA known for her research developing advanced atomic layer deposition (ALD) and etching techniques with applications in microelectronics and energy storage devices. Sherry Chemler, American Organic Chemist. Professor University at Buffalo. ACS Cope Scholar Award recipient (2017). Paulette Clancy, British chemist focusing on computational and machine learning methods, particularly chemistry-informed Bayesian optimization, to model the behavior of semiconductor materials. Sheila Hobbs DeWitt, American chemist. Chair, President, CEO, Cofounder of DeuteRx which has developed PXL065 a Deuterated drug. ACS Kathryn C. Hach Award for Entrepreneurial Success (2025). She is a pioneer of Combinatorial Chemistry. Elena Galoppini, Italian chemist and professor at Rutgers University–Newark whose research focuses on


id: list-of-yttrium-compounds-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_yttrium_compounds-0.md
category: reference
title: List of yttrium compounds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_yttrium_compounds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:38.884803+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-yttrium-compounds-20260505-0
summary:
This list of yttrium compounds shows compounds of yttrium. Inclusion criteria: those that have applications, academic significance, single crystal structures or have their own Wikipedia articles. == References ==


id: glossary-of-climate-change-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change-0.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:40.546594+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
This glossary of climate change is a list of definitions of terms and concepts relevant to climate change, global warming, and related topics. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) use tens of acronyms and initialisms in documents relating to climate change policy. == 0–9 == 100,000-year problem The apparent discrepancy between the climate response and the forcing from the amount of incoming solar radiation. == A == adaptation Any adjustment in natural or human systems in response to a changing or changed climate. additionality In the context of a project funded by carbon offsets, the additionality is the reduction in greenhouse gas emissions that is in addition to what would have resulted in the absence of the carbon offset funding. albedo An index of the "reflectiveness" of a surface; a way of quantifying how much radiation is reflected back, as opposed to absorbed. Objects or surfaces with low albedo (closer to 0) absorb most of the radiation directed toward them, and those with high albedo (closer to 1) reflect most of it. anoxic event A period when the Earth's oceans have no oxygen below the surface layer. Antarctic bottom


id: glossary-of-climate-change-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change-1.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:40.546594+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
climate change feedback A natural phenomenon that may increase or decrease the warming that eventually results from a change in radiative forcing. climate change mitigation approaches to limit global warming, primarily by the substitution of fossil fuels with low-carbon sources of energy climate commitment How much future warming is "committed", even if greenhouse gas levels do not rise, due to thermal inertia, mainly of the oceans. Climate crisis Term used to show a sense of emergency and urgency about climate change. climate cycle See climate oscillation. climate ethics An area of research that focuses on the ethical dimensions of climate change. climate forcing Also called radiative forcing - an energy imbalance imposed on the climate system either externally or by human activities. climate inertia The tendency of a climate system to resist changes. climate justice A term used for viewing climate change as an ethical issue, and considering how its causes and effects relate to social and political concepts of justice. climate legislation Legislation dealing with regulation of greenhouse gas emissions. climate model An imperfect representation of a climate system that is constructed, validated, studied, and often improved upon in order to gain a knowingly limited amount of useful information.


id: glossary-of-climate-change-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change-2.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:40.546594+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
global dimming The observed decrease in surface insolation, that may have recently reversed. global warming (GW) Usually: the warming trend over the past century or so; also: any period in which the temperature of the Earth's atmosphere increases; also the theory of such changes. global warming controversy Socio-political issues surrounding the theory of global warming. global warming denial See climate change denial. global warming period Any period in which the temperature of the Earth's atmosphere increases. global warming potential A measure of how much a given mass of greenhouse gas is estimated to contribute to global warming. greenhouse debt greenhouse effect greenhouse gas Any gas that causes or contributes to greenhouse effect. greenhouse gas inventory A type of emission inventory that includes greenhouse gas emissions from source categories as well as removal by carbon sinks. Gulf Stream A powerful, warm, and swift Atlantic Ocean current that originates in the Gulf of Mexico, exits through the Strait of Florida, and follows the eastern coastlines of the United States and Newfoundland before crossing the Atlantic Ocean. GCM General circulation model or global climate model GFDL Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory GHG Greenhouse gas GWP Global warming potential == H == historical temperature record


id: glossary-of-climate-change-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change-3.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:40.546594+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
polar amplification Greater temperature increases in the Arctic than in the earth as a whole is a result of the collective effect of positive feedback loops and other processes. Despite its name, polar amplification only applies to the Arctic, and not to the Antarctic, because the Southern Ocean acts as a heat sink. polar city A proposed human refuge located in northern regions of the Earth, and in Tasmania, New Zealand, and Antarctica, where people might have to live in order to survive major global warming "events" in the far distant future. Also dubbed "Lovelock Retreats". proxy A variable that can be related to one of interest (e.g. tree rings can be proxies for temperature variations). == R == radiative forcing A quantifiable driver of change to Earth's energy balance. regime shift removal unit A tradable carbon credit or "Kyoto unit" representing an allowance to emit one tonne of greenhouse gases absorbed by a removal or carbon sink activity in an Annex I country. runaway greenhouse effect A somewhat ill-defined term associated with the idea of large irreversible temperature rises. RCP Representative Concentration Pathway REDD Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation mechanisms use market/financial incentives to reduce the emission


id: index-of-climate-change-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_climate_change_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of climate change articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_climate_change_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:41.722626+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-climate-change-articles-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of climate change topics. == 0-9 == 100% renewable energy - 100,000-year problem - 1500-Year climate cycle - 4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Conference == A == Abrupt climate change - The Age of Stupid - Albedo - An Inconvenient Truth - An Inconvenient Book - Antarctica cooling controversy - Antarctic Bottom Water - Antarctic Cold Reversal - Antarctic oscillation - Anthropocene extinction - Arctic amplification - Arctic Climate Impact Assessment - Arctic geoengineering - Arctic shrinkage - Arctic oscillation - Atlantic oscillation - Arctic Climate Impact Assessment - Arctic methane release - Arctic sea ice decline - Arctic shrinkage - Argo (oceanography) - ARkStorm - Athabasca oil sands - Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation - Atmospheric circulation - Atmospheric sciences - Atmospheric window - Attribution of recent climate change - Aviation and climate change - Aviation and the environment - Avoiding dangerous climate change == B == Bali Communiqué - Bali Road Map - Bezos Earth Fund - Biochar - Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage - Bio-geoengineering - Black carbon - Blytt–Sernander system - Broad spectrum revolution - Business action on climate change == C == Callendar effect - Cap and Share - Carbon bubble


id: index-of-climate-change-articles-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_climate_change_articles-1.md
category: reference
title: Index of climate change articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_climate_change_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:41.722626+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-climate-change-articles-20260505-0
summary:
== S == Sahara pump theory - Satellite temperature measurements - Scientific opinion on climate change - Scientific consensus - Scientific skepticism - Sea level rise - Shutdown of thermohaline circulation - Sixth extinction - Slash and burn - Snowball Earth - Solar Radiation Management - Solar shade - Solar variation - Space sunshade - Stratospheric Particle Injection for Climate Engineering - Stratospheric sulfur aerosols - Stratospheric sulfur aerosols (geoengineering) - Sunspot - Surveys of scientists' views on climate change - Sustainable energy == T == Table of Historic and Prehistoric Climate Indicators - Temperature record of the past 1000 years - Temperature record since 1880 - Thermohaline circulation - Timeline of glaciation - TEX-86 - Thermocline - The Deniers - The Great Global Warming Swindle - The Republican War on Science - Timeline of environmental history - Tipping point (climatology) == U == Urban heat island - UN climate change conference 2009 - The Uninhabitable Earth == W == Warming stripes - Waste heat - Water World - West Antarctic Ice Sheet - World climate research programme - World Climate Report == Y == Yamal Peninsula == See also == Glossary of climate change Scientific opinion on climate change


id: list-of-areas-depopulated-due-to-climate-change-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_areas_depopulated_due_to_climate_change-0.md
category: reference
title: List of areas depopulated due to climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_areas_depopulated_due_to_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:43.016588+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-areas-depopulated-due-to-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
This article lists several areas, regions, and municipalities that have either been completely or markedly depopulated, or are involved in plans for depopulation or relocation due to anthropogenic climate change. Several factors created or worsened by climate change can be responsible for necessitating managed retreat or the relocation of people and/or infrastructure. These include rising sea levels, increased flooding risk, changes to the makeup of the land (e.g. a habitable area becoming a wetland), coastal erosion, increased susceptibility to dangerous cyclones, droughts, water shortages, wildfires, and other factors, all of which can overlap with each other to enhance the risk of danger or inhabitability of a formerly populated region. The lists contain a general number of the number of people moved or at risk of being moved due to climate change-related causes, as well as rough dates for when programs to relocate were first created or for when a climate disaster first caused significant forcible displacement of a population. == Lists == === Completely depopulated === === Significantly impacted === == Gallery == == See also == Climate migration Environmental migrant Extreme event attribution Great Filter Managed retreat List of landmarks destroyed or damaged by climate change == References ==


id: list-of-climate-change-books-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_change_books-0.md
category: reference
title: List of climate change books
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_change_books
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:44.352085+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-climate-change-books-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of climate change books that describe, as a major theme, the effects of human activity on climate change. == Non-fiction == Non-fiction is an account or representation of a subject that is presented as fact. This presentation may be accurate or not; that is, it can give either a true or a false account of the subject in question. However, it is generally assumed that the authors of such accounts believe them to be truthful at the time of their composition. == Fiction == == See also == Climate change in literature List of environmental books == References == Books on Global Warming, Climate Change Books, Climate Change Education.org


id: list-of-countries-by-carbon-dioxide-emissions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions-0.md
category: reference
title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:45.541574+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-countries-by-carbon-dioxide-emissions-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity, based on the EDGAR database created by the European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency. The following table lists the annual CO2 emissions estimates (in kilotons of CO2 per year) for the year 2023, as well as the change from the year 2000. The data only consider carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture, but not emissions from land use, land-use change and forestry. Over the last 150 years, estimated cumulative emissions from land use and land-use change represent approximately one-third of total cumulative anthropogenic CO2 emissions. Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures, which can make a large difference for small countries with important ports. In 2023, global GHG emissions reached 53.0 GtCO2eq (without Land Use, land Use Change and Forestry). The 2023 data represent the highest level recorded and experienced an increase of 1.9% or 994 MtCO2eq compared to the levels in 2022. The majority of GHG emissions consisted of fossil CO2 accounting for 73.7% of total emissions. China, the United States, India, the European Union,


id: list-of-countries-by-carbon-intensity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_carbon_intensity-0.md
category: reference
title: List of countries by carbon intensity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_carbon_intensity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:58.513210+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-countries-by-carbon-intensity-20260505-0
summary:
The following list of countries by carbon intensity of GDP sorts countries by their emission intensity. Carbon intensity or emission intensity of GDP is a measure that evaluates the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions produced per unit of GDP. It provides an indication of how efficiently an economy uses carbon-based resources to generate economic output. A lower carbon intensity indicates that less CO2 is emitted to produce a given level of economic output, indicating a more carbon-efficient economy. == List == === Countries === Countries by carbon intensity of GDP. Carbon intensity is measured by CO2 emissions in kilograms per International dollar (US dollar adjusted for purchasing power parity) of economic output. Data are for the year 2022. === World regions and income groups === == Historical development == Development of CO2 emissions in kilograms per international dollar of economic output in major countries over time. == References ==


id: list-of-climate-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of climate scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:59.767558+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-climate-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
This list of climate scientists contains famous or otherwise notable persons who have contributed to the study of climate science. The list is compiled manually, so will not be complete, up to date, or comprehensive. The list includes scientists from several specialities or disciplines. == A == Waleed Abdalati, American, director of Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Studies, former chief scientist of NASA Nerilie Abram (1977–), Australian paleoclimatologist, at Australian National University Ernest Afiesimama, Nigerian weatherman, former senior associate of the International Centre for Theoretical Physics Myles Allen, head of the Climate Dynamics group at University of Oxford's Atmospheric, Oceanic and Planetary Physics Department. Lead author, IPCC Third Assessment Report. Review editor, Fourth Assessment Report. Richard Alley (1957–), Penn State College of Earth and Mineral Science, American, Earth's cryosphere and global climate change. Kevin Anderson, Director of the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research and is an adviser to the British Government on climate change. James Annan, British climatologist with Blue Skies Research, UK Julie Arblaster, Australian climatologist at The Centre for Australian Weather and Climate Research in CSIRO David Archer, American professor of oceanography at University of Chicago Svante Arrhenius (1859–1927), Swedish, greenhouse effect == B == Sallie


id: list-of-climate-scientists-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_scientists-1.md
category: reference
title: List of climate scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:59.767558+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-climate-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
== H == Joanna Haigh, (1954–), British, co-director of Grantham Institute at Imperial College London, solar variability Edmund Halley, published a map of the trade winds in 1686 after a voyage to the southern hemisphere Gordon Hamilton, (1966–2016), Scottish, Associate Research Professor, Climatology Group, of the University of Maine James E. Hansen (1941–), American, planetary atmospheres, remote sensing, numerical models, and global warming Kenneth Hare OC FRSC (1919–2002), Canadian climatologist Klaus Hasselmann, German oceanographer and climate modeller, founding director of the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology Ed Hawkins MBE, British climate scientist at University of Reading, and designer of data visualization graphics Katharine Hayhoe, Canadian, Atmospheric science, global climate models. Gabriele C. Hegerl (1963–), Professor of Climate System Science at the University of Edinburgh School of GeoSciences. Isaac Held, German-American atmospheric physicist, researcher at GFDL Ann Henderson-Sellers (1952–), Australian, climate change risk evaluation Ellie Highwood, Professor of Climate Physics at the University of Reading David A. Hodell, (1958–), British paleoclimatologist, professor at Cambridge University Ove Hoegh-Guldberg, Australian oceanographer at University of Queensland Greg Holland, Australian meteorology researcher at NCAR Brian Hoskins, British climatologist and professor at University of Reading John T. Houghton (1931–2020), British, atmospheric physics, remote sensing Malcolm K.


id: list-of-climate-scientists-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_scientists-2.md
category: reference
title: List of climate scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:59.767558+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-climate-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
== M == Michael MacCracken (1942–), American, chief scientist at the Climate Institute in Washington, DC Gordon J. F. MacDonald (1929–2002), American physicist who developed one of the first computational models of climate change, and was an early advocate for governmental action Jerry D. Mahlman (1940–2012), American meteorologist and climatologist and a pioneer in the use of computational models of the atmosphere to examine the interactions between atmospheric chemistry and physics László Makra (1952–), Hungarian climatologist. Full professor. His main research area is pollen climatology and, within this, analysis of climatological relationships of ragweed pollen, as well as relationship between ragweed pollen concentration and respiratory diseases. Syukuro Manabe (1931–), American, professor Princeton University, pioneered the use of computers to simulate global climate change and natural climate variations Gordon Manley (1902–1980), English, Central England temperature (CET) series Michael E. Mann (1965–), American, professor of meteorology and director, Earth System Science Center, Penn State U. David Marshall, British physical oceanographer at the University of Oxford. Valerie Masson-Delmotte, French climate scientist with a focus on paleoclimatology at the Climate and Environment Sciences Laboratory (LSCE) Gordon McBean, Canadian, boundary layer research, hydrometeorology and environmental impact research, and weather forecasting James J. McCarthy, American professor


id: list-of-climate-scientists-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_scientists-3.md
category: reference
title: List of climate scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:59.767558+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-climate-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
== S == Murry Salby, American atmospheric and climate scientist Jim Salinger, New Zealand climatologist Dork Sahagian, Armenian-American, Lehigh University Marie Sanderson (1921–2010), Canadian geographer and climatologist Ben Santer (1955–), climatologist at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Nicola Scafetta (1975–), Italian astronomer and climate scientist Hans Joachim Schellnhuber (1950–), German climatologist, was an author for the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change David Schindler, Canadian-American environmental chemist, professor of ecology at University of Alberta Michael Schlesinger, American professor of Atmospheric Sciences at UIUC William H. Schlesinger (1950–), American biogeochemist, former Dean of the Nicholas School at Duke University Gavin A. Schmidt, American climatologist and climate modeler at the NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS) Stephen H. Schneider (1945–2010), American, Professor of Environmental Biology and Global Change at Stanford University Daniel P. Schrag (1966–), American, Professor of Geology at Harvard University and Director of the Harvard University Center for the Environment Stephen E. Schwartz (1941–), American, chemistry of air pollutants, radiative forcing of aerosols on climate Tom Segalstad (1949–), Norwegian geochemist Wolfgang Seiler (1940–), German climatologist at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology John H. Seinfeld, American atmospheric chemist at California Institute of Technology Mark Serreze (1960–), American


id: list-of-climate-engineering-topics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_engineering_topics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of climate engineering topics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_engineering_topics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:01.290388+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-climate-engineering-topics-20260505-0
summary:
Climate engineering geoengineering topics related to greenhouse gas remediation include: == Solar radiation management == Solar radiation management Stratospheric aerosol injection (climate engineering) Marine cloud brightening Cool roof Space sunshade Stratospheric Particle Injection for Climate Engineering == Carbon dioxide removal == Carbon dioxide removal Biochar Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage Direct air capture Ocean fertilization Enhanced weathering === Other greenhouse gas remediation === Greenhouse gas removal CFC laser photochemistry == Other projects == Arctic geoengineering Cirrus Cloud Thinning Sea ice refreezing == References == == External links == An interactive Geoengineering Map prepared by ETC Group and the Heinrich Boell Foundation


id: list-of-countries-by-carbon-dioxide-emissions-per-capita-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions_per_capita-0.md
category: reference
title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions_per_capita
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:02.419261+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-countries-by-carbon-dioxide-emissions-per-capita-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of sovereign states and territories by per capita carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity, based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission. The following table lists the annual per capita CO2 emissions estimates (in kilotons of CO2 per year) for the year 2023, as well as the change from the year 2000. The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture, but not emissions from land use, land-use change and forestry Over the last 150 years, estimated cumulative emissions from land use and land-use change represent approximately one-third of total cumulative anthropogenic CO2 emissions. Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures, which can make a large difference for small countries with important ports. Measures of territorial-based emissions, also known as production-based emissions, do not account for emissions embedded in global trade, where emissions may be imported or exported in the form of traded goods, as it only reports emissions emitted within geographical boundaries. Accordingly, a proportion of the CO2 produced and reported in Asia and Africa is for the production of goods consumed in Europe and North


id: list-of-countries-by-greenhouse-gas-emissions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions-0.md
category: reference
title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:04.175224+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-countries-by-greenhouse-gas-emissions-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of sovereign states and territories by greenhouse gas emissions due to certain forms of human activity, based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission. The following table lists the 1970, 1990, 2000, 2010, 2020, 2021, 2022, and 2023 annual GHG emissions estimates (in kilotons of CO2 equivalent per year) along with a list of calculated emissions per capita (in metric tons of CO2 equivalent per year). The data include carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide from all sources, including agriculture and land use change. They are measured in carbon dioxide-equivalents over a 100-year timescale. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 6th assessment report finds that the "Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU)" sector on average, accounted for 13–21% of global total anthropogenic GHG emissions in the period 2010–2019. Land use change drivers net AFOLU CO2 emission fluxes, with deforestation being responsible for 45% of total AFOLU emissions. In addition to being a net carbon sink and source of GHG emissions, land plays an important role in climate through albedo effects, evapotranspiration, and aerosol loading through emissions of volatile organic compounds. The IPCC report finds that the LULUCF sector offers significant near-term mitigation potential


id: list-of-countries-by-greenhouse-gas-emissions-per-capita-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions_per_capita-0.md
category: reference
title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions_per_capita
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:05.691490+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-countries-by-greenhouse-gas-emissions-per-capita-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of sovereign states and territories by per capita greenhouse gas emissions due to certain forms of human activity, based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission. The following table lists the 1970, 1990, 2000, 2010, 2020, 2021, 2022 and 2023 annual per capita GHG emissions estimates (in metric tons of CO2 equivalent per year). The data include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) from all sources, including agriculture and land use change. They are measured in carbon dioxide-equivalents over a 100-year timescale. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 6th assessment report finds that the "Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU)" sector on average, accounted for 13–21% of global total anthropogenic GHG emissions in the period 2010–2019. Land use change drivers net AFOLU CO2 emission fluxes, with deforestation being responsible for 45% of total AFOLU emissions. In addition to being a net carbon sink and source of GHG emissions, land plays an important role in climate through albedo effects, evapotranspiration, and aerosol loading through emissions of volatile organic compounds. The IPCC report finds that the LULUCF sector offers significant near-term mitigation potential while providing food, wood and other renewable resources as


id: list-of-periods-and-events-in-climate-history-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_periods_and_events_in_climate_history-0.md
category: reference
title: List of periods and events in climate history
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_periods_and_events_in_climate_history
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:06.859116+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-periods-and-events-in-climate-history-20260505-0
summary:
The list of periods and events in climate history includes some notable climate events known to paleoclimatology. Knowledge of precise climatic events decreases as the record goes further back in time. The timeline of glaciation covers ice ages specifically, which tend to have their own names for phases, often with different names used for different parts of the world. The names for earlier periods and events come from geology and paleontology. The marine isotope stages (MIS) are often used to express dating within the Quaternary. == Before 1 million years ago == Scale: Millions of years before present, earlier dates approximate. == Pleistocene == All dates are approximate. "(B-S)" means this is one of the periods from the Blytt-Sernander sequence, originally based on studies of Danish peat bogs. == Holocene == All dates are BC (BCE) and approximate. "(B-S)" means this is one of the periods from the Blytt-Sernander sequence, originally based on studies of Danish peat bogs. === Common Era/AD === Climate changes of 535-536 (535–536 AD), sudden cooling and failure of harvests, perhaps caused by volcanic dust 900–1300 Medieval Warm Period, wet in Europe, arid in North America, may have depopulated the Great Plains of North America, associated


id: india-climate-collaborative-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_Climate_Collaborative-0.md
category: reference
title: India Climate Collaborative
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_Climate_Collaborative
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:08.099902+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: india-climate-collaborative-20260505-0
summary:
India Climate Collaborative (ICC) is an initiative undertaken by philanthropists from India to understand the challenges posed by climate change and find solutions for climate crisis. Planning began in 2018, and the initiative was launched in January 2020. == Context == The primary objective of the collective is to establish an India-only climate narrative and identify solutions for the harsh effects of climate change. It will be a platform for "diverse voices, innovative solutions, and collective investments." In 2018, India ranked 5th among 181 countries as a nation with the highest number of deaths triggered by climate change. == Participants == Individual philanthropists include Ratan Tata, Rohini Nilekani, Nadir Godrej, Anand Mahindra, Aditi Premji, Rishad Premji, Vidya Shah, and Hemendra Kothari. The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), Centre for Science & Environment, Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology & the Environment, Centre for Policy Research, Indian School of Business, World Resources Institute, Shakti Sustainable Energy Foundations, People's Archive for Rural India (PARI), Swades Foundation, Indian Development Review (IDR), SELCO, and Oxford University are some of the academic and research organisations associated with the collective. Shloka Nath of Tata Trusts is the Executive Director. == References == == External links ==


id: list-of-climate-change-initiatives-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_change_initiatives-0.md
category: reference
title: List of climate change initiatives
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_change_initiatives
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:09.486632+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-climate-change-initiatives-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of climate change initiatives of international, national, regional, and local political initiatives to take action on climate change (global warming). A Climate Action Plan (CAP) is a set of strategies intended to guide efforts for climate change mitigation. == International initiatives == Climate target#Global climate targets United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Kyoto Protocol International Carbon Action Partnership Global Environment Facility Muslim Seven Year Action Plan on Climate Change Paris Agreement Plant-based action plan Conference of Parties === Europe === === North America === == National initiatives == == Local initiatives == === United Kingdom === Of the 397 councils in the United Kingdom, 337 have a climate action plan. === United States === ==== Detroit ==== One of the more recent climate action plans is the 2019 Sustainability Action Agenda is a climate strategy plan created by the city of Detroit that emerged from gradual 12-year planning process of multiple efforts moving towards a more sustainable city. The action plan focuses on 4 main categories: Transitioning to clean energy through a 3-year target to reach 50% solar power to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Icreasing sustainable mobility geared towards improving public transportation, transition to electric


id: list-of-parties-to-the-kyoto-protocol-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_parties_to_the_Kyoto_Protocol-0.md
category: reference
title: List of parties to the Kyoto Protocol
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_parties_to_the_Kyoto_Protocol
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:10.770336+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-parties-to-the-kyoto-protocol-20260505-0
summary:
As of June 2013, there are 192 parties to the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, which aims to combat global warming. This total includes 191 states (189 United Nations member states as well as the Cook Islands and Niue) and one supranational union (the European Union). Canada renounced the protocol effective 15 December 2012 and ceased to be a member from that date. With the Protocol's 2008-2012 commitment period expiring, the Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol was agreed to, which establishes new commitments for the period 2013–2020. As of October 2020, 147 states have accepted this amendment. == Parties == Signing is optional, indicating an intention to ratify the Protocol. Ratification means that a state is legally bound by the provisions of the treaty. For Annex I parties (e.g. a developed state or one with an 'economy in transition') this means that it has agreed to cap emissions in accordance with the Protocol. Iceland was the 55th state to ratify, fulfilling the first condition for coming-into-force. With Russia's ratification the "55 percent of 1990 carbon dioxide emissions of the Parties included in Annex I" clause was satisfied and the treaty was brought into


id: list-of-landmarks-destroyed-or-damaged-by-climate-change-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_landmarks_destroyed_or_damaged_by_climate_change-0.md
category: reference
title: List of landmarks destroyed or damaged by climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_landmarks_destroyed_or_damaged_by_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:11.979628+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-landmarks-destroyed-or-damaged-by-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of significant natural or man-made landmarks that have been destroyed or damaged as a direct result or byproduct of anthropogenic climate change, such as by increased sea levels, exceptional rainfall or 100-year flooding, wildfires, and other exceptional natural disasters specifically linked to anthropogenic climate change. == List == === Destroyed === === Damaged === == See also == Cultural heritage sites at risk from climate change List of areas depopulated due to climate change List of destroyed heritage List of World Heritage in Danger == References ==


id: list-of-large-scale-temperature-reconstructions-of-the-last-2-000-years-20260505-0
category: reference
title: List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:13.320493+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-large-scale-temperature-reconstructions-of-the-last-2-000-years-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years-0.md

summary:
This list of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years includes climate reconstructions which have contributed significantly to the modern consensus on the temperature record of the past 2,000 years. The instrumental temperature record only covers the last 150 years at a hemispheric or global scale, and reconstructions of earlier periods are based on climate proxies. In an early attempt to show that climate had changed, Hubert Lamb's 1965 paper generalised from temperature records of central England together with historical, botanical, and archeological evidence to produce a qualitative estimate of temperatures in the North Atlantic region. Subsequent quantitative reconstructions used statistical techniques with various climate proxies to produce larger-scale reconstructions. Tree ring proxies can give an annual resolution of extratropical regions of the northern hemisphere and can be statistically combined with other sparser proxies to produce multiproxy hemispherical or global reconstructions. Quantitative reconstructions have consistently shown earlier temperatures below the temperature levels reached in the late 20th century. This pattern as seen in Mann, Bradley & Hughes 1999 was dubbed the hockey stick graph, and as of 2010 this broad conclusion was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions, using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records, with

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years


id: list-of-large-scale-temperature-reconstructions-of-the-last-2-000-years-20260505-1
category: reference
title: List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:13.320493+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-large-scale-temperature-reconstructions-of-the-last-2-000-years-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years-1.md

summary:
Pollack and Smerdon (2004) [also in AR4] Moberg et al. (2005) [also in AR4] D'Arrigo, Wilson & Jacoby (2006) [also in AR4] Frank, Esper & Cook (2007) "Adjustment for proxy number and coherence in a large-scale temperature reconstruction". Hegerl et al. (2007) "Detection of human influence on a new, validated 1500–year temperature reconstruction". Juckes et al. 2007 "Millennial temperature reconstruction intercomparison and evaluation". Loehle & McCulloch (2008) "Correction to: A 2000-year global temperature reconstruction based on non-tree ring proxies". Mann et al. 2008 "Proxy-based reconstructions of hemispheric and global surface temperature variations over the past two millennia". Mann et al. 2009 "Global Signatures and Dynamical Origins of the Little Ice Age and Medieval Climate Anomaly". Ljungqvist 2010 "A New Reconstruction of Temperature Variability in the Extra-Tropical Northern Hemisphere During the Last Two Millennia". Christiansen & Ljungqvist 2012 "The extra-tropical Northern Hemisphere temperature in the last two millennia: Reconstructions of low-frequency variability". Leclercq & Oerlemans (2012) "Global and Hemispheric temperature reconstruction from glacier length fluctuations". Shi et al. 2013 "Northern Hemisphere temperature reconstruction during the last millennium using multiple annual proxies". === Further reconstructions === Smith et al. 2006 "Reconstructing hemispheric-scale climates from multiple stalagmite records". Lee, Zwiers & Tsao 2008

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years


id: list-of-ministers-of-climate-change-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ministers_of_climate_change-0.md
category: reference
title: List of ministers of climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ministers_of_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:14.635831+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ministers-of-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
A list of ministers of climate change or officials in charge of cabinet positions with portfolios dealing primarily with climate change and issues related to mitigation of global warming. == A == === Australia === See Australian list of ministers for climate change === Austria === == B == === Belgium === See also Belgian minsters of mobility (transport) who later included it in their portfolio == C == === Canada === == D == === Denmark === See Ministry of Climate, Energy and Utilities == E == === European Union === See List of commissioners == F == === Finland === See List of ministers of the environment and climate change === France === == G == === Germany === === Greece === == I == === Ireland === === India === === Italy === == L == === Luxembourg === == M == === Malaysia === === Malta === == N == === Netherlands === === New Zealand === === Niue === === Norway === == P == === Pakistan === === Portugal === == R == === Romania === == S == === Scotland === === Spain === === Sweden === == U == === United Kingdom


id: speeches-of-greta-thunberg-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speeches_of_Greta_Thunberg-0.md
category: reference
title: Speeches of Greta Thunberg
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speeches_of_Greta_Thunberg
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:15.893643+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: speeches-of-greta-thunberg-20260505-0
summary:
Swedish climate activist Greta Thunberg has been noted for her skills as an orator. Her speech at the 2019 United Nations climate summit made her a household name. Prior to her speaking engagements, Thunberg had demonstrated outside the Swedish parliament, the Riksdag, using the signage Skolstrejk för klimatet (School strike for climate). == List of speeches == === November 2018: TEDxStockholm === On 24 November 2018, she spoke at TEDxStockholm. She spoke about realizing, when she was eight years old, that climate change existed and wondering why it was not headline news on every channel, as if there was a world war going on. She said she did not go to school to become a climate scientist, as some suggested, because the science was done and only denial, ignorance, and inaction remained. Speculating that her children and grandchildren would ask her why they had not taken action in 2018 when there was still time, she concluded with "we can't change the world by playing by the rules, because the rules have to be changed." === December 2018: COP24 === Thunberg addressed the COP24 United Nations climate change summit on 4 December 2018, and also spoke before the plenary assembly on


id: speeches-of-greta-thunberg-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speeches_of_Greta_Thunberg-1.md
category: reference
title: Speeches of Greta Thunberg
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speeches_of_Greta_Thunberg
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:15.893643+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: speeches-of-greta-thunberg-20260505-0
summary:
=== 20 September 2019: Global Climate Strike (New York City) === On 20 September 2019, Thunberg spoke to New York City's contingent of the Global Climate Strike. The demonstration in New York City was one of hundreds around the world with millions of people taking part. Young people were joined by adults for the first time since the strikes began. Thunberg drew laughter when she described how the politicians that she met asked her for selfies and "tell us they really, really admire what we do yet have done nothing to address the climate crisis." === 23 September 2019: United Nations Climate Action Summit – "How dare you!" === On 23 September 2019, Thunberg addressed the assembled world leaders at the 2019 UN Climate Action Summit held in New York City. Accusing world leaders of stealing her dreams and her childhood by their inaction on climate change, she opened her speech to the General Assembly with an impassioned introduction, which was widely covered by the media. "This is all wrong. I shouldn’t be up here. I should be back in school on the other side of the ocean. Yet you all come to us young people for hope? How dare


id: list-of-u-s-states-and-territories-by-carbon-dioxide-emissions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions-0.md
category: reference
title: List of U.S. states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:17.259708+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-u-s-states-and-territories-by-carbon-dioxide-emissions-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of U.S. states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions for energy use, as well as per capita and by area. The state with the highest total carbon dioxide emissions is Texas and the lowest is Vermont. The state with the highest per capita carbon dioxide emissions is Wyoming and the lowest is New York. == Table == == See also == Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Top contributors to greenhouse gas emissions == References == == External links == Energy-Related Carbon Dioxide Emissions by State, 2000-2015


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-0.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:18.647589+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
The contributions of women in climate change have received increasing attention in the early 21st century. Feedback from women and the issues faced by women have been described as "imperative" by the United Nations and "critical" by the Population Reference Bureau. A report by the World Health Organization concluded that incorporating gender-based analysis would "provide more effective climate change mitigation and adaptation." Many studies have documented the gender gap in science and investigated why women are not included or represented, particularly at higher levels of research. Despite significant progress, female scientists continue to endure discrimination, unequal pay, and funding inequities, according to a special report published in the journal Nature in 2013. It also states that 70 percent of men and women around the world regard science as a male endeavor. Women encounter hurdles due to their family obligations, and they are underrepresented in publications and citations. == Overview == Women have made major contributions to climate change research and policy and to broader analysis of global environmental issues. They include many women scientists as well as policy makers and activists. Women researchers have made significant contributions to major scientific assessments such as those of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-1.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:18.647589+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
== Arguments for women in science and climate change == It is argued that when women are overlooked as scholars and decision makers the world fails to take advantage of its full human capacity, which is needed for issues as urgent as climate change. Women may also take more collaborative approaches, especially in negotiations, and may pay more attention to disadvantaged groups and to the natural environment. Gender has become an issue because of women's essential roles in managing resources such as water, forests and energy and as women lead fights for environmental protection. A general concern has been expressed about the need to highlight the work of women and to include more women in major committees in order to provide gender balance, social justice, and inspiration to young women to enter careers in science. This reflects more general arguments about the barriers to women's advancement and the need for women to "Lean in" to leadership positions. Another argument focuses on the effects climate change on reproductive health. It was not until recently that these issues were discovered and brought to light however, they are currently affecting many women all around the world and in turn will eventually have population


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-2.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:18.647589+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
== Women working in climate change == There are a variety of ways to identify women who have made major contributions to climate change. The first is the list of authors of the high level international assessments for the UN and other organizations such as the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The second is to examine women who have been invited to join the editorial boards of climate change refereed journals. A third is to look at the membership of the global change committees of the International Council for Science (ICSU). And a fourth is to recognize women that are members of their National Academy of Sciences who work on climate change. Many of them are IPCC or other report authors, and also members of ICSU committees, members of their National Academy and other marks of accomplishment. Seven cities around the world have appointed women as Chief Heat Officers (CHOs) to take action against extreme heat due to climate change. In February 2024, the EIB Group established the Women Climate Leaders Network, bringing together 47 women leaders from the commercial sector from all 27 EU Member States, to collaborate on innovative


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-3.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:18.647589+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
== The Greta Thunberg effect == Greta Thunberg has been credited with inspiring young girl to take more action on climate change, which has become known as the "Greta Thunberg effect." Thunberg is well known for her work on fighting climate change, and is seen as a role model for younger girls. These new generations of girls are being called "eco-warriors", they are taking actions for the environment in various ways. In Kazakhstan, a group of young girls named Team Coco have come together to fight the ecological problems that pollute their nation, in order to accomplish this they have created an app known as TECO which is an "augmented reality game that merges educational and entertainment tools to help players change their behavior and become more eco-conscious". More girls have been taking action against climate change by using technology, and in turn help encourage other political leaders to take action for climate change and business corporations to reduce the carbon foot print they leave behind. == Women climate researchers == Following is a comprehensive list of women researchers in the climate change field. Note that not all women researchers have their individual Wikipedia pages that showcase their work (red


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-4.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:18.647589+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
Ibidun Adelekan: Associate Professor in the Department of Geography at University of Ibadan, Nigeria. Her research focuses on climate-society interactions, human dimensions of global environmental change, vulnerability and resilience of human-environment systems to climate change. She is a lead author of the IPCC AR6 and a contributing author to the IPCC AR5 - Africa Chapter. Carolina Adler: Executive Director of Mountain Research Initiative (MRI), Switzerland where she oversees the work of the MRI coordination office, promotes global change research agenda and supports regional and thematic collaborations across mountain communities worldwide. She is an Environmental Scientist and Geographer by background and has vast experience in international career, both in public and private sector. She is a lead author of the IPCC Special Report on Ocean and Cryosphere and Working Group II of IPCC AR6. Paulina Aldunce: Associate Professor of the Department of Environmental Science and Natural Resources and the Deputy Director of the Center of Disaster Risk Reduction, CITRID at University of Chile, Chile. Her research interests include the social and institutional dimension of disaster management and climate change, with a focus on adaptation, resilience, transformation, and local and community management. She is a leading author of three IPCC reports including


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-5.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:18.647589+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
She is a lead author of the IPCC AR6 Working Group I: The Physical Science Basis. She completed her PhD from University of Oxford in Atmospheric, Oceanic and Planetary Physics. Noemí Chacón: Researcher at Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas (IVIC), Venezuela. She is a lead author of the IPCC AR6 report. Elizabeth Chatterjee: She is an Environmental Historian expert. She works with a focus on energy histories,specifically in India. She wrote one book called Electric Democracy about the history of India's energy- centered transformation over time and is currently working on her second book about worldwide energy and environmental crises starting from the 1970s. She is currently teaching at the University of Chicago. Lynette Cheah: Associate Professor at Singapore University of Technology and Design, Singapore. She leads the Sustainable Urban Mobility research group to reduce environmental impacts of passengers and urban freight transport. Her expertise lies in transport modeling and simulation, life cycle energy and environmental assessment of products and systems, and urban metabolism. She is a review editor of the IPCC AR6. Ying Chen: Professor at Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS) Graduate School and a Senior Research Fellow at Institute for Urban and Environmental Studies (IUE), CASS, China.


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-6.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:18.647589+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
She is also a visiting lecturer at United Nations University - Institute for the Advanced Study of Sustainability. Her research focuses on sustainable development, governance, disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation. Currently, she is a fellow of the Earth System Governance Network and is a lead author of IPCC AR6. Fatima Driouech: Associate Professor and the Executive Coordinator of the Adaptation Metrics and Techniques Cluster at the Mohammed VI Polytechnic University, Morocco. Her research interests include climate variability, regional climate modeling and climate science. Previously, she was the Head of the Meteorological Research Center of the Moroccan Meteorology and the National Climate Centre. She was also Vice-Chair of Working Group I of the IPCC and she was lead author of the fifth IPCC report. For the recent IPCC AR6, she serves as a review editor. She is currently acting as co-coordinator of MedECC, the independent network of Mediterranean Experts on Climate and environmental Change. Opha Pauline Dube: Professor of Environmental Science, University of Botswana. Dube has expertise in sustainable development, community-inclusive environmental management, and climate change adaptation. She is an IPCC contributing author. Carolina Dubeux: Social Scientist and a Senior Researcher at the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro,


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-7.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:18.647589+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
Jacobs is a full professor in Soil, Water and Environmental Science at the University of Arizona. From 2009 - 2013 Jacobs served as director of the U.S. National Climate Assessment and Assistant Director, Energy and Environment Division, Office of Science and Technology Policy, Executive Office of the President, USA. Jill Jager (Williams): Independent Scholar, former executive director of the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change (IHDP) (1999 until 2002) and senior researcher at the Sustainable Europe Research Institute (SERI), Austria (2004 until 2008). She studies research themes ranging from energy and climate, biodiversity, global responsibility, public and stakeholder participation, integrating policies to linkages between knowledge and action for sustainable development. Hui Ju: Based at the Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, China. Her research includes studying wheat quality, drought characteristics and impacts of climate change on evapotranspiration in the Huang-Huai-Hai plain in China. She is a lead author of the IPCC AR6. Suzana Kahn Ribeiro: Professor at COPPE, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. She researches renewable energy, climate change, urban mitigation alternatives and sustainable mobility. She is the coordinator of UFRJ Green Fund and the president of the Scientific


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-8.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:18.647589+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
Diana Liverman: Professor of Geography and Development and formerly co-director of the Institute of the Environment at the University of Arizona USA and expert on the human dimensions of climate change. IPCC author. ICSU. Emma Liwenga: Senior Lecturer at the Institute of Resource Assessment, University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Her research focuses on agriculture, food and livelihood security, natural resource management and climate change adaptation. She was an author of the IPCC Special Report on Land and Climate Change and currently serves as a coordinating lead author of IPCC AR6 report. Jane Lubchenco: Professor of environmental science and marine ecology at Oregon State University. Former Administrator of NOAA and Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere (2009-2013). Her research interests include interactions between the environment and human well-being, biodiversity, climate change, and sustainable use of oceans and the planet. Nominated by President Obama in December 2008 as part of his "Science Dream Team". Amanda Lynch: Professor of Earth, Environmental and Planetary Sciences at Brown University and the founding director of the Institute at Brown for Environment and Society. She is an expert in polar climate system modelling, indigenous environmental knowledge and climate policy analysis. She is a Fellow


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-9.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:18.647589+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
Her research focuses on strengthening science, policy and practice alignment/interface for optimal land use, infrastructure provision and environmental management. Soojeong Meong: Senior Research Fellow at Korea Environment Institute, Korea. She is a review editor of the IPCC AR6 report. Sarah Myhre: climate and ocean scientist with expertise in the physical, biological, and chemical consequences of abrupt climate warming. A Ph.D. holder from the University of California at Davis, and has worked as a research associate at the University of Washington's School of Oceanography. She is a Kavli Fellow with the National Academy of Science. Sasha Naidoo: Researcher at the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, South Africa. Her expertise lies in forest, wood anatomy, silviculture, wood science, climate change and environmental science. She is a lead author of the IPCC AR6 report. Sunita Narain: Director general of the India-based Centre for Science and Environment and the director of the Society for Environmental Communications and publisher of the bimonthly magazine, Down To Earth. She is an influential environmental activist with interests in democracy at different scales, climate change, and natural resource management.


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-10.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:18.647589+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
Gemma Terersa Narisma: Executive Director of the Manila Observatory, Philippines and the Head of the Regional Climate Systems programme from 2017 - 2021. She was also an associate professor of the Physics Department at Ateneo de Manila University. She served as a coordinating lead author of the IPCC AR6 Working Group I. Grace Ngaruiya: Head of the Ecology and Conservation Biology Section and a Lecturer in the Department of Plant Sciences at Kenyatta University, Kenya. She is also an IPCC AR6 lead author. Her research is focused on the relationship between climate change and Africa's heritage. Isabelle Niang: Professor at the University of Chiekh Anta Diop in Dakar. An expert in coastal erosion and climate change; coordinating lead author of the chapters on "Afrique du Groupe de travail II" for IPCC, in the 4th and 5th reports. Since 2008, she has been coordinating regional project ACCC (Adaptation au Changements Climatiques et Côtiers en Afrique de l'Ouest) and is based in BREDA/UNESCO. She is also Chair of the Pan-African Regional Committee for START (PACOM) through the Pan-African START Secretariat (PASS) based at the Institute for Resource Assessment (IRA) of the University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Andrea J. Nightingale: Professor of


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-11.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:18.647589+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
There is a give and take from each side that cannot be passed without consequences. She founded Doughnut Economics Action Lab which works to bring communities around the country to work within these donut rings. Maureen Raymo: Paleoclimatologist and marine geologist. Interim Director of the Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory. She is the G. Unger Vetlesen Professor of Earth & Environmental Sciences and the director of the Lamont–Doherty Core Repository. She is best known for the Uplift-Weathering Hypothesis. Katherine Richardson Christensen: Professor in Biological Oceanography at the University of Copenhagen's Sustainability Science Center. She was one of the main organizers of the scientific conference, "Climate Change: Global Risks, Challenges and Decisions," which sought to inform the 2010 United Nations Climate Change Conference. She studies carbon cycling in the upper ocean and how biological processes impact food webs. She also researches planetary boundaries. Maisa Rojas: Associate Professor at the Department of Geophysics, University of Chile, Chile. Her research interests include paleoclimate study of the evolution and dynamics of the climate system in the southern hemisphere over the last 25,000 years, regional climate modeling and climate change impacts on different sectors of society. She contributed to IPCC's work during the 5th Assessment Report as


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-12.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:18.647589+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
Susan Solomon: Ellen Swallow Richards Professor of Atmospheric Chemistry & Climate Science known for her work on atmospheric chemistry and ozone and for leading the IPCC 4th assessment report on climate science. Member US National Academy of Sciences. She won the Volvo Environment and Blue Planet prizes. Anna Amelia Sörensson: Researcher at the Center for Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences (CIMA / CONICET-UBA), Argentina. Her research interests include climate change, climate modeling and variability, hydrology and precipitation. In the latest IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, she is serving as a coordinating lead author of Working Group I - Chapter 10: Linking global to regional climate change. Tannecia Stephenson: Senior Lecturer/Professor of Physics at The University of West Indies, Jamaica. Her research focuses on climate variability and seasonal prediction, climate extremes, climate change impacts and solar energy. She is a lead author of the IPCC AR6 report - Working Group I. Nicole Stevens: Ecologist and Trapnell Fellow at Environmental Change Institute, University of Oxford, UK. She is also affiliated with Stellenbosch University, South Africa. Her work examines the impact of global change on non-forested ecosystems in Africa and seeks to understand the mechanisms that shape plant distribution ranges. She is a lead author


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-13.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:18.647589+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
Kirsten Zickfeld: Associate Professor at Simon Fraser University, Canada, working on the effects of anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols on climate on centennial to millennial timescales. Gina Ziervogel: Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental and Geographical Science at the University of Cape Town, South Africa. Her research interests include climate change adaptation and resilience across scales, multi-level governance of urban adaptation, and social justice. She is a lead author of the IPCC AR6 report. Zinta Zommers: Mercy Corp's Head of the Zurich Flood Resilience Alliance and is a Rhodes and Commonwealth Scholar from Latvia. Her work experience includes providing support to the United Nations' Secretary-General's support team during the Paris Negotiation with the United Nations Environment and Food and Agriculture Organization, advising the United States' Government and the Government of Sierra Leone and co-editing a book on early warning systems for climate change. She is a review editor of the IPCC AR6. Zhiyan Zuo: Professor in the Department of Atmospheric and Ocean Sciences, Fudan University, China. She was formerly a researcher at the Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences. Her research focuses on land-atmosphere interaction, climate change, extreme events and asian monsoon. She currently serves as a lead


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-14.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:18.647589+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
== Women climate change policy makers and activists == Franny Armstrong: British documentary film director known for films including The Age of Stupid, a reflection from 2055 about climate change. She founded the carbon reduction campaign 10:10 in 2009. Gro Harlem Brundtland: Former prime minister of Norway and author of the Brundtland report on Sustainable Development who has served on countless international committees on the environment. Kotchakorn Voraakhom: Thai landscape architect, public green space campaigner, Echoing Green Climate Fellow and chief executive officer of Porous City Network. She is also the founder of the Koungkuey Design Initiative. Helen Clark: Administrator of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and the 37th Prime Minister of New Zealand (1999-2008). Clark's government implemented several major economic initiatives including the New Zealand Emissions Trading Scheme. Sheila Watt-Cloutier: Canadian Inuit activist who has focused on persistent organic pollutants and global warming, among other issues. Christiana Figueres: Costa Rican diplomat who has served in negotiations over climate change instruments since 1995. She became the Executive Secretary of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 2010. She was the founder of the Global Optimism group and was also the head of the UN climate change convention


id: lists-of-colors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_colors-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of colors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_colors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:20.337490+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-colors-20260505-0
summary:
These are the lists of colors; List of colors: A–F List of colors: G–M List of colors: N–Z List of colors (alphabetical) List of colors by shade List of color palettes List of Crayola crayon colors List of RAL colours List of X11 color names == See also == Index of color-related articles List of dyes Web colors


id: list-of-colors-alphabetical-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_colors_(alphabetical)-0.md
category: reference
title: List of colors (alphabetical)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_colors_(alphabetical)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:21.620540+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-colors-alphabetical-20260505-0
summary:
The following list shows a compact version of the colors in the list of colors A–F, G–M, and N–Z articles. The list shows the color swatch and its name. Hovering over the color box shows the HSV, RGB, and #hex values for the color in the tool tip. All values and conversions are in the sRGB color space, which is an inappropriate assumption for some entries. == RGB color list == == List of colors == === A === === B === === C === === D === === E === === F === === G === === H === === I === === J === === K === === L === === M === === N === === O === === P === === Q === === R === === S === === T === === U === === V === === W === === X === === Y === === Z === == See also == List of colors by shade == External links ==


id: list-of-colors-a-f-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_colors:_A–F-0.md
category: reference
title: List of colors: A–F
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_colors:_A–F
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:23.037745+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-colors-a-f-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of colors. A number of the color swatches below are taken from domain-specific naming schemes such as X11 or HTML4. RGB values are given for each swatch because such standards are defined in terms of the sRGB color space. It is not possible to accurately convert many of these swatches to CMYK values because of the differing gamuts of the two spaces, but the color management systems built into operating systems and image editing software attempt such conversions as accurately as possible. The HSV (hue, saturation, value) color space values, also known as HSB (hue, saturation, brightness), and the hex triplets (for HTML web colors) are also given in the following table. Some environments (like Microsoft Excel) reverse the order of bytes in hex color values (i.e. to "BGR"). Colors that appear on the web-safe color palette—which includes the sixteen named colors—are noted. (Those four named colors corresponding to the neutral greys have no hue value, which is effectively ignored—i.e., left blank.) == Colors in alphabetical order A–F == == See also == == References == Citations Sources


id: list-of-colors-g-m-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_colors:_G–M-0.md
category: reference
title: List of colors: G–M
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_colors:_G–M
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:24.634233+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-colors-g-m-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of colors. A number of the color swatches below are taken from domain-specific naming schemes such as X11 or HTML4. RGB values are given for each swatch because such standards are defined in terms of the sRGB color space. It is not possible to accurately convert many of these swatches to CMYK values because of the differing gamuts of the two spaces, but the color management systems built into operating systems and image editing software attempt such conversions as accurately as possible. The HSV (hue, saturation, value) color space values, also known as HSB (hue, saturation, brightness), and the hex triplets (for HTML web colors) are also given in the following table. Some environments (like Microsoft Excel) reverse the order of bytes in hex color values (i.e. to "BGR"). Colors that appear on the web-safe color palette—which includes the sixteen named colors—are noted. (Those four named colors corresponding to the neutral greys have no hue value, which is effectively ignored—i.e., left blank.) == Colors in alphabetical order G–M == == See also == == References == Frery, A. C.; Melo, C. A. S.; Fernandes, R. C. (13 October 2000). "Web-based Interactive Dynamics for Color Models


id: list-of-colors-n-z-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_colors:_N–Z-0.md
category: reference
title: List of colors: N–Z
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_colors:_N–Z
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:26.067987+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-colors-n-z-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of colors. A number of the color swatches below are taken from domain-specific naming schemes such as X11 or HTML4. RGB values are given for each swatch because such standards are defined in terms of the sRGB color space. It is not possible to accurately convert many of these swatches to CMYK values because of the differing gamuts of the two spaces, but the color management systems built into operating systems and image editing software attempt such conversions as accurately as possible. The HSV (hue, saturation, value) color space values, also known as HSB (hue, saturation, brightness), and the hex triplets (for HTML web colors) are also given in the following table. Some environments (like Microsoft Excel) reverse the order of bytes in hex color values (i.e. to "BGR"). Colors that appear on the web-safe color palette—which includes the sixteen named colors—are noted. (Those four named colors corresponding to the neutral greys have no hue value, which is effectively ignored—i.e., left blank.) == Colors in alphabetical order N–Z == == See also == == References == Frery, A. C.; Melo, C. A. S.; Fernandes, R. C. (13 October 2000). "Web-based Interactive Dynamics for Color Models


id: list-of-chicken-colours-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chicken_colours-0.md
category: reference
title: List of chicken colours
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chicken_colours
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:27.382045+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chicken-colours-20260505-0
summary:
Breeders and fanciers of chickens accurately describe the colours and patterns of the feathers of chicken breeds and varieties. This is a list of the terms used in this context. == Self == Self-coloured chickens are those which display one solid colour without patterning of any kind. == Barred and cuckoo == == Columbian, belted == == Duckwing == == Laced == == Pencilled == == Mottled, spangled, mille fleur == == Black-tailed == == Black-breasted == == Others == == References ==


id: list-of-crayola-crayon-colors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Crayola_crayon_colors-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Crayola crayon colors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Crayola_crayon_colors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:28.784961+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-crayola-crayon-colors-20260505-0
summary:
Since the introduction of Crayola drawing crayons by Binney & Smith in 1903, more than 200 colors have been produced in a wide variety of assortments. The table below represents all of the colors found in regular Crayola assortments from 1903 to the present. Since the introduction of fluorescent crayons in the 1970s, the standard colors have been complemented by a number of specialty crayon assortments, represented in subsequent tables. == Standard colors == == Specialty crayons == Along with the regular packs of crayons, there have been many specialty sets, including Silver Swirls, Gem Tones, Pearl Brite Crayons, Metallic FX Crayons, Magic Scent Crayons, Silly Scents, and more. === Fluorescent crayons === In 1972, Binney & Smith introduced eight Crayola fluorescent crayons, designed to fluoresce under black light. The following year, they were added to the 72-count box, which had previously contained two of the eight most-used colors, in place of the duplicate crayons. These crayons remained steady until 1990, when all eight were renamed, and eight more were added, for a total of 16 fluorescent crayons. One of the new colors, Hot Magenta, shared a name with one of the original colors, now Razzle Dazzle Rose. For some


id: list-of-crayola-crayon-colors-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Crayola_crayon_colors-1.md
category: reference
title: List of Crayola crayon colors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Crayola_crayon_colors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:28.784961+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-crayola-crayon-colors-20260505-0
summary:
In 2001, Crayola produced Metallic FX Crayons, a set of 16 metallic crayons whose names were chosen through a contest open to residents of the U.S. and Canada. The hex triplets below are representative of the colors produced by the named crayons. In 2019, an updated version was released under its original name of Metallic Crayons, adding eight more metallic colors for a total of 24. The original 16 colors are included in the special 152-count Ultimate Crayon Collection pack alongside 120 standard and 16 Crayons with Glitter. Four of the colors are included in the regular 96-count crayon box. === Gel FX Crayons === In 2001, Crayola produced Gel FX Crayons. However, it did not contain any color names. Four of the colors are included in the 96-count crayon box alongside four Metallic FX colors and are not included in the 152-count Ultimate Crayon Collection set. The hex triplets below are representative of the colors produced by the named crayons. === Pearl Crayons === In 2019, a 24-count box of Pearl Crayons was released alongside the updated versions of the Metallic Crayons, Neon Crayons, and Crayons with Glitter. === Neon Crayons === In 2019, a new 24 count of


id: equine-coat-color-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equine_coat_color-0.md
category: reference
title: Equine coat color
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equine_coat_color
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:30.019671+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: equine-coat-color-20260505-0
summary:
Horses exhibit a diverse array of coat colors and distinctive markings. A specialized vocabulary has evolved to describe them. While most horses remain the same coat color throughout life, some undergo gradual color changes as they age. Most white markings are present at birth, and the underlying skin color of a healthy horse does not change. Certain coat colors are also associated with specific breeds, such as the Friesian, which is almost exclusively black. The basic outline of equine coat color genetics has largely been resolved, and DNA tests to determine the likelihood that a horse will have offspring of a given color have been developed for some colors. Discussion, research, and even controversy continue about some of the details, particularly those surrounding spotting patterns, color sub-shades such as "sooty" or "flaxen", and markings. == Basic coat colors == The two basic pigment colors of horse hairs are pheomelanin ("red"), which produces a reddish brown color, and eumelanin, which produces black. These two hair pigment genes create two base colors: chestnut, which is fully red, and black, which is fully black. All other coat colors are created by additional genes that modify these two base colors. The most common modifier


id: equine-coat-color-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equine_coat_color-1.md
category: reference
title: Equine coat color
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equine_coat_color
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:30.019671+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: equine-coat-color-20260505-0
summary:
The word "points" is given to the mane, tail, lower legs, and ear rims with respect to horse coloration. The overall name given to a horse's coat color depends on the color of both the points and the body. For example, bay horses have a reddish-brown body with black points. Point coloration is most often produced by the action of the agouti gene. It acts on the extension gene, when present, to suppress black color to all but the extremities of the horse; the legs, mane, tail and tips of the ears. If the extension gene is not present, the effect of agouti is not visible, as there is no black color present to suppress. Other genes, such as those for white markings, may affect a horse's coat color in addition to agouti, and if present, can further alter or suppress black hair color and may mask any point coloration. In particular, Gray horses are born dark and lighten with age; if born bay, they will eventually lose point coloration as the body hair silvers with age, though often the points are the slowest areas of the body to go gray. Point coloration may also be visible on horses with


id: equine-coat-color-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equine_coat_color-2.md
category: reference
title: Equine coat color
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equine_coat_color
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:30.019671+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: equine-coat-color-20260505-0
summary:
Buckskin: A bay horse with one copy of the cream gene, a dilution gene that "dilutes" or fades the coat color to a yellow, cream, or gold while keeping the black points (mane, tail, legs). Palomino: chestnut horse that has one cream dilution gene that turns the horse to a golden, yellow, or tan shade with a flaxen or white mane and tail. Often cited as being a color "of twenty-two carat gold", palominos range in shades from extremely light, almost cremello, to deep chocolate, but always with a white or flaxen mane and tail. Perlino: similar to a cremello, but is genetically a bay base coat with two dilute genes. Eyes are usually blue. Mane, tail and points are not black, but can sometimes be darker than the body coat, generally a reddish or rust color, though not to be confused with a red dun. Smoky black: A horse which visually appears to be only black, but actually has a black base coat and one copy of the cream gene. Smoky Cream: Virtually indistinguishable from a cremello or perlino without DNA testing, a horse with a black base coat and two copies of the cream gene. === Dun ===


id: equine-coat-color-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equine_coat_color-3.md
category: reference
title: Equine coat color
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equine_coat_color
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:30.019671+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: equine-coat-color-20260505-0
summary:
Piebald: a black-and-white (term more commonly used in the UK than the US). This is pinto spotting on top of black. Skewbald: a spotting pattern of white over chestnut or any other color other than black (term more commonly used in the UK than the US). Tricolored: A variation of Skewbald, specifically referring to pinto spotting over a bay base coat or other coat color that features black points. Terminology variations based on the observable shape of the white patterns include: Overo: Describes a group of spotting patterns genetically distinct from one another, characterized by sharp, irregular markings with a horizontal orientation, usually more dark than white. In some cases, the face is usually white, often with blue eyes. The white rarely crosses the back, and the lower legs are normally dark. Variations include "frame overo" and "splashed white". Sabino: Describes a range of spotting patterns characterized by high white on legs, belly spots, white markings on the face extending past the eyes and/or patches of roaning patterns standing alone, or on the edges of white markings. Usually produced by certain dominant white or "white spotting" alleles, though not all sabino patterns have been genetically mapped. Sometimes grouped with the


id: equine-coat-color-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equine_coat_color-4.md
category: reference
title: Equine coat color
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equine_coat_color
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:30.019671+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: equine-coat-color-20260505-0
summary:
== Other colors and modifiers == Brindle: One of the rarest colors in horses, characteristics are any base coat color with "zebralike" stripes, but the most common is a brown horse with faint yellowish markings. Usually linked to chimerism, but one heritable brindle pattern that affects coat texture and color in a family of American Quarter Horses has been named Brindle1 was announced in 2016. Sooty is a proposed genetic modifier not yet mapped that causes dark hairs to be dispersed within the coat, darkening the whole coat with age. Pangaré is a modifier that is the opposite of sooty, it causes individual hairs to lighten, causing lightened areas on the muzzle, flank and belly of a horse. "Flaxen" is used only to describe the lightened mane and tail of a chestnut, and has been proposed as a genetic modifier, particularly when it appears to be a trait of certain breeds. However, the genetic mechanism of this process has yet to be identified. Primitive marking variants sometimes called "bider markings" have been seen in Przewalski's horses and Mongolian horses. == Eye and hoof color == Most horses have brown eyes with minor shade variations. Blue eyes are linked to the


id: list-of-flags-by-color-combination-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination-0.md
category: reference
title: List of flags by color combination
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:32.945849+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-flags-by-color-combination-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of flags of states, territories, former, religious and other geographic entities (plus a few non-geographic flags) sorted by their combinations of dominant colors. Flags emblazoned with seals, coats of arms, and other multicolored emblems are sorted only by their color fields. The color of text is almost entirely ignored. Colors white and gold, related to the two metals of European heraldry (argent and or) are sorted first. The five major colors of European heraldry (black, red, green, blue, and purple) are sorted next. Miscellaneous colors (murrey, tan, grey, and pink) are sorted last. Similar colors are grouped together to make navigation of this list practical. As such, the dark greens prevalent in the Middle East are sorted together with the brighter greens prevalent in Western Europe. Significantly, yellows, golds, and oranges are grouped together as "gold" due to the lack of discrete divisions within this spectrum and the differing standards of interpretation of "gold", which appears in the legally codified specifications of many flags. Some flags, including a number from South Asia, include both a distinct yellow and a distinct orange; these have been noted accordingly. Magenta is included with red. == White == White flag,


id: list-of-flags-by-color-combination-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination-1.md
category: reference
title: List of flags by color combination
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:32.945849+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-flags-by-color-combination-20260505-0
summary:
Alsace, France Apeldoorn, Netherlands Aude, France Barcelona, Spain Białystok, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms) Bielsko-Biała, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms) Carinthia, Austria Columbus, Ohio, United States (with multicolored seal) Free City of Danzig (1920–1939) Dorset, England, United Kingdom Elba, 1814–1815, used during Napoleon Bonaparte's imprisonment Essex, England, United Kingdom Commune of the Working People of Estonia (1918–1919) Gard, France Gdańsk, Poland Greater Poland Voivodeship, Poland Grudziądz, Poland Guernsey (British crown dependency) Haarlem, Netherlands Haute-Garonne, France Hérault, France Inowrocław, Poland Isle of Man (British crown dependency) Jelenia Góra, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms) Jersey (British crown dependency) Lesser Poland Voivodeship, Poland Limburg, Belgium Lincoln, England, United Kingdom Lorraine, former administrative region of France Lot-et-Garonne, France Lublin Voivodeship, Poland Masovian Voivodeship, Poland Middlesex, England, United Kingdom North Ossetia-Alania, Russia Odesa, Ukraine Proszowice, Poland Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, a French region Saint Petersburg, Russia San Diego, United States (with multicolored seal) Santa Barbara, California, United States Sark, one of the British Channel Islands Seine-Maritime, France (with other color symbol) Selangor, Malaysia Sikkim (1967–1975) South Ossetia (de facto state, limited recognition) Świebodzin, Poland Sułkowice, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms) Warmian–Masurian Voivodeship, Poland Westmorland, England, United Kingdom Wolin, Poland York, England, United Kingdom


id: list-of-flags-by-color-combination-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination-2.md
category: reference
title: List of flags by color combination
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:32.945849+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-flags-by-color-combination-20260505-0
summary:
Amapá, Brazil Andorra la Vella, Andorra Apure, Venezuela (with multicolored emblem) Bashkortostan, Russia Bolívar State, Venezuela (with multicolored emblem) Brazil Ceará, Brazil Chaco Province, Argentina (with multicolored emblems) Christmas Island (Australian external territory) Connecticut, United States – with other color symbol Cumbria, England, United Kingdom Derbyshire, England, United Kingdom Duluth, Minnesota, United States Flevoland, Netherlands Formosa Province, Argentina Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil Goiás, Brazil Guárico State, Venezuela (with two multicolored emblems) Janská Janská, Ústí nad Labem Region, Czechia Mato Grosso, Brazil Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil Nairobi, Kenya Nairobi City County, Kenya (with tan symbols) National Renewal Alliance (1964–1985), extinct political party of Brazil Nueva Esparta State, Venezuela Piauí, Brazil Portland, Oregon, United States Portuguesa State, Venezuela Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil Rondônia, Brazil Sergipe, Brazil Solomon Islands Yorkshire, England, United Kingdom === White, gold, green, murrey === Western Province, Sri Lanka === White, gold, green, tan === North Western Province, Sri Lanka === White, gold, blue === Aisne, France Albany, New York, United States (with multicolored seal) Dolphin Flag, used by the unrecognized Republic of Anguilla (1967–1969) Aube, France Australian Capital Territory, Australia Azores (Portuguese autonomous region) (with multicolored coat of arms) Białobrzegi, Poland Bir Tawil Bosnia and Herzegovina Brisbane,


id: list-of-flags-by-color-combination-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination-3.md
category: reference
title: List of flags by color combination
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:32.945849+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-flags-by-color-combination-20260505-0
summary:
=== White, black, murrey === Democratic Republic of Georgia (1918–1921) Georgia (1991–2004) === White, red === Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates Aceh Sultanate (1496–1903) Aichi Prefecture, Japan Ajman, United Arab Emirates Akita Prefecture, Japan Alabama, United States Alsace (Historical), France Amersfoort, Netherlands Antwerp (city), Belgium Árpád stripes, historical flag of House of Árpád Asunción, Paraguay – with other color symbol Atlántico, Colombia Austria Bahrain Bari, Italy Basel-Landschaft, Switzerland Bas-Rhin, France Belarus (1918, 1991–1995) Będzin, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms) Birmingham, Alabama, United States Brandenburg, Germany Brandywine flag, used during the American Revolution Bremen, Germany Breda, Netherlands Brno, Czechia Calgary, Canada California, United States (with multicolored emblem and text) Canada Cantabria, Spain (with multicolored coat of arms) Republic of Central Albania (1913-1914) Chlístovice, Central Bohemian Region, Czechia Chuquisaca Department, Bolivia City of London, England, United Kingdom Cross of Burgundy, historical flag of the Duchy of Burgundy and Spain Denmark District of Columbia, United States Dordrecht, Netherlands Drahobuz, Ústí nad Labem Region, Czechia Dubai, United Arab Emirates Džbánice, South Moravian Region, Czechia Easter Island, Chile Eindhoven, Netherlands Elbląg, Poland England, United Kingdom Florence, Italy Florida, United States – with other color symbol Franconia, Germany Frankfurt (to 1866) – with multicolored coat


id: list-of-flags-by-color-combination-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination-4.md
category: reference
title: List of flags by color combination
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:32.945849+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-flags-by-color-combination-20260505-0
summary:
Adjara, Georgia Alagoas, Brazil (with multicolored coat of arms) Amazonas, Brazil American Samoa, (US insular area) (with multicolor emblem) Anguilla (British overseas territory) – with other color symbol Arkansas, United States Ascension Island (part of the British overseas territory of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha) – with other color symbol Assyrian flag – with other color symbol, two shades of blue or red (may or may not always be included) Australia Bahia, Brazil Bandera del Directorio Revolucionario Estudiantil Bali Kingdom (914–1908) Belize (with multicolored coat of arms) Bermuda (British overseas territory) – with other color symbol Bohol, Philippines British Antarctic Territory (British overseas territory) – with other color symbol British Indian Ocean Territory (British overseas territory) – with other color symbol Bydgoszcz, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms) Cambodia Campania, Italy Carpathian Ruthenia Cayman Islands (British overseas territory) (with multicolored coat of arms) Central Department, Paraguay Chicago, Illinois, United States Chile Chile, 1817 Republic of China (Taiwan and surrounding islands) Choctaw Republic, flag in use 1860–1866 Christian flag Cincinnati, Ohio, United States Cleveland, Ohio, United States – with other color symbol Confederate States of America, 1861–1865, flag in use 1861–1863 Confederate States of America, 1861–1865, flag in use


id: list-of-flags-by-color-combination-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination-5.md
category: reference
title: List of flags by color combination
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:32.945849+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-flags-by-color-combination-20260505-0
summary:
Abruzzo, Italy – with other color symbol Afar Region, Ethiopia (with multicolored emblem) Alpes-Maritimes, France Azerbaijan Aztlán, unofficial flag of Chicano nationalism, with other color symbol Bayelsa State, Nigeria Central Ethiopia Regional State, Ethiopia Chin State, Myanmar (with multicolored emblem) Djibouti Equatorial Guinea – with other color symbol Federal Dependencies of Venezuela The Gambia Groningen (province), Netherlands Guanacaste, Costa Rica Herzegovina-Neretva Canton, Bosnia and Herzegovina – with other color symbol Imbabura Province, Ecuador Lesotho (1966–1987) Mérida, Venezuelan state Nieuwe Republiek (1884–1888, unrecognized) Ogaden, Ethiopia Sakha Republic, Russia Sidama Region, Ethiopia Somali Region, Ethiopia South African Republic (1852–1877 & 1881–1902) Republic of South Maluku (1950–1963) State of Syria, French Mandate for Syria and Lebanon (1925–1930) Uzbekistan === White, blue === Almelo, Netherlands Altai Republic, Russia Antarctic Treaty System Antarctica – Graham Bartram flag Antarctica – True South flag Argentina – with other color symbol Arlon, Belgium Arnhem, Netherlands Ashdod, Israel Assen, Netherlands Basilicata, Italy Bat Yam, Israel Bavaria, Germany Bavaria, Germany Billings, Montana, United States (with multicolored emblem) Bonnie Blue Flag, unofficial flag of the Confederate States of America Brescia, Italy Buffalo, New York, United States (with multicolored emblem) Central America, 1823–1824 (with multicolored coat of arms) Central America, 1824–1839 (with


id: list-of-flags-by-color-combination-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination-6.md
category: reference
title: List of flags by color combination
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:32.945849+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-flags-by-color-combination-20260505-0
summary:
Andalusia, Spain – with other color symbol Anhalt-Bernburg (to 1863) Anhalt-Dessau (to 1863) Anhalt-Köthen (to 1853) Antioquia, Colombia Aomori Prefecture, Japan Bangkok, Thailand Caaguazú, Paraguay Cesar Department, Colombia Coburg, Germany (1918–1920) Comoros (1978–1992) Comoros (1992–1996) Comoros (1996–2001) East Java (1948–1950) Egypt (1922–1958) Esmeraldas Province, Ecuador Esperanto flag Esquintla, Guatemala (with multicolored seal) Gifu Prefecture, Japan Groningen (city), Netherlands Hasselt, Belgium Jaworzno, Poland Kanepi Parish, Estonia Kagawa Prefecture, Japan Kirkcudbrightshire, Scotland, United Kingdom La Guajira, Colombia Lombardy, Italy Los Ríos Province, Ecuador Madura (1948–1950) Meta, Colombia Mie Prefecture, Japan Miyagi Prefecture, Japan Nigeria Norfolk Island (Australian external territory) Pakistan Pando Department, Bolivia Pasundan (1948–1950) Pine Tree Flag, historical flag used during the American Revolution Rhodesia (1968–1979) – with other color symbol Ridderkerk, Netherlands Risaralda Department, Colombia Rotterdam, Netherlands St. Gallen, Switzerland Santa Cruz Department (Bolivia), Bolivia Saudi Arabia Saxe-Altenburg, Germany (1826–1920) Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Germany (1826–1911) Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Germany (1911–1918) Saxe-Gotha, Germany (1918–1920) Saxe-Hildburghausen (to 1826) Saxe-Meiningen, Germany (to 1920) Saxony, Germany Siberia, Russia Stellaland (1883–1885, de facto state, limited recognition) Styria, Austria Sucre, Colombia (with multicolored coat of arms) Tochigi Prefecture, Japan Togo (1958–1960) Tokyo, Japan (Symbol flag) Toyama Prefecture, Japan Vaupés Department, Colombia – two different shades of


id: list-of-flags-by-color-combination-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination-7.md
category: reference
title: List of flags by color combination
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:32.945849+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-flags-by-color-combination-20260505-0
summary:
Socialist Soviet Republic of Abkhazia (1931-1941) The Achaemenid Empire (The Standard of Cyrus the Great) (550-330 BC) Alash Autonomy Albuquerque Amhara Region, Ethiopia Andrychów, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms) Anglesey, Wales, United Kingdom Aragon, Spain (with multicolored coat of arms) Aragua State, Venezuela (with multicolored coat of arms) Aramean-Syriac flag Armenian SSR, Soviet Union (1921–1922) Armenian SSR, TSFSR, Soviet Union (1922–1936) Armenian SSR, Soviet Union (1936–1940) Armenian SSR, Soviet Union (1940–1952) Aveyron, France Azerbaijan SSR, TSFSR, Soviet Union (1924–1927) Azerbaijan SSR, TSFSR, Soviet Union (1927–1931) Azerbaijan SSR, TSFSR, Soviet Union (1931–1937) Azerbaijan SSR, Soviet Union (1937–1940) Azerbaijan SSR, Soviet Union (1940–1952) Azuay, Ecuador Baden, Germany (to 1891) Baden, Germany (1891–1945) (South) Baden, West Germany (1945–1952) Bogotá, Colombia (with multicolored coat of arms) Burgenland, Austria Byelorussian SSR, Soviet Union (1919–1927) Byelorussian SSR, Soviet Union (1927–1937) Byelorussian SSR, Soviet Union (1937–1951) Byzantine Empire (Palaiologos dynasty, c. 1350) Senyera, flag of Catalonia (Spain), Northern Catalonia (France) and Alghero (Italy) People's Republic of China Chuvashia, Russia Dobczyce, Poland Dordogne, France Estonian SSR, Soviet Union (1940–1953) Georgian SSR, Soviet Union (1921–1922) Georgian SSR, Soviet Union (1922–1937) Georgian SSR, Soviet Union (1937–1951) Gmina Garbatka-Letnisko, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms) Gmina Gózd, Poland (with multicolored


id: list-of-flags-by-color-combination-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination-8.md
category: reference
title: List of flags by color combination
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:32.945849+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-flags-by-color-combination-20260505-0
summary:
Adelaide, South Australia, Australia (with multicolored emblems) Åland (Finnish autonomous territory) Allier, France Andorra – with other color symbol Arenberg (1803–1810) Arizona, United States – blue, red, gold and copper Armenia Armenian SSR, Soviet Union (1952–1990) Azerbaijan SSR, Soviet Union (1952–1991) Bouches-du-Rhône, France Calvados, France Cañar Province, Ecuador Chad Cieszyn, Poland Colombia Congo-Léopoldville (1963–1966) Congo-Kinshasa (1966–1971) Democratic Republic of the Congo Corrèze, France Cundinamarca Department, Colombia (with multicolored coat of arms) Ecuador (with multicolored coat of arms) Free State of Fiume (1920–1924) Gran Colombia (1821–1831) Great Dayak (1946–1950) Hautes-Alpes, France Kazakh SSR, Soviet Union (1953–1992) Landes, France Łomża, Poland Lozère, France Maine-et-Loire, France Manche, France Mecklenburg, Germany United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia (1859–1862) United Principalities of Romania (1862–1866) Moldova – with other color symbol Mongolia Montgomery County, Maryland, United States New Brunswick, Canada – with other color symbol Normandy, France North Holland, Netherlands Orkney, Scotland, United Kingdom Overijssel, Netherlands Pas-de-Calais, France Płock, Poland Réunion, French overseas department, unofficial Romania Russian SFSR, Soviet Union (1954–1991) Skåne, Sweden Świętochłowice, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms) Turkmen SSR, Soviet Union (1952–1992) Ukrainian SSR, Soviet Union (1950–1991) Valencia, Spain – with other color symbol Var, France South Vietnam, 1975–1976 Waalre, Netherlands West Flanders,


id: list-of-flags-by-color-combination-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination-9.md
category: reference
title: List of flags by color combination
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:32.945849+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-flags-by-color-combination-20260505-0
summary:
=== Black, purple === Anarcha-feminism === Black, grey === Agorism == Red == Red flag Baton Rouge, Louisiana, United States (with white text and multicolored emblem) Biała, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms) Caracas, Venezuela (with multicolored coat of arms) Far Eastern Republic (1920-1922) Kedah, Malaysia (with multicolored coat of arms) Muscat and Oman (to 1970) Oruro Department, Bolivia Racibórz, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms) Soviet Union (1922-1991) Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic (ESSR) (1953–1990) Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic (GSSR) (1951–1990) Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic (KSSR) (1953–1991) Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic (KSSR) (1952–1991) Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic (LSSR) (1953–1990) Lezgistani Separatist Movement Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) (1954–1991) Sławków, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms) === Red, green === Arauca Department, Colombia Bangladesh Bolívar Province, Ecuador Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (BSSR) (1951–1991) Bukharan People's Socialist Republic (BPSR) (1920-1924) Khorezm People's Socialist Republic (KPSR) (1920-1924) People's Republic of Benin (1975–1990) Głogówek, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms) La Paz, Bolivia Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic (LSSR) (1953–1988) Morocco Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic (MSSR) (1952–1990) Piaseczno, Poland Portugal (with multicolored coat of arms) United States of Stellaland (1883) Transnistria, Moldova (also a unrecognized sovereign territory) Transnistria (civil flag) (de facto state, limited


id: list-of-historical-sources-for-pink-and-blue-as-gender-signifiers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_historical_sources_for_pink_and_blue_as_gender_signifiers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of historical sources for pink and blue as gender signifiers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_historical_sources_for_pink_and_blue_as_gender_signifiers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:34.353888+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-historical-sources-for-pink-and-blue-as-gender-signifiers-20260505-0
summary:
Since at least the 19th century, the colours pink and blue have been used to indicate gender, particularly for babies and young children. The current tradition in the United States (and an unknown number of other countries) is "pink for girls, blue for boys". Prior to 1940, two conflicting traditions coexisted in the U.S., the current tradition, and its opposite, i.e., "blue for girls, pink for boys". This was noted by Paoletti (1987, 1997, 2012). Since the 1980s, Paoletti's research has been misinterpreted and has evolved into an urban legend: that there was a full reversal in 1940, prior to which the only tradition observed was the opposite of the current one. Quoting the concluding lines of this study: "In conclusion, there are strong reasons to doubt the validity of the standard PBR [pink-blue reversal] account; if anything, gender-color associations seem to be much more stable than currently believed" == Key to tables == Year = year of publicationLocation = place to which text pertainsComments = brief quote from original text == Pink for girls, blue for boys == === 19th century === === 20th century === == Pink for boys, blue for girls == === 19th century === ===


id: fischer-saller-scale-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fischer–Saller_scale-0.md
category: reference
title: Fischer–Saller scale
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fischer–Saller_scale
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:35.604326+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fischer-saller-scale-20260505-0
summary:
The Fischer–Saller Scale, named for eugenicist Eugen Fischer and German anthropologist Karl Saller, is used in physical anthropology and medicine to determine the shades of hair color. The scale uses the following designations: == Earlier scale == An earlier version of the scale created by Eugen Fischer, known as the Fischer Scale, used a different range of designations: == See also == Human hair color == References ==


id: list-of-color-spaces-and-their-uses-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_color_spaces_and_their_uses-0.md
category: reference
title: List of color spaces and their uses
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_color_spaces_and_their_uses
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:36.835670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-color-spaces-and-their-uses-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of color spaces, grouped by the color model that is used for part of their specification. == Models == Color models can be based on physics or human perception. Physical descriptions of color can be additive (describes mixing of light, RGB) or subtractive (describes mixing of pigment or removal of light, CMYK). Descriptions based on human perception are based on some experimental results on humans. Some models and their variants are employed in parts of the color spaces listed below. == Human perception == Instead of being based on color mixture, they are based on human experience or phenomenology. === CIE 1931 XYZ === CIE 1931 XYZ was the first attempt to produce a color space based on measurements of human color perception and the basis for almost all other color spaces. === CIEUVW === Measurements over a larger field of view than the "CIE 1931 XYZ" color space which produces slightly different results. === Uniform color spaces === Uniform color spaces (UCSs) are built such that the same geometrical distance anywhere in the color space reflects the same amount of perceived color difference. There have been many attempts at building such a color space. As


id: list-of-color-spaces-and-their-uses-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_color_spaces_and_their_uses-1.md
category: reference
title: List of color spaces and their uses
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_color_spaces_and_their_uses
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:36.835670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-color-spaces-and-their-uses-20260505-0
summary:
Rec. 2100 is a color space standardized by ITU and used for HDR-TV. It has a peak luminance of at least 1,000 cd/m2 (higher than the 100 cd/m2 limit of SDR and color spaces such as Rec. 709 and Rec. 2020). It uses a non-gamma transfer function (PQ or HLG) and system colorimetry (chromaticity of color primaries and white point) identical to Rec. 2020 system colorimetry. === Others with RGB primaries === ProPhoto RGB color space scRGB DCI-P3, used primarily for digital movie projection SMPTE 240M / SMPTE "C", used in NTSC and MUSE analog television systems Rec. 601, used for SDTV Rec. 709, used for HDTV Rec. 2020, used for UHDTV Academy Color Encoding System (ACES) == YCbCr and YUV == The analogue YUV and digital YCbCr refer to a variety of linear methods to try to separate lightness from chroma signals in an RGB input using linear combination. As the input RGB values are gamma-corrected, such a separation does not truly produce lightness and two chroma signals, but a "luma" signal and two "chrominance" signals instead. YUV: as human eyes have lower resolution in their color perception, it is more economic to put more of the bandwidth in


id: list-of-color-palettes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_color_palettes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of color palettes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_color_palettes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:38.010623+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-color-palettes-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list that contains color palettes for notable computer graphics, terminals and video game consoles. Only a simulated image using a palette and its name are given. Main articles are linked from the name of each palette, test charts, sample colours, simulated images, and further technical details (including references). During older eras of computing, manufacturers developed many different display systems often in a competitive, non-collaborative basis (with a few exceptions in the VESA consortium), creating many proprietary, non-standard different instances of display hardware. Often, as with early personal and home computers, a given machine employed its unique display subsystem, also with its unique color palette. Furthermore, software developers had made use of the color abilities of distinct display systems in many different ways. The result is that there is no single common standard nomenclature or classification taxonomy which can encompass every computer color palette. In order to organize the material, color palettes have been grouped following certain criteria. First, generic monochrome and full RGB repertories common to various computer display systems are listed. Then, usual color repertories used for display systems that employ indexed color techniques. And finally, specific manufacturers' color palettes implemented in many representative early


id: list-of-international-auto-racing-colours-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_international_auto_racing_colours-0.md
category: reference
title: List of international auto racing colours
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_international_auto_racing_colours
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:39.270137+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-international-auto-racing-colours-20260505-0
summary:
From the beginning of organised motor sport events, in the early 1900s, until the late 1960s, before commercial sponsorship liveries came into common use, vehicles competing in Formula One, sports car racing, touring car racing and other international auto racing competitions customarily painted their cars in standardised racing colours that indicated the nation of origin of the car or driver. These were often quite different from the national colours used in other sports or in politics. == History == === 1900s === The colours have their origin in the national teams competing in the Gordon Bennett Cup, which was held annually in 1900–1905. Count Eliot Zborowski, father of inter-war racing legend Louis Zborowski, suggested that each national entrant be allotted a different colour. The first competition in 1900 assigned: Blue to France, Yellow to Belgium, White to Germany and Red to the United States. (Italy did not adopt its famous 'Racing Red' until a red Fiat won the Grand Prix race in 1907). When Britain first competed in 1902, it had to choose a different colour from her national colours of red, white and blue, as these had already been allocated. Selwyn Edge's winning Napier of 1902 was painted olive


id: list-of-international-auto-racing-colours-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_international_auto_racing_colours-1.md
category: reference
title: List of international auto racing colours
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_international_auto_racing_colours
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:39.270137+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-international-auto-racing-colours-20260505-0
summary:
=== Contemporary usage === Traditional colours are still used by automakers and teams that want to emphasise their racing traditions, especially by Italian, British and German manufacturers. The Rosso Corsa has been used uninterruptedly by Italian manufacturers Ferrari and Alfa Romeo. Since the 1990s, other traditional colours have resurfaced, such as the British racing green F1 Jaguar Racing cars and Aston Martin sports cars, and the white F1 BMW Sauber. German manufacturers like Mercedes-Benz and Audi (Auto Union) used silver paint when they returned to international racing in the 1990s. Many concept cars follow the old colour schemes, and most amateur racers prefer them as well. Often, sponsorship agreements respect traditional colours. For example, Ferrari has had major sponsors which also use red colours, like Marlboro and Santander. In contrast, when tobacco company West sponsored McLaren in the 1990s and 2000s, they did not use their colours, but the "Silver Arrows" from engine provider Mercedes. In a reversed situation, Subaru has continued using blue and yellow liveries well after their 555 sponsorship ended. Some manufacturers prefer colours different from their national colours. For example, Citroën has traditionally used red, Renault and Opel have used yellow and black, and Volkswagen has


id: list-of-ral-colours-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_RAL_colours-0.md
category: reference
title: List of RAL colours
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_RAL_colours
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:40.585004+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ral-colours-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of RAL Classic colours from the European RAL colour standard. The visual samples are approximate and informative only. == RAL Classic == === Yellow and beige === === Orange === === Red === === Violet === === Blue === === Green === === Grey === === Brown === === White and black === === Overview === Below is a list of RAL Classic colours from the RAL colour standard. Alongside every colour, the corresponding values are given for: hexadecimal triplet for the sRGB colour space, approximating the given RAL colour sRGB value Grey value calculated from (0.2126 × red) + (0.7152 × green) + (0.0722 × blue) CIE L*a*b* values sRGB value expressed as hue, saturation and lightness (HSL) device-independent CMYK value: cyan, magenta, yellow, black or key LRV, but a consistent light reflectance value is not obtainable from pearlescent or metallic colours The visual samples displayed on the screen are not binding because brightness and contrast may vary from screen to screen – and neither are the colours on a printout from a printer. For binding colour samples, always obtain an official RAL Colour fan deck. == RAL Effect == == RAL Design System+


id: list-of-colors-by-shade-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_colors_by_shade-0.md
category: reference
title: List of colors by shade
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_colors_by_shade
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:41.896885+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-colors-by-shade-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of colors sorted by shade. == Colors with shades and tints of that hue == === Red === Red is any of a number of similar colors evoked by light, consisting predominantly of the longest wavelengths discernible by the human eye, in the wavelength range of roughly 625–750 nm. It is considered one of the additive primary colors. === Orange === Orange is the color in the visible spectrum between red and yellow with a wavelength around 585 – 620 nm. In the HSV color space, it has a hue of around 30°. === Yellow === Yellow is the color of light with wavelengths predominantly in the range of roughly 570–580 nm. In the HSV color space, it has a hue of around 60°. It is considered one of the subtractive primary colors. === Green === Green is a color, the perception of which is evoked by light having a spectrum dominated by energy with a wavelength of roughly 520–570 nm. It is considered one of the additive primary colors. === Cyan === Cyan is any of the colors in the blue-green range of the visible spectrum, i.e., between approximately 490 and 520 nm. It is


id: traditional-colors-of-japan-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_colors_of_Japan-0.md
category: reference
title: Traditional colors of Japan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_colors_of_Japan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:43.221509+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: traditional-colors-of-japan-20260505-0
summary:
The traditional colors of Japan are a collection of colors traditionally used in Japanese art, literature, textiles such as kimono, and other Japanese arts and crafts. == History == The traditional colors of Japan trace their historical origins to the Twelve Level Cap and Rank System which was established in 603 by Prince Shōtoku and based on the five Chinese elements. In this system, rank and social hierarchy were displayed and determined by certain colors. Colors known as kinjiki (禁色, "forbidden colors") were strictly reserved for the robes of the Imperial family and highest ranking court officials; for example, the color ōtan (orange) was used as the color for the robes of the Crown Prince and use by anyone else was prohibited. Colors known as yurushiiro (許し色, "permissible colors") were permitted for use by the common people. Most names of colors originate from the names of plants, flowers, and animals that bore or resembled them. Certain colors and dyeing techniques have been used since the Asuka period, while others had been developed as late as the Meiji period when synthetic dyes became common. Due to the long history of use of this color system, some variations in color and names


id: list-of-u-s-state-colors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_colors-0.md
category: reference
title: List of U.S. state colors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_colors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:44.548165+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-u-s-state-colors-20260505-0
summary:
This is the official list of each state's colors. == Arizona == Arizona's official colors are: Blue ("the same shade as that of the flag of the United States") Old gold They were adopted in 1915. == California == California's official colors are: Blue Gold First used by the University of California, Berkeley in 1875, and officially adopted by the state in 1951, blue represents the sky and gold represents the California Gold Rush. The colors are defined by several different standards in law: International Commission on Illumination: Blue: Y 0.063 x 0.204 y 0.165 Gold: Y 0.449 x 0.474 y 0.458 Munsell Renotation: Blue: H V/C 7.3 PB 2.9/8.8 Gold: H V/C 2.0 Y 7.1/11.3 Munsell Book Notation: Blue: H V/C 7.2 PB 2.9/9.1 Gold: H V/C 1 Y 7.3/11 References: Color Association of the United States (Formerly Textile Color Card Association of New York, Inc.): Blue: Yale Blue, cable number 70086, Standard Color Card of America, 9th edition. Gold: Golden Yellow, cable number 65001, United States Army Card of Official Colors for Arms and Services. ISCC–NBS system: Yale Blue: Deep purplish blue. Golden Yellow: Vivid yellow. == Delaware == Delaware's official colors are: Colonial blue Buff Further, "colonial


id: lists-of-computers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_computers-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of computers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_computers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:46.274117+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-computers-20260505-0
summary:
Lists of computers cover computers, or programmable machines, by period, type, vendor and region. == Early computers == List of vacuum tube computers List of transistorized computers List of early microcomputers List of computers with on-board BASIC List of computers running CP/M == More recent computers == List of home computers List of home computers by video hardware List of fastest computers Lists of microcomputers Lists of mobile computers List of fictional computers == Vendor-specific == HP business desktops List of IBM Personal Computer models List of IBM PS/2 models List of Mac models grouped by CPU type List of TRS-80 and Tandy-branded computers List of VAX computers == Regional == List of British computers List of computer systems from Croatia List of computer systems from Serbia List of computer systems from Slovenia List of computer systems from the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia List of Soviet computer systems == See also ==


id: outline-of-web-design-and-web-development-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_web_design_and_web_development-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of web design and web development
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_web_design_and_web_development
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:47.445973+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-web-design-and-web-development-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to web design and web development, two very related fields: Web design – field that encompasses many different skills and disciplines in the production and maintenance of websites. The different areas of web design include web graphic design; interface design; authoring, including standardized code and proprietary software; user experience design; and search engine optimization. Often many individuals will work in teams covering different aspects of the design process, although some designers will cover them all. The term web design is normally used to describe the design process relating to the front-end (client side) design of a website including writing markup. Web design partially overlaps web engineering in the broader scope of web development. Web designers are expected to have an awareness of usability and if their role involves creating markup then they are also expected to be up to date with web accessibility guidelines. Web development – work involved in developing a web site for the Internet (World Wide Web) or an intranet (a private network). Web development can range from developing a simple single static page of plain text to complex web-based internet applications (web apps), electronic


id: list-of-3d-graphics-libraries-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_3D_graphics_libraries-0.md
category: reference
title: List of 3D graphics libraries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_3D_graphics_libraries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:48.643828+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-3d-graphics-libraries-20260505-0
summary:
3D graphics have become so popular, particularly in video games, that specialized APIs (application programming interfaces) have been created to ease the processes in all stages of computer graphics generation. These APIs have also proved vital to computer graphics hardware manufacturers, as they provide a way for programmers to access the hardware in an abstract way, while still taking advantage of the special hardware of any specific graphics card. The first 3D graphics framework was probably Core, published by the ACM in 1977. == Low-level 3D API == These APIs for 3D computer graphics are particularly popular: ANGLE, web browsers graphics engine, a cross-platform translator of OpenGL ES calls to DirectX, OpenGL, or Vulkan API calls. Direct3D (a subset of DirectX) Mesa Metal developed by Apple. OpenGL and the OpenGL Shading Language OpenGL ES 3D API for embedded devices. OptiX developed by NVIDIA. Vulkan developed by Khronos Group == Web-based API == WebGL is a JavaScript interface for OpenGL ES API, promoted by Khronos. WebGPU is a newer and more efficient API for JavaScript, Rust, C++ and C. It is not yet fully supported by all browsers (see Implementation Status). == High-level 3D API == There are also higher-level 3D


id: list-of-alternative-shells-for-windows-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_alternative_shells_for_Windows-0.md
category: reference
title: List of alternative shells for Windows
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_alternative_shells_for_Windows
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:51.354618+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-alternative-shells-for-windows-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of software that provides an alternative graphical user interface for Microsoft Windows operating systems. The technical term for this interface is a shell. Windows' standard user interface is the Windows shell; Windows 3.0 and Windows 3.1 have a different shell, called Program Manager. The programs in this list do not restyle the Windows shell, but replace it; therefore, they look and function differently, and have different configuration options. == See also == Comparison of Start menu replacements for Windows 8 Comparison of X Window System desktop environments Desktop environment History of the graphical user interface Microsoft Bob Removal of Internet Explorer == References == == External links == Liming, Sean (August 2003). "Windows XP Embedded – Different Shells for Different Users". Microsoft Developer Network. Microsoft. Retrieved 15 November 2011.


id: list-of-artificial-intelligence-artists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_artificial_intelligence_artists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of artificial intelligence artists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_artificial_intelligence_artists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:52.529607+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-artificial-intelligence-artists-20260505-0
summary:
Many notable artificial intelligence artists have created a wide variety of artificial intelligence art from the 1960s to today. These include: == 20th century == Harold Cohen, active from 1960s to 2010s. Cohen's work is primarily with AARON, a series of computer programs that autonomously create original images. Eric Millikin, active from 1980s to present. Millikin's work includes AI-generated virtual reality, video art, poetry, music, and performance art, on topics such as animal rights, climate change, anti-racism, witchcraft, and the occult. Karl Sims, active from 1980s to present. Sims is best known for using particle systems and artificial life in computer animation. == 21st century == Refik Anadol, active from 2010s to present. Anadol's work includes video installations based on generative algorithms with artificial intelligence. Sougwen Chung, active from 2010s to present. Chung's work includes performances with a robotic arm that uses AI to attempt to draw in a manner similar to Chung. Stephanie Dinkins, active from 2010s to present. Dinkins' work includes recordings of conversations with an artificially intelligent robot that resembles a black woman, discussing topics such as race and the nature of being. Jake Elwes, active from 2010s to present. Their practice is the exploration of artificial


id: list-of-artificial-intelligence-projects-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_artificial_intelligence_projects-0.md
category: reference
title: List of artificial intelligence projects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_artificial_intelligence_projects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:53.775795+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-artificial-intelligence-projects-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of current and past, non-classified notable artificial intelligence projects. == Specialized projects == === Brain-inspired === Blue Brain Project, an attempt to create a synthetic brain by reverse-engineering the mammalian brain down to the molecular level. Google Brain, a deep learning project part of Google X attempting to have intelligence similar or equal to human-level. Human Brain Project, ten-year scientific research project, based on exascale supercomputers. === Cognitive architectures === 4CAPS, developed at Carnegie Mellon University under Marcel A. Just ACT-R, developed at Carnegie Mellon University under John R. Anderson. AIXI, Universal Artificial Intelligence developed by Marcus Hutter at IDSIA and ANU. CALO, a DARPA-funded, 25-institution effort to integrate many artificial intelligence approaches (natural language processing, speech recognition, machine vision, probabilistic logic, planning, reasoning, many forms of machine learning) into an AI assistant that learns to help manage your office environment. CHREST, developed under Fernand Gobet at Brunel University and Peter C. Lane at the University of Hertfordshire. CLARION, developed under Ron Sun at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute and University of Missouri. CoJACK, an ACT-R inspired extension to the JACK multi-agent system that adds a cognitive architecture to the agents for eliciting more realistic (human-like) behaviors


id: list-of-artificial-intelligence-projects-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_artificial_intelligence_projects-1.md
category: reference
title: List of artificial intelligence projects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_artificial_intelligence_projects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:53.775795+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-artificial-intelligence-projects-20260505-0
summary:
=== Natural language processing === AIML, an XML dialect for creating natural language software agents. Apache Lucene, a high-performance, full-featured text search engine library written entirely in Java. Apache OpenNLP, a machine learning based toolkit for the processing of natural language text. It supports the most common NLP tasks, such as tokenization, sentence segmentation, part-of-speech tagging, named entity extraction, chunking and parsing. Artificial Linguistic Internet Computer Entity (A.L.I.C.E.), a natural language processing chatterbot. ChatGPT, a chatbot built on top of OpenAI's GPT-3.5 and GPT-4 family of large language models. Claude, a family of large language models developed by Anthropic and launched in 2023. Claude LLMs achieved high coding scores in several recognized LLM benchmarks. Cleverbot, successor to Jabberwacky, now with 170m lines of conversation, Deep Context, fuzziness and parallel processing. Cleverbot learns from around 2 million user interactions per month. DeepSeek: Chinese chatbot funded by hedge fund High-Flyer. DBRX, 136 billion parameter open sourced large language model developed by Mosaic ML and Databricks. ELIZA, a famous 1966 computer program by Joseph Weizenbaum, which parodied person-centered therapy. FreeHAL, a self-learning conversation simulator (chatterbot) which uses semantic nets to organize its knowledge to imitate a very close human behavior within conversations. Gemini,


id: outline-of-artificial-intelligence-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_artificial_intelligence-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of artificial intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_artificial_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:55.031543+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-artificial-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to artificial intelligence: Artificial intelligence (AI) is intelligence exhibited by machines or software. It is also the name of the scientific field which studies how to create computers and computer software that are capable of intelligent behavior. == AI terminology == Glossary of artificial intelligence == Goals and applications == === General intelligence === Artificial general intelligence AI-complete === Reasoning and problem solving === Automated reasoning Mathematics Automated theorem prover Computer-assisted proof – Computer algebra General Problem Solver Expert system – Decision support system – Clinical decision support system – === Knowledge representation === Knowledge representation Knowledge management Cyc === Planning === Automated planning and scheduling Strategic planning Sussman anomaly – === Learning === Machine learning – Constrained Conditional Models – Deep learning – Neural modeling fields – Supervised learning – Weak supervision (semi-supervised learning) – Unsupervised learning – === Natural language processing === Natural language processing (outline) – Chatterbots – Language identification – Large language model – Retrieval-augmented generation – Natural language user interface – Natural language understanding – Machine translation – Statistical semantics – Question answering – Semantic translation – Concept mining – Data mining –


id: outline-of-artificial-intelligence-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_artificial_intelligence-1.md
category: reference
title: Outline of artificial intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_artificial_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:55.031543+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-artificial-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
=== Search === Discrete search algorithms Uninformed search Brute force search – Problem-solving technique and algorithmic paradigmPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Search tree – Data structure in tree form sorted for fast lookup Breadth-first search – Algorithm to search the nodes of a graph Depth-first search – Algorithm to search the nodes of a graph State space search – Class of search algorithmsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Informed search Best-first search – Graph exploring search algorithm A* search algorithm – Algorithm used for pathfinding and graph traversal Heuristics – Problem-solving methodPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Pruning (algorithm) – Data compression techniquePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Adversarial search Minmax algorithm – Decision rule used for minimizing the possible loss for a worst-case scenarioPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Logic as search Production system (computer science) – Computer program used to provide artificial intelligence Rule based system – Type of computer systemPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Production rule – Computer program used to provide artificial intelligence Inference rule – Method of deriving conclusionsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Horn clause – Type of logical formula Forward chaining – Inference engine


id: outline-of-artificial-intelligence-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_artificial_intelligence-2.md
category: reference
title: Outline of artificial intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_artificial_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:55.031543+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-artificial-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
=== Artificial neural networks === Artificial neural networks Network topology – Arrangement of a communication network feedforward neural networks Perceptrons Multi-layer perceptrons Radial basis networks Convolutional neural network – Type of feedforward neural network Recurrent neural networks Long short-term memory Hopfield networks Attractor networks Deep learning – Branch of machine learning Hybrid neural network Learning algorithms for neural networks Hebbian learning Backpropagation GMDH – Mathematical modelling alogorithmPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Competitive learning Supervised backpropagation Neuroevolution Restricted Boltzmann machine === Biologically based or embodied === Behavior based AI – Branch of roboticsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Subsumption architecture – 1980s and 1990s reactive robotic architecture Nouvelle AI – Approach to artificial intelligence Developmental robotics Situated AI Bio-inspired computing – Solving problems using biological models Artificial immune systems Embodied cognitive science – Interdisciplinary field of research Embodied cognition – Interdisciplinary theory Free energy principle – Hypothesis in neuroscience === Cognitive architecture and multi-agent systems === Artificial intelligence systems integration – Aspect of system integration regarding artificial intelligence Cognitive architecture – Blueprint for intelligent agents LIDA (cognitive architecture) – Artificial model of cognition AERA (AI architecture) Agent architecture Control system – System that manages the behavior of other


id: outline-of-artificial-intelligence-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_artificial_intelligence-3.md
category: reference
title: Outline of artificial intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_artificial_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:55.031543+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-artificial-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
AC created by merging 2 AIs in the Sprawl trilogy by William Gibson Agents in the simulated reality known as "The Matrix" in The Matrix franchise Agent Smith, began as an Agent in The Matrix, then became a renegade program of overgrowing power that could make copies of itself like a self-replicating computer virus AM (Allied Mastercomputer), the antagonist of Harlan Ellison's short novel I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream Amusement park robots (with pixilated consciousness) that went homicidal in Westworld and Futureworld Angel F (2007) – Arnold Rimmer – computer-generated sapient hologram, aboard the Red Dwarf deep space ore hauler Ash – android crew member of the Nostromo starship in the movie Alien Ava – humanoid robot in Ex Machina Bishop, android crew member aboard the U.S.S. Sulaco in the movie Aliens C-3PO, protocol droid featured in all the Star Wars movies Chappie in the movie CHAPPiE Cohen and other Emergent AIs in Chris Moriarty's Spin Series Colossus – fictitious supercomputer that becomes sentient and then takes over the world; from the series of novels by Dennis Feltham Jones, and the movie Colossus: The Forbin Project (1970) Commander Data in Star Trek: The Next Generation Cortana and


id: outline-of-artificial-intelligence-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_artificial_intelligence-4.md
category: reference
title: Outline of artificial intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_artificial_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:55.031543+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-artificial-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
== AI community == === Open-source AI development tools === Hugging Face – OpenAIR – OpenCog – RapidMiner –realme 1 PyTorch – === Projects === List of artificial intelligence projects Automated Mathematician (1977) – Allen (robot) (late 1980s) – Open Mind Common Sense (1999– ) – Mindpixel (2000–2005) – Cognitive Assistant that Learns and Organizes (2003–2008) – Blue Brain Project (2005–present) – attempt to create a synthetic brain by reverse-engineering the mammalian brain down to the molecular level. Google DeepMind (2011) – Human Brain Project (2013–present) – IBM Watson Group (2014–present) – business unit created around Watson, to further its development and deploy marketable applications or services based on it. === Competitions and awards === Competitions and prizes in artificial intelligence Loebner Prize – === Publications === Adaptive Behavior (journal) – AI Memo – Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach – Artificial Minds – Computational Intelligence – Computing Machinery and Intelligence – Electronic Transactions on Artificial Intelligence – IEEE Intelligent Systems – IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence – Neural Networks (journal) – On Intelligence – Paradigms of AI Programming: Case Studies in Common Lisp – What Computers Can't Do === Organizations === Allen Institute for Artificial Intelligence –


id: outline-of-artificial-intelligence-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_artificial_intelligence-5.md
category: reference
title: Outline of artificial intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_artificial_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:55.031543+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-artificial-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
=== Bibliography === Asada, M.; Hosoda, K.; Kuniyoshi, Y.; Ishiguro, H.; Inui, T.; Yoshikawa, Y.; Ogino, M.; Yoshida, C. (2009). "Cognitive developmental robotics: a survey". IEEE Transactions on Autonomous Mental Development. 1 (1): 12–34. doi:10.1109/tamd.2009.2021702. S2CID 10168773. Crevier, Daniel (1993). AI: The Tumultuous Search for Artificial Intelligence. New York, NY: BasicBooks. ISBN 0-465-02997-3. Lenat, Douglas; Guha, R. V. (1989), Building Large Knowledge-Based Systems, Addison-Wesley, ISBN 978-0-201-51752-1, OCLC 19981533 Luger, George; Stubblefield, William (2004). Artificial Intelligence: Structures and Strategies for Complex Problem Solving (5th ed.). Benjamin/Cummings. ISBN 978-0-8053-4780-7. Lungarella, M.; Metta, G.; Pfeifer, R.; Sandini, G. (2003). "Developmental robotics: a survey". Connection Science. 15 (4): 151–190. Bibcode:2003ConSc..15..151L. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.83.7615. doi:10.1080/09540090310001655110. S2CID 1452734. Moravec, Hans (1988), Mind Children, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-57618-6, OCLC 245755104 Oudeyer, P-Y. (2010). "On the impact of robotics in behavioral and cognitive sciences: from insect navigation to human cognitive development" (PDF). IEEE Transactions on Autonomous Mental Development. 2 (1): 2–16. doi:10.1109/tamd.2009.2039057. S2CID 6362217. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 October 2018. Retrieved 4 June 2013. Russell, Stuart J.; Norvig, Peter (2003). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-790395-5. Weng, J.; McClelland; Pentland, A.; Sporns, O.; Stockman, I.;


id: list-of-binary-codes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_binary_codes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of binary codes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_binary_codes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:56.277404+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-binary-codes-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of some binary codes that are (or have been) used to represent text as a sequence of binary digits "0" and "1". Fixed-width binary codes use a set number of bits to represent each character in the text, while in variable-width binary codes, the number of bits may vary from character to character. == Five-bit binary codes == Several different five-bit codes were used for early punched tape systems. Five bits per character only allows for 32 different characters, so many of the five-bit codes used two sets of characters per value referred to as FIGS (figures) and LTRS (letters), and reserved two characters to switch between these sets. This effectively allowed the use of 60 characters. Standard five-bit standard codes are: International Telegraph Alphabet No. 1 (ITA1) – Also commonly referred to as Baudot code International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2 (ITA2) – Also commonly referred to as Murray code American Teletypewriter code (USTTY) – A variant of ITA2 used in the USA DIN 66006 – Developed for the presentation of ALGOL/ALCOR programs on paper tape and punch cards The following early computer systems each used its own five-bit code: J. Lyons and Co. LEO (Lyon's


id: list-of-interface-bit-rates-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_interface_bit_rates-0.md
category: reference
title: List of interface bit rates
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_interface_bit_rates
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:57.627616+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-interface-bit-rates-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of interface bit rates, a measure of information transfer rates, or digital bandwidth capacity, at which digital interfaces in a computer or network can communicate over various kinds of buses and channels. The distinction can be arbitrary between a computer bus, often closer in space, and larger telecommunications networks. Many device interfaces or protocols (e.g., SATA, USB, SAS, PCIe) are used both inside many-device boxes, such as a PC, and one-device-boxes, such as a hard drive enclosure. Accordingly, this page lists both the internal ribbon and external communications cable standards together in one sortable table. == Factors limiting actual performance, criteria for real decisions == Most of the listed rates are theoretical maximum throughput measures; in practice, the actual effective throughput is almost inevitably lower in proportion to the load from other devices (network/bus contention), physical or temporal distances, and other overhead in data link layer protocols etc. The maximum goodput (for example, the file transfer rate) may be even lower due to higher layer protocol overhead and data packet retransmissions caused by line noise or interference such as crosstalk, or lost packets in congested intermediate network nodes. All protocols lose something, and the more robust


id: list-of-interface-bit-rates-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_interface_bit_rates-1.md
category: reference
title: List of interface bit rates
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_interface_bit_rates
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:57.627616+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-interface-bit-rates-20260505-0
summary:
=== Wireless networks === 802.11 networks in infrastructure mode are half-duplex; all stations share the medium. In infrastructure or access point mode, all traffic has to pass through an access point (AP). Thus, two stations on the same access point that are communicating with each other must have each and every frame transmitted twice: from the sender to the access point, then from the access point to the receiver. This approximately halves the effective bandwidth. 802.11 networks in ad hoc mode are still half-duplex, but devices communicate directly rather than through an access point. In this mode all devices must be able to see each other, instead of only having to be able to see the access point. === Wireless personal area networks === === Computer buses === ==== Main buses ==== x LPC protocol includes high overhead. While the gross data rate equals 33.3 million 4-bit-transfers per second (or 16.67 MB/s), the fastest transfer, firmware read, results in 15.63 MB/s. The next fastest bus cycle, 32-bit ISA-style DMA write, yields only 6.67 MB/s. Other transfers may be as low as 2 MB/s. y Uses 128b/130b encoding, meaning that about 1.54% of each transfer is used for error detection instead


id: list-of-bitcoin-forks-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_bitcoin_forks-0.md
category: reference
title: List of bitcoin forks
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_bitcoin_forks
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:59.004526+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-bitcoin-forks-20260505-0
summary:
Bitcoin forks are defined variantly as changes in the protocol of the Bitcoin network or as the situations that occur "when two or more blocks have the same block height". A fork influences the validity of the rules. Forks are typically conducted in order to add new features to a blockchain, to reverse the effects of hacking or catastrophic bugs. Forks require consensus to be resolved or else a permanent split emerges. According to BIP-123 specifications, there are 3 main categories of Bitcoin forks: Soft Forks within Bitcoin: These don't split the network. These are consensus rule changes where some previously-valid blocks are now invalid. Hard Forks within Bitcoin: These cause a permanent chain split between the 2 versions. These are consensus rule changes where some previously-invalid blocks are now valid. Hard Forks that created alternative blockchains and cryptocurrencies. There is also another subcategory of consensus rule changes that had a chance to cause a hard fork and chain split. However, because they were never exploited, they technically never resulted in a hard fork. == Soft Forks within Bitcoin == These are consensus rule changes that did not cause a split in the network. These are the result of consensus


id: list-of-blockchains-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_blockchains-0.md
category: reference
title: List of blockchains
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_blockchains
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:00.224488+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-blockchains-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of blockchains - decentralized, cryptographic databases - and other distributed ledgers. == List == == See also == Category:Blockchains List of cryptocurrencies == References == === General refs === https://arxiv.org/pdf/1708.05665.pdf


id: list-of-optical-disc-manufacturers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_optical_disc_manufacturers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of optical disc manufacturers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_optical_disc_manufacturers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:01.502508+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-optical-disc-manufacturers-20260505-0
summary:
This aims to be a complete list of optical disc manufacturers, including pre-recorded/pressed/replicated, record-able/write-once and re-writable discs. This list is not necessarily complete or up to date - if you see a manufacturer that should be here but is not (or one that should not be here but is), please update the page accordingly. This list only lists manufacturers - not brands. For example, many Maxell DVDs are made by Ritek or CMC magnetics. Many companies use equipment from Singulus Technologies. This list includes both CD, DVD and Blu-ray recordable and rewritable media manufacturers (like Ritek), and disc replicators (companies that replicate discs with pre-recorded content, like Sony DADC). == A == Anwell Technologies (Defunct in 2019) == B == BeAll == C == CDA, Inc CD Video Manufacturing, Inc. Cinram (went bankrupt due to shrinking demand, purchased by Technicolor SA) CMC Magnetics == D == Discmakers Daxon Technology Disc Tarra Discovery Systems (Defunct) Dyntara (Defunct) == E == EMI (sold to Cinram) == F == Fujifilm FAS Development Corp. (stopped in 2017) == G == Gigastorage Corporation == H == Hitachi Maxell (Maxell, stopped) == I == Imation (stopped) Infodisc (stopped) == L == Lead Data Inc. == M


id: list-of-computer-books-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_books-0.md
category: reference
title: List of computer books
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_books
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:02.793416+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-computer-books-20260505-0
summary:
List of computer-related books which have articles on Wikipedia for themselves or their writers. == Programming == === Ada === John Barnes – Programming in Ada 2012 === C === Andrew Koenig – C Traps and Pitfalls Brian W. Kernighan – The C Programming Language Guy L. Steele Jr. – C: A Reference Manual Herbert Schildt – C, The Complete Reference Peter van der Linden – Expert C Programming: Deep C Secrets === C++ === Andrei Alexandrescu – Modern C++ Design Bjarne Stroustrup – The C++ Programming Language, A Tour of C++, The Annotated C++ Reference Manual Herb Sutter – Exceptional C++, More Exceptional C++, Exceptional C++ Style, C++ Coding Standards Scott Meyers – Effective C++, More Effective C++, Effective Modern C++ Stanley B. Lippman – Inside the C++ Object Model, C++ Gems: Programming Pearls from The C++ Report === C# === Andrew Troelsen – Pro C# 10 with .NET 6: Foundational Principles and Practices in Programming Bill Wagner – Effective C# Jeff Prosise – Programming Microsoft .NET Herbert Schildt – C#: A Beginner's Guide and C# 4.0: The Complete Reference === Fortran === Daniel D. McCracken – A Guide to Fortran Programming Elliot Koffman – Problem Solving and Program


id: list-of-computer-books-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_books-1.md
category: reference
title: List of computer books
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_books
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:02.793416+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-computer-books-20260505-0
summary:
=== Unix === Brian W. Kernighan and Rob Pike – The Unix Programming Environment Eric Raymond – The Art of Unix Programming John Lions – A Commentary on the UNIX Operating System Stephen R. Bourne – The Unix System W. Richard Stevens – Advanced Programming in the Unix Environment === Linux === Bruce Perens – Bruce Perens' Open Source Series Eric S. Raymond – The Cathedral and the Bazaar Gerard Beekmans – Linux from Scratch Glyn Moody – Rebel Code: Linux and the Open Source Revolution Jonathan Oxer – Ubuntu Hacks Kenneth Brown – Samizdat: And Other Issues Regarding the 'Source' of Open Source Code Michael Kerrisk – The Linux Programming Interface Michael W. Lucas – Absolute OpenBSD Olaf Kirch & Terry Dawson – Linux Network Administrator's Guide === Artificial intelligence === Allen Newell – Unified Theories of Cognition Brian Christian – The Alignment Problem James Barrat – Our Final Invention James Lovelock – Novacene: The Coming Age of Hyperintelligence Janelle Shane – You Look Like a Thing and I Love You: How AI Works and Why It's Making the World a Weirder Place Jeff Hawkins – On Intelligence: How a New Understanding of the Brain will Lead to the


id: list-of-computer-books-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_books-2.md
category: reference
title: List of computer books
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_books
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:02.793416+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-computer-books-20260505-0
summary:
== Hackers and hacker culture == Bill Blunden – The Rootkit Arsenal Bill Landreth and Howard Rheingold – Out of the Inner Circle Bruce Sterling – The Hacker Crackdown Clifford Stoll – The Cuckoo's Egg Cory Doctorow – Little Brother Douglas Thomas – Hacker Culture Daniel Golden and Renee Dudley – The Ransomware Hunting Team Eric S. Raymond – The New Hacker's Dictionary and Revenge of the Hackers Glyn Moody – Rebel Code Harold Abelson, Gerald Jay Sussman, and Julie Sussman – Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs Hugo Cornwall – The Hacker's Handbook Jon "Smibbs" Erickson – Hacking: The Art of Exploitation Joseph Menn – Fatal System Error Julian Assange – Cypherpunks: Freedom and the Future of the Internet Kevin Mitnick – Ghost in the Wires and The Art of Intrusion Kevin Poulsen – Kingpin: How One Hacker Took Over the Billion-Dollar Cybercrime Underground Linus Torvalds and David Diamond – Just for Fun: The Story of an Accidental Revolutionary Malcolm Nance – The Plot to Hack America Open Sources: Voices from the Open Source Revolution Sam Williams – Free as in Freedom Scott J. Shapiro – Fancy Bear Goes Phishing Sean Bodmer, Max Kilger, Gregory Carpenter, and Jade Jones


id: list-of-cax-companies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_CAx_companies-0.md
category: reference
title: List of CAx companies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_CAx_companies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:04.006540+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cax-companies-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of notable computer-aided technologies (CAx) companies, for which Wikipedia articles exist, and their software products. Software that supports CAx technologies has been produced since the 1970s, for a variety of computer platforms. CAx applications incliude computer-aided design (CAD), computer-aided engineering (CAE), and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM). In addition, industrial-range CAx applications are supported by dedicated product data management (PDM), enterprise resource planning (ERP), and other software layers. General-purpose PDM and ERP software is not listed here. == CAx software companies == == Past CAD Brands == Acquired, orphaned, failed or rebranded. Alias Acquired by Autodesk Applicon Acquired by UGS Corporation CADAM Acquired by Dassault Systèmes CADCentre Rebranded as Aveva Baystate Technologies Acquired by Kubotek Corporation BARCO NV Now called Ucamco for printed circuit board applications Camsco Acquired by Gerber CIS (Cambridge Interactive Systems) Acquired by Computervision CADKEY Acquired by Baystate Technologies Calma Acquired by Computervision Claris Published "ClarisCAD", abandoned in transition of company to FileMaker Computervision Acquired by Parametric Technology Corporation Diehl Graphsoft Acquired by Nemetschek Investronica Acquired by Lectra Matra DataVision Acquired by Dassault Systèmes Microdynamics Acquired by Gerber Micro Engineering Solutions Published "Solution 3000" and "ADX", acquired by Autodesk NC Graphics Acquired by Parametric Technology


id: list-of-cd-and-dvd-copy-protection-schemes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_CD_and_DVD_copy_protection_schemes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of CD and DVD copy protection schemes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_CD_and_DVD_copy_protection_schemes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:05.276010+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cd-and-dvd-copy-protection-schemes-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of notable CD and DVD copy protection schemes. For other medias, see List of Copy Protection Schemes. == Commercial CD protection schemes == CD-Cops Requires the user to enter CD-code (or reads embedded CD-code) that describes geometry of CD to correctly locate data on the disc. SafeDisc (versions 1–4) Adds unique digital signature at the time of manufacturing which is designed to be difficult to copy or transfer so that software is able to detect copied media. SafeCast The encryption key will expire after pre-determined date so the media can be used only temporarily. Also used to implement trial editions of programs. Secure Digital Music Initiative Industry led attempt to add watermarking to CDs. The group challenged researchers to break the DRM and then threatened a lawsuit when the researchers were successful. SecuROM Limits the number of PCs activated at the same time from the same key. StarForce Asks for Serial ID at install or startup to verify the license. TAGES Verifies authentic copy by checking existence of "twin sectors" which are sectors with same logical address but different data. However, twin sectors may be hard to read in order to copy but are easy to


id: list-of-information-system-character-sets-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_information_system_character_sets-0.md
category: reference
title: List of information system character sets
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_information_system_character_sets
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:06.459937+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-information-system-character-sets-20260505-0
summary:
This list provides an inventory of character coding standards mainly before modern standards like ISO/IEC 646 etc. Some of these standards have been deeply involved in historic events that still have consequences. One notable example of this is the ITA2 coding used during World War II (1939–1945). The nature of these standards is not as common knowledge like it is for ASCII or EBCDIC or their slang names. While 8-bit is the de facto standard as of 2016, in the past 5-bit and 6-bit were more prevalent or their multiple. == See also == ANSEL SBCS (single-byte character set) DBCS (double-byte character set) TBCS (triple-byte character set) ITU T.61 DEC Radix-50 Cork encoding Prosigns for Morse code Telegraph code TV Typewriter SI 960 (7-bit Hebrew ISO/IEC 646) Figure space (typographic unit equal to the size of a single typographic figure) Six-bit character code List of binary codes == References == == External links == circuitousroot.com: Codes that Don't Count


id: comparison-of-content-control-software-and-providers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_content-control_software_and_providers-0.md
category: reference
title: Comparison of content-control software and providers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_content-control_software_and_providers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:07.605859+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: comparison-of-content-control-software-and-providers-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of content-control software and services. The software is designed to control what content may or may not be viewed by a reader, especially when used to restrict material delivered over the Internet via the Web, e-mail, or other means. Restrictions can be applied at various levels: a government can apply them nationwide, an ISP can apply them to its clients, an employer to its personnel, a school to its teachers or students, a library to its patrons or staff, a parent to a child's computer or computer account or an individual to his or her own computer. == Programs and services == == Providers == == See also == Accountability software Ad filtering Computer surveillance Deep packet inspection Deep content inspection Internet censorship Internet safety Parental controls Wordfilter == References ==


id: list-of-computer-chronicles-episodes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Computer_Chronicles_episodes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Computer Chronicles episodes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Computer_Chronicles_episodes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:08.940662+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-computer-chronicles-episodes-20260505-0
summary:
Computer Chronicles is an American half-hour television series, which was broadcast from 1983 to 2002 on Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) public television. Presented by Gary Kildall, Stewart Cheifet, and George Morrow, the series documented various issues from the rise of the personal computer from its infancy to the global market at the turn of the 21st century. Computer Chronicles was created in 1983 by Stewart Cheifet (later the show's co-host), who was then the station manager of the College of San Mateo's KCSM-TV. The series was initially broadcast as a local weekly series, co-produced by WITF-TV in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. It became a national series on PBS from 1983 to 2002, with Cheifet co-hosting most of the later seasons. Kildall served as co-host from 1983 to 1990, providing insights and commentary on products, as well as discussions on the future of the ever-expanding personal computer sphere. A total of 488 episodes of Computer Chronicles were produced from 1983 to 2002. New episodes broadcast on Sundays with a duration of 30 minutes, four episodes a month, 48 episodes per year. All episodes were digitized and provided to the Internet Archive for free streaming and download. == Episodes == === Overview === ===


id: outline-of-computer-engineering-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_computer_engineering-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of computer engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_computer_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:10.207630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-computer-engineering-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to computer engineering: Computer engineering – discipline that integrates several fields of electrical engineering and computer science required to develop computer hardware and software. Computer engineers usually have training in electronic engineering (or electrical engineering), software design, and hardware–software integration instead of only software engineering or electronic engineering. Computer engineers are involved in many hardware and software aspects of computing, from the design of individual microcontrollers, microprocessors, personal computers, and supercomputers, to circuit design. This field of engineering not only focuses on how computer systems themselves work, but also how they integrate into the larger picture. == Main articles on computer engineering == Computer Computer architecture Computer hardware Computer software Computer science Engineering Electrical engineering Electronics and Computer Engineering Software engineering == History of computer engineering == === General === Time line of computing 2400 BC - 1949 - 1950–1979 - 1980–1989 - 1990–1999 - 2000–2009 History of computing hardware up to third generation (1960s) History of computing hardware from 1960s to current History of computer hardware in Eastern Bloc countries History of personal computers History of laptops History of software engineering History of compiler writing History of


id: list-of-computer-hardware-manufacturers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_hardware_manufacturers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of computer hardware manufacturers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_hardware_manufacturers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:12.772192+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-computer-hardware-manufacturers-20260505-0
summary:
Current notable computer hardware manufacturers: == Cases == List of computer case manufacturers: === Rack-mount computer cases === == Laptop computer cases == Clevo MSI XPG (Xtreme Performance Gear, a gaming brand of ADATA) == Motherboards == Top motherboard manufacturers: List of motherboard manufacturers: Defunct: == Chipsets for motherboards == == Central processing units (CPUs) == Note: most of these companies only make designs, and do not manufacture their own designs. Top x86 CPU manufacturers: List of CPU manufacturers (most of the companies sell ARM-based CPUs, assumed if nothing else stated): == Hard disk drives (HDDs) == === Internal === List of current hard disk drive manufacturers: Seagate Technology Toshiba Western Digital === External === Note: the HDDs internal to these devices are manufactured only by the internal HDD manufacturers listed above. List of external hard disk drive manufacturers: == Drive controller and RAID cards == == Solid-state drives (SSDs) == Many companies manufacture SSDs but there are only a few major manufactures of NAND flash devices that are the storage element in most SSDs. The five major NAND flash manufacturers are: Samsung SK Group Sandisk and Kioxia thru Flash Forward Micron YMTC == Optical disc drives (ODDs) == List


id: computer-humour-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_humour-0.md
category: reference
title: Computer humour
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_humour
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:13.937938+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: computer-humour-20260505-0
summary:
Computer humour, also known as hacker humour, is humour on the subject of computers or their users. == Examples == Examples of computer humour include: "Any key", taken to mean pressing the (non-existent) "Any" key rather than any key April Fools' Day Request for Comments Bastard Operator From Hell, a fictional rogue computer operator Blinkenlights, a neologism for diagnostic lights Bogosort, a portmanteau of the words bogus and sort COMEFROM, an obscure programming language control flow structure, originally as a joke "The Complexity of Songs", a journal article published by computer scientist Donald Knuth in 1977 as an in-joke about computational complexity theory The Computer Contradictionary, a non-fiction book by Stan Kelly-Bootle that compiles a satirical list of definitions of computer industry terms The Daily WTF, a humorous blog dedicated to "Curious Perversions in Information Technology" Dilbert, an American comic strip Easter egg, an intentional inside joke, hidden message or image, or secret feature of a work List of Google Easter eggs List of Easter eggs in Microsoft products The Book of Mozilla Elephant in Cairo, in computer programming, a piece of data inserted at the end of a search space, which matches the search criteria, in order to make


id: list-of-software-development-philosophies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_software_development_philosophies-0.md
category: reference
title: List of software development philosophies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_software_development_philosophies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:26.874776+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-software-development-philosophies-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of approaches, styles, methodologies, and philosophies in software development and engineering. It also contains programming paradigms, software development methodologies, software development processes, and single practices, principles, and laws. Some of the mentioned methods are more relevant to a specific field than another, such as automotive or aerospace. The trend towards agile methods in software engineering is noticeable, however the need for improved studies on the subject is also paramount. Also note that some of the methods listed might be newer or older or still in use or out-dated, and the research on software design methods is not new and on-going. == Software development methodologies, guidelines, strategies == === Large-scale programming styles === Behavior-driven development Design-driven development Domain-driven design Secure by design Test-driven development Acceptance test-driven development Continuous test-driven development Specification by example Data-driven development Data-oriented design === Specification-related paradigms === Iterative and incremental development Waterfall model Formal methods === Comprehensive systems === Agile software development Lean software development Lightweight methodology Adaptive software development Extreme programming Feature-driven development ICONIX Kanban (development) Unified Process Rational Unified Process Agile Unified Process === Rules of thumb, laws, guidelines and principles === 300 Rules of Thumb and Nuggets of Wisdom (excerpt


id: list-of-computer-science-conference-acronyms-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_science_conference_acronyms-0.md
category: reference
title: List of computer science conference acronyms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_science_conference_acronyms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:28.199467+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-computer-science-conference-acronyms-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of academic conferences in computer science, ordered by their acronyms or abbreviations. == A == AAAI – AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence AAMAS – International Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Systems ABZ – International Conference on Abstract State Machines, Alloy, B and Z ACL – Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics ALGO – ALGO Conference AMCIS – Americas Conference on Information Systems ANTS – Algorithmic Number Theory Symposium ARES – International Conference on Availability, Reliability and Security ASIACRYPT – International Conference on the Theory and Application of Cryptology and Information Security ASP-DAC – Asia and South Pacific Design Automation Conference ASE – IEEE/ACM International Conference on Automated Software Engineering ASWEC – Australian Software Engineering Conference ATMOS – Workshop on Algorithmic Approaches for Transportation Modeling, Optimization, and Systems == C == CADE – Conference on Automated Deduction CAV – Computer Aided Verification CC – International Conference on Compiler Construction CCSC – Consortium for Computing Sciences in Colleges CEC - Congress on Evolutionary Computation CHES – Workshop on Cryptographic Hardware and Embedded Systems CHI – ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems CIAA – International Conference on Implementation and Application of Automata CIBB –


id: list-of-computer-science-conference-acronyms-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_science_conference_acronyms-1.md
category: reference
title: List of computer science conference acronyms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_science_conference_acronyms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:28.199467+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-computer-science-conference-acronyms-20260505-0
summary:
== M == MM – ACM International Conference on Multimedia MECO – Mediterranean Conference on Embedded Computing MobiCom – ACM International Conference on Mobile Computing and Networking MobiHoc – ACM International Symposium on Mobile Ad Hoc Networking and Computing MobileHCI – Conference on Human-Computer Interaction with Mobile Devices and Services == N == NAACL – Annual Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics NIPS – Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems NeurIPS – Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems NIME – New Interfaces for Musical Expression == O == OOPSLA – Conference on Object-Oriented Programming, Systems, Languages, and Applications == P == PACIS – Pacific Asia Conference on Information Systems PIMRC – International Symposium on Personal, Indoor and Mobile Radio Communications PKC – International Workshop on Practice and Theory in Public Key Cryptography PKDD – European Conference on Principles and Practice of Knowledge Discovery in Databases PLDI – ACM SIGPLAN Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation PLoP – Pattern Languages of Programs PODC – ACM Symposium on Principles of Distributed Computing PODS – ACM Symposium on Principles of Database Systems POPL – Symposium on Principles of Programming Languages POST – Conference on Principles of


id: outline-of-computer-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_computer_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of computer science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_computer_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:30.653362+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-computer-science-20260505-0
summary:
Computer science (also called computing science) is the study of the theoretical foundations of information and computation and their implementation and application in computer systems. One well known subject classification system for computer science is the ACM Computing Classification System devised by the Association for Computing Machinery. Computer science can be described as all of the following: Academic discipline Science Applied science == Subfields == === Mathematical foundations === Coding theory – Useful in networking, programming, system development, and other areas where computers communicate with each other. Game theory – Useful in artificial intelligence and cybernetics. Discrete mathematics – Study of discrete structures. Used in digital computer systems. Graph theory – Foundations for data structures and searching algorithms. Mathematical logic – Boolean logic and other ways of modeling logical queries; the uses and limitations of formal proof methods. Number theory – Theory of the integers. Used in cryptography as well as a test domain in artificial intelligence. === Algorithms and data structures === Algorithms – Sequential and parallel computational procedures for solving a wide range of problems. Data structures – The organization and manipulation of data. === Artificial intelligence === Outline of artificial intelligence Artificial intelligence – The implementation and


id: list-of-computer-size-categories-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_size_categories-0.md
category: reference
title: List of computer size categories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_size_categories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:31.824439+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-computer-size-categories-20260505-0
summary:
This list of computer size categories attempts to list commonly used categories of computer by the physical size of the device and its chassis or case, in descending order of size. One generation's "supercomputer" is the next generation's "mainframe", and a "PDA" does not have the same set of functions as a "laptop", but the list still has value, as it provides a ranked categorization of devices. It also ranks some more obscure computer sizes. There are different sizes like minicomputers, microcomputers, mainframe computers and super computers. == Large == These are mainly used for scientific calculations or simulations and processing big data with high precission. Mainframe computer Supercomputer Minisupercomputer == Intermediate == Midrange computer Workstation Minicomputer Superminicomputer == Microcomputer == This is a very broad categorization that includes computers with a single microprocessor as their central processing unit (CPU). Personal computer (PC) Desktop computer—see computer form factor for some standardized sizes of desktop computers Full-size All-in-one Compact Home theater Home computer == Mobile == Mobile workstation or desknote Laptop computer 2-in-1 laptop Notebook computer Subnotebook computer Tablet personal computer Handheld computers, which include the classes: Ultra-mobile personal computer, or UMPC Personal digital assistant or enterprise digital assistant, which include:


id: list-of-computer-system-emulators-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_system_emulators-0.md
category: reference
title: List of computer system emulators
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_system_emulators
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:33.088258+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-computer-system-emulators-20260505-0
summary:
This article lists software and hardware that emulates computing platforms. The host in this article is the system running the emulator, and the guest is the system being emulated. The list is organized by guest operating system (the system being emulated), grouped by word length. Each section contains a list of emulators capable of emulating the specified guest, details of the range of guest systems able to be emulated, and the required host environment and licensing. == 64-bit guest systems == === ARM AArch64 === === AlphaServer === === IBM === === RISC-V (riscv64) === === Silicon Graphics === === UltraSPARC === === x86-64 platforms (64-bit PC and compatible hardware) === == 60-bit guest systems == === 60-bit CDC 6000 series and Cyber mainframe === == 48-bit guest systems == === English Electric KDF9 === == 36-bit guest systems == === DEC PDP-10 === === GE-600 series / Honeywell 6000 series === === IBM 7094 === == 32-bit guest systems == === Acorn Archimedes, A7000, Risc PC, Phoebe === While the ARM processor in the Acorn Archimedes is a 32-bit chip, it only had 26-bit addressing making an ARM/Archimedes emulator, such as Aemulor or others below, necessary for 26-bit compatibility,


id: list-of-computer-system-manufacturers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_system_manufacturers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of computer system manufacturers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_system_manufacturers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:34.357676+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-computer-system-manufacturers-20260505-0
summary:
A computer system is a nominally complete computer that includes the hardware, operating system (main software), and the means to use peripheral equipment needed and used for full or mostly full operation. Such systems may constitute personal computers (including desktop computers, portable computers, laptops, all-in-ones, and more), mainframe computers, minicomputers, servers, and workstations, among other classes of computing. The following is a list of notable manufacturers and sellers of computer systems, both present and past. There are currently 432 companies in this incomplete list. == Current == == Inactive == == See also == Market share of personal computer vendors List of computer hardware manufacturers List of laptop brands and manufacturers List of touch-solution manufacturers == Notes == == References ==


id: list-of-computer-systems-from-yugoslavia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_systems_from_Yugoslavia-0.md
category: reference
title: List of computer systems from Yugoslavia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_systems_from_Yugoslavia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:35.633715+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-computer-systems-from-yugoslavia-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of computer systems that were significantly or completely designed in the former Yugoslavia before the breakup of the country in 1990s. This list does not include imported foreign computers. Some of these were assembled as per original manufacturer's license. See history of computer hardware in Yugoslavia for more information. == See also == History of computer hardware in Yugoslavia == References ==


id: outline-of-computer-vision-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_computer_vision-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of computer vision
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_computer_vision
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:36.986968+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-computer-vision-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to computer vision: Computer vision – interdisciplinary field that deals with how computers can be made to gain high-level understanding from digital images or videos. From the perspective of engineering, it seeks to automate tasks that the human visual system can do. Computer vision tasks include methods for acquiring digital images (through image sensors), image processing, and image analysis, to reach an understanding of digital images. In general, it deals with the extraction of high-dimensional data from the real world in order to produce numerical or symbolic information that the computer can interpret. The image data can take many forms, such as video sequences, views from multiple cameras, or multi-dimensional data from a medical scanner. As a technological discipline, computer vision seeks to apply its theories and models for the construction of computer vision systems. As a scientific discipline, computer vision is concerned with the theory behind artificial systems that extract information from images. == Branches of computer vision == Computer stereo vision Underwater computer vision == History of computer vision == History of computer vision == Computer vision subsystems == === Image enhancement === Image denoising Image


id: list-of-computer-animated-films-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer-animated_films-0.md
category: reference
title: List of computer-animated films
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer-animated_films
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:38.241556+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-computer-animated-films-20260505-0
summary:
A computer-animated film is an animated film that was created using computer software to appear three-dimensional. While traditional 2D animated films are now made primarily with the help of computers, the technique to render realistic 3D computer graphics (CG) or 3D computer-generated imagery (CGI), is unique to computer animation. This is a list of theatrically released feature films that are entirely computer-animated. == Released films == Release date listed is the first public theatrical screening of the completed film. This may mean that the dates listed here may not be representative of when the film came out in a particular country. The country or countries listed reflects the places where the production companies for each title are based. This means that the countries listed for a film might not reflect the location where the film was produced or the countries where the film received a theatrical release. If a title is a multi-country production, the country listed first corresponds with the production company that had the most significant role in the film's creation. == Upcoming films == == See also == History of animation Timeline of CGI in film and television List of animated feature films List of stop motion


id: list-of-computer-animated-television-series-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer-animated_television_series-0.md
category: reference
title: List of computer-animated television series
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer-animated_television_series
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:39.437743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-computer-animated-television-series-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of released animated television series made mainly with computer animation. == 1990s == == 2000s == == 2010s == == 2020s == == Upcoming == == See also == List of computer-animated films == References ==


id: list-of-computing-people-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computing_people-0.md
category: reference
title: List of computing people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computing_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:40.691839+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-computing-people-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of people who are important or notable in the field of computing, but who are not primarily computer scientists or programmers. == A == Alfred Aho, co-developer of the AWK Leonard Adleman, encryption (RSA) Marc Andreessen, co-founder of Netscape Communications Corporation == B == Tim Berners-Lee, inventor of the World Wide Web Stephen Bourne, developer of the Bourne shell == C == John Carmack, realtime computer game graphics, id Software Noam Chomsky, linguist, language theorist (Chomsky hierarchy) and social critic == D == Theo de Raadt, founder of the OpenBSD and OpenSSH projects == E == J. Presper Eckert, ENIAC Larry Ellison, co-founder of Oracle Corporation Marc Ewing, creator of Red Hat Linux == F == == G == Bill Gates, co-founder and Chairman of Microsoft James Gosling, "father" of the Java programming language == H == Grace Hopper, she was a pioneer of computer programming who invented one of the first linkers. == I == Jonathan Ive, Senior Vice President of Industrial Design at Apple == J == Steve Jobs, co-founder and CEO of Apple Bill Joy, co-founder of Sun Microsystems, BSD == K == Brian Kernighan, Dennis Ritchie, C programming language Donald Knuth, The


id: index-of-computing-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_computing_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of computing articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_computing_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:41.938850+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-computing-articles-20260505-0
summary:
Originally, the word computing was synonymous with counting and calculating, and the science and technology of mathematical calculations. Today, "computing" means using computers and other computing machines. It includes their operation and usage, the electrical processes carried out within the computing hardware itself, and the theoretical concepts governing them (computer science). See also: List of programmers, List of computing people, List of computer scientists, List of basic computer science topics, List of terms relating to algorithms and data structures. Topics on computing include: == 0–9 == 1.TR.6 – 100BaseVG – 100VG-AnyLAN – 10BASE-2 – 10BASE-5 – 10BASE-T – 120 reset – 1-bit computing – 16-bit computing – 16550 UART – 1NF – 1TBS – 20-GATE – 20-GATE – 2B1D – 2B1Q – 2D – 2NF – 3-tier (computing) – 32-bit application – 32-bit computing – 320xx microprocessor – 386BSD – 3Com Corporation – 3DO – 3D computer graphics – 3GL – 3NF – 3Station – 4.2BSD – 4-bit computing – 404 error – 431A – 473L system – 486SX – 4GL – 4NF – 51-FORTH – 56 kbit/s line – 5ESS switch – 5NF – 5th Glove – 6.001 – 64-bit computing – 680x0 – 6x86 – 8-bit clean –


id: index-of-computing-articles-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_computing_articles-1.md
category: reference
title: Index of computing articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_computing_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:41.938850+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-computing-articles-20260505-0
summary:
== I == IA-32 – IA-64 – IBM PC – Interactive computation – IBM – iBook – iCab – iCal – Icon – iDVD – IEEE 802.2 – IEEE 802.3 – IEEE floating-point standard – iMac – Image processing – iMovie – Indentation style Inform – Instruction register – Intel 8008 – Intel 80186 – Intel 80188 – Intel 80386 – Intel 80486SX – Intel 80486 – Intel 8048 – Intel 8051 – Intel 8080 – Intel 8086 – Intel 80x86 – Intel – INTERCAL – International Electrotechnical Commission – Internet Explorer – Internet – iPhoto – iPod – iResQ – Irreversible circuit – iSync – iTunes == J == J (programming language) – Java Platform, Enterprise Edition – Java Platform, Micro Edition – Java Platform, Standard Edition – Java API – Java – Java virtual machine (JVM) – JavaScript (standardized as ECMAScript) – JPEG == K == K&R – KDE – Kilobyte – KL-ONE – Kleene star – Klez – Kotlin == L == LALR parser – Lambda calculus – Lasso – LaTeX – Leet – Legal aspects of computing – Lex – LibreOffice – Limbo – Linked list – Linux – Lisp – List of IBM products –


id: list-of-google-products-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Google_products-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Google products
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Google_products
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:43.219102+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-google-products-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of products, services, and apps provided by Google. == Web-based products == == Developer tools == == Operating systems == == Desktop applications == == Other == == Mobile applications == == Hardware == === Product families === Google Pixel – smartphones, tablets, laptops, earbuds, and other accessories. Google Nest – smart home products including smart speakers, smart displays, digital media players, smart doorbells, smart thermostats, smoke detectors, and wireless routers. Fitbit – activity trackers. Stadia Controller – game controller for Stadia. == Devices == == Processors == == Services == == Scheduled to be discontinued == Applications that are no longer in development and scheduled to be discontinued in the future: === 2026 === Google Fit API – Will be discontinued on 31 December. Google Assistant – After continuously removing many features from Assistant since 2023 to focus more on Gemini, Google Assistant has finally been scheduled to be retired for mobile, tablets, smartwatches, headphones and cars by the end of 2025. These devices will have Google Assistant replaced by Google Gemini in the future. Additionally, Google also recommends using Routines as an alternative to Assistant. However, the future of products such as the


id: list-of-google-products-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Google_products-1.md
category: reference
title: List of Google products
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Google_products
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:43.219102+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-google-products-20260505-0
summary:
=== 2022 === YouTube Originals – discontinued on December 31. Google OnHub – stopped receiving support on December 19. Google Hangouts – discontinued on November 1, after migrating all users to Google Chat. Google Surveys – Market research tool. Discontinued on November 1. YouTube for Wii U – Shut down in October. YouTube Go – An app aimed at making YouTube easier to access on mobile devices in emerging markets through special features like downloading video on WiFi for viewing later. It was shut down in August. Google My Business – An app that allowed businesses to manage their Google Maps Business profiles. It was shut down in July. Android Auto for phone screens – An app that allowed the screen of the phone to be used as an Android Auto interface while driving, intended for vehicles that did not have a compatible screen built in. It was shut down in July. Kormo Jobs – A service that allowed users in primarily India, Indonesia, and Bangladesh to help them find jobs nearby that match their skills and interests. It was shut down on June 30. G Suite (Legacy Free Edition) – A free tier offering some of the services included


id: list-of-google-products-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Google_products-2.md
category: reference
title: List of Google products
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Google_products
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:43.219102+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-google-products-20260505-0
summary:
=== 2019 === YouTube Annotations – annotations that were displayed over videos on YouTube. On January 15, all existing annotations were removed from YouTube. Google Pinyin – Discontinued in March. Mr. Jingles – Google's notifications widget. Discontinued on March 7. Google Tasks canvas – A full-screen interface of Google Tasks that was discontinued in April. Google Allo – Google's instant messaging app. Discontinued on March 12. Google Image Charts – a chart-making service that provided images of rendered chart data, accessed with REST calls. The service was deprecated in 2012, temporarily disabled in February 2019 and discontinued on March 18, 2019. Inbox by Gmail – an email application for Android, iOS, and web platform that organized and automated to-do lists using email content. As of April 2, accessing the Inbox subdomain redirects to Gmail proper. Google+ – The consumer edition of Google's social media platform. As of April 2, users receive a message stating that "Google+ is no longer available for consumer (personal) and brand accounts". Google Jump – cloud-based video stitching service. Discontinued June 28. Works with Nest – the smart home platform of Google brand Nest. Users were asked to migrate to the Google Assistant platform. Support ended


id: list-of-google-products-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Google_products-3.md
category: reference
title: List of Google products
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Google_products
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:43.219102+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-google-products-20260505-0
summary:
=== 2017 === Google Gesture Search – Gesture search is a software that draws letters composed of the name of a program, contact or setting, it can find the latter Google Nexus – Smartphone lineup, replaced by Google Pixel on October 4. Trendalyzer – data trend viewing platform. Discontinued in September. Google Swiffy – convert Adobe Flash files (SWF) into HTML5. Discontinued on July 1. Glass OS – an operating system for Google Glass. Discontinued on June 20. Google Spaces – group discussions and messaging. Discontinued on April 17. Google Map Maker – map editor with browser interface. Discontinued on April 1, replaced by Google Maps and Google Local Guides. Google Hands Free – retail checkout without using your phone or watch. Pilot started in the Bay area March 2016, but discontinued on February 8. Google Maps Engine – develop geospatial applications. Discontinued on February 1. Free Search – embed site/web search into a user's website. Replaced by Google Custom Search. Google Maps for PS Vita – version of Google maps for the PS Vita, discontinued in January 2015, "Sony pulls support for Vita's Maps, YouTube apps". Engadget. Retrieved July 4, 2024. YouTube for PS Vita – discontinued in January


id: list-of-google-products-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Google_products-4.md
category: reference
title: List of Google products
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Google_products
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:43.219102+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-google-products-20260505-0
summary:
=== 2012 === Picasa Web Albums Uploader – upload images to the "Picasa Web Albums" service. It consisted of an iPhoto plug-in and a stand-alone application. Google Chart API – interactive Web-based chart image generator, deprecated in 2012 with service commitment to 2015 and turned off in 2019. Google promotes JavaScript-based Google Charts as a replacement, which is not backwards-compatible with the Google Chart API's HTTP methods. Google Apps Standard Edition – Discontinued on December 6. Nexus Q – digital media player – Discontinued in November. Google Refine – data cleansing and processing. It was spun off from Google on October 2, becoming open source; it is now OpenRefine. TV Ads – Method to place advertising on TV networks. Discontinued on August 30, with all remaining active campaigns ending December 16. Knol – write authoritative articles related to various topics. Discontinued October 1. Yinyue (Music) (Google China) – site linking to a large archive of Chinese pop-music (principally Cantopop and Mandopop), including audio streaming over Google's own player, legal lyric downloads, and in most cases legal MP3 downloads. The archive was provided by Top100.cn (i.e., this service does not search the whole Internet) and was available in mainland China only.


id: list-of-google-products-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Google_products-5.md
category: reference
title: List of Google products
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Google_products
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:43.219102+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-google-products-20260505-0
summary:
=== 2009 === Audio Ads – radio advertising program for US businesses. Discontinued on February 12. Catalogs – search engine for over 6,600 print catalogs, acquired through optical character recognition. Discontinued in January. Dodgeball – social networking service. Users could text their location to the service, which would then notify them of nearby people or events of interest. Replaced by Google Latitude. Google Mashup Editor – web mashup creation with publishing, syntax highlighting, debugging. Discontinued in July; migrated to Google App Engine. Google Ride Finder – taxi and shuttle search service, using real time position of vehicles in 14 U.S. cities. Used the Google Maps interface and cooperated with any car service that wished to participate. Discontinued in October. Shared Stuff – web page sharing system, incorporating a bookmarklet to share pages, and a page to view the most popular shared items. Pages could be shared through third-party applications such as Delicious or Facebook. Discontinued on March 30. === 2008 === Google Lively – 3D animated chat. Discontinued December 31. SearchMash – search engine to "test innovative user interfaces". Discontinued on November 24. Google Page Creator – webpage publishing program that could be used to create pages and to host


id: list-of-cybercriminals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cybercriminals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of cybercriminals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cybercriminals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:44.580396+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cybercriminals-20260505-0
summary:
Convicted computer criminals are people who are caught and convicted of computer crimes such as breaking into computers or computer networks. Computer crime can be broadly defined as criminal activity involving information technology infrastructure, including illegal access (unauthorized access), illegal interception (by technical means of non-public transmissions of computer data to, from or within a computer system), data interference (unauthorized damaging, deletion, deterioration, alteration or suppression of computer data), systems interference (interfering with the functioning of a computer system by inputting, transmitting, damaging, deleting, deteriorating, altering or suppressing computer data), misuse of devices, forgery (or identity theft) and electronic fraud. In the infancy of the hacker subculture and the computer underground, criminal convictions were rare because there was an informal code of ethics that was followed by white hat hackers. Proponents of hacking claim to be motivated by artistic and political ends, but are often unconcerned about the use of criminal means to achieve them. White hat hackers break past computer security for non-malicious reasons and do no damage, akin to breaking into a house and looking around. They enjoy learning and working with computer systems, and by this experience gain a deeper understanding of electronic security. As the computer


id: list-of-cryptographic-file-systems-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cryptographic_file_systems-0.md
category: reference
title: List of cryptographic file systems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cryptographic_file_systems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:45.833263+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cryptographic-file-systems-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of filesystems with support for filesystem-level encryption. Not to be confused with full-disk encryption. == General-purpose filesystems with encryption == AdvFS on Digital Tru64 UNIX Novell Storage Services on Novell NetWare and Linux NTFS with Encrypting File System (EFS) for Microsoft Windows OpenZFS open source, in illumos, and from 2020 unified on Linux, macOS, FreeBSD, NetBSD and OSv ZFS proprietary, for Oracle Solaris, since Pool Version 30 Ext4, added in Linux kernel 4.1 in June 2015 F2FS, added in Linux kernel 4.2 UBIFS, added in Linux kernel 4.10 CephFS, added in Linux kernel 6.6 bcachefs (experimental), added in Linux kernel 6.7 APFS, macOS High Sierra (10.13) and later. == Cryptographic filesystems == === FUSE-based file systems === === Integrated into the Linux kernel === eCryptfs Rubberhose filesystem (discontinued) StegFS (discontinued) === Integrated into other UNIXes === geli on FreeBSD EFS (Encrypted File System) on AIX == See also == Comparison of disk encryption software == References ==


id: list-of-data-structures-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_data_structures-0.md
category: reference
title: List of data structures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_data_structures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:48.112822+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-data-structures-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of well-known data structures. For a wider list of terms, see list of terms relating to algorithms and data structures. For a comparison of running times for a subset of this list see comparison of data structures. == Data types == === Primitive types === Boolean, true or false. Character Floating-point representation of a finite subset of the rationals. Including single-precision and double-precision IEEE 754 floats, among others Fixed-point representation of the rationals Integer, a direct representation of either the integers or the non-negative integers Reference, sometimes erroneously referred to as a pointer or handle, is a value that refers to another value, possibly including itself Symbol, a unique identifier Enumerated type, a set of symbols Complex, representation of complex numbers === Composite types or non-primitive type === Array, a sequence of elements of the same type stored contiguously in memory Record (also called a structure or struct), a collection of fields Product type (also called a tuple), a record in which the fields are not named String, a sequence of characters representing text Union, a datum which may be one of a set of types Tagged union (also called a variant, discriminated union or sum


id: list-of-default-file-systems-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_default_file_systems-0.md
category: reference
title: List of default file systems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_default_file_systems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:49.362805+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-default-file-systems-20260505-0
summary:
Default file system used in various operating systems. == See also == List of file systems Comparison of file systems List of partition IDs (MBR) Master Boot Record (MBR) GUID Partition Table (GPT) Apple Partition Map Amiga Rigid Disk Block Timeline of DOS operating systems History of Microsoft Windows FDISK == References ==


id: list-of-graphics-chips-and-card-companies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_graphics_chips_and_card_companies-0.md
category: reference
title: List of graphics chips and card companies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_graphics_chips_and_card_companies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:50.649903+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-graphics-chips-and-card-companies-20260505-0
summary:
During the 1980s and 1990s, a relatively large number of companies appeared selling primarily 2D graphics cards and later 3D. Most of those companies have subsequently disappeared, as the increasing complexity of GPUs substantially increased research and development costs. Many of these companies subsequently went bankrupt or were bought out. Amongst the notable discrete graphics card vendors, AMD and Nvidia are the only ones that have lasted. In 2022, Intel entered the discrete GPU market with the Arc series and has three more generations confirmed on two year release schedules. There are currently 104 manufacturers in this incomplete list. == Graphics chip makers == Many of the companies listed below also design(ed) graphics cards. == Graphics card makers == == References ==


id: list-of-defunct-hard-disk-manufacturers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_defunct_hard_disk_manufacturers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of defunct hard disk manufacturers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_defunct_hard_disk_manufacturers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:51.960795+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-defunct-hard-disk-manufacturers-20260505-0
summary:
At least 218 companies have manufactured hard disk drives (HDDs) since 1956. Most of that industry has vanished through bankruptcy or mergers and acquisitions. None of the first several entrants (including IBM, who invented the HDD) continue in the industry today. Only three manufacturers have survived—Seagate, Toshiba and Western Digital (WD)—all of which grew at least in part through mergers and acquisitions. == Manufacturers == The following is a partial list of defunct hard disk manufacturers. There are currently 120 manufacturers in this incomplete list. == See also == History of hard disk drives List of computer hardware manufacturers List of hard disk manufacturers List of solid-state drive manufacturers == References == General references McKendrick, David (November 1997). "Sustaining Competitive Advantage in Global Industries: Technological Change and Foreign Assembly in the Hard Disk Drive Industry". Archived from the original on February 9, 2014. Retrieved August 3, 2011. Specific references == Further reading == Wong, Poh-Kam (July 1999). "The Dynamics of the HDD Industry Development in Singapore" (PDF). Centre for Management of Innovation and Technopreneurship, National University of Singapore: The Information Storage Industry Center, Graduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies, University of California. Report 99–03. Archived from the original


id: list-of-defunct-network-processor-companies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_defunct_network_processor_companies-0.md
category: reference
title: List of defunct network processor companies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_defunct_network_processor_companies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:53.160633+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-defunct-network-processor-companies-20260505-0
summary:
During the dot-com/internet bubble of the late 1990s and early 2000, the proliferation of many dot-com start-up companies created a secondary bubble in the telecommunications/computer networking infrastructure and telecommunications service provider markets. Venture capital and high tech companies rushed to build next generation infrastructure equipment for the expected explosion of internet traffic. It has been estimated that dozens of start-up companies were created in the race to build the processors that would be a component of the next generation telecommunications equipment. Once the internet investment bubble burst, the telecom network upgrade cycle was deferred for years (perhaps for a decade). As a result, the majority of these new companies went bankrupt. As of the mid‑2020s, significant shipments of network processors are being made by major players such as Cisco Systems, Broadcom, Marvell Technology Group (which now includes Cavium Inc.), Intel Corporation, and Qualcomm Technologies. == OC-768/40Gb routing == ClearSpeed – left network processor market, reverted to supercomputing applications Propulsion Networks – defunct BOPS – left network processor market, reverted to DSP applications == OC-192/10Gb routing == Terago – defunct Clearwater Networks – originally named Xstream Logic, defunct Silicon Access – defunct Solidum Systems – acquired by Integrated Device Technology Lexra


id: list-of-digital-library-projects-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_digital_library_projects-0.md
category: reference
title: List of digital library projects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_digital_library_projects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:54.428267+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-digital-library-projects-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of digital library projects. == See also == Bibliographic database List of academic databases and search engines List of online databases List of online encyclopedias List of open-access journals List of search engines == References ==


id: list-of-online-digital-musical-document-libraries-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_online_digital_musical_document_libraries-0.md
category: reference
title: List of online digital musical document libraries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_online_digital_musical_document_libraries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:55.730352+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-online-digital-musical-document-libraries-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of online digital musical document libraries. Each source listed below offers access to collections of digitized music documents (typically originating from printed or manuscript musical sources). They may contain scanned images, fully encoded scores, or encodings designed for music playback (e.g., via MIDI). Some (e.g., KernScores) are adapted for music analysis. == See also == Virtual Library of Musicology List of online music databases == References ==


id: list-of-distributed-computing-conferences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_distributed_computing_conferences-0.md
category: reference
title: List of distributed computing conferences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_distributed_computing_conferences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:56.993816+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-distributed-computing-conferences-20260505-0
summary:
This is a selected list of international academic conferences in the fields of distributed computing, parallel computing, and concurrent computing. == Selection criteria == The conferences listed here are major conferences of the area; they have been selected using the following criteria:- the notability of the conference has been confirmed by multiple independent sources; for example, it has been mentioned in textbooks or other sources, or it has received a high ranking the conference focuses on distributed and parallel computing (instead of having a much broader scope such as algorithms in general) the conference covers a reasonably large part of the fields of distributed and parallel computing (instead of focusing on a narrow sub-topic). For the first criterion, references are provided; criteria 2–3 are usually clear from the name of the conference. == Conferences == CCGrid — IEEE/ACM International Symposium on Cluster, Cloud, and Internet Computing sponsored by IEEE Computer Society Technical Committee on Scalable Computing (TCSC) and ARC SIGARCH Organized annually since 2001 DISC — International Symposium on Distributed Computing formerly: WDAG — Workshop on Distributed Algorithms on Graphs organized in cooperation with the European Association for Theoretical Computer Science (EATCS) ICDCS — International Conference on Distributed Computing Systems


id: list-of-dvd-authoring-software-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_DVD_authoring_software-0.md
category: reference
title: List of DVD authoring software
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_DVD_authoring_software
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:58.334449+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-dvd-authoring-software-20260505-0
summary:
The following applications can be used to create playable DVDs. == Free software == Free software implementations often lack features such as encryption and region coding due to licensing restrictions issues, and depending on the demands of the DVD producer, may not be considered suitable for mass-market use. DeVeDe (Linux) DVD Flick (Windows only) DVDStyler (Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux using wxWidgets. Recent versions are bundled with Potentially Unwanted Programs that may accidentally be installed unless care is taken during installation.) == Professional studio software == MAGIX Vegas DVD Architect (previously known as Sony Creative Software's DVD Architect Pro) (discontinued) Apple DVD Studio Pro (Mac) (discontinued) Sonic DVDit Pro (formerly DVD Producer) (discontinued) Adobe Encore (EOL / discontinued) Sonic DVD Creator (discontinued) == Professional corporate software == MAGIX Vegas DVD Architect (previously known as Sony Creative Software's DVD Architect Pro) (discontinued) Adobe Encore (Last version is CS6, bundled with Adobe Premiere Pro CS6 / EOL) (discontinued) Sonic Scenarist SD/BD/UHD MediaChance DVD-lab (discontinued) == Home == Apple iDVD (Mac) (discontinued) CyberLink Media Suite Nero Vision Pinnacle Studio Roxio Easy Media Creator Roxio Toast (for Mac OS) Sonic MyDVD TMPGEnc DVD Author Ulead DVD MovieFactory Windows DVD Maker (discontinued) WinDVD Creator


id: list-of-dvd-manufacturers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_DVD_manufacturers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of DVD manufacturers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_DVD_manufacturers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:02:59.630755+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-dvd-manufacturers-20260505-0
summary:
This aims to be a complete list of DVD manufacturers. This list may not be complete or up to date. If you see a manufacturer that should be here but isn't (or one that shouldn't be here but is), please update the page accordingly. This list is only a list of brand names for DVDs and not an actual manufacturers list. == A == Aiwa Akai Alba Amazon Amstrad Apex Digital Apple Acme Acer Asus == B == Bang & Olufsen BenQ Bose Bush == C == CMC Magnetics Craig Electronics == D == Daewoo Electronics Denon Dell == E == Emerson == F == Facebook Funai Fukuda == G == GE Google Grundig == H == Harman/kardon Hitachi Hewlett-Packard == I == Imation == J == JVC == K == == L == Lenovo LG LiteOn Loewe == M == Magnavox Marantz Maxell Medion Memorex Microsoft Windows Mitsubishi Electric Moser Baer == N == NEC == O == Onn Oppo Orion Electric == P == Panasonic Philips Pioneer ProScan == R == RCA Ritek Ricoh == S == Samsung Sanyo Sharp Sony Sylvania Symphonic SM Pictures == T == Teac Technics Technika Thomson Toshiba == U == Ultradisc ==


id: list-of-early-microcomputers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_early_microcomputers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of early microcomputers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_early_microcomputers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:00.793747+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-early-microcomputers-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of early microcomputers sold to hobbyists and developers. These microcomputers were often sold as "DIY" kits or pre-built machines in relatively small numbers in the mid-1970s. These systems were primarily used for teaching the use of microprocessors and supporting peripheral devices, and unlike home computers were rarely used with pre-written application software. Most early micros came without alphanumeric keyboards or displays, which had to be provided by the user. RAM was quite small in the unexpanded systems (a few hundred bytes to a few kilobytes). By 1976 the number of pre-assembled machines was growing, and the 1977 introduction of the "trinity" of Commodore PET, TRS-80 and Apple II generally marks the end of the "early" microcomputer era, and the advent of the consumer home computer era that followed. == Discrete logic == Before the advent of microprocessors, it was possible to build small computers using small-scale integrated circuits (ICs), where each IC contained only a few logic gates or flip-flops. The Kenbak-1 (1971) used small-scale integration transistor–transistor logic (TTL) ICs and had 256 bytes of memory. It was priced at USD 750 and sold only 40 units. Datapoint 2200 (shipped 1971) was the first machine designed


id: features-new-to-windows-11-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Features_new_to_Windows_11-0.md
category: reference
title: Features new to Windows 11
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Features_new_to_Windows_11
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:02.179596+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: features-new-to-windows-11-20260505-0
summary:
Windows 11 is the current major release of Microsoft's Windows NT operating system. Released on October 5, 2021, Windows 11 succeeds the previous major release, Windows 10. Major updates introduced with the product include a redesigned user interface, new productivity and collaboration features, and updates to security and accessibility. As a current release, the operating system receives annual feature enhancements, such as the addition of artificial intelligence features like Microsoft Copilot which launched in 2023. == Windows Shell == Fluent Design System: Updates the Fluent Design System, a design language introduced by Microsoft in 2017, are featured in Windows 11. According to Microsoft, the design of Windows 11 is "effortless, calm, personal, familiar, complete, and coherent." The redesign focuses on simplicity, ease of use, and flexibility, addressing some of the deficiencies of Windows 10. Most interfaces in Windows 11 feature rounded geometry, refreshed iconography, new typography, and a refreshed color palette. In addition, translucency and shadows are made more prevalent throughout the system. Windows 11 also introduces "Mica", a new opaque Material that is tinted with the color of the desktop wallpaper. Start Menu: The Start menu has been significantly redesigned in Windows 11, adhering to the principles of the


id: features-new-to-windows-11-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Features_new_to_Windows_11-1.md
category: reference
title: Features new to Windows 11
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Features_new_to_Windows_11
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:02.179596+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: features-new-to-windows-11-20260505-0
summary:
== Input == Touch Keyboard: Windows 11 introduces thirteen new themes to customize the touch keyboard, including 3 hardware-matching themes that match the Surface keyboard colors. It also adds a new theme engine that allows the user to create a custom theme using background images. In addition, Windows 11 adds the ability to resize the touch keyboard. Voice Typing: Windows 11 includes a new voice typing launcher to easily start voice typing in a selected field. It is turned off by default, but it can be turned on in Settings and placed in any area of the screen. Touch Improvements: Windows 11 also features an improvement to touch-based interactions. Tablet mode is removed; instead, Windows will automatically adapt when needed. New and improved gestures can be used on tablets and touchscreens. App windows now have larger touch targets and will automatically arrange themselves in split view when the screen is rotated. Windows 11 seems to be optimized for desktops and tablets instead of prioritizing the latter like Windows 8, prioritizing the latter like Windows 8.1, or separating them both and Windows 10. Pen Menu: For digital pen users, a new pen menu has been added, which is accessible by clicking


id: features-new-to-windows-11-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Features_new_to_Windows_11-2.md
category: reference
title: Features new to Windows 11
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Features_new_to_Windows_11
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:02.179596+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: features-new-to-windows-11-20260505-0
summary:
== Bundled software == Microsoft Store, which serves as a unified storefront for apps and other content, is also redesigned in Windows 11. Microsoft now allows developers to distribute Windows API, progressive web applications, and other packaging technologies in the Microsoft Store, alongside the standard Universal Windows Platform apps. The new Microsoft Store will also enable users to install Android apps onto their devices via the Amazon Appstore. This feature will require a Microsoft account, an Amazon account, and a one-time install for Windows Amazon Appstore client. Microsoft Teams: This collaboration platform is directly integrated into Windows 11. Skype is no longer bundled with the OS. Teams will appear as an icon in the Windows taskbar, letting users message and call their contacts instantly. Settings: The app has been redesigned to be visually pleasing and easy to use in Windows 11. It has a left-handed navigation that persists between pages, and it adds breadcrumbs as the user navigates deeper into the settings to help them know where they are and to not get lost. The Settings app also includes brand new pages, with new controls at the top that highlight key information and frequently used settings for the user to


id: fibre-channel-network-protocols-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibre_Channel_network_protocols-0.md
category: reference
title: Fibre Channel network protocols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibre_Channel_network_protocols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:03.461650+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fibre-channel-network-protocols-20260505-0
summary:
Fibre Channel network protocols is used for communication between devices in a fibre channel network == Transmission words and ordered sets == All Fibre Channel communication is done in units of four 10-bit codes. This group of 4 codes is called a transmission word. An ordered set is a transmission word that includes some combination of control (K) codes and data (D) codes. == AL_PAs == Each device has an Arbitrated Loop Physical Address (AL_PA). These addresses are defined by an 8-bit field but must have neutral disparity as defined in the 8b/10b coding scheme. That reduces the number of possible values from 256 to 134. The 134 possible values have been divided between the fabric, FC_AL ports, and other special purposes as follows: == Meta-data == In addition to the transfer of data, it is necessary for Fibre Channel communication to include some metadata. This allows for the setting up of links, sequence management, and other control functions. The meta-data falls into two types, primitives which consist of a 4 character transmission word and non-data frames which are more complex structures. == Primitives == All primitives are four characters in length. They begin with the control character K28.5, followed


id: list-of-fictional-computers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_computers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of fictional computers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_computers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:06.137479+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fictional-computers-20260505-0
summary:
Computers have often been used as fictional objects in literature, films, and in other forms of media. Fictional computers may be depicted as considerably more sophisticated than anything yet devised in the real world. Fictional computers may be referred to with a made-up manufacturer's brand name and model number or a nickname. This is a list of computers or fictional artificial intelligences that have appeared in notable works of fiction. The work may be about the computer, or the computer may be an important element of the story. Only static computers are included. Robots and other fictional computers that are described as existing in a mobile or humanlike form are discussed in a separate list of fictional robots and androids. == Literature == === Before 1950 === The Engine, a mechanical writer of books featured in Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels. Eric A. Weiss asserts that it is an early fictional device that resembles artificial intelligence (1726) The Machine from E. M. Forster's short story "The Machine Stops" (1909) The Brain from Lionel Britton’s Brain: A Play of the Whole Earth (1930) The Government Machine from Miles J. Breuer's short story "Mechanocracy" (1932) The Brain from Laurence Manning's novel The Man


id: list-of-fictional-computers-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_computers-1.md
category: reference
title: List of fictional computers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_computers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:06.137479+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fictional-computers-20260505-0
summary:
=== 1960s === Vulcan 2 and Vulcan 3, sentient supercomputers in Philip K. Dick's novel Vulcan's Hammer (1960) Great Coordinator or Robot-Regent, a partially to fully sentient extraterrestrial supercomputer, built to control and drive the scientifically and technologically advanced Great Arconide Empire as the Arconides have become decadent and unable to govern themselves. From the science fiction series Perry Rhodan (1961) Merlin from the H. Beam Piper novel The Cosmic Computer (originally Junkyard Planet) (1963) Simulacron-3, the third generation of a virtual reality system originally depicted in the science fiction novel Simulacron-3 (a.k.a. "Counterfeit World") by Daniel F. Galouye (1964) and later in film adaptations World on a Wire (1973) and The Thirteenth Floor (1999) GENiE (GEneralized Nonlinear Extrapolator), from the Keith Laumer novel The Great Time Machine Hoax (1964) Muddlehead, the sapient computer that runs the trade ship Muddlin' Through in Poul Anderson's stories The Trouble Twisters (1965), Satan's World (1969), "Day of Burning" (1967), "Lodestar" (1973), and Mirkheim (1977) Colossus and Guardian: Colossus, a military supercomputer designed to control the nuclear arsenal of the United States of North America, joins with its Soviet counterpart, Guardian, and announces that to prevent war the two computers will rule the human


id: list-of-fictional-computers-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_computers-2.md
category: reference
title: List of fictional computers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_computers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:06.137479+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fictional-computers-20260505-0
summary:
=== 1970s === UniComp, the central computer governing all life on Earth in This Perfect Day by Ira Levin (1970) T.E.N.C.H. 889B, supercomputer aboard the Persus 9 in A Maze of Death by Philip K. Dick (1970) Maxine, from the Roger Zelazny story "My Lady of the Diodes" (1970) The Müller-Fokker computer tapes, in The Muller-Fokker Effect by John Sladek (1970) HARLIE (Human Aanalog Replication, Lethetic Intelligence Engine), protagonist of When HARLIE Was One by David Gerrold (1972). Also in the later When Harlie Was One, Release 2.0 (1988) TECT, from George Alec Effinger's various books. There are several computers named TECT in his novels, even though they are unrelated stories (1972-2002) Dora, starship computer in Time Enough for Love by Robert A. Heinlein (1973) Minerva, executive computer in Time Enough for Love by Robert A. Heinlein (1973) Pallas Athena, Tertius planetary computer in Time Enough for Love by Robert A. Heinlein (1973) Proteus, the highly intelligent computer in the novel Demon Seed by Dean Koontz (1973) Extro, in Alfred Bester's novel The Computer Connection (1975) FUCKUP (First Universal Cybernetic Kynetic Ultramicro-Programmer), from The Illuminatus! Trilogy by Robert Shea and Robert Anton Wilson (1975) Murray (Multi-Unit Reactive Reasoning and Analysis


id: list-of-fictional-computers-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_computers-3.md
category: reference
title: List of fictional computers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_computers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:06.137479+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fictional-computers-20260505-0
summary:
=== 1980s === AIVAS (Artificial Intelligence Voice Address System), from Anne McCaffrey's Dragonriders of Pern books (1980s to present) Golem XIV, from Stanisław Lem's novel of the same name (1981) TECT (originally TECT in the name of the Representative), the world-ruling computer in George Alec Effinger's novel The Wolves of Memory (1981) VALIS (Vast Active Living Intelligence System), an alien orbital satellite around a Nixon-era earth, from the Philip K. Dick novel VALIS. Only two novels out of an intended three-book trilogy were ever completed by the author (1981) Hactar, the computer that designed the cricket-ball-shaped doomsday bomb (that would destroy the universe) for the people of Krikkit, in Douglas Adams's Life, the Universe and Everything (1982) Shirka, the Odyssey's main computer in Ulysses 31 (1981–1982) SAL 9000, the counterpart of HAL 9000 in 2010: Odyssey Two (1982) Kendy, the AI autopilot on board the seeder-ramship Discipline in the novels The Integral Trees and The Smoke Ring by Larry Niven (Originally 1983) BC (Big Computer) which is also possibly God, in John Varley's Millennium novel (1983) (unnamed intelligence), in John Varley's "Press Enter _", an intelligence that has evolved on NSA's computer network Apple Eve, a fictional Apple, Inc., wordprocessing-oriented


id: list-of-fictional-computers-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_computers-4.md
category: reference
title: List of fictional computers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_computers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:06.137479+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fictional-computers-20260505-0
summary:
=== 1990s === Thing, a very small box shaped computer owned by the Nomes, from Terry Pratchett's The Nome Trilogy (1990) Grand Napoleon, a Charles Babbage-style mechanical supercomputer from the alternate history novel The Difference Engine by William Gibson and Bruce Sterling (1990) Yggdrasil, a vastly intelligent AI which effectively runs the world, including many virtual environments and subordinate AIs, in Kim Newman's The Night Mayor (1990) Jill, a computer reaching self-awareness in Greg Bear's Queen of Angels and Slant novels (1990 and 1997) Aleph, the computer which not only operates a space station but also houses the personality of a human character whose body became malfunction, from the Tom Maddox novel Halo (1991) Art Fish, a.k.a. Dr. Fish, later fused with a human to become Markt, from Pat Cadigan's novel Synners (1991) Blaine the Mono, from Stephen King's The Dark Tower, a control system for the City of Lud and monorail service; also Little Blaine and Patricia (1991) Center, from S. M. Stirling and David Drake's The General series, an AI tasked to indirectly unite planet Bellevue and restore its civilization, with the eventual goal of restoration of FTL travel and of civilization to the collapsed interplanetary federation; also


id: list-of-fictional-computers-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_computers-5.md
category: reference
title: List of fictional computers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_computers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:06.137479+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fictional-computers-20260505-0
summary:
=== 2000s === Stormbreaker, a learning device containing a deadly virus from the book of the same name from Anthony Horowitz's Alex Rider series (2001) Gabriel, an AI computer developed by Miyuki Nakano at Ryukyu University in James Rollins's novel, Deep Fathom (2001) Antrax, a powerful supercomputer built by ancient humans in the novel Antrax by Terry Brooks (2001) Omnius, the sentient computer overmind and ruler of the synchronized worlds in the Legends of Dune series, first appeared in Dune: The Butlerian Jihad by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson (2002) Turing Hopper, the artificial intelligence personality (AIP) turned cybersleuth in You've Got Murder and subsequent books of the mystery series by Donna Andrews (2002) C Cube, a small box-like super computer that can perform virtually any task, from playing a cassette to hacking through high level security measures. It was created by 12-year-old criminal mastermind Artemis Fowl II in the third book of the Artemis Fowl series, Artemis Fowl: The Eternity Code (2003) The Logic Mill, a fictional early–18th century computer designed by Gottfried Leibniz and partially implemented by main character Daniel Waterhouse in the historical fiction series The Baroque Cycle by Neal Stephenson (2004) Cohen, a 400-year-old AI


id: list-of-fictional-computers-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_computers-6.md
category: reference
title: List of fictional computers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_computers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:06.137479+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fictional-computers-20260505-0
summary:
=== 1970s === Colossus, a massive U.S. defense computer which becomes sentient and links with Guardian, its Soviet counterpart, to take control of the world, from the film Colossus: The Forbin Project (1970) OMM, a confessional-like computer inside what are called Unichapels in a sub-terranean city in the film THX 1138 (1971), named for the sacred or mystical syllable OM or AUM from the Dharmic and is based on a 1478 oil painting by Hans Memling titled Christ Giving His Blessing LEO, Short for Large-Capacity Enumerating Officiator in How to Frame a Figg (1971) DUEL, the computer which holds the sum total of human knowledge, in The Final Programme (1973) Thermostellar Bomb Number 20, the sentient nuclear bomb from the film Dark Star (1974) Mother, the onboard computer on the spaceship Dark Star, from Dark Star (1974) The Tabernacle, artificial intelligence controlling The Vortexes in Zardoz (1974) Zero, the computer which holds the sum total of human knowledge, in Rollerball (1975) Computer, Citadel's central computer and "Sandman" computer, that sends Logan on a mission outside of the city in Logan's Run (1976) Proteus IV, the deranged artificial intelligence from Demon Seed (1977) MU-TH-R 182 model 2.1 terabyte AI Mainframe/"Mother" (more


id: list-of-fictional-computers-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_computers-7.md
category: reference
title: List of fictional computers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_computers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:06.137479+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fictional-computers-20260505-0
summary:
=== 2000s === Lucille, artificially intelligent spacecraft control interface aboard Mars-1 in Red Planet (2000) Dr. Know (voiced by Robin Williams), housed inside a kiosk, an information-themed computer capable of answering any question, from A.I. Artificial Intelligence (2001) Synapse, worldwide media distribution system which was used against its creators to bring them down Antitrust (2001) Red Queen, the AI from Resident Evil (2002), the name itself, in turn being named after Lewis Carroll's Through the Looking-Glass, being a reference to the red queen principle Vox, a holographic computer in The Time Machine (2002) I.N.T.E.L.L.I.G.E.N.C.E., computer for Team America: World Police (2004) VIKI (Virtual Interactive Kinetic Intelligence), the main antagonist in I, Robot (2004) PAL, a spoof of HAL 9000 seen in Care Bears: Journey to Joke-a-lot (2004) E.D.I. (Extreme Deep Invader), the flight computer for an unmanned fighter plane in Stealth (2005) Icarus, the onboard computer of the Icarus II, from the film Sunshine (2007) Roberta is the Fantastic Four's holographic receptionist film Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer (2007) J.A.R.V.I.S. (Just A Rather Very Intelligent System), an AI which acts as Tony Stark's butler and first appears in the film Iron Man (2008) R.I.P.L.E.Y, Dr. Kenneth Hassert's supercomputer


id: list-of-fictional-computers-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_computers-8.md
category: reference
title: List of fictional computers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_computers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:06.137479+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fictional-computers-20260505-0
summary:
=== 1960s === The Machine, a computer built to specifications received in a radio transmission from an alien intelligence beyond our galaxy in the BBC seven-part TV series A for Andromeda by Fred Hoyle (1961) Old Man in the Cave, a computer that determines which pre-war foods are safe to eat for a post-apocalyptic town in The Twilight Zone episode, "The Old Man in the Cave" (1963) Batcomputer, large punched card mainframe depicted in the television series Batman, introduced by series producers William Dozier and Howie Horwitz (1964) Agnes, a computer that gives romance advice to a computer technician, from the The Twilight Zone episode "From Agnes—With Love" (1964) WOTAN (Will Operating Thought Analogue), from the Doctor Who serial "The War Machines" (1966) ERIC, a fictional supercomputer which appeared in the two-part episode "The Girl Who Never Had a Birthday" (1966) in the TV series I Dream of Jeannie The General, from The Prisoner (1967) The Ultimate Computer, used by the villain organization THRUSH in the series The Man from U.N.C.L.E. (1964–68, NBC) BIG RAT, (Brain Impulse Galvanoscope Record And Transfer), a machine capable of recording knowledge and experience and transferring it to another human brain. The Rat Trap is


id: list-of-fictional-computers-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_computers-9.md
category: reference
title: List of fictional computers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_computers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:06.137479+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fictional-computers-20260505-0
summary:
=== 1970s === BOSS (Bimorphic Organisational Systems Supervisor), from the Doctor Who serial "The Green Death" (1973) TIM, from The Tomorrow People, is a computer able to telepathically converse with those humans who have developed psionic abilities, and assist with precise teleporting over long distances (1973) Magnus, a malevolent computer seeking its freedom from human control on the Earth Ship Ark in the Canadian television series The Starlost (1973) Mu Lambda 165, library computer on the Earth Ship Ark in the Canadian TV series The Starlost (1973) Computer (a.k.a. X5 Computer), Moonbase Alpha's primary computer's generic name, most often associated with Main Mission's Jamaican computer operations officer, David Kano, from the TV series Space: 1999 (1975) IRAC or "Ira", from the Wonder Woman TV series, an extremely advanced computer in use by the IADC, workplace of Wonder Woman's alias Diana Prince (1975) The Matrix, database of all Time Lord knowledge in Doctor Who (1976) Omega, a computer that has taken over the minds of the residents of a community encountered by Ark II (1976) Alex7000, from the two-parter episode "Doomsday is Tomorrow" of the TV show The Bionic Woman. It was programmed to set off a nuclear holocaust if anyone


id: list-of-fictional-computers-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_computers-10.md
category: reference
title: List of fictional computers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_computers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:06.137479+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fictional-computers-20260505-0
summary:
=== 1980s === The Vortex, the computer opponent faced by players of BBC2's The Adventure Game (1980) Gambit, game playing computer from the Blake's 7 episode "Games" (1981) Shyrka, the onboard computer of Ulysses' ship the Odyssey in the French animated series Ulysses 31 (1981) Slave, a somewhat subservient computer on the ship Scorpio in Blake's 7 (1981) CML (Centrální Mozek Lidstva [cz], Central Brain of Mankind [en], der Zentraldenker [de]), the main supercomputer managing the fate of humankind and Earth in Návštěvníci (a.k.a. The Visitors / Expedition Adam '84) (1981) Chock-A-Block is an extremely large yellow computer with dials, levers, big buttons and a drawer. Modelled to resemble a mainframe of the time. From the BBC children's series of the same name (1981) K.I.T.T. (Knight Industries Two Thcusand), fictional computer built into a black Trans-Am car from the television show Knight Rider (1982) K.A.R.R. (Knight Automated Roving Robot), prototype (and nemesis) of K.I.T.T. (1982) An unnamed "computer-book" is regularly used by Penny in the Inspector Gadget cartoons. (1983) Automan and Cursor from Automan (1983) R.A.L.F. (Ritchie's Artificial Life Form) is a homebrew computer, built from surplus technology by Richard Adler in the TV Series Whiz Kids. (1983-1984) Functions include


id: list-of-fictional-computers-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_computers-11.md
category: reference
title: List of fictional computers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_computers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:06.137479+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fictional-computers-20260505-0
summary:
=== 1990s === P.J., is a miniaturised computer that can be worn on the wrist. It is Alana's personal computer companion in The Girl from Tomorrow (1990) MAL from Captain Planet and the Planeteers (1990) HARDAC, from Batman: The Animated Series, an evil sentient computer that controls various androids toward the goal of world domination (1992) COS (Central Operating System), homicidal computer from The X-Files season 1 episode "Ghost in the Machine" (1993) CAS (Cybernetic Access Structure), homicidal automated building in The Tower (1993) Qwerty, from the video series VeggieTales (1993) SELMA (Selective Encapsulated Limitless Memory Archive), an AI computer and personal assistant disguised as a credit card and carried in the wallet of future cop Darien Lambert (Dale Midriff), from the series Time Trax (1993) CentSys, sweet yet self-assured female-voiced AI computer who brings the crew of the seaQuest DSV (Deep Submergence Vehicle) into the future to deactivate her in the seaQuest DSV episode, "Playtime" (1994) MetroNet, in the RoboCop TV series (1994) is a computer designed as an automation centre, to run autonomously many city services in Detroit. Rather than created as a self-sufficient AI, MetroNet's "conscience" was actually, unbeknownst to many of the characters, a software copy


id: list-of-fictional-computers-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_computers-12.md
category: reference
title: List of fictional computers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_computers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:06.137479+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fictional-computers-20260505-0
summary:
=== 2000s === Andromeda, the AI of the starship Andromeda Ascendant in Gene Roddenberry's Andromeda. This AI, played by Lexa Doig, appears as a 2D display screen image, a 3D hologram, and as an android personality known as Rommie. (2000) Magellanic, the AI of the starship Pax Magellanic in Gene Roddenberry's Andromeda. This AI appears as a 2D display screen image, a 3D hologram, and as an android personality known as Maggie. (2000) Comp-U-Comp, a supercomputer from the Dilbert television episode "The Return". Dilbert must face-off against Comp-U-Comp when a clerical error results in his not getting the computer he ordered. (2000) Caravaggio, the AI interface of the starship Tulip, from the TV show Starhunter (2000) Persocoms, a line of expensive androids also used as personal computers, from the manga and anime series Chobits (2000–2002) GLADIS, from the animated series Totally Spies! (2001) Cybergirl, Xanda, and Isaac, from the TV show Cybergirl (2001) Computer, from the TV show Invader Zim (2001) SAINT, from RoboCop: Prime Directives (2001) Aura, from .hack//Sign, the Ultimate AI that Morganna, another AI, tries to keep in a state of eternal slumber. Morganna is served by Maha and the Guardians, AI monsters. (2002) Vox, from the


id: list-of-fictional-computers-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_computers-13.md
category: reference
title: List of fictional computers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_computers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:06.137479+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fictional-computers-20260505-0
summary:
=== 2010s === Rattleballs, from the TV show Adventure Time (2010) VY or VAI (The Virtual Artificial Intelligence), from the TV show The Walking Dead (2010) Whisper, from the TV show Tower Prep (2010) Frank, in the telenovela Tempos Modernos (2010) Aya, the Interceptor's AI for the Green Lantern Corps, from the TV series Green Lantern: The Animated Series (2011) The Machine, from the TV series Person of Interest, is a computer program that was designed to detect acts of terror after the events of 9/11, but it sees all crimes, crimes the government consider "irrelevant". (2011) R.A.C.I.S.T., Richard Nixon's computer from the TV series Black Dynamite (2014) Samaritan, from the TV series Person of Interest, is a rival to The Machine built by the Decima Corporation. Unlike the Machine, it can be directed to find specific persons or groups according to its operator's agenda. (2011) An unnamed, apparently omniscient supercomputer, built by Phineas and Ferb in the Phineas and Ferb episode "Ask a Foolish Question" (2011) Comedy Touch Touch 1000 in the TV series Comedy Bang! Bang! (2012) CLARKE, a thinking computer of the ship called Argo, which was on a mission to a far away planet, from the


id: list-of-fictional-computers-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_computers-14.md
category: reference
title: List of fictional computers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_computers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:06.137479+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fictional-computers-20260505-0
summary:
=== 1980s === Fate, the Norsefire police state central computer in V for Vendetta (1982) (DC Comics) Banana, Jr. 6000, from the comic strip Bloom County by Berke Breathed (1984) Max, from The Thirteenth Floor (1984) A.I.D.A. (Artificial Intelligence Data Analyser), from Squadron Supreme (1985) (Marvel Comics) Kilg%re, an alien AI that can exist in most electrical circuitry, from The Flash (1987) (DC Comics) Project 2501, a.k.a. "The Puppet Master", a government computer that becomes so knowledgeable it becomes sentient and transplants itself into a robot, from the seinen manga Ghost in the Shell (1989) Yggdrasil, the system used by the gods to run the Universe in Oh My Goddess! (1989) === 1990s === DTX PC, the Digitronix personal computer from The Hacker Files (1992) (DC Comics) Beast666, Satsuki Yatouji's organic/inorganic supercomputer in Clamp's manga X (1992) H.O.M.E.R. (Heuristically Operative Matrix Emulation Rostrum), Tony Stark's sentient AI computer from Iron Man (1993) (Marvel Comics) The Magi, from the anime series Neon Genesis Evangelion (1995) Toy, from Chris Claremont's Aliens vs. Predator: The Deadliest of the Species (1995) Virgo, an artificial intelligence in Frank Miller's Ronin graphic novel (1995) (DC Comics) Praetorius, from The X-Files comic book series "One Player Only"


id: list-of-fictional-computers-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_computers-15.md
category: reference
title: List of fictional computers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_computers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:06.137479+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fictional-computers-20260505-0
summary:
=== 1990s === E-123 Omega, Team Dark's computer in the Sonic the Hedgehog game series (1991) Noah, antagonist from Metal Max and its remake (1991-1995) Durandal, Leela and Tycho, the three AIs on board the U.E.S.C. Marathon (1994) Traxus IV, AI that went rampant on Mars, in Marathon (1994) LINC and "Joey", from the video game Beneath a Steel Sky (1994) 0D-10, AI computer in the sci-fi chapter from the game Live A Live (1994). It secretly plotted to kill humans on board the spaceship of the same name in order to "restore the harmony". Its name derives from "odio", Latin for "hate". Prometheus, a cybernetic-hybrid machine or 'Cybrid' from the Earthsiege and Starsiege: Tribes series of video games. Prometheus was the first of a race of Cybrid machines, who went on to rebel against humanity and drive them to the brink of extinction. (1994) SEED, the AI that was charged with maintaining the vast network of ecosystem control stations on the planet Motavia in the Sega Genesis game Phantasy Star IV (1994) AM, the computer intelligence from I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream (1995) that exterminated all life on Earth except for five humans he kept alive


id: list-of-fictional-computers-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_computers-16.md
category: reference
title: List of fictional computers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_computers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:06.137479+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fictional-computers-20260505-0
summary:
=== 2000s === Icarus, Daedalus, Helios, Morpheus and The Oracle of Deus Ex — see Deus Ex characters (2000) Mainframe, from Gunman Chronicles (later got a body) (2000) 343 Guilty Spark, monitor of Installation 04, in the video game trilogy Halo, Halo 2, and Halo 3 (2001) Calculator, the computer that controlled the bomb shelter Vault 0. It was not strictly an artificial intelligence, but rather a cyborg, because it was connected with several human brains. It appeared in the video game Fallout Tactics: Brotherhood of Steel (2001) Cortana, a starship-grade "smart" AI of the UNSC and companion of the Master Chief in the Halo video games (2001) (also the inspiration for the name of Microsoft's real-world personal assistant in Windows 10) Deadly Brain, a level boss on the second level of Oni (2001) The mascot of the "Hectic Hackers" basketball team in Backyard Basketball (2001) PETs (PErsonal Terminals), the cell-phone-sized computers that store Net-Navis in Megaman Battle Network. The PETs also have other features, such as a cell phone, e-mail checker and hacking device. (2001) Thiefnet computer, Bentley the turtle's laptop from the Sly Cooper series (2002) Adam, the computer intelligence from the Game Boy Advance game Metroid Fusion


id: list-of-fictional-computers-20260505-17
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_computers-17.md
category: reference
title: List of fictional computers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_computers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:06.137479+00:00
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parent: list-of-fictional-computers-20260505-0
summary:
=== 2010s === Auntie Dot, used in Halo: Reach as an assistant to Noble Team (2010) Alvis, also known as όντως/Ontos, an AI-turned-god who Earth scientists used to create the world of Xenoblade Chronicles, and who remains present throughout the entire game (2010) EDI (Enhanced Defense Intelligence), the AI housed within a "quantum bluebox" aboard the Normandy SR-2 in Mass Effect 2. EDI controls the Normandy's cyberwarfare suite during combat, but is blocked from directly accessing any other part of the ship's systems, due to the potential danger of EDI going rogue. (2010) Harbinger, is the tentative name for the leader of the main antagonist faction of Mass Effect 2. It commands an alien race known as the Collectors through the "Collector General." Like Sovereign, from the original Mass Effect, it belongs to the same race of ancient sentient machines, known as the "Reapers". (2010) Harmonia, the DarkStar One's main AI that controls the player ship's systems in the space-sim game DarkStar One (2010) Legion, the given name for a geth platform in Mass Effect 2, housing a single gestalt consciousness composed of 1,183 virtually intelligent "runtimes", which share information amongst themselves and build "consensus" in a form of networked


id: list-of-fictional-computers-20260505-18
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_computers-18.md
category: reference
title: List of fictional computers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_computers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:06.137479+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fictional-computers-20260505-0
summary:
== Board games and role-playing games == A.R.C.H.I.E. Three, the supercomputer that arose from the ashes of nuclear war to become a major player in the events of Palladium Books' Rifts The Autochthon, the extradimensional AI that secretly controls Iteration X, in White Wolf Publishing's Mage: The Ascension The Computer, from West End Games' Paranoia role-playing game Crime Computer, from the Milton Bradley Manhunter board game Deus, the malevolent AI built by Renraku from the Shadowrun role-playing game, which took over the Renraku Arcology before escaping into the Matrix Mirage, the oldest AI from Shadowrun, built to assist the US military in combating the original Crash Virus in 2029 Megara, a sophisticated program built by Renraku in Shadowrun, which achieved sentience after falling in love with a hacker Omega Virus, microscopic nano-phages that build a singular intelligence (foreign AI) in the Battlestat1 computer core and take over the space station in the board game by Milton Bradley. == Unsorted works == SARA, TOM's A.I. matrix companion from Toonami The CENTRAL SCRUTINIZER, narrator from Frank Zappa's Joe's Garage Ritsu / Autonomous Intelligence Fixed Artillery, from Assassination Classroom Tandy 400, Compy 386, Lappy 486, Compé, and Lappier, Strong Bad's computers in Homestar


id: list-of-file-signatures-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_file_signatures-0.md
category: reference
title: List of file signatures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_file_signatures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:07.503634+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-file-signatures-20260505-0
summary:
A file signature is data used to identify or verify the content of a file. Such signatures are also known as magic numbers or magic bytes and are usually inserted at the beginning of the file. Many file formats are not intended to be read as text. If such a file is accidentally viewed as a text file, its contents will be unintelligible. However, some file signatures can be recognizable when interpreted as text. In the table below, the column "ISO 8859-1" shows how the file signature appears when interpreted as text in the common ISO 8859-1 encoding, with unprintable characters represented as the control code abbreviation or symbol, or codepage 1252 character where available, or a box otherwise. In some cases the space character is shown as ␠. == See also == List of filename extensions - alternative for file type identification and parsing List of file formats Magic number (programming) Substitute character (for the 1Ah (^Z) "end-of-file" marker used in many signatures) file (command) == References == == External links == Gary Kessler's list of file signatures Online File Signature Database for Forensic Practitioners, a private compilation free to Law Enforcement Man page for compress, uncompress, and zcat


id: list-of-file-systems-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_file_systems-0.md
category: reference
title: List of file systems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_file_systems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:08.933968+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-file-systems-20260505-0
summary:
The following lists identify, characterize, and link to more thorough information on file systems. Many older operating systems support only their one "native" file system, which does not bear any name apart from the name of the operating system itself. == Disk file systems == Disk file systems are usually block-oriented. Files in a block-oriented file system are sequences of blocks, often featuring fully random-access read, write, and modify operations. ADFS – Acorn's Advanced Disc filing system, successor to DFS. AdvFS – Advanced File System, designed by Digital Equipment Corporation for their Digital UNIX (now Tru64 UNIX) operating system. APFS – Apple File System is a file system for Apple products. AthFS – AtheOS File System, a 64-bit journaled filesystem now used by Syllable. Also called AFS. BFS – the Boot File System used on System V release 4.0 and UnixWare. BFS – the Be File System used on BeOS, occasionally misnamed as BeFS. Open source implementation called OpenBFS is used by the Haiku operating system. Byte File System (BFS) - file system used by z/VM for Unix applications Btrfs – is a copy-on-write file system for Linux announced by Oracle in 2007 and published under the GNU General Public


id: list-of-file-systems-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_file_systems-1.md
category: reference
title: List of file systems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_file_systems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:08.933968+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-file-systems-20260505-0
summary:
=== File systems with built-in fault-tolerance === These file systems have built-in checksumming and either mirroring or parity for extra redundancy on one or several block devices: Bcachefs – Full data and metadata checksumming, bcache is the bottom half of the filesystem. Btrfs – A file system based on B-Trees, initially designed at Oracle Corporation. HAMMER and HAMMER2 – DragonFly BSD's primary filesystems, created by Matt Dillon. NOVA – The "non-volatile memory accelerated" file system for persistent main memory. ReFS (Resilient File System) – A file system by Microsoft with built-in resiliency features. Reliance – A transactional file system with CRCs, created by Datalight. Reliance Nitro – A tree-based transactional, copy-on-write file system with CRCs, developed for high performance and reliability in embedded systems, from Datalight (Acquired by Tuxera in 2019). ZFS – Has checksums for all data; important metadata is always redundant, additional redundancy levels are user-configurable; copy-on-write and transactional writing ensure metadata consistency; corrupted data can be automatically repaired if a redundant copy is available. Created by Sun Microsystems for use on Solaris 10 and OpenSolaris, ported to FreeBSD 7.0, NetBSD (as of August 2009), Linux and to FUSE (not to be confused with the two zFSes from


id: list-of-file-systems-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_file_systems-2.md
category: reference
title: List of file systems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_file_systems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:08.933968+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-file-systems-20260505-0
summary:
CMS file system – The native file system of the Conversational Monitor System component of VM/370 Files-11 – early versions were record-oriented; support for "streams" was added later Michigan Terminal System (MTS) – provides "line files" where record lengths and line numbers are associated as metadata with each record in the file, lines can be added, replaced, updated with the same or different length records, and deleted anywhere in the file without the need to read and rewrite the entire file. OS4000 for GEC's OS4000 operating system, on the GEC 4000 series minicomputers A FAT12 and FAT16 (and FAT32) extension to support database-like file types random file, direct file, keyed file and sequential file in Digital Research FlexOS, IBM 4680 OS and Toshiba 4690 OS. The record size is stored on a file-by-file basis in special entries in the directory table. Sequential access methods for IBM's z/OS and z/VSE mainframe operating systems: Basic Sequential Access Method (BSAM), Basic Partitioned Access Method (BPAM) and Queued Sequential Access Method (QSAM); see Access methods and Data set (IBM mainframe) for more examples Pick Operating System – A record-oriented filesystem and database that uses hash-coding to store data. Shared File System (SFS) for IBM's


id: list-of-file-systems-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_file_systems-3.md
category: reference
title: List of file systems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_file_systems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:08.933968+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-file-systems-20260505-0
summary:
Coda from Carnegie Mellon University focuses on bandwidth-adaptive operation (including disconnected operation) using a client-side cache for mobile computing. It is a descendant of AFS-2. It is available for Linux under the GPL. Distributed File System (Dfs) from Microsoft focuses on location transparency and high availability. Available for Windows under a proprietary software license. HAMMER and HAMMER2 – DragonFly BSD's filesystems for clustered storage, created by Matt Dillon. InterMezzo from Cluster File Systems uses synchronization over HTTP. Available for Linux under GPL but no longer in development since the developers are working on Lustre. LizardFS a networking, distributed file system based on MooseFS Moose File System (MooseFS) is a networking, distributed file system. It spreads data over several physical locations (servers), which are visible to a user as one resource. Works on Linux, FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenSolaris and macOS. Master server and chunkservers can also run on Solaris and Windows with Cygwin. Scality is a distributed fault-tolerant filesystem. Tahoe-LAFS is an open source secure, decentralized, fault-tolerant filesystem utilizing encryption as the basis for a least-authority replicated design. A FAT12 and FAT16 (and FAT32) extension to support automatic file distribution across nodes with extra attributes like local, mirror on update, mirror on


id: list-of-file-systems-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_file_systems-4.md
category: reference
title: List of file systems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_file_systems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:08.933968+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-file-systems-20260505-0
summary:
=== Pseudo file systems === devfs – a virtual file system in Unix-like operating systems for managing device nodes on-the-fly procfs – a pseudo-file system, used to access kernel information about processes tmpfs – in-memory temporary file system (on Unix-like platforms) sysfs – a virtual file system in Linux holding information about buses, devices, firmware, filesystems, etc. debugfs – a virtual file system in Linux for accessing and controlling kernel debugging configfs – a writable file system used to configure various kernel components of Linux sysctlfs – allow accessing sysctl nodes via a file system; available on NetBSD via PUFFS, FreeBSD kernel via a 3rd-party module, and Linux as a part of Linux procfs. kernfs – a file system found on some BSD systems (notably NetBSD) that provides access to some kernel state variables; similar to sysctlfs, Linux procfs and Linux sysfs. WinFS - Uses a relational database to manage files wikifs – a server application for Plan 9's virtual, wiki, file system === Encrypted file systems === eCryptfs – a stacked cryptographic file system in the Linux kernel since 2.6.19 EncFS, GPL Encrypted file system in user-space EFS – an encrypted file system for Microsoft Windows systems and AIX.


id: list-of-films-about-computers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_films_about_computers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of films about computers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_films_about_computers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:10.104885+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-films-about-computers-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of films about computers, featuring fictional films in which activities involving computers play a central role in the development of the plot. == Artificial intelligence plots == === Motion picture === 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968) HAL 9000 The Computer Wore Tennis Shoes (1969) Colossus: The Forbin Project (1970) The Questor Tapes (1974) Demon Seed (1977) Blade Runner (1982) Tron (1982) WarGames (1983) Brainstorm (1983) 2010 (1984) HAL 9000 SAL 9000 Hide and Seek (1984, TV movie) Electric Dreams (1984) The Terminator (1984) Terminator Skynet D.A.R.Y.L. (1985) Flight of the Navigator (1986) Short Circuit (1986) Not Quite Human (1987) Short Circuit 2 (1988) Not Quite Human II (1989) Still Not Quite Human (1992) Arcade (1993) Star Trek Generations (1994) Hackers (1995) Johnny Mnemonic (1995) The Net (1995) Star Trek: First Contact (1996) Enemy of the State (1998) Lost in Space (1998) Star Trek: Insurrection (1998) Bicentennial Man (1999) The Matrix (1999) The Thirteenth Floor (1999) Universal Soldier: The Return (1999) Virus (1999) A.I. Artificial Intelligence (2001) How to Make a Monster (2001) Swordfish (2001) S1M0NE (2002) Star Trek: Nemesis (2002) The Matrix Reloaded (2003) The Matrix Revolutions (2003) I Robot (2004) The Hitchhiker's Guide to the


id: list-of-fujitsu-image-scanners-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Fujitsu_image_scanners-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Fujitsu image scanners
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Fujitsu_image_scanners
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:11.298889+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fujitsu-image-scanners-20260505-0
summary:
Fujitsu manufactures two series of image scanners: ScanSnap for consumers/SOHO, and fi for business (fi includes SP brand). Popular ScanSnap models include the S1300, a feature-rich scanner that can scan double-sided color originals, and the S1100, one of the world's smallest scanners. By September 2018, ScanSnap had sold more than five million units globally since 2001, and the ScanSnap brand reached the age of twenty years on July 10, 2021. The following is a selection of scanners manufactured under the Fujitsu brand. == Current models == == Discontinued models (but still eligible for extended service coverage) == == Previous models == ScanSnap S300 – portable scanner, 10 sheet ADF, 600 dpi optical resolution, 8 to 0.5 pages per minute depending on mode and AC availability ScanSnap S300M – Macintosh version of S300 with similar specifications ScanSnap S500 ScanSnap S500M ScanSnap S510 ScanSnap S510M ScanSnap S1100 ScanSnap S1300 ScanSnap S1500 ScanSnap S1500M ScanSnap iX500 Deluxe == Other == SP-1425 == References ==


id: list-of-fujitsu-products-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Fujitsu_products-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Fujitsu products
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Fujitsu_products
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:12.591190+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fujitsu-products-20260505-0
summary:
Fujitsu, a multinational computer hardware and IT services company, provides services and consulting as well as a range of products including computing products, software, telecommunications, microelectronics, and more. Fujitsu also offers customized IT products that go beyond the off-the shelf products listed below. == Products and services == == References ==


id: list-of-functional-programming-topics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_functional_programming_topics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of functional programming topics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_functional_programming_topics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:13.841447+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-functional-programming-topics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of functional programming topics. == Foundational concepts == Programming paradigm Declarative programming Programs as mathematical objects Function-level programming Purely functional programming Total functional programming Lambda programming Static scoping Higher-order function Referential transparency == Lambda calculus == Currying Lambda abstraction Church–Rosser theorem Extensionality Church numeral == Combinatory logic == Fixed point combinator SKI combinator calculus B, C, K, W system SECD machine Graph reduction machine == Intuitionistic logic == Sequent, sequent calculus Natural deduction Intuitionistic type theory BHK interpretation Curry–Howard correspondence Linear logic Game semantics == Type theory == Typed lambda calculus Typed and untyped languages Type signature Type inference Datatype Algebraic data type (generalized) Type variable First-class value Polymorphism Calculus of constructions == Denotational semantics == Domain theory Directed complete partial order Knaster–Tarski theorem == Category theory == Cartesian closed category Yoneda lemma == Operational issues == Graph reduction Combinator graph reduction Strict programming language Lazy evaluation, eager evaluation Speculative evaluation Side effect Assignment Setq Closure Continuation Continuation passing style Operational semantics State transition system Simulation preorder Bisimulation Monads in functional programming Exception handling Garbage collection == Programming languages == Clean Clojure Elixir Erlang FP F# Haskell Glasgow Haskell Compiler Gofer Hugs Template Haskell ISWIM JavaScript


id: list-of-mergers-and-acquisitions-by-gen-digital-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mergers_and_acquisitions_by_Gen_Digital-0.md
category: reference
title: List of mergers and acquisitions by Gen Digital
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mergers_and_acquisitions_by_Gen_Digital
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:15.308579+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mergers-and-acquisitions-by-gen-digital-20260505-0
summary:
Gen Digital, formerly known as Symantec and NortonLifeLock, is a multinational computer software company founded on March 1, 1982. It is an international corporation that specializes in selling security and information management software. Gary Hendrix founded the company in 1982 with the help of a National Science Foundation grant. Symantec was originally focused on artificial intelligence-related projects, and Hendrix hired several Stanford University natural language processing researchers as the company's first employees. After the company's initial public offering in 1989, Hendrix left the company in 1991 and moved to Texas. The company has acquired 57 companies, purchased stakes in 2 firms, and divested 26 companies, in which parts of the company are sold to another company. Of the companies that Symantec has acquired, 50 were based in the United States. Symantec has not released the financial details for most of these mergers and acquisitions. Symantec's first acquisition was C&E Software on January 1, 1984, and the founder of C&E Software, Gordon Eubanks, became the new chief executive officer of Symantec. The company has made five acquisitions with a value greater than $1 billion: LifeLock was acquired on Feb 9, 2017 for $2.3 billion, Blue Coat Systems was acquired on Aug


id: list-of-grid-computing-projects-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_grid_computing_projects-0.md
category: reference
title: List of grid computing projects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_grid_computing_projects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:16.471729+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-grid-computing-projects-20260505-0
summary:
This is a comprehensive list of Grid computing infrastructure projects. == Grid computing infrastructure projects == BREIN uses the Semantic Web and multi-agent systems to build simple and reliable grid systems for business, with a focus on engineering and logistics management. A-Ware is developing a stable, supported, commercially exploitable, high quality technology to give easy access to grid resources. AssessGrid addresses obstacles to wide adoption of grid technologies by bringing risk management and assessment to this field, enabling use of grid computing in business and society. Cohesion Platform – A Java-based modular peer-to-peer multi-application desktop grid computing platform for irregularly structured problems developed at the University of Tübingen (Germany) The European Grid Infrastructure (EGI) – A series of projects funded by the European Commission which links over 70 institutions in 27 European countries to form a multi-science computing grid infrastructure for the European Research Area, letting researchers share computer resources GridCOMP provides an advanced component platform for an effective invisible grid. GridECON takes a user-oriented perspective and creates solutions to grid challenges to promote widespread use of grids. neuGRID develops a new user-friendly grid-based research e-infrastructure enabling the European neuroscience community to perform research needed for the pressing study of


id: list-of-groupe-bull-products-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Groupe_Bull_products-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Groupe Bull products
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Groupe_Bull_products
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:17.676658+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-groupe-bull-products-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of products from the French-owned computer hardware and software company Groupe Bull. == Computer hardware == Bull Gamma series Gamma 3 (1952) Gamma 55 (1967) (also known as GE 55) Gamma 60 (1960) Gamma 10 (1963) Gamma 30 (1964) (RCA 301) Gamma M 40 (1965) CAB 500 (1961, sold under license from Société d'Electronique et d'Automatisme) Série 300 TI (1962) GE-600 series (1965) GE 400 (1967) GE 115 (1966) GE-265 (1968) CII Iris 50 (1968) CII Mitra 15 (1970) GE 58 (1970) Honeywell 6000 series (1970) Honeywell H200 (1970) CII Iris 80 (1971) CII Iris 60 (1972) Honeywell 6180 for the Multics operating system (1973) HB 2000 (1973) Micral (1973) Mini6 (1978) CII HB 64/40 (1976) CII HB 66/60 (1976) CII HB 61 DPS (1978) Bull DS800 (2007) Bull DPS series DPS 4 (1980) DPS 7 and DPS 7000 (1981) DPS 6 series (1983) DPS 8 (1984) DPS 6 Plus and DPS 8000 (1987) DPS 9000 (1999) Bull DPX series Bull DPX 2 (1992) Bull DPX 20 SM 90 (1981) Correlative Syst. 1982 SPS7 and SPS9 Bull Escala (1994) Bull NovaScale (2004) Novascale bullion (2010) Bull bullx (2009) Bull Estrella Bull Series 4000 Printing System


id: comparison-of-gui-testing-tools-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_GUI_testing_tools-0.md
category: reference
title: Comparison of GUI testing tools
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_GUI_testing_tools
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:19.012527+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: comparison-of-gui-testing-tools-20260505-0
summary:
GUI testing tools serve the purpose of automating the testing process of software with graphical user interfaces. == References ==


id: list-of-hackers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hackers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of hackers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hackers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:20.238522+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-hackers-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of notable hackers who are known for their hacking acts. == See also == Tech Model Railroad Club List of computer criminals List of fictional hackers List of hacker groups List of hacker conferences Hackerspace Phreaking == References ==


id: list-of-medical-and-health-informatics-journals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_medical_and_health_informatics_journals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of medical and health informatics journals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_medical_and_health_informatics_journals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:21.434703+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-medical-and-health-informatics-journals-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of notable journals related to medical and health informatics. BMC Medical Informatics and Decision Making BMJ Health & Care Informatics Computers in Biology and Medicine Health Informatics Journal International Journal of Medical Informatics Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association Journal of Biomedical Informatics Journal of Information Professionals in Health Journal of Innovation in Health Informatics Journal of Medical Internet Research Medical & Biological Engineering & Computing Methods of Information in Medicine PLOS Digital Health Statistics in Medicine == References == == See also == List of medical journals Lists of academic journals


id: list-of-hewlett-packard-products-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Hewlett-Packard_products-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Hewlett-Packard products
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Hewlett-Packard_products
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:22.770098+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-hewlett-packard-products-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a partial list of products manufactured under the Hewlett-Packard brand. == Printers == HP categories of printers as of November 2014 are: Black and white laser printers Color laser printers Laser multifunction printers Inkjet all-in-one printers Specialty Photo inkjet printers Business ink printers Color inkjet printers HP Designjet large format printers HP Indigo Digital Presses HP Inkjet Digital Web Press HP latex printers HP Scitex large format printers Network print servers === Black and white laser printers === (Current Line: November 2014) High-volume black and white laser printers LaserJet 700 printer LaserJet M806 printer Office black and white laser printers LaserJet 400 printer LaserJet 600 printer LaserJet P2000 printer LaserJet P3000 prin === Color Laser printers === (As of November 2014) === Laser multifunction printers === (As of November 2014) Discontinued models === Inkjet all-in-one printers === (As of November 2014) === Specialty photo inkjet printers === (As of November 2014) Compact photo printers Photosmart A310 Printer Photosmart A430 Portable Photo Studio Series === Business ink printers === (Current Line: November 2014) Business ink multifunction printers Officejet Enterprise Color X585 Multifunction Printer Officejet Pro X476/X576 Multifunction Printer Page wide array printers Officejet Enterprise Color X555 Printer Officejet


id: list-of-hewlett-packard-products-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Hewlett-Packard_products-1.md
category: reference
title: List of Hewlett-Packard products
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Hewlett-Packard_products
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:22.770098+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-hewlett-packard-products-20260505-0
summary:
A series of notebooks and multimedia notebooks since 1999. Some models released from 2004–2009 had the HP developed QuickPlay software which enabled booting to a linux based DVD/Music player held on a separate partition (models with Windows Vista are unable to boot into QuickPlay due to compatibility issues). === HP Envy === === HP G series === === HP Mini === === HP OmniBook === A series of "Next Gen AI" notebook computers introduced by HP Inc. (Hewlett-Packard's successor) in 2024 that included built-in artificial intelligence features. The name was originally used for a line of business-oriented laptops and notebooks made by Hewlett-Packard from 1993–2002. == Workstations == === PA-RISC based === === Itanium based === === Alpha based (from DEC, via Compaq) === === x86 based === === Blade Workstations === == Servers == === x86 (Intel & AMD Opteron) based === ==== Entry-level servers ==== Entry-level servers used either the NetServer or ProLiant brands. The NetServer line of servers were discontinued following the merger with Compaq in 2002, with the then-newly acquired ProLiant line of servers succeeding it afterwards. The ProLiant line of servers was then acquired by Hewlett Packard Enterprise in 2015 after HP split up into


id: list-of-hewlett-packard-products-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Hewlett-Packard_products-2.md
category: reference
title: List of Hewlett-Packard products
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Hewlett-Packard_products
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:22.770098+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-hewlett-packard-products-20260505-0
summary:
rx1600 series – 1U rx1600 rx1620 rx2600 series – 2U rx2600 rx2620 rx2660 rx3600 – 4U rx4610 – 7U rx4640 – 4U rx5670 – 7U rx6600 – 7U rx7600 series – 10U rx7610 rx7620 rx7640 rx8600 series – 17U rx8620 rx8640 HP Superdome SX1000 based – SX2000 based Integrity BL blades Compaq ProLiant Compaq ProLiant DL590/64 (retired) === Alpha based === === PA-RISC based === === Scalable servers and supercomputer nodes === ==== Apollo series ==== ==== SGI series ==== HPE SGI 8600 == Enterprise storage == HP StorageWorks XP storage array StorageWorks EVA storage array (from Compaq) HP AutoRAID storage array (retired) HP VA storage array (retired) HP Jamaica storage enclosure (retired) == "StorageWorks" Storage element managers == Command View XP Command View AE Command View EVA Command View SDM. StorageWorks Command View TL == Storage area management == HP Storage Essentials OpenView Storage Area Manager == ProCurve == ProCurve Networking by HP is the networking division of HP. == Telepresence and videoconferencing == HP Halo, a high-end immersive telepresence system, was sold to Polycom on June 1, 2011. == External hard disk drives == HP External Hard Drive (1 TB, USB 3.0) HP Portable Hard Drive (1 TB,


id: list-of-home-computers-by-video-hardware-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_home_computers_by_video_hardware-0.md
category: reference
title: List of home computers by video hardware
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_home_computers_by_video_hardware
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:24.059189+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-home-computers-by-video-hardware-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of home computers, sorted alphanumerically, which lists all relevant details of their video hardware. Home computers are the second generation of desktop computers, entering the market in 1977 and becoming common during the 1980s. A decade later they were generally replaced by IBM PC compatible "PCs", although technically home computers are also classified as personal computers. Examples of early home computers are the TRS-80, Atari 8-bit computers, BBC Micro, ZX Spectrum, MSX, Amstrad CPC 464, and Commodore 64. Examples of late home computers are MSX 2 systems, and the Amiga and Atari ST systems. Note: in cases of manufacturers who have made both home and personal computers, only machines fitting into the home computer category are listed. Systems in the personal computer category, except for early Macintosh PCs, are generally based on the VGA standard and use a video chip known as a Graphics Processing Unit. Very early PCs used one of the much simpler (even compared to most home computer video hardware) video display controller cards, using parts like the MDA, the Hercules Graphics Card, the CGA and the EGA standard). Only after the introduction of the VGA standard could PCs really compete with the


id: list-of-home-computers-by-video-hardware-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_home_computers_by_video_hardware-1.md
category: reference
title: List of home computers by video hardware
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_home_computers_by_video_hardware
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:24.059189+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-home-computers-by-video-hardware-20260505-0
summary:
=== Video arbitration logic === One major problem that early computer video hardware had to overcome was the video bus arbitration problem. The problem was determining a way to give both the video hardware (VDU) and the CPU continuous read access to the video RAM. The obvious solution, using interleaving time slots for the VDU and RAM was hard to implement because the logic circuits and video memory chips of the time did not have the switching speed necessary to do so. For higher resolutions, the logic and the memory chips were barely fast enough to support reading the display data, let alone for dedicating half the available time for the slow 8-bit CPU. That being said, one system, the Apple II, was one of the first to use a feature of the data-bus logic of the 6502 processor to implement a very early interleaving time slot mechanism to eliminate this problem. The BBC Micro used 4 MHz RAM with a 2 MHz 6502 in order to interleave video accesses with CPU accesses. Most other systems used a much simpler approach, and the TRS-80's video logic was so primitive that it simply did not have any bus arbitration at all.


id: list-of-home-computers-by-video-hardware-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_home_computers_by_video_hardware-2.md
category: reference
title: List of home computers by video hardware
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_home_computers_by_video_hardware
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:24.059189+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-home-computers-by-video-hardware-20260505-0
summary:
== Explanation of the terms used in the tables == System Name The name of the system, or if there are many similar versions, the name of the most well-known variant, see Notes. Year The year that the first version of this system came on the market. Chip name The name of the chip that was used as the basis for the video logic. Video RAM The maximum amount of RAM used for the video display, depending on the resolution used the system may use less. Video mode(s) [i.e. Text mode(s) and Graphics modes] The numbers of characters per line and lines of text the system supported and the number of colors they could have. Sometimes more than one mode was possible: The number of horizontal and Vertical pixels the system could display in a high resolution mode and The number of colors each pixel could have in high-resolution mode, where several high-resolution modes exist each one is listed separately. Beginning with the Xerox Alto, systems forwent independent text modes and drew text on a high-resolution graphics screen. This required more video RAM, but also freed computer fonts from a fixed grid. Font extras Describes extra graphical possibilities a video


id: list-of-home-computers-by-video-hardware-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_home_computers_by_video_hardware-3.md
category: reference
title: List of home computers by video hardware
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_home_computers_by_video_hardware
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:24.059189+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-home-computers-by-video-hardware-20260505-0
summary:
follows an entry it means that other options than the listed ones may also exist. "Mono" in a table cell means monochrome that is, for example, black on white, or black on green.


id: list-of-home-computers-by-video-hardware-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_home_computers_by_video_hardware-4.md
category: reference
title: List of home computers by video hardware
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_home_computers_by_video_hardware
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:24.059189+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-home-computers-by-video-hardware-20260505-0
summary:
== The list of home computers and their video capabilities == === Systems with video logic designed as terminals === === Systems using software-driven video generation === === Systems using discrete logic === ==== With independent text mode(s) ==== ==== Without independent text mode(s) ==== === Systems using simple Video Shift Registers === === Systems using custom logic ICs === ==== With independent text mode(s) ==== ==== Without independent text mode(s) ==== === Systems using a CRTC === ==== MC6845 or second source ==== ===== With independent text mode(s) ===== ===== Without independent text mode(s) ===== ==== Other models ==== === Systems using a Video Interface Controller === ==== MC6847 or second source ==== ===== Text 32×16 9 colors Graphics Full: 64×64 4 colors, 128×64, 128×96, 128×192 2 or 4 colors or 256×192 2 colors Semi: 64×32 9 colors or 64×48 4 colors color resolution 64×64, 128×64, 128×96, 128×192 or 256×192; 64×32 or 64×48 ===== Sources: ==== Other models ==== ===== With independent text mode(s) ===== ===== Without independent text mode(s) ===== === Systems using a video co-processor === ==== With independent text mode(s) ==== ==== Without independent text mode(s) ==== === Systems that fall into multiple classifications === For


id: outline-of-human-computer-interaction-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_human–computer_interaction-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of human–computer interaction
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_human–computer_interaction
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:25.355259+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-human-computer-interaction-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to human–computer interaction: Human–Computer Interaction (HCI) – the intersection of computer science and behavioral sciences — this field involves the study, planning, and design of the interaction between people (users) and computers. Attention to human-machine interaction is important, because poorly designed human-machine interfaces can lead to many unexpected problems. A classic example of this is the Three Mile Island accident where investigations concluded that the design of the human-machine interface was at least partially responsible for the disaster. == Definitions == Human–Computer Interaction can be described as all of the following: A field of science – systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. An applied science – field that applies human knowledge to build or design useful things. A field of computer science – scientific and practical approach to computation and its applications. An application of engineering – science, skill, and profession of acquiring and applying scientific, economic, social, and practical knowledge, to design and also build structures, machines, devices, systems, materials and processes. An application of software engineering – application of a systematic, disciplined, quantifiable approach


id: outline-of-human-computer-interaction-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_human–computer_interaction-1.md
category: reference
title: Outline of human–computer interaction
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_human–computer_interaction
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:25.355259+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-human-computer-interaction-20260505-0
summary:
List of input devices unit record equipment barcode scanner keyboard computer keyboard keyboard shortcut ways to make typing more efficient: command history, autocomplete, autoreplace and Intellisense microphone pointing device computer mouse mouse chording List of output devices visual devices graphical output device display device computer display video projector computer printer plotter auditory devices speakers earphones tactile devices refreshable Braille display braille embosser Haptic devices === Interface design methods === activity-centered design Affordance analysis bodystorming Contextual design focus group iterative design participatory design pictive user interface workshop method rapid prototyping Scenario-based design (SBD) task analysis/task modeling user-centered design usage-centered design User scenario Value sensitive design Wizard of Oz experiment === Usability === Usability testing heuristic evaluation cognitive walkthrough usability lab === Models and laws === Hick's law Fitts' law Steering law GOMS – goals, operators, methods, and selection rules Keystroke-level model (KLM) == Cultural influences == === Movies === Motion pictures featuring interesting user interfaces: 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968) Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope (1977) Alien (1979) Blade Runner (1982) Tron (1982) The Last Starfighter (1984) Ghost in the Shell (1991/1995) The Lawnmower Man (1992) Johnny Mnemonic (1995) The Matrix (1999) Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within (2001) Minority


id: list-of-hypercard-viruses-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_HyperCard_viruses-0.md
category: reference
title: List of HyperCard viruses
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_HyperCard_viruses
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:26.737944+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-hypercard-viruses-20260505-0
summary:
Soon after the release of HyperCard in 1987, computer viruses appeared that targeted the application. The viruses were written in the HyperTalk programming language and typically spread by infecting the Home stack and then infecting other stacks from there. == List of viruses == == References ==


id: list-of-former-ia-32-compatible-processor-manufacturers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_former_IA-32_compatible_processor_manufacturers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of former IA-32 compatible processor manufacturers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_former_IA-32_compatible_processor_manufacturers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:28.066761+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-former-ia-32-compatible-processor-manufacturers-20260505-0
summary:
As Intel's 32-bit architecture became the dominant computing platform during the 1980s and 1990s, multiple companies have tried to build microprocessors that are compatible with that Intel instruction set architecture. Most of these companies were not successful in the mainstream computing market. So far, only AMD has had any market presence in the computing market for more than a couple of product generations. Cyrix was successful during the 386 and 486 generations of products but did not do well after the Pentium was introduced. List of former IA-32 compatible microprocessor vendors: == Progressed into surviving companies == Centaur Technology – originally subsidiary of IDT, later acquired by VIA Technologies, still producing compatible low-end devices for VIA Cyrix – acquired by National Semiconductor, later acquired by VIA Technologies, eventually shut down NexGen – bought by AMD to help develop the successful K6 device National Semiconductor – low-end 486 (designed in-house) never widely sold; first acquirer of Cyrix, later keeping only low-end IA-32 devices targeted for consumer System-on-a-chips, finally selling them to AMD == Product discontinued/transformed == Harris Corporation – sold radiation-hardened versions of the 8086 and 80286; product line discontinued. Produced 20 MHz and 25 MHz 80286s (some motherboards were equipped


id: list-of-input-methods-for-unix-platforms-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_input_methods_for_Unix_platforms-0.md
category: reference
title: List of input methods for Unix platforms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_input_methods_for_Unix_platforms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:29.309391+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-input-methods-for-unix-platforms-20260505-0
summary:
This is intended as a non-exhaustive list of input methods for Unix platforms. An input method is a means of entering characters and glyphs that have a corresponding encoding in a character set. See the input method page for more information.


id: list-of-intel-manufacturing-sites-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Intel_manufacturing_sites-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Intel manufacturing sites
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Intel_manufacturing_sites
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:30.534158+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-intel-manufacturing-sites-20260505-0
summary:
Intel is an American multinational corporation and technology company headquartered in Santa Clara, California. Processors are manufactured in semiconductor fabrication plants called "fabs" which are then sent to assembly and testing sites before delivery to customers. Intel has stated that approximately 75% of their semiconductor fabrication is performed in the United States. Since May 1990, Intel has made an effort to eliminate chlorofluorocarbon consumption for the Oregon, Puerto Rico and Ireland system factories. Both Schumacher, a division of Air Products & Chemicals, and Intel developed chemical that reduce ozone emission using TRANS-LC or trans 1, 2-dichloroethylene to replace from TCA or 1,1,1-Trichloroethane to grow defect free silicon oxide surfaces. The Oregon Governor's Award for Toxics Use Reduction recognising Intel's Hillsboro facility achievement in reducing the use of toxic substance and generation of hazardous wastes. == Current fab sites == == Past fab sites == == Assembly and test sites == AFO, Aloha, Oregon, United States Chandler, Arizona, United States CD1, Chengdu, Sichuan, China CD6, Chengdu, Sichuan, China KMDSDP, Kulim, Malaysia SBDSDP, Sibu, Sarawak, Malaysia KKDSDP, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia KMO, Kulim, Malaysia KM5, Kulim, Malaysia PG8, Penang, Malaysia VNAT, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam Jerusalem, Israel CRAT, Heredia, Belén, Costa


id: lightweight-markup-language-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightweight_markup_language-0.md
category: reference
title: Lightweight markup language
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightweight_markup_language
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:31.907383+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lightweight-markup-language-20260505-0
summary:
A lightweight markup language (LML), also termed a simple or humane markup language, is a markup language with simple, unobtrusive syntax. It is designed to be easy to write using any generic text editor and easy to read in its raw form. It is used in applications where it may be necessary to read the raw document and the final rendered output. For instance, a person downloading a software library might prefer to read the documentation in a text editor rather than a web browser. Another use for such languages is to provide for data entry in web-based publishing, as in blogs and wikis, where the input interface is a simple text box. The server software then converts the input into a common document markup language like HTML. == History == Lightweight markup languages were originally used on text-only displays which could not display characters in italics or bold, so informal methods to convey this information had to be developed. This formatting choice was naturally carried forth to plain-text email communications. Console browsers may also resort to similar display conventions. In 1986 international standard SGML provided facilities to define and parse lightweight markup languages using grammars and tag implication. The


id: lightweight-markup-language-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightweight_markup_language-1.md
category: reference
title: Lightweight markup language
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightweight_markup_language
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:31.907383+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lightweight-markup-language-20260505-0
summary:
=== Heading syntax === Headings are usually available in up to six levels, but the top one is often reserved to contain the same as the document title, which may be set externally. Some documentation may associate levels with divisional types, e.g., part, chapter, section, article or paragraph. This article uses 1 as the top level, but index of heading levels may begin at 1 or 0 in official documentation. Most LMLs follow one of two styles for headings, either Setext-like underlines or atx-like line markers, or they support both. ==== Underlined headings ==== Level 1 Heading =============== Level 2 Heading --------------- Level 3 Heading ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ The first style uses underlines, i.e., repeated characters (e.g., equals =, hyphen - or tilde ~, usually at least two or four times) in the line below the heading text. Headings may optionally be overline in reStructuredText, in addition to being underlined. ==== Prefixed headings ==== # Level 1 Heading ## Level 2 Heading ## ### Level 3 Heading ### The second style is based on repeated markers (e.g., hash #, equals = or asterisk *) at the start of the heading itself, where the number of repetitions indicates the (sometimes inverse) heading level.


id: list-of-linux-adopters-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Linux_adopters-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Linux adopters
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Linux_adopters
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:33.137956+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-linux-adopters-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of companies, organizations and individuals who have moved from other operating systems to Linux. On desktops, Linux has not displaced Microsoft Windows to a large degree. However, it is the leading operating system on servers. See also: List of BSD adopters == Government == As local governments come under pressure from institutions such as the World Trade Organization and the International Intellectual Property Alliance, some have turned to Linux and other free software as an affordable, legal alternative to both pirated software and expensive proprietary computer products from Microsoft, Apple and other commercial companies. The spread of Linux affords some leverage for these countries when companies from the developed world bid for government contracts (since a low-cost option exists), while furnishing an alternative path to development for countries like India and Pakistan that have many citizens skilled in computer applications but cannot afford technological investment at "First World" prices. Cost is not the only factor being considered, though – many government institutions (public and military) in North America and the European Union make the transition to Linux because of its superior stability and the openness of the source code, which strengthens information security. === Africa ===


id: list-of-linux-adopters-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Linux_adopters-1.md
category: reference
title: List of Linux adopters
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Linux_adopters
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:03:33.137956+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-linux-adopters-20260505-0
summary:
==== South ==== The government of the Argentinian province of Misiones uses workstations that run GobMis GNU/Linux, a distribution with necessary tools for public administration. Also delivers a "generic" distribution without government branding known as "GobLin GNU/Linux". Brazil uses PC Conectado, a program utilizing Linux. In 2004, Venezuela's government approved the 3390 decree, to give preference to using free software in public administration. One result of this policy is the development of Canaima, a Debian-based Linux distribution. === Europe === ==== Austria ==== In 2005, Austria's city of Vienna chose to start migrating its desktop PCs to Debian-based Wienux. However, by 2011, the idea was largely abandoned, because the necessary software was incompatible with Linux. ==== Czech Republic ==== In 2005, Česká pošta (Czech Post) migrated 4,000 servers and 12,000 clients to Novell Linux. ==== France ==== In 2007, France's national police force (the National Gendarmerie) started moving their 90,000 desktops from Windows XP to a Ubuntu based OS, GendBuntu, over concerns about the additional training costs of moving to Windows Vista, and following the success of OpenOffice.org roll-outs. The force saved about €50 million on software licensing between 2004 and 2008. The migration largely completed in 2014. By 2007,


