# kb

id: photochemical-action-plots-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photochemical_action_plots-0.md
category: reference
title: Photochemical action plots
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photochemical_action_plots
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:01.563042+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: photochemical-action-plots-20260505-0
summary:
  Photochemical action plots are a scientific tool used to understand the effects of different wavelengths of light on photochemical reactions. The methodology involves exposing a reaction solution to the same number of photons at varying monochromatic wavelengths, monitoring the conversion or reaction yield of starting materials and/or reaction products. Such global high-resolution analysis of wavelength-dependent chemical reactivity has revealed that maxima in absorbance and reactivity often do not align. Photochemical action plots are historically connected to (biological) action spectra. == Historical development == The study of biological responses to specific wavelengths dates back to the late 19th century. Research primarily focused on assessing photodamage from solar radiation using broad-band lamps and narrow filters. These studies quantified effects such as cell viability, production of erythema, vitamin D3 degradation, DNA changes, and skin cancer appearance. The first biological action spectrum was recorded by Engelmann, who used a prism to produce different colors of light and then illuminated cladophora in a bacteria suspension. He discovered the effects of different light wavelengths on photosynthesis, marking the first recorded action spectrum of photosynthesis. Critical evaluations of active wavelength regions in these studies helped identify contributing chromophores to processes such as photosynthesis. These chromophores are key


id: science-and-technology-in-the-discovery-of-america-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Technology_in_the_Discovery_of_America-0.md
category: reference
title: Science and Technology in the Discovery of America
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Technology_in_the_Discovery_of_America
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:04.421128+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-in-the-discovery-of-america-20260505-0
summary:
  Science and Technology in the Discovery of America (Spanish: La ciencia y la técnica en el descubrimiento de América), is a work by the historian and mathematician Julio Rey Pastor, published in Spanish in 1945, in Buenos Aires, by the Espasa-Calpe publishing. A second, "improved and corrected" edition was published in 1945. A third and fourth edition were published in 1951 and 1970, respectively. == Description == In this book, Rey Pastor analyzes the role of science and technology in the discovery of America, with special attention to the contributions of disciplines such as geography, cartography, nautical science and cosmography, which were decisive for the realization of transoceanic expeditions, such as that of Christopher Columbus, whom Rey Pastor considers a man of science, taking into account what was understood in his time by "man of science". The work reviews the scientific situation prior to the discovery and the evolution of latitude measurement and geographical representation techniques, highlighting how these innovations allowed the navigation challenges of the time to be faced. He insists on the enormous disproportion between the magnificent results of the discoverers and the poverty of the means at their disposal. The book highlights the leading role of Spanish


id: sonnet-to-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonnet_to_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Sonnet to Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonnet_to_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:05.618155+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sonnet-to-science-20260505-0
summary:
  "Sonnet to Science" (originally "Sonnet — To Science") is an 1829 poem by Edgar Allan Poe, published in Al Aaraaf, Tamerlane, and Minor Poems. == Summary == Poe asks why science preys on the poet. Science is peering, destructive and interested only in cold realities. It will not allow the poet to soar in fantasy or even to sit peacefully dreaming beneath a tree. == Publication history == In mid-November 1829, Poe agreed with the Baltimore firm Hatch and Dunning to publish his second volume of poetry, entitled Al Aaraaf, Tamerlane, and Minor Poems. This volume was the first instance in which Poe published his verse under his own name as opposed to his first publication, Tamerlane and Other Poems, which was only attributed to “a Bostonian”. A later published version of this poem includes the following note, “Private reasons—some of which have reference to the sin of plagiarism, and other to the date of Tennyson’s first poems—have induced me, after some hesitation, to re-publish these, the crude compositions of my earliest boyhood. They are printed verbatim—without alteration from the original edition—the date of which is too remote to be judiciously acknowledged.” == References == == External links == An


id: unesco-science-report-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_Science_Report-0.md
category: reference
title: UNESCO Science Report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_Science_Report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:09.814460+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: unesco-science-report-20260505-0
summary:
  The UNESCO Science Report is a global monitoring report published regularly by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Every five years, this report maps the latest trends and developments in national and regional policy landscapes, against the backdrop of shifting socio-economic, geopolitical and environmental realities. Each edition is typically released on 10 November, which is World Science Day for Peace and Development. The most recent edition was released on 11 June 2021. == History == In 1987, the General Conference of UNESCO approved the launch of the Organization's first world reports, the World Communication Report, which first appeared two years later. In 1989, the General Conference approved the launch of the World Education Report, which appeared in 1991, 1993, 1995, 1998 and 2000. The launch of these two reports created a momentum to generalize the world reports to all of UNESCO's fields of competence. The World Science Report (as the UNESCO Science Report was originally known) was the next title to appear, in 1993. The first World Information Report followed in 1997 then the World Social Science Report in 1999, as well as two World Culture Reports in 1998 and 2000. Two existing reports were merged to produce


id: unesco-science-report-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_Science_Report-1.md
category: reference
title: UNESCO Science Report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_Science_Report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:09.814460+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: unesco-science-report-20260505-0
summary:
  == Geographical coverage == Each edition has added geographic detail. The 2021 edition of the UNESCO Science Report provided data for 193 countries, with contributions from more than 70 authors from 52 countries. Published in June 2021, the seventh report in the series arrived at a crucial juncture, as countries were one-third of the way to the 2030 deadline for achieving their Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The report revealed that countries of all income levels shared a common agenda at this time for transitioning to digital and 'green' economies. Themes covered in 2021 included our relationship with advanced technologies and the resources and energy they require, the Fourth Industrial Revolution, the effect of Brexit on science and technology and the status of women in science and Industry 4.0. For the first time, an analysis of scientific output broke down the broad field of cross-cutting strategic technologies into its sub-fields, such as artificial intelligence and robotics, energy and nanotechnology. The report found that the COVID-19 pandemic had energized knowledge production systems. This dynamic built on the trend towards greater international scientific collaboration, which bodes well for tackling this and other global challenges such as climate change and biodiversity loss. However, sustainability


id: outline-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:11.582856+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
  The following outline is provided as a topical overview of science: Science is a systematic discipline that builds and organises knowledge in the form of testable hypotheses and predictions about the universe. Modern science is typically divided into two – or three – major branches: the natural sciences, which study the physical world, and the social sciences, which study individuals and societies. While referred to as the formal sciences, the study of logic, mathematics, and theoretical computer science are typically regarded as separate because they rely on deductive reasoning instead of the scientific method as their main methodology. Meanwhile, applied sciences are disciplines that use scientific knowledge for practical purposes, such as engineering and medicine. == Study and experimentation == Experimentation is the use of controlled conditions to test an idea. A single independent variable is altered while all other conditions are kept the same to test the alteration's effect on a dependent variable. Design of experiments History of experiments Descriptive and normative science are contrasting methods to explain scientific ideas. Descriptive science explains ideas objectively while normative science explains what should be true using value judgments. Empirical research is conducted using observation and experimentation instead of theory. Empirical evidence


id: outline-of-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Outline of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:11.582856+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
  Alchemy is the historical study of what is now associated with chemistry. It was accepted as a science until the end of the 17th century. Astrology is a method used in ancient and medieval times to study the social sciences through physical phenomena. Cosmogony is the study of Earth's origins through divine creation. Natural history is the historical name for study of subjects that are now associated with biology. Natural philosophy is the historical name for study of subjects that are now associated with physics and astronomy. == Philosophy of science == Philosophy of science encompasses the questions, assumptions, foundations, methods and implications of science. Anti-realism is the opposition to scientific realism. Anti-realists believe that scientific theories cannot be objectively true or that they do not correlate to objectively real phenomena. Antiscience is a criticism and rejection of modern science and the scientific community. Denialism is the rejection of scientific facts that conflict with one's previous beliefs. Empiricism is the belief that truth is obtained from sense experience. Empiricists believe that science is a systematic and detailed application of common everyday thought and inquiry. Constructive empiricism is the belief that scientific theories can be true but successful testing does not


id: outline-of-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Outline of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:11.582856+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
  Consensus is general agreement among scientists on a conclusion or finding. Demarcation is the division of scientific and non-scientific ideas, and the resulting dispute over how to divide them. Different fields of study may be evaluated on the level of experimental rigor, how much they engage in abstraction, how closely related they are with the humanities, or other qualities. Funding of science can come from governments and donors. Junk science is the presentation of uncertain scientific claims as facts, typically to a legal or political end. List of topics characterized as pseudoscience Meta-analysis is the comparing of several studies on the same topic to draw conclusions. A paradigm is the overall understanding and accepted system of how science functions. Paradigm shifts are historical periods of total change in how science is practiced. The concept was introduced by Thomas Kuhn. Peer review is a process in which an academic provides feedback on scientific writing, often anonymously, before publication. Pseudoscience is unscientific practice or belief that is presented as scientific or uses scientific language to suggest credibility. History of pseudoscience Regulation of science involves the use of policy to limit scientific activity that regulators determine to be dangerous, unethical, or ineffective. Scientific


id: outline-of-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Outline of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:11.582856+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
  == References == Agassi, Joseph (1981). Science and Society: Studies in the Sociology of Science. D. Reidel. ISBN 978-90-277-1244-8. Armstrong, Jon Scott; Green, Kesten C. (2022). The Scientific Method: A Guide to Finding Useful Knowledge. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-009-09642-3. Bird, Alexander (2005). Philosophy of Science. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-85728-504-8. Browne, Janet; Porter, Roy; Bynum, William F., eds. (1981). Dictionary of the History of Science. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-29316-4. Collocott, Thomas C., ed. (1971). Dictionary of Science and Technology. W. & R. Chambers. ISBN 978-0-550-13202-4. Daintith, John; Martin, Elizabeth (2010) [1984]. Oxford Dictionary of Science (6th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-956146-9. Erickson, Mark (2005). Science, Culture and Society: Understanding Science in the 21st Century. Polity. ISBN 978-0-7456-2974-2. Godfrey-Smith, Peter (2003). Theory and Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-30062-7. Hagstrom, Warren O. (1965). The Scientific Community. Basic Books. LCCN 65-10539. Heilbron, J. L., ed. (2003). The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-511229-0. Morris, Christopher G., ed. (1992). Academic Press Dictionary of Science and Technology. Elsevier Science. ISBN 978-0-12-200400-1. Pigliucci, Massimo; Boudry, Maarten, eds. (2013). Philosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem. The University of Chicago Press. ISBN


id: list-of-adiabatic-concepts-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_adiabatic_concepts-0.md
category: reference
title: List of adiabatic concepts
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_adiabatic_concepts
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:12.724457+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-adiabatic-concepts-20260505-0
summary:
  Adiabatic (from Gr. ἀ negative + διάβασις passage; transference) refers to any process that occurs without heat transfer. This concept is used in many areas of physics and engineering. Notable examples are listed below. == Automobiles == Engine braking, a feature of some diesel engines, uses adiabatic expansion to diminish the vehicle's forward momentum. == Meteorology == Adiabatic lapse rate, the change in air temperature with changing height, resulting from pressure change. == Quantum chemistry == Adiabatic invariant Born–Oppenheimer approximation == Thermodynamics == Adiabatic process Adiabatic ionization Adiabatic index Adiabatic accessibility == Quantum mechanics == Adiabatic theorem Adiabatic quantum motor == Electronics == Adiabatic circuit Adiabatic logic == References ==


id: list-of-laser-applications-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications-0.md
category: reference
title: List of laser applications
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:13.914805+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-laser-applications-20260505-0
summary:
  Many scientific, military, medical and commercial laser applications have been developed since the invention of the laser in 1958. The coherency, high monochromaticity, and ability to reach extremely high powers are all properties which allow for these specialized applications. == Scientific == In science, lasers are used in many ways, including: A wide variety of interferometric techniques Raman spectroscopy Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy Atmospheric remote sensing Investigating nonlinear optics phenomena Holographic techniques employing lasers also contribute to a number of measurement techniques. Laser based lidar (LIght raDAR) technology applications in geology, seismology, remote sensing and atmospheric physics. Three-dimensional structural modifications and writing inside technological materials. Lasers have been used aboard spacecraft such as in the Cassini-Huygens mission. In astronomy, lasers have been used to create artificial laser guide stars, used as reference objects for adaptive optics telescopes. Lasers may also be indirectly used in spectroscopy as a micro-sampling system, a technique termed Laser ablation (LA), which is typically applied to ICP-MS apparatus resulting in the powerful LA-ICP-MS. The principles of laser spectroscopy are discussed by Demtröder. === Spectroscopy === Most types of laser are an inherently pure source of light; they emit near-monochromatic light with a very well defined range


id: list-of-laser-applications-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications-1.md
category: reference
title: List of laser applications
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:13.914805+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-laser-applications-20260505-0
summary:
  Powerful lasers producing ultra-short (in the tens of femtoseconds) and ultra-intense (up to 1023 W/cm2) laser pulses offer much greater acceleration gradients than that of conventional accelerators. This fact is exploited in several plasma acceleration techniques used for accelerating both electrons and charged ions to high energies. === Microscopy === Confocal laser scanning microscopy and Two-photon excitation microscopy make use of lasers to obtain blur-free images of thick specimens at various depths. Laser capture microdissection use lasers to procure specific cell populations from a tissue section under microscopic visualization. Additional laser microscopy techniques include harmonic microscopy, four-wave mixing microscopy and interferometric microscopy. == Military == === Directly as an energy weapon === A laser weapon is directed-energy weapon based on lasers. === Defensive countermeasures === Defensive countermeasure applications can range from compact, low power infrared countermeasures to high power, airborne laser systems. IR countermeasure systems use lasers to confuse the seeker heads on infrared homing missiles. === Disorientation === Some weapons simply use a laser to disorient a person. One such weapon is the Thales Green Laser Optical Warner. === Guidance === Laser guidance is a technique of guiding a missile or other projectile or vehicle to a target by


id: list-of-laser-applications-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications-2.md
category: reference
title: List of laser applications
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:13.914805+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-laser-applications-20260505-0
summary:
  Industrial laser applications can be divided into two categories depending on the power of the laser: material processing and micro-material processing. In material processing, lasers with average optical power above 1 kilowatt are used mainly for industrial materials processing applications. Beyond this power threshold there are thermal issues related to the optics that separate these lasers from their lower-power counterparts. Laser systems in the 50-300W range are used primarily for pumping, plastic welding and soldering applications. Lasers above 300W are used in brazing, thin metal welding, and sheet metal cutting applications. The required brightness (as measured in by the beam parameter product) is higher for cutting applications than for brazing and thin metal welding. High power applications, such as hardening, cladding, and deep penetrating welding, require multiple kW of optical power, and are used in a broad range of industrial processes. Micro material processing is a category that includes all laser material processing applications under 1 kilowatt. The use of lasers in Micro Materials Processing has found broad application in the development and manufacturing of screens for smartphones, tablet computers, and LED TVs. A detailed list of industrial and commercial laser applications includes: Laser cutting Laser welding Laser drilling Laser


id: list-of-applications-of-stainless-steel-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel-0.md
category: reference
title: List of applications of stainless steel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:15.064706+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-applications-of-stainless-steel-20260505-0
summary:
  Stainless steel is used in a multitude of fields including architecture, art, chemical engineering, food and beverage manufacture, vehicles, medicine, energy and firearms. == Architecture == The use of stainless steel in buildings can be both practical and aesthetic. In vogue during the Art Deco period, the most famous use of stainless steel can be seen in the upper portion of the Chrysler Building. Thanks to its durability, many of these buildings have retained their original appearance. Stainless steel is used in the construction of modern buildings, such as the exterior of the Petronas Twin Towers and the Jin Mao Building. The Parliament House of Australia in Canberra has a stainless steel flagpole weighing over 220 metric tons (240 short tons). The largest stainless steel building in North America is the aeration building in the Edmonton Composting Facility. La Geode in Paris has a dome composed of 6433 polished stainless steel triangles that form the sphere that reflects the sky. The development of high-strength stainless steel grades, such as "lean duplex" grades, has led to increasing use in structural applications. Thanks to its low reflectivity, stainless steel is used as a roofing material for airports, which prevents pilots from being


id: list-of-applications-of-stainless-steel-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel-1.md
category: reference
title: List of applications of stainless steel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:15.064706+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-applications-of-stainless-steel-20260505-0
summary:
  == Food and beverage == Austenitic (300 series) stainless steel, particularly Types 304 and 316, is the material of choice for the food and beverage industry, though martensitic and ferritic (400 series) steels are also used. Stainless steels are advantageous because they do not affect the taste of the product, are easily cleaned and sterilized to prevent bacterial contamination of the food, and are durable. Within the food and beverage industry, stainless steel is extensively used in cookware, commercial food processing, commercial kitchens, brewing beer, winemaking, and meat processing. Stainless steel's superiority over plastic in preserving flavor is reportedly why McDonald's traditionally procures soft drink syrup for its soda fountains from The Coca-Cola Company in stainless steel tanks, rather than the bag-in-box technology preferred by most fast food restaurant chains. Acidic foods with high salt additions, such as tomato sauce, and highly salted condiments, such as soy sauce, may require higher-alloyed stainless steels such as 6% Mo superaustenitics to prevent pitting corrosion by chloride. == Vehicles == === Automobiles === The Allegheny Ludlum Corporation worked with Ford on various concept cars with stainless steel bodies from the 1930s through the 1970s to demonstrate the material's potential. The 1957 and 1958


id: list-of-applications-of-stainless-steel-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel-2.md
category: reference
title: List of applications of stainless steel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:15.064706+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-applications-of-stainless-steel-20260505-0
summary:
  Surgical tools and medical equipment are usually made of stainless steel, because of its durability and ability to be sterilized in an autoclave. In addition, surgical implants such as bone reinforcements and replacements (e.g. hip sockets and cranial plates) are made with special alloys formulated to resist corrosion, mechanical wear, and biological reactions in vivo. Stainless steel is used in a variety of applications in dentistry. It is common to use stainless steel in many instruments that need to be sterilized, such as needles, endodontic files in root canal therapy, metal posts in root canal-treated teeth, temporary crowns and crowns for deciduous teeth, and arch wires and brackets in orthodontics. Surgical stainless steel alloys (e.g., 316 low-carbon steel) were also used in some early dental implants. == Energy == Stainless steels are extensively used in all types of power stations, from nuclear to solar. Stainless steels are ideally suited as mechanical supports for power generation units when the permeation of gases or liquids are required, such as filters in cooling water or hot gas clean up or as structural supports in electrolytic power generation. Stainless steel is used in electrolysers (proton exchange membranes and solid oxide electrolysers being the most


id: list-of-asteroid-discovering-observatories-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_asteroid-discovering_observatories-0.md
category: reference
title: List of asteroid-discovering observatories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_asteroid-discovering_observatories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:16.235397+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-asteroid-discovering-observatories-20260505-0
summary:
  The list of asteroid-discovering observatories contains a section for each observatory which has discovered one or more asteroids, along with a list of those asteroids. For each numbered asteroid, the Minor Planet Center lists one or more discoverers who have been given credit for the discovery. Sometimes these are individuals (by modern rules there can be no more than three co-discoverers), and sometimes the credit is given to an organization (for instance, Purple Mountain Observatory). == Observatories == === Andrushivka Astronomical Observatory === The Andrushivka Astronomical Observatory is a private observatory near Andrushivka in Zhytomyr oblast, Ukraine. The observatory has IAU observatory code A50. It has discovered the following asteroids: === Bohyunsan Optical Astronomy Observatory === The Korean Bohyunsan Optical Astronomy Observatory (BOAO), located at Mount Bohyeon near the city of Yeongcheon, is a member of the East-Asian Planet Search Network, an international collaboration between Korea, China and Japan. Each facility, BOAO (Korea), Xinglong Station (NAOC) (China), and Okayama Astrophysical Observatory (Japan), has a 2 m class telescope, a high dispersion echelle spectrograph, and an iodine absorption cell for precise RV measurements, looking for extrasolar planets. It has discovered the following asteroids: === Cerro El Roble Astronomical Station === Between


id: atmospheric-optics-ray-tracing-codes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_optics_ray-tracing_codes-0.md
category: reference
title: Atmospheric optics ray-tracing codes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_optics_ray-tracing_codes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:17.507286+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: atmospheric-optics-ray-tracing-codes-20260505-0
summary:
  Atmospheric optics ray tracing codes - this article list codes for light scattering using ray-tracing technique to study atmospheric optics phenomena such as rainbows and halos. Such particles can be large raindrops or hexagonal ice crystals. Such codes are one of many approaches to calculations of light scattering by particles. == Geometric optics (ray tracing) == Ray tracing techniques can be applied to study light scattering by spherical and non-spherical particles under the condition that the size of a particle is much larger than the wavelength of light. The light can be considered as collection of separate rays with width of rays much larger than the wavelength but smaller than a particle. Rays hitting the particle undergoes reflection, refraction and diffraction. These rays exit in various directions with different amplitudes and phases. Such ray tracing techniques are used to describe optical phenomena such as rainbow of halo on hexagonal ice crystals for large particles. Review of several mathematical techniques is provided in series of publications. The 46° halo was first explained as being caused by refractions through ice crystals in 1679 by the French physicist Edmé Mariotte (1620–1684) in terms of light refraction Jacobowitz in 1971 was the first to


id: atmospheric-radiative-transfer-codes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_radiative_transfer_codes-0.md
category: reference
title: Atmospheric radiative transfer codes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_radiative_transfer_codes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:18.655518+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: atmospheric-radiative-transfer-codes-20260505-0
summary:
  An atmospheric radiative transfer model, code, or simulator calculates radiative transfer of electromagnetic radiation through a planetary atmosphere. == Methods == At the core of a radiative transfer model lies the radiative transfer equation that is numerically solved using a solver such as a discrete ordinate method or a Monte Carlo method. The radiative transfer equation is a monochromatic equation to calculate radiance in a single layer of the Earth's atmosphere. To calculate the radiance for a spectral region with a finite width (e.g., to estimate the Earth's energy budget or simulate an instrument response), one has to integrate this over a band of frequencies (or wavelengths). The most exact way to do this is to loop through the frequencies of interest, and for each frequency, calculate the radiance at this frequency. For this, one needs to calculate the contribution of each spectral line for all molecules in the atmospheric layer; this is called a line-by-line calculation. For an instrument response, this is then convolved with the spectral response of the instrument. A faster but more approximate method is a band transmission. Here, the transmission in a region in a band is characterised by a set of pre-calculated coefficients (depending


id: azeotrope-tables-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azeotrope_tables-0.md
category: reference
title: Azeotrope tables
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azeotrope_tables
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:21.065789+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: azeotrope-tables-20260505-0
summary:
  This page contains tables of azeotrope data for various binary and ternary mixtures of solvents. The data include the composition of a mixture by weight (in binary azeotropes, when only one fraction is given, it is the fraction of the second component), the boiling point (b.p.) of a component, the boiling point of a mixture, and the specific gravity of the mixture. Boiling points are reported at a pressure of 760 mm Hg unless otherwise stated. Where the mixture separates into layers, values are shown for upper (U) and lower (L) layers. The data were obtained from Lange's 10th edition and CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 44th edition unless otherwise noted (see color code table). A list of 15825 binary and ternary mixtures was collated and published by the American Chemical Society. An azeotrope databank is also available online through the University of Edinburgh. == Binary azeotropes == == Ternary azeotropes == Tables of various ternary azeotropes (that is azeotropes consisting of three components). Fraction percentages are given by weight. ‡Saddle azeotrope ‡Saddle azeotrope == References ==


id: list-of-balzan-prize-recipients-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Balzan Prize recipients
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:25.359732+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-balzan-prize-recipients-20260505-0
summary:
  This is a list of recipients of the Balzan Prize, one of the world's most prestigious academic awards. The International Balzan Prize Foundation awards four annual monetary prizes to people or organizations who have made outstanding achievements in the humanities, natural sciences, culture, and peace on an international level. The Prizes are awarded in four subject areas: "two in literature, the moral sciences and the arts" and "two in the physical, mathematical and natural sciences and medicine." The special Prize for Humanity, Peace and Fraternity is presented at intervals of every three years or longer. == 1960s–1970s == 1961 Nobel Foundation (Sweden) --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples 1962 Andrey Kolmogorov (Soviet Union) --- Mathematics Karl von Frisch (Austria) --- Biology Paul Hindemith (Germany) --- Music Samuel Eliot Morison (United States) --- History Pope John XXIII (Vatican) --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples 1978 Mother Teresa of Calcutta (India) --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples 1979 Ernest Labrousse (France) and Giuseppe Tucci (Italy) --- History Jean Piaget (Switzerland) --- Social and political sciences Torbjörn Caspersson (Sweden) --- Biology == 1980s == 1980 Enrico Bombieri (Italy) --- Mathematics Hassan Fathy (Egypt) --- Architecture and town planning Jorge Luis


id: list-of-balzan-prize-recipients-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients-1.md
category: reference
title: List of Balzan Prize recipients
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:25.359732+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-balzan-prize-recipients-20260505-0
summary:
  == 2000s == 2000 Ilkka Hanski (Finland) --- Ecological sciences Martin Litchfield West (United Kingdom) --- Classical antiquity Michael Stolleis (Germany) --- Legal history since 1500 Michel G.E. Mayor (Switzerland) --- Instrumentation and techniques in astronomy and astrophysics Abdul Sattar Edhi (Pakistan) --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples 2001 Claude Lorius (France) --- Climatology James Sloss Ackerman (United States) --- History of architecture (including town planning and landscape design) Jean-Pierre Changeux (France) --- Cognitive neurosciences Marc Fumaroli (France) --- Literary history and criticism (post 1500) 2002 Anthony Grafton (United States) --- History of the humanities Dominique Schnapper (France) --- Sociology Walter J. Gehring (Switzerland) --- Developmental biology Xavier Le Pichon (France) --- Geology 2003 Eric Hobsbawm (United Kingdom) --- European history since 1900 Reinhard Genzel (Germany) --- Infrared astronomy Serge Moscovici (France) --- Social psychology Wen-Hsiung Li (Taiwan / United States) --- Genetics and evolution 2004 Andrew Colin Renfrew (United Kingdom) --- Prehistoric Archaeology Michael Marmot (United Kingdom) --- Epidemiology Nikki R. Keddie (United States) --- The Islamic world from the end of the 19th to the end of the 20th century Pierre Deligne (Belgium) --- Mathematics Community of Sant'Egidio --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples 2005 Lothar


id: list-of-balzan-prize-recipients-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients-2.md
category: reference
title: List of Balzan Prize recipients
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:25.359732+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-balzan-prize-recipients-20260505-0
summary:
  == 2020s == 2020 Susan Trumbore (US / Germany) --- Earth System Dynamics Jean-Marie Tarascon (France) --- Environmental Challenges: Materials Science for Renewable Energy Joan Martinez Alier (Spain) --- Environmental Challenges: Responses from the Social Sciences and the Humanities Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade (Brazil) --- Human Rights 2021 Saul Friedländer (France / US) --- Holocaust and Genocide Studies Jeffrey I. Gordon (US) --- Microbiome in Health and Disease Alessandra Buonanno (Italy / US) and Thibault Damour (France) --- Gravitation: physical and astrophysical aspects Giorgio Buccellati and Marilyn Kelly-Buccellati (Italy / USA) --- Art and Archaeology of the Ancient Far East 2022 Robert Langer (US) --- Biomaterials for Nanomedicine and Tissue Engineering Martha Nussbaum (US) --- Moral Philosophy Dorthe Dahl-Jensen (Denmark) and Hans Oerlemans (Netherlands) --- Glaciation and Ice-Sheet Dynamics Philip Bohlman (US) --- Ethnomusicology 2023 David Damrosch (US) --- World Literature Jean-Jacques Hublin (France) --- Evolution of Humankind: Paleoanthropology Eske Willerslev (Denmark) --- Evolution of Humankind: Ancient DNA and Human Evolution Heino Falcke (Germany) --- High resolution images: from planetary to cosmic objects 2024 John Braithwaite (Australia) --- Restorative Justice Lorraine Daston (US / Germany) --- History of Modern and Contemporary Science Michael N. Hall (US / Switzerland) --- Biological


id: outline-of-biochemistry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_biochemistry-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of biochemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_biochemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:26.541132+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-biochemistry-20260505-0
summary:
  The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to biochemistry: Biochemistry, or biological chemistry (distinct from chemical biology), is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. A sub-discipline of both chemistry and biology, biochemistry may be divided into three fields: structural biology, enzymology, and metabolism. Over the last decades of the 20th century, biochemistry has become successful at explaining living processes through these three disciplines. Almost all areas of the life sciences are being uncovered and developed through biochemical methodology and research. Biochemistry focuses on understanding the chemical basis that allows biological molecules to give rise to the processes that occur within living cells and between cells, in turn relating greatly to the understanding of tissues and organs as well as organism structure and function. Biochemistry is closely related to molecular biology, the study of the molecular mechanisms of biological phenomena. == Applications of biochemistry == Testing Ames test – salmonella bacteria is exposed to a chemical under question (a food additive, for example), and changes in the way the bacteria grows are measured. This test is useful for screening chemicals to see if they mutate the structure of DNA and by


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:34.285411+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
  The following index is provided as an overview of and topical guide to science: Links to articles and redirects to sections of articles which provide information on each topic are listed with a short description of the topic. When there is more than one article with information on a topic, the most relevant is usually listed, and it may be cross-linked to further information from the linked page or section. Science (from Latin scientia, meaning "knowledge") is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. The branches of science, also referred to as scientific fields, scientific disciplines, or just sciences, can be arbitrarily divided into three major groups: The natural sciences (biology, chemistry, physics, astronomy, and Earth sciences), which study nature in the broadest sense; The social sciences (e.g. psychology, sociology, economics, history) which study people and societies; and The formal sciences (e.g. mathematics, logic, theoretical computer science), which study abstract concepts. Disciplines that use science, such as engineering and medicine, are described as applied sciences. == A == Abiology – Life arising from non-living matterPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of inanimate, inorganic, or lifeless


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:34.285411+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
  == B == Bacteriology – Subdiscipline of microbiology that studies bacteria Ballistics – Science of the motion of projectiles Balneology – Method of treating diseases by bathingPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – science of the therapeutic use of baths. Barodynamics – science of the support and mechanics of heavy structures Barology – study of gravitational force. Bathymetry – Study of underwater depth of lake or ocean floors Batology – Study of brambles Batrachology – Branch of herpetology that studies amphibians Behavioural genetics – Study of genetic-environment interactions influencing behaviour Behavioral neuroscience – Study of biological and neural mechanisma in behaviour Bibliology – Organized listing of books and the systematic description of them as objects Bibliotics – study of documents to determine authenticity. Bioecology – Study of interrelations of plants and animals with their environment Biogeochemistry – Study of chemical cycles of the earth related to biological activity Biology – Scientific study of life Biochemistry – Study of chemical processes of living organisms Biomechanics – Study of the mechanics of biological systems Biometrics – Metrics related to human characteristics Bionomics – Term with different meanings in ecology or economics – study of organisms interacting in their environments. Biophysics –


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:34.285411+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
  == D == Dactyliology – study of finger rings. Dactylography – Scientific study of fingerprints Dactylology – Form of communication using one or both handsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of sign language. Data science – Field of study to extract knowledge from data – study of analyzing, processing, interpreting and extracting data. Demography – Study of human populations and their structures Demology – study of human populations and behaviour. Dendrochronology – Method of dating based on the analysis of patterns of tree rings Dendrology – Science and study of woody plants Dermatoglyphics – Scientific study of finger- and toeprints Dermatology – Field of medicine dealing with the hair, nails, skin, and its diseases Desmology – Study of ligaments Dialectology – Scientific study of linguistic dialect Dietetics – Study of diet and nutrition in relation to health and disease Dioptrics – Science of light and lenses Diplomatics – Academic study of the protocols of documents – science of deciphering ancient writings and texts. Dosiology – study of dosage of drugs. Dynamics – Study of forces and their effect on motion Dysgenics – Decrease in genetic traits deemed desirable and study thereof. == E == Eccrinology – Sweat


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:34.285411+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
  == G == Garbology – Study of modern refuse Gastroenterology – Branch of medicine focused on the digestive system and its disorders Gastronomy – Study of the relationship between food and culture Gemmology – Science dealing with natural and artificial gemstone materialsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of gems and jewels Gender studies – Interdisciplinary field of study – study of gender Genealogy – Study of individual descent and bloodline – study of descent of families Genesiology – study of reproduction and heredity Genetics – Science of genes, heredity and variation Geochemistry – Science that applies chemistry to analyze geological systems – study of chemistry of the Earth's crust Geochronology – Science of determining the age of rocks, sediments and fossils – study of measuring geological time Geography – Study of Earth's spatial information – study of surface of the earth and its inhabitants Geology – Scientific study of Earth's physical composition – study of the rocks of a planet Geometry – Branch of mathematics – study the sizes, shapes, positions, angles and dimensions of things. Geomorphogeny – study of the characteristics, origins, and development of land forms Geomorphology – Scientific study of landforms – study of


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-4.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:34.285411+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
  == I == Iamatology – Obsolete synonym for the study of therapies. Iatrology – treatise or text on medical topics; study of medicine Ichnography – Architectural drawing showing interior layout of a buildingPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – art of drawing ground plans; a ground plan Ichnology – Study of trace fossils Ichthyology – Scientific study of fish Iconography – Branch of art history – study of drawing symbols Iconology – Method of interpretation in cultural history – study of icons; symbols Ideogeny – study of origins of ideas Ideology – Set of beliefs or values – science of ideas; system of ideas used to justify behaviour Idiomology – study of idiom, jargon or dialect Idiopsychology – study of the psychology of one's own mind Immunochemistry – Study of the chemistry of the immune system Immunogenetics – Branch of medical genetics – study of genetic characteristics of immunity Immunology – Branch of medicine studying the immune system Immunopathology – Branch of medicine that deals with immune responses associated with disease Information science – Academic field concerned with collection and analysis of information Information technology (IT) – Computer-based technology Insectology – Scientific study ofi insects, or relationships between insects


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-5.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:34.285411+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
  == M == Macroeconomics – Study of an economy as a whole – branch of economics dealing with the performance, structure, behavior, and decision-making of the whole economy Magnetics – Class of physical phenomenaPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of magnetism Magnetohydrodynamics – Model of electrically conducting fluids – study of electrically conducting fluids Magnetostatics – Branch of physics about magnetism in systems with steady electric currents – study of magnetic fields in systems where the currents are steady Malacology – Study of molluscs Malariology – Study of the mosquito borne disease, malaria Mammalogy – Study of mammals Marine biology – Scientific study of ocean life – study of the ocean's ecosystem Mastology – Study of mammals – study of mammals Mathematics – Field of study – study of magnitude, number, and forms Mazology – mammalogy; study of mammals Mechanics – Science concerned with physical bodies subjected to forces or displacements Meconology – study of or treatise concerning opium Media studies – Field of study that deals with media Medicine – Diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of illness Melissopalynology – Study of pollen contained in honey Melittology – Scientific study of bees Melology – Scholarly study of musicPages


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-6.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:34.285411+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
  == O == Obstetrics – Medical specialty concerning pregnancy and childbirth Oceanography – Scientific study of the ocean Oceanology – Scientific study of the ocean Odontology – Scientific study of teeth Odonatology – Study of dragonflies and damselflies Oenology – Study of wine and winemaking Oikology – science of housekeeping Olfactology – study of the sense of smell Ombrology – study of rain Oncology – Branch of medicine dealing with, or specializing in, cancer Oneirology – Scientific study of dreams Onomasiology – Branch of linguistics concerned with how to express a given concept – study of nomenclature Onomastics – Study of proper names Ontology – Philosophical study of being – science of pure being; the nature of things Oology – Branch of ornithology studying bird eggs, nests and breeding behavior Ophiology, also known as ophidiology – Branch of herpetology that studies snakes Ophthalmology – Field of medicine treating eye disorders Optics – Branch of physics that studies light Optology – study of sight Optometry – Field of medicine treating eye disorders – science of examining the eyes Orbital mechanics – Field of classical mechanics concerned with the motion of spacecraft Orchidology – Scientific study of orchids Ornithology – Scientific study


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-7.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:34.285411+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
  == P == Paedology – Study of children's behavior and development Paidonosology – study of children's diseases; pediatrics Palaeoanthropology – Study of ancient humans Palaeobiology – Study of organic evolution using fossils Palaeoclimatology – Study of changes in ancient climate Palaeoichthyology – study of ancient fish Palaeolimnology – Scientific study of ancient lakes and streams Palaeontology – Study of life before the Holocene epoch Palaeopedology – Discipline studying soils of the past eras Paleobotany – Study of organic evolution of plants based on fossils Paleo-osteology – study of ancient bones Paleoseismology – Study of earthquakes that happened in the past Palynology – Study of pollen and other acid-resistant microoscopic organic material Papyrology – Scientific study of ancient manuscripts Paradoxology – Logically self-contradictory statementPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of paradoxes Parapsychology – Study of paranormal and psychic phenomena Parasitology – Study of parasites, their hosts, and the relationship between them Paroemiology – study of proverbs Parthenology – study of virgins Particle physics – Study of subatomic particles and forces Pathology – Study of disease Pedagogics – Theory and practice of educationPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Pedology – Study of soils in their natural environment Pelology


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-8.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:34.285411+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
  == R == Radiobiology – Study of effects of radiation on living tissues – study of the scientific principles, mechanisms, and effects of the interaction of ionizing radiation with living matter Radiochemistry – Chemistry of radioactive materials – study of ordinary chemical reactions under radioactive circumstances Radiology – Medical specialty for imaging procedures Rheology – Study of the flow of matter, primarily in a fluid state Rheumatology – Medical speciality of inflammatory diseases Rhinology – Study of the nose and sinuses Rhochrematics – science of inventory management and the movement of products Robotics – Design, construction, use, and application of robots Rodentology – Study of rodents Runology – Study of Runic alphabets == S == Sarcology – study of fleshy parts of the body Scatology – Study of faeces – study of excrement or obscene literature Schematonics – art of using gesture to express tones Sciagraphy – Study of perspective shadow projection – art of shading Scientific modelling – Scientific activity that produces models – study of application of models to understand a particular problem Scientific programming – Language for controlling a computer – study of programming Scripophily – Study and collection of stock and bond certificates Sedimentology – Study


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-9.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:34.285411+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
  == T == Taxidermy – Stuffing and mounting dead animals for display – art of curing and stuffing animals Taxonomy – Science of classifying organisms Tectonics – Process of evolution of Earth's crust Teleology – Thinking in terms of destiny or purpose – study of final causes; analysis in terms of purpose Telmatology – Branch of physical geography concerned with the study of wetlands Tempestology – The study of cyclones, hurricanes and similar extreme weather events Teratology – Study of developmental anomalies Terrestrial ecology – Study of terrestrial ecosystems and the biotic and abiotic things that occupy them. Teuthology – Study of cephalopods Textology – Identification of textual variants – study of the production of texts Thalassography – science of the seas and gulfs Thanatology – Scientific study of death and its aspects Thaumatology – The study of miracles – study of miracles Theology – Study of the nature of deities and religious beliefs - study of religion Theoretical computer science – Subfield of computer science and mathematics Theriogenology – Veterinary specialty concerning reproduction Thermodynamics – Physics of heat, work, and temperature Thermokinematics – study of motion of heat Thermology – study of heat Therology – Study of mammals Thremmatology


id: list-of-cities-by-scientific-output-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cities_by_scientific_output-0.md
category: reference
title: List of cities by scientific output
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cities_by_scientific_output
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:35.417060+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cities-by-scientific-output-20260505-0
summary:
  The following article lists the cities and metropolitan areas with the greatest scientific output, according to the Nature Index. The Nature Index attempts to objectively measure the scientific output of institutions, cities and countries by the amount of scientific articles and papers published in leading journals. Differences in quality are taken into account. Only articles published in 82 selected quality journals are counted. All these journals are in the English language. They were selected by a committee. If authors from several institutions from different cities are involved in a scientific article, it is divided accordingly, assuming that all researchers were equally involved in the article. In 2019, Beijing was the city in the world with the largest scientific output, accounting for 2.8% of the world's total. New York City was second in the world, with about 2% of the world's total. Overall, China has the most cities in the top 100 list with 28, followed by the United States with 27. == List == Listed below are the top 100 cities and metropolitan areas with the highest share of articles published in scientific journals in 2024, according to the Nature Index 2025 Science Cities: == Leading cities in different fields


id: list-of-citizen-science-projects-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_citizen_science_projects-0.md
category: reference
title: List of citizen science projects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_citizen_science_projects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:36.660161+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-citizen-science-projects-20260505-0
summary:
  Citizen science projects are activities sponsored by a wide variety of organizations so non-scientists can meaningfully contribute to scientific research. == Precis == Activities vary widely from transcribing old ship logbooks to digitize the data as part of the Old Weather project to observing and counting birds at home or in the field for eBird. Participation can be as simple as playing a computer game for a project called Eyewire that may help scientists learn more about retinal neurons. It can also be more in depth, such as when citizens collect water quality data over time to assess the health of local waters, or help discover and name new species of insects. An emerging branch of Citizen Science are Community Mapping projects that utilize smartphone and tablet technology. For example, TurtleSAT is a community mapping project that is mapping freshwater turtle deaths throughout Australia. This list of citizen science projects involves projects that engage all age groups. There are projects specifically aimed at the younger age demographic like iTechExplorers which was created by a 14 year old in the UK to assess the effects of bedtime technology on the body's circadian rhythm and can be completed in a classroom setting.


id: codes-for-electromagnetic-scattering-by-cylinders-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codes_for_electromagnetic_scattering_by_cylinders-0.md
category: reference
title: Codes for electromagnetic scattering by cylinders
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codes_for_electromagnetic_scattering_by_cylinders
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:37.807337+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: codes-for-electromagnetic-scattering-by-cylinders-20260505-0
summary:
  Codes for electromagnetic scattering by cylinders – this article list codes for electromagnetic scattering by a cylinder. Majority of existing codes for calculation of electromagnetic scattering by a single cylinder are based on Mie theory, which is an analytical solution of Maxwell's equations in terms of infinite series. == Classification == The compilation contains information about the electromagnetic scattering by cylindrical particles, relevant links, and applications. === Codes for electromagnetic scattering by a single homogeneous cylinder === == Relevant scattering codes == Discrete dipole approximation codes Codes for electromagnetic scattering by spheres == See also == Computational electromagnetics List of atmospheric radiative transfer codes == References == == External links == SCATTERLIB: Collection of light scattering codes


id: codes-for-electromagnetic-scattering-by-spheres-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codes_for_electromagnetic_scattering_by_spheres-0.md
category: reference
title: Codes for electromagnetic scattering by spheres
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codes_for_electromagnetic_scattering_by_spheres
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:38.918361+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: codes-for-electromagnetic-scattering-by-spheres-20260505-0
summary:
  Codes for electromagnetic scattering by spheres - this article list codes for electromagnetic scattering by a homogeneous sphere, layered sphere, and cluster of spheres. == Solution techniques == Majority of existing codes for calculation of electromagnetic scattering by a single sphere is based on Mie theory which is an analytical solution of Maxwell's equations in terms of infinite series. Other approximations to scattering by a single sphere include: Debye series, ray tracing (geometrical optics), ray tracing including the effects of interference between rays, Airy theory, Rayleigh scattering, diffraction approximation. There are many phenomena related to light scattering by spherical particles such as resonances, surface waves, plasmons, near-field scattering. Even though Mie theory offers convenient and fast way of solving light scattering problem by homogeneous spherical particles, there are other techniques, such as discrete dipole approximation, FDTD, T-matrix, which can also be used for such tasks. == Classification == The compilation contains information about the electromagnetic scattering by spherical particles, relevant links, and applications. === Codes for electromagnetic scattering by a single homogeneous sphere === === Codes for electromagnetic scattering by a layered sphere === Algorithmic literature includes several contributions === Codes for electromagnetic scattering by cluster of spheres === ==


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:40.254229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
  data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-0.md

summary:
  Each entry on this list of common misconceptions is worded as a correction; the misconceptions themselves are implied rather than stated. These entries are concise summaries; the main subject articles can be consulted for more detail. == Astronomy and spaceflight == There is no scientific evidence that the motion of stars, planets, and other celestial bodies influences the fates of humans, and astrology has repeatedly been shown to have no explanatory power in predicting future events. Astronauts in orbit have the sensation of being weightless because they are in free fall around the Earth, not because they are so far away from the Earth that its gravitational pull is negligible. For example, on the International Space Station the Earth's gravity is nearly 90% as strong as at the surface. Objects orbiting in space would not remain in orbit if not for the gravitational force, and gravitational fields extend even into the depths of intergalactic space. The dark side of the Moon receives about the same amount of light from the Sun as the near side. The far side is called "dark" not because it never receives light but because it had never been seen until humans sent spacecraft around the

source_url:
  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-1
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:40.254229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
  data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-1.md

summary:
  === Mammals === Bats are not blind. While about 70% of bat species, mainly in the microbat family, use echolocation to navigate, all bat species have eyes and are capable of sight. In addition, almost all bats in the megabat or fruit bat family cannot echolocate and have excellent night vision. Bulls are not enraged by the color red, used in capes by professional bullfighters. Cattle are dichromats, so red does not stand out as a bright color. It is not the color of the cape, but the perceived threat by the bullfighter that incites it to charge, along with the spearing of the bull and mental agitation and abuse it endures beforehand. Camels do not store water in their humps, but rather fatty tissue which can be used as a reserve source of calories. While they can go long periods without water, the water is stored in the animal's bloodstream, not their humps. Domestic cats' behavioral and personality traits cannot be predicted from their coat color. Rather, these traits depend on a complex interplay between genetic and environmental factors. Not all cats are attracted and intoxicated by catnip, which affects only about two thirds of them. Alternatives exist, such

source_url:
  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-2
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:40.254229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
  data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-2.md

summary:
  The bold, powerful cry commonly associated with the bald eagle in popular culture is actually that of a red-tailed hawk. Bald eagle vocalizations are much softer and chirpier, and bear far more resemblance to the calls of gulls. Despite the saying "dumb as a dodo", the dodo's intelligence was above average for an avian, as it was a member of the family Columbidae (pigeons). The perceived stupidity of the dodo, a medium-sized flightless bird that was native to Mauritius, is due to naivety and passivity from living in isolation without significant predators. Many believe that the dodo was hunted to extinction by European settlers due to its high culinary value. However, the dodo's meat was stated to be inedible by historical accounts, as one of its early names given by the Dutch was Walghvoghel (repulsive bird). The dodo's decline was caused more by predation of their eggs from invasive species as opposed to direct predation from humans. A duck's quack actually does echo, although the echo may be difficult to hear for humans under some circumstances. Despite this, a British panel show compiling interesting facts was named Duck Quacks Don't Echo. Ostriches do not stick their heads in the sand

source_url:
  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-3
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:40.254229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
  data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-3.md

summary:
  It is not true that aerodynamic theory predicts that bumblebees should not be able to fly; the physics of insect flight is quite well understood. The misconception appears to come from a calculation based on a fixed-wing aircraft mentioned in a 1934 book, and was further popularized in the 2007 film Bee Movie. While certainly critical to the pollination of many plant species, European honey bees are not essential to human food production, despite claims that without their pollination, humanity would starve or die out "within four years". In fact, the most essential staple food crops on the planet, like wheat, maize, rice, soybeans and sorghum, are wind-pollinated or self-pollinating, and only slightly over 10% of the total human diet of plant crops is dependent upon insect pollination. Bees do not always die if they use their sting. This happens for only a very small minority of species, which includes the honey bee, when they sting mammals, as they have thick skin. They are able to survive when they sting other insects. Cockroaches would not be the only organisms capable of surviving in an environment contaminated with nuclear fallout. While cockroaches have a much higher radiation resistance than vertebrates, they

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id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-4
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:40.254229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
  data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-4.md

summary:
  The word theory in "the theory of evolution" does not imply scientific doubt regarding its validity; the concepts of theory and hypothesis have specific meanings in a scientific context. While theory in colloquial usage may denote a hunch or conjecture, a scientific theory is a set of principles that explains an observable phenomenon in natural terms. Scientific facts and theories are not mutually exclusive, and evolution is a theory in the same sense as germ theory or the theory of gravitation. The theory of evolution does not attempt to explain the origin of life or the origin and development of the universe. The theory of evolution deals primarily with changes in successive generations over time after life has already originated. The scientific model concerned with the origin of the first organisms from organic or inorganic molecules is known as abiogenesis, and the prevailing theory for explaining the early development of the universe is the Big Bang model. Evolution is not a progression from inferior to superior organisms, and it also does not necessarily result in an increase in complexity. Evolution through natural selection only causes successive generations of a population of organisms to become more fit for their environment than

source_url:
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id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-5
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:40.254229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
  data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-5.md

summary:
  == Chemistry and materials science == Himalayan salt does not have lower levels of sodium than conventional table salt. Glass does not flow at room temperature as a high-viscosity liquid. Although glass shares some molecular properties with liquids, it is a solid at room temperature and begins to flow only at hundreds of degrees above room temperature. Old glass which is thicker at the bottom than at the top comes from the production process, not from slow flow; no such distortion is observed in other glass objects of similar or even greater age. Diamonds are not formed from highly compressed coal. Almost all commercially mined diamonds were formed in the conditions of extreme heat and pressure about 150 kilometers (93 mi) below the earth's surface. Coal is formed from prehistoric plants buried much closer to the surface, and is unlikely to migrate below 3.2 kilometers (2.0 mi) through geological processes. Most diamonds that have been dated are older than the first land plants, and are therefore older than coal. Neither "tin" foil nor "tin" cans still use tin as a primary material. Aluminum foil has replaced tin foil in almost all uses since the 20th century; tin cans now primarily

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id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-6
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:40.254229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
  data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-6.md

summary:
  Contemporary global warming is driven by human activities, despite claims that it is not occurring, lacks strong scientific consensus, or that warming is mostly caused by non-human factors. No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with the decades-old, near-complete scientific consensus on climate change. Global warming is primarily a result of the increase in atmospheric greenhouse-gas concentrations (like CO2 and methane) via the burning of fossil fuels as well as other human activities such as deforestation, with secondary climate change feedback mechanisms (such as the melting of the polar ice increasing the Earth's absorption of sunlight) assisting to perpetuate the change. Global warming is not caused by the hole in the ozone layer. Ozone depletion is a separate problem caused by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which have been released into the atmosphere. CFCs are strong greenhouse gases; however, the hole in the ozone layer is shrinking and in 2019 was the smallest it had been since 1982, while global warming continues. Cooling towers in power stations and other facilities do not emit smoke, harmful fumes, or radiation; they emit water vapor and do not contribute to climate change. Nuclear power is one of the safest sources of energy, resulting in

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id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-7
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:40.254229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
  data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-7.md

summary:
  The total number of people living in extreme absolute poverty globally decreased by two-thirds from 1990 to 2025 (measured using the international poverty line), with other poverty measurements showing similar trends. However, most people surveyed in several countries incorrectly think it has increased or stayed the same. Although the human population of Earth is increasing, the rate of human population growth is decreasing and the world population is expected to peak and then begin falling during the 21st century. Improvements in agricultural productivity and technology are expected to be able to meet anticipated increased demand for resources, making a global human overpopulation scenario unlikely. For any given production set, there is not a set amount of labor input (a "lump of labor") to produce that output. This fallacy is commonly seen in Luddite and later, related movements as an argument either that automation causes permanent, structural unemployment, or that labor-limiting regulation can decrease unemployment. In fact, changes in capital allocation, efficiency, and economies of learning can change the amount of labor input for a given set of production. Income is not a direct factor in determining credit score in the United States. Rather, credit score is affected by the amount

source_url:
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id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-8
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:40.254229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
  data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-8.md

summary:
  It is not just heavy metals which can be toxic; other metals (for example beryllium and lithium) can be toxic too. Sleeping in a closed room with an electric fan running does not result in "fan death", as is widely believed in South Korea among older people. As of 2019, this belief was in decline. Nocturia (waking up at night to urinate) is equally prevalent in women and men, although it is more common among both men and women over 50. Waking up a sleepwalker does not harm them. Sleepwalkers may be confused or disoriented for a short time after awakening, but the health risks associated with sleepwalking are from injury or insomnia, not from being awakened. Seizures cannot cause a person to swallow their own tongue, and it is dangerous to attempt to place a foreign object into a convulsing person's mouth. Instead it is recommended to gently lay a convulsing person on their side to minimize the risk of asphyxiation. Drowning is often inconspicuous to onlookers. In most cases, the instinctive drowning response prevents the victim from waving or yelling (known as "aquatic distress"), which are therefore not dependable signs of trouble; indeed, most drowning victims undergoing the

source_url:
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id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-9
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:40.254229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
  data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-9.md

summary:
  It is not true that more people have died from the COVID-19 vaccine than from COVID-19 itself. Severe adverse reactions from the vaccine are rare, and an "exceedingly small" number of deaths have been caused by the vaccine. Meanwhile, the death toll from the disease itself is in the millions. Tuberculosis is not purely a disease of the lungs that has symptoms of coughing. It may instead infect a wide range of other organs in the body. Cancer cannot be treated by restricting food intake and so supposedly "starving" tumors. Rather, the health of people with cancer is best served by maintaining a healthy diet. The common cold and the common flu are caused by viruses, not exposure to cold temperatures. However, low temperatures may somewhat weaken the immune system, and someone already infected with a cold or influenza virus but showing no symptoms can become symptomatic after they are exposed to low temperatures. Viruses are more likely to spread during the winter for a variety of reasons such as dry air, less air circulation in homes, people spending more time indoors, and lower vitamin D levels in humans. Antibiotics will not cure a cold; they treat bacterial diseases and

source_url:
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id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-10
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:40.254229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
  data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-10.md

summary:
  === Nutrition, food, and drink === Diet has little influence on the body's detoxification, and there is no evidence that detoxification diets rid the body of toxins. Toxins are metabolized and removed from the bloodstream by the liver and kidneys, and they are primarily removed from the body in urine and bile (excreted with the feces). Drinking milk or consuming other dairy products does not increase mucus production. As a result, they do not need to be avoided by those with the flu or cold congestion. However, milk and saliva in one's mouth mix to create a thick liquid that can briefly coat the mouth and throat. The sensation that lingers may be mistaken for increased phlegm. Drinking eight glasses (2–3 liters) of water a day is not needed to maintain health. The amount of water needed varies by person, weight, diet, activity level, clothing, and the ambient temperature and humidity. Water requirements can be met from liquids such as juices, tea, milk, soups, etc., and from foods including fruits and vegetables. Drinking coffee and other caffeinated beverages does not cause dehydration for regular drinkers, although it can for occasional drinkers. Eating disorders do not exclusively affect women; women are

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id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-11
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:40.254229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
  data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-11.md

summary:
  === Sexuality and reproduction === Older adults are not necessarily sexually inactive nor have they lost interest in sex; although the frequency of sexual activity tends to decline with age. One survey in England of people aged 60–69 recorded 86% of men and 60% of women as sexually active. It is not possible to get pregnant from semen released in a commercial swimming pool without penetration. The sperm cells would be quickly killed by the chlorinated water and would not survive long enough to reach the vagina. An examination of the hymen is not an accurate or reliable indicator that a woman or girl has had penetrative sex, because the tearing of the hymen may have been the result of some other event, and some women are born without one. Virginity tests, such as the "two-finger" test, are unscientific. Hand size and foot size do not correlate with human penis size, but finger length ratio may. While pregnancies from sex between first cousins do carry a slightly elevated risk of birth defects, this risk is often exaggerated. The risk is 5–6% (similar to that of a woman in her early 40s giving birth), compared with a baseline risk of 3–4%.

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id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-12
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:40.254229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
  data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-12.md

summary:
  == Inventions == James Watt did not invent the steam engine, nor were his ideas on steam engine power inspired by a kettle lid pressured open by steam. Watt improved upon the already commercially successful Newcomen atmospheric engine (invented in 1712 by Thomas Newcomen) in the 1760s and 1770s, making certain improvements critical to its future usage; his new steam engine later gained huge fame as a result. Although the guillotine was named after the French physician Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, he neither invented nor was executed with this device. He died peacefully in his own bed in 1814. Rather, it was Guillotin's speech favoring beheadings over other forms of execution that led to the device being referred to as "La machine Guillotine" and later simply guillotine. Thomas Crapper did not invent the flush toilet. A forerunner of the modern toilet was invented by the Elizabethan courtier Sir John Harington in the 16th century, and in 1775 the Scottish mechanic Alexander Cumming developed and patented a design for a toilet with an S-trap and flushing mechanism. Crapper, however, did much to increase the popularity of the flush toilet and introduced several innovations in the late 19th century, holding nine patents, including one

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id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-13
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:40.254229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
  data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-13.md

summary:
  The lift force is not generated by the air taking the same time to travel above and below an aircraft's wing. This misconception, sometimes called the equal transit-time fallacy, is widespread among textbooks and non-technical reference books, and even appears in pilot training materials. In fact, the air moving over the top of an aerofoil generating lift is always moving much faster than the equal transit theory would imply, as described in the incorrect and correct explanations of lift force. Blowing over a curved piece of paper does not demonstrate Bernoulli's principle. Although a common classroom experiment is often explained this way, Bernoulli's principle applies only within a flow field, and the air above and below the paper are in different flow fields. The paper rises because the air follows the curve of the paper and a curved streamline will develop pressure differences perpendicular to the airflow. The Coriolis effect does not cause water to consistently drain from basins in a clockwise/counter-clockwise direction depending on the hemisphere. The common myth often refers to the draining action of flush toilets and bathtubs. In fact, rotation is determined by whatever minor rotation is initially present at the time the water starts to

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id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-14
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:40.254229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
  data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-14.md

summary:
  === Mental disorders === Vaccines do not cause autism. There have been no successful attempts to reproduce fraudulent research by British ex-doctor Andrew Wakefield, where the misconception likely originates. Wakefield's research was ultimately shown to have been manipulated. Dyslexia is not defined or diagnosed as mirror writing or reading letters or words backwards. Mirror writing and reading letters or words backwards are behaviors seen in many children (dyslexic or not) as they learn to read and write. Dyslexia is a neurodevelopmental disorder of people who have at least average intelligence and who have difficulty in reading and writing that is not otherwise explained by low intelligence. Self-harm is not generally an attention-seeking behavior. People who engage in self-harm are typically very self-conscious of their wounds and scars and feel guilty about their behavior, leading them to go to great lengths to conceal it from others. They may offer alternative explanations for their injuries, or conceal their scars with clothing. There is no evidence that a chemical imbalance or neurotransmitter deficiency is the sole factor in depression and other mental disorders, but rather a combination of biological, psychological, and social factors. Schizophrenia does not involve split or multiple personalities. It is

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id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-15
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:40.254229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
  data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-15.md

summary:
  == Toxicology == Smokeless tobacco is not a "safe" alternative to conventional tobacco; smokeless tobacco products contain nicotine and are therefore highly addictive. They also can cause various harmful effects such as dental disease, oral cancer, oesophagus cancer, and pancreas cancer, coronary heart disease, as well as negative reproductive effects including stillbirth, premature birth and low birth weight. Swallowing gasoline does not generally require special emergency treatment, as long as it goes into the stomach and not the lungs. This does not mean gasoline is safe to drink; it is very dangerous when consumed. Inducing vomiting can make it worse. A chloroform-soaked rag cannot instantly incapacitate a person. It takes at least five minutes of inhaling an item soaked in chloroform to render a person unconscious. Most criminal cases involving chloroform also involve another drug being co-administered, such as alcohol or diazepam, or the victim being found to have been complicit in its administration. The misconception that chloroform can be used as an incapacitating agent has been popularized by crime fiction authors. Although bananas contain naturally occurring radioactive isotopes, particularly potassium-40 (40K), which emit ionizing radiation when undergoing radioactive decay, the levels of such radiation are far too low to

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id: index-of-computing-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_computing_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of computing articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_computing_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:41.384391+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-computing-articles-20260505-0
summary:
  Originally, the word computing was synonymous with counting and calculating, and the science and technology of mathematical calculations. Today, "computing" means using computers and other computing machines. It includes their operation and usage, the electrical processes carried out within the computing hardware itself, and the theoretical concepts governing them (computer science). See also: List of programmers, List of computing people, List of computer scientists, List of basic computer science topics, List of terms relating to algorithms and data structures. Topics on computing include: == 0–9 == 1.TR.6 – 100BaseVG – 100VG-AnyLAN – 10BASE-2 – 10BASE-5 – 10BASE-T – 120 reset – 1-bit computing – 16-bit computing – 16550 UART – 1NF – 1TBS – 20-GATE – 20-GATE – 2B1D – 2B1Q – 2D – 2NF – 3-tier (computing) – 32-bit application – 32-bit computing – 320xx microprocessor – 386BSD – 3Com Corporation – 3DO – 3D computer graphics – 3GL – 3NF – 3Station – 4.2BSD – 4-bit computing – 404 error – 431A – 473L system – 486SX – 4GL – 4NF – 51-FORTH – 56 kbit/s line – 5ESS switch – 5NF – 5th Glove – 6.001 – 64-bit computing – 680x0 – 6x86 – 8-bit clean –


id: index-of-computing-articles-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_computing_articles-1.md
category: reference
title: Index of computing articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_computing_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:41.384391+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-computing-articles-20260505-0
summary:
  == I == IA-32 – IA-64 – IBM PC – Interactive computation – IBM – iBook – iCab – iCal – Icon – iDVD – IEEE 802.2 – IEEE 802.3 – IEEE floating-point standard – iMac – Image processing – iMovie – Indentation style Inform – Instruction register – Intel 8008 – Intel 80186 – Intel 80188 – Intel 80386 – Intel 80486SX – Intel 80486 – Intel 8048 – Intel 8051 – Intel 8080 – Intel 8086 – Intel 80x86 – Intel – INTERCAL – International Electrotechnical Commission – Internet Explorer – Internet – iPhoto – iPod – iResQ – Irreversible circuit – iSync – iTunes == J == J (programming language) – Java Platform, Enterprise Edition – Java Platform, Micro Edition – Java Platform, Standard Edition – Java API – Java – Java virtual machine (JVM) – JavaScript (standardized as ECMAScript) – JPEG == K == K&R – KDE – Kilobyte – KL-ONE – Kleene star – Klez – Kotlin == L == LALR parser – Lambda calculus – Lasso – LaTeX – Leet – Legal aspects of computing – Lex – LibreOffice – Limbo – Linked list – Linux – Lisp – List of IBM products –


id: list-of-scientific-constants-named-after-people-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_constants_named_after_people-0.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific constants named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_constants_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:42.624123+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-constants-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
  This is a list of physical and mathematical constants named after people. Eponymous constants and their influence on scientific citations have been discussed in the literature. Apéry's constant – Roger Apéry Archimedes' constant (π, pi) – Archimedes Avogadro constant – Amedeo Avogadro Balmer's constant – Johann Jakob Balmer Belphegor's prime – Belphegor (demon) Bohr magneton – Niels Bohr Bohr radius – Niels Bohr Boltzmann constant – Ludwig Boltzmann Brun's constant – Viggo Brun Cabibbo angle – Nicola Cabibbo Chaitin's constant – Gregory Chaitin Champernowne constant – D. G. Champernowne Chandrasekhar limit – Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar Copeland–Erdős constant – Paul Erdős and Peter Borwein Eddington number – Arthur Stanley Eddington Dunbar's number – Robin Dunbar Embree–Trefethen constant Erdős–Borwein constant Euler–Mascheroni constant ( γ {\displaystyle \gamma } ) – Leonhard Euler and Lorenzo Mascheroni Euler's number ( e {\displaystyle e} ) – Leonhard Euler Faraday constant – Michael Faraday Feigenbaum constants – Mitchell Feigenbaum Fermi coupling constant – Enrico Fermi Gauss's constant – Carl Friedrich Gauss Graham's number – Ronald Graham Hartree energy – Douglas Hartree Hubble constant – Edwin Hubble Josephson constant – Brian David Josephson Kaprekar's constant – D. R. Kaprekar Kerr constant – John Kerr Khinchin's constant – Aleksandr Khinchin


id: list-of-crew-members-aboard-the-first-voyage-of-james-cook-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_crew_members_aboard_the_first_voyage_of_James_Cook-0.md
category: reference
title: List of crew members aboard the first voyage of James Cook
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_crew_members_aboard_the_first_voyage_of_James_Cook
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:46.746246+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-crew-members-aboard-the-first-voyage-of-james-cook-20260505-0
summary:
  The first voyage of James Cook was a discovery expedition to the south Pacific Ocean, with aims of observing the 1769 transit of Venus across the Sun and seeking evidence of the alleged southern territories, named by that time as Terra Australis Incognita. The ship chosen for the voyage was HMS Endeavour. The makeup of the crew during the voyage varied due the high mortality, for which contributed mainly malaria and dysentery, that the crew had contracted in Batavia. There was also one occurrence of successful desertion of Patrick Saunders, who after being disrated, escaped the ship. == Personnel == The following is a complete list of initial crew that departed from Plymouth on 26 August 1768 according to ship's journal. == See also == 1769 transit of Venus observed from Tahiti Personnel of Franklin's lost expedition == Notes and references == === Notes === === References === === Works cited === Rigby, Nigel; van der Merwe, Pieter (2002). Captain Cook in the Pacific. National Maritime Museum (UK). ISBN 0-948065-43-5.


id: list-of-cycles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cycles-0.md
category: reference
title: List of cycles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cycles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:47.882457+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cycles-20260505-0
summary:
  This is a list of recurring cycles. See also Index of wave articles, Time, and Pattern. == Planetary cycles == === Astronomical cycles === Astronomy – Axial precession – CNO cycle – Eclipse cycle – Eclipse – Full moon cycle – Galactic year – Great Year – Lunar phase – Mesoamerican calendars – Metonic cycle – Milankovitch cycles – Mira – Moon – Nutation – Orbit – Orbital period – Saros cycle – Sothic cycle – Secularity – Sidereal year – Sunspot – Tide – Tropical year – Year === Climate and weather cycles === Animal migration – Avalanche – Carbon cycle – Climate change – Climate change and agriculture – Climate model – Climate oscillation – Clock of the Long Now – Ecology – El Niño/La Niña – Environmental geography – Global cooling – Global warming – Historical temperature record – Hydrogen cycle – Ice age – Transhumance – Milankovitch cycles – Monsoon – Pleistocene – Season – Sulfur cycle – Sunspot – Tide – Timeline of meteorology – 1500-year climate cycle === Geological cycles === Age of the Earth – Aluminum cycle – Arsenic cycle – Boron cycle – Bromine cycle – Cadmium cycle – Calcium cycle –


id: list-of-developers-of-optical-scientific-equipment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_developers_of_optical_scientific_equipment-0.md
category: reference
title: List of developers of optical scientific equipment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_developers_of_optical_scientific_equipment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:49.060394+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-developers-of-optical-scientific-equipment-20260505-0
summary:
  A developer of optical scientific equipment is an individual who makes and adjusts optical aids for scientific purposes, including telescope optics and microscope lenses. == Telescope developers == James Gilbert Baker Denis Albert Bardou John A. Brashear Laurent Cassegrain Henri Chrétien Alvan Clark John Dollond Charles Wesley Elmer and Richard Scott Perkin Galileo Galilei James Gregory John Hadley Chester Moore Hall Robert Hooke Johannes Kepler Frederick James Hargreaves Christiaan Huygens Hans Lippershey Raymond Augustin Mailhat Dmitri Dmitrievich Maksutov James Henry Marriott Jacob Metius Isaac Newton Georg Simon Plössl Russell W. Porter Jesse Ramsden George Willis Ritchey Christoph Scheiner Bernhard Schmidt James Short See also Timeline of telescope technology and List of astronomical instrument makers == Microscope developers == Ernst Karl Abbe Denis Albert Bardou Christopher Cock Siegfried Czapski Cornelius Drebbel Galileo Galilei Robert Hooke Christiaan Huygens Carl Kellner Anton van Leeuwenhoek Moritz von Rohr See also Timeline of microscope technology == References ==


id: list-of-diagnoses-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience-0.md
category: reference
title: List of diagnoses characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:50.211778+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-diagnoses-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
  Many proposed diseases and diagnoses are rejected by mainstream medical consensus and are associated with pseudoscience due to a lack of scientific evidence for their existence, proposed mechanism or action, or manifestation that cannot be explained by something else. == Definition == Pseudoscientific diseases are not defined using objective criteria. Such diseases cannot achieve, and perhaps do not seek, medical recognition. Pseudoscience rejects empirical methodology. Other conditions may be rejected or contested by orthodox medicine, but are not necessarily associated with pseudoscience. Diagnostic criteria for some of these conditions may be vague, over-inclusive, or otherwise ill-defined. Although the evidence for the disease may be contested or lacking, the justification for these diagnoses is nevertheless empirical and therefore amenable to scientific investigation, at least in theory. In some cases, patients are exhibiting genuine signs and symptoms but the explanation or diagnosis for their distress is disputed or inaccurate. Examples of conditions that are not necessarily pseudoscientific include: Conditions determined to be somatic in nature, including mass psychogenic illnesses. Medicalized conditions that are not pathogenic in nature, such as aging, childbirth, pregnancy, sexual addiction, baldness, jet lag, and halitosis. Conditions that are not widely recognized, about which there is an ongoing debate


id: list-of-diagnoses-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience-1.md
category: reference
title: List of diagnoses characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:50.211778+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-diagnoses-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
  == Medical == Adrenal fatigue or hypoadrenia is a diagnosis described as a state in which the adrenal glands are exhausted and unable to produce adequate quantities of hormones, primarily the glucocorticoid cortisol, due to chronic stress or infections. Adrenal fatigue should not be confused with a number of actual forms of adrenal dysfunction such as adrenal insufficiency or Addison's disease. The term "adrenal fatigue", which was invented in 1998 by James Wilson, a chiropractor, may be applied to a collection of mostly nonspecific symptoms. There is no scientific evidence supporting the concept of adrenal fatigue and it is not recognized as a diagnosis by any scientific or medical community. A systematic review found no evidence for the term adrenal fatigue, confirming the consensus among endocrinological societies that it is a myth. Autistic enterocolitis is a nonexistent medical condition proposed in 1998 by now-discredited British gastroenterologist Andrew Wakefield, who suggested a link between a number of common clinical symptoms and signs which he contended were distinctive to autism. The existence of such an enterocolitis has been dismissed by experts as having "not been established". Wakefield's fraudulent report, which was retracted in 2010, suppressed negative findings and used inadequate controls. Multiple


id: list-of-diagnoses-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience-2.md
category: reference
title: List of diagnoses characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:50.211778+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-diagnoses-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
  == Psychological == Autogynephilia is a proposed paraphilic disorder in which a man has erotic interest in the idea of himself in the form of a woman. Autogynephilia is not recognized by any major medical organization and has been criticised as a form of medical transphobia. Drapetomania was a supposed mental illness that, in 1851, American physician Samuel A. Cartwright hypothesized as the cause of enslaved Africans fleeing captivity. This hypothesis centered around the belief that slavery was such an improvement upon the lives of slaves that only those suffering from some form of mental illness would wish to escape. As treatment Cartwright recommended "whipping the devil out of them" both as a punishment and as a preventative measure. Female hysteria was once a common medical diagnosis for women, which was described as exhibiting a wide array of symptoms, including anxiety, shortness of breath, fainting, nervousness, sexual desire, insomnia, fluid retention, heaviness in the abdomen, irritability, loss of appetite for food or sex, (paradoxically) sexually forward behaviour, and a "tendency to cause trouble for others". It is no longer recognized by medical authorities as a medical disorder. Parental alienation syndrome, also routinely referred to as parental alienation is a proposed


id: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-0.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of scientific discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:51.420967+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-0
summary:
  The timeline below shows the date of publication of possible major scientific breakthroughs, theories and discoveries, along with the discoverer. This article discounts mere speculation as discovery, although imperfect reasoned arguments, arguments based on elegance/simplicity, and numerically/experimentally verified conjectures qualify (as otherwise no scientific discovery before the late 19th century would count). The timeline begins at the Bronze Age, as it is difficult to give even estimates for the timing of events prior to this, such as of the discovery of counting, natural numbers and arithmetic. To avoid overlap with timeline of historic inventions, the timeline does not list examples of documentation for manufactured substances and devices unless they reveal a more fundamental leap in the theoretical ideas in a field. == Bronze Age == Many early innovations of the Bronze Age were prompted by the increase in trade, and this also applies to the scientific advances of this period. For context, the major civilizations of this period are Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Indus Valley, with Greece rising in importance towards the end of the third millennium BC. The Indus Valley script remains undeciphered and there are very little surviving fragments of its writing, thus any inference about scientific discoveries


id: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-1.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of scientific discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:51.420967+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-0
summary:
  500 BC: Hippasus, a Pythagorean, discovers irrational numbers. 500 BC: Anaxagoras identifies moonlight as reflected sunlight. 5th century BC: The Greeks start experimenting with straightedge-and-compass constructions. 5th century BC: The earliest documented mention of a spherical Earth comes from the Greeks in the 5th century BC. It is known that the Indians modeled the Earth as spherical by 300 BC 460 BC: Empedocles describes thermal expansion. Late 5th century BC: Antiphon discovers the method of exhaustion, foreshadowing the concept of a limit. 4th century BC: Greek philosophers study the properties of logical negation. 4th century BC: The first true formal system is constructed by Pāṇini in his Sanskrit grammar. 4th century BC: Eudoxus of Cnidus states the Archimedean property. 4th century BC: Thaetetus shows that square roots are either integer or irrational. 4th century BC: Thaetetus enumerates the Platonic solids, an early work in graph theory. 4th century BC: Menaechmus discovers conic sections. 4th century BC: Menaechmus develops co-ordinate geometry. 4th century BC: Mozi in China gives a description of the camera obscura phenomenon. 4th century BC: Around the time of Aristotle, a more empirically founded system of anatomy is established, based on animal dissection. In particular, Praxagoras makes the


id: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-2.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of scientific discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:51.420967+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-0
summary:
  1st to 4th century: A precursor to long division, known as "galley division" is developed at some point. Its discovery is generally believed to have originated in India around the 4th century AD, although Singaporean mathematician Lam Lay Yong claims that the method is found in the Chinese text The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, from the 1st century AD. 60 AD: Heron's formula is discovered by Hero of Alexandria. 2nd century: Ptolemy formalises the epicycles of Apollonius. 2nd century: Ptolemy publishes his Optics, discussing colour, reflection, and refraction of light, and including the first known table of refractive angles. 2nd century: Galen studies the anatomy of pigs. 100: Menelaus of Alexandria describes spherical triangles, a precursor to non-Euclidean geometry. 150: The Almagest of Ptolemy contains evidence of the Hellenistic zero. Unlike the earlier Babylonian zero, the Hellenistic zero could be used alone, or at the end of a number. However, it was usually used in the fractional part of a numeral, and was not regarded as a true arithmetical number itself. 150: Ptolemy's Almagest contains practical formulae to calculate latitudes and day lengths. 3rd century: Diophantus discusses linear diophantine equations. 3rd century: Diophantus uses a primitive form of


id: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-3.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of scientific discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:51.420967+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-0
summary:
  6th century: Varahamira in the Gupta empire is the first to describe comets as astronomical phenomena, and as periodic in nature. 525: John Philoponus in Byzantine Egypt describes the notion of inertia, and states that the motion of a falling object does not depend on its weight. His radical rejection of Aristotlean orthodoxy lead him to be ignored in his time 628: Brahmagupta states the arithmetic rules for addition, subtraction, and multiplication with zero, as well as the multiplication of negative numbers, extending the basic rules for the latter found in the earlier The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art. 628: Brahmagupta writes down Brahmagupta's identity, an important lemma in the theory of Pell's equation. 628: Brahmagupta produces an infinite (but not exhaustive) number of solutions to Pell's equation. 628: Brahmagupta provides an explicit solution to the quadratic equation. 628: Brahmagupta discovers Brahmagupta's formula, a generalization of Heron's formula to cyclic quadrilaterals. 628: Brahmagupta discovers second-order interpolation, in the form of Brahmagupta's interpolation formula. 628: Brahmagupta invents a symbolic mathematical notation, which is then adopted by mathematicians through India and the Near East, and eventually Europe. 629: Bhāskara I produces the first approximation of a transcendental function with a rational


id: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-4.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of scientific discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:51.420967+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-0
summary:
  16th century: Gerolamo Cardano solves the general cubic equation (by reducing them to the case with zero quadratic term). 16th century: Lodovico Ferrari solves the general quartic equation (by reducing it to the case with zero quartic term). 16th century: François Viète discovers Vieta's formulas. 16th century: François Viète discovers Viète's formula for π.1500: Scipione del Ferro solves the special cubic equation x 3 = p x + q {\displaystyle x^{3}=px+q} . Late 16th century: Tycho Brahe proves that comets are astronomical (and not atmospheric) phenomena. 1517: Nicolaus Copernicus develops the quantity theory of money and states the earliest known form of Gresham's law: ("Bad money drowns out good"). 1543: Nicolaus Copernicus develops a heliocentric model, rejecting Aristotle's Earth-centric view, would be the first quantitative heliocentric model in history. 1543: Vesalius: pioneering research into human anatomy. 1545: Gerolamo Cardano discovers complex numbers. 1556: Niccolò Tartaglia introduces parenthesis. 1557: Robert Recorde introduces the equal sign. 1564: Gerolamo Cardano is the first to produce a systematic treatment of probability. 1572: Rafael Bombelli provides rules for complex arithmetic. 1591: François Viète's New algebra shows the modern notational algebraic manipulation. == 17th century == 1600: William Gilbert: Earth's magnetic field. 1608: Earliest record of


id: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-5.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of scientific discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:51.420967+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-0
summary:
  == 1850–1899 == 1856: Robert Forester Mushet develops a process for the decarbonisation, and re-carbonisation of iron, through the addition of a calculated quantity of spiegeleisen, to produce cheap, consistently high quality steel. 1858: Rudolf Virchow: cells can only arise from pre-existing cells. 1859: Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace: Theory of evolution by natural selection. 1861: Louis Pasteur: Germ theory. 1861: John Tyndall: Experiments in Radiant Energy that reinforced the Greenhouse effect. 1864: James Clerk Maxwell: Theory of electromagnetism. 1865: Gregor Mendel: Mendel's laws of inheritance, basis for genetics. 1865: Rudolf Clausius: Definition of entropy. 1868: Robert Forester Mushet discovers that alloying steel with tungsten produces a harder, more durable alloy. 1869: Dmitri Mendeleev: Periodic table. 1871: Lord Rayleigh: Diffuse sky radiation (Rayleigh scattering) explains why sky appears blue. 1873: Johannes Diderik van der Waals: was one of the first to postulate an intermolecular force: the van der Waals force. 1873: Frederick Guthrie discovers thermionic emission. 1873: Willoughby Smith discovers photoconductivity. 1875: William Crookes invented the Crookes tube and studied cathode rays. 1876: Josiah Willard Gibbs founded chemical thermodynamics, the phase rule. 1877: Ludwig Boltzmann: Statistical definition of entropy. 1880s: John Hopkinson develops three-phase electrical supplies, mathematically proves how multiple


id: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-6.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of scientific discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:51.420967+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-0
summary:
  == 1950–1999 == 1951: George Otto Gey propagates first cancer cell line, HeLa 1952: Jonas Salk: developed and tested first polio vaccine 1952: Stanley Miller: demonstrated that the building blocks of life could arise from primeval soup in the conditions present during early Earth (Miller-Urey experiment) 1952: Frederick Sanger: demonstrated that proteins are sequences of amino acids 1953: James Watson, Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin: helical structure of DNA, basis for molecular biology 1957: Chien Shiung Wu: demonstrated that parity, and thus charge conjugation and time-reversals, are violated for weak interactions 1962: Riccardo Giacconi and his team discover the first cosmic x-ray source, Scorpius X-1 1963: Lawrence Morley, Fred Vine, and Drummond Matthews: Paleomagnetic stripes in ocean crust as evidence of plate tectonics (Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis). 1964: Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig: postulates quarks, leading to the Standard Model 1964: Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson: detection of CMBR providing experimental evidence for the Big Bang 1965: Leonard Hayflick: normal cells divide only a certain number of times: the Hayflick limit 1967: Jocelyn Bell Burnell and Antony Hewish discover first pulsar 1967: Vela nuclear test detection satellites discover the first gamma-ray burst 1970: James H. Ellis proposed the possibility


id: list-of-discoveries-influenced-by-chance-circumstances-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_discoveries_influenced_by_chance_circumstances-0.md
category: reference
title: List of discoveries influenced by chance circumstances
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_discoveries_influenced_by_chance_circumstances
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:52.687764+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-discoveries-influenced-by-chance-circumstances-20260505-0
summary:
  Below are discoveries in science that involve chance circumstances in a particularly salient way. This page should not list all chance involved in all discoveries (i.e. it should focus on discoveries reported for their notable circumstances). == Overview == Royston Roberts says that various discoveries required a degree of genius, but also some lucky element for that genius to act on. Richard Gaughan writes that accidental discoveries result from the convergence of preparation, opportunity, and desire. Major everyday discoveries that were helped by luck in some way include products like vulcanized rubber, teflon, nylon, penicillin, cyanoacrylate (Super Glue), the implantable pacemaker, the microwave oven, Scotchgard, Saran wrap, Silly Putty, Slinky, safety glass, propeller, snowmaking, stainless steel, Perkin's mauve, and popsicles. Most artificial sweeteners have been discovered when accidentally tasted, including aspartame and saccharin. Ideas include the theory of the Big Bang, tissue culture, radio astronomy, and the discovery of DNA. Such archeological discoveries as the Rosetta Stone, the Dead Sea Scrolls and the ruins of Pompeii also emerged partly out of serendipity. Many relevant and well known scientific theories were developed by chance at some degree along history. According to a legend, Archimedes realized his principle on hydrostatics when he


id: earth-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Earth science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:53.861518+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: earth-science-20260505-0
summary:
  Earth science or geoscience includes all fields of natural science related to planet Earth. This is a branch of science dealing with the physical, chemical, and biological complex constitutions and synergistic linkages of Earth's four spheres: the biosphere, hydrosphere/cryosphere, atmosphere, and geosphere (or lithosphere). Earth science can be considered to be a branch of planetary science but with a much older history. == Geology == Geology is broadly the study of Earth's structure, substance, and processes. Geology is largely the study of the lithosphere, or Earth's surface, including the Earth's crust and rocks. It includes the physical characteristics and processes that occur in the lithosphere as well as how they are affected by geothermal energy. It incorporates aspects of chemistry, physics, and biology as elements of geology interact. Historical geology is the application of geology to interpret Earth history and how it has changed over time. Geochemistry studies the chemical components and processes of the Earth. Geophysics studies the physical properties of the Earth. Paleontology studies fossilized biological material in the lithosphere. Planetary geology studies geoscience as it pertains to extraterrestrial bodies. Geomorphology studies the origin of landscapes. Structural geology studies the deformation of rocks to produce mountains and lowlands.


id: earth-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Earth science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:53.861518+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: earth-science-20260505-0
summary:
  Ecology is the study of the biosphere. This includes the study of nature and of how living things interact with the Earth and one another and the consequences of that. It considers how living things use resources such as oxygen, water, and nutrients from the Earth to sustain themselves. It also considers how humans and other living creatures cause changes to nature. == Physical geography == Physical geography is the study of Earth's systems and how they interact with one another as part of a single self-contained system. It incorporates astronomy, mathematical geography, meteorology, climatology, geology, geomorphology, biology, biogeography, pedology, and soils geography. Physical geography is distinct from human geography, which studies the human populations on Earth, though it does include human effects on the environment. == Methodology == Methodologies vary depending on the nature of the subjects being studied. Studies typically fall into one of three categories: observational, experimental, or theoretical. Earth scientists often conduct sophisticated computer analysis or visit an interesting location to study earth phenomena (e.g., Antarctica or hot spot island chains). A foundational idea in Earth science is the notion of uniformitarianism, which states that "ancient geologic features are interpreted by understanding active processes that are


id: outline-of-earth-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of Earth science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:55.003860+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-earth-science-20260505-0
summary:
  The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Earth science: Earth science – all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. It is also known as geoscience, the geosciences or the Earthquake sciences, and is arguably a special case in planetary science, the Earth being the only known life-bearing planet. Earth science is a branch of the physical sciences which is a part of the natural sciences. It in turn has many branches. == Earth's spheres == Ecosphere – there are many subsystems that make up the natural environment (the planetary ecosystem or "ecosphere") of the Earth. Many of the subsystems are characterized as "spheres", coinciding with the shape of the planet. The four spheres (for which most of the other spheres are a subtype of) are the atmosphere, the biosphere, the hydrosphere and the geosphere. Earth's ecosphere lies it self within the heliosphere (the Sun's astrosphere). Listed roughly from outermost to innermost the named spheres of the Earth are: Magnetosphere – The region around an astronomical object in which charged particles are affected by its magnetic field Atmosphere, the gases that surround the Earth (its air) By altitude Exosphere – The outermost


id: outline-of-earth-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Outline of Earth science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:55.003860+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-earth-science-20260505-0
summary:
  === Geology === Geology – The study of the composition, structure, physical properties, and history of Earth's components, and the processes by which they are shaped. Economic geology – Science concerned with earth materials of economic value Engineering geology – The application of the geology to engineering practice. Environmental geology – Science of the practical application of geology in environmental problems. Quaternary geology – The branch of geology that studies developments more recent than 2.6 million years ago Planetary geology – The geology of astronomical objects apparently in orbit around stellar objects Petroleum geology – The study of the origin, occurrence, movement, accumulation, and exploration of hydrocarbon fuels Historical geology – The study of the geological history of Earth Hydrogeology – The study of the distribution and movement of groundwater Structural geology – The science of the description and interpretation of deformation in the Earth's crust independent of extent Geochemistry – Science that applies chemistry to analyse geological systems Geochronology – Science of determining the age of rocks, sediments and fossils Geodesy – The science of the geometric shape, orientation in space, and gravitational field of the Earth Geomagnetics – Study of the Earth's magnetic field Geomicrobiology – Science of


id: outline-of-earth-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Outline of Earth science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:55.003860+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-earth-science-20260505-0
summary:
  History of atmospheric sciences – history of the umbrella study of the atmosphere, its processes, the effects other systems have on the atmosphere, and the effects of the atmosphere on these other systems. History of atmospheric chemistry History of biogeography – history of the study of the distribution of species (biology), organisms, and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time. History of cartography – history of the study and practice of making maps or globes. History of climatology – history of the study of climate, scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time History of coastal geography – history of the study of the dynamic interface between the ocean and the land, incorporating both the physical geography (i.e. coastal geomorphology, geology, and oceanography) and the human geography (sociology and history) of the coast. History of environmental science – history of an integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental systems. History of ecology – history of the scientific study of the distribution and abundance of living organisms and how they are affected by interactions between the organisms and their environment. History of Freshwater biology – history of the scientific biological study of freshwater ecosystems


id: list-of-effects-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-0.md
category: reference
title: List of effects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:56.203937+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-effects-20260505-0
summary:
  This is a list of names for observable phenomena that contain the word “effect”, amplified by reference(s) to their respective fields of study. == A == Abscopal effect (cancer treatments) (immune system) (medical treatments) (radiation therapy) Accelerator effect (economics) Accordion effect (physics) (waves) Acousto-optic effect (nonlinear optics) (waves) Additive genetic effects (genetics) Aharonov–Bohm effect (quantum mechanics) Al Jazeera effect (Al Jazeera) (media issues) Alienation effect (acting techniques) (Bertolt Brecht theories and techniques) (film theory) (metafictional techniques) (theatre) Allais effect (fringe physics) Allee effect (biology) Ambiguity effect (cognitive biases) Anrep effect (cardiology) (medicine) Antenna effect (digital electronics) (electronic design automation) Anti-greenhouse effect (atmospheric dynamics) (atmospheric science) (astronomy) (planetary atmospheres) Askaryan effect (particle physics) Asymmetric blade effect (aerodynamics) Audience effect (psychology) (social psychology) Auger effect (atomic physics) (foundational quantum physics) Aureole effect (atmospheric optical phenomena) (scientific terminology) Autler–Townes effect (atomic, molecular, and optical physics) (atomic physics) (quantum optics) Autokinetic effect (vision) Avalanche effect (cryptography) Averch–Johnson effect (economics) == B == Baader-Meinhof effect / Baader-Meinhof phenomenon (psychology) Balassa–Samuelson effect (economics) Baldwin effect (evolutionary biology) (selection) Balloon-carried light effect (balloons) (culture) (entertainment) Bambi effect (hunting) (psychology stubs) Bandwagon effect (cognitive biases) (crowd psychology) (economics effects) (metaphors) (propaganda techniques) Bank effect (marine propulsion) (nautical terms)


id: list-of-effects-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-1.md
category: reference
title: List of effects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:56.203937+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-effects-20260505-0
summary:
  == F == Fahraeus–Lindquist effect (blood) (fluid dynamics) (molecular and cellular biology) False consensus effect (cognitive biases) (futurology) (group processes) (psychological theories) (sustainability) Faraday effect (magnetism) (optics) Ferroelectric effect (condensed matter physics) (electrical phenomena) Fink effect (anesthesia) (diffusion) Floating body effect (electronics) (semiconductors) Floodgate effect (social phenomena) (sociology) Floor effect (statistics) Florence Nightingale effect (Florence Nightingale) (love) (psychology) Flutie effect (student sport) Flux pinning (Physics) Flynn effect (futurology) (intelligence) (psychological theories) (psychometrics) (race and intelligence controversy) Focusing effect (cognitive biases) Forbush effect (cosmic rays) (solar phenomena) Forer effect (cognitive biases) (history of astrology) (psychological theories) Founder effect (ecology) (population genetics) Fractional quantum Hall effect (physics) Franssen effect (acoustics) (sound perception) Franz–Keldysh effect (condensed matter) (electronic engineering) (electronics) (optics) (optoelectronics) Free surface effect (fluid mechanics) Front projection effect (film production) Fujiwhara effect (tropical cyclone meteorology) (vortices) Full screen effect (computer graphics) (demo effects) == G == Garshelis effect (electric and magnetic fields in matter) (magnetism) (physics) Gauche effect (stereochemistry) Gell-Mann amnesia effect (journalism) Generation effect (cognitive biases) (memory biases) (psychological theories) Geodetic effect (general relativity) Gerschenkron effect (economic development) (economic systems) (economics and finance) (econometrics) (index numbers) (national accounts)r Giant magnetoresistive effect (condensed matter physics) (electric and magnetic fields in matter)


id: list-of-effects-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-2.md
category: reference
title: List of effects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:56.203937+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-effects-20260505-0
summary:
  == M == Magali effect Magneto-optic effect (electric and magnetic fields in matter) (optical phenomena) Magneto-optic Kerr effect (condensed matter physics) (electric and magnetic fields in matter) (optical phenomena) magnetocaloric effect (physical phenomena) (electric and magnetic fields in matter) (thermodynamics) Magnus effect (fluid dynamics) Malmquist effect (astronomy) Malter effect (physics) Mandela effect (psychology) (paranormal) Marangoni effect (fluid dynamics) (fluid mechanics) (physical phenomena) Marchywka effect (electrochemistry) (ultraviolet sensor production) Mark Twain effect (economics and finance) (stock market) Martha Mitchell effect (psychological theories) (psychosis) Massenerhebung effect (trees) Maternal age effect (developmental biology) Maternal effect (developmental biology) Matthew effect (education) (education) Matilda effect (Research) Matthew effect (sociology) (adages) (social phenomena) (sociology of scientific knowledge) McClintock effect (menstruation) McCollough effect (optical illusions) McGurk effect (auditory illusions) (perception) (psychological theories) Meissner effect (levitation) (magnetism) (superconductivity) Meitner–Hupfeld effect (particle physics) Mellanby effect (health) (alcohol intoxication) Memory effect (electric batteries) Mesomeric effect (chemical bonding) Microwave auditory effect (cognitive neuroscience) (espionage) (hearing) (human psychology) (less-lethal weapons) (mind control) (sound) Mid-domain effect (macroecology) (biogeography) (biodiversity) Mikheyev–Smirnov–Wolfenstein effect (particle physics) Milky seas effect (aquatic biology) (biological oceanography) (bioluminescence) Miller effect (electrical engineering) (electronics terms) Miniature effect (film and video technology) (film techniques) (scale modeling) (scientific modeling) (special effects) (visual effects)


id: list-of-effects-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-3.md
category: reference
title: List of effects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:56.203937+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-effects-20260505-0
summary:
  == S == Sabattier effect (solarization) (photographic processes) (science of photography) Sachs–Wolfe effect (astronomy) (physical cosmology) Sagnac effect (optics) (relativity) Sailing Ship Effect (business) (economics) Samba effect (Brazil) (economy of Brazil) (history of Brazil) Sandbox effect (Internet technology) (search engine optimization) Scharnhorst effect (quantum field theory) Schottky effect (diodes) Schwinger effect (particle physics) (hypothetical processes) (quantum electrodynamics) Screen-door effect (display technology) (technology) Second gas effect (anesthesia) Second-system effect (software development) Seeliger effect (astronomy) (observational astronomy) Serial position effect (cognitive biases) (psychological theories) (psychologicy) Shaft effect (motorcycle) Shapiro effect (effects of gravitation) Shielding effect (atomic, molecular, and optical physics) (atomic physics) (chemistry) (quantum chemistry) Shower-curtain effect (fluid dynamics) Shubnikov–de Haas effect (science) Side effect (computer science) (computer programming) Side effect (disambiguation) Signor–Lipps effect (extinction) (fossils) (paleontology) Silk screen effect (technology) Silo effect (management) (systems theory) Simon effect (psychology) Simpson's paradox aka Yule–Simpson effect (probability) (statistics) Skin effect (electronics) Slashdot effect (denial-of-service attacks)(Internet terminology) (Slashdot) Sleeper effect (social psychology) Smith–Purcell effect (physics) (quantum optics) Snackwell effect (consumer behaviour) (psychology) Snob effect (consumer theory) (economics and finance) Snowball effect (language) (metaphors) Somogyi effect (diabetes) Sound effect (film techniques) (sound effects) (sound production) (special effects) Soap opera effect (film techniques) (television terminology) (filming) (film


id: list-of-forms-of-electricity-named-after-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_forms_of_electricity_named_after_scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of forms of electricity named after scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_forms_of_electricity_named_after_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:57.469953+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-forms-of-electricity-named-after-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
  This is a list of forms of electricity named after scientists. The terms in this list are mostly archaic usages but are found in many 19th and early 20th-century publications. == Adjectives == faradic Of electricity that is alternating, especially when obtained from an induction coil. Named after Michael Faraday who built the first electromagnetic generator. galvanic Of electricity that is not alternating. Named after Luigi Galvani. voltaic Of electricity derived from an electrochemical cell or battery. Named after Alessandro Volta who built the first battery, the voltaic pile. In most contexts it can be considered a synonym of galvanic. == Nouns (applications) == Faradization Electrotherapy treatment of a person with faradic electricity. Coined by Duchenne de Boulogne and named after Michael Faraday. Franklinization Electrotherapy by charging a person to high voltage with static electricity. Named after Benjamin Franklin. d'Arsonvalization Electrotherapy treatment of a person with high frequency electricity. Named after Jacques-Arsène d'Arsonval. == Nouns (forms) == Faradism Faradic electricity Franklinism High voltage static electricity as used in Franklinization Galvanism Originally, voltaic electricity, but can also be used to distinguish Galvani's animal electricity from Volta's chemical/metal contact electricity == References == == Bibliography == Borck, Cornelius, Brainwaves: A Cultural History


id: list-of-engineering-blunders-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_engineering_blunders-0.md
category: reference
title: List of engineering blunders
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_engineering_blunders
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:01.558974+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-engineering-blunders-20260505-0
summary:
  This is a list of engineering blunders, i.e., gross errors or mistakes resulting from grave lack of proper consideration, such as stupidity, confusion, carelessness, or culpable ignorance, which resulted in notable incidents. Deepwater Horizon oil spill caused by a faulty blowout preventer. Fort Montgomery was sometimes referred to as "Fort Blunder", because the first version of the U.S. Army fort was inadvertently built on the Canadian side of Lake Champlain. Millennium Bridge, London, nicknamed "Wobbly Bridge"; it took almost two years to fix the engineering error The NASA Mars Climate Orbiter, launched in 1998, burned up in the Martian atmosphere. A mixup between metric and US Standard measurements in the controlling software caused the spacecraft to miss its intended 140–150 km altitude above Mars during orbit insertion, instead entering the Martian atmosphere at about 57 km. The NASA Genesis mission was an attempt to sample particles from the solar wind. It successfully collected a sample and returned to Earth. However at the last moment the landing parachute failed to open and the return capsule smashed into the ground at high speed, contaminating the samples. The parachute failure was traced to an accelerometer installed backwards. Palace II, Brazil; parts of it


id: lists-of-engineering-software-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_engineering_software-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of engineering software
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_engineering_software
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:02.731920+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-engineering-software-20260505-0
summary:
  These are lists of engineering software tools used for design, analysis, simulation, and management across different engineering disciplines. == Lists of engineering software == Comparison of EDA software and list of electrical engineering software Comparison of electromagnetic simulation software Comparison of nucleic acid simulation software Comparison of optimization software Comparison of software for molecular mechanics modeling Comparison of system dynamics software List of aerospace engineering software List of automotive engineering software List of bioinformatics software and structural alignment software List of building information modeling software List of chemical engineering software List of chemical process simulators List of civil engineering software List of computational chemistry software and list of quantum chemistry and solid-state physics software List of computational fluid dynamics software List of computational materials science software List of computational physics software List of computer-aided engineering software List of computer-aided manufacturing software and list of 3D printing software List of construction software List of data science software List of discrete event simulation software List of finite element analysis software List of gene prediction software List of genetic engineering software List of geotechnical engineering software List of HDL simulators List of hydrology software List of mechanical engineering software List of molecular design


id: eppendorf-science-prize-for-neurobiology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eppendorf_&_Science_Prize_for_Neurobiology-0.md
category: reference
title: Eppendorf & Science Prize for Neurobiology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eppendorf_&_Science_Prize_for_Neurobiology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:03.941954+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eppendorf-science-prize-for-neurobiology-20260505-0
summary:
  The Eppendorf & Science Prize for Neurobiology is a neurobiology prize that is awarded annually by Science magazine (published by American Association for the Advancement of Science) and underwritten by Eppendorf AG, a laboratory equipment and supply company. Entries are reviewed by editors from Science magazine and the top 10% are forwarded to the judging panel. The judging panel is chaired by the Neuroscience Editor of Science and the remaining judges are nominated from the Society for Neuroscience. The award was established in 2002 to promote the work of promising early-career neurobiologists with $25,000 cash award to support their careers. Each applicant must submit a 1000-word essay explaining the focus and motivation for their last three years of work. The winner is awarded $25,000 and the scientist's winning essay is then published in Science (the winning essay and the other finalists' essays are all published on Science Online). == List (2013–) == == See also == List of neuroscience awards == References ==


id: list-of-scientific-equations-named-after-people-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_equations_named_after_people-0.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific equations named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_equations_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:05.146777+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-equations-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
  This is a list of scientific equations named after people (eponymous equations). == See also == Eponym List of eponymous laws List of laws in science List of equations Scientific constants named after people Scientific phenomena named after people Scientific laws named after people == References ==


id: list-of-types-of-equilibrium-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_equilibrium-0.md
category: reference
title: List of types of equilibrium
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_equilibrium
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:06.393559+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-types-of-equilibrium-20260505-0
summary:
  This is a list presents the various articles at Wikipedia that use the term equilibrium (or an associated prefix or derivative) in their titles or leads. It is not necessarily complete; further examples may be found by using the Wikipedia search function, and this term. == Biology == Equilibrioception, the sense of a balance present in human beings and animals Equilibrium unfolding, the process of unfolding a protein or RNA molecule by gradually changing its environment Genetic equilibrium, theoretical state in which a population is not evolving Homeostasis, the ability of an open system, especially living organisms, to regulate its internal environment Punctuated equilibrium, theory in evolutionary biology Sedimentation equilibrium, analytical ultracentrifugation method for measuring protein molecular masses in solution Equilibrium Theory (Island biogeography), MacArthur-Wilson theory explaining biodiversity character of ecological islands Osmotic equilibrium, balance between solvent flow and pressure across a membrane == Physics == Equilibrant force, which keeps any object motionless and acts on virtually every object in the world that is not moving Equilibrium mode distribution, the state of fiber optic or waveguide transmission in which the propagation mode does not vary with distance along the fiber or changes in the launch mode Hydrostatic equilibrium, the state


id: list-of-members-of-the-european-academy-of-sciences-and-arts-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_European_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Arts-0.md
category: reference
title: List of members of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_European_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Arts
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:07.564915+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-members-of-the-european-academy-of-sciences-and-arts-20260505-0
summary:
  The European Academy of Sciences and Arts (EASA, Latin: Academia Scientiarum et Artium Europaea) is a transnational and interdisciplinary network, connecting about 2,000 recommended scientists and artists worldwide, including 38 Nobel Prize laureates. The European Academy of Sciences and Arts is a learned society of scientists and artists, founded by Felix Unger. The academy was founded 1990, is situated in Salzburg and has been supported by the city of Vienna, the government of Austria, and the European Commission. The EASA is now headed by President Klaus Mainzer, TUM Emeritus of Excellence at the Technical University of Munich and Senior Professor at the Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker Center of the University of Tübingen. Below is a list of members of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts (MEASA). == I – Humanities == == II – Medicine == == III – Arts == == IV – Natural sciences == == V – Social sciences, law and economics == == VI – Technical and environmental sciences == == VII – World religions == == References == == External links == Members at European Academy of Sciences and Arts


id: list-of-existing-technologies-predicted-in-science-fiction-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_existing_technologies_predicted_in_science_fiction-0.md
category: reference
title: List of existing technologies predicted in science fiction
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_existing_technologies_predicted_in_science_fiction
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:08.763081+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-existing-technologies-predicted-in-science-fiction-20260505-0
summary:
  This list of existing technologies predicted in science fiction includes every medium, mainly literature and film. In 1964 Soviet engineer and writer Genrikh Altshuller made the first attempt to catalogue science fiction technologies of the time. Alongside first prediction of a particular technology, the list may include all subsequent works mentioning it until its invention. The list includes technologies that were first posited in non-fiction works before their appearance in science fiction and subsequent invention, such as ion thruster. To avoid repetitions, the list excludes film adaptations of prior literature containing the same predictions, such as "The Minority Report". The list also excludes emerging technologies that are not widely available. The names of some modern inventions (atomic bomb, robot, space station, oral contraceptive and borazon) exactly match their fictional predecessors. A few works correctly predicted the years when some technologies would emerge, such as the first sustained heavier-than-air aircraft flight in 1903 and the first atomic bomb explosion in 1945. == Literature == == Films and TV series == == Notes == == References == === Sources === Bleiler, E. F.; Bleiler, Richard (1990). Science-Fiction: The Early Years. Kent State University Press. ISBN 0-87338-416-4. Gerrold, David (2006). "Predictions". PCMag. Vol.


id: list-of-experiments-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_experiments-0.md
category: reference
title: List of experiments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_experiments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:09.921892+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-experiments-20260505-0
summary:
  The following is a list of historically important scientific experiments and observations demonstrating something of great scientific interest, typically in an elegant or clever manner. == Astronomy == Ole Rømer makes the first quantitative estimate of the speed of light in 1676 by timing the motions of Jupiter's satellite Io with a telescope Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson detect the cosmic microwave background radiation, giving support to the theory of the Big Bang (1964) Kerim Kerimov launches Kosmos 186 and Kosmos 188 as experiments on automatic docking eventually leading to the development of space stations (1967) The Supernova Cosmology Project and the High-Z Supernova Search Team discover, by observing Type Ia supernovae, that the expansion of the Universe is accelerating (1998) Galileo Galilei uses a telescope to observe that the moons of Jupiter appear to circle Jupiter. This evidence supports the heliocentric model, and weakens the geocentric model of the cosmos (1609) == Biology == Robert Hooke, using a microscope, observes cells (1665). Anton van Leeuwenhoek discovers microorganisms (1674–1676). James Lind, publishes 'A Treatise of the Scurvy' which describes a controlled shipboard experiment using two identical populations but with only one variable, the consumption of citrus fruit (1753). Edward Jenner


id: list-of-experiments-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_experiments-1.md
category: reference
title: List of experiments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_experiments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:09.921892+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-experiments-20260505-0
summary:
  == Chemistry == Robert Boyle uses an air pump to determine the inverse relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas. This relationship came to be known as Boyle's law (1660–1662). Joseph Priestley suspends a bowl of water above a beer vat at a brewery and synthesizes carbonated water (1767). Antoine Lavoisier determines that oxygen combines with materials upon combustion, thus disproving phlogiston theory (1783). Antoine Lavoisier determines that chemical reactions in a closed container do not alter total mass. From these observations he establishes the law of conservation of mass (1789). Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford demonstrates that the heat developed by the friction of boring cannon is nearly inexhaustible. This result was presented in opposition to caloric theory (1798). Humphry Davy uses electrolysis to isolate elemental potassium, sodium, calcium, strontium, barium, magnesium, and chlorine (1807–1810). Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac studies reactions among gases and determines that their volumes combine chemically in simple integer ratios (1809). Robert Brown studies very small particles in water under the microscope and observes Brownian motion which was later named in his honor (1827). Friedrich Wöhler synthesizes the organic compound urea using inorganic reactants, disproving the application of vitalism to chemical processes (1828). Thomas Graham


id: list-of-experiments-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_experiments-2.md
category: reference
title: List of experiments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_experiments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:09.921892+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-experiments-20260505-0
summary:
  Inclined plane experiment (1602–07): Galileo Galilei uses rolling balls to disprove the Aristotelian theory of motion. Atmospheric pressure vs. altitude experiment (1648): Blaise Pascal carries a barometer up a church tower and a mountain to determine that atmospheric pressure is due to a column of air. Magdeburg hemispheres (1654): Otto von Guericke demonstrates atmospheric pressure using a pair of hollow copper hemisphere. Spring of air experiment (1660): Robert Boyle shows that the volume of a given amount of gas is inversely related to the pressure upon it. Kite experiment (1700s): Benjamin Franklin beginning in 1747 describes experiments in letters to Peter Collinson demonstrating electrical principles which were published in a book called Experiments and Observations on Electricity. Voltaic pile (1796): Alessandro Volta constructs a new source of electricity, the electrical battery. Cavendish experiment (1798): Henry Cavendish's torsion bar experiment measures the force of gravity in a laboratory. Double-slit experiment (c.1805): Thomas Young shows that light is a wave in his double-slit experiment. Arago spot (1819): Observation of circular diffraction by François Arago, validated a new wave theory of light by Augustin-Jean Fresnel disproving skeptics like Siméon Denis Poisson. Ørsted experiment (1820): Hans Christian Ørsted demonstrates the connection of electricity and


id: list-of-firefighting-mnemonics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_firefighting_mnemonics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of firefighting mnemonics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_firefighting_mnemonics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:11.239378+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-firefighting-mnemonics-20260505-0
summary:
  This is a list of mnemonics related to firefighting or rescue. == Mnemonics == Incident priorities LIP Life safety Incident Stabilization Property conservation === Fire scene priorities === RECEO - SV Rescue victims Exposures - stop fire spread Confine - contain the fire Extinguish Overhaul - check for hidden fire spread - targets of opportunity: Salvage Vent Company Officer Checklist For Report On Conditions SLICERS Size up Locate seat of fire Identify flow path Cool from safe distance Extinguish fire Rescue Salvage === First attack response === RACE (General first response to a fire.) Rescue - move people who are in immediate danger. Alarm - raise the alarm and alert persons to the presence of fire. Confine - shut doors and reduce airflow and fuel sources to the fire, to reduce its spread. Extinguish or Evacuate - extinguish the fire if it's safe to do so, or coordinate the evacuation from the area. === Response phases === TRIPOD ( The six different possible primary phases of a fire response.) Transitional - moving from an offensive attack to a defensive position. Rescue - victim rescue Investigating Preparing Offensive Defensive === Wildland firefighting safety === PLACES -Safety checklist PPE Lookouts Awareness Communications


id: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates-0.md
category: reference
title: List of fossil primates
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:12.487980+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-0
summary:
  This is a list of fossil primates—extinct primates for which a fossil record exists. Primates are generally thought to have evolved from a small, unspecialized mammal, which probably fed on insects and fruits. However, the precise source of the primates remains controversial and even their arboreal origin has recently been questioned. As it has been suggested, many other mammal orders are arboreal too, but they have not developed the same characteristics as primates. Nowadays, some well known genera, such as Purgatorius and Plesiadapis, thought to be the most ancient primates for a long time, are not usually considered as such by recent authors, who tend to include them in the new order Plesiadapiformes, within superorder Euarchontoglires. Some, to avoid confusions, employ the unranked term Euprimates, which excludes Plesiadapiformes. That denomination is not used here. There is an academic debate on the time the first primates appeared. One of the earliest probable primate fossils is the problematic Altiatlasius koulchii, perhaps an Omomyid, but perhaps a non-Primate Plesiadapiform, which lived in Morocco, during the Paleocene, around 60 Ma. However, other studies, including molecular clock studies, have estimated the origin of the primate branch to have been in the mid-Cretaceous period, around 85


id: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates-1.md
category: reference
title: List of fossil primates
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:12.487980+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-0
summary:
  Ekgmowechashalidae Szalay, 1976 Bugtilemur Marivaux et al., 2001 Bugtilemur mathesoni Marivaux et al., 2001 Ekgmowechashala Macdonald, 1963 Ekgmowechashala philotau Macdonald, 1963 Ekgmowechashala zancanellai Samuels, Albright & Fremd, 2015 Gatanthropus Ni et al., 2016 Gatanthropus micros Ni et al., 2016 Muangthanhinius Marivaux et al., 2006 Muangthanhinius siami Marivaux et al., 2006 Notharctidae Trouessart, 1879 Notharctinae Trouessart, 1879 Cantius Simons, 1962 Cantius abditus Gingerich & Simmons, 1977 Cantius angulatus Cope, 1875 Cantius antediluvius Kihm, 1992 Cantius eppsi Cooper, 1932 Cantius frugivorus Cope, 1875 Cantius lohseorum Robinson, 2016 Cantius mckennai Gingerich & Simons, 1977 Cantius nuniensis Cope, 1881 Cantius ralstoni Matthew, 1915 Cantius savagei Gingerich, 1977 Cantius torresi Gingerich, 1986 Copelemur Gingerich & Simons, 1977 Copelemur australotutus Beard, 1988 Copelemur praetutus Gazin, 1962 Copelemur tutus Cope, 1877 Hesperolemur Gunnell, 1995 Hesperolemur actius Gunnell, 1995 Megaceralemur Robinson, 2016 Megaceralemur trigonodus (Matthew, 1915) Megaceralemur matthewi Robinson, 2016 Notharctus Leidy, 1870 Notharctus pugnax Granger & Gregory, 1917 Notharctus robustior Leidy, 1870 Notharctus tenebrosus Leidy, 1870 Notharctus venticolus Osborn, 1902 Pelycodus Cope, 1875 Pelycodus danielsae Froehlich & Lucas, 1991 Pelycodus jarrovii Cope, 1874 Pinolophus Robinson, 2016 Pinolophus meikei Robinson, 2016 Smilodectes Wortman, 1903 Smilodectes gingerichi Beard, 1988 Smilodectes gracilis Marsh, 1871 Smilodectes mcgrewi Gingerich, 1979 Cercamoniinae Gingerich,


id: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates-2.md
category: reference
title: List of fossil primates
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:12.487980+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-0
summary:
  Archaeolemuridae G. Grandier, 1905 Archaeolemur Filhol, 1895 Archaeolemur edwardsi Filhol, 1895 Archaeolemur majori Filhol, 1895 Hadropithecus Lorenz von Liburnau, 1899 Hadropithecus stenognathus Lorenz von Liburnau, 1899 Palaeopropithecidae Tattersall, 1973 Mesopropithecus Standing, 1905 Mesopropithecus dolichobrachion Simons et al., 1995 Mesopropithecus globiceps Lamberton, 1936 Mesopropithecus pithecoides Standing, 1905 Babakotia Godfrey et al., 1990 Babakotia radofilai Godfrey et al., 1990 Palaeopropithecus G. Grandidier, 1899 Palaeopropithecus ingens G. Grandidier, 1899 Palaeopropithecus kelyus Gommery et al., 2010 Palaeopropithecus maximus Standing, 1903 Archaeoindris Standing, 1909 Archaeoindris fontoynontii Standing, 1909 Megaladapidae Forsyth-Major, 1894 Megaladapis Forsyth-Major, 1894 Subgenus: Megaladapis Megaladapis (Megaladapis) grandidieri Standing, 1903 Megaladapis (Megaladapis) madagascariensis Forsyth-Major, 1894 Subgenus: Peloriadapis Megaladapis (Peloriadapis) edwardsi Grandidier, 1899 Lemuridae Gray, 1821 Pachylemur Lamberton, 1946 Pachylemur insignis Filhol, 1895 Pachylemur jullyi Lamberton, 1948 === Lorisiformes === Lorisidae Gray, 1821 Karanisia Seiffert et al., 2003 Karanisia clarki Seiffert et al., 2003 Mioeuoticus Leakey, 1962 Mioeuoticus bishopi Leakey, 1962 Mioeuoticus kichotoi Kunimatsu, Tsujikawa, Nakatsukasa, Shimizu, Ogihara, Kikuchi, Nakano, Takano, Morimoto, and Ishida, 2017 Mioeuoticus shipmani Phillips & Walker, 2000 Nycticeboides Jacobs, 1981 Nycticeboides simpsoni Jacobs, 1981 Galagidae Gray, 1825 Galago Geoffroy, 1796 Galago farafraensis Pickford, Wanas & Soliman, 2006 Galago howelli Wesselman, 1984 Galago sadimanensis Walker, 1987 Komba Simpson, 1967 Komba minor Le


id: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates-3.md
category: reference
title: List of fossil primates
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:12.487980+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-0
summary:
  ==== Omomyoidea ==== Omomyidae Trouessart, 1879 Baataromomys Ni, Beard, Meng, Wang, and Gebo, 2007 Baataromomys ulaanus Ni, Beard, Meng, Wang, and Gebo, 2007 Kohatius Russell & Gingerich, 1980 Kohatius coppensi Russell & Gingerich, 1980 Microchoerinae Lydekker, 1887 Melaneremia Hooker, 2007 Melaneremia bryanti Hooker, 2007 Microchoerus Wood, 1846 Microchoerus creechbarrowensis Hooker, 1986 Microchoerus edwardsi Filhol, 1880 Microchoerus erinaceus Wood, 1846 Microchoerus hookeri Minwer-Barakat, Marigó, Femenias-Gual, Costeur, Esteban-Trivigno, and Moyà-Solà, 2017 Microchoerus ornatus Stehlin, 1916 Microchoerus wardi Hooker, 1986 Necrolemur Filhol, 1873 Necrolemur anadoni Minwer-Barakat, Marigó & Moyà-Solà, 2015 Necrolemur antiquus Filhol, 1873 Necrolemur zitteli Schlosser, 1887 Nannopithex Stehlin, 1916 Nannopithex filholi Chantre & Gaillard, 1897 Nannopithex humilidens Thalmann, 1994 Nannopithex quaylei Hooker, 1986 Nannopithex raabi Heller, 1930 Nannopithex zuccolae Godinot et al., 1992 Pseudoloris Stehlin, 1916 Pseudoloris crusafonti Louis & Sudre, 1975 Pseudoloris godinoti Köhler & Moyà-Solà, 1999 Pseudoloris isabenae Crusafont-Pairo, 1967 Pseudoloris parvulus Filhol, 1890 Anaptomorphinae Cope, 1883 Tribe: Anaptomorphini Anaptomorphus Cope, 1872 Anaptomorphus aemulus Cope, 1872 Anaptomorphus westi Szalay, 1976 Tetonius Matthew, 1915 Tetonius homunculus Cope, 1882 Tetonius matthewi Bown & Rose, 1987 Tetonius mckennai Bown & Rose, 1987 Absarokius Matthew, 1915 Absarokius abbotti Loomis, 1906 Absarokius australis Bown & Rose, 1987 Absarokius nocerai Robinson, 1966 Absarokius metoecus Bown


id: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates-4.md
category: reference
title: List of fossil primates
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:12.487980+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-0
summary:
  ==== Simiiformes, incertae sedis ==== Amphipithecidae Godinot, 1994 Pondaungia Pilgrim, 1927 Pondaungia cotteri Pilgrim, 1927 Amphipithecus Colbert, 1937 Amphipithecus mogaungensis Colbert, 1937 Krabia Chaimanee et al., 2013 Krabia minuta Chaimanee et al., 2013 Siamopithecus Chaimanee et al., 1997 Siamopithecus eocaenus Chaimanee et al., 1997 Proteopithecidae Simons, 1997 Proteopithecus Simons, 1989 Proteopithecus sylviae Simons, 1989 Serapia Simons, 1992 Serapia eocaena Simons, 1992 Parapithecidae Schlosser, 1911 Arsinoea Simons, 1992 Arsinoea kallimos Simons, 1992 Apidium Osborn, 1908 Apidium bowni Simons, 1995 Apidium moustafai Simons, 1962 Apidium phiomense Osborn, 1908 Parapithecus Schlosser, 1910 Parapithecus fraasi Schlosser, 1910 Parapithecus grangeri Simons, 1974 Qatrania Simons & Kay, 1983 Qatrania fleaglei Simons & Kay, 1988 Qatrania wingi Simons & kay, 1983 Biretia Bonis et al., 1988 Biretia piveteaui Bonis et al., 1988 Biretia fayumensis Seiffert et al., 2005 Biretia megalopsis Seiffert et al., 2005 ==== Platyrrhini ==== Platyrrhini, incertae sedis Branisella Hoffstetter, 1969 Branisella boliviana Hoffstetter, 1969 Atelidae Gray, 1825 Pitheciinae Mivart, 1865 Tribus: Callicebini Xenothrix Williams & Koopman, 1952 Xenothrix mcgregori Williams & Koopman, 1952 Antillothrix MacPhee et al., 1995 Antillothrix bernensis Rímoli, 1977 Paralouatta Rivero & Arredondo, 1991 Paralouatta varonai Rivero & Arredondo, 1991 Paralouatta marianae Tribus: Pitheciini Soriacebus Fleagle et al., 1987 Soriacebus adrianae


id: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates-5.md
category: reference
title: List of fossil primates
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:12.487980+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-0
summary:
  ===== Cercopithecoidea ===== Nsungwepithecus Stevens et al., 2013 Nsungwepithecus gunnelli Stevens et al., 2013 Victoriapithecidae von Koenigswald, 1969 Victoriapithecus von Koenigswald, 1969 Victoriapithecus macinnesi von Koenigswald, 1969 Prohylobates Fourtau, 1918 Prohylobates tandyi Fourtau, 1918 Prohylobates simonsi Delson, 1979 Noropithecus Miller et al. 2009 Noropithecus bulukensis Miller et al. 2009 Cercopithecidae Gray, 1821 Colobinae Jernon, 1867 Tribus: Colobini Microcolobus Benefit & Pickford, 1986 Microcolobus tugenensis Benefit & Pickford, 1986 Rhinocolobus M.G. Leakey, 1982 Rhinocolobus turkanaensis M.G. Leakey, 1982 Colobinae, incertae sedis Mesopithecus Wagner, 1839 Mesopithecus pentelicus Wagner, 1839 Mesopithecus monspessulanus Gervais, 1849 Mesopithecus sivalensis (Lydekker, 1878) Myanmarcolobus Takai et al., 2015 Myanmarcolobus yawensis Takai et al., 2015 Rhinopithecus É. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1812 Subgenus: Rhinopithecus É. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1812 Rhinopithecus (Rhinopithecus) lantianensis Hu & Qi, 1978 Dolichopithecus Depéret, 1889 Dolichopithecus ruscinensis Depéret, 1889 Libypithecus Stromer, 1913 Libypithecus markgrafi Stromer, 1913 Semnopithecus Desmarest, 1822 Semnopithecus gwebinnensis Takai et al., 2016 Parapresbytis Kalmykov & Maschenko, 1992 Parapresbytis eohanuman (Borissoglebskaya, 1981) Cercopithecoides Mollett, 1947 Cercopithecoides kimeui M.G. Leakey, 1982 Cercopithecoides williamsi Mollett, 1947 Paracolobus R.E.F. Leakey, 1969 Paracolobus chemeroni R.E.F. Leakey, 1969 Paracolobus mutiwa M.G. Leakey, 1969 Cercopithecinae Gray, 1821 Tribus: Papionini Subtribus: Macanina Macaca Lacépède, 1799 Macaca anderssoni Schlosser, 1924 Macaca florentina Cocchi, 1872


id: list-of-geoscience-organizations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geoscience_organizations-0.md
category: reference
title: List of geoscience organizations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geoscience_organizations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:16.517935+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-geoscience-organizations-20260505-0
summary:
  This is a list of geoscience organizations, including such fields of geosciences as geology, geophysics, hydrology, oceanography, petrophysics, and related fields. == Intercontinental organizations == Anthropocene Working Group Association for Women Geoscientists (AWG) Association of Applied Geochemists Environmental and Engineering Geophysical Society Geochemical Society International Association for Engineering Geology and the Environment International Association for Mathematical Geosciences (IAMG) International Association of Cryospheric Sciences International Association of GeoChemistry International Association of Geomagnetism and Aeronomy International Association of Hydrological Sciences (IAHS/AISH) International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior (IAVCEI) – International non-governmental organization International Association for the Conservation of Geological Heritage ProGEO International Centre for Diffraction Data International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) – Non-governmental geological organization International Commission on the History of Geological Sciences International Continental Scientific Drilling Program International Geoscience Programme International Glaciological Society (IGS) – International glaciology academic organization International Mineralogical Association International Organization for Biological Crystallization International Permafrost Association International Union for Quaternary Research International Union of Crystallography International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG) – International non-governmental organization International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) – International non-governmental organization Geoscience Education, Training and Technology Transfer International Union of Soil Sciences (IUSS) – International scientific union OneGeology


id: list-of-geoscience-organizations-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geoscience_organizations-1.md
category: reference
title: List of geoscience organizations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geoscience_organizations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:16.517935+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-geoscience-organizations-20260505-0
summary:
  === United States === American Association of Petroleum Geologists (AAPG) – Professional geological association American Crystallographic Association American Gem Society (AGS), also known as American Gemological Society – American trade association American Geosciences Institute (AGI) – Nonprofit scientific federation American Geophysical Union (AGU) – Nonprofit organization of geophysicists American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, also known as Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration (SME) American Quaternary Association Association for the Sciences of Limnology and Oceanography (ASLO), also known as American Society of Limnology and Oceanography Association of Environmental & Engineering Geologists (AEG) The Clay Minerals Society (CMS) – US-based non-profit organizationPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Earth Science Women's Network (ESWN) Environmental and Engineering Geophysical Society (EEGS) Gemological Institute of America (GIA) – Research institute in Carlsbad, California Geological Society of America (GSA) – Nonprofit organization dedicated to geoscience Geoscience Information Society (GSIS) Keck Geology Consortium Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory Mineralogical Society of America (MSA) – Scientific organization promoting mineralogy National Association of Black Geologists and Geophysicists (NABGG) National Center for Earth-surface Dynamics National Cooperative Soil Survey (NCSS) – Program to understand and manage US soils National Speleological Society (NSS) – Organization for exploration, conservation, and study of


id: outline-of-health-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_health_sciences-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of health sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_health_sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:17.624144+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-health-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
  The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to health sciences: Health sciences – those sciences that focus on health, or health care, as core parts of their subject matter. Health sciences relate to multiple academic disciplines, including STEM disciplines and emerging patient safety disciplines (such as social care research). == Medicine and its branches == Medicine is an applied science or practice of the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease. It encompasses a variety of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness. Below are some of the branches of medicine. Anesthesiology is the brand of medicine that deals with life support and anesthesia during surgery. Angiology deals with the diseases of the circulatory system. Audiology focuses on preventing and curing hearing damage. Bariatrics deals with the causes, prevention, and treatment of obesity. Cardiology deals with disorders of the heart and the blood vessels. Critical care medicine focuses on life support and the intensive care of the seriously ill. Dentistry is the branch of medicine that consists of the study, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of diseases, disorders, and conditions of the oral cavity, commonly in the dentition


id: list-of-hyperaccumulators-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hyperaccumulators-0.md
category: reference
title: List of hyperaccumulators
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hyperaccumulators
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:18.790682+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-hyperaccumulators-20260505-0
summary:
  This article covers known hyperaccumulators, accumulators or species tolerant to the following: Aluminium (Al), Silver (Ag), Arsenic (As), Beryllium (Be), Chromium (Cr), Copper (Cu), Manganese (Mn), Mercury (Hg), Molybdenum (Mo), Naphthalene, Lead (Pb), Selenium (Se) and Zinc (Zn). See also: Hyperaccumulators table – 2: Nickel Hyperaccumulators table – 3: Cd, Cs, Co, Pu, Ra, Sr, U, radionuclides, hydrocarbons, organic solvents, etc. == Hyperaccumulators table – 1 == Cs-137 activity was much smaller in leaves of larch and sycamore maple than of spruce: spruce > larch > sycamore maple. == References ==


id: hyperaccumulators-table-2-nickel-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperaccumulators_table_–_2:_Nickel-0.md
category: reference
title: Hyperaccumulators table – 2: Nickel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperaccumulators_table_–_2:_Nickel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:20.039129+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hyperaccumulators-table-2-nickel-20260505-0
summary:
  This list covers known nickel hyperaccumulators, accumulators or plant species tolerant to nickel. See also: Hyperaccumulators table – 1: Ag, Al, As, Be, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mn, Mo, Naphthalene, Pb, Pd, Se, Zn Hyperaccumulators table – 3: Cd, Cs, Co, Pu, Ra, Sr, U, radionuclides, hydrocarbons, organic solvents, etc. Notes In the genus Alyssum, free histamin (His) is an important Ni binding ligand that increases in the xylem proportionately to root Ni uptake. There is a close correlation between Ni tolerance, root His concentration, and ATP-PRT transcript abundance. Thus ATP-PRT expression may play a major role in regulating the pool of free His and contributes to the exceptional Ni tolerance of hyperaccumulator Alyssum species. But this is not the complete hyperaccumulator phenotype because His-(GM-)overproducing lines do not exhibit increased Ni concentrations in either xylem sap or shoot tissue. Alpine pennycress or «Alpine Pennygrass» is also found as «Alpine Pennycrest» in (some books). == Reference sources with notes == The references are so far mostly from academic trial papers, experiments and generally of exploration of that field. == See also == Phytoremediation, Hyperaccumulators List of hyperaccumulators Hyperaccumulators table – 3


id: hyperaccumulators-table-3-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperaccumulators_table_–_3-0.md
category: reference
title: Hyperaccumulators table – 3
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperaccumulators_table_–_3
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:21.211012+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hyperaccumulators-table-3-20260505-0
summary:
  This list covers hyperaccumulators, plant species which accumulate, or are tolerant of, radionuclides (Cd, Cs-137, Co, Pu-238, Ra, Sr, U-234, 235, 238), hydrocarbons and organic solvents (Benzene, BTEX, DDT, Dieldrin, Endosulfan, Fluoranthene, MTBE, PCB, PCNB, TCE and by-products), and inorganic compounds (Potassium ferrocyanide). See also: Hyperaccumulators table – 1 : Ag, Al, As, Be, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mn, Mo, Naphthalene, Pb, Pd, Se, Zn Hyperaccumulators table – 2 : Nickel == Notes == Uranium: The symbol for Uranium is sometimes given as Ur instead of U. According to Ulrich Schmidt and others, plants' concentration of uranium is considerably increased by an application of citric acid, which solubilizes the uranium (and other metals). Radionuclides: Cs-137 and Sr-90 are not removed from the top 0.4 meters of soil even under high rainfall, and migration rate from the top few centimeters of soil is slow. Radionuclides: Plants with mycorrhizal associations are often more effective than non-mycorrhizal plants at the uptake of radionuclides. Radionuclides: In general, soils containing higher amounts of organic matter will allow plants to accumulate higher amounts of radionuclides. See also note on Lolium multiflorum in Paasikallio 1984. Plant uptake is also increased with a higher cation exchange capacity for Sr-90


id: iarc-group-3-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IARC_group_3-0.md
category: reference
title: IARC group 3
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IARC_group_3
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:22.457049+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: iarc-group-3-20260505-0
summary:
  IARC group 3 substances, chemical mixtures and exposure circumstances are those that can not be classified in regard to their carcinogenicity to humans by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). This category is used most commonly for agents, mixtures and exposure circumstances for which the level of evidence of carcinogenicity is inadequate in humans and inadequate or limited in experimental animals. Exceptionally, agents (mixtures) for which the evidence of carcinogenicity is inadequate in humans, but sufficient in experimental animals may be placed in this category when there is strong evidence that the mechanism of carcinogenicity in experimental animals does not operate in humans. Agents, mixtures and exposure circumstances that do not fall into any other group are also placed in this category. The IARC Monographs on which this list is based assess the hazard linked to the agents, they do not assess the cancer risk of the agents. The list is up-to-date as of January 2024. == Agents and groups of agents == === A === === B === === C === === D === === E–G === === H–L === === M === === N–O === === P === === Q–R === === S === === T


id: university-of-ibadan-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Ibadan-0.md
category: reference
title: University of Ibadan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Ibadan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:23.627174+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: university-of-ibadan-20260505-0
summary:
  The University of Ibadan (UI) is a federal university located in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. Initially founded as the University College Ibadan in 1948, it maintained its affiliation with the University of London. In 1962, it became an independent institution, making it the oldest degree-awarding institution in Nigeria. The University of Ibadan has significantly contributed to Nigeria's political, industrial, economic, and cultural development through its extensive network of graduates. UI enrolls about 33,000 students, is internationally recognized, and has a number of accomplished alumni. == History == The university was established in 1948 as University College Ibadan, a branch of the University of London, which supervised its academic programs and awarded degrees until 1967. The establishment came as a result of a recommendation from the Asquith and the Elliot Commissions on Higher Education in the then-British colonies, that two Universities stemming from the University of London should be set up in Ghana and Nigeria. Before 1948, Yaba College had been founded in 1932 in Yaba, Lagos, as the first tertiary educational institute in Nigeria, focused primarily on providing post-secondary vocational education and teacher training to Africans. However, the limited aims of Yaba College and clamor by Nigerian nationalists for self-improvement


id: university-of-ibadan-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Ibadan-1.md
category: reference
title: University of Ibadan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Ibadan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:23.627174+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: university-of-ibadan-20260505-0
summary:
  == Library == Among the notable structures in the university is the central Kenneth Dike Library (popularly called "KDL" by the students), located just beside the Faculty of Arts. The library, which has a large capacity for students, contains books relating to virtually all fields of knowledge both in and outside the university community. The library is named after Professor Kenneth Dike, who was the first indigenous Principal and former Vice-Chancellor of the university. It was established out of the desires of the founding fathers and matriarch of the institution to cut a niche for research and sound teaching. The library contains 700,000 volumes of information and more than 1,250 seats for readers. It is open to all senior staff, students of the institution, senior staff of the University College Hospital, (UCH) Ibadan as well as alumni of the university. == Notable alumni == The university has educated many notable alumni, including a Nobel Laureate in Literature, eminent mathematicians, scientists, politicians, lawyers, business icons, philosophers, writers, monarchs, countless technocrats, recipients of the Nigerian National Order of Merit and fellows of the various learned academies. Abdulganiyu Abdulrasaq, lawyer, former President of the Nigerian Stock Exchange Mufutau Oloyede Abdul-Rahmon, Professor of Arabic


id: list-of-ice-cores-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores-0.md
category: reference
title: List of ice cores
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:24.876028+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ice-cores-20260505-0
summary:
  This is a list of ice cores drilled for scientific purposes. Note that many of these locations are on moving ice sheets, and the latitude and longitude given is as of the date of drilling. == Africa == == Antarctica == == Asia == === Mainland and arctic islands === === Southeast Asia === == Europe == === Alps === === Iceland === === Scandinavia === === Spitzbergen === == North America == === Canada === === Greenland === === United States === == Oceania == === New Zealand === == South America == === Bolivia === === Peru === == See also == List of Arctic research programs List of research stations in the Arctic Research stations in Antarctica == Notes == == References ==


id: list-of-ice-cores-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores-1.md
category: reference
title: List of ice cores
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:24.876028+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ice-cores-20260505-0
summary:
  == Sources == Abram, Nerilie J.; Mulvaney, Robert; Wolff, Eric W.; Mudelsee, Manfred (2007). "Ice core records as sea ice proxies: An evaluation from the Weddell Sea region of Antarctica" (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research. 112 (D15): 1–13. Bibcode:2007JGRD..11215101A. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.473.4635. doi:10.1029/2006JD008139. Alley, R.B.; Koci, B.R. (1988). "Ice-core analysis at Site A, Greenland: preliminary results". Annals of Glaciology. 10: 1–4. Bibcode:1988AnGla..10....1A. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.476.6746. doi:10.1017/S0260305500004067. Aristarain, A.J. (1981). "First glaciological studies on the James Ross Island ice cap, Antarctic peninsula". Journal of Glaciology. 27 (97): 371–379. Bibcode:1981JGlac..27..371A. doi:10.1017/S0022143000011412. Benson, Carl S. (1984). "Ice core drilling on Mt. Wrangell, Alaska 1982". In Holdsworth, G.; et al. (eds.). Ice Drilling Technology. Hanover, New Hampshire: Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory. pp. 61–68. Bentley, Charles R.; Koci, Bruce R. (2007). "Drilling to the beds of the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets: a review". Annals of Glaciology. 47 (1): 1–9. Bibcode:2007AnGla..47....1B. doi:10.3189/172756407786857695. Bird, I.G. (1976). "Thermal ice drilling: Australian developments and experience". In Splettstoesser, John F. (ed.). Ice-Core Drilling. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press. pp. 1–18. ISBN 978-0-8032-5843-3. Bory, A.J.; Biscaye, P.E.; Piotrowski, A.M.; Steffensen, J.P. (2003). "Regional variability of ice core dust composition and provenance in Greenland". Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 4 (12): 1107.


id: list-of-ice-cores-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores-2.md
category: reference
title: List of ice cores
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:24.876028+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ice-cores-20260505-0
summary:
  Rapp, Donald (2012). Ice Ages and Interglacials: Measurements, Interpretation, and Models (2nd ed.). Chichester, UK: Springer. ISBN 978-3-642-30028-8. Rasmussen, S.O.; et al. (2013). "A first chronology for the North Greenland Eemian Ice Drilling (NEEM) ice core". Climate of the Past. 9 (6): 2713–2730. Bibcode:2013CliPa...9.2713R. doi:10.5194/cp-9-2713-2013. Thompson, L.G.; et al. (1994). "Climate since AD 1510 on Dyer Plateau, Antarctic Peninsula: evidence for recent climate change" (PDF). Annals of Glaciology. 20: 420–426. Bibcode:1994AnGla..20..420T. doi:10.3189/1994aog20-1-420-426. Thwaites, Richard J.; Wilson, Christopher; McCray, Anthony P. (1984). "Relationship between bore-hole closure and crystal fabrics in Antarctic ice core from Cape Folger" (PDF). Journal of Glaciology. 30 (105): 171–179. Bibcode:1984JGlac..30..171T. doi:10.1017/S0022143000005906. Ueda, Herbert T.; Talalay, Pavel G. (October 2007). "Fifty Years of Soviet and Russian Drilling Activity in Polar and Non-Polar Ice". Erdc/Crrel Tr-07-20. Archived from the original on April 20, 2017. Vasiliev, N.I.; et al. (2007). "Deep drilling at Vostok station, Antarctica: history and recent events". Annals of Glaciology. 47 (1): 10–23. Bibcode:2007AnGla..47...10V. doi:10.3189/172756407786857776. Weidick, Anker (1995). "Satellite Image Atlas of Glaciers of the World: Greenland" (PDF). United States Geological Survey Professional Papers. 1386-C: 1–153. Zagorodnov, V.; et al. (1998). "Antifreeze thermal ice core drilling: an effective approach to the acquisition of ice cores" (PDF). Cold


id: index-of-earth-science-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_Earth_science_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of Earth science articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_Earth_science_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:26.046967+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-earth-science-articles-20260505-0
summary:
  Earth science (also known as geoscience, the geosciences or the Earth Sciences) is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. It is arguably a special case in planetary science, the Earth being the only known life-bearing planet. There are both reductionist and holistic approaches to Earth science. There are four major disciplines in earth sciences, namely geography, geology, geophysics and geodesy. These major disciplines use physics, chemistry, biology, chronology and mathematics to build a quantitative understanding of the principal areas or spheres of the Earth system. Articles related to Earth science include: == A == Antarctic Convergence Atmospheric chemistry Atmospheric physics Atmospheric sciences == B == Biosphere Biogeography == C == Cartography Chemical oceanography Climatology Crust Cryosphere Crystallography (mineralogy) == D == Dynamo theory == E == Earth's core Earth's magnetic field Earth's mantle Economic geology Edaphology (soil science) Engineering geology Environmental geology Environmental science Erosion Exosphere (Atmospheric sciences) == G == Gaia hypothesis Gemology (mineralogy) Geochemistry Geochronology (Geophysics) Geodesy (see Surveying) Geodynamics (Geophysics and Tectonics) Geographical Information System Geography Geoinformatics (GIS) Geology Geomagnetics (Geophysics) Geomicrobiology Geomorphology Geophysics Geosphere Geostatistics Glaciology (Geology and Hydrology) Gravimetry (Geophysics) == H == Historical geology Human geography Hydrogeology Hydrology Hydrometeorology


id: list-of-inductees-in-the-international-rubber-science-hall-of-fame-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inductees_in_the_International_Rubber_Science_Hall_of_Fame-0.md
category: reference
title: List of inductees in the International Rubber Science Hall of Fame
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inductees_in_the_International_Rubber_Science_Hall_of_Fame
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:27.274530+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inductees-in-the-international-rubber-science-hall-of-fame-20260505-0
summary:
  The International Rubber Science Hall of Fame recognizes the careers of notable professionals in rubber technology. It is jointly sponsored by the Maurice Morton Institute of Polymer Science at The University of Akron and the Rubber Division of the American Chemical Society. The Goodyear Polymer Center at the University of Akron houses the Hall of Fame's portrait gallery. == Inductees == The following are members of the International Rubber Hall of Fame: == See also == Charles Goodyear Medal: Another ACS rubber award Melvin Mooney Distinguished Technology Award: Another ACS rubber award International Rubber Science Hall of Fame: Another ACS award Rubber Chemistry and Technology: An ACS journal List of chemistry awards == References == == External links == Awards page of ACS Rubber Division


id: scientific-law-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific law
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:31.866245+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-law-20260505-0
summary:
  Scientific laws or laws of science are statements, based on repeated experiments or observations, that describe or predict a range of natural phenomena. The term law has diverse usage in many cases (approximate, accurate, broad, or narrow) across all fields of natural science (physics, chemistry, astronomy, geoscience, biology). Laws are developed from data and can be further developed through mathematics; in all cases they are directly or indirectly based on empirical evidence. It is generally understood that they implicitly reflect, though they do not explicitly assert, causal relationships fundamental to reality, and are discovered rather than invented. Scientific laws summarize the results of experiments or observations, usually within a certain range of application. In general, the accuracy of a law does not change when a new theory of the relevant phenomenon is worked out, but rather the scope of the law's application, since the mathematics or statement representing the law does not change. As with other kinds of scientific knowledge, scientific laws do not express absolute certainty, as mathematical laws do. A scientific law may be contradicted, restricted, or extended by future observations. A law can often be formulated as one or several statements or equations, so that it can


id: scientific-law-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientific law
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:31.866245+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-law-20260505-0
summary:
  == Properties == Scientific laws are typically conclusions based on repeated scientific experiments and observations over many years and which have become accepted universally within the scientific community. A scientific law is "inferred from particular facts, applicable to a defined group or class of phenomena, and expressible by the statement that a particular phenomenon always occurs if certain conditions be present". The production of a summary description of our environment in the form of such laws is a fundamental aim of science. Several general properties of scientific laws, particularly when referring to laws in physics, have been identified. Scientific laws are: True, at least within their regime of validity. By definition, there have never been repeatable contradicting observations. Universal. They appear to apply everywhere in the universe. Simple. They are typically expressed in terms of a single mathematical equation. Absolute. Nothing in the universe appears to affect them. Stable. Unchanged since first discovered (although they may have been shown to be approximations of more accurate laws), All-encompassing. Everything in the universe apparently must comply with them (according to observations). Generally conservative of quantity. Often expressions of existing homogeneities (symmetries) of space and time. Typically theoretically reversible in time (if non-quantum),


id: scientific-law-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law-2.md
category: reference
title: Scientific law
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:31.866245+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-law-20260505-0
summary:
  where ρ is some quantity per unit volume, J is the flux of that quantity (change in quantity per unit time per unit area). Intuitively, the divergence (denoted ∇⋅) of a vector field is a measure of flux diverging radially outwards from a point, so the negative is the amount piling up at a point; hence the rate of change of density in a region of space must be the amount of flux leaving or collecting in some region (see the main article for details). In the table below, the fluxes flows for various physical quantities in transport, and their associated continuity equations, are collected for comparison. More general equations are the convection–diffusion equation and Boltzmann transport equation, which have their roots in the continuity equation. === Laws of classical mechanics === ==== Principle of least action ==== Classical mechanics, including Newton's laws, Lagrange's equations, Hamilton's equations, etc., can be derived from the following principle: δ S = δ ∫ t 1 t 2 L ( q , q ˙ , t ) d t = 0 {\displaystyle \delta {\mathcal {S}}=\delta \int _{t_{1}}^{t_{2}}L(\mathbf {q} ,\mathbf {\dot {q}} ,t)\,dt=0} where S {\displaystyle {\mathcal {S}}} is the action; the integral of the


id: scientific-law-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law-3.md
category: reference
title: Scientific law
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:31.866245+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-law-20260505-0
summary:
  in which the (more famous) mass–energy equivalence E = mc2 is a special case. General relativity: General relativity is governed by the Einstein field equations, which describe the curvature of space-time due to mass-energy equivalent to the gravitational field. Solving the equation for the geometry of space warped due to the mass distribution gives the metric tensor. Using the geodesic equation, the motion of masses falling along the geodesics can be calculated. Gravitoelectromagnetism: In a relatively flat spacetime due to weak gravitational fields, gravitational analogues of Maxwell's equations can be found; the GEM equations, to describe an analogous gravitomagnetic field. They are well established by the theory, and experimental tests form ongoing research. ==== Classical laws ==== Kepler's laws, though originally discovered from planetary observations (also due to Tycho Brahe), are true for any central forces. === Thermodynamics === Newton's law of cooling Fourier's law Ideal gas law, combines a number of separately developed gas laws; Boyle's law Charles's law Gay-Lussac's law Avogadro's law, into one now improved by other equations of state Dalton's law (of partial pressures) Boltzmann equation Carnot's theorem Kopp's law === Electromagnetism === Maxwell's equations give the time-evolution of the electric and magnetic fields due to


id: scientific-law-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law-4.md
category: reference
title: Scientific law
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:31.866245+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-law-20260505-0
summary:
  In equilibrium, molecules exist in mixture defined by the transformations possible on the timescale of the equilibrium, and are in a ratio defined by the intrinsic energy of the molecules—the lower the intrinsic energy, the more abundant the molecule. Le Chatelier's principle states that the system opposes changes in conditions from equilibrium states, i.e. there is an opposition to change the state of an equilibrium reaction. Transforming one structure to another requires the input of energy to cross an energy barrier; this can come from the intrinsic energy of the molecules themselves, or from an external source which will generally accelerate transformations. The higher the energy barrier, the slower the transformation occurs. There is a hypothetical intermediate, or transition structure, that corresponds to the structure at the top of the energy barrier. The Hammond–Leffler postulate states that this structure looks most similar to the product or starting material which has intrinsic energy closest to that of the energy barrier. Stabilizing this hypothetical intermediate through chemical interaction is one way to achieve catalysis. All chemical processes are reversible (law of microscopic reversibility) although some processes have such an energy bias, they are essentially irreversible. The reaction rate has the mathematical parameter


id: scientific-law-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law-5.md
category: reference
title: Scientific law
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:31.866245+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-law-20260505-0
summary:
  In Europe, systematic theorizing about nature (physis) began with the early Greek philosophers and scientists and continued into the Hellenistic and Roman imperial periods, during which times the intellectual influence of Roman law increasingly became paramount.The formula "law of nature" first appears as "a live metaphor" favored by Latin poets Lucretius, Virgil, Ovid, Manilius, in time gaining a firm theoretical presence in the prose treatises of Seneca and Pliny. Why this Roman origin? According to [historian and classicist Daryn] Lehoux's persuasive narrative, the idea was made possible by the pivotal role of codified law and forensic argument in Roman life and culture. For the Romans ... the place par excellence where ethics, law, nature, religion and politics overlap is the law court. When we read Seneca's Natural Questions, and watch again and again just how he applies standards of evidence, witness evaluation, argument and proof, we can recognize that we are reading one of the great Roman rhetoricians of the age, thoroughly immersed in forensic method. And not Seneca alone. Legal models of scientific judgment turn up all over the place, and for example prove equally integral to Ptolemy's approach to verification, where the mind is assigned the role of


id: outline-of-library-and-information-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_library_and_information_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of library and information science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_library_and_information_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:33.085113+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-library-and-information-science-20260505-0
summary:
  The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to library and information science: Library and information science (LIS) is the scientific study of issues related to libraries and the information fields. This includes academic studies regarding how library resources are used and how people interact with library systems. The organization of knowledge for efficient retrieval of relevant information is also a major research goal of library science. Given its interdisciplinary nature, it overlaps with the fields of computer science, various social sciences, statistics, and systems analysis. == Nature of library and information science == === Definition === Library and information science can be described as all of the following: The study of libraries and information both in terms of theory and practice. Field of science – widely recognized category of specialized expertise within science, and typically embodies its own terminology and nomenclature. Such a field will usually be represented by one or more scientific journals, where peer reviewed research is published. There are many library and information-related scientific journals. Social science – field of academic scholarship that explores aspects of human society. === Essence === Library and information science Library science Information science Glossary of library


id: outline-of-library-and-information-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_library_and_information_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Outline of library and information science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_library_and_information_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:33.085113+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-library-and-information-science-20260505-0
summary:
  === Social issues === Decreased funding for established libraries Digital divide Digitization Education for librarianship Information access Information and communication technologies (ICT's) Sustainability and ICT's Information explosion Information policy Information literacy Information Society Literacy Remote access == Education and training == Education for librarianship – List of I-Schools Academic courses in library science Collection management Cataloging and classification Database management Information architecture Information systems and technology Knowledge management List of Library Science schools Management Preservation Reference Research methods Statistics == Professional organizations == American Association of School Librarians American Library Association Australian Library and Information Association Canadian Library Association Association for Library Service to Children Association of Research Libraries International Federation of Library Associations (IFLA) Public Library Association Special Libraries Association == Non-profit organizations == Librarians Without Borders Bibliothèques Sans Frontières African Library Project Friends of Libraries == Notable people in library science == List of librarians Librarians in popular culture Sanford Berman Daniel J. Boorstin William Warner Bishop Lee Pierce Butler John Cotton Dana Melvil Dewey John Fiske (philosopher) Michael Gorman Seymour Lubetzky Eric Moon Paul Evan Peters S. R. Ranganathan Jesse Shera Howard D. White == List of Topic in Library School == Collection Development Information Literacy Digital


id: list-of-life-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_life_sciences-0.md
category: reference
title: List of life sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_life_sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:34.307787+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-life-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
  This list of life sciences comprises the branches of science that involve the scientific study of life — such as animals (including human beings), microorganisms, and plants. This is one of the two major branches of natural science, the other being physical science, which is concerned with non-living matter. Biology is the overall natural science that studies life, with the other life sciences as its sub-disciplines. Some life sciences focus on a specific type of organism. For example, zoology is the study of animals, while botany is the study of plants. Other life sciences focus on aspects common to all or many life forms, such as anatomy and genetics. Some focus on the micro scale (e.g., molecular biology, biochemistry), while others focus on larger scales (e.g., cytology, immunology, ethology, pharmacy, ecology). Another major branch of life sciences involves understanding the mind—neuroscience. Life-science discoveries are helpful in improving the quality and standard of life and have applications in health, agriculture, medicine, and the pharmaceutical and food science industries. For example, they have provided information on certain diseases, which has helped in the understanding of human health. == Basic life science branches == Biology – scientific study of life Anatomy – study


id: list-of-life-sciences-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_life_sciences-1.md
category: reference
title: List of life sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_life_sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:34.307787+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-life-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
  Agriculture – science and practice of cultivating plants and livestock Agronomy – science of cultivating plants for resources Biocomputers – systems of biologically derived molecules, such as DNA and proteins, are used to perform computational calculations involving storing, retrieving, and processing data. The development of biological computing has been made possible by the expanding new science of nanobiotechnology. Biocontrol – bioeffector-method of controlling pests (including insects, mites, weeds and plant diseases) using other living organisms. Bioengineering – study of biology through the means of engineering with an emphasis on applied knowledge and especially related to biotechnology Bioelectronics – field at the convergence of electronics and biological sciences. The electrical state of biological matter significantly affects its structure and function, compare for instance the membrane potential, the signal transduction by neurons, the isoelectric point (IEP) and so on. Micro- and nano-electronic components and devices have increasingly been combined with biological systems like medical implants, biosensors, lab-on-a-chip devices etc. causing the emergence of this new scientific field. Biomaterials – any matter, surface, or construct that interacts with biological systems. As a science, biomaterials is about fifty years old. The study of biomaterials is called biomaterials science. It has experienced steady and strong


id: list-of-life-sciences-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_life_sciences-2.md
category: reference
title: List of life sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_life_sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:34.307787+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-life-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
  If substances have medicinal properties, they are considered pharmaceuticals. Proteomics – the large-scale study of proteins, particularly their structures and functions. Proteins are vital parts of living organisms, as they are the main components of the physiological metabolic pathways of cells. The proteome is the entire set of proteins, produced or modified by an organism or system. This varies with time and distinct requirements, or stresses, that a cell or organism undergoes. == See also == Outline of biology Divisions of pharmacology Control theory == References == == Further reading == Magner, Lois N. (2002). A history of the life sciences (Rev. and expanded 3rd ed.). New York: M. Dekker. ISBN 0824708245.


id: list-of-agricultural-journals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_agricultural_journals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of agricultural journals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_agricultural_journals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:35.488748+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-agricultural-journals-20260505-0
summary:
  This is a list of agricultural journals which includes notable peer-reviewed scientific journals that publish research in agriculture, agronomy, crop science, soil science, horticulture, plant pathology, animal science, and related fields. == Journals == Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica B African Crop Science Journal African Journal of Range & Forage Science Agricultural and Forest Meteorology Agricultural Economics Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment Agronomy Journal American Journal of Agricultural Economics American Journal of Enology and Viticulture Animal (journal) Annual Review of Phytopathology Aquaculture (journal) Aquaculture International Aquaculture Research Australasian Agribusiness Review BioControl Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry Bulgarian Journal of Agricultural Science Cahiers Agricultures California Agriculture Crop & Pasture Science Crop Science Fisheries Research Folia Horticulturae Hilgardia HortScience Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences Journal of Agrarian Change Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry Journal of Agricultural Economics Journal of Agricultural, Biological and Environmental Statistics The Journal of Agricultural Science Journal of Animal Science Journal of Central European Agriculture Journal of Dairy Science Journal of Experimental Botany Journal of Horticultural Sciences The Journal of Peasant Studies Journal of Plantation Crops Journal of Soil and Water Conservation Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture Open Agriculture Pertanika Journal of Tropical


id: list-of-mechanical-engineering-journals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mechanical_engineering_journals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of mechanical engineering journals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mechanical_engineering_journals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:37.931521+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mechanical-engineering-journals-20260505-0
summary:
  This is a list of mechanical engineering journals which includes peer-reviewed scientific journals that cover research in mechanical systems, acoustics, thermodynamics, electromechanics, fluid mechanics, manufacturing, robotics, and other related fields. == Journals == Applied Mechanics Reviews ASCE-ASME Journal of Risk and Uncertainty in Engineering Systems Experimental Mechanics Heat and Mass Transfer International Journal of Extreme Manufacturing International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture International Journal of Plasticity Jordan Journal of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Journal of Computational and Nonlinear Dynamics Journal of Fluid Mechanics Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer Research Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems Journal of Micro/Nanopatterning, Materials, and Metrology Journal of Sound and Vibration Mechanism and Machine Theory Meccanica Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part C: Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part L == See also == American Society for Precision Engineering International Conference on Robotics and Automation Lists of academic journals List of American Society of Mechanical Engineers academic journals List of engineering awards List of aerospace engineering journals List of engineering journals and magazines List of materials science journals List of mechanical engineering software List of physics journals List of


id: list-of-nuclear-science-journals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nuclear_science_journals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of nuclear science journals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nuclear_science_journals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:39.115427+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-nuclear-science-journals-20260505-0
summary:
  This is a list of nuclear science journals which includes peer-reviewed scientific journals covering nuclear physics, nuclear engineering, reactor design, radiation detection, and related areas of nuclear technology. == Journals == Acta Physica Polonica B Annals of Nuclear Energy Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science Applied Radiation and Isotopes Atomic Data and Nuclear Data Tables Chinese Physics C European Physical Journal A Fusion Engineering and Design Health Physics IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science International Journal of Energy Research International Journal of Radiation Biology Journal of Instrumentation Journal of Physics G Journal of Nuclear Materials Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry Journal of Radiological Protection Magnetohydrodynamics (journal) Nuclear Fusion Nuclear Physics (journal) Nuclear Physics A Nuclear Physics B Nuclear Physics and Atomic Energy Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Nuclear Science and Engineering Nuclear Science and Techniques Nuclear Technology Nukleonik Physical Review and their sub-journals Physical Review Accelerators and Beams Physical Review C Physics Letters B Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion Progress in Nuclear Energy Radiation Measurements Radiation Protection Dosimetry Review of Scientific Instruments == See also == American Nuclear Society International Atomic Energy Agency List of energy journals List of engineering journals and magazines List of physics journals


id: list-of-people-who-achieved-posthumous-recognition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_people_who_achieved_posthumous_recognition-0.md
category: reference
title: List of people who achieved posthumous recognition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_people_who_achieved_posthumous_recognition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:40.250273+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-people-who-achieved-posthumous-recognition-20260505-0
summary:
  This article is a chronological list of people who achieved posthumous recognition, which is the fame, honour, or critical breakthrough bestowed upon them only after their death. The phenomenon appears in many fields, including arts, literature and science, and has been described in cultural and historical studies. The list is organized chronologically by year of birth. Please add to this list people who meet all of the following criteria: People who had limited or small recognition in their lifetime, After their death, their work or actions received a clear growth in recognition through various honours such as prizes, memorials or institutions named after them and so on. Reliable secondary sources, stating that the person became famous only after their death or that their work, even if initially famous, was forgotten but later rediscovered. == Science == == Literature & Poetry == == Art == == Music == == See also == Posthumous fame of Vincent van Gogh Posthumous fame of El Greco Reception of Johann Sebastian Bach's music – History of musical appreciation Posthumous award – Award granted after death Posthumous publication – Publishing a work after the creator's death == References ==


id: list-of-quantum-mechanical-potentials-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_quantum-mechanical_potentials-0.md
category: reference
title: List of quantum-mechanical potentials
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_quantum-mechanical_potentials
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:41.373777+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-quantum-mechanical-potentials-20260505-0
summary:
  This is a list of potential energy functions that are frequently used in quantum mechanics and have any meaning. == One-dimensional potentials == Rectangular potential barrier Delta potential (aka "contact potential") Double delta potential Step potential Periodic potential Barrier potential Gaussian potential Eckart potential == Wells == Quantum well Potential well Finite potential well Infinite potential well Double-well potential Semicircular potential well Circular potential well Spherical potential well Triangular potential well == Interatomic potentials == Interatomic potential Bond order potential EAM potential Coulomb potential Buckingham potential Lennard-Jones potential Morse potential Morse/Long-range potential Rosen–Morse potential Trigonometric Rosen–Morse potential Stockmayer potential Pöschl–Teller potential Axilrod–Teller potential Mie potential == Oscillators == Harmonic potential (harmonic oscillator) Morse potential (morse oscillator) Morse/Long-range potential (Morse/Long-range oscillator) Kratzer potential (Kratzer oscillator) == Quantum Field theory == Yukawa potential Coleman–Weinberg potential Uehling potential Woods–Saxon potential Cornell potential == Miscellaneous == Quantum potential Pseudopotential Superpotential Komar superpotential Kolos–Wolniewicz potential == See also == List of quantum-mechanical systems with analytical solutions List of integrable models


id: list-of-renewable-energy-journals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_renewable_energy_journals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of renewable energy journals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_renewable_energy_journals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:42.575966+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-renewable-energy-journals-20260505-0
summary:
  This is a list of renewable energy journals that focus on topics related to solar energy, wind power, bioenergy, geothermal energy, energy storage, and other renewable energy topics. == Journals == === General renewable and sustainable energy === Applied Energy Energies Energy and Buildings Energy Conversion and Management Energy for Sustainable Development Journal of Cleaner Production Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy Nature Energy Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews Renewable Energy Smart Energy === Solar energy === Progress in Photovoltaics Solar Energy Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells === Wind energy === IET Renewable Power Generation Wind Energy Wind Engineering === Bioenergy and biofuels === Bioresource Technology GCB Bioenergy === Geothermal energy === Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research === Energy systems, storage, and integration === ACS Energy Letters ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering Advanced Energy Materials Batteries Energy Energy & Environmental Science Energy Reports Energy Storage Materials Energy Technology International Journal of Energy Research International Journal of Hydrogen Energy Journal of the Electrochemical Society Journal of Power Sources Joule Nano Energy === Policy and economics === Energy Economics Energy Policy Energy Research & Social Science Resource and Energy Economics The Energy Journal == See also == List of books


id: list-of-science-magazines-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_magazines-0.md
category: reference
title: List of science magazines
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_magazines
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:43.796329+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-science-magazines-20260505-0
summary:
  A science magazine is a periodical publication with news, opinions, and reports about science, generally written for a non-expert audience. In contrast, a periodical publication, usually including primary research and/or reviews, that is written by scientific experts is called a "scientific journal". Science magazines are read by non-scientists and scientists who want accessible information on fields outside their specialization. Articles in science magazines are sometimes republished or summarized by the general press. == Examples of general science magazines == === Africa === === Asia === ==== Bangladesh ==== Byapon – Youth Science Magazine in Bengali Bigganchinta[1] BigganBarta (বিজ্ঞানবার্তা) – Free PDF Science Magazine in Bengali Bangachi (ব্যাঙাচি) – Free Science Magazine in Bengali published by Banger Chhater Biggan Biggan Ananda (বিজ্ঞান আনন্দ) - Published by Bangladesh Science Fiction Society (BSFS) Zero to Infinity (জিরো টু ইনফিনিটি) ==== India ==== Resonance, published by Indian Academy of Sciences Current Science Dream 2047, published by Vigyan Prasar Jnan o Bijnan, published by Bangiya Bijnan Parishad Sandarbh Science Reporter Safari ==== Japan ==== Newton press Nikkei Science ==== Kazakhstan ==== OYLA ==== Pakistan ==== Global Science ==== South Korea ==== Donga Science ==== Turkey ==== Bilim ve Teknik === Europe === EuroScientist ==== Austria


