# kb

id: kyiv-planetarium-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyiv_Planetarium-0.md
category: reference
title: Kyiv Planetarium
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyiv_Planetarium
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:12.465344+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kyiv-planetarium-20260505-0
summary:
Kyiv Planetarium (previously Republican Planetarium; Ukrainian: Київський планетарій) in Kyiv, Ukraine is one of the largest planetaria in former Soviet states. Opened on January 1, 1952, by the initiative of the scientist-astronomer Serhiy Vsekhsviatskiy (1905–1984), the planetarium has a dome of 23.5 meters in diameter, and seats 320 people. In 1987, Kyiv Planetarium moved to new premises on the street. Red Army, 57 /3, (now Velyka Vasylkivska Street 57/3) where it remains to this day. The new building was equipped with an optomechanical projector "Large Zeiss IV», allowing to demonstrate the 6500 stars of the Northern and Southern hemispheres. The planetarium offers lectures on astronomy, geography, natural history. When the children's planetarium astronomical school for students 6–11 years of age and art studio. Kyiv Planetarium is a division of the Society "Knowledge" of Ukraine. == Atmasfera 360 == In December 2011 an entertainment center ATMASFERA 360 was founded on the basis of the planetarium. Specifications of the dome: diameter — 23 meters, the height of the dome — 11.5 meters. It is equipped with a modern 4k digital projection system supplied by a Ukrainian company Front Pictures. The system uses 15 projectors which work on a single Screenberry media server.


id: omni-theatre-science-centre-singapore-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omni-Theatre,_Science_Centre_Singapore-0.md
category: reference
title: Omni-Theatre, Science Centre Singapore
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omni-Theatre,_Science_Centre_Singapore
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:13.633942+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: omni-theatre-science-centre-singapore-20260505-0
summary:
The Omni-Theatre is an observatory and large-format film theatre located at the Science Centre Singapore (formerly Singapore Science Centre) in Jurong East, Singapore. == Facilities == It was officially opened on 10 December 1987 by the 4th President of Singapore Wee Kim Wee as an expansion of the larger Science Centre, it specifically encompasses an observatory, an omniplanetarium, and a domed projection system to show movies relating to science, astronomy, etc. A simulation theatre, exhibition room, classroom, restaurant, and gift shop are also located on the premises. == The Observatory == As one of the few observatories in the world located next to the Equator, constellations in both the northern and southern celestial hemispheres can be observed and thus opens up more vistas in the sky for observers. The main telescope of the Observatory is a 40-cm Cassegrain reflector of combined focal length 520-cm. The sub-telescope is a 15-cm apochromatic Kepler refractor of focal length 180-cm. The equatorial mount for the telescopes was designed for its location; the accompanying English yoke provides the necessary stability for the drive and tracking mechanisms. The 5.5-metre stainless steel dome can be made to swivel in any direction and its shutter can be made


id: planetario-de-montevideo-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetario_de_Montevideo-0.md
category: reference
title: Planetario de Montevideo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetario_de_Montevideo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:14.747385+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: planetario-de-montevideo-20260505-0
summary:
The Planetario de Montevideo (or Montevideo Planetarium; also known as the Surveyor Germán Barbato Municipal Planetarium), is a planetarium in Montevideo, Uruguay. Inaugurated on 11 February 1955, it was the first planetarium in Latin America and all of the southern hemisphere. It has a 18.3 m diameter dome and seats 157 people. Historically, it used a Spitz Model B projector, which in 2016 was the oldest such projector still in working order. The planetarium was renovated in 2017–19, when the Spitz projector was replaced by a digital system; it reopened in December 2019. == References == == External links == Website


id: tycho-brahe-planetarium-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tycho_Brahe_Planetarium-0.md
category: reference
title: Tycho Brahe Planetarium
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tycho_Brahe_Planetarium
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:15.922812+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tycho-brahe-planetarium-20260505-0
summary:
Planetarium (formerly Tycho Brahe Planetarium) is located at the southern end of the lake Skt. Jørgens Sø in Copenhagen, Denmark. It was designed by MAA Knud Munk (1936–2016) and opened on November 1, 1989. == History == The planetarium is built where the Saltlageret theater was previously located. The foundation stone was placed on February 22, 1988, and the planetarium opened on November 1, 1989. The financial basis for building the planetarium was a 50,000,000 DKK donation by the foundation Bodil Pedersen Fonden to the foundation Uraniafonden, which administered the construction of the planetarium. Since 1989, the Bodil Pedersen Fonden has also awarded the annual Tycho Brahe Medaljen. == Exhibition == The exhibition underwent a major renovation in 2017, and the new exhibition Cosmos (formerly Made in Space) opened in February 2018. The exhibition was made in collaboration with Tony-winning, London based designers, 59 Productions, and was made on a donation from the foundation A.P. Møller Fonden. The exhibition is an interactive and including exhibition, telling the story of how all of the elements that make up a human originally came from space. Planetarium is home to the largest lunar rock that can be seen outside the US. Weighing more


id: planetarium-science-center-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetarium_Science_Center-0.md
category: reference
title: Planetarium Science Center
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetarium_Science_Center
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:17.137355+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: planetarium-science-center-20260505-0
summary:
The Planetarium Science Centre (PSC) is a department in the Bibliotheca Alexandrina located in Alexandria, Egypt. It promotes science centers as an educational tool. == Structure == === Pre-Historic Animal Park === The Science Park has a Dinosaur Park that houses models of many prehistoric animals. === ALEXPloratorium === The ALEXPloratorium is located next to the Planetarium, where visitors can interact with multiple exhibits that cover various scientific topics, most commonly physics and astronomy. == Programs and events == The PSC's Remote Sensing Workshop program introduces the scientific principles of remote sensing and offers hands-on applications. The RoboAlex Center at the Alexploratorium offers instruction in robotics. The participating groups design, program, and test robots on a playing field to accomplish certain missions. The result of an alliance between FIRST and LEGO is the FIRST Lego League Challenge (FLL). The FLL is an international hands-on, sport-like robotics program that was intended for children aged 9–14. === Eratosthenes === Eratosthenes is an annual festival that the Bibliotheca Alexandrina organizes to promote science and heritage among school students. The Festivities of 2003–2008 evolved around measuring the Earth's circumference, inspired by the Greek mathematician and poet Eratosthenes. === Intel BASEF === The PSC, in


id: raman-science-centre-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raman_Science_Centre-0.md
category: reference
title: Raman Science Centre
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raman_Science_Centre
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:18.375392+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: raman-science-centre-20260505-0
summary:
The Raman Science Centre and Raman Planetarium Complex at Nagpur is an interactive science centre affiliated with Mumbai's Nehru Science Centre. The centre was developed to promote a scientific attitude, portray the growth of science and technology and their applications in industry and human welfare, and hold science exhibits. The centre is named after famous Nobel Prize winner Indian physicist Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman. The Raman Science Centre was inaugurated on 7 March 1992 and the planetarium was started on 5 January 1997. The centre is located opposite Gandhi Sagar Lake in the heart of Nagpur. Between 1 April 2014 and 31 March 2015, the Centre recorded a visitor count of 582,962. The centre is part of the National Council of Science Museums (NCSM), India, which is the largest network of science centres/museums under a single administrative umbrella in the world. NCSM rates the centre as regional level and it has a total floor area of 4333 sq meters. == Activities == The centre carries out numerous programs to spread science and technology knowledge amongst the general public. The centre inaugurated the Innovation Centre on 14 February 2017 to give opportunities to students who are dedicated to science. The centre, along


id: sri-lanka-planetarium-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lanka_Planetarium-0.md
category: reference
title: Sri Lanka Planetarium
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lanka_Planetarium
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:19.596194+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sri-lanka-planetarium-20260505-0
summary:
Sri Lanka Planetarium (Sinhala: ශ්‍රී ලංකා ග්‍රහලෝකාගාරය) is a public planetarium located in Colombo, Sri Lanka. It is the first and only planetarium in the country and maintained as an institute under the Ministry of Science, Technology and Research. The planetarium was established on 1 February 1965 by the State Engineering Corporation as a special feature for the Ceylon industrial exhibition held in Colombo same year. The planetarium was designed by the chief engineer from the State Engineering Corporation of Ceylon, A. N. S. Kulasinghe, and was constructed by engineers from Germany. The building takes elements from the Liverpool Metropolitan Cathedral (Sir Frederick Gibberd - 1960) and the Cathedral of Brasília (Oscar Niemeyer - 1960). The building has a reinforced concrete floor and a pre-stressed concrete folded plate roof, which was pre-cast on-site. The building was funded by the German Democratic Republic as a gift to Ceylon. The planetarium is 21.33 m (70.0 ft) high and 37.8 m (124 ft) in diameter. The building was refurbished in 2014 at a cost of Rs 200 million and re-opened to the public on 9 December. The planetarium has a digital fully-spherical projector stationed at the centre of the building, which projects an


id: swami-vivekananda-planetarium-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda_Planetarium-0.md
category: reference
title: Swami Vivekananda Planetarium
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda_Planetarium
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:20.803056+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: swami-vivekananda-planetarium-20260505-0
summary:
Swami Vivekananda Planetarium, also called Pilikula Planetarium, at Pilikula Nisargadhama in Mangaluru is a 3D planetarium in India: the first of its kind in the country. It is also the only such planetarium in the country with hybrid modern technology innovations coupled with 3D technology of 8K digital and opto-mechanical (hybrid) projection system. It is a part of the Pilikula Nisargadhama (covering an area of 370 acres (150 ha)), which is also named Dr. Shivaram Karanth Biological Park. Its creation is attributed to Pilikula Regional Science Centre. == History == Swami Vivekananda Planetarium is the first state-of-the-art 3D planetarium in India. It was initiated in 2013 to mark the 150th birth anniversary of Swami Vivekananda by the then chief minister of Karnataka, Jagadish Shettar, who had laid the foundation stone to build it in two years at a cost of ₹35.69 crore (US$3.8 million). However, the project overran its schedule completion, and the planetarium could be opened only on 1 March 2018. It was set up with grants from KSTePS (Karnataka Science and Technology Promotion Society) of the Karnataka government. The planetarium's objective is intended to give the viewers (students in particular and the public) to see the stars and


id: tashkent-planetarium-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tashkent_Planetarium-0.md
category: reference
title: Tashkent Planetarium
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tashkent_Planetarium
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:22.018362+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tashkent-planetarium-20260505-0
summary:
Tashkent Planetarium is one of the newest constructions in Uzbekistan, and is visited by local people and tourists. Tashkent Planetarium provides visitors with the opportunity to look at outer space, even in the morning, and enlarge their knowledge about the cosmos and the whole universe. == About == Tashkent Planetarium was established by edict No.649 of "Cabinet of Ministers of Republic Uzbekistan" on 3 November 2003, by decision of Tashkent city municipality of 7 November 2003 No.748. The Planetarium is nowadays controlled by the controlling unit of Tashkent city municipality which focuses on culture and sport. There are two main halls at the Planetarium, and each hall has its own functions. The first hall is mainly built for showing the Solar System and space, using Japanese technologies. The second hall contains artefacts, where visitors can learn more about specific planets and about Earth. In 2008 a group of scientists at Tashkent Planetarium discovered the new planet "Samarkand". == See also == State Museum of History of Uzbekistan The Museum of Health Care of Uzbekistan The Museum of Communication History in Uzbekistan Museum of Arts of Uzbekistan Tashkent Museum of Railway Techniques Museum of Geology, Tashkent Art Gallery of Uzbekistan The


id: w-a-gayle-planetarium-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._A._Gayle_Planetarium-0.md
category: reference
title: W. A. Gayle Planetarium
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._A._Gayle_Planetarium
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:23.197681+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: w-a-gayle-planetarium-20260505-0
summary:
The W.A. Gayle Planetarium is operated by the Montgomery Zoo for the city of Montgomery, Alabama. It provides public presentations and exhibits on astronomy, planetary science, and space exploration. == Overview == The W.A. Gayle Planetarium is a planetarium located in Oak Park in the city of Montgomery, Alabama. Dedicated on September 25, 1968, the planetarium is named after William Armistead Gayle, mayor of Montgomery from 1952 to 1959. It was previously operated by Troy University for the City of Montgomery from 1972 to 2022. The planetarium reopened to the public at the end of January 2024 after a shutdown during COVID-19 and a transfer of management responsibilities from Troy University back to the City of Montgomery. As of June 2024, public shows are offered on each Saturday with shows at 10 am, 11:30 am, 1 pm, and 2:30 pm. Tickets can be purchased at the planetarium gift shop on Saturdays 15-20 minutes before the start of each show. Group reservations (10 or more people) can be obtained by contacting the planetarium office directly and are provided by appointment Tuesdays - Fridays. The planetarium is closed on Sundays and Mondays. Public and group shows typically offer visitors a full-dome movie


id: lists-of-research-stations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_research_stations-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of research stations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_research_stations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:25.874593+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-research-stations-20260505-0
summary:
Lists of research stations provide indexes to research stations in a particular region. They include: List of space stations Research stations in Antarctica List of research stations in the Arctic Refer to category:Research stations for a complete list of articles on research stations.


id: research-station-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_station-0.md
category: reference
title: Research station
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_station
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:27.087380+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: research-station-20260505-0
summary:
Research stations are facilities where scientific investigation, collection, analysis and experimentation occurs. A research station is a facility that is built for the purpose of conducting scientific research. There are also many types of research stations including: biological field stations, space stations etc. Research station sites might include remote areas of the world, oceans, as well as outer space, such as the International Space Station. Biological research stations developed during a time of European colonization and imperialism where naturalists were employed to conduct observations on fauna and flora. Today, the discipline is represented by a number of organizations which span across multiple continents. Some examples include: the Organization of Biological Field Stations and the Organization for Tropical Studies. Space stations were also developed over a number of decades through scientific analysis and writing, with the first design aspects of early space stations being introduced by Herman Potocnik in 1928. Since then, the construction and launch of space stations have been both national and international, collaborative efforts which have allowed different design philosophies to form key space stations such as the International Space Station (ISS). Similarly, stations in Antarctica are built to ensure that they are well insulated against the sub-zero


id: research-station-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_station-1.md
category: reference
title: Research station
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_station
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:27.087380+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: research-station-20260505-0
summary:
=== Space stations === Space stations are not stationary buildings unlike normal research stations on Earth, they are specially created mobile spacecraft that are built to allow a group of human researchers and crew to inhabit over a span of anywhere from months and even a year. Space stations are intended to be permanently operating in space unlike other kinds of space craft such as satellites. However, it may not be permanently inhabited by human researchers who may come and go as they cycle through different explorations. Space stations are typically controlled by their own respective space agency and country. The design for space stations evolved over multiple decades. The engineering and design aspects of a space station was first introduced by Herman Potocnik in 1928. His "Wohnrad" also known as "Living Wheel" consisted of a rotating wheel-shaped space station consisting of three parts: a habitat rotation wheel, an observatory, and a machine room. The Wohnrad's habitat wheel consisted of habitation units, laboratories and observatories which would measure 30 meters in diameter and whose centrifugal force would generate a sense of gravity for the crew members. The theme of gravity being artificially produced through the rotation of the space station


id: research-station-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_station-2.md
category: reference
title: Research station
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_station
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:27.087380+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: research-station-20260505-0
summary:
These research stations are built to accommodate for the sub-zero climatic conditions of the region as well as considering the placement and construction of it building itself. Antarctic research stations need to be built in a manner to minimize issues such as insulation, freezing of concrete during the building process and the potential for the accumulation of drifting snow. The process of the construction of research stations on the continent evolved over time to address these issues. Early research bases in Antarctica used by prominent explorers such as Ernest Shackleton and Roald Amundsen during the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration consisted of wooden huts and tents. It was not until post World War II when research stations began to be built on a wider and more commercial scale. These post war research stations were made with the aim to be quickly erected and it was often constructed by individuals with little construction experience and knowledge. Research stations during this time were made up of standard cool room panels and utilized expanded Bakelite insulation. This model later evolved to be elevated buildings held aloft by steel scaffolding. This was done in an attempt to address the issue of accumulation of drifting


id: agumbe-rainforest-research-station-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agumbe_Rainforest_Research_Station-0.md
category: reference
title: Agumbe Rainforest Research Station
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agumbe_Rainforest_Research_Station
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:28.284682+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: agumbe-rainforest-research-station-20260505-0
summary:
The Agumbe Rainforest Research Station (ARRS) is a field based conservation and research organisation situated inside the Agumbe Reserved Forest at Agumbe in the central Western Ghats of southern India. The Agumbe Reserved Forests receives an annual rainfall in excess of 7,000 mm (280 in) and is at an elevation of about 823 m (2,700 ft) above sea level. It forms a part of the Malnad-Kodagu corridor, which also includes the Someshwara, Mookambika, Bhadra, and Sharavati Wildlife Sanctuaries, Kudremukh National Park, and various other forest tracts and reserve forests around Kundapur, Shankaranarayana, Hosanagara, Sringeri, and Thirthahalli. == History == ARRS was founded in 2005, by leading Indian herpetologist Romulus Whitaker. Whitaker saw his very first king cobra (Ophiophagus Kaalinga) here in 1971. He was also extremely taken by the reverence the people in the region showed for snakes, which was a major factor that drove him to establish a research station in Agumbe (Karnataka ). The land is a revenue land was legally procured, the construction and activities are eco friendly and pose no disturbance to the wildlife. == Activities == ARRS managed the world's first radio-telemetry project on the King Cobra (Ophiophagus hannah, Ophiophagus kalinga), which is also the


id: alfred-faure-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Faure-0.md
category: reference
title: Alfred Faure
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Faure
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:29.459309+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alfred-faure-20260505-0
summary:
Alfred-Faure or Port Alfred is a permanent French scientific station on Île de la Possession (Possession Island) of the subantarctic Crozet Archipelago of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands in the South Indian Ocean. == Research station == The station is located at the eastern end of the island on a plateau 143 m (460 ft) above sea level. Depending on the season, there are 15 to 60 personnel living and working at the base. Their scientific work includes meteorological, seismic, biological and geological research. It was first established during the austral summer of 1963–1964, replacing a temporary scientific base built in 1961. The new station was named after Alfred Faure, the site's leader in the early 1960s. Alfred-Faure is visited a few times a year by the Marion Dufresne, an oceanographic research vessel which delivers supplies and rotating crews of scientists. There is a 1.6 km road that connects the research station to the coast. == Climate == Alfred Faure Station has a very mild tundra climate (Koppen ET) with cool to cold summers and cold (but still averaging above freezing) winters. Due to its oceanic location near the subpolar low, it has a very cloudy and rainy climate


id: alice-holt-research-station-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice_Holt_Research_Station-0.md
category: reference
title: Alice Holt Research Station
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice_Holt_Research_Station
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:30.643113+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alice-holt-research-station-20260505-0
summary:
The Alice Holt Research Station is one of two British forestry research institutes, and is located in north-east Hampshire. == History == It was established as a Forestry Research Station in 1946 by the Forestry Commission near Wrecclesham. The forest estate had 1,225,000 acres. By the late 1950s it had an international reputation. A £134,000 extension was opened in the summer of 1959, which enable the Commission to have its central seed store at the site for varieties such as Douglas-fir, Sitka spruce, Corsican pine, and Norway spruce. The store was mostly for conifers, keeping seeds up to four years. and also acorns had been stored up to three years. More laboratories were added in the late 1970s. === Research === In 1948, it began experimenting with Metasequoia glyptostroboides, the dawn redwood, with a view to produce timber. In the late 1950s, its scientists were among the first people to investigate biological data with computers, when they discovered why the Douglas-fir did not grow well in south-east England, which they found was due to temperature and rooting depth. It was through computers that many solutions were found. The station found a new way to determine daily tree growth with vernier


id: aragats-cosmic-ray-research-station-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aragats_Cosmic_Ray_Research_Station-0.md
category: reference
title: Aragats Cosmic Ray Research Station
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aragats_Cosmic_Ray_Research_Station
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:31.856347+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aragats-cosmic-ray-research-station-20260505-0
summary:
The Aragats Cosmic Ray Research Station was founded in 1943 by Artem and Abraham Alikhanians (Abram Alikhanov), during World War II, to study cosmic ray and particle physics. It is located on Mount Aragats in Armenia, at an elevation of 3,200 meters, near Kari Lake. == History == Research on cosmic rays at Aragats started with a 1934 study by the Leningrad Physical-Technical Institute, focusing on how cosmic rays differ from East to West. Norair Kocharian from Yerevan State University later added to this research. These early findings led Artem and Abraham Alikhanians to set up a more detailed study in 1942. the station has been operational with minimal interruption since establishment. Since it was set up, the Aragats station has made contributions to studying cosmic rays including the fields of High-Energy Particle Physics, Astrophysics, and Space Weather. In its early stages, the station used mass spectrometry to study the properties of charged particles, contributed by the Alikhanyan brothers. This work, which took about 15 years, helped improve methods for analyzing masses and identifying cosmic ray protons. The idea of 'varitrons,' proposed during this time, aroused discussions in the science community about elementary particles, even though not all findings were


id: banff-international-research-station-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banff_International_Research_Station-0.md
category: reference
title: Banff International Research Station
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banff_International_Research_Station
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:33.052268+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: banff-international-research-station-20260505-0
summary:
The Banff International Research Station (BIRS) for Mathematical Innovation and Discovery was established in 2003. It provides an independent research institute for the mathematical sciences in North America, a counterpart to the Oberwolfach Research Institute for Mathematics in Europe. The research station, commonly known by its acronym, "BIRS", hosts over 2000 international scientists each year to undertake research collaboration in the mathematical sciences. == Research activities == The research that takes place at the Banff International Research Station is either in pure mathematics, applied mathematics, or in other areas of science where they intersect with mathematics. "BIRS embraces all aspects of the mathematical, computational and statistical sciences from the most fundamental challenges of pure and applied mathematics, theoretical and applied computer science, statistics, and mathematical physics, to financial and industrial mathematics, as well as the mathematics of information technology, and the life sciences." There is a wide range of research publications citing lectures, meetings and reports from BIRS. == Research program == The Banff International Research Station hosts five types of meetings: 5-Day Workshops: These make up the core program at BIRS, with up to 42 participants per workshop, 48 weeks per year. Some workshops have only 21 participants, and


id: bely-rast-high-voltage-research-station-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bely_Rast_High_Voltage_Research_Station-0.md
category: reference
title: Bely Rast High Voltage Research Station
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bely_Rast_High_Voltage_Research_Station
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:34.229690+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bely-rast-high-voltage-research-station-20260505-0
summary:
Bely Rast High Voltage Research Station (Russian: Белый Раст) is a facility for the development of high voltage equipment in Russia, situated at Bely Rast, Moscow Oblast near the eponymous station of the Greater Ring of the Moscow Railway. Built in 1966, the equipment of the 750 kV- and 1150 kV-lines in Russia and other parts of the former Soviet Union were first developed and tested at this facility, as well as the equipment for the never completed HVDC Ekibastuz–Centre. The facility also has an unused 1150 kV AC and a 1500 kV DC line. The DC line was the prototype of the never finished HVDC Ekibastuz–Centre. == References == == External links == Wikimap of Bely Rast Research Station


id: bocas-del-toro-research-station-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bocas_del_Toro_Research_Station-0.md
category: reference
title: Bocas del Toro Research Station
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bocas_del_Toro_Research_Station
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:35.751351+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bocas-del-toro-research-station-20260505-0
summary:
The Bocas del Toro Research Station (BRS) is a field station of the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (STRI) on Panama’s western Caribbean coast, is a platform for both marine and terrestrial biodiversity research. The station hosts a diverse group of scientists from more than 20 countries, every year. Activities at the station contribute to the Smithsonian Institution’s primary mission: the increase and diffusion of knowledge. Visiting scientists are engaged in research on the biodiversity, ecology, paleontology and archaeology of the Bocas del Toro region. Educational and outreach activities range from hosting K-12 school groups, to specialized training for international graduate students. Founded in 1998, the BRS campus has provided field accommodation since 2002 and a fully operational research laboratory since 2003. The facilities now include a running seawater system, a new dock, boat ramp, and additional support facilities, as well as two houses to accommodate visiting researchers. The BRS is arguably the preeminent field station in the Caribbean. Visiting scientists hold lectures that are open to the public. == Outreach, education, and training == Outreach and education at the Bocas del Toro Research Station spans a range of programs targeting K-12 students, university undergraduates, graduate students and young professionals. K-12


id: born-marine-research-station-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bornö_Marine_Research_Station-0.md
category: reference
title: Bornö Marine Research Station
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bornö_Marine_Research_Station
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:36.924104+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: born-marine-research-station-20260505-0
summary:
Bornö Marine Research Station, owned by the Bornö Institute for Ocean and Climate Studies, is located at Holma on the island Stora Bornö in Gullmarsfjorden, about 100 km (62 mi) north of Gothenburg, Sweden. It was built in 1902 by Otto Pettersson and Gustaf Ekman, both pioneers of Swedish marine research. The island has been considered by many Swedes to be the birthplace of Swedish oceanography. == Description == The station grounds, covering 19,000 m2 (200,000 sq ft), are a nature reserve. It is currently owned and operated by a foundation named the Bornö Institute for Ocean and Climate Studies and provides educational facilities for the University of Gothenburg. It is also available to let to companies or organizations for field courses, research, instrument development or national and international meetings. The upper floors contain eight bedrooms housing 15 beds, as well as two kitchens. On the ground floor are four office spaces and a lecture hall with accommodations for 25 people. == History == The station was originally built in response to the agreements of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) signed in Copenhagen in 1902 between Denmark, Finland, Germany, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Russia, and


id: cass-field-station-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cass_Field_Station-0.md
category: reference
title: Cass Field Station
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cass_Field_Station
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:38.165499+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cass-field-station-20260505-0
summary:
Cass Field Station is a biological and geological research facility operated by the University of Canterbury located near the railway settlement of Cass, in the Canterbury high-country of New Zealand. It was founded in 1914 as the Cass Mountain Biological Station and was operated for many years by the university's Department of Botany. A significant body of research generated by the station has tracked biological change in the area for over 100 years. == History == In 1873 the Canterbury Provincial Government endowed what was then known as Canterbury College with land in the Cass region to create a source of income. By the early 20th century, botanist Leonard Cockayne felt the need for a high-country research station and approached Charles Chilton, Professor of Biology at Canterbury College, and Geology lecturer Robert Speight. The original site selected in 1908 was Broken River, the terminus of the railway line from Christchurch, after which passengers switched to coaches to cross Arthur's Pass and reach the West Coast. By 1910 the railroad had extended to the railway camp of Cass, so the Canterbury College Board selected 10 acres of land there adjacent to Lake Sarah as the site for a research station. In


id: cass-field-station-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cass_Field_Station-1.md
category: reference
title: Cass Field Station
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cass_Field_Station
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:38.165499+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cass-field-station-20260505-0
summary:
== Research == As early as 1926 the Dutch geneticist J.P. Lotsy stressed the importance of hybrid plant collections from Cass and their potential use in evolutionary studies. Cockayne, in 1927, agreed that the area's polymorphic plant hybrids had value for evolutionary theory, and Swedish lichenologist G.E. Du Rietz also recognised the important role of Cass Station for plant research. In 1958 Philipson and Garth Brownlie published The Flora of Cass, which included articles on history, geology, soils, climate and vegetation over time. Cass: History and Science in the Cass District, Canterbury, New Zealand, a more comprehensive collection of articles by a wide range of authors, was compiled by Colin Burrows and published in 1977. In 1976–8 American botanist Richard Primack conducted research on flower pollination at Cass and two nearby sites (and also Aoraki / Mt Cook), collecting and interpreting data on flower visits by insects. In 2001 the Fulbright Scholar Scott Wissinger studied the freshwater invertebrate communities of lakes and tarns in and around Cass. Jason Tylianakis in 2008 began a study investigating the effects of climate change on tussocks and their associated invertebrates with a large soil warming experiment. == Publications == The following is a selection


id: central-sierra-field-research-stations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Sierra_Field_Research_Stations-0.md
category: reference
title: Central Sierra Field Research Stations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Sierra_Field_Research_Stations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:39.350468+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: central-sierra-field-research-stations-20260505-0
summary:
The Central Sierra Field Research Stations—CSFRS is a regional group of University of California, Berkeley field research & education reserves located on both sides of the crest of the Sierra Nevada range, north of Lake Tahoe in California. Several of the University of California Natural Reserve System—UCNRS reserves in the Central Sierra Field Research Stations—CSFRS lie within the headwaters of the North Fork of the American River. == History == On September 26, 2006, a consortium of land owners & managers including: the North Fork Association, Chickering Partnership, United States Forest Service Tahoe National Forest, Pacific Southwest Research Station of the U.S. Forest Service, and the Regents of the University of California signed a Conservation and Research Agreement addressing future cooperative management of the approximately 19,670 acres (79.6 km2) of public & private lands in this watershed. == Field research stations & education reserves == Central Sierra Field Research Stations—CSFRS entities include: Sagehen Creek Field Station Central Sierra Snow Laboratory Onion Creek Experimental Watershed North Fork Association Lands Chickering American River Reserve Sagehen Creek Field Station serves as the hub of this network, offering accessible accommodations, classrooms, support and resources — which are unavailable at the other, sometimes remote CSFRS


id: como-national-park-research-station-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comoé_National_Park_Research_Station-0.md
category: reference
title: Comoé National Park Research Station
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comoé_National_Park_Research_Station
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:40.555472+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: como-national-park-research-station-20260505-0
summary:
The Comoé National Park Research Station, located in the Comoé National Park, Côte d'Ivoire, was founded by Professor Karl Eduard Linsenmair, a German biologist, in 1989/90. The research station was forced to close after the outbreak of the First Ivorian Civil War in 2002. After the end of the Second Ivorian Civil War in 2011 repairs at the station began and in 2014 the station had achieved again its full working capacity. The focus of the field based research is on conservation, tropical ecology and behaviour. == History == In 1989/90 a first research camp was realized with substantial funding provided by the Volkswagen Stiftung, the University of Würzburg and the respective Ministry (Bayerisches Staatsministerium für Bildung und Kultus, Wissenschaft und Kunst). A successful application for a research grant by Linsenmair at the Fritz Thyssen Foundation led to the expansion and transformation into a permanent station, after various bureaucratic hurdles in Germany and Côte d'Ivoire, which delayed the construction of the field station approximately 8 years. Construction started in 2000 and in early 2002 all guesthouses and other buildings apart from the lab were finished and a move from the camp to the new station was possible. The outbreak of


id: fleringe-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleringe-0.md
category: reference
title: Fleringe
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleringe
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:42.455893+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fleringe-20260505-0
summary:
Fleringe is a populated area, a socken (not to be confused with parish), on the Swedish island of Gotland. It comprises the same area as the administrative Fleringe District, established on 1 January 2016. == Community == The name is known since 1304 as Fledynge, the first part flaidh meaning "tear or wound" is figuratively used for "hills" or "wound in the landscape", such "wounds" can be found north and northwest of the church, and the last part inge meaning "inhabitants". Fleringe is situated on the north coast of the main island, Gotland, west of Fårösund and right by Lake Bästeträsk. Fleringe is mostly forested land. A number of grave mounds and stone circles from the bronze age can be found at Fleringe. The medieval Fleringe Church is located in Fleringe. As of 2019, Fleringe Church belongs to Bunge-Rute-Fleringe parish in Norra Gotlands pastorat, along with the churches in Bunge and Rute . One of the asteroids in the Asteroid belt, 9359 Fleringe, is named after this place. == Limestone industry == From 1650, and peaking during the 1920s, the area around Fleringe contained many industries connected to the limestone industry on Gotland. The limestone industry closed down in 1990.


id: fowlers-gap-arid-zone-research-station-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fowlers_Gap_Arid_Zone_Research_Station-0.md
category: reference
title: Fowlers Gap Arid Zone Research Station
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fowlers_Gap_Arid_Zone_Research_Station
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:43.659927+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fowlers-gap-arid-zone-research-station-20260505-0
summary:
The Fowlers Gap Arid Zone Research Station is teaching and research facility, established by the UNSW Australia (UNSW), which is located in the Australian state of New South Wales. in Fowlers Gap in the far north-west of the state. The station is located about 112 kilometres (70 mi) north of Broken Hill. It occupies Western Lands Lease No. 10194, an area of 38,888 hectares (96,090 acres), and has been used by scientists in fields ranging from zoology to agriculture, palaeontology and environmental science. The facility has also hosted art and design students on field trips from the university, using purpose-built facilities, including studios. == Features == The property has been held since 1966 by the UNSW on a lease in perpetuity. It is administered by the UNSW Faculty of Science.The lease enables studies of the arid-zone environment, particularly in relation to impacts on the pastoral industry. Fowlers Gap is the only research station in the arid zone of New South Wales. Areas have been monitored and data collected continuously, in some cases for over 30 years. With a varied collection of meeting places, dormitories, cottages and camping sites it can handle reasonably large visiting groups and small conferences. Research has


id: heron-island-queensland-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heron_Island_(Queensland)-0.md
category: reference
title: Heron Island (Queensland)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heron_Island_(Queensland)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:44.850290+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: heron-island-queensland-20260505-0
summary:
Heron Island is a coral cay located near the Tropic of Capricorn in the southern Great Barrier Reef. It is 87 kilometres (54 miles) north-east of Gladstone, Queensland, Australia, and 460 km (290 mi) north-north-west of the state capital Brisbane. The island is situated on the leeward (western) side of Heron Reef, a fringing platform reef of significant biodiversity, supporting around 900 of the 1,500 fish species and 72% of the coral species found on the Great Barrier Reef. During the summer months Heron Island is also home to over 200,000 birds including Noddy Terns and Mutton Birds. The island is about 800 metres (2,600 feet) long and 300 metres (980 ft) at its widest, giving an area of approximately 16 hectares (40 acres). The highest point, near the western tip, is 3.6 metres (12 ft) above sea level. A dune ridge along the southern shore rises some 3 metres (9 ft 10 in) above sea level, lower dunes on the north-eastern side are only about one metre (3 ft 3 in) above the sea. Heron Island and an extrapolated version of the research station are the scene of much of the first part of Arthur C. Clarke's The Deep


id: heron-island-queensland-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heron_Island_(Queensland)-1.md
category: reference
title: Heron Island (Queensland)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heron_Island_(Queensland)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:44.850290+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: heron-island-queensland-20260505-0
summary:
Rich forests of Pisonia grandis dominate the centre and south of Heron Island. Towards the eastern and north-western ends, the forest is readily accessible, but its heart is a dense tangle, interrupted only by a few trails. Some trees in the heart of the forest grow to 10–11 m, but most are just 6–8 m high. The understory is largely absent here, formed only by scattered Celtis paniculata, Ficus opposita and Pipturus argenteus with a height of 2–4 m; some Celtis also grow higher and emerge through the Pisonia canopy. Patches of shrubs – mainly Abutilon albescens, with Wollastonia biflora (probably var. canescens), and the introduced wild poinsettia (Euphorbia cyathophora) – are found here and there. Herbaceous plants are scarce here, mainly consisting of the grass Stenotaphrum micranthum. The more open forest is composed of much the same plants, but the Pisonia does not predominate as much. A few Pandanus tectorius screwpines are also found here, and the understory is far more prominent. North of the Pisonia forest, a band of open shrubland with some trees extends from the resort to the island's eastern tip. Octopus bush (Heliotropium foertherianum) and sea cabbage (Scaevola taccada) form the major bush cover, while


id: heron-island-queensland-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heron_Island_(Queensland)-2.md
category: reference
title: Heron Island (Queensland)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heron_Island_(Queensland)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:44.850290+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: heron-island-queensland-20260505-0
summary:
At least one species of rat, probably the widespread polynesian rat (Rattus exulans), is found on the island. Though even these small rats are known to harm island birds, this is insignificant on islands so close to a continent; while the rats probably feed on eggs and nestlings, they do not threaten the breeding bird populations as a whole. Heron Island is also a major nesting site for green (Chelonia mydas) and Indopacific loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta gigas). Around 98% of all turtles that nest on the island are green turtles, and only 2% of them will be loggerheads. The Indopacific hawksbill sea turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata bissa) has been seen on the reef but does not breed on the island. Other marine life includes the inhabitants of the coral reef, and around early October, cetaceans (e.g. humpback whales, Megaptera novaeangliae) pass Heron Island on their migration to their summer quarters in subantarctic waters. As of June 2020, the Turtle Cooling Project is being undertaken by scientists from the World Wildlife Fund Australia, University of Queensland, Deakin University and the Queensland Government. It is looking at the effect of global warming on northern green turtle breeding, in particular the effect


id: high-frequency-active-auroral-research-program-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-frequency_Active_Auroral_Research_Program-0.md
category: reference
title: High-frequency Active Auroral Research Program
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-frequency_Active_Auroral_Research_Program
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:46.051484+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: high-frequency-active-auroral-research-program-20260505-0
summary:
The High-frequency Active Auroral Research Program (HAARP) is a University of Alaska Fairbanks program which researches the ionosphere – the highest, ionized part of Earth's atmosphere. The most prominent instrument at HAARP is the Ionospheric Research Instrument (IRI), a high-power radio frequency transmitter facility operating in the high frequency (HF) band. The IRI is used to temporarily excite a limited area of the ionosphere. Other instruments, such as a VHF and a UHF radar, a fluxgate magnetometer, a digisonde (an ionospheric sounding device), and an induction magnetometer, are used to study the physical processes that occur in the excited region. Work on the HAARP facility began in 1993. Initially HAARP was jointly funded by the U.S. Air Force, the U.S. Navy, the University of Alaska Fairbanks, and the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). It was designed and built by BAE Advanced Technologies. Its original purpose was to analyze the ionosphere and investigate the potential for developing ionospheric enhancement technology for radio communications and surveillance. Since 2015 it has been operated by the University of Alaska Fairbanks. The current working IRI was completed in 2007; its prime contractor was BAE Systems Advanced Technologies. As of 2008, HAARP had incurred around


id: high-frequency-active-auroral-research-program-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-frequency_Active_Auroral_Research_Program-1.md
category: reference
title: High-frequency Active Auroral Research Program
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-frequency_Active_Auroral_Research_Program
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:46.051484+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: high-frequency-active-auroral-research-program-20260505-0
summary:
== Research == HAARP's main goal is basic science research in the uppermost portion of the atmosphere, termed the ionosphere. Essentially a transition between the atmosphere and the magnetosphere, the ionosphere is where the atmosphere is thin enough that the Sun's X-rays and UV rays can reach it, but thick enough that there are enough molecules present to absorb those rays. Consequently, the ionosphere consists of a rapid increase in density of free electrons, beginning at ~70 km, reaching a peak at ~300 km, and then falling off again as the atmosphere disappears entirely by ~1,000 km. Various aspects of HAARP can study all of the main layers of the ionosphere. The profile of the ionosphere is highly variable, changing constantly on timescales of minutes, hours, days, seasons, and years. This profile becomes even more complex near Earth's magnetic poles, where the nearly vertical alignment and intensity of Earth's magnetic field can cause physical effects like the aurora. The ionosphere is traditionally very difficult to measure. Balloons cannot reach it because the air is too thin, but satellites cannot orbit there because the air is too thick. Hence, most experiments on the ionosphere give only small pieces of information. HAARP


id: high-frequency-active-auroral-research-program-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-frequency_Active_Auroral_Research_Program-2.md
category: reference
title: High-frequency Active Auroral Research Program
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-frequency_Active_Auroral_Research_Program
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:46.051484+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: high-frequency-active-auroral-research-program-20260505-0
summary:
== Instrumentation and operation == The main instrument at HAARP is the Ionospheric Research Instrument (IRI). This is a high-power, high-frequency phased array radio transmitter with a set of 180 antennas, disposed in an array of 12×15 units that occupy a rectangle of about 30–40 acres (12–16 hectares). The IRI is used to temporarily energize a small portion of the ionosphere. The study of these disturbed volumes yields important information for understanding natural ionospheric processes. During active ionospheric research, the signal generated by the transmitter system is delivered to the antenna array and transmitted in an upward direction. At an altitude between 70 and 350 km (43 and 217 mi) (depending on operating frequency), the signal is partially absorbed in a small volume several tens of kilometers in diameter and a few meters thick over the IRI. The intensity of the HF signal in the ionosphere is less than 3 μW/cm2, tens of thousands of times less than the Sun's natural electromagnetic radiation reaching the Earth and hundreds of times less than even the normal random variations in intensity of the Sun's natural ultraviolet (UV) energy which creates the ionosphere. The small effects that are produced can be observed with


id: high-frequency-active-auroral-research-program-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-frequency_Active_Auroral_Research_Program-3.md
category: reference
title: High-frequency Active Auroral Research Program
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-frequency_Active_Auroral_Research_Program
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:46.051484+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: high-frequency-active-auroral-research-program-20260505-0
summary:
HAARP is the subject of numerous conspiracy theories. Various individuals have speculated about hidden motivations and capabilities of the project. For example, Rosalie Bertell warned in 1996 about the deployment of HAARP as a military weapon. Michel Chossudovsky stated in a book published by the Committee on Monetary and Economic Reform that "recent scientific evidence suggests that HAARP is fully operational and has the capability of triggering floods, hurricanes, droughts and earthquakes." Over time, HAARP has been blamed for generating such catastrophes, as well as thunderstorms, in Iran, Pakistan, Haiti, Turkey, Greece and the Philippines, and even major power outages, the downing of TWA Flight 800, Gulf War syndrome, and chronic fatigue syndrome. Allegations include the following: Nick Begich Jr., the son of the late U.S. Representative Nick Begich Sr., brother of former U.S. Senator Mark Begich and retired Alaska state senator Tom Begich, and father of current U.S. Representative Nick Begich III is the co-author of Angels Don't Play This HAARP. He has claimed that the HAARP facility could trigger earthquakes and turn the upper atmosphere into a giant lens so that "the sky would literally appear to burn." He maintains a website that claims HAARP is a mind


id: high-frequency-active-auroral-research-program-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-frequency_Active_Auroral_Research_Program-4.md
category: reference
title: High-frequency Active Auroral Research Program
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-frequency_Active_Auroral_Research_Program
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:46.051484+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: high-frequency-active-auroral-research-program-20260505-0
summary:
== In popular culture == HAARP gave rise to a live album by the rock band Muse and became the theme of novels like La Route de Gakona by Jean-Paul Jody. HAARP is the key plot point in Breaking Point of Tom Clancy's Net Force (2000), where it is used to induce group madness. The HAARP facility appears in the 2004 video game X-Men Legends. In the game, the X-Men track the Brotherhood of Mutants to HAARP. The facility is significantly different from its real life counterpart, with snowy valleys around it and vast icy tunnels below. It is guarded by an extensive security force, including armed guards and tanks. The X-Men eventually locate the Brotherhood and learn that sensitive information, including the location of Magneto's imprisonment, is kept in the HAARP computers. Season 1, episode 11, of the UPN TV series Seven Days was titled "HAARP Attack". It was broadcast on January 27, 1999. The HAARP played a major part in the G.I. Joe: Resolute miniseries. In it, Cobra was able to weaponize the lab to create a Particle Cannon and threaten the world to surrender to them. Though it was freed from Destro and Baroness, Cobra possessed a


id: hr-wallingford-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HR_Wallingford-0.md
category: reference
title: HR Wallingford
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HR_Wallingford
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:47.212521+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hr-wallingford-20260505-0
summary:
HR Wallingford Ltd is an engineering and research organisation based in the United Kingdom with a focus on civil engineering and environmental hydraulics. It was created by the UK Department of Scientific and Industrial Research in 1947, to deal with 'looser boundary' problems such as coastal erosion, flood protection, and the silting and scouring of rivers, estuaries and harbours. HR Wallingford was a government establishment until 1982, when it was privatised from the Department of the Environment to become Hydraulics Research Station Limited. It became known as HR Wallingford in 1991. During its existence, it has contributed to advance hydraulics research. It also worked on water-related projects in the UK and around the world. == History == 1945 – The Institution of Civil Engineers submitted a proposal to the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research on the need for a hydraulics research station in the UK. 1947 – DSIR Hydraulic Research Organisation formed in London 1951 – Hydraulics Research Station established in Wallingford 1965 – Re-organisation into Ministry of Technology. Hydrological Research Unit transferred to the Natural Environment Research Council and later to become Institute of Hydrology and then Centre for Ecology and Hydrology 1971 – Transfer to the Department


id: ieodo-ocean-research-station-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ieodo_Ocean_Research_Station-0.md
category: reference
title: Ieodo Ocean Research Station
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ieodo_Ocean_Research_Station
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:48.418265+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ieodo-ocean-research-station-20260505-0
summary:
Ieodo Ocean Research Station is an ocean platform constructed by South Korea and placed on the submerged Socotra Rock in the East China Sea. The stated purpose of the platform is the collection of meteorological data, provision for maritime safety, and fisheries monitoring. However, as South Korea and China both claim that Socotra Rock lies in their respective Exclusive Economic Zones, the platform has strategic geopolitical importance. The platform was officially opened in June 2003. The platform has a helipad and five lower decks for equipment and workspace. Although the station has residential facilities that can comfortably accommodate 8 people for 15 days, the station is typically uninhabited and operated remotely. While Socotra Rock rises to a maximum of 4.6m below sea level, the platform is founded on a portion of the rock that is substantially deeper, at 40m below sea level. As a result, the platform is approximately 700m from the rock's "peak." The platform rises approximately 36m above sea level. == References ==


id: kalamos-island-biological-field-station-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalamos_Island_biological_field_station-0.md
category: reference
title: Kalamos Island biological field station
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalamos_Island_biological_field_station
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:49.618212+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kalamos-island-biological-field-station-20260505-0
summary:
The Kalamos Island biological field station is a research station located in the island Kalamos, in the Ionian Sea, in Western Greece. It is situated in the core of the inner Ionian marine protected area, site GR22220003 of the Natura 2000 network. The marine area is additionally protected under the Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans of the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and contiguous Atlantic area (ACCOBAMS). == Activities == The station is a base for year-round research activities in ecology, ecosystem management and sustainability issues such as permaculture. It was created as part of the Kalamos and Kastos sustainable development program of Terra Sylvestris, a non-governmental non profit organization that established the program in order to bring about sustainable development through rewilding in the area of the Island of Kalamos, Kastos and adjacent smaller islands and their marine environment. The station conducts and facilitates a wide variety of research projects, ranging from biodiversity conservation to environmental justice to permaculture. The biological field station is also the base for the volunteer and internship programs of Terra Sylvestris, which enables people from all over the world to participate in the activities of Terra Sylvestris in the area and specifically the biological


id: king-edward-point-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Edward_Point-0.md
category: reference
title: King Edward Point
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Edward_Point
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:50.835182+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: king-edward-point-20260505-0
summary:
King Edward Point (also known as KEP) is a permanent British Antarctic Survey research station on South Georgia island and is the capital of the British Overseas Territory of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. It is situated in Cumberland East Bay on the northeastern coast of the island. The settlement is the second smallest capital in the world by population, after Ngerulmud in Palau. == History == King Edward Point was named in honour of King Edward VII. Grytviken (pot cove in Norwegian and Swedish) is nearby and was named after sealers' trywork. Both of these are along the King Edward Cove. The Post Office in King Edward Point was established in 1909, and has been in operation since then with the exception of the Falklands War. The oldest building in King Edward Point is the customs warehouse and jail built in 1914. Discovery House, a prefabricated laboratory, was established in 1925, and used by biologists collecting specimens from whale carcasses for six years. In 1929, Discovery II was opened for use in oceanographic study. Argentine soldiers arrived near King Edward Point on 24 March 1982, and occupied it on 3 April. The British retook King Edward Point


id: kirklington-hall-research-station-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirklington_Hall_Research_Station-0.md
category: reference
title: Kirklington Hall Research Station
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirklington_Hall_Research_Station
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:52.121766+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kirklington-hall-research-station-20260505-0
summary:
Kirklington Hall Research Station was a geophysical research institute of BP in Kirklington, Nottinghamshire. During the 1950s it was the main research site of BP. == Background == Cricketer John Boddam-Whetham was born at the site in 1843. Sir Albert Bennett, 1st Baronet, Liberal MP from 1922-23 for Mansfield, lived there from 1920. The Bennett baronets was formed in 1929. Lady Evelyn Maude Robinson, was the owner from around 1930, and the wife of Sir John Robinson of Worksop, who died aged 74 on Saturday 2 December 1944. The previous owner died aged 73 on Friday 14 December 1945, leaving £138,365 in her will. In June 1945 it was put up for auction, with 631 acres, 15 bedrooms, 6 bathrooms, and 11 servants rooms. It was sold for £24,500 in Derby in July 1945. Nottinghamshire County Council for two years was looking to buy the property, but it was a big investment, for a residential further education college; it chose another site in July 1947. == History == === BP === As part of the East Midlands Oil Province, oil was found in eastern Nottinghamshire. It was also known as the BP Research Centre or the Geophysical Centre, part of


id: liquid-jungle-lab-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_Jungle_Lab-0.md
category: reference
title: Liquid Jungle Lab
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_Jungle_Lab
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:53.372776+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: liquid-jungle-lab-20260505-0
summary:
The Liquid Jungle Lab (LJL) is a tropical marine research station on the island of Canales de Tierra on the western coast of Pacific Panama along a primary marine biological corridor. The LJL research campus was completed in 2004 and is part of a private 3,500 hectare reserve composed of primary forest, mangroves, tide pools, and a rocky inter-tidal zone that transitions into fringing coral reefs. The island laboratory is adjacent to two large coastal bays, Bahia Honda, Veraguas Province and Pixvae Bay, which are important mangrove, estuarine and riparian (stream) habitats. The island and laboratory serve as a strategic base for ecologic research of the Coiba National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and Panama's largest marine protected area. The tremendous biodiversity of the marine and terrestrial environments surrounding Isla Canales de Tierra allows visiting scientists to conduct multidisciplinary ecologic research in a pristine area and has even inspired a designer perfume fragrance, Fleur de Liane. The LJL was founded by Jean Pigozzi, a Swiss venture capitalist, photographer and art collector. == Research == A multi-disciplinary approach to research in Terrestrial and Marine Tropical Ecology are conducted between a consortium of scientists and researchers from the Woods Hole Oceanographic


id: mace-head-atmospheric-research-station-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mace_Head_Atmospheric_Research_Station-0.md
category: reference
title: Mace Head Atmospheric Research Station
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mace_Head_Atmospheric_Research_Station
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:54.620713+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mace-head-atmospheric-research-station-20260505-0
summary:
Mace Head Atmospheric Research Station is located on the west coast of Ireland, and is one of the longest running mercury recording stations in the world. The station's location is important as it is far away from neighbouring cities, to ensure no pollutants interfere with recordings, and its location is suitable for studying the atmosphere under Northern Hemispheric and European conditions. The station has the dual status of being a World Meteorological Organization (WMO) Global Atmosphere Watch (GMO) station and a European Monitoring and Evaluation Program (EMEP) supersite. Mace Head research and monitor the climate and atmospheric composition, focusing on aerosol-cloud interactions and mercury readings. == About == Mace Head Atmospheric Research Station was established in 1987, and is still in operation. The current station manager is Gerry Spain, who has held this position for the last 20 years. The station PI/Contact is Professor Simon O'Doherty, who runs trace gas measurement at the University of Bristol, and the station CO-PI is Professor Peter Simmonds. Mace Head funding is supported by the UK's Department for Energy Security and Net Zero and NASA. The station has the dual status of being a World Meteorological Organization (WMO) Global Atmosphere Watch (GMO) station and


id: mace-head-atmospheric-research-station-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mace_Head_Atmospheric_Research_Station-1.md
category: reference
title: Mace Head Atmospheric Research Station
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mace_Head_Atmospheric_Research_Station
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:54.620713+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mace-head-atmospheric-research-station-20260505-0
summary:
== Measurements and recordings == Mace Head is renowned for their atmospheric chemistry research, as they measure numerous meteorological elements such as wind speed and direction, temperature, rainfall, and humidity. They also record and measure greenhouse gases, UV levels, and solar radiation. Mace Head began measuring the ozone since 1988, chloroform, methane and trichloro trifluoroethane in 1897, and carbon monoxide and hydrogen began in 1995. Mark Lunt measured chlorofluorocarbon (CFC), and Jurgita Ovadnevaite reported on the aerosol-cloud and climate interactions at Mace head, specifically the major advances in sea salt aerosols. Observations of methyl chloroform at Mace Head have also been useful in the understanding of methane removal from the atmosphere, which is caused by trends in atmospheric hydroxyl radical concentrations. Whilst Mace Head does measure numerous atmospheric compositions, they mainly focuses on the measurements of aerosols and mercury readings, but also observed and measures storms and strong winds. === Measured storms and wind speeds === Mace Head measures storms and strong winds that pass through specifically during winter; storm season. One such storm measured was Storm Ali, the first storm of the 2018–2019 season. Storm Ali arrived at the northern areas of the British Isles on 19 September, and


id: mace-head-atmospheric-research-station-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mace_Head_Atmospheric_Research_Station-2.md
category: reference
title: Mace Head Atmospheric Research Station
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mace_Head_Atmospheric_Research_Station
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:54.620713+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mace-head-atmospheric-research-station-20260505-0
summary:
=== Mercury === The Mace Head station has been recording mercury (Hg) since 1995, and has thus been one of the longest running mercury recording stations in the world. Mercury data recording and collection is vital as it is a global environmental pollutant emitted both naturally and from man-made sources. Evidence suggests that mercury emissions from man-made sources are as great as those originating from natural sources, thus it is the man-made emitted mercury that is contributing to an increase in environmental exposure to mercury. Long term and continuous measurements are necessary as it details whether a fluctuation is normal or something unusual, thus allowing one to monitor background levels of total gaseous mercury. Continuous measurements of mercury are taken within a 15 minute time resolution, and is one of the first stations to generate total gaseous measurements with such a high time resolution. Furthermore, long term monitoring can provide direct evidence of temporal trends, as mercury has an atmospheric residence time of approximately 1 year. Measurements recorded at Mace Head display that background levels of mercury in the Northern Hemisphere are approximately 1.7 ng/m3 with a seasonal variation of approximately 20%. == Other international research networks == Mace Head


id: macquarie-island-station-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macquarie_Island_Station-0.md
category: reference
title: Macquarie Island Station
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macquarie_Island_Station
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:55.838299+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: macquarie-island-station-20260505-0
summary:
The Macquarie Island Station, commonly called Macca, is a permanent Australian subantarctic research base on Macquarie Island, situated in the Southern Ocean and located approximately halfway between Mainland Australia and Antarctica, managed by the Australian Antarctic Division (AAD). The station lies at the base of Wireless Hill, between two bays on the isthmus at the northern end of the island. The island and its surrounding waters are administered as a nature reserve by the Tasmania Parks and Wildlife Service. In 1997, the island was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List as a site of major geoconservation significance, being the only place on Earth where rocks from the Earth's mantle are actively exposed above sea-level. == Purpose == The research station is operated by the Australian Antarctic Division. Scientific research on the island is focused around biology, geosciences, meteorology, and human impact on the environment. Macquarie island birds breed on the island so wildlife management and counting is key to a number of research projects. Monitoring is also undertaken for the Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency to detect radioactive debris from atmospheric explosions or vented by underground or underwater nuclear explosions. Macquarie Island is an important global monitoring


id: niwot-ridge-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niwot_Ridge-0.md
category: reference
title: Niwot Ridge
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niwot_Ridge
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:58.198147+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: niwot-ridge-20260505-0
summary:
Niwot Ridge is an alpine ecology research station located 65 km northwest of Denver in north-central Colorado. It is on the Front Range of the southern Rocky Mountains and lies within the Roosevelt National Forest. Niwot Ridge is 2,900 metres (9,500 ft) high. == Characteristics of the site == Niwot Ridge was designated a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve in 1979 and was one of 17 reserves in the United States withdrew from the program in June 2017. The Niwot Ridge Long-Term Ecological Research Site was established in 1980 as a United States Forest Service experimental ecology reserve. The site is characterized by "extensive alpine tundra, a variety of glacial landforms, glacial lakes and moraines, cirques and talus slopes, patterned ground, and permafrost", and is home to Arikaree Glacier. Habitats include western spruce-fir forest, lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) subalpine forest, alpine meadows as well as ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) shrubland. The site is little influenced by human impact and is thus an excellent site to monitor biological, chemical, and physical responses to changes in atmospheric chemistry and climate. The site is administered cooperatively by the U.S. Forest Service and the University of Colorado Boulder's Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research (INSTAAR) for


id: schneefernerhaus-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schneefernerhaus-0.md
category: reference
title: Schneefernerhaus
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schneefernerhaus
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:05:59.397834+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: schneefernerhaus-20260505-0
summary:
The Schneefernerhaus is a former hotel in the Alps, that is now used as an environmental research station. It lies immediately below the summit of the Zugspitze at a height of 2,650 m and was opened on 20 January 1931. It used to house the top station of the Bavarian Zugspitze Railway as well as a tourist hotel. There was then a cable car from the Schneefernerhaus to the Zugspitze summit. In 1938 a gallery for pedestrians was opened from the ridge station of the Tyrolean Zugspitze Cable Car to the Schneefernerhaus. From 1945 to 1952 the hotel was commandeered for use as a "recreation facility" by the US Forces. On 15 May 1965 an avalanche, that swept over the sun terrace of the hotel and the lifts on the Zugspitzplatt, claimed 10 lives and injured 21. This tragedy was the impetus behind the introduction of a state avalanche warning service and local avalanche commissions. In 1988, after the new station of the Zugspitze Railway was opened on the plateau and, in 1989, the SonnAlpin restaurant there was extended, the hotel and restaurant operation at the Schneefernerhaus finally closed on 14 January 1992. The trackage of the Zugspitze Railway is


id: seaorbiter-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SeaOrbiter-0.md
category: reference
title: SeaOrbiter
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SeaOrbiter
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:00.565678+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: seaorbiter-20260505-0
summary:
The SeaOrbiter, also known as Sea Orbiter (two words), is a proposed oceangoing research vessel based on the ideas of French architect and oceanographer Jacques Rougerie. Construction was due to start in 2014 but by May 2015, only the Eye of SeaOrbiter has been completed, and as of 2024, there is no news of any other construction. The SeaOrbiter is planned to allow scientists and others a residential yet mobile research station positioned under the oceans' surface, with laboratories, workshops, living quarters and a pressurized deck to support divers and submarines. SeaOrbiter is a project of the "Floating oceanographic laboratory" organisation. It is headed by Jacques Rougerie, oceanographer Jacques Piccard and astronaut Jean-Loup Chrétien. In 2012 the cost was estimated to be around US$52.7 million. == Description == As proposed, the laboratory would be a semi-submersible oceangoing craft weighing 1,000 tonnes (2,200,000 lb). It would have a total height of 51 metres (167 ft) with 31 metres (102 ft) below sea level. It is designed to float vertically and drift with the ocean currents but has two small propellers allowing it to modify its trajectory and maneuver in confined waters. Underwater robots would be sent from the laboratory to explore


id: shafter-research-station-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shafter_Research_Station-0.md
category: reference
title: Shafter Research Station
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shafter_Research_Station
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:01.815226+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: shafter-research-station-20260505-0
summary:
Shafter Research Station is an agricultural research station near Shafter, Kern County, California, in the San Joaquin Valley. The station was established in 1922 by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) as Shafter Cotton Research Station. It was built to provide California with high-quality cotton. Initial research at the station focused on growing long-staple cotton, Egyptian Pima cotton, which was used to make airplane wings at the time. The Hatch Act of 1887 provided for U.S. funding of agricultural science. By 1925, the researchers had determined that Acala cotton, named after Acala, Texas, was the highest-quality variety of long-staple cotton; they then developed the "one variety" method of cotton production, in which every California cotton producer would grow Acala cotton. As a result of this research, the state of California enacted the California One Variety Cotton Act, which mandated that California cotton producers could grow only Acala cotton. The law spurred the growth of California's fledgling cotton industry, which now forms a major part of the state's agricultural economy. The success of the "one variety" policy caused the station to earn an international reputation for its research, and procedures developed at the station have been used in the Australian and


id: tropical-agricultural-research-station-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_Agricultural_Research_Station-0.md
category: reference
title: Tropical Agricultural Research Station
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_Agricultural_Research_Station
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:02.983139+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tropical-agricultural-research-station-20260505-0
summary:
USDA-ARS Tropical Agriculture Research Station or TARS is an USDA-ARS agricultural research center with well known botanical garden in the city of Mayagüez, in Puerto Rico. Maricao, in Puerto Rico. Its code of international recognition as a botanical institution, as well as the initials of its herbarium is MAYAG. == Location == This botanical garden is located at Pedro Albizu Campos Ave. Suite 201 Mayagüez 00680, between Carr. 65 intersection with Carr. 108. Tropical Agricultural Research Station Mayagüez Institute of Tropical Agriculture, PO Box 70, Autonomous Municipality of Mayagüez, PR 00708, Puerto Rico. Office hours to arrange a visit of the TARS are from 7:00 am – 12:00 pm / 1:00 pm – 4:00 pm. == History == In 1901, the United States Congress authorized the establishment of the research station in Mayagüez to study agricultural problems of interest to Puerto Rico. One hundred years later, the station makes important contributions to agriculture on a regional and national scale. According to Ricardo J. Goenaga, the director of the TARS, the main goal of the scientists at the station is the development of fruit production systems that help growers to increase the market and the sales potential of the crops. The


id: university-of-the-philippines-los-ba-os-limnological-research-station-20260505-0
category: reference
title: University of the Philippines Los Baños Limnological Research Station
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_the_Philippines_Los_Baños_Limnological_Research_Station
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:04.171350+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: university-of-the-philippines-los-ba-os-limnological-research-station-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_the_Philippines_Los_Baños_Limnological_Research_Station-0.md

summary:
The UPLB Limnological Research Station traces its root from the Department of Entomology, of the then UP College of Agriculture. Since its conception, the station contributed immensely to the understanding of the bounties of Laguna de Bay and helped establish the duck farming industry on Los Baňos foreshores and pioneered in aquarium fish production in the country. It serves as the base for studies on limnology and biology of aquatic organisms aimed at developing strategies for the optimum utilization and sustained production of aquatic resources; developing, adapting or improving conventional technologies used to increase fish production; and promoting environment friendly approaches for effective water management. == History == === Pre-War === The idea of institutionalizing a Limnological Station began as a result of collaboration between Dr. Leopoldo B. Uichanco, professor and head of the Department of Entomology of the then UP College of Agriculture and Albert William Herre, then Chief of Fisheries Division, Bureau of Science, Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources on ‘Dolong’, a species of goby that can be found in Laguna de Bay (Ref: Letter of Albert W. Herre to Dr. L.B. Uichangco dated January 19, 1926, UPLB LRS archive # 1). On August 17, 1928, the


id: university-of-the-philippines-los-ba-os-limnological-research-station-20260505-1
category: reference
title: University of the Philippines Los Baños Limnological Research Station
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_the_Philippines_Los_Baños_Limnological_Research_Station
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:04.171350+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: university-of-the-philippines-los-ba-os-limnological-research-station-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_the_Philippines_Los_Baños_Limnological_Research_Station-1.md

summary:
=== Present === The UPLB Limnological Research Station (popularly called Limno Station or just Limno) is being managed by the Animal Biology Division, Institute of Biological Sciences, College of Arts and Sciences. The Station has a total land area of 4.78 ha. situated at the foreshore of Laguna de Bay in Barangay Mayondon, Los Baňos Laguna. On January 28, 1994, the Station was identified and established as the National Center for Inland Waters Research and Development by the Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and Development-Department of Science and Technology (PCAMRD-DOST). The Station is also the seat of PCAMRD-DOST's Southern Luzon Zonal Center for Aquatic and Marine R&D (Zonal Center 2). The UPLB Limnological Research Station once again plays an important role in the fisheries sector through the leadership of their Station Manager, Dr. Pablo P. Ocampo, paving the way towards achieving its goals to: (1) develop optimum utilization and sustained production of aquatic resources; (2) conduct limnological studies; (3) conduct training and extension activities on different aspects of aquarium fish production; (4) develop culture technique for live feeds; (5) develop new aquarium varieties from indigenous fish species; and, (6) conduct captive breeding on some selected endemic/endangered freshwater fish


id: university-of-zimbabwe-lake-kariba-research-station-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Zimbabwe_Lake_Kariba_Research_Station-0.md
category: reference
title: University of Zimbabwe Lake Kariba Research Station
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Zimbabwe_Lake_Kariba_Research_Station
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:05.323640+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: university-of-zimbabwe-lake-kariba-research-station-20260505-0
summary:
The University of Zimbabwe Lake Kariba Research Station is a research station in the Nyamhunga suburb of Kariba. It is operated by the University of Zimbabwe. Station staff have published research on topics such as fish diets and population dynamics and climate change. == References ==


id: wolf-creek-research-basin-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolf_Creek_Research_Basin-0.md
category: reference
title: Wolf Creek Research Basin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolf_Creek_Research_Basin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:06.497001+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wolf-creek-research-basin-20260505-0
summary:
Wolf Creek is in the Yukon Territory, Canada. == Research station == A research station at Wolf Creek Research Basin has been providing continuous data since 1992 for hydrological data. There are three meteorological stations, a groundwater monitoring well since 2003, as well as specialized instrumentation running continuously for specific projects. It is an important location for the study of snow and climate in the region. == References ==


id: zoo-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo-0.md
category: reference
title: Zoo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:08.304498+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: zoo-20260505-0
summary:
A zoo (short for zoological garden; also called a zoological park, animal park, or menagerie) is a facility where animals are kept within enclosures for public exhibition and often bred for conservation purposes. The term zoological garden refers to zoology, the study of animals. The term is derived from the Ancient Greek ζῷον, zōion, 'animal', and the suffix -λογία, -logia, 'study of'. The abbreviation zoo was first used of the London Zoological Gardens, which was opened for scientific study in 1828, and to the public in 1847. The first modern zoo was the Tierpark Hagenbeck by Carl Hagenbeck in Germany. In the United States alone, zoos are visited by over 181 million people annually. However, animal welfare organizations have expressed criticism of zoos and the conditions in which animals are kept. Concerns have been raised about the impact of zoos on animal welfare, including both housing conditions and the effects of visitor behavior. In recent decades, efforts have been made to improve conditions in zoos. == Etymology == The London Zoo, which was opened in 1828, was initially known as the "Gardens and Menagerie of the Zoological Society of London", and it described itself as a menagerie or "zoological forest".


id: zoo-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo-1.md
category: reference
title: Zoo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:08.304498+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: zoo-20260505-0
summary:
The oldest zoo in the world still in existence is the Schönbrunn Zoo in Vienna, Austria. It was constructed by Adrian van Stekhoven in 1752 at the order of Emperor Francis I, to serve as an imperial menagerie as part of Schönbrunn Palace. The menagerie was initially reserved for the viewing pleasure of the imperial family and the court, but was made accessible to the public in 1765. In 1775, a zoo was founded in Madrid, and in 1795, the zoo inside the Jardin des Plantes in Paris was founded by Jacques-Henri Bernardin, with animals from the royal menagerie at Versailles, primarily for scientific research and education. The planning about a space for the conservation and observation of animals was expressed in connection with the political construction of republican citizenship. The Kazan Zoo, the first zoo in Russia was founded in 1806 by the Professor of Kazan Federal University Karl Fuchs. === The modern zoo === Until the early 19th century, the function of the zoo was often to symbolize royal power, like King Louis XIV's menagerie at Versailles. Major cities in Europe set up zoos in the 19th century, usually using London and Paris as models. The transition was


id: zoo-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo-2.md
category: reference
title: Zoo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:08.304498+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: zoo-20260505-0
summary:
In the United States, the Philadelphia Zoo, opened on July 1, 1874, earning its motto "America's First Zoo." The Lincoln Park Zoological Gardens in Chicago and the Cincinnati Zoo opened in 1875. In the 1930s, federal relief programs provided financial aid to most local zoos. The Works Progress Administration and similar New Deal government agencies helped greatly in the construction, renovation, and expansion of zoos when the Great Depression severely reduced local budgets. It was "a new deal for animals." The Atlanta Zoo, founded in 1886, suffered neglect. By 1984 it was ranked among the ten worst zoos in the United States. Systematic reform by 2000 put it on the list of the ten best. By 2020, the United States featured 230 accredited zoos and aquariums across 45 states, accommodating 800,000 animals, and 6,000 species out of which about 1,000 are endangered. The zoos provide 208,000 jobs, and with an annual budget of $230 million for wildlife conservation. They attract over 200 million visits a year and have special programs for schools. They are organized by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums. === Japan === Japan's first modern zoo, Tokyo's Ueno Zoo, opened in 1882 based on European models. In


id: zoo-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo-3.md
category: reference
title: Zoo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:08.304498+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: zoo-20260505-0
summary:
The first public aquarium was opened at the London Zoo in 1853. This was followed by the opening of public aquaria in continental Europe (e.g. Paris in 1859, Hamburg in 1864, Berlin in 1869, and Brighton in 1872) and the United States (e.g. Boston in 1859, Washington in 1873, San Francisco Woodward's Gardens in 1873, and the New York Aquarium at The Battery in 1896). === Roadside zoos === Roadside zoos are found throughout North America, particularly in remote locations. They are often small, for-profit zoos, often intended to attract visitors to some other facility, such as a gas station. The animals may be trained to perform tricks, and visitors are able to get closer to them than in larger zoos. Since they are sometimes less regulated, roadside zoos are often subject to accusations of neglect and cruelty. In June 2014 the Animal Legal Defense Fund filed a lawsuit against the Iowa-based roadside Cricket Hollow Zoo for violating the Endangered Species Act by failing to provide proper care for its animals. Since filing the lawsuit, ALDF has obtained records from investigations conducted by the USDA's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Services; these records show that the zoo is also violating


id: zoo-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo-4.md
category: reference
title: Zoo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:08.304498+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: zoo-20260505-0
summary:
The position of most modern zoos in Australasia, Asia, Europe, and North America, particularly those with scientific societies, is that they display wild animals primarily for the conservation of endangered species, as well as for research purposes and education, and secondarily for the entertainment of visitors. The Zoological Society of London states in its charter that its aim is "the advancement of Zoology and Animal Physiology and the introduction of new and curious subjects of the Animal Kingdom." It maintains two research institutes, the Nuffield Institute of Comparative Medicine and the Wellcome Institute of Comparative Physiology. In the United States, the Penrose Research Laboratory of the Philadelphia Zoo focuses on the study of comparative pathology. The World Association of Zoos and Aquariums produced its first conservation strategy in 1993, and in November 2004, it adopted a new strategy that sets out the aims and mission of zoological gardens of the 21st century. When studying behaviour of captive animals, several things should however be taken into account before drawing conclusions about wild populations. Including that captive populations are often smaller than wild ones and that the space available to each animal is often less than in the wild. Conservation programs all


id: zoo-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo-5.md
category: reference
title: Zoo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:08.304498+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: zoo-20260505-0
summary:
=== Capture in wild and mortality === In modern, well-regulated zoos, breeding is controlled to maintain a self-sustaining, global captive population. This is not the case in some less well-regulated zoos, often based in poorer regions. Overall "stock turnover" of animals during a year in a select group of poor zoos was reported as 20%-25% with 75% of wild caught apes dying in captivity within the first 20 months. The authors of the report stated that before successful breeding programs, the high mortality rate was the reason for the "massive scale of importations." One 2-year study indicated that of 19,361 mammals that left accredited zoos in the U.S. between 1992 and 1998, 7,420 (38%) went to dealers, auctions, hunting ranches, unaccredited zoos and individuals, and game farms. === Behavioural restriction === Many modern zoos attempt to improve animal welfare by providing more space and behavioural enrichments. This often involves housing the animals in naturalistic enclosures that allow the animals to express more of their natural behaviours, such as roaming and foraging. Whilst many zoos have been working hard on this change, in some zoos, some enclosures still remain barren concrete enclosures or other minimally enriched cages. Sometimes animals are unable


id: zoo-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo-6.md
category: reference
title: Zoo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:08.304498+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: zoo-20260505-0
summary:
=== Negative effects === Most studies have found that large or noisy visitor groups negatively affect animals. A study measuring stress hormone (corticoid) levels in rhinoceroses found a significant relationship between visitor exposure and stress levels. A review of primate studies indicated that visitors are generally a source of stress, with stronger negative effects when groups are large. Dominant group members can influence responses, as shown in gorillas, orangutans, and mangabey monkeys. Visitor behavior can also affect primate aggression. Orangutans showed more aggressive behavior in the presence of noisy audiences, and siamangs increased aggressive behavior when visitors attempted to mimic their actions or engage in disturbing interactions. In petting zoos, goats and sheep exhibited more fear behaviors, such as fleeing or attacking, when visitor numbers were high. Leopards exposed to the public had higher fecal stress hormone levels than leopards not shown to visitors, and larger visitor numbers increased stress hormones in Mexican wolves and black wolves. Increased stress-related behaviors with higher visitor numbers have also been observed in jaguars, fennec foxes, brown bears, harbor seals, deer, gazelles, and koalas. Studies suggest ways to improve animal welfare without removing public displays. These include limiting visitor numbers, providing educational signage, encouraging


id: bear-pit-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bear_pit-0.md
category: reference
title: Bear pit
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bear_pit
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:09.511026+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bear-pit-20260505-0
summary:
A bear pit is an enclosure historically used to display bears, typically for entertainment and especially bear-baiting. The pit area was normally surrounded by a high fence, above which the spectators would look down on the bears. The most traditional form of maintaining bears in captivity is keeping them in pits, although many zoos have replaced these by more elaborate and spacious enclosures that attempt to replicate their natural habitats, for the benefit of the animals and the visitors. == History == Bear pits originated as a place to keep bears used in bear-baiting. These pits were temporary structures, typically used just once. After the sport's popularity waned, bear pits continued to exist as a way to display bears for the public to see, and often, feed. In contrast to the ones used in baiting, these pits were permanent structures built with sturdy materials; the pit in Rosherville Gardens, for example, was made of brick. Bear pits peaked in popularity during the Victorian era, when the public developed a general fascination with exotic animals. Several violent incidents were known to occur in British bear pits. The public generally saw captive bears as "clownish" and thus feared them little. A bear


id: behavioral-enrichment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_enrichment-0.md
category: reference
title: Behavioral enrichment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_enrichment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:10.666150+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: behavioral-enrichment-20260505-0
summary:
Behavioral enrichment is an animal husbandry principle that seeks to enhance the quality of captive animal care by identifying and providing the environmental stimuli necessary for optimal psychological and physiological well-being. Enrichment can either be active or passive, depending on whether it requires direct contact between the animal and the enrichment. A variety of enrichment techniques are used to create desired outcomes similar to an animal's individual and species' history. Each of the techniques used is intended to stimulate the animal's senses similarly to how they would be activated in the wild. Provided enrichment may be seen in the form of auditory, olfactory, habitat factors, food, research projects, training, and objects. == Purpose == Environmental enrichment can improve the overall welfare of animals in captivity and create a habitat similar to what they would experience in their wild environment. It aims to maintain an animal's physical and psychological health by increasing the range or number of species-specific behaviors, increasing positive interaction with the captive environment, preventing or reducing the frequency of abnormal behaviors, such as stereotypies, and increasing the individual's ability to cope with the challenges of captivity. Stereotypies are seen in captive animals due to stress and boredom. This


id: behavioral-enrichment-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_enrichment-1.md
category: reference
title: Behavioral enrichment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_enrichment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:10.666150+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: behavioral-enrichment-20260505-0
summary:
Structural Enrichment is when objects are added to an enclosure to mimic an animal's natural habitat. These objects can be switched out occasionally or kept permanently. The environment of captive animals should be switched frequently since their environment in the wild would bring on new objects and exploration. Research into what constitutes the most beneficial and appropriate forms of enrichment must be used when considering the provision of enrichment options, especially for species where natural-like settings may be difficult to achieve. The animal should never become too familiar with their environment because that can cause boredom, no stimulation or stereotypical behavior. Examples of this could be swings or climbing structures. Stones have also been shown to encourage exploratory behavior in Japanese macaques. Interaction with the stones exhibited behaviors such as gathering, rolling in hands, rubbing, and carrying. Other common forms include cardboard, forage, and even the texture of the food (i.e. hard, smooth, cold, warm). === Olfactory enrichment === Olfactory enrichment can stimulate naturalistic behavior, enhance exploration, and reduce inactive behaviors. Olfactory enrichment can be utilized by itself, paired with novel toys, or paired with food-based enrichment. This type of enrichment is most commonly used with species that commonly utilize


id: behavioral-enrichment-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_enrichment-2.md
category: reference
title: Behavioral enrichment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_enrichment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:10.666150+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: behavioral-enrichment-20260505-0
summary:
=== Training === Usage of more highly advanced enrichment devices, such as computerized devices, requires training. This can lead to issues as training often consists of food as a reward. While food encourages the animal to participate with the device, the animal could associate the device with food. As a result, the interaction with the enrichment would bring about behaviors that are associated with training instead of the desired playful and voluntary behaviors. === Time and resources === The process of producing and providing environmental enrichment usually require a large allocation of time and resources. In a survey, "time taken by animal care staff to complete other tasks" was the most significant factor influencing environmental enrichment provisions and scheduling. Therefore, it is important to develop appropriate environmental enrichment programs that can be effectively carried out with the size of staff and time available. == See also == Socialization == References == == External links == Laboratory Animal Refinement Database Animals in Laboratories (awionline.org) 3R Research Foundation Switzerland (forschung3R.ch) Environmental Enrichment, Animal Welfare Information Center The Shape of Enrichment selected articles on enrichment for zoo animals. Environmental Enrichment for Pet Cats (ASPCA) Environmental Enrichment for Pet Dogs(ASPCA) Environmental Enrichment for Horses(ASPCA)


id: captivity-animal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captivity_(animal)-0.md
category: reference
title: Captivity (animal)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captivity_(animal)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:11.938921+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: captivity-animal-20260505-0
summary:
Animal captivity is the confinement of domestic and wild animals. More specifically, animals that are held by humans and prevented from escaping are said to be in captivity. The term animal captivity is usually applied to wild animals that are held in confinement, but this term may also be used generally to describe the keeping of domesticated animals such as livestock or pets. This may include, for example, animals in farms, private homes, zoos, aquariums, public aquariums and laboratories. Animal captivity may be categorized according to the particular motives, objectives, and conditions of the confinement. == History == All throughout history, domestic animals like pets and livestock were kept in captivity and tended by humans. However, pets and livestock were not the only animals to be put in captivity and receive human care because wild animals had this as well. Despite the fact that wild animals have been harbored by humans for thousands of years, this captivity has not always come close to present zoos. Some were failed domestication attempts. Furthermore, the wealthy, predominantly the aristocrats and kings, collected wild animals for various reasons. The affluent built the first zoos as personal collections to demonstrate their dominance and wealth. These


id: captivity-animal-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captivity_(animal)-1.md
category: reference
title: Captivity (animal)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captivity_(animal)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:11.938921+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: captivity-animal-20260505-0
summary:
Zoos are known as a place where visitors come in to see wild animals. This means zoos may keep animals in confinement. For example, zoos may keep animals captive as a means to save them from going extinct. More specifically, in 2020 the Science Advances published a study where they concluded that the work and population of human beings has affected the growth of animals going extinct around the world. The uproar of animals going extinct has caused zoos to use their captive breeding programs on endangered animals in an effort to create a stronger population. It is said that zoos are responsible for reducing the number of animals on the endangered species list and from extinction. Zoos could also be known as a place where animals are put into after they are taken out of their natural habitat. When animals are pulled out from their native habitat and taken to a location they are unfamiliar with, then it is said that animals may experience shock and poor mental health. Furthermore, some wild animals have died inside zoos due to the shock of being placed in an unknown setting. To be more specific, this can also mean that taking animals


id: do-not-feed-the-animals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Do_not_feed_the_animals-0.md
category: reference
title: Do not feed the animals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Do_not_feed_the_animals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:13.143029+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: do-not-feed-the-animals-20260505-0
summary:
The prohibition "do not feed the animals" reflects a policy forbidding the artificial feeding of wild or feral animals. Signs displaying this message are commonly found in zoos, circuses, animal theme parks, aquariums, national parks, parks, public spaces, farms, and other places where people come into contact with wildlife. In some cases there are laws to enforce such no-feeding policies. Feeding wild animals can significantly change their behavior. Feeding or leaving unattended food to large animals, such as bears, can lead them to aggressively seek out food from people, sometimes resulting in injury. Feeding can also alter animal behavior so that animals routinely travel in larger groups, which can make disease transmission between animals more likely. In public spaces, the congregation of animals caused by feeding can result in them being considered pests. Food given to animals may not be healthy for them artificial feeding can result in, for example, vitamin deficiencies and dietary mineral deficiencies; zoos have strict dietary controls in place for animals. Outside zoos, a concern is that the increase in local concentrated wildlife population due to artificial feeding can promote the transfer of disease among animals or between animals and humans. == National and state parks


id: ex-situ-conservation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_situ_conservation-0.md
category: reference
title: Ex situ conservation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_situ_conservation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:14.368434+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ex-situ-conservation-20260505-0
summary:
Ex situ conservation (lit. 'off-site conservation') is the process of protecting an endangered species, variety, or breed of plant or animal outside its natural habitat. For example, by removing part of the population from a threatened habitat and placing it in a new location, an artificial environment which is similar to the natural habitat of the respective animal and within the care of humans, such as a zoological park or wildlife sanctuary. The degree to which humans control or modify the natural dynamics of the managed population varies widely, and this may include alteration of living environments, reproductive patterns, access to resources, and protection from predation and mortality. Ex situ management can occur within or outside a species' natural geographic range. Individuals maintained ex situ exist outside an ecological niche. This means that they are not under the same selection pressures as wild populations, and they may undergo artificial selection if maintained ex situ for multiple generations. Agricultural biodiversity is also conserved in ex situ collections. This is primarily in the form of gene banks where samples are stored in order to conserve the genetic resources of major crops plants and their wild relatives. == Facilities == === Botanical gardens,


id: ex-situ-conservation-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_situ_conservation-1.md
category: reference
title: Ex situ conservation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_situ_conservation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:14.368434+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ex-situ-conservation-20260505-0
summary:
== Genetic management of captive populations == Captive populations are subject to problems such as inbreeding depression, loss of genetic diversity and adaptations to captivity. It is important to manage captive populations in a way that minimizes these issues so that the individuals to be introduced will resemble the original founders as closely as possible, which will increase the chances of successful reintroductions. During the initial growth phase, the population size is rapidly expanded until a target population size is reached. The target population size is the number of individuals that are required to maintain appropriate levels of genetic diversity, which is generally considered to be 90% of the current genetic diversity after 100 years. The number of individuals required to meet this goal varies based on potential growth rate, effective size, current genetic diversity, and generation time. Once the target population size is reached, the focus shifts to maintaining the population and avoiding genetic issues within the captive population. === Minimizing mean kinship === Managing populations based on minimizing mean kinship values is often an effective way to increase genetic diversity and to avoid inbreeding within captive populations. Kinship is the probability that two alleles will be identical by


id: ex-situ-conservation-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_situ_conservation-2.md
category: reference
title: Ex situ conservation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_situ_conservation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:14.368434+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ex-situ-conservation-20260505-0
summary:
=== Managing genetic disorders === Genetic disorders are often an issue within captive populations due to the fact that the populations are usually established from a small number of founders. In large, outbreeding populations, the frequencies of most deleterious alleles are relatively low, but when a population undergoes a bottleneck during the founding of a captive population, previously rare alleles may survive and increase in number. Further inbreeding within the captive population may also increase the likelihood that deleterious alleles will be expressed due to increasing homozygosity within the population. The high occurrence of genetic disorders within a captive population can threaten both the survival of the captive population and its eventual reintroduction back into the wild. If the genetic disorder is dominant, it may be possible to eliminate the disease completely in a single generation by avoiding breeding of the affected individuals. However, if the genetic disorder is recessive, it may not be possible to completely eliminate the allele due to its presence in unaffected heterozygotes. In this case, the best option is to attempt to minimize the frequency of the allele by selectively choosing mating pairs. In the process of eliminating genetic disorders, it is important to consider


id: extinct-in-the-wild-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinct_in_the_wild-0.md
category: reference
title: Extinct in the wild
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinct_in_the_wild
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:15.585025+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: extinct-in-the-wild-20260505-0
summary:
A species that is extinct in the wild (EW) is one that has been categorized by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as only consisting of living members kept in captivity or as a naturalized population outside its historic range. Classification requires exhaustive surveys conducted within the species' known habitat with consideration given to seasonality, time of day, and life cycle. Once a species is classified as EW, the only way for it to be downgraded is through reintroduction. Not all EW species are rare. An example is the Brugmansia genus, where all seven species are widely cultivated, but none are found in the wild. == Examples == Examples of species and subspecies that are extinct in the wild include (in alphabetical order): Abutilon pitcairnense (last surviving plant destroyed in 2005) Alagoas curassow (last unconfirmed sighting reported in the late 1980s, listed extinct in the wild since 1994) Corypha taliera (last tree cut down in 1979) Christmas Island blue-tailed skink (listed extinct in the wild since 2014) Dabry's sturgeon (listed extinct in the wild since 2022) Escarpment cycad (listed extinct in the wild since 2006) Franklinia alatamaha (last seen in 1803, listed extinct in the wild since 1998) Golden


id: extinct-in-the-wild-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinct_in_the_wild-1.md
category: reference
title: Extinct in the wild
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinct_in_the_wild
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:15.585025+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: extinct-in-the-wild-20260505-0
summary:
The IUCN developed a system of classifying species recovery efforts in 2012 entitled the Green Status. The species recovery score is a 0%–100% scale, with 0% being the species is extinct or extinct in the wild and 100% being fully recovered. In addition, the Green Status also classifies previous and future conservation impacts with the Green Scores of Conservation Dependency, Conservation Gain, Conservation Legacy, and Recovery Potential. For a species to receive a score of 100% and be considered fully recovered, three requirements must be met: the species must be present in all areas of both its current and historical range, it is viable in all areas of the range, and performs its ecological niche across the full range. Given the lofty standards, many species are not expected to meet the criteria and it is not a goal of this system. Land use changes have cumulated in many species losing habitat. Green Scores are snapshots in time to assess a species' current status and how conservation efforts have influenced their status. It is also predictive as it can project how the status would change if conservation efforts ceased or continued. Conservation Legacy assess how previous conservation work has changed or


id: frozen-zoo-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frozen_zoo-0.md
category: reference
title: Frozen zoo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frozen_zoo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:16.788437+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: frozen-zoo-20260505-0
summary:
A frozen zoo is a storage facility in which genetic materials taken from animals (e.g. DNA, sperm, eggs, embryos and live tissue) are stored at very low temperatures (−196 °C) in tanks of liquid nitrogen. Material preserved in this way can be stored indefinitely and used for artificial insemination, in vitro fertilization, embryo transfer, and cloning. There are a few frozen zoos across the world that implement this technology for conservation efforts. Several different species have been introduced to this technology, including the Pyrenean ibex, Black-footed ferret, and potentially the white rhinoceros. == Overview == The first frozen zoo was established at the San Diego Zoo by pathologist Kurt Benirschke in 1972. At the time there was no technology available to make use of the collection, but Benirschke believed such technology would be developed in the future. The frozen zoo idea was later supported in Gregory Benford's 1992 paper proposing a Library of Life. Zoos such as the San Diego Zoo and research programs such as the Audubon Center for Research of Endangered Species cryopreserve genetic material in order to protect the diversity of the gene pool of endangered species, or to provide for a prospective reintroduction of such extinct


id: frozen-zoo-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frozen_zoo-1.md
category: reference
title: Frozen zoo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frozen_zoo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:16.788437+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: frozen-zoo-20260505-0
summary:
== Drawbacks == Due to the very low temperatures required, varying levels of stress are put on the DNA samples. Spermatozoa, in particular, are stressed by temperature shock, osmotic stress, and oxidative stress with the latter being the most detrimental. When temperature shock occurs, the membrane is damaged through freezing and thawing of the sperm. Osmotic stress occurs when ice crystals form inside the nucleus during the freezing process, causing differing osmotic pressures within the cell. Oxidative stress is the result of too many reactive oxygen species (ROS), which is highly reactive and damaging to all parts of the cell. Although these stressors are present within the cell, there are solutions to each. By introducing cholesterol to the samples, temperature shock can be reduced. The use of antifreeze proteins provides one solution for osmotic stress. Oxidative stress is the most difficult to combat because of the highly reactive components of ROS, but some measures like adding certain proteins to limit freeze-thaw damage and increase the survival rate of the DNA. == Applications == === Gaur === A gaur that died of natural causes had some skin cells frozen and added to the San Diego Frozen Zoo. Eight years later, DNA


id: frozen-zoo-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frozen_zoo-2.md
category: reference
title: Frozen zoo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frozen_zoo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:16.788437+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: frozen-zoo-20260505-0
summary:
The Pyrenean ibex went extinct in 2000. In 2003 frozen cells from the last one (a female killed by a falling branch) were used to clone 208 embryos, of which 7 successfully implanted in goats, and one made it to term. That one ibex died of respiratory failure just after birth; quite possibly as a result of the cloning process, its lungs had not developed properly. There may not be enough individuals' cells preserved to create a breeding population. Despite the death of the ibex, DNA analysis revealed that the offspring was a legitimate clone from its last living descendent. == Potential candidates == === White rhinoceros === Over the years, concerns over population declines of the northern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum cottoni) have increased with the increasing value of their horns to poachers. Specifically, the population has declined nearly seventy percent from 2011 to 2019. Processes like SCNT can help aid in conservation efforts towards the revival of their population. Researchers are looking towards induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC), as they hold limitless possibilities. With the lack of natural mating occurring within the species due to the limited number of them, this sub-species provides researchers the opportunity for iPSC


id: 2022-furuvik-zoo-chimpanzee-shootings-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Furuvik_Zoo_chimpanzee_shootings-0.md
category: reference
title: 2022 Furuvik Zoo chimpanzee shootings
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Furuvik_Zoo_chimpanzee_shootings
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:31.986411+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 2022-furuvik-zoo-chimpanzee-shootings-20260505-0
summary:
The 2022 Furuvik Zoo chimpanzee shootings occurred around 12 o'clock noon on Wednesday, 14 December, 2022, when a number of the chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) kept at Furuvik Zoo (Sw. Furuviksparken) in Furuvik, Gävle Municipality, Sweden, escaped from their enclosure into the chimpanzee building and park and made an attempt to exit the zoo itself, which was closed to the public for the winter season. The zoo staff responded by firing on the escaping apes, killing four of them. The story gained domestic and international attention, and prompted debate about zoos and the keeping of great apes in captivity. The incident has also been described as "the Massacre in Furuvik", "the Furuvik Bloodbath", and "the Chimpanzee Drama". == History == At around 12 p.m. on Wednesday, 14 December, 2022, two chimpanzees of Furuvik Zoo escaped from their enclosure through an unlocked lattice door and entered the chimpanzee building. An animal keeper attempted to fight one off, but soon fled and warned other employees by yelling and using their radio. Within five minutes, at least two chimps had escaped the building and entered the wider zoo, which was closed to the public for the winter season. Forty-five minutes later, two chimps were


id: 2022-furuvik-zoo-chimpanzee-shootings-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Furuvik_Zoo_chimpanzee_shootings-1.md
category: reference
title: 2022 Furuvik Zoo chimpanzee shootings
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Furuvik_Zoo_chimpanzee_shootings
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:31.986411+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 2022-furuvik-zoo-chimpanzee-shootings-20260505-0
summary:
== Reactions == The chimpanzee shootings provoked intense media coverage and debate, both domestically in Sweden and abroad. Several political figures commented, including the Green Party politicians Märta Stenevi and Rebecka Le Moine who questioned the state of animal captivity in Sweden, the Sweden Democratic politician Yasmine Eriksson who called for a review of all Swedish zoos, and the Christian Democratic politician Peter Kullgren, Minister for Rural Affairs, who expressed sadness but refrained from commenting on ongoing investigations. Numerous Swedish celebrities and public figures also expressed sadness or condemnation, including Johanna Lind, Jessica Almenäs, Uno Svenningsson, Micael Bindefeld, Thomas Di Leva, Lars-Åke Wilhelmsson, and Linda Lindorff. The chimpanzee shootings also prompted many reactions from biologists and conservationists. When interviewed about the incident, the noted Dutch primatologist Frans de Waal expressed shock that the 3-year old chimpanzee infant Torsten was among those killed by the zoo, as such a young ape did not pose any physical danger to humans. The Dutch behavioural biologist Patrick van Veen, chair of the Jane Goodall Institute commented on the incident that recapture by non-lethal means, such as tranquilizers, should always be the first priority during chimpanzee escapes, and that lethal force should only be used


id: herpetarium-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herpetarium-0.md
category: reference
title: Herpetarium
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herpetarium
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:33.154295+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: herpetarium-20260505-0
summary:
A herpetarium is a zoological exhibition space for reptiles and amphibians, most commonly a dedicated area of a larger zoo. A herpetarium which specializes in snakes is an ophidiarium or serpentarium, which are more common as stand-alone entities also known as snake farms. Many snake farms milk snakes for venom for medical and scientific research. == Notable herpetariums == Alice Springs Reptile Centre in Alice Springs, Australia Alligator Bay (zoo) in Beauvoir, France Armadale Reptile Centre in Perth, Australia Australian Reptile Park in Somersby, Australia Chennai Snake Park Trust in Chennai, India Crocodiles of the World in Brize Norton, UK Crocosaurus Cove in Darwin, Australia Clyde Peeling's Reptiland in Allenwood, Pennsylvania Kentucky Reptile Zoo in Slade, Kentucky The LAIR at the Los Angeles Zoo in Los Angeles, California Serpent Safari in Gurnee, Illinois Saint Louis Zoo Herpetarium in St. Louis, Missouri Staten Island Zoo Serpentarium in New York City, New York World of Reptiles at the Bronx Zoo in New York City, New York == See also == Herpetoculture Bill Haast (founder of Miami Serpentarium) == References == Murphy, James B., Herpetological History of the Zoo and Aquarium World, Krieger Publishing Company, Malabar, Florida, 2007. ISBN 1-57524-285-0


id: human-zoo-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_zoo-0.md
category: reference
title: Human zoo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_zoo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:34.331855+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: human-zoo-20260505-0
summary:
Human zoos, also known as ethnological expositions, were a colonial practice of publicly displaying people, usually in a so-called "natural" or "primitive" state. They were most prominent during the 19th and 20th centuries. These displays often emphasized the supposed inferiority of the exhibits' culture, and implied the superiority of "Western society", through tropes that depicted marginalized groups as "savage". They then developed into independent displays emphasizing the exhibits' inferiority to western culture and providing further justification for their subjugation. Such displays featured in multiple colonial exhibitions and at temporary exhibitions in animal zoos. == Etymology == The term "human zoo" was not generally used by contemporaries of the shows, and was popularised by the French researcher Pascal Blanchard. The term has been criticised for denying the agency of the shows' non-European performers. According to Sandra Koutsoukos, the term "human zoos" was likely coined by French historians and anthropologists and first appeared in a 2002 publication. It is widely used in academia to critique the inhumanity and racism of events that displayed people from cultures deemed "exotic" or "savage". == Circuses and freak shows == The abstract concept of human displays in zoos has been documented throughout the duration of colonial


id: human-zoo-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_zoo-1.md
category: reference
title: Human zoo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_zoo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:34.331855+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: human-zoo-20260505-0
summary:
=== German ethnographs === Ethnology studies in Germany took a new approach in the 1870s as human displays were incorporated into zoos. These exhibits were lauded as 'educational' to the general population by the scientific community. Very quickly, the exhibits were used as a way to show that Europeans had "evolved" into a 'superior', 'cosmopolitan' life. In the late 19th century, German ethnographic museums were seen as an empirical study of human culture. They contained artifacts from cultures around the world organized by continent allowing visitors to see the similarities and differences between the groups and "form their own ideas". === Objectification in human zoos === Within the history of human zoos, there are patterns of overt sexual representation of displayed peoples, most frequently women. Such objectification often led to treatment that reflected a lack of privacy and respect, including the dissection and display of bodies after death without consent. An example of the sexualization of ethnically diverse women in Europe is Saartje Baartman, often referred to as her anglicized name Sarah Bartmann. Bartmann was displayed both when she was alive throughout England and Ireland and after her death in the Musée de l'Homme. While alive, she participated in a


id: human-zoo-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_zoo-2.md
category: reference
title: Human zoo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_zoo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:34.331855+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: human-zoo-20260505-0
summary:
=== First organized backlash === According to The New York Times, although "few expressed audible objection to the sight of a human being in a cage with monkeys as companions", controversy erupted as black clergymen in the city took great offense. "Our race, we think, is depressed enough, without exhibiting one of us with the apes", said the Reverend James H. Gordon, superintendent of the Howard Colored Orphan Asylum in Brooklyn. "We think we are worthy of being considered human beings, with souls." New York City Mayor George B. McClellan Jr. refused to meet with the clergymen, drawing the praise of Hornaday, who wrote to him: "When the history of the Zoological Park is written, this incident will form its most amusing passage." As the controversy continued, Hornaday remained unapologetic, insisting that his only intention was to put on an ethnological exhibition. In another letter, he said that he and Grant—who ten years later would publish the racist tract The Passing of the Great Race—considered it "imperative that the society should not even seem to be dictated to" by the black clergymen. 1903 saw one of the first widespread protests against human zoos, at the "Human Pavilion" of an exposition


id: human-zoo-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_zoo-3.md
category: reference
title: Human zoo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_zoo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:34.331855+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: human-zoo-20260505-0
summary:
=== United Kingdom and France === Between 1 May and 31 October 1908, the Scottish National Exhibition, opened by one of Queen Victoria's grandsons, Prince Arthur of Connaught, was held in Saughton Park, Edinburgh. One of the attractions was the Senegal Village with its French-speaking Senegalese residents, on show demonstrating their way of life, art and craft while living in beehive huts. In 1909, the infrastructure of the 1908 Scottish National Exhibition in Edinburgh was used to construct the new Marine Gardens to the coast near Edinburgh at Portobello. A group of Somali men, women, and children were shipped over to be part of the exhibition, living in thatched huts. In 1924, the British Empire Exhibition had ethnographic displays across the Wembley Park site. Archival records indicate that 273 people from Britain’s colonies took part in this live ethnographic display. The official guide described the arrangement in strikingly clinical terms: "Every section of the empire is represented at Wembley. Many of the colonies have representatives of their local inhabitants at work in local conditions. The following list gives the name of the races and the approximate numbers actually living in the exhibition: Malays 20, Burmans 30, Hong Kong Chinese 160,


id: human-zoo-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_zoo-4.md
category: reference
title: Human zoo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_zoo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:34.331855+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: human-zoo-20260505-0
summary:
As part of the Portuguese World Exhibition in 1940, members of a tribe from the Bissagos Islands of Guinea-Bissau were displayed on an island in a lake in the Lisbon Tropical Botanical Garden. A Congolese village was displayed at the Brussels 1958 World's Fair. The Congolese on display were among 598 people—including 273 men, 128 women and 197 children, a total of 183 families. Eight-month-old baby Juste Bonaventure Langa died during Expo 58; he rests in the Tervuren cemetery. In mid-July, the Congolese protested the condescending treatment they were receiving from spectators and demanded to be sent home, abruptly ending the exhibit and eliciting some sympathy from European newspapers. In April 1994, an example of an Ivory Coast village was presented as part of an African safari in Port-Saint-Père, near Nantes, in France, later called Planète Sauvage. In July 2005, the Augsburg Zoo in Germany hosted an "African village" featuring African crafts and African cultural performances. The event was subject to widespread criticism. Defenders of the event argued that it was not racist since it did not involve exhibiting Africans in a debasing way, as had been done at zoos in the past. Critics argued that presenting African culture in


id: immersion-exhibit-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immersion_exhibit-0.md
category: reference
title: Immersion exhibit
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immersion_exhibit
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:35.474361+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: immersion-exhibit-20260505-0
summary:
An immersion exhibit is a naturalistic zoo environment that gives visitors the sense of being in the animals' habitats. Buildings and barriers are hidden. By recreating sights and other sensorial input from natural environments, immersion exhibits provide an indication about how animals live in the wild. The landscape immersion term and approach were developed in 1975 through the efforts of David Hancocks at Seattle's Woodland Park Zoo. This led to the zoo's ground-breaking gorilla exhibit, which opened in 1978. The concept became the industry standard by the 1980s, and has since gained widespread acceptance as the best practice for zoological exhibits. == References ==


id: kyushu-natural-animal-park-african-safari-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyushu_Natural_Animal_Park_African_Safari-0.md
category: reference
title: Kyushu Natural Animal Park African Safari
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyushu_Natural_Animal_Park_African_Safari
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:36.640314+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kyushu-natural-animal-park-african-safari-20260505-0
summary:
Kyushu Natural Animal Park African Safari (九州自然動物公園アフリカンサファリ, Kyūshū Shizen Dōbutsu Kōen Afurikan Safari), also referred to as simply African Safari, is Japan's largest safari park and is located at the base of the Kunisaki Peninsula in Usa, Ōita Prefecture. == Overview == === Interaction Zone === The park is separated into two "zones." In the Fureai Zone, or "Interaction Zone," visitors can interact with and even touch various animals such as rabbits, red kangaroos, and miniature horses while exploring the area on foot. In the area, there are various gift shops and restaurants. There are also both a "dog salon" and a "cat salon" in which visitors can directly interact with the animals. === Safari Zone === The Safari Zone is the large safari-style section of the park. This safari is divided into sections, each modeled on a different natural environment. Each animal species is placed in the section which most closely resembles their natural habitat. The sections within the Safari Zone are each separated by fences and security gates. However, there are no fences separating visitors from the animals during the safari. Visitors can either choose to travel the park in their personal car or ride the park's "Jungle


id: limassol-zoo-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limassol_Zoo-0.md
category: reference
title: Limassol Zoo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limassol_Zoo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:37.815400+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: limassol-zoo-20260505-0
summary:
The Limassol Zoo (Greek: Ζωολογικός Κήπος Λεμεσού, romanized: Zōologikós Kḗpos Lemesoú) is located within the Limassol Public Gardens, is a 15 acres (6.1 ha) zoological garden in Limassol, Cyprus. It was founded by Mayor Kostas Partaside in 1956. After substantial renovations, the Limassol Zoo was reopened in 2012. == See also == List of zoos by country Captivity Botanical garden Captive animal == References == == External links == Media related to Limassol zoo at Wikimedia Commons


id: menagerie-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menagerie-0.md
category: reference
title: Menagerie
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menagerie
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:38.997628+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: menagerie-20260505-0
summary:
A menagerie is a collection of captive animals, frequently exotic, kept for display; or the place where such a collection is kept, a precursor to the modern zoo or zoological garden. The term was first used in 17th-century France, referring to the management of household or domestic stock. Later, it came to be used primarily in reference to aristocratic or royal animal collections. The French-language Methodical Encyclopaedia of 1782 defines a menagerie as an "establishment of luxury and curiosity". Later on, the term referred also to travelling animal collections that exhibited wild animals at fairs across Europe and the Americas. == Aristocratic menageries == A menagerie was mostly connected with an aristocratic or royal court and was situated within a garden or park of a palace. These aristocrats wanted to illustrate their power and wealth by displaying exotic animals which were uncommon, difficult to acquire, and expensive to maintain in a living and active state. The aristocratic menageries are distinguished from the later zoological garden (zoos) since they were founded and owned by aristocrats whose intentions were not primarily of scientific and educational interest. === Medieval period and Renaissance === During the Middle Ages, several sovereigns across Europe maintained menageries


id: menagerie-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menagerie-1.md
category: reference
title: Menagerie
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menagerie
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:38.997628+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: menagerie-20260505-0
summary:
=== Versailles and its legacy === During the seventeenth century, exotic birds and small animals provided diverting ornaments for the court of France; lions and other large animals were kept primarily to be brought out for staged fights. The collecting grew and attained more permanent lodgings in the 1660s, when Louis XIV constructed two new menageries: one at Vincennes, next to a palace on the eastern edge of Paris, and a more elaborate one, which became a model for menageries throughout Europe, at Versailles, the site of a royal hunting lodge two hours (by carriage) west of Paris. Around 1661, he had a menagerie of "ferocious" beasts built at Vincennes for the organization of fights. Surrounding a rectangular courtyard, a two-storey building with balconies allowed spectators to view the scene. The animals were housed on the ground floor in cells bordering the courtyard, with small yards on the outside where they could take a bit of exercise. At Vincennes, lions, tigers, and leopards, as well as polecat, minks, and weasels were kept in cages around an amphitheater where the king could entertain courtiers and visiting dignitaries with bloody battles. In 1682, for instance, the ambassador of Persia enjoyed the spectacle


id: menagerie-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menagerie-2.md
category: reference
title: Menagerie
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menagerie
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:38.997628+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: menagerie-20260505-0
summary:
In England travelling menageries had first appeared at around 1700. In contrast to the aristocratic menageries, these travelling animal collections were run by showmen who met the craving for sensation of the ordinary population. These animal shows ranged in size but the largest was George Wombwell's. The earliest record of a fatality at one such travelling menagerie was the death of Hannah Twynnoy in 1703 who was killed by a tiger in Malmesbury, Wiltshire. Also in North America travelling menageries became even more popular during that time. The first exotic animal known to have been exhibited in America was a lion, in Boston in 1710, followed a year later in the same city by a camel. A sailor arrived in Philadelphia in August 1727 with another lion, which he exhibited in the city and surrounding towns for eight years. The first elephant was imported from India to America by a ship's captain, Jacob Crowninshield, in 1796. It was first displayed in New York City and travelled extensively up and down the East Coast. In 1834 James and William Howes’ New York Menagerie toured New England with an elephant, a rhinoceros, a camel, two tigers, a polar bear, and several parrots


id: nocturnal-house-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nocturnal_house-0.md
category: reference
title: Nocturnal house
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nocturnal_house
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:40.149365+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nocturnal-house-20260505-0
summary:
A nocturnal house, sometimes called a nocturama, is a building in a zoo or research establishment where nocturnal animals are kept and viewable by the public. The unique feature of buildings of this type is that the lighting within is isolated from the outside and reversed; i.e. it is dark during the day and lit at night. This is to enable visitors and researchers to more conveniently study nocturnal animals during daylight hours. Internally, a building usually consists of several glass-walled enclosures containing a replica of the animals' normal environments. In the case of burrowing animals, often their tunnels are 'half-glassed' so the animals can be observed while underground. == Notable nocturnal houses == === Current === ==== USA ==== Kingdoms of The Night, Omaha's Henry Doorly Zoo & Aquarium (Nebraska) Nocturnal Building and Aviary, Columbus Zoo & Aquarium (Ohio) Animals of The Night, Memphis Zoo (Tennessee) Bat House in Jaguar Jungle, Audubon Zoo (Louisiana) Brazos by Night, Cameron Park Zoo (Texas) Mouse House, Bronx Zoo (New York) Desert's Edge and Clouded leopard Rain Forest, Brookfield Zoo (Illinois) Night Hunters, Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical Garden (Ohio) ==== Mexico ==== Guadalajara Zoo ==== United Kingdom ==== Nightlife, ZSL London Zoo Fruit


id: our-zoo-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Our_Zoo-0.md
category: reference
title: Our Zoo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Our_Zoo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:41.344635+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: our-zoo-20260505-0
summary:
Our Zoo is a British period drama television series from BBC One, first broadcast on 3 September 2014. The six-part series, created by Matt Charman, is about George Mottershead, his dreams of creating a cage-free zoo, his family and how their lives changed when they embarked on the creation of Chester Zoo. == Cast == Lee Ingleby as George Mottershead Liz White as Lizzie Mottershead Anne Reid as Lucy Mottershead Peter Wight as Albert Mottershead Ralf Little as Billy Atkinson Sophia Myles as Lady Katherine Longmore Stephen Campbell Moore as Reverend Aaron Webb Amelia Clarkson as Muriel Mottershead Honor Kneafsey as June Mottershead == Production == Our Zoo was commissioned by Danny Cohen and Ben Stephenson for BBC One. The series was based on an idea introduced to Big Talk Productions by Aenon, the production company headed by Adam Kemp. Filming took place in Liverpool, as well as at Walton Hall in Warrington and at Abney Hall in Cheadle. When BBC said there would be no second series of Our Zoo, many fans were left surprised by the decision. On 10 December 2014 the Chester Chronicle created an online petition in the hopes of renewing the show for another series,


id: petting-zoo-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petting_zoo-0.md
category: reference
title: Petting zoo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petting_zoo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:42.494466+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: petting-zoo-20260505-0
summary:
A petting zoo (also called a children's zoo, children's farm, or petting farm) features a combination of domesticated animals and some wild species that are docile enough to touch and feed. In addition to independent petting zoos, many general zoos contain a petting zoo. Most petting zoos are designed to provide only relatively placid, herbivorous domesticated animals, such as sheep, goats, rabbits, ponies and donkeys to feed and interact physically with safety. This is in contrast to the usual zoo experience, where normally wild animals are viewed from behind safe enclosures where no contact is possible. A few provide wild species (such as pythons or big cat cubs) to interact with, but these are rare and usually found outside Western nations. Petting zoos are categorized as part of the agritourism sector. Concerns have been raised about the welfare of animals in petting zoos, particularly due to interactions with large numbers of visitors, which can be stressful. Under appropriate conditions, where animals have access to refuge and can avoid visitors, friendly species such as goats may be unaffected, while more sensitive animals, such as pigs, may alter their behavior, especially under high visitor density. Highly sensitive animals, including rabbits, experience persistent


id: pheasantry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pheasantry-0.md
category: reference
title: Pheasantry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pheasantry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:43.655744+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pheasantry-20260505-0
summary:
A pheasantry is a place or facility used for captive breeding and rearing pheasants, peafowls and other related birds, which may or may not be confined with enclosures such as aviaries. The pheasants may be sold or displayed to public as ornamental animals, or used as game birds. Pheasantries may also be used for conservation and research purposes. == See also == Aviculture Falconry Poultry Hatchery == References ==


id: reptile-centre-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reptile_centre-0.md
category: reference
title: Reptile centre
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reptile_centre
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:44.830421+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: reptile-centre-20260505-0
summary:
A reptile center is typically a facility devoted to keeping living reptiles, educating the public about reptiles, and serving as a control center for collecting reptiles that turn up in populated areas, where they will then help to rehabilitate some reptiles before returning them to the wild. Most are public-access, run as private businesses, or are state-sponsored. Some centers work with venomous reptiles as venom research labs. Others are simply privately run zoos devoted solely to reptiles, or are incorporated into larger zoos or organizations. One example is the reptile center in Alice Springs, Australia devoted to indigenous reptiles. Many are collected from local homes, yards, or from areas about to be burned under the controlled burning program to keep summer grass fires from threatening the local homes. Most of the reptiles end up being relocated to uninhabited areas. The Alice Springs center also doubles as a snake call centre, with the owner and staff coming out to homes to remove venomous snakes from inconvenient places. The United States of America has the world's largest collection of reptiles and reptile centers, with a lot of the states in the South hosting the majority of them. In Punta Gorda, Florida, Iguanaland


id: safari-park-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safari_park-0.md
category: reference
title: Safari park
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safari_park
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:46.021271+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: safari-park-20260505-0
summary:
A safari park, sometimes known as a wildlife park, is a zoo-like commercial drive-in tourist attraction where visitors can drive their own vehicles or ride in vehicles provided by the facility to observe freely roaming animals. A safari park is larger than a zoo and smaller than a game reserve. For example, African Lion Safari in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada is 750 acres (3.0 km2). For comparison, Lake Nakuru in the Great Rift Valley, Kenya, is 168 square kilometres (65 sq mi), and a typical large game reserve is Tsavo East, also in Kenya, which encompasses 11,747 square kilometres (4,536 sq mi). Many parks have conservation programmes with endangered animals like: elephants, white rhinos, giraffes, lions, tigers, cheetahs and wild dogs. == General overview of a safari park == The main attractions are frequently large animals from Africa which people can see in wildlife reserves such as: giraffes, lions (including white lions), white rhinos, African bush elephants, hippopotamuses, zebras, ostriches, lesser and greater flamingos, ground hornbills, guineafowl, African buffaloes, sometimes dromedary camels, great white and pink-backed pelicans, African sacred ibises, Ankole cattle, cheetahs, leopards, hyenas, chimpanzees, baboons, African wild dogs, Barbary sheep, crowned cranes, Egyptian geese, saddle-billed, yellow-billed and marabou storks,


id: safari-park-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safari_park-1.md
category: reference
title: Safari park
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safari_park
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:46.021271+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: safari-park-20260505-0
summary:
Africa Egypt: Alexandria (Africa Safari Park, 2004) Americas Brazil: São Paulo (Zoo Safári, 2001 - this park was formerly known as Simba Safari from 1972 to 2001) Canada: Ontario: Hamilton (African Lion Safari, 1969) Quebec: Hemmingford (Parc Safari, 1972), Montebello (Parc Omega, 1985) Chile: Rancagua (Safari Park Rancagua, 2009) Guatemala: Escuintla (Auto Safari Chapin, 1980) Mexico: Amacuzac (Zoofari, 1984), Puebla (Africam Safari, 1972) United States: Alabama: Hope Hull, Alabama (Alabama Safari Park, 2018) Arizona: Camp Verde (Out of Africa Wildlife Park, 1988) Arkansas: Gentry (Wild Wilderness Drive-Through Safari, 1970) California: Escondido (San Diego Zoo Safari Park, formerly San Diego Wild Animal Park, 1972) Florida: Loxahatchee (Lion Country Safari, 1967) Georgia: Pine Mountain (Wild Animal Safari, 1991), Cleveland, Georgia (North Georgia Wildlife and Safari Park, 2018), Metter, Georgia (Wild Georgia Safari Park, 2018), Hartwell, Georgia (Lake Hartwell Wildlife Safari, 2021), Atlanta (Atlanta Safari Park, 2023), Madison, Georgia (Georgia Safari Conservation Park, 2024) Louisiana: Delhi (High Delta Safari Park, 2009) Nebraska: Ashland (Lee G. Simmons Conservation Park and Wildlife Safari, 1998) New Jersey: Jackson Township (Great Adventure, 1974, now Six Flags Great Adventure) New York: Chittenango (Wild Animal Park, 2010) Ohio: Port Clinton (African Safari Wildlife Park, 1973) Oregon: Winston (Wildlife Safari,


id: the-secret-life-of-the-zoo-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Secret_Life_of_the_Zoo-0.md
category: reference
title: The Secret Life of the Zoo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Secret_Life_of_the_Zoo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:47.251792+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-secret-life-of-the-zoo-20260505-0
summary:
The Secret Life of the Zoo is a British documentary programme produced by Blast! Films on behalf of Channel 4. The series is filmed on location at Chester Zoo in the North West of England, and focuses on the behaviour of the animals at the zoo and their relationships with the keepers. The first five series were narrated by Olivia Colman. Actress Tamsin Greig took over narration from the sixth series. == Production == The series gives viewers behind the scenes access to Chester Zoo's 21,000 animals and the people who work there. The zoo's keepers are interviewed in each episode about the various animals and incidents. Head of programmes at Blast!, Nick Hornby explained that as they wanted to tell the story from the animals' perspectives, they did not want the bars of the cages to be in shot, so they placed fixed cameras in the various enclosures. The first series was filmed over 10 months. The series was originally narrated by Olivia Colman. Tamsin Greig took over from October 2018. Ten series have aired between 2016 and 2021. The 8th series started airing in the UK on Channel 4 from 31 October 2019. The ninth series began on


id: species-survival-plan-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species_Survival_Plan-0.md
category: reference
title: Species Survival Plan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species_Survival_Plan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:48.446007+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: species-survival-plan-20260505-0
summary:
The American Species Survival Plan or SSP program was developed in 1981 by the (American) Association of Zoos and Aquariums to help ensure the survival of selected species in zoos and aquariums, most of which are threatened or endangered in the wild. == SSP program == SSP programs focus on animals that are near threatened, threatened, endangered, or otherwise in danger of extinction in the wild, when zoo and zoology conservationists believe captive breeding programs will aid in their chances of survival. These programs help maintain healthy and genetically diverse animal populations within the Association of Zoos and Aquariums-accredited zoo community. AZA accredited zoos and AZA conservation partners that are involved in SSP programs engage in cooperative population management and conservation efforts that include research, conservation genetics, public education, reintroduction, and in situ or field conservation projects. The process for selecting recommended species is guided by Taxon Advisory Groups, whose sole objective is to curate Regional Collection Plans for the conservation needs of a species and how AZA institutions will cooperate to reach those needs. Today, there are almost 300 existing SSP programs. The SSP has been met with widespread success in ensuring that, should a species population become functionally


id: taronga-who-s-who-in-the-zoo-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taronga:_Who's_Who_in_the_Zoo-0.md
category: reference
title: Taronga: Who's Who in the Zoo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taronga:_Who's_Who_in_the_Zoo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:49.650153+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: taronga-who-s-who-in-the-zoo-20260505-0
summary:
Taronga: Who's Who in the Zoo is an Australian factual television series which goes behind the scenes at both Taronga Zoo Sydney and Taronga Western Plains Zoo at Dubbo. It is produced by McAvoy Media and follows the 240 keepers and vets caring for 5,000 animals. The ten part series' first three seasons were narrated by actress Naomi Watts and the fourth season is narrated by Virginia Gay. The first series of the program premiered on 8 February 2020. The series was placed on hiatus from 21 March due to special A Current Affair broadcasts focusing on the COVID-19 pandemic occupying the program's timeslot. The program returned on 20 May 2020. The second series premiered on 22 October 2021. The third season premiered on 7 October 2022. The series fourth season returned on 22 November 2023, with Virginia Gay replacing Naomi Watts as narrator. The fifth season of the series premiered on 13 November 2024. The series sixth season premiered on 4 November 2025. == Series overview == == Episodes == === Season 1 (2020) === === Season 2 (2021–22) === == Notes == a This episode did not air on this night in New South Wales and Queensland due


id: travelling-menagerie-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Travelling_menagerie-0.md
category: reference
title: Travelling menagerie
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Travelling_menagerie
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:50.795343+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: travelling-menagerie-20260505-0
summary:
A travelling menagerie was a touring group of showmen and animal handlers who visited towns and cities with common and exotic animals. The term "menagerie", first used in seventeenth century France, was primarily used to refer to aristocratic or royal animal collections. Most visitors to travelling menageries would never have the opportunity to see such animals under other circumstances and their arrival in a town would catalyse great excitement. The shows were both entertaining and educational; in 1872 The Scotsman described George Wombwell's travelling menagerie as "[having] done more to familiarise the minds of the masses of our people with the denizens of the forest than all the books of natural history ever printed during its wandering existence." == Europe == In England travelling menageries had first appeared at the turn of the eighteenth century, but did not gain widespread popularity until closer to the beginning of the nineteenth century. In contrast to the aristocratic menageries, these travelling animal collections were run by showmen who met the craving for sensation of the ordinary population. These animal shows ranged in size but the largest was George Wombwell's which, by 1839, totalled fifteen wagons. By 1880 Bostock and Wombwell's Royal National Menagerie


id: virtual-zoo-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_zoo-0.md
category: reference
title: Virtual zoo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_zoo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:51.974926+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: virtual-zoo-20260505-0
summary:
A virtual zoo is an exploration of the zoo model of interacting with animals, but in a virtual environment such as a web page, a collection of videos, or virtual reality. Many virtual zoos are websites that are created to simulate a visit to a zoo, and the visitors to these sites can view exhibits about animals and their habitats. Many zoos as well as schools have developed virtual zoos offering educational articles and media as exhibits. == History == The first virtual zoo was created in 1994 by Ken Boschert, DVM. Boschert created his site as a way of informing people about animals and how to care for them. His site has been recognized by Education World and "Web 100". In 2017, Hari Kunduru founded Zoptiks, a virtual zoo offering zoologist-backed information about animals and dinosaurs, and an augmented reality interface. During the COVID-19 pandemic, families and children were unable to attend zoos due to nationwide lockdowns. Some groups such as Zoos Victoria offered a 24/7 livestream of animals including otters, lions and penguins. == Purpose == The validity of virtual zoos has met with some resistance. However, many view virtual zoos as the way of the future for


id: animalia-paradoxa-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalia_Paradoxa-0.md
category: reference
title: Animalia Paradoxa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalia_Paradoxa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:53.676829+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: animalia-paradoxa-20260505-0
summary:
Animalia Paradoxa (Latin for "contradictory animals"; cf. paradox) are the mythical, magical, or otherwise suspect animals mentioned in the first five editions of Carl Linnaeus's seminal work Systema Naturae under the header Paradoxa. It lists fantastic creatures found in medieval bestiaries and some animals reported by explorers from abroad and explains why they are excluded from Systema Naturae. According to Swedish historian Gunnar Broberg, it was to offer a natural explanation and demystify the world of superstition. Paradoxa was dropped from Linnaeus' classification system as of the 6th edition (1748). == Paradoxa == These 10 taxa appear in the 1st to 5th editions: Hydra: Linnaeus wrote: "Hydra: body of a snake, with two feet, seven necks and the same number of heads, lacking wings, preserved in Hamburg, similar to the description of the Hydra of the Apocalypse of St.John chapters 12 and 13. And it is provided by very many as a true species of animal, but falsely. Nature for itself and always the similar, never naturally makes multiple heads on one body. Fraud and artifice, as we ourselves saw [on it] teeth of a weasel, different from teeth of an Amphibian [or reptile], easily detected." See Carl Linnaeus#Doctorate. (Distinguish


id: arkive-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARKive-0.md
category: reference
title: ARKive
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARKive
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:54.836385+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: arkive-20260505-0
summary:
ARKive was a global initiative with the mission of "promoting the conservation of the world's threatened species, through the power of wildlife imagery", which it did by locating and gathering films, photographs and audio recordings of the world's species into a centralised digital archive. Its priority was the completion of audio-visual profiles for the c. 17,000 species on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. The project was an initiative of Wildscreen, a UK-registered educational charity, based in Bristol. The technical platform was created by Hewlett-Packard, as part of the HP Labs' Digital Media Systems research programme. ARKive had the backing of leading conservation organisations, including BirdLife International, Conservation International, International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the United Nations' World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC), and the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), as well as leading academic and research institutions, such as the Natural History Museum; Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew; and the Smithsonian Institution. It was a member of the Institutional Council of the Encyclopedia of Life. Two ARKive layers for Google Earth, featuring endangered species and species in the Gulf of Mexico were produced by Google Earth Outreach. The first of these was launched in April 2008 by


id: automated-species-identification-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_species_identification-0.md
category: reference
title: Automated species identification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_species_identification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:55.990840+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: automated-species-identification-20260505-0
summary:
Automated species identification is a method of making the expertise of taxonomists available to ecologists, parataxonomists and others via digital technology and artificial intelligence. Today, most automated identification systems rely on images depicting the species for the identification. Based on precisely identified images of a species, a classifier is trained. Once exposed to a sufficient amount of training data, this classifier can then identify the trained species on previously unseen images. == Introduction == The automated identification of biological objects such as insects (individuals) and/or groups (e.g., species, guilds, characters) has been a dream among systematists for centuries. The goal of some of the first multivariate biometric methods was to address the perennial problem of group discrimination and inter-group characterization. Despite much preliminary work in the 1950s and '60s, progress in designing and implementing practical systems for fully automated object biological identification has proven frustratingly slow. As recently as 2004 Dan Janzen updated the dream for a new audience: The spaceship lands. He steps out. He points it around. It says 'friendly–unfriendly—edible–poisonous—safe– dangerous—living–inanimate'. On the next sweep it says 'Quercus oleoides—Homo sapiens—Spondias mombin—Solanum nigrum—Crotalus durissus—Morpho peleides—serpentine'. This has been in my head since reading science fiction in ninth grade half


id: automated-species-identification-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_species_identification-1.md
category: reference
title: Automated species identification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_species_identification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:55.990840+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: automated-species-identification-20260505-0
summary:
"... we are running out of systematic palaeontologists who have anything approaching synoptic knowledge of a major group of organisms ... Palaeontologists of the next century are unlikely to have the luxury of dealing at length with taxonomic problems ... Palaeontology will have to sustain its level of excitement without the aid of systematists, who have contributed so much to its success."This expertise deficiency cuts as deeply into those commercial industries that rely on accurate identifications (e.g., agriculture, biostratigraphy) as it does into a wide range of pure and applied research programmes (e.g., conservation, biological oceanography, climatology, ecology). It is also commonly, though informally, acknowledged that the technical, taxonomic literature of all organismal groups is littered with examples of inconsistent and incorrect identifications. This is due to a variety of factors, including taxonomists being insufficiently trained and skilled in making identifications (e.g., using different rules-of-thumb in recognizing the boundaries between similar groups), insufficiently detailed original group descriptions and/or illustrations, inadequate access to current monographs and well-curated collections and, of course, taxonomists having different opinions regarding group concepts. Peer review only weeds out the most obvious errors of commission or omission in this area, and then only when an author provides


id: baltimore-classification-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore_classification-0.md
category: reference
title: Baltimore classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:57.533227+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: baltimore-classification-20260505-0
summary:
Baltimore classification is a system used to classify viruses by their routes of transferring genetic information from the genome to messenger RNA (mRNA). Seven Baltimore groups, or classes, exist and are numbered in Roman numerals from I to VII. Groups are defined by whether the viral genome is made of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or ribonucleic acid (RNA), whether the genome is single- or double-stranded, whether a single-stranded RNA genome is positive-sense (+) or negative-sense (–), and whether the virus makes DNA from RNA (reverse transcription (RT)). Viruses within Baltimore groups typically have the same replication method, but other characteristics such as virion structure are not directly related to Baltimore classification. The seven Baltimore groups are for double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) viruses, single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) viruses, double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) viruses, positive-sense single-stranded RNA (+ssRNA) viruses, negative-sense single-stranded RNA (–ssRNA) viruses, ssRNA viruses that have a DNA intermediate in their life cycle (ssRNA-RT), and dsDNA viruses that have an RNA intermediate in their life cycle (dsDNA-RT). Only one class exists for ssDNA viruses because their genomes are converted to dsDNA before transcription regardless of sense. Some viruses belong to more than one Baltimore group, such as DNA viruses that have either dsDNA or


id: baltimore-classification-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore_classification-1.md
category: reference
title: Baltimore classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:57.533227+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: baltimore-classification-20260505-0
summary:
The first Baltimore group contains viruses that have a double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) genome. All dsDNA viruses have their mRNA synthesized in a three-step process. First, a transcription preinitiation complex binds to the DNA upstream of the transcription site, recruiting a host RNA polymerase enzyme. Once the RNA polymerase is recruited, it uses the negative-sense strand as a template for synthesizing mRNA strands, which are positive sense. The RNA polymerase then terminates transcription upon reaching a specific signal, such as a polyadenylation site. dsDNA viruses make use of several mechanisms to replicate their genome. A widely used method is bidirectional replication, in which two replication forks are established at a replication origin site and move in opposite directions on a DNA molecule. A rolling circle mechanism that produces linear strands while progressing in a loop around a circular genome is also common. Many dsDNA viruses use a strand displacement method whereby one strand is synthesized from a template strand, and a complementary strand is then synthesized from the previously synthesized strand to form a dsDNA genome. Lastly, some dsDNA viruses are replicated as part of a process called replicative transposition, whereby a viral genome that is integrated into a host cell's


id: baltimore-classification-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore_classification-2.md
category: reference
title: Baltimore classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:57.533227+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: baltimore-classification-20260505-0
summary:
Viruses in the phylum Duplornaviricota are dsRNA viruses. In the phylum Pisuviricota, members of the class Duplopiviricetes are dsRNA viruses. === Group IV: positive-sense single-stranded RNA viruses === The fourth Baltimore group contains viruses that have a positive-sense single-stranded RNA (+ssRNA) genome. For +ssRNA viruses, the genome functions as mRNA, so no transcription is required for translation. +ssRNA viruses will, however, produce positive-sense copies of the genome from negative-sense strands of an intermediate dsRNA genome. This acts as both a transcription and replication process since the replicated +ssRNA is also mRNA. Many +ssRNA viruses are able to have only a portion of their genome transcribed. Typically, subgenomic RNA (sgRNA) strands are used for the translation of structural and movement proteins needed during intermediate and late stages of infection. sgRNA transcription may occur by commencing RNA synthesis within the genome rather than from the 5′-end ("five prime end"), by stopping RNA synthesis at specific sequences in the genome, or, as a part of both aforementioned methods, by synthesizing leader sequences from viral RNA that are then attached to sgRNA strands. During infection, the viral RdRp is always translated directly from the genome first because replication, performed by the RdRp, is required


id: baltimore-classification-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore_classification-3.md
category: reference
title: Baltimore classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:57.533227+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: baltimore-classification-20260505-0
summary:
The sixth Baltimore group contains viruses that have a (positive-sense) single-stranded RNA genome with a DNA intermediate ((+)ssRNA-RT) in their replication cycle. ssRNA-RT viruses are transcribed in the same manner as DNA viruses, but their genomes are first converted to a dsDNA form through a process called reverse transcription (RT). The viral reverse transcriptase enzyme then synthesizes a DNA strand from the +ssRNA strand, and the RNA strand is degraded and replaced with a DNA strand to create a dsDNA copy of the genome. The viral enzyme integrase then integrates the dsDNA molecule into the DNA of the host cell, where it is now called a provirus. The host cell's RNA polymerase II then transcribes RNA in the nucleus from the proviral DNA. Some of this RNA becomes mRNA whereas other strands become copies of the viral genome for replication. ssRNA-RT viruses are all included in the class Revtraviricetes, the sole class in the kingdom Pararnavirae, realm Riboviria. Excluding the family Caulimoviridae, which belongs to group VII, all members of the Revtraviricetes order Ortervirales are ssRNA-RT viruses. ssRNA-RT viruses are sometimes called retroviruses, a term shared with members of the ssRNA-RT family Retroviridae. === Group VII: double-stranded DNA viruses with


id: baltimore-classification-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore_classification-4.md
category: reference
title: Baltimore classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:57.533227+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: baltimore-classification-20260505-0
summary:
=== Genome structure === Viral genomes may be either linear with ends or circular in a loop. Whether a virus has a linear or circular genome varies from group to group. Most dsDNA and –ssRNA viruses have linear genomes, ssDNA viruses mainly have circular genomes, dsRNA, +ssRNA, and ssRNA-RT viruses have linear genomes, and dsDNA-RT viruses have circular genomes. As all +ssRNA viruses have genomes that can act as mRNA, and circular mRNA does not exist in cellular life, all +ssRNA viruses have linear genomes. Among –ssRNA viruses, those of the phylum Negarnaviricota have linear genomes, and those of the realm Ribozyviria have circular genomes. === Genome size === The size, or length, of a genome varies by Baltimore group. dsDNA viruses have genomes ranging from about 5 to 2,500 kilobases (kb) in length, ssDNA viruses 1–25 kb, dsRNA viruses 4–30 kb, +ssRNA viruses 3.5–40 kb, –ssRNA viruses 1.7–20 kb, ssRNA-RT viruses 5–13 kb, and dsDNA-RT viruses 3–10 kb in length. The relatively small genomes of viruses that are not group I are likely due to physical limitations. For example, ssDNA has the potential to form extensive secondary structures, and ssRNA is relatively chemically unstable. dsDNA viruses have much more


id: baltimore-classification-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore_classification-5.md
category: reference
title: Baltimore classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:57.533227+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: baltimore-classification-20260505-0
summary:
Non-canonical translation initiation: Viral initiation of translation: some viruses have evolved mechanisms to initiate translation. Methods include having internal ribosomal entry sites to allow cap-independent initiation, having downstream hairpin loops that allow for cap-dependent translation without an eIF2 initiation factor, and initiating translation at a CUG codon or other start codon with a leucine amino acid. These methods are used by various +ssRNA and ssRNA-RT viruses. Ribosomal shunting, also called nonlinear scanning: ribosomes start scanning from a 5′-cap structure then bypass a leader region in the mRNA and initiate translation downstream from the leader sequence. Ribosomal shunting is used by various dsDNA, +ssRNA, –ssRNA, and RT viruses. Termination-reinitiation, also called stop-start: after termination of translation of an ORF, a proportion of 40S subunits of the ribosome remain attached to the mRNA as a way to reinitiate translation of a subsequent ORF. This is used by various dsRNA and +ssRNA viruses. Non-canonical elongation and termination of translation: Ribosomal frameshifting: ribosomes slip one nucleobase forward or backward during translation. This is used by various dsDNA, dsRNA, +ssRNA, and ssRNA-RT viruses to produce merged proteins from overlapping ORFs. Suppression of termination, also called stop codon read-through: certain viruses contain codons in their mRNA


id: baltimore-classification-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore_classification-6.md
category: reference
title: Baltimore classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:06:57.533227+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: baltimore-classification-20260505-0
summary:
Before Baltimore classification was created, a variety of classification systems for viruses had been proposed, classifying viruses by host, structure, biochemical properties, and other characteristics. Baltimore classification was proposed in 1971 by virologist David Baltimore in a paper titled "Expression of Animal Virus Genomes" that was published in the academic journal Bacteriology Reviews (now named Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews). Baltimore focused on classifying animal viruses but effectively classified all viruses by their routes of information transmission from genomic nucleic acid to mRNA. The system initially contained the first six groups but was later expanded to include group VII after the discovery of dsDNA-RT viruses. Because of the utility of Baltimore classification, it came to be used alongside standard virus taxonomy, which is based on evolutionary relationships and governed by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV). Over time, the belief that Baltimore groups were monophyletic spread among virologists. This was reflected in taxonomies published by the ICTV and the National Center for Biotechnology Information, which for decades placed the Baltimore groups as informal higher ranks above official taxonomic ranks. From 1991 to 2017, virus taxonomy used a five-rank system ranging from order to species, with Baltimore classification used


id: list-of-taxa-with-candidatus-status-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_taxa_with_candidatus_status-0.md
category: reference
title: List of taxa with candidatus status
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_taxa_with_candidatus_status
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:01.046393+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-taxa-with-candidatus-status-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of taxa with Candidatus status. For taxa not covered by this list, see also: the GenBank taxonomy for "effective" names as published; the Candidatus Lists and LPSN for latinate names, some sanitized to match the Code. == Phyla == "Ca. Absconditabacteria" (previously Candidate phylum SR1) ABY1 aka OD1-ABY1, subgroup of OD1 ("Ca. Parcubacteria") Candidate phylum AC1 "Ca. Acetothermia" (previously Candidate phylum OP1) "Ca. Aerophobetes" (previously Candidate phylum CD12 or BHI80-139) "Ca. Aminicenantes" (previously Candidate phylum OP8) aquifer1 aquifer2 "Ca. Berkelbacteria" (previously Candidate phylum ACD58) BRC1 CAB-I "Ca. Calescamantes" (previously Candidate phylum EM19) Candidate phylum CPR2 Candidate phylum CPR3 Candidate phylum NC10 Candidate phylum OP2 Candidate phylum RF3 Candidate phylum SAM Candidate phylum SPAM Candidate phylum TG2 Candidate phylum VC2 Candidate phylum WS1 Candidate phylum WS2 Candidate phylum WS4 Candidate phylum WYO CKC4 "Ca. Cloacimonetes" (previously Candidate phylum WWE1) CPR1 "Ca. Dependentiae" (previously Candidate phylum TM6) EM 3 "Ca. Endomicrobia" Stingl et al. 2005 "Ca. Fermentibacteria" (Hyd24-12) "Ca. Fervidibacteria" (previously Candidate phylum OctSpa1-106) GAL08 GAL15 GN01 GN03 GN04 GN05 GN06 GN07 GN08 GN09 GN10 GN11 GN12 GN13 GN14 GN15 GOUTA4 "Ca. Gracilibacteria" (previously Candidate phylum GN02, BD1-5, or BD1-5 group) Guaymas1 "Ca. Hydrogenedentes" (previously Candidate phylum NKB19)


id: list-of-taxa-with-candidatus-status-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_taxa_with_candidatus_status-1.md
category: reference
title: List of taxa with candidatus status
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_taxa_with_candidatus_status
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:01.046393+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-taxa-with-candidatus-status-20260505-0
summary:
"Ca. Accumulibacter phosphatis" Hesselmann et al. 1999 "Ca. Actinobaculum timonae" Drancourt et al. 2004 "Ca. Adiaceo aphidicola" Darby et al. 2005 "Ca. Allobeggiatoa salina" Hinck et al. 2011 "Ca. Alysiomicrobium bavaricum" Kragelund et al. 2006 "Ca. Alysiosphaera europaea" Kragelund et al. 2006 "Ca. Amoebinatus massiliae" Greub et al. 2004 "Ca. Amoebophilus asiaticus" Horn et al. 2001 "Ca. Amphibiichlamydia ranarum" Martel et al. 2013 "Ca. Anadelfobacter veles" Vannini et al. 2010 "Ca. Ancillula trichonymphae" Strassert et al. 2012 "Ca. Anammoxoglobus propionicus" Kartal et al. 2007 "Ca. Anaplasma sparouinense" Duron et al. 2022 "Ca. Aquiluna rubra" Hahn 2009 "Ca. Aquirestis calciphila" Hahn and Schauer 2007 "Ca. Arcobacter sulfidicus" Wirsen et al. 2002 "Ca. Arsenophonus arthropodicus" Dale et al. 2002 "Ca. Arsenophonus phytopathogenicus" Bressan et al. 2012 "Ca. Arsenophonus triatominarum" Hypsa and Dale 1997 "Ca. Aschnera chinzeii" Hosokawa et al. 2012 "Ca. Atelocyanobacterium thalassa(♦) "Ca. Azoamicus ciliaticola" Graf et al. 2021 "Ca. Bacteroides massiliae" Drancourt et al. 2004 "Ca. Bartonella ancashi" Blazes et al. 2013 "Ca. Bartonella antechini" Kaewmongkol et al. 2011 "Ca. Bartonella breitschwerdtii(♦) "Ca. Bartonella bandicootii" Kaewmongkol et al. 2011 "Ca. Bartonella durdenii(♦) "Ca. Bartonella eldjazairii(♦) "Ca. Bartonella mayotimonensis" Lin et al. 2010 "Ca. Bartonella melophagi(♦) "Ca. Bartonella merieuxii" Chomel et


id: list-of-taxa-with-candidatus-status-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_taxa_with_candidatus_status-2.md
category: reference
title: List of taxa with candidatus status
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_taxa_with_candidatus_status
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:01.046393+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-taxa-with-candidatus-status-20260505-0
summary:
Mycoplasma aoti" Barker et al. 2011 "Ca. Mycoplasma corallicola" Neulinger et al. 2009 "Ca. Mycoplasma haematoparvum" Sykes et al. 2005 "Ca. Mycoplasma haemobos" Tagawa et al. 2008 "Ca. Mycoplasma haemodidelphidis" Messick et al. 2002 "Ca. Mycoplasma haemofelis" Neimark et al. 2001 (synonymous with Haemobartonella felis) "Ca. Mycoplasma haemolamae" Messick et al. 2002 "Ca. Mycoplasma haemomacaque" Maggi et al. 2013 "Ca. Mycoplasma haemominutum" Foley and Pedersen 2001 (previously "Haemobartonella felis small form (Hfsm)") "Ca. Mycoplasma haemomuris" Neimark et al. 2001 (synonymous with Haemobartonella muris) "Ca. Mycoplasma haemomuris subsp. musculi" Harasawa et al. 2015 "Ca. Mycoplasma haemomuris subsp. ratti" Harasawa et al. 2015 "Ca. Mycoplasma haemosuis" Neimark et al. 2001 (synonymous with Eperythrozoon suis and Mycoplasma suis) "Ca. Mycoplasma haemovis" Hornok et al. 2009 "Ca. Mycoplasma haemozalophi" Volokhov et al. 2011 "Ca. Mycoplasma kahanei" Neimark et al. 2002 "Ca. Mycoplasma ravipulmonis" Neimark et al. 1998 "Ca. Mycoplasma turicensis" Willi et al. 2006 "Ca. Mycoplasma wenyonii" Neimark et al. 2001 (synonymous with Eperythrozoon wenyonii) "Ca. Nebulobacter yamunensis" Boscaro et al. 2012 "Ca. Neoehrlichia arcana" Gofton et al. 2016 "Ca. Neoehrlichia australis" Gofton et al. 2016 "Ca. Neoehrlichia lotoris" Yabsley et al. 2008 "Ca. Neoehrlichia mikurensis" Kawahara et al. 2004 "Ca. Nitrosoarchaeum koreensis" Kim


id: list-of-taxa-with-candidatus-status-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_taxa_with_candidatus_status-3.md
category: reference
title: List of taxa with candidatus status
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_taxa_with_candidatus_status
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:01.046393+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-taxa-with-candidatus-status-20260505-0
summary:
Thiodictyon syntrophicum" Peduzzi et al. 2012 "Ca. Thioglobus singularis" Marshall and Morris 2013 "Ca. Thiomargarita joergensenii" Salman et al. 2011 "Ca. Thiomargarita nelsonii" Salman et al. 2011 "Ca. Thiophysa hinzei" Salman et al. 2011 "Ca. Thiopilula aggregata" Salman et al. 2011 "Ca. Thioturbo danicus" Muyzer et al. 2005 "Ca. Tremblaya phenacola" Gruwell et al. 2010 "Ca. Tremblaya princeps" Thao et al. 2002 "Ca. Troglogloea absoloni" Kostanjšek et al. 2013 "Ca. Uabimicrobium amorphum" Shiratori et al. 2019 "Ca. Uabimicrobium helgolandensis" Wurzbacher et al. 2024 "Ca. Uzinura diaspidicola" Gruwell et al. 2007 "Ca. Vallotia cooleyia" Toenshoff et al. 2012 "Ca. Vallotia tarda" Toenshoff et al. 2012 "Ca. Vallotia virida" Toenshoff et al. 2012 "Ca. Veillonella atypica" Drancourt et al. 2004 "Ca. Vesicomyosocius okutanii" Kuwahara et al. 2007 "Ca. Vestibaculum illigatum" Stingl et al. 2004 "Ca. Vidania fulgoroideae" Gonella et al. 2011 "Ca. Wolinella africanus" Bohr et al. 2003 "Ca. Xenohaliotis californiensis" Friedman et al. 2000 "Ca. Xiphinematobacter americani" Vandekerckhove et al. 2000 "Ca. Xiphinematobacter brevicolli" Vandekerckhove et al. 2000 "Ca. Xiphinematobacter rivesi" Vandekerckhove et al. 2000 "Ca. Zinderia insecticola" McCutcheon and Moran 2010 == Former candidatus taxa == Armatimonadota, formerly Candidate phylum OP10 Atribacterota (previously Candidate phylum OP9 or JS1) Caldisericota, formerly


id: circumscriptional-name-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumscriptional_name-0.md
category: reference
title: Circumscriptional name
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumscriptional_name
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:02.234107+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: circumscriptional-name-20260505-0
summary:
In biological classification, circumscriptional names (Latin: nomina circumscribentia) are taxon names that are defined by their circumscription; i.e. the diagnostic feature of the particular set of members included. Such names are not ruled by any nomenclature code and are mainly for taxa above the rank of family (e.g. order or class), but can be used for taxa of any rank or unranked taxa. Non-typified names other than those of genus or species rank constitute the majority of generally accepted names of taxa higher than superfamily. The standard nomenclature codes regulate names of taxa up to family rank (i.e. superfamily). There are no generally accepted rules for the naming of higher taxa (orders, classes, phyla, etc.). Under the approach of circumscription-based (circumscriptional) nomenclatures, a circumscriptional name is associated with a certain circumscription of a taxon without regard of its rank or position. In contrast to circumscriptional nomenclature, some authors advocate introducing a mandatory standardized typified nomenclature of higher taxa. They suggest all names of higher taxa to be derived in the same manner as family-group names, by modifying names of type genera with suffixes to reflect the rank. There is no consensus on what such higher rank suffixes should be. A


id: cline-biology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cline_(biology)-0.md
category: reference
title: Cline (biology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cline_(biology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:03.435002+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cline-biology-20260505-0
summary:
In biology, a cline is a measurable gradient in a single characteristic (or biological trait) of a species across its geographical range. Clines usually have a genetic (e.g. allele frequency, blood type), or phenotypic (e.g. body size, skin pigmentation) character. They can show either smooth, continuous gradation in a character, or more abrupt changes in the trait from one geographic region to the next. A cline is a spatial gradient in a single specific trait, rather than in a collection of traits; a single population can therefore have as many clines as it has traits, at least in principle. Additionally, as Julian Huxley recognised, these multiple independent clines may not act in concordance with each other. For example, it has been observed that in Australia, birds generally become smaller the further towards the north of the country they are found. In contrast, the intensity of their plumage colouration follows a different geographical trajectory, being most vibrant where humidity is highest and becoming less vibrant further into the arid centre of the country. Because of this, Huxley described the notion of clines as an "auxiliary taxonomic principle,” meaning that clinal variation in a species is not awarded taxonomic recognition in the


id: cline-biology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cline_(biology)-1.md
category: reference
title: Cline (biology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cline_(biology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:03.435002+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cline-biology-20260505-0
summary:
Clines generated through this mechanism have arisen through the joining of two formerly isolated populations which differentiated in allopatry, creating an intermediate zone. This secondary contact scenario may occur, for example, when climatic conditions change, allowing the ranges of populations to expand and meet. Because over time the effect of gene flow will tend to eventually swamp out any regional differences and cause one large homogenous population, for a stable cline to be maintained when two populations join there must usually be a selective pressure maintaining a degree of differentiation between the two populations. The mechanism of selection maintaining the clines in this scenario is often intrinsic. This means that the fitness of individuals is independent of the external environment, and selection is instead dependent on the genome of the individual. Intrinsic, or endogenous, selection can give rise to clines in characters through a variety of mechanisms. One way it may act is through heterozygote disadvantage, in which intermediate genotypes have a lower relative fitness than either homozygote genotypes. Because of this disadvantage, one allele will tend to become fixed in a given population, such that populations will consist largely of either AA (homozygous dominant) or aa (homozygous recessive) individuals.


id: cline-biology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cline_(biology)-2.md
category: reference
title: Cline (biology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cline_(biology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:03.435002+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cline-biology-20260505-0
summary:
According to Huxley, clines can be classified into two categories; continuous clines and discontinuous stepped clines. These types of clines characterise the way that a genetic or phenotypic trait transforms from one end of its geographical range of the species to the other. === Continuous clines === In continuous clines, all populations of the species are able to interbreed and there is gene flow throughout the entire range of the species. In this way, these clines are both biologically (no clear subgroups) and geographically (contiguous distribution) continuous. Continuous clines can be further sub-divided into smooth and stepped clines. Continuous smooth clines are characterised by the lack of any abrupt changes or delineation in the genetic or phenotypic trait across the cline, instead displaying a smooth gradation throughout. Huxley recognised that this type of cline, with its uniform slope throughout, was unlikely to be common. Continuous stepped clines consist of an overall shallow cline, interspersed by sections of much steeper slope. The shallow slope represents the populations, and the shorter, steeper sections the larger change in character between populations. Stepped clines can be further subdivided into horizontally stepped clines, and obliquely stepped clines. Horizontally stepped clines show no intra-population variation or


id: cline-biology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cline_(biology)-3.md
category: reference
title: Cline (biology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cline_(biology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:03.435002+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cline-biology-20260505-0
summary:
Although the term "cline" was first officially coined by Huxley in 1938, gradients and geographic variations in the character states of species have been observed for centuries. Indeed, some gradations have been considered so ubiquitous that they have been labelled ecological "rules". One commonly cited example of a gradient in morphology is Gloger's Rule, named after Constantin Gloger, who observed in 1833 that environmental factors and the pigmentation of avian plumage tend to covary with each other, such that birds found in arid areas near the Equator tend to be much darker than those in less arid areas closer to the Poles. Since then, this rule has been extended to include many other animals, including flies, butterflies, and wolves. Other ecogeographical rules include Bergmann's Rule, coined by Carl Bergmann in 1857, which states that homeotherms closer to the Equator tend to be smaller than their more northerly or southerly conspecifics. One of the proposed reasons for this cline is that larger animals have a relatively smaller surface area to volume ratio and therefore improved heat conservancy – an important advantage in cold climates. The role of the environment in imposing a selective pressure and producing this cline has been heavily


id: compositional-domain-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compositional_domain-0.md
category: reference
title: Compositional domain
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compositional_domain
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:04.587158+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: compositional-domain-20260505-0
summary:
A compositional domain in genetics is a region of DNA with a distinct guanine (G) and cytosine (C) G-C and C-G content (collectively GC content). The homogeneity of compositional domains is compared to that of the chromosome on which they reside. As such, compositional domains can be homogeneous or nonhomogeneous domains. Compositionally homogeneous domains that are sufficiently long (= 300 kb) are termed isochores or isochoric domains. The compositional domain model was proposed as an alternative to the isochoric model. The isochore model was proposed by Bernardi and colleagues to explain the observed non-uniformity of genomic fragments in the genome. However, recent sequencing of complete genomic data refuted the isochoric model. Its main predictions were: GC content of the third codon position (GC3) of protein coding genes is correlated with the GC content of the isochores embedding the corresponding genes. This prediction was found to be incorrect. GC3 could not predict the GC content of nearby sequences. The genome organization of warm-blooded vertebrates is a mosaic of isochores. This prediction was rejected by many studies that used the complete human genome data. The genome organization of cold-blooded vertebrates is characterized by low GC content levels and lower compositional heterogeneity. This


id: comstock-needham-system-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comstock–Needham_system-0.md
category: reference
title: Comstock–Needham system
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comstock–Needham_system
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:05.728387+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: comstock-needham-system-20260505-0
summary:
The Comstock–Needham system is a naming system for insect wing veins, devised by John Comstock and George Needham in 1898. It was an important step in showing the homology of all insect wings. This system was based on Needham's pretracheation theory that was later discredited by Frederic Charles Fraser in 1938. == Vein terminology == === Longitudinal veins === The Comstock and Needham system attributes different names to the veins on an insect's wing. From the anterior (leading) edge of the wing towards the posterior (rear), the major longitudinal veins are named: costa C, meaning rib subcosta Sc, meaning below the rib radius R, in analogy with a bone in the forearm, the radius media M, meaning middle cubitus Cu, meaning elbow anal veins A, in reference to its posterior location Apart from the costal and the anal veins, each vein can be branched, in which case the branches are numbered from anterior to posterior. For example, the two branches of the subcostal vein will be called Sc1 and Sc2. The radius typically branches once near the base, producing anteriorly the R1 and posteriorly the radial sector Rs. The radial sector may fork twice. The media may also fork twice,


id: conserved-name-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conserved_name-0.md
category: reference
title: Conserved name
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conserved_name
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:06.894682+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conserved-name-20260505-0
summary:
A conserved name or nomen conservandum (plural nomina conservanda, abbreviated as nom. cons.) is a scientific name that has specific nomenclatural protection in that the name is retained, even though it violates one or more rules that would otherwise prevent it from being legitimate. Nomen conservandum is a Latin term, meaning 'a name to be conserved'. While "conserved name" and "nomen conservandum" are often used interchangeably, such as by the International Code of Nomenclature for Algae, Fungi, and Plants (ICN), the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature favors "conserved name". The process for conserving botanical names is different from that for zoological names. Under the botanical code, names may also be "suppressed", nomen rejiciendum (plural nomina rejicienda or nomina utique rejicienda, abbreviated as nom. rej.), or rejected in favor of a particular conserved name, and combinations based on a suppressed name are also listed as nom. rej. == Botany == === Conservation === In botanical nomenclature, conservation is a nomenclatural procedure governed by Article 14 of the ICN. Its purpose is "to avoid disadvantageous nomenclatural changes entailed by the strict application of the rules, and especially of the principle of priority [...]" (Art. 14.1). It applies only to names at the


id: conserved-name-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conserved_name-1.md
category: reference
title: Conserved name
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conserved_name
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:06.894682+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conserved-name-20260505-0
summary:
== Zoology == For zoology, the term "conserved name", rather than "nomen conservandum", is used in the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, although informally both terms are used interchangeably. In the glossary of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (the code for names of animals, one of several nomenclature codes), this definition is given: conserved name A name otherwise unavailable or invalid that the Commission, by the use of its plenary power, has enabled to be used as a valid name by removal of the known obstacles to such use. This is a more generalized definition than the one for nomen protectum, which is specifically a conserved name that is either a junior synonym or homonym that is in use because the senior synonym or homonym has been made a nomen oblitum ("forgotten name"). An example of a conserved name is the dinosaur genus name Pachycephalosaurus, which was formally described in 1943. Later, Tylosteus (which was formally described in 1872) was found to be the same genus as Pachycephalosaurus (a synonym). By the usual rules, the genus Tylosteus has precedence and would normally be the correct name. But the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) ruled that the name Pachycephalosaurus


id: cormophyte-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cormophyte-0.md
category: reference
title: Cormophyte
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cormophyte
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:08.050961+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cormophyte-20260505-0
summary:
Cormophytes (Cormophyta) is a historical term seldom used today for the plants that are differentiated into roots, stems and leaves. These plants differ from thallophytes, whose body is referred to as the thallus, i.e. a simple body not differentiated into leaves and stems. Definitions have varied, notably about whether mosses and liverworts are included. Stephan Endlicher, a 19th-century Austrian botanist, divided the vegetable kingdom in 1836 into two groups: the thallophytes were only the algae, lichens and fungi, and the cormophytes were the mosses, liverworts, ferns, Equisitaceae, club mosses and seed plants. == References ==


id: cormus-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cormus-0.md
category: reference
title: Cormus
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cormus
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:09.221911+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cormus-20260505-0
summary:
Cormus (pl: cormi) (from ancient Greek: κορμός, kormόs, 'stem') is the appearance of a plant that belong to Cormophyte (Pteridophyte and Spermatophyte). In cormus, the vegetative apparatus is no longer a thallus, such as algae, that cannot be distinctly differentiated. The structure of cormus can be easily differentiated into its roots, stems, and leaves. In the sense of Ernst Haeckel, cormus is a plant or "colonia" animal made up of a number of individuals which originate by gemmation or budding. As applied to animals, cormus is equivalent to polypidom. == See also == Thallophyte == References ==


id: evolutionary-taxonomy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_taxonomy-0.md
category: reference
title: Evolutionary taxonomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_taxonomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:11.679071+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evolutionary-taxonomy-20260505-0
summary:
Evolutionary taxonomy, evolutionary systematics or Darwinian classification is a branch of biological classification that seeks to classify organisms using a combination of phylogenetic relationship (shared descent), progenitor-descendant relationship (serial descent), and degree of evolutionary change. This type of taxonomy may consider whole taxa rather than single species, so that groups of species can be inferred as giving rise to new groups. The concept found its most well-known form in the modern evolutionary synthesis of the early 1940s. Evolutionary taxonomy differs from strict pre-Darwinian Linnaean taxonomy (producing orderly lists only) in that it builds evolutionary trees. While in phylogenetic nomenclature each taxon must consist of a single ancestral node and all its descendants, evolutionary taxonomy allows for groups to be excluded from their parent taxa (e.g. dinosaurs are not considered to include birds, but to have given rise to them), thus permitting paraphyletic taxa. == Origin of evolutionary taxonomy == Evolutionary taxonomy arose as a result of the influence of the theory of evolution on Linnaean taxonomy. The idea of translating Linnaean taxonomy into a sort of dendrogram of the Animal and Plant kingdoms was formulated toward the end of the 18th century, well before Charles Darwin's book On the Origin


id: evolutionary-taxonomy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_taxonomy-1.md
category: reference
title: Evolutionary taxonomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_taxonomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:11.679071+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evolutionary-taxonomy-20260505-0
summary:
Phylogenetics attempts to inject a serial element by postulating ad hoc, undemonstrable shared ancestors at each node of a cladistic tree. There are in number, for a fully dichotomous cladogram, one less invisible shared ancestor than the number of terminal taxa. We get, then, in effect a dichotomous natural key with an invisible shared ancestor generating each couplet. This cannot imply a process-based explanation without justification of the dichotomy, and supposition of the shared ancestors as causes. The cladistic form of analysis of evolutionary relationships cannot falsify any genuine evolutionary scenario incorporating serial transformation, according to Zander. Zander has detailed methods for generating support measures for molecular serial descent and for morphological serial descent using Bayes factors and sequential Bayes analysis through Turing deciban or Shannon informational bit addition. == The Tree of Life == As more and more fossil groups were found and recognized in the late 19th and early 20th century, palaeontologists worked to understand the history of animals through the ages by linking together known groups. The Tree of life was slowly being mapped out, with fossil groups taking up their position in the tree as understanding increased. These groups still retained their formal Linnaean taxonomic ranks.


id: form-classification-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Form_classification-0.md
category: reference
title: Form classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Form_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:12.824213+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: form-classification-20260505-0
summary:
Form classification is the classification of organisms based on their morphology, which does not necessarily reflect their biological relationships. Form classification, generally restricted to palaeontology, reflects uncertainty; the goal of science is to move "form taxa" to biological taxa whose affinity is known. Form taxonomy is restricted to fossils that preserve too few characters for a conclusive taxonomic definition or assessment of their biological affinity, but whose study is made easier if a binomial name is available by which to identify them. The term "form classification" is preferred to "form taxonomy"; taxonomy suggests that the classification implies a biological affinity, whereas form classification is about giving a name to a group of morphologically-similar organisms that may not be related. A "parataxon" (not to be confused with parataxonomy), or "sciotaxon" (Gr. "shadow taxon"), is a classification based on incomplete data: for instance, the larval stage of an organism that cannot be matched up with an adult. It reflects a paucity of data that makes biological classification impossible. A sciotaxon is defined as a taxon thought to be equivalent to a true taxon (orthotaxon), but whose identity cannot be established because the two candidate taxa are of a different nature and thus


id: gc-content-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GC-content-0.md
category: reference
title: GC-content
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GC-content
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:14.065445+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gc-content-20260505-0
summary:
In molecular biology and genetics, GC-content (or G+C content or guanine-cytosine content) is the percentage of nitrogenous bases in a DNA or RNA molecule that are either guanine (G) or cytosine (C). This measure indicates the proportion of G and C bases out of an implied four total bases, also including adenine and thymine in DNA and adenine and uracil in RNA. GC-content may be given for a certain fragment of DNA or RNA or for an entire genome. When it refers to a fragment, it may denote the GC-content of an individual gene or section of a gene (domain), a group of genes or gene clusters, a non-coding region, or a synthetic oligonucleotide such as a primer. == Structure == Qualitatively, guanine (G) and cytosine (C) undergo a specific hydrogen bonding with each other, whereas adenine (A) bonds specifically with thymine (T) in DNA and with uracil (U) in RNA. Quantitatively, each GC base pair is held together by three hydrogen bonds, while AT and AU base pairs are held together by two hydrogen bonds. To emphasize this difference, the base pairings are often represented as "G≡C" versus "A=T" or "A=U". DNA with low GC-content is less stable than


id: gc-content-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GC-content-1.md
category: reference
title: GC-content
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GC-content
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:14.065445+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gc-content-20260505-0
summary:
=== Molecular biology === In polymerase chain reaction (PCR) experiments, the GC-content of short oligonucleotides known as primers is often used to predict their annealing temperature to the template DNA. A higher GC-content level indicates a relatively higher melting temperature. Many sequencing technologies, such as Illumina sequencing, have trouble reading high-GC-content sequences. Bird genomes are known to have many such parts, causing the problem of "missing genes" expected to be present from evolution and phenotype but never sequenced — until improved methods were used. === Systematics === The species problem in non-eukaryotic taxonomy has led to various suggestions in classifying bacteria, and the ad hoc committee on reconciliation of approaches to bacterial systematics of 1987 has recommended use of GC-ratios in higher-level hierarchical classification. For example, the Actinomycetota are characterised as "high GC-content bacteria". In Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2), GC-content is 72%. With the use of more reliable, modern methods of molecular systematics, the GC-content definition of Actinomycetota has been abolished and low-GC bacteria of this clade have been found. == Software tools == GCSpeciesSorter and TopSort are software tools for classifying species based on their GC-contents. == See also == Codon usage bias == References == == External links ==


id: list-of-gene-families-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gene_families-0.md
category: reference
title: List of gene families
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gene_families
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:15.236553+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-gene-families-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of gene families or gene complexes, i.e. sets of genes which are related ancestrally and often serve similar biological functions. These gene families typically encode functionally related proteins, and sometimes the term gene families is a shorthand for the sets of proteins that the genes encode. They may or may not be physically adjacent on the same chromosome. == Regulatory protein gene families == 14-3-3 protein family Achaete-scute complex (neuroblast formation) Cyclins Cyclin dependent kinases CDK inhibitors FOX proteins (forkhead box proteins) Families containing homeobox domains DLX gene family Hox gene family POU family GATA transcription factor General transcription factor Krüppel-type zinc finger (ZNF) MADS-box gene family NF-kB NOTCH2NL Nuclear receptor P300-CBP coactivator family Transcription factors SOX gene family == Immune system proteins == Immunoglobulin superfamily Killer-cell immunoglobulin-like receptors Leukocyte immunoglobulin-like receptors Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) NOD-like receptors Pattern recognition receptor Toll-like receptors RIG-I like receptors == Motor proteins == Dynein Kinesin Myosin == Signal transducing proteins == Arf family G-proteins Janus kinases MAP Kinase Non-receptor tyrosine kinase Olfactory receptor Peroxiredoxin Rab family Rap family Ras family Receptor tyrosine kinases Rho family Serine/threonine-specific protein kinase SRC kinase family == Transporters == ABC transporters Antiporter Aquaporins Globin


id: grading-tumors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grading_(tumors)-0.md
category: reference
title: Grading (tumors)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grading_(tumors)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:16.426978+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: grading-tumors-20260505-0
summary:
In pathology, grading is a measure of the cell appearance in tumors and other neoplasms. Some pathology grading systems apply only to malignant neoplasms (cancer); others apply also to benign neoplasms. The neoplastic grading is a measure of cell anaplasia (reversion of differentiation) in the sampled tumor and is based on the resemblance of the tumor to the tissue of origin. Grading in cancer is distinguished from staging, which is a measure of the extent to which the cancer has spread. Pathology grading systems classify the microscopic cell appearance abnormality and deviations in their rate of growth with the goal of predicting developments at tissue level (see also the 4 major histological changes in dysplasia). Cancer is a disorder of cell life cycle alteration that leads (non-trivially) to excessive cell proliferation rates, typically longer cell lifespans and poor differentiation. The grade score (numerical: G1 up to G4) increases with the lack of cellular differentiation - it reflects how much the tumor cells differ from the cells of the normal tissue they have originated from (see 'Categories' below). Tumors may be graded on four-tier, three-tier, or two-tier scales, depending on the institution and the tumor type. The histologic tumor grade score


id: ichnotaxon-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ichnotaxon-0.md
category: reference
title: Ichnotaxon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ichnotaxon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:17.576577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ichnotaxon-20260505-0
summary:
An ichnotaxon (plural ichnotaxa) is "a taxon based on the fossilized work of an organism", i.e. the non-human equivalent of an artifact. Ichnotaxon comes from the Ancient Greek ἴχνος (íchnos) meaning "track" and English taxon, itself derived from Ancient Greek τάξις (táxis) meaning "ordering". Ichnotaxa are names used to identify and distinguish morphologically distinctive ichnofossils, more commonly known as trace fossils (fossil records of lifeforms' movement, rather than of the lifeforms themselves). They are assigned genus and species ranks by ichnologists, much like organisms in Linnaean taxonomy. These are known as ichnogenera and ichnospecies, respectively. "Ichnogenus" and "ichnospecies" are commonly abbreviated as "igen." and "isp.". The binomial names of ichnospecies and their genera are to be written in italics. Most researchers classify trace fossils only as far as the ichnogenus rank, based upon trace fossils that resemble each other in morphology but have subtle differences. Some authors have constructed detailed hierarchies up to ichnosuperclass, recognizing such fine detail as to identify ichnosuperorder and ichnoinfraclass, but such attempts are controversial. == Naming == Due to the chaotic nature of trace fossil classification, several ichnogenera hold names normally affiliated with animal body fossils or plant fossils. For example, many ichnogenera are named


id: infraspecific-name-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infraspecific_name-0.md
category: reference
title: Infraspecific name
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infraspecific_name
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:18.794538+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: infraspecific-name-20260505-0
summary:
In botany, an infraspecific name is the scientific name for any taxon below the rank of species, i.e. an infraspecific taxon or infraspecies. The scientific names of botanical taxa are regulated by the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN). As specified by the ICN, the name of an infraspecific taxon is a combination of the name of a species and an infraspecific epithet, separated by a connecting term that denotes the rank of the taxon. An example of an infraspecific name is Astrophytum myriostigma subvar. glabrum, the name of a subvariety of the species Astrophytum myriostigma (bishop's hat cactus). In the previous example, glabrum is the infraspecific epithet. Names below the rank of species of animals and of cultivated plants are regulated by different codes of nomenclature and are formed somewhat differently. == Construction of infraspecific names == Article 24 of the ICN describes how infraspecific names are constructed. The order of the three parts of an infraspecific name is: genus name, specific epithet, connecting term indicating the rank (not part of the name, but required), infraspecific epithet. It is customary to italicize all three parts of such a name, but not the connecting term. For


id: infraspecific-name-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infraspecific_name-1.md
category: reference
title: Infraspecific name
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infraspecific_name
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:18.794538+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: infraspecific-name-20260505-0
summary:
As soon as a subspecies of Poa secunda was created, then the type specimen of P. secunda immediately became the type specimen of Poa secunda subsp. secunda. The name "Poa secunda subsp. secunda" was automatically created (it is an "autonym"). Soreng created the subspecies Poa secunda subsp. juncifolia (whose type specimen is also in the Wisconsin State Herbarium), thereby making the type specimen of P. secunda also the type specimen of Poa secunda subsp. secunda. If in addition to the subspecies any variety of Poa secunda were to be created, then the type specimen of P. secunda would automatically become the type specimen of Poa secunda var. secunda. The type specimen would then have the classification Poa secunda subsp. secunda var. secunda. The same epithet can be used again within a species, at whatever level, only if the names with the re-used epithet are attached to the same type. Thus there can be a form called Poa secunda f. juncifolia as well as the subspecies Poa secunda subsp. juncifolia if, and only if, the type specimen of Poa secunda f. juncifolia is the same as the type specimen of Poa secunda subsp. juncifolia (in other words, if there is a


id: institutiones-rei-herbariae-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institutiones_rei_herbariae-0.md
category: reference
title: Institutiones rei herbariae
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institutiones_rei_herbariae
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:19.976490+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: institutiones-rei-herbariae-20260505-0
summary:
Institutiones rei herbariae (transl. The Instruction of Botany), originally published in French as Eléments de botanique, is a 1700 Latin-language botanical compendium. The book was the principal work of Joseph Pitton de Tournefort, a French botanist credited with establishing the modern concept of the genus. == Contents == As a part of the book's introduction, Tournefort included what may be the first recorded history of botany, titled Isagoge in rem herbarium. In it, some of the most important botanical authors are noted, and brief biographies are given for each. In the 1694 edition Eléments de botanique, Tournefort argued against John Ray's conception of the genus, to which Ray responded twice in 1696. However, in Institutiones rei herbariae in 1700, criticisms towards Ray were removed and replaced with praise. The main portion of the book contains an exhaustive list of plant names, organized in a system of "classes", "sections", "genera", and "species". Furthermore, myriad images of plant leaves and flowers are included throughout the volume, engraved on copper-plate. == Publication == While Institutiones rei herbariae was published in 1700 (and again in 1719), the book was originally written in French in 1694 as Eléments de botanique. Beginning in 1716, an English


id: isochore-genetics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isochore_(genetics)-0.md
category: reference
title: Isochore (genetics)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isochore_(genetics)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:21.158221+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: isochore-genetics-20260505-0
summary:
In genetics, an isochore is a large region of genomic DNA (greater than 300 kilobases) with a high degree of uniformity in GC content; that is, guanine (G) and cytosine (C) bases. The distribution of bases within a genome is non-random: different regions of the genome have different amounts of G-C base pairs, such that regions can be classified and identified by the proportion of G-C base pairs they contain. Bernardi and colleagues first noticed the compositional non-uniformity of vertebrate genomes using thermal melting and density gradient centrifugation. The DNA fragments extracted by the gradient centrifugation were later termed "isochores", which was subsequently defined as "very long (much greater than 200 KB) DNA segments" that "are fairly homogeneous in base composition and belong to a small number of major classes distinguished by differences in guanine-cytosine (GC) content". Subsequently, the isochores "grew" and were claimed to be ">300 kb in size." The theory proposed that the isochore composition of genomes varies markedly between "warm-blooded" (homeotherm) vertebrates and "cold-blooded" (poikilotherm) vertebrates and later became known as the isochore theory. == The thermodynamic stability hypothesis == The isochore theory purported that the genome of "warm-blooded" vertebrates (mammals and birds) are mosaics of long


id: isochore-genetics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isochore_(genetics)-1.md
category: reference
title: Isochore (genetics)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isochore_(genetics)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:21.158221+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: isochore-genetics-20260505-0
summary:
As the study of isochores was de facto abandoned by most scientists, an alternative theory was proposed to describe the compositional organization of genomes in accordance with the most recent genomic studies. The Compositional Domain Model depicts genomes as a medley of short and long homogeneous and nonhomogeneous domains. The theory defines "compositional domains" as genomic regions with distinct GC-contents as determined by a computational segmentation algorithm. The homogeneity of compositional domains is compared to that of the chromosome on which they reside using the F-test, which separated them into compositionally homogeneous domains and compositionally nonhomogeneous domains based on the outcome of test. Compositionally homogeneous domains that are sufficiently long (≥ 300 kb) are termed isochores or isochoric domains. These terms are in accordance with the literature as they provide clear distinction between isochoric- and nonisochoric-domains. A comprehensive study of the human genome unraveled a genomic organization where two-thirds of the genome is a mixture of many short compositionally homogeneous domains and relatively few long ones. The remaining portion of the genome is composed of nonhomogeneous domains. In terms of coverage, only 1% of the total number of compositionally homogeneous domains could be considered "isochores" which covered less than 20%


id: kew-rule-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kew_Rule-0.md
category: reference
title: Kew Rule
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kew_Rule
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:22.303608+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kew-rule-20260505-0
summary:
The Kew Rule was used by some authors to determine the application of synonymous names in botanical nomenclature up to about 1906, but was and still is contrary to codes of botanical nomenclature including the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants. Index Kewensis, a publication that aimed to list all botanical names for seed plants at the ranks of species and genus, used the Kew Rule until its Supplement IV was published in 1913 (prepared 1906–1910). The Kew Rule applied rules of priority in a more flexible way, so that when transferring a species to a new genus, there was no requirement to retain the epithet of the original species name, and future priority of the new name was counted from the time the species was transferred to the new genus. The effect has been summarized as "nomenclature used by an established monographer or in a major publication should be adopted". This is contrary to the modern article 11.4 of the Code of Nomenclature. == History == === Beginnings === The first discussion in print of what was to become known as the Kew Rule appears to have occurred in 1877 between Henry Trimen and Alphonse Pyramus


id: klepton-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klepton-0.md
category: reference
title: Klepton
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klepton
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:23.502386+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: klepton-20260505-0
summary:
In biology, a klepton (abbreviated kl.) and synklepton (abbreviated sk.) is a species that requires input from another biological taxon (normally from a species which is closely related to the kleptonic species) to complete its reproductive cycle. Specific types of kleptons are zygokleptons, which reproduce by zygogenesis; gynokleptons which reproduce by gynogenesis, and tychokleptons, which reproduce by a combination of both systems. Kleptogenic reproduction results in three potential outcomes: A unisexual female may simply activate cell division in the egg through the presence of a male's sperm without incorporating any of his genetic material—this results in the production of clonal offspring. The female may also incorporate the male's sperm into her egg, but can do so without excising any of her genetic material. This results in increased ploidy levels that range from triploid to pentaploid in wild individuals. Finally, the female also has the option of replacing some of her genetic material with that of the male's, resulting in a "hybrid" of sorts without increasing ploidy. == Etymology == The term is derived from the (Ancient or Modern) Greek κλέπτ(ης), klépt(ēs), 'thief' + -on, after taxon, or kleptein, 'to steal'. A klepton "steals" from an exemplar of another species in


id: mona-number-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MONA_number-0.md
category: reference
title: MONA number
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MONA_number
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:24.654701+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mona-number-20260505-0
summary:
A MONA number (short for Moths of North America), or Hodges number after Ronald W. Hodges, is part of a numbering system for North American moths found north of Mexico in the Continental United States and Canada, as well as the island of Greenland. Introduced in 1983 by Hodges through the publication of Check List of the Lepidoptera of America North of Mexico, the system began an ongoing numeration process in order to compile a list of the over 12,000 moths of North America north of Mexico. The system numbers moths within the same family close together for identification purposes. For example, the species Epimartyria auricrinella begins the numbering system at 0001 while Epimartyria pardella is numbered 0002. The system has become somewhat out of date since its inception for several reasons: Some numbers no longer exist as the species bearing the number have been reclassified into other species. Some species have been regrouped into a different family and their MONA numbers are out of order taxonomically. New species have been discovered since the implementation of the MONA system, resulting in the usage of decimal numbers as to not disrupt the numbering of other species. Despite the issues above, the


id: nomen-novum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomen_novum-0.md
category: reference
title: Nomen novum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomen_novum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:25.816985+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nomen-novum-20260505-0
summary:
In biological nomenclature, a nomen novum (Latin for "new name"), replacement name (or new replacement name, new substitute name, substitute name) is a replacement scientific name that is created when technical, nomenclatural reasons have made it impossible to continue using the previous name (for example because it was discovered to be a homonym – spelled the same as an existing, older name). Nomen novum does not apply when a name is changed for taxonomic reasons alone. It is frequently abbreviated, e.g. nomen nov., nom. nov.. == Zoology == In zoology establishing a new replacement name is a nomenclatural act and it must be expressly proposed to substitute a previously established and available name. Often, the older name cannot be used because another animal was described earlier with exactly the same name. For example, Lindholm discovered in 1913 that a generic name Jelskia established by Bourguignat in 1877 for a European freshwater snail could not be used because another author Taczanowski had proposed the same name in 1871 for a spider. So Lindholm proposed a new replacement name Borysthenia. This is an objective synonym of Jelskia Bourguignat, 1877, because he has the same type species, and is used today as Borysthenia.


id: nomen-novum-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomen_novum-1.md
category: reference
title: Nomen novum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomen_novum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:25.816985+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nomen-novum-20260505-0
summary:
Carl Linnaeus gave the herb rosemary the scientific name Rosmarinus officinalis in 1753. It is now regarded as one of many species in the genus Salvia. It cannot be transferred to this genus as "Salvia officinalis" because Linnaeus gave this name to the herb sage. An acceptable name in the genus Salvia was published by Fridolin Spenner in 1835. The replacement name is cited as Salvia rosmarinus Spenn.; the replaced synonym is Rosmarinus officinalis L. The author of the replaced synonym is not included in the citation of the replacement name. The plant name Polygonum persicaria was published by Linnaeus in 1753. In 1821, Samuel Gray transferred the species to the genus Persicaria. He could not do this using the name "Persicaria persicaria" because the ICNafp does not allow tautonyms. Accordingly, he published the replacement name Persicaria maculosa. The replacement name is Persicaria maculosa Gray; the replaced synonym is Polygonum persicaria L. Again, the author of the replaced synonym is not included in the citation of the replacement name. The fungus name Marasmius distantifolius was published by Y.S. Tan and Desjardin in 2009. Later it was discovered that this combination had already been used for a different species by William


id: non-cellular-life-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-cellular_life-0.md
category: reference
title: Non-cellular life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-cellular_life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:27.002282+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: non-cellular-life-20260505-0
summary:
Non-cellular life, also known as acellular life, is life that exists without a cellular structure for at least part of its life cycle. Historically, most definitions of life postulated that an organism must be composed of one or more cells, but, for some, this is no longer considered necessary, and modern criteria allow for forms of life based on other structural arrangements. == Nucleic acid-containing infectious agents == === Viruses === Researchers initially described viruses as "poisons" or "toxins", then as "infectious proteins"; but they possess genetic material, a defined structure, and the ability to spontaneously assemble from their constituent parts. This has spurred extensive debate as to whether they should be regarded as fundamentally biotic or abiotic—as very small biological organisms or as very large biochemical molecules. Without their hosts, they are not able to perform any of the functions of life—such as metabolism, growth, or reproduction. Since the 1950s, many scientists have thought of viruses as existing at the border between chemistry and life; a gray area between living and nonliving. === Viroids === If viruses are borderline cases or nonliving, viroids are further from being living organisms. Viroids are some of the smallest infectious agents, consisting solely


id: pathovar-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathovar-0.md
category: reference
title: Pathovar
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathovar
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:28.151461+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pathovar-20260505-0
summary:
A pathovar is a bacterial strain or set of strains with the same or similar characteristics, that is differentiated at infrasubspecific level from other strains of the same species or subspecies on the basis of distinctive pathogenicity to one or more plant hosts. Pathovars are named as a ternary or quaternary addition to the species binomial name, for example the bacterium that causes citrus canker Xanthomonas axonopodis, has several pathovars with different host ranges, X. axonopodis pv. citri is one of them; the abbreviation 'pv.' means pathovar. The type strains of pathovars are pathotypes, which are distinguished from the types (holotype, neotype, etc.) of the species to which the pathovar belongs. == See also == Infraspecific names in botany Phytopathology Trinomen, infraspecific names in zoology (subspecies only) == References ==


id: phenetics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenetics-0.md
category: reference
title: Phenetics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenetics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:29.294813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: phenetics-20260505-0
summary:
In biology, phenetics (; from Ancient Greek φαίνειν (phainein) 'to appear'), also known as taximetrics, is an attempt to classify organisms based on overall similarity, usually with respect to morphology or other observable traits, regardless of their phylogeny or evolutionary relation. It is related closely to numerical taxonomy which is concerned with the use of numerical methods for taxonomic classification. Many people contributed to the development of phenetics, but the most influential were Peter Sneath and Robert R. Sokal. Their books are still primary references for this sub-discipline, although now out of print. Phenetics has been largely superseded by cladistics for research into evolutionary relationships among species. However, certain phenetic methods, such as neighbor-joining, are used for phylogenetics, as a reasonable approximation of phylogeny when more advanced methods (such as Bayesian inference) are too expensive computationally. Phenetic techniques include various forms of clustering and ordination. These are sophisticated methods of reducing the variation displayed by organisms to a manageable degree. In practice this means measuring dozens of variables, and then presenting them as two- or three-dimensional graphs. Much of the technical challenge of phenetics concerns balancing the loss of information due to such a reduction against the ease of interpreting


id: quinarian-system-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quinarian_system-0.md
category: reference
title: Quinarian system
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quinarian_system
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:30.436793+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: quinarian-system-20260505-0
summary:
The quinarian system was a method of zoological classification which was popular in the mid 19th century, especially among British naturalists. It was largely developed by the entomologist William Sharp Macleay in 1819. The system was further promoted in the works of Nicholas Aylward Vigors, William Swainson and Johann Jakob Kaup. Swainson's work on ornithology gave wide publicity to the idea. The system had opponents even before the publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species (1859), which paved the way for evolutionary trees. == Classification approach == Quinarianism gets its name from the emphasis on the number five: it proposed that all taxa are divisible into five subgroups, and if fewer than five subgroups were known, quinarians believed that a missing subgroup remained to be found. Presumably this arose as a chance observation of some accidental analogies between different groups, but it was erected into a guiding principle by the quinarians. It became increasingly elaborate, proposing that each group of five classes could be arranged in a circle, with those closer together having greater affinities. Typically they were depicted with relatively advanced groups at the top, and supposedly degenerate forms towards the bottom. Each circle could touch or


id: serotype-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serotype-0.md
category: reference
title: Serotype
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serotype
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:31.676673+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: serotype-20260505-0
summary:
A serotype or serovar is a distinct variation within a species of bacteria or virus or among immune cells of different individuals. These microorganisms, viruses, or cells are classified together based on their shared reactivity between their surface antigens and a particular antiserum, allowing the classification of organisms to a level below the species. A group of serovars with common antigens is called a serogroup or sometimes serocomplex. Serotyping often plays an essential role in determining species and subspecies. The Salmonella genus of bacteria, for example, has been determined to have over 2600 serotypes. Vibrio cholerae, the species of bacteria that causes cholera, has over 200 serotypes, based on cell antigens. Only two of them have been observed to produce the potent enterotoxin that results in cholera: O1 and O139. Serotypes were discovered in hemolytic streptococci by the American microbiologist Rebecca Lancefield in 1933. == Procedure == Serotyping is the process of determining the serotype of an organism, using prepared antisera that bind to a set of known antigens. Some antisera detect multiple known antigens and are known as polyvalent or broad; others are monovalent. For example, what was once described as HLA-A9 is now subdivided into two more specific


id: sister-group-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sister_group-0.md
category: reference
title: Sister group
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sister_group
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:32.832221+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sister-group-20260505-0
summary:
In phylogenetics, a sister group or sister taxon, also called an adelphotaxon, comprises the closest relative(s) of another given unit in an evolutionary tree. == Definition == The expression is most easily illustrated by a cladogram: Taxon A and taxon B are sister groups to each other. Taxa A and B, together with any other extant or extinct descendants of their most recent common ancestor (MRCA), form a monophyletic group, the clade AB. Clade AB and taxon C are also sister groups. Taxa A, B, and C, together with all other descendants of their MRCA form the clade ABC. The whole clade ABC is itself a subtree of a larger tree which offers yet more sister group relationships, both among the leaves and among larger, more deeply rooted clades. The tree structure shown connects through its root to the rest of the universal tree of life. In cladistic standards, taxa A, B, and C may represent specimens, species, genera, or any other taxonomic units. If A and B are at the same taxonomic level, terminology such as sister species or sister genera can be used. == Example == The term sister group is used in phylogenetic analysis; however, only groups


id: soft-bodied-organism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soft-bodied_organism-0.md
category: reference
title: Soft-bodied organism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soft-bodied_organism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:35.060590+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: soft-bodied-organism-20260505-0
summary:
Soft-bodied organisms are organisms that lack rigid physical skeletons or frame, roughly corresponds to the group Vermes as proposed by Carl von Linné. The term typically refers to non-panarthropod invertebrates from the kingdom Animalia, although many non-vascular plants (mosses and algae), fungi (such as jelly fungus), lichens and slime molds can also be seen as soft-bodied organisms by definition. All animals have a muscular system of some sort but, since myocytes are tensile actuator units that can only contract and pull but never push, some animals evolved rigid body parts upon which the muscles can attach and act as levers/cantilevers to redirect force and produce locomotive propulsion. These rigid parts also serve as structural elements to resist gravity and ambient pressure, as well as sometimes provide protective surfaces shielding internal structures from trauma and exposure to external thermal, chemical and pathogenic insults. Such physical structures are the commonly referred "skeletons", which may be internal (as in vertebrates, echinoderms and sponges) or external (as in arthropods and non-coleoid molluscs). However, many soft-bodied animals do still have a functional skeleton maintained by body fluid hydrostatics known as a hydroskeleton, such as that of earthworms, jellyfish, tapeworms, squids and an enormous variety of


id: superorganism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superorganism-0.md
category: reference
title: Superorganism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superorganism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:36.277495+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: superorganism-20260505-0
summary:
A superorganism, or supraorganism, is a group of synergetically interacting organisms of the same species. A community of synergetically interacting organisms of different species is called a holobiont. == Concept == The term superorganism is used most often to describe a social unit of eusocial animals in which division of labour is highly specialised and individuals cannot survive by themselves for extended periods. Ants are the best-known example of such a superorganism. A superorganism can be defined as "a collection of agents which can act in concert to produce phenomena governed by the collective", phenomena being any activity "the hive wants" such as ants collecting food and avoiding predators, or bees choosing a new nest site. In challenging environments, micro organisms collaborate and evolve together to process unlikely sources of nutrients such as methane. This process called syntrophy ("eating together") might be linked to the evolution of eukaryote cells and involved in the emergence or maintenance of life forms in challenging environments on Earth and possibly other planets. Superorganisms tend to exhibit homeostasis, power law scaling, persistent disequilibrium and emergent behaviours. The term was coined in 1789 by James Hutton, the "father of geology", to refer to Earth in the


id: svenska-spindlar-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svenska_Spindlar-0.md
category: reference
title: Svenska Spindlar
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svenska_Spindlar
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:37.480194+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: svenska-spindlar-20260505-0
summary:
The book Svenska Spindlar or Aranei Svecici (Swedish and Latin, respectively, for "Swedish spiders") is one of the major works of the Swedish arachnologist and entomologist Carl Alexander Clerck and was first published in Stockholm in the year 1757. It was the first comprehensive book on the spiders of Sweden and one of the first regional monographs of a group of animals worldwide. The full title of the work is Svenska Spindlar uti sina hufvud-slägter indelte samt under några och sextio särskildte arter beskrefne och med illuminerade figurer uplyste – Aranei Svecici, descriptionibus et figuris æneis illustrati, ad genera subalterna redacti, speciebus ultra LX determinati, ("Swedish spiders into their main genera separated, and as sixty and a few particular species described and with illuminated figures illustrated") and included 162 pages of text (eight pages were unpaginated) and six colour plates. It was published in Swedish, with a Latin translation printed in a slightly smaller font below the Swedish text. Clerck described in detail 67 species of Swedish spiders, and for the first time in a zoological work consistently applied binomial nomenclature as proposed by Carl Linnaeus. Linnaeus had originally invented this system for botanical names in his 1753 work Species


id: systema-naturae-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systema_Naturae-0.md
category: reference
title: Systema Naturae
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systema_Naturae
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:38.632255+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: systema-naturae-20260505-0
summary:
Systema Naturae (originally in Latin written Systema Naturæ with the ligature æ) is one of the major works of Swedish botanist, zoologist, and physician Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) and introduced the Linnaean taxonomy. Although the system, now known as binomial nomenclature, was partially developed by the Bauhin brothers, Gaspard and Johann, Linnaeus was the first to use it consistently throughout his book. The first edition was published in 1735. The full title of the 10th edition (1758), which was the most important one, was Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis, which appeared in English in 1806 with the title: "A General System of Nature, Through the Three Grand Kingdoms of Animals, Vegetables, and Minerals, Systematically Divided Into their Several Classes, Orders, Genera, Species, and Varieties, with their Habitations, Manners, Economy, Structure and Peculiarities". The tenth edition of this book (1758), published in Stockholm, is considered the starting point of zoological nomenclature. In 1766–1768 Linnaeus published the much enhanced 12th edition, the last under his authorship. Another again enhanced work in the same style titled "Systema Naturae" was published by Johann Friedrich Gmelin between 1788 and 1793. Since at least the early


id: systema-naturae-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systema_Naturae-1.md
category: reference
title: Systema Naturae
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systema_Naturae
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:38.632255+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: systema-naturae-20260505-0
summary:
=== Animals === Only in the animal kingdom is the higher taxonomy of Linnaeus still more or less recognizable and some of these names are still in use, but usually not quite for the same groups as used by Linnaeus. He divided the Animal Kingdom into six classes; in the tenth edition (1758), these were: Mammalia comprised the mammals. In the first edition, whales and the West Indian manatee were classified among the fishes. Aves comprised the birds. Linnaeus was the first to remove bats from the birds and classify them under mammals. Amphibia comprised amphibians, reptiles, and assorted fishes that are not of Osteichthyes. Pisces comprised the bony fishes. These included the spiny-finned fishes (Perciformes) as a separate order. Insecta comprised all arthropods. Crustaceans, arachnids and myriapods were included as the order "Aptera". Vermes comprised the remaining invertebrates, roughly divided into "worms", molluscs, and hard-shelled organisms such as echinoderms. ==== Humans ==== Linnaeus was one of the first scientists to classify humans as primates (originally Anthropomorpha for "manlike"), eliciting some controversy for placing people among animals, thus not ruling over nature. He distinguished humans (Homo sapiens) from Homo troglodytes, a species of human-like creatures with exaggerated or non-human characteristics,


id: systematics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematics-0.md
category: reference
title: Systematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:39.775331+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: systematics-20260505-0
summary:
Systematics is the study of the diversification of living forms, both past and present, and the relationships among living things through time. Relationships are visualized as evolutionary trees (synonyms: phylogenetic trees, phylogenies). Phylogenies have two components: branching order (showing group relationships, graphically represented in cladograms) and branch length (showing amount of evolution). Phylogenetic trees of species and higher taxa are used to study the evolution of traits (e.g., anatomical or molecular characteristics) and the distribution of organisms (biogeography). Systematics, in other words, is used to understand the evolutionary history of life on Earth. The word systematics is derived from the Latin word of Ancient Greek origin systema, which means systematic arrangement of organisms. Carl Linnaeus used 'Systema Naturae' as the title of his book. == Branches and applications == In the study of biological systematics, researchers use the different branches to further understand the relationships between differing organisms. These branches are used to determine the applications and uses for modern day systematics. Biological systematics classifies species by using three specific branches. Numerical systematics, or biometry, uses biological statistics to identify and classify animals. Biochemical systematics classifies and identifies animals based on the analysis of the material that makes up the


id: taphotaxon-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taphotaxon-0.md
category: reference
title: Taphotaxon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taphotaxon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:40.917370+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: taphotaxon-20260505-0
summary:
A taphotaxon (from the Greek ταφος, taphos meaning burial and ταξις, taxis meaning ordering) is an invalid taxon based on fossils remains that have been altered in a characteristic way during burial and diagenesis. The fossils so altered have distinctive characteristics that make them appear to be a new taxon, but these characteristics are spurious and do not reflect any significant taxonomic distinction from an existing fossil taxon. The term was first proposed by Spencer G. Lucas in 2001, who particularly applied it to spurious ichnotaxons, but it has since been applied to body fossils such as Nuia (interpreted as cylindrical oncolites formed around filamentous cyanobacteria) or Ivanovia (thought to be a taphotaxon of Anchicondium or Eugonophyllum); conulariids, and crustaceans. In his original definition of the term, Lucas emphasized that he was not seeking to create a new field of taphotaxonomy. The term is intended simply as a useful description of a particular type of invalid taxon. It should not be used indiscriminately, particularly with ichnotaxons, where the fact that an ichnotaxon derives part of its morphology from taphonomic processes may not always render it an invalid ichnotaxon. == References ==


id: taxon-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxon-0.md
category: reference
title: Taxon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:42.075698+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: taxon-20260505-0
summary:
In biology, a taxon is a group of one or more populations of an organism, or organisms, as seen by taxonomists to form a biological unit; (taxon: back-formation from taxonomy; pl.: taxa). Although neither is required, a taxon, once its description has become established, is usually known by a particular name and is given a particular ranking. == Methods == Taxonomists consider: which organisms belong to a given taxon which criteria are to be used for deciding inclusion. This is especially the case in context of rank-based nomenclature (Linnaean taxonomy). Once a taxon is given a formal scientific name, its use is governed by one of the nomenclature codes that specify the correct scientific name for a particular grouping. Initial attempts at preserving human knowledge of plants and animals were presumably made in prehistoric times by hunter-gatherers, as suggested by folk taxonomies interpreted from archeological and anthropological studies. Much later, as of Aristotle's teachings, and later still—as of the published works of Magnol, Tournefort, and Carl Linnaeus, (his Systema Naturae, 10th edition (1758)), and as of the unpublished works of Bernard and Antoine Laurent de Jussieu—then did European naturalists and scientists begin documenting this new field of human knowledge. The


id: taxon-in-disguise-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxon_in_disguise-0.md
category: reference
title: Taxon in disguise
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxon_in_disguise
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:43.257317+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: taxon-in-disguise-20260505-0
summary:
In bacteriology, a taxon in disguise is a species, genus or higher unit of biological classification whose evolutionary history reveals that it has evolved from another unit of a similar or lower rank, making the parent unit paraphyletic. That happens when rapid evolution makes a new species appear so radically different from the ancestral group that it is not (initially) recognised as belonging to the parent phylogenetic group, which is left as an evolutionary grade. While the term is from bacteriology, parallel examples are found throughout the tree of life. For example, four-footed animals have evolved from piscine ancestors but since they are not generally considered fish, they can be said to be "fish in disguise". In many cases, the paraphyly can be resolved by reclassifying the taxon in question under the parent group. However, in bacteriology, since renaming groups may have serious consequences by causing confusion over the identity of pathogens, it is generally avoided for some groups. == Examples == === Shigella === The bacterial genus Shigella is the cause of bacillary dysentery, a potentially-severe infection that kills over a million people every year. The genus (S. dysenteriae, S. flexneri, S. boydii, S. sonnei) have evolved from the


id: taxonomic-boundary-paradox-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomic_boundary_paradox-0.md
category: reference
title: Taxonomic boundary paradox
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomic_boundary_paradox
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:44.398378+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: taxonomic-boundary-paradox-20260505-0
summary:
The term boundary paradox refers to the conflict between traditional, rank-based classification of life and evolutionary thinking. In the hierarchy of ranked categories it is implicitly assumed that the morphological gap is growing along with increasing ranks: two species from the same genus are more similar than other two species from different genera in the same family, these latter two species are more similar than any two species from different families of the same order, and so on. However, this requirement may only satisfy for the classification of contemporary organisms; difficulties arise if we wish to classify descendants together with their ancestors. Theoretically, such a classification necessarily involves segmentation of the spatio-temporal continuum of populations into groups with crisp boundaries. However, the problem is not only that many parent populations would separate at species level from their offspring. The truly paradoxical situation is that some between-species boundaries would necessarily coincide with between-genus boundaries, and a few between-genus boundaries with borders between families, and so on. This apparent ambiguity cannot be resolved in Linnaean systems; resolution is only possible if classification is cladistic (see below). == Historical background == Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, in Philosophie zoologique (1809), was the first who questioned the


id: taxonomic-boundary-paradox-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomic_boundary_paradox-1.md
category: reference
title: Taxonomic boundary paradox
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomic_boundary_paradox
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:44.398378+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: taxonomic-boundary-paradox-20260505-0
summary:
Darwin placed emphasis on divergence, that is, when a parent population splits and these offspring populations diverge gradually, each following their own anagenetic sequence potentially with further divergence events. In this case, evolutionary (say morphological) divergence is expressed on a new, horizontal, axis and time becomes the vertical axis. At time point 1 an imaginary taxonomist judges populations A and B to belong to different species, but within the same genus. Their respective descendants, C and D are observed at time 2, and considered to represent two separate genera because their morphological difference is large. The paradox is that while A and C, as well as B and D remain within generic limits but C and D do not, so that ancestors cannot be classified together with their descendants meaningfully in a Linnaean system. This figure illustrates the problem Darwin has discussed in the fish and reptile example. Let us consider a hypothetical evolutionary tree with four recent species, A to D, classified into two genera that are fairly distant from each other morphologically. We assume, further, that from the fossil record we only know their common ancestor, E, representing yet another genus for a taxonomist because it takes “intermediate”


id: taxonomic-vandalism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomic_vandalism-0.md
category: reference
title: Taxonomic vandalism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomic_vandalism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:46.713738+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: taxonomic-vandalism-20260505-0
summary:
Taxonomic vandalism is a term used in biology to describe the practice of publishing numerous scientifically unfounded or poorly-justified taxonomic names, often without adequate research or peer review. This phenomenon has been observed across various fields of taxonomy, but has been particularly prevalent in herpetology. == See also == Mihi itch Taxonomic inflation == References == == External links == Why Do Taxonomists Write the Meanest Obituaries?


id: taxonomy-biology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)-0.md
category: reference
title: Taxonomy (biology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:47.872113+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: taxonomy-biology-20260505-0
summary:
In biology, taxonomy (from Ancient Greek τάξις (taxis) 'arrangement' and -νομία (-nomia) 'method') is the scientific study of naming, defining (circumscribing) and classifying groups of biological organisms based on shared characteristics. Modern approaches prioritize common ancestory and evolutionary relationships. Organisms are grouped into taxa (singular: taxon), and these groups are given a taxonomic rank; groups of a given rank can be aggregated to form a more inclusive group of higher rank, thus creating a taxonomic hierarchy. The principal ranks in modern use are domain, kingdom, phylum (division is sometimes used in botany in place of phylum), class, order, family, genus, and species. The Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus is regarded as the founder of the current system of taxonomy, having developed a ranked system known as Linnaean taxonomy for categorizing organisms. With advances in the theory, data and analytical technology of biological systematics, the Linnaean system has transformed into a system of modern biological classification intended to reflect the evolutionary relationships among organisms, both living and extinct. == Definition == The exact definition of taxonomy varies from source to source, but the core of the discipline remains: the conception, naming, and classification of groups of organisms. As points of reference, recent


id: taxonomy-biology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)-1.md
category: reference
title: Taxonomy (biology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:47.872113+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: taxonomy-biology-20260505-0
summary:
William Bertram Turrill introduced the term "alpha taxonomy" in a series of papers published in 1935 and 1937 in which he discussed the philosophy and possible future directions of the discipline of taxonomy. ... there is an increasing desire amongst taxonomists to consider their problems from wider viewpoints, to investigate the possibilities of closer co-operation with their cytological, ecological and genetics colleagues and to acknowledge that some revision or expansion, perhaps of a drastic nature, of their aims and methods, may be desirable ... Turrill (1935) has suggested that while accepting the older invaluable taxonomy, based on structure, and conveniently designated "alpha", it is possible to glimpse a far-distant taxonomy built upon as wide a basis of morphological and physiological facts as possible, and one in which "place is found for all observational and experimental data relating, even if indirectly, to the constitution, subdivision, origin, and behaviour of species and other taxonomic groups". Ideals can, it may be said, never be completely realized. They have, however, a great value of acting as permanent stimulants, and if we have some, even vague, ideal of an "omega" taxonomy we may progress a little way down the Greek alphabet. Some of us please


id: taxonomy-biology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)-2.md
category: reference
title: Taxonomy (biology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:47.872113+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: taxonomy-biology-20260505-0
summary:
==== Medieval ==== Taxonomy in the Middle Ages was largely based on the Aristotelian system, with additions concerning the philosophical and existential order of creatures. This included concepts such as the great chain of being in the Western scholastic tradition, again deriving ultimately from Aristotle. The Aristotelian system did not classify plants or fungi, due to the lack of microscopes at the time, as his ideas were based on arranging the complete world in a single continuum, as per the scala naturae (the Natural Ladder). This, as well, was taken into consideration in the great chain of being. Advances were made by scholars such as Procopius, Timotheus of Gaza, Demetrios Pepagomenos, and Thomas Aquinas. Medieval thinkers used abstract philosophical and logical categorizations more suited to abstract philosophy than to pragmatic taxonomy. In the Muslim world, Al-Damiri (d. 1405) wrote an influential work called Life of Animals (Ḥayāt al-ḥayawān al-kubrā, c.1371) which treats in alphabetic order of 931 animals mentioned in the Quran, the traditions and the poetic and proverbial literature of the Arabs. ==== Renaissance and early modern ==== During the Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment, categorizing organisms became more prevalent, and taxonomic works became ambitious enough to replace


id: taxonomy-biology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)-3.md
category: reference
title: Taxonomy (biology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:47.872113+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: taxonomy-biology-20260505-0
summary:
A pattern of groups nested within groups was specified by Linnaeus' classifications of plants and animals, and these patterns began to be represented as dendrograms of the animal and plant kingdoms toward the end of the 18th century, well before Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species was published. The pattern of the "Natural System" did not entail a generating process, such as evolution, but may have implied it, inspiring early transmutationist thinkers. Among early works exploring the idea of a transmutation of species were Zoonomia in 1796 by Erasmus Darwin (Charles Darwin's grandfather), and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's Philosophie zoologique of 1809. The idea was popularized in the Anglophone world by the speculative but widely read Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, published anonymously by Robert Chambers in 1844. With Darwin's theory, a general acceptance quickly appeared that a classification should reflect the Darwinian principle of common descent. Tree of life representations became popular in scientific works, with known fossil groups incorporated. One of the first modern groups tied to fossil ancestors was birds. Using the then newly discovered fossils of Archaeopteryx and Hesperornis, Thomas Henry Huxley pronounced that they had evolved from dinosaurs, a group formally named by Richard


id: taxonomy-biology-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)-4.md
category: reference
title: Taxonomy (biology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:47.872113+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: taxonomy-biology-20260505-0
summary:
The "definition" of a taxon is encapsulated by its description or its diagnosis or by both combined. There are no set rules governing the definition of taxa, but the naming and publication of new taxa is governed by sets of rules. In zoology, the nomenclature for the more commonly used ranks (superfamily to subspecies), is regulated by the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN Code). In the fields of phycology, mycology, and botany, the naming of taxa is governed by the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN). The initial description of a taxon involves five main requirements: The taxon must be given a name based on the 26 letters of the Latin alphabet (a binomial for new species, or uninomial for other ranks). The name must be unique (i.e. not a homonym). The description must be based on at least one name-bearing type specimen. It should include statements about appropriate attributes either to describe (define) the taxon or to differentiate it from other taxa (the diagnosis, ICZN Code, Article 13.1.1, ICN, Article 38, which may or may not be based on morphology). Both codes deliberately separate defining the content of a taxon (its circumscription) from defining


id: three-domain-system-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-domain_system-0.md
category: reference
title: Three-domain system
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-domain_system
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:49.037834+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: three-domain-system-20260505-0
summary:
The three-domain system is a taxonomic classification system that groups all cellular life into three domains, namely Archaea, Bacteria and Eukarya, introduced by Carl Woese, Otto Kandler and Mark Wheelis in 1990. The key difference from earlier classifications such as the two-empire system and the five-kingdom classification is the splitting of Archaea (previously named "archaebacteria") from Bacteria as completely different organisms. The three-domain system has been contested by some scientists who believe that eukaryotes do not form a separate domain of life, but instead represent a clade alongside the Archaea, in a single shared domain. == Background == Woese argued, on the basis of differences in 16S rRNA genes, that bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes each arose separately from an ancestor with poorly developed genetic machinery, often called a progenote. To reflect these primary lines of descent, he treated each as a domain, divided into several different kingdoms. Originally his split of the prokaryotes was into Eubacteria (now Bacteria) and Archaebacteria (now Archaea). Woese initially used the term "kingdom" to refer to the three primary phylogenic groupings, and this nomenclature was widely used until the term "domain" was adopted in 1990. Acceptance of the validity of Woese's phylogenetically valid classification was


id: trace-fossil-classification-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trace_fossil_classification-0.md
category: reference
title: Trace fossil classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trace_fossil_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:50.156876+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: trace-fossil-classification-20260505-0
summary:
Trace fossils are classified in various ways for different purposes. Traces can be classified taxonomically (by morphology), ethologically (by behavior), and toponomically, that is, according to their relationship to the surrounding sedimentary layers. Except in the rare cases where the original maker of a trace fossil can be identified with confidence, phylogenetic classification of trace fossils is an unreasonable proposition. == Taxonomic classification == The taxonomic classification of trace fossils parallels the taxonomic classification of organisms under the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. In trace fossil nomenclature a Latin binomial name is used, just as in animal and plant taxonomy, with a genus and specific epithet. However, the binomial names are not linked to an organism, but rather just a trace fossil. This is due to the rarity of association between a trace fossil and a specific organism or group of organisms. Trace fossils are therefore included in an ichnotaxon separate from Linnaean taxonomy. When referring to trace fossils, the terms ichnogenus and ichnospecies parallel genus and species respectively. The most promising cases of phylogenetic classification are those in which similar trace fossils show details complex enough to deduce the makers, such as bryozoan borings, large trilobite trace fossils such


id: trace-fossil-classification-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trace_fossil_classification-1.md
category: reference
title: Trace fossil classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trace_fossil_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:50.156876+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: trace-fossil-classification-20260505-0
summary:
== Toponomic classification == Another way to classify trace fossils is to look at their relation to the sediment of origin. Martinsson has provided the most widely accepted of such systems, identifying four distinct classes for traces to be separated in this regard: Endichnia are those traces that are found wholly within the casting medium, and therefore can only have been made by an infaunal organism. Epichnia are found on the tops of the strata of origin, being those ridges and grooves that were formed by benthic organisms or infaunal burrows that have been exposed by erosion. Exichnia are traces that are made of material that is different from the surrounding medium, having either been actively filled by an organism or eroded out and re-covered by an alien sediment. Hypichnia are ridges and grooves found on the soles of the beds of origin at their interfaces with other strata, representing the opposite of epichnia. Other classifications have been proposed, but none stray far from the above. == History == Early paleontologists originally classified many burrow fossils as the remains of marine algae, as is apparent in ichnogenera named with the -phycus suffix. Alfred Gabriel Nathorst and Joseph F. James both


id: two-domain-system-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-domain_system-0.md
category: reference
title: Two-domain system
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-domain_system
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:51.348037+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: two-domain-system-20260505-0
summary:
The two-domain system is a biological classification of all organisms in the tree of life into two domains: Archaea, which includes eukaryotes in this classification, and Bacteria. It emerged from development of knowledge of archaea diversity and challenges the widely accepted three-domain system that classifies life into Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. It was preceded by the eocyte hypothesis of James A. Lake in the 1980s, which was largely superseded by the three-domain system, due to evidence at the time. Better understanding of archaea, especially of their roles in the origin of eukaryotes through symbiogenesis with bacteria, led to the revival of the eocyte hypothesis in the 2000s. The two-domain system became more widely accepted after the discovery of a large kingdom of archaea called Promethearchaeati in 2017, which evidence suggests to be the evolutionary root of eukaryotes, thereby making eukaryotes members of the domain Archaea. While the features of promethearchaea do not completely rule out the three-domain system, the notion that eukaryotes originated within Archaea has been strengthened by genetic and proteomic studies. Under the three-domain system, Eukarya is mainly distinguished by the presence of "eukaryotic signature proteins" that are not found in Archaea and Bacteria. However, promethearchaea contain genes


id: two-domain-system-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-domain_system-1.md
category: reference
title: Two-domain system
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-domain_system
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:07:51.348037+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: two-domain-system-20260505-0
summary:
=== Eukaryotes evolved from archaea === The three-domain system presumes that eukaryotes are more closely related to archaea than to Bacteria and are sister group to Archaea, thus, it treats them as separate domain. As more new archaea were discovered in the early 2000s, this distinction became doubtful as eukaryotes became deeply nested within Archaea. The origin of eukaryotes from Archaea, meaning the two are of the same larger group, came to be supported by studies based on ribosome protein sequencing and phylogenetic analyses in 2004. Phylogenomic analysis of about 6000 gene sets from 185 bacterial, archaeal, and eukaryotic genomes in 2007 also suggested the origin of eukaryotes from Methanobacteriota (specifically the Thermoplasmatales). In 2008, researchers from Natural History Museum, London and Newcastle University reported a comprehensive analysis of 53 genes from archaea, bacteria, and eukaryotes that included essential components of the nucleic acid replication, transcription, and translation machineries. The conclusion was that eukaryotes evolved from archaea, specifically Crenarchaeota (eocytes) and the results "favor a topology that supports the eocyte hypothesis rather than archaebacterial monophyly and the 3-domains tree of life." A study around the same time also found several genes common to eukaryotes and Crenarchaeota. These accumulating evidences support


id: u-s-national-vegetation-classification-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._National_Vegetation_Classification-0.md
category: reference
title: U.S. National Vegetation Classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._National_Vegetation_Classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:04.642963+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: u-s-national-vegetation-classification-20260505-0
summary:
The U.S. National Vegetation Classification (NVC or USNVC) is a scheme for classifying the natural and cultural vegetation communities of the United States. The purpose of this standardized vegetation classification system is to facilitate communication between land managers, scientists, and the public when managing, researching, and protecting plant communities. The non-profit group NatureServe maintains the NVC for the U.S. government. == See also == British National Vegetation Classification Vegetation classification == External links == The U.S. National Vegetation Classification website "National Vegetation Classification Standard, Version 2" FGDC-STD-005-2008, Vegetation Subcommittee, Federal Geographic Data Committee, February 2008 U.S. Geological Survey page about the Vegetation Characterization Program Federal Geographic Data Committee page about the NVC


id: viridiplantae-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viridiplantae-0.md
category: reference
title: Viridiplantae
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viridiplantae
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:05.858473+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: viridiplantae-20260505-0
summary:
Viridiplantae (kingdom Plantae sensu stricto), the green plants, is a natural group or clade of around half a million eukaryotes. They are green because they contain chloroplasts, cell organelles able to produce food by photosynthesis. They are major primary producers of food both in the sea and on land. The group includes both green algae and the land plants (embryophytes) that arose from them. In 2005, Sina Adl and colleagues proposed the name Chloroplastida for the group. In 2012, Frederik Leliaert and colleagues suggested a revised taxonomy of the Viridiplantae. In 2019, M. Leebens-Mack and colleagues proposed a phylogeny based on analysis of over a thousand plant genomes. It renders the former "chlorophyte algae" and "streptophyte algae" paraphyletic, as the land plants arose from within them. == Definition == Viridiplantae (lit. 'green plants') is a clade of around 450,000–500,000 species of chloroplast-bearing eukaryotes. Most of them are autotrophs that obtain their energy by photosynthesis and play important primary production roles in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. The clade includes all green algae, which are primarily aquatic; many are microscopic unicellular phytoplankton. It also includes the macroscopic, multicellular, generally complex-structured land plants (embryophytes, i.e. Plantae sensu strictissimo), which emerged from within


id: virus-classification-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus_classification-0.md
category: reference
title: Virus classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:07.141972+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: virus-classification-20260505-0
summary:
Virus classification is the process of naming viruses and placing them into a taxonomic system similar to the classification systems used for cellular organisms. Viruses are classified by phenotypic characteristics, such as morphology, nucleic acid type, mode of replication, host organisms, and the type of disease they cause. The formal taxonomic classification of viruses is the responsibility of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) system, although the Baltimore classification system can be used to place viruses into one of seven groups based on their manner of mRNA synthesis. Specific naming conventions and further classification guidelines are set out by the ICTV. In 2021, the ICTV changed the International Code of Virus Classification and Nomenclature (ICVCN) to mandate a binomial format (genus|| ||species) for naming new viral species similar to that used for cellular organisms; the names of species coined prior to 2021 are gradually being converted to the new format. By 2025, almost all species had been given binomial names. As of 2025, the ICTV taxonomy listed 16,213 named virus species (including some classed as satellite viruses and others as viroids) in 3,768 genera, 368 families, 93 orders, 49 classes, 22 phyla, 11 kingdoms and 7 realms. However,


id: virus-classification-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus_classification-1.md
category: reference
title: Virus classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:07.141972+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: virus-classification-20260505-0
summary:
The International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) began to devise and implement rules for the naming and classification of viruses early in the 1970s, an effort that continues to the present. The ICTV is the only body charged by the International Union of Microbiological Societies with the task of developing, refining, and maintaining a universal virus taxonomy, following the methods set out in the International Code of Virus Classification and Nomenclature (ICVCN). The system shares many features with the classification system of cellular organisms, such as taxon structure. However, some differences exist, such as the universal use of italics for all taxonomic names, unlike in the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants and International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. Integrative genomic analyses, incorporating pangenomics and phylogenomics, have recently suggested that viral family-level diversity is significantly higher than currently formally recognized. For example, research on the 'extended Asfarviridae' clade of giant viruses indicates that these lineages are deeply divergent, supporting their division into multiple distinct families. Viral classification starts at the level of realm and continues as follows, with the taxonomic suffixes in parentheses: Realm (-viria) Subrealm (-vira) Kingdom (-virae) Subkingdom (-virites) Phylum (-viricota) Subphylum (-viricotina) Class (-viricetes)


id: virus-classification-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus_classification-2.md
category: reference
title: Virus classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:07.141972+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: virus-classification-20260505-0
summary:
=== Reverse transcribing viruses === All viruses that encode a reverse transcriptase (also known as RT or RNA-dependent DNA polymerase) are members of the class Revtraviricetes, within the phylum Arterviricota, kingdom Pararnavirae, and realm Riboviria. The class Blubervirales contains the single family Hepadnaviridae of DNA RT (reverse transcribing) viruses; all other RT viruses are members of the class Ortervirales. Group VI: viruses possess single-stranded RNA viruses that replicate through a DNA intermediate. The retroviruses are included in this group, of which HIV is a member. Group VII: viruses possess double-stranded DNA genomes and replicate using reverse transcriptase. The hepatitis B virus can be found in this group. == Historical systems == === Holmes classification === Holmes (1948) used a Linnaean taxonomy with binomial nomenclature to classify viruses into 3 groups under one order, Virales. They are placed as follows: Group I: Phaginae (attacks bacteria) Group II: Phytophaginae (attacks plants) Group III: Zoophaginae (attacks animals) The system was not accepted by others due to its neglect of morphological similarities. == Subviral agents == Subviral agents are smaller than viruses and have only some of their properties. Since 2015, the ICTV has allowed them to be classified in a similar way as


id: woeseian-revolution-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woeseian_revolution-0.md
category: reference
title: Woeseian revolution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woeseian_revolution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:08.299839+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: woeseian-revolution-20260505-0
summary:
The Woeseian revolution was the progression of the phylogenetic tree of life concept from two main divisions, known as the Prokarya and Eukarya, into three domains now classified as Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukaryotes. The discovery of the new domain stemmed from the work of biophysicist Carl Woese in 1977 from a principle of evolutionary biology designated as Woese's dogma. It states that the evolution of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) was a necessary precursor to the evolution of modern life forms. Although the three-domain system has been widely accepted, the initial introduction of Woese’s discovery received criticism from the scientific community. == Phylogenetic implications == The basis of phylogenetics was limited by the technology of the time, which led to a greater dependence on phenotypic classification before advances that would allow for molecular organization methods. This was a major reason why the dichotomy of all living things being either animal or plant in nature was deemed an acceptable theory. Without truly understanding the genetic implication of each organismal classification in phylogenies via nucleic acid sequencing of shared molecular material, the phylogenetic tree of life and other such phylogenies would no doubt be incorrect. Woese’s advances in molecular sequencing and phylogenetic organization allowed


id: list-of-chemical-classifications-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_classifications-0.md
category: reference
title: List of chemical classifications
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_classifications
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:09.869022+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemical-classifications-20260505-0
summary:
Chemical classification systems attempt to classify elements or compounds according to certain chemical functional or structural properties. Whereas the structural properties are largely intrinsic, functional properties and the derived classifications depend to a certain degree on the type of chemical interaction partners on which the function is exerted. Sometimes other criteria like purely physical ones (e.g. molecular weight) or – on the other hand – functional properties above the chemical level are also used for building chemical taxonomies. Some systems mix the various levels, resulting in hierarchies where the domains are slightly confused, for example having structural and functional aspects end up on the same level. Whereas chemical function is closely dependent on chemical structure, the situation becomes more involved when e.g. pharmacological function is integrated, because the QSAR can usually not be directly computed from structural qualities. == Physico-chemical == by molecular weight by electrical charge: uncharged, positively, negatively, partially charged formal charge, oxidation state solubility pH value (or pKA value) == Functional == by functional groups by biological activity (mostly appropriate only for large biological molecules (as at least one interacting partner), in particular enzymes, depends on chemical functions of their constituent amino acids) ligand vs. receptor, coenzyme


id: commercial-classification-of-chemicals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_classification_of_chemicals-0.md
category: reference
title: Commercial classification of chemicals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_classification_of_chemicals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:11.070668+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: commercial-classification-of-chemicals-20260505-0
summary:
Following the commercial classification of chemicals, chemicals produced by chemical industry can be divided essentially into three broad categories: commodity chemicals: are chemicals produced in large quantities and in general their applications can be traced back to their chemical structure; for this reason, two commodities produced by two different suppliers but with the same chemical structure and purity are almost identical and they can be easily interchanged; they are produced by continuous plant and in general their cost is relatively low; examples of chemical commodities are ammonia and ethylene oxide; speciality chemicals (or specialty chemicals): are constituted by a mixture of different chemical substances, that is designed and produced in order to be applied to a specific application; the formulation of specialities is the result of scientific researches carried out by the producer company, so each formulation and associated properties are unique and for this reason in the majority of the cases it is not possible to easily interchange two different specialities produced by two different suppliers; examples of applications of speciality chemicals are pharmaceuticals industry and agriculture; they are produced by batch plant and in general their cost is higher if compared with commodity chemicals; Fine chemicals: as the


id: d-bereiner-s-triads-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Döbereiner's_triads-0.md
category: reference
title: Döbereiner's triads
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Döbereiner's_triads
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:12.242557+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: d-bereiner-s-triads-20260505-0
summary:
In the history of the periodic table, Döbereiner's triads were an early attempt to sort the elements into some logical order and sets based on their physical properties. They are analogous to the groups (columns) on the modern periodic table. 53 elements were known at his time. In 1817, a letter by Ferdinand Wurzer reported Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner's observations of the alkaline earths; namely, that strontium had properties that were intermediate to those of calcium and barium. "In der Gegend von Jena (bei Dornburg) … Schwerspaths seyn möchte." (In the area of Jena (near Dornburg) it is known that celestine has been discovered in large quantities. This gave Mr. Döbereiner cause to inquire rigorously into the stoichiometric value of strontium oxide by a great series of experiments. It turned out that it [i.e., the molar weight of strontium oxide] – if that of hydrogen is expressed by 1 or that of oxygen is expressed by the number 7.5 – is equal to 50. This number is, however, precisely the arithmetic mean of that which denotes the stoichiometric value of calcium oxide (= 27.55) and of that which denotes the stoichiometric value of barium oxide (= 72.5); namely (27.5 + 72.5)


id: globally-harmonized-system-of-classification-and-labelling-of-chemicals-20260505-0
category: reference
title: Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:13.417088+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: globally-harmonized-system-of-classification-and-labelling-of-chemicals-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globally_Harmonized_System_of_Classification_and_Labelling_of_Chemicals-0.md

summary:
The Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS) is an internationally agreed-upon standard managed by the United Nations that was set up to replace the assortment of hazardous material classification and labelling schemes previously used around the world. Core elements of the GHS include standardized hazard testing criteria, universal warning pictograms, and safety data sheets which provide users of dangerous goods relevant information with consistent organization. The system acts as a complement to the UN numbered system of regulated hazardous material transport. Implementation is managed through the UN Secretariat. Although adoption has taken time, as of 2017, the system has been enacted to significant extents in most major countries of the world. This includes the European Union, which has implemented the United Nations' GHS into EU law as the CLP Regulation, and United States Occupational Safety and Health Administration standards. == History == Before the GHS was created and implemented, there were many different regulations on hazard classification in use in different countries, resulting in multiple standards, classifications and labels for the same hazard. Given the $1.7 trillion per year international trade in chemicals requiring hazard classification, the cost of compliance with multiple systems of classification and

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globally_Harmonized_System_of_Classification_and_Labelling_of_Chemicals


id: globally-harmonized-system-of-classification-and-labelling-of-chemicals-20260505-1
category: reference
title: Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:13.417088+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: globally-harmonized-system-of-classification-and-labelling-of-chemicals-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globally_Harmonized_System_of_Classification_and_Labelling_of_Chemicals-1.md

summary:
=== Health hazards === Acute toxicity includes five GHS categories from which the appropriate elements relevant to transport, consumer, worker and environment protection can be selected. Substances are assigned to one of the five toxicity categories on the basis of LD50 (oral, dermal) or LC50 (inhalation). Skin corrosion means the production of irreversible damage to the skin following the application of a test substance for up to 4 hours. Substances and mixtures in this hazard class are assigned to a single harmonized corrosion category. Skin irritation means the production of reversible damage to the skin following the application of a test substance for up to 4 hours. Substances and mixtures in this hazard class are assigned to a single irritant category. For those authorities, such as pesticide regulators, wanting more than one designation for skin irritation, an additional mild irritant category is provided. Serious eye damage means the production of tissue damage in the eye, or serious physical decay of vision, following application of a test substance to the front surface of the eye, which is not fully reversible within 21 days of application. Substances and mixtures in this hazard class are assigned to a single harmonized category. Eye irritation

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globally_Harmonized_System_of_Classification_and_Labelling_of_Chemicals


id: globally-harmonized-system-of-classification-and-labelling-of-chemicals-20260505-2
category: reference
title: Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:13.417088+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: globally-harmonized-system-of-classification-and-labelling-of-chemicals-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globally_Harmonized_System_of_Classification_and_Labelling_of_Chemicals-2.md

summary:
Where toxicological or ecotoxicological test data are available for the mixture itself, the classification of the mixture will be based on that data; Where test data are not available for the mixture itself, then the appropriate bridging principles should be applied, which uses test data for components and/or similar mixtures; If (1) test data are not available for the mixture itself, and (2) the bridging principles cannot be applied, then use the calculation or cutoff values described in the specific endpoint to classify the mixture. === Substitute substances === Companies are encouraged to replace hazardous substances with substances featuring a reduced health risk. As an assistance to assess possible substitute substances, the Institute for Occupational Safety and Health of the German Social Accident Insurance (IFA) has developed the Column Model. On the basis of just a small amount of information on a product, substitute substances can be evaluated with the support of this table. The current version from 2020 already includes the amendments of the 12th CLP Adaptation Regulation 2019/521. == Testing requirements == The GHS generally defers to the United States Environmental Protection Agency and OECD to provide and verify toxicity testing requirements for substances or mixtures. Overall, the

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globally_Harmonized_System_of_Classification_and_Labelling_of_Chemicals


id: globally-harmonized-system-of-classification-and-labelling-of-chemicals-20260505-3
category: reference
title: Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:13.417088+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: globally-harmonized-system-of-classification-and-labelling-of-chemicals-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globally_Harmonized_System_of_Classification_and_Labelling_of_Chemicals-3.md

summary:
Safety data sheets or SDS are specifically aimed at use in the workplace. Safety data sheets take precedence over and are intended to replace the previously used material safety data sheets (MSDS), which did not have a standard layout and section format. It should provide comprehensive information about the chemical product that allows employers and workers to obtain concise, relevant and accurate information in perspective to the hazards, uses and risk management of the chemical product in the workplace. Compared to the differences found between manufacturers in MSDS, SDS have specific requirements to include the following headings in the order specified: The primary difference between the GHS and previous international industry recommendations is that sections 2 and 3 have been reversed in order. The GHS SDS headings, sequence, and content are similar to the ISO, European Union and ANSI MSDS/SDS requirements. A table comparing the content and format of a MSDS/SDS versus the GHS SDS is provided in Appendix A of the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) GHS guidance. == Training == Current training procedures for hazard communication in the United States are more detailed than the GHS training recommendations. Training is a key component of the overall


id: chemical-species-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_species-0.md
category: reference
title: Chemical species
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_species
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:14.575538+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chemical-species-20260505-0
summary:
Chemical species are a specific form of chemical substance or chemically identical molecular entities that have the same molecular energy level at a specified timescale. These entities are classified through bonding types and relative abundance of isotopes. Types of chemical species can be classified based on the type of molecular entity and can be either an atomic, molecular, ionic or radical species. == Classification == Generally, a chemical species is defined as a chemical identity that has the same set of molecular energy levels in a defined timescale (i.e. an experiment). These energy levels determine the way the chemical species will interact with others through properties such as bonding or isotopic compositions. The chemical species can be an atom, molecule, ion, or radical, with a specific chemical name and chemical formula. In supramolecular chemistry, chemical species are structures created by forming or breaking bonds between molecules, such as hydrogen bonding or dipole-dipole bonds. These types of bonds can determine the physical property of chemical species in a liquid or solid state. A single chemical can be classified as two different types of species. For example, nitrate is both a molecular and ionic species, with its formula being NO3−. The term


id: classification-of-clifford-algebras-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_Clifford_algebras-0.md
category: reference
title: Classification of Clifford algebras
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_Clifford_algebras
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:16.280956+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-clifford-algebras-20260505-0
summary:
In abstract algebra, in particular in the theory of nondegenerate quadratic forms on vector spaces, the finite-dimensional Clifford algebras for a nondegenerate quadratic form are completely classified as rings. In general, the Clifford algebra is either a central simple algebra or a direct sum of two copies of such an algebra. For Clifford algebras over real or complex field, this means that the Clifford algebra is isomorphic to a full matrix ring over R, C, or H (the quaternions), or to a direct sum of two such algebras that are (non-canonically) isomorphic. The dimensions of the matrix algebra, and what division ring (R, C, H) can be determined by the dimension of the vector space and invariants of the quadratic form (its signature, over the reals). == Notation and conventions == The Clifford product is the manifest ring product for the Clifford algebra, and all algebra homomorphisms in this article are with respect to this ring product. Other products defined within Clifford algebras, such as the exterior product, and other structure, such as the distinguished subspace of generators V, are not used here. This article uses the (+) sign convention for Clifford multiplication so that v 2 = Q (


id: classification-of-clifford-algebras-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_Clifford_algebras-1.md
category: reference
title: Classification of Clifford algebras
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_Clifford_algebras
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:16.280956+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-clifford-algebras-20260505-0
summary:
C l n + 2 ( C ) ≅ C l n ( C ) ⊗ C l 2 ( C ) . {\displaystyle \mathrm {Cl} _{n+2}(\mathbf {C} )\cong \mathrm {Cl} _{n}(\mathbf {C} )\otimes \mathrm {Cl} _{2}(\mathbf {C} ).} To construct it, let γa generate Cln(C), and let γ ~ 1 , γ ~ 2 {\displaystyle {\tilde {\gamma }}_{1},{\tilde {\gamma }}_{2}} generate Cl2(C). Let ω = i\tilde\gamma_1 \tilde\gamma_2 be the chirality element in Cl2(C), so that ω2 = 1 and each γ ~ a {\displaystyle {\tilde {\gamma }}_{a}} anticommutes with ω. Then one obtains generators for Cln+2(C) by setting Γ a = γ a ⊗ ω ( 1 ≤ a ≤ n ) , {\displaystyle \Gamma _{a}=\gamma _{a}\otimes \omega \qquad (1\leq a\leq n),} Γ n + 1 = 1 ⊗ γ ~ 1 , Γ n + 2 = 1 ⊗ γ ~ 2 . {\displaystyle \Gamma _{n+1}=1\otimes {\tilde {\gamma }}_{1},\qquad \Gamma _{n+2}=1\otimes {\tilde {\gamma }}_{2}.} These satisfy the Clifford relations, so by the universal property of Clifford algebras they induce an isomorphism Cln(C) ⊗ Cl2(C) \to Cln+2(C). Finally, if n is even and Cln(C) ≅ End(CN), then C l n + 2 ( C ) ≅ End ⁡ (


id: classification-of-clifford-algebras-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_Clifford_algebras-2.md
category: reference
title: Classification of Clifford algebras
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_Clifford_algebras
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:16.280956+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-clifford-algebras-20260505-0
summary:
Both algebras have dimension 2 n + 2 {\displaystyle 2^{n+2}} , so this homomorphism is an isomorphism. It follows by induction on m {\displaystyle m} that C l 2 m ( C ) ≅ C l 0 ( C ) ⊗ C l 2 ( C ) ⊗ m ≅ M 2 m ( C ) . {\displaystyle \mathrm {Cl} _{2m}(\mathbf {C} )\cong \mathrm {Cl} _{0}(\mathbf {C} )\otimes \mathrm {Cl} _{2}(\mathbf {C} )^{\otimes m}\cong M_{2^{m}}(\mathbf {C} ).} Indeed, the case m = 0 {\displaystyle m=0} is C l 0 ( C ) ≅ C {\displaystyle \mathrm {Cl} _{0}(\mathbf {C} )\cong \mathbf {C} } , and each application of 2-periodicity tensors with C l 2 ( C ) ≅ M 2 ( C ) {\displaystyle \mathrm {Cl} _{2}(\mathbf {C} )\cong M_{2}(\mathbf {C} )} , doubling the matrix size. For odd dimension, let n = 2 m + 1 {\displaystyle n=2m+1} . The volume element ω = e 1 e 2 ⋯ e n {\displaystyle \omega =e_{1}e_{2}\cdots e_{n}} is central because n {\displaystyle n} is odd, and over C {\displaystyle \mathbf {C} } it may be rescaled so that ω 2 = 1 {\displaystyle \omega ^{2}=1} . Hence P ± = 1


id: classification-of-clifford-algebras-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_Clifford_algebras-3.md
category: reference
title: Classification of Clifford algebras
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_Clifford_algebras
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:16.280956+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-clifford-algebras-20260505-0
summary:
each of which is central simple and so isomorphic to a matrix algebra over R or H. If n is odd and ω2 = −1 (equivalently, if p − q ≡ −1 (mod 4)) then the center of Clp,q(R) is isomorphic to C, and the algebra may be regarded as a complex central simple algebra; hence it is isomorphic to a matrix algebra over C. === Classification === All told there are three properties which determine the class of the algebra Clp,q(R): signature mod 2: n is even/odd, determining whether the algebra is central simple or not; signature mod 4: ω2 = ±1, determining in the odd-dimensional case whether the center is R ⊕ R or C; signature mod 8: the Brauer class of the algebra (n even) or of the even subalgebra (n odd), determining whether the central simple factor is split or quaternionic. Each of these properties depends only on the signature p − q modulo 8. The complete classification table is given below. The size of the matrices is determined by the requirement that Clp,q(R) have dimension 2p+q. It may be seen that of all matrix-ring types mentioned, there is only one type shared by complex and


id: classification-of-clifford-algebras-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_Clifford_algebras-4.md
category: reference
title: Classification of Clifford algebras
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_Clifford_algebras
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:16.280956+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-clifford-algebras-20260505-0
summary:
Cl 1 , 0 ⁡ ( R ) ≅ R ⊕ R , Cl 0 , 1 ⁡ ( R ) ≅ C , {\displaystyle \operatorname {Cl} _{1,0}(\mathbf {R} )\cong \mathbf {R} \oplus \mathbf {R} ,\qquad \operatorname {Cl} _{0,1}(\mathbf {R} )\cong \mathbf {C} ,} while Cl 2 , 0 ⁡ ( R ) ≅ M 2 ( R ) , Cl 0 , 2 ⁡ ( R ) ≅ H . {\displaystyle \operatorname {Cl} _{2,0}(\mathbf {R} )\cong M_{2}(\mathbf {R} ),\qquad \operatorname {Cl} _{0,2}(\mathbf {R} )\cong \mathbf {H} .} So the failure of symmetry appears already in the first few low-dimensional cases. There are two different mechanisms behind this asymmetry. In odd dimension, the distinction is visible in the center. If p − q ≡ 1 (mod 4), then ω2 = +1 and the algebra splits as a direct sum of two simple ideals, so its center is R⊕R. If instead p − q ≡ −1 (mod 4), then ω2 = −1 and the center is C. Thus swapping p and q can change the center from split real to complex. In even dimension, both algebras are central simple, so the distinction is instead in their Brauer classes. For example, when


id: classification-of-clifford-algebras-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_Clifford_algebras-5.md
category: reference
title: Classification of Clifford algebras
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_Clifford_algebras
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:16.280956+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-clifford-algebras-20260505-0
summary:
and hence also Spin ⁡ ( 3 , 1 ) ≅ SL 2 ⁡ ( C ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {Spin} (3,1)\cong \operatorname {SL} _{2}(\mathbf {C} )} . == General fields == Let F be a field of characteristic not 2, and let q {\displaystyle q} be a nondegenerate quadratic form on a finite-dimensional F-vector space V {\displaystyle V} . Over such a field, the classification of Clifford algebras is naturally expressed in terms of the center and a Brauer class rather than by a periodic matrix table. If dim ⁡ V = 2 m {\displaystyle \dim V=2m} is even, then the full Clifford algebra Cl ⁡ ( V , q ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {Cl} (V,q)} is a central simple algebra over F {\displaystyle F} . Its Brauer class c ( q ) := [ Cl ⁡ ( V , q ) ] ∈ Br ⁡ ( F ) {\displaystyle c(q):=[\operatorname {Cl} (V,q)]\in \operatorname {Br} (F)} is called the Clifford invariant of q {\displaystyle q} . The center of the even Clifford algebra Cl 0 ⁡ ( V , q ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {Cl} ^{0}(V,q)} is the quadratic étale F {\displaystyle F} -algebra Z ( q ) = F [ x


id: classification-of-clifford-algebras-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_Clifford_algebras-6.md
category: reference
title: Classification of Clifford algebras
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_Clifford_algebras
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:16.280956+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-clifford-algebras-20260505-0
summary:
The same viewpoint extends to nonarchimedean local fields. If K {\displaystyle K} is a local field of characteristic not 2, then quadratic spaces over K {\displaystyle K} are classified up to isometry by dimension, determinant, and Clifford invariant; equivalently, one may use dimension, determinant, and Hasse invariant. The Brauer group Br ⁡ ( K ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {Br} (K)} has exactly two elements of order dividing 2, namely the split class and the class of the unique quaternion division algebra over K {\displaystyle K} . Accordingly, the Brauer-class part of the Clifford-algebra classification over K {\displaystyle K} is especially simple. If q {\displaystyle q} has even dimension 2 m {\displaystyle 2m} , then Cl ⁡ ( q ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {Cl} (q)} is isomorphic either to M 2 m ( K ) {\displaystyle M_{2^{m}}(K)} or to M 2 m − 1 ( D ) {\displaystyle M_{2^{m-1}}(D)} , where D {\displaystyle D} is the quaternion division algebra over K {\displaystyle K} . If q {\displaystyle q} has odd dimension 2 m + 1 {\displaystyle 2m+1} , then Cl 0 ⁡ ( q ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {Cl} ^{0}(q)} is isomorphic either to M 2 m ( K ) {\displaystyle M_{2^{m}}(K)} or to


id: classification-of-discontinuities-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_discontinuities-0.md
category: reference
title: Classification of discontinuities
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_discontinuities
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:17.602531+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-discontinuities-20260505-0
summary:
While continuous functions are important in mathematics, not all functions are continuous. If a function is not continuous at a limit point (also called an "accumulation point" or "cluster point") of its domain, it has a discontinuity there. The set of all points of discontinuity of a function may be a discrete set, a dense set, or even the entire domain of the function. == Classification == For each of the following, consider a real valued function f {\displaystyle f} of a real variable x , {\displaystyle x,} defined in a neighborhood of the point x 0 {\displaystyle x_{0}} at which f {\displaystyle f} is discontinuous. === Removable discontinuity === Consider the piecewise function f ( x ) = { x 2 for x < 1 0 for x = 1 2 − x for x > 1 {\displaystyle f(x)={\begin{cases}x^{2}&{\text{ for }}x<1\\0&{\text{ for }}x=1\\2-x&{\text{ for }}x>1\end{cases}}} The point x 0 = 1 {\displaystyle x_{0}=1} is a removable discontinuity. For this kind of discontinuity: The one-sided limit from the negative direction: L − = lim x → x 0 − f ( x ) {\displaystyle L^{-}=\lim _{x\to x_{0}^{-}}f(x)} and the one-sided limit from the positive direction: L + = lim x


id: classification-of-discontinuities-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_discontinuities-1.md
category: reference
title: Classification of discontinuities
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_discontinuities
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:17.602531+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-discontinuities-20260505-0
summary:
The set D {\displaystyle D} is an F σ {\displaystyle F_{\sigma }} set. The set of points at which a function is continuous is always a G δ {\displaystyle G_{\delta }} set (see). If on the interval I , {\displaystyle I,} f {\displaystyle f} is monotone then D {\displaystyle D} is at most countable and D = J . {\displaystyle D=J.} This is Froda's theorem. Tom Apostol follows partially the classification above by considering only removable and jump discontinuities. His objective is to study the discontinuities of monotone functions, mainly to prove Froda’s theorem. With the same purpose, Walter Rudin and Karl R. Stromberg study also removable and jump discontinuities by using different terminologies. However, furtherly, both authors state that R ∪ J {\displaystyle R\cup J} is always a countable set (see). The term essential discontinuity has evidence of use in mathematical context as early as 1889. However, the earliest use of the term alongside a mathematical definition seems to have been given in the work by John Klippert. Therein, Klippert also classified essential discontinuities themselves by subdividing the set E {\displaystyle E} into the three following sets: E 1 = { x 0 ∈ I : lim x →


id: classification-of-discontinuities-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_discontinuities-2.md
category: reference
title: Classification of discontinuities
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_discontinuities
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:17.602531+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-discontinuities-20260505-0
summary:
1 C ( x ) = { 1 x ∈ C 0 x ∈ [ 0 , 1 ] ∖ C . {\displaystyle \mathbf {1} _{\mathcal {C}}(x)={\begin{cases}1&x\in {\mathcal {C}}\\0&x\in [0,1]\setminus {\mathcal {C}}.\end{cases}}} One way to construct the Cantor set C {\displaystyle {\mathcal {C}}} is given by C := ⋂ n = 0 ∞ C n {\textstyle {\mathcal {C}}:=\bigcap _{n=0}^{\infty }C_{n}} where the sets C n {\displaystyle C_{n}} are obtained by recurrence according to C n = C n − 1 3 ∪ ( 2 3 + C n − 1 3 ) for n ≥ 1 , and C 0 = [ 0 , 1 ] . {\displaystyle C_{n}={\frac {C_{n-1}}{3}}\cup \left({\frac {2}{3}}+{\frac {C_{n-1}}{3}}\right){\text{ for }}n\geq 1,{\text{ and }}C_{0}=[0,1].} In view of the discontinuities of the function 1 C ( x ) , {\displaystyle \mathbf {1} _{\mathcal {C}}(x),} let's assume a point x 0 ∉ C . {\displaystyle x_{0}\not \in {\mathcal {C}}.} Therefore there exists a set C n , {\displaystyle C_{n},} used in the formulation of C {\displaystyle {\mathcal {C}}} , which does not contain x 0 . {\displaystyle x_{0}.} That is, x 0 {\displaystyle x_{0}} belongs to one of the open intervals which were removed in the construction of


id: classification-of-discontinuities-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_discontinuities-3.md
category: reference
title: Classification of discontinuities
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_discontinuities
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:17.602531+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-discontinuities-20260505-0
summary:
Therefore if x 0 ∈ I {\displaystyle x_{0}\in I} is a discontinuity of a derivative function f : I → R {\displaystyle f:I\to \mathbb {R} } , then necessarily x 0 {\displaystyle x_{0}} is a fundamental essential discontinuity of f {\displaystyle f} . Notice also that when I = [ a , b ] {\displaystyle I=[a,b]} and f : I → R {\displaystyle f:I\to \mathbb {R} } is a bounded function, as in the assumptions of Lebesgue's theorem, we have for all x 0 ∈ ( a , b ) {\displaystyle x_{0}\in (a,b)} : lim x → x 0 ± f ( x ) ≠ ± ∞ , {\displaystyle \lim _{x\to x_{0}^{\pm }}f(x)\neq \pm \infty ,} lim x → a + f ( x ) ≠ ± ∞ , {\displaystyle \lim _{x\to a^{+}}f(x)\neq \pm \infty ,} and lim x → b − f ( x ) ≠ ± ∞ . {\displaystyle \lim _{x\to b^{-}}f(x)\neq \pm \infty .} Therefore any essential discontinuity of f {\displaystyle f} is a fundamental one. == See also == Removable singularity – Undefined point on a holomorphic function which can be made regular Mathematical singularity – Point where a mathematical object behaves irregularlyPages displaying short descriptions


id: classification-of-fatou-components-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_Fatou_components-0.md
category: reference
title: Classification of Fatou components
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_Fatou_components
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:18.797856+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-fatou-components-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics, Fatou components are components of the Fatou set. They were named after Pierre Fatou. == Rational case == If f is a rational function f = P ( z ) Q ( z ) {\displaystyle f={\frac {P(z)}{Q(z)}}} defined in the extended complex plane, and if it is a nonlinear function (degree > 1) d ( f ) = max ( deg ⁡ ( P ) , deg ⁡ ( Q ) ) ≥ 2 , {\displaystyle d(f)=\max(\deg(P),\,\deg(Q))\geq 2,} then for a periodic component U {\displaystyle U} of the Fatou set, exactly one of the following holds: U {\displaystyle U} contains an attracting periodic point U {\displaystyle U} is parabolic U {\displaystyle U} is a Siegel disc: a simply connected Fatou component on which f(z) is analytically conjugate to a Euclidean rotation of the unit disc onto itself by an irrational rotation angle. U {\displaystyle U} is a Herman ring: a double connected Fatou component (an annulus) on which f(z) is analytically conjugate to a Euclidean rotation of a round annulus, again by an irrational rotation angle. === Attracting periodic point === The components of the map f ( z ) = z − ( z 3 − 1


id: classification-of-finite-simple-groups-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_finite_simple_groups-0.md
category: reference
title: Classification of finite simple groups
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_finite_simple_groups
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:19.935542+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-finite-simple-groups-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics, the classification of finite simple groups (popularly called the enormous theorem) is a result of group theory stating that every finite simple group is either cyclic, or alternating, or belongs to a broad infinite class called the groups of Lie type, or else it is one of twenty-six exceptions, called sporadic (the Tits group is sometimes regarded as a sporadic group because it is not strictly a group of Lie type, in which case there would be 27 sporadic groups). The proof consists of tens of thousands of pages in several hundred journal articles written by about 100 authors, published mostly between 1955 and 2004. Simple groups can be seen as the basic building blocks of all finite groups, reminiscent of the way the prime numbers are the basic building blocks of the natural numbers. The Jordan–Hölder theorem is a more precise way of stating this fact about finite groups. However, a significant difference from integer factorization is that such "building blocks" do not necessarily determine a unique group, since there might be many non-isomorphic groups with the same composition series or, put in another way, the extension problem does not have a unique solution. Daniel Gorenstein (1923–1992),


id: classification-of-finite-simple-groups-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_finite_simple_groups-1.md
category: reference
title: Classification of finite simple groups
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_finite_simple_groups
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:19.935542+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-finite-simple-groups-20260505-0
summary:
=== Groups of characteristic 2 type === A group is of characteristic 2 type if the generalized Fitting subgroup F*(Y) of every 2-local subgroup Y is a 2-group. As the name suggests these are roughly the groups of Lie type over fields of characteristic 2, plus a handful of others that are alternating or sporadic or of odd characteristic. Their classification is divided into the small and large rank cases, where the rank is the largest rank of an odd abelian subgroup normalizing a nontrivial 2-subgroup, which is often (but not always) the same as the rank of a Cartan subalgebra when the group is a group of Lie type in characteristic 2. The rank 1 groups are the thin groups, classified by Aschbacher, and the rank 2 ones are the notorious quasithin groups, classified by Aschbacher and Smith. These correspond roughly to groups of Lie type of ranks 1 or 2 over fields of characteristic 2. Groups of rank at least 3 are further subdivided into 3 classes by the trichotomy theorem, proved by Aschbacher for rank 3 and by Gorenstein and Lyons for rank at least 4. The three classes are groups of GF(2) type (classified mainly by


id: classification-of-finite-simple-groups-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_finite_simple_groups-2.md
category: reference
title: Classification of finite simple groups
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_finite_simple_groups
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:19.935542+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-finite-simple-groups-20260505-0
summary:
== Second-generation classification == The proof of the theorem, as it stood around 1985 or so, can be called first generation. Because of the extreme length of the first generation proof, much effort has been devoted to finding a simpler proof, called a second-generation classification proof. This effort, called "revisionism", was originally led by Daniel Gorenstein, and coauthored with Richard Lyons and Ronald Solomon. As of 2023, ten volumes of the second generation proof have been published (Gorenstein, Lyons & Solomon 1994, 1996, 1998, 1999, 2002, 2005, 2018a, 2018b; & Inna Capdeboscq, 2021, 2023). In 2012 Solomon estimated that the project would need another 5 volumes, but said that progress on them was slow. It is estimated that the new proof will eventually fill approximately 5,000 pages. (This length stems in part from the second generation proof being written in a more relaxed style.) However, with the publication of volume 9 of the GLS series, and including the Aschbacher–Smith contribution, this estimate was already reached, with several more volumes still in preparation (the rest of what was originally intended for volume 9, plus projected volumes 10 and 11). Aschbacher and Smith wrote their two volumes devoted to the quasithin case


id: classification-of-finite-simple-groups-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_finite_simple_groups-3.md
category: reference
title: Classification of finite simple groups
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_finite_simple_groups
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:19.935542+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-finite-simple-groups-20260505-0
summary:
== References == Aschbacher, Michael (2004). "The Status of the Classification of the Finite Simple Groups" (PDF). Notices of the American Mathematical Society. Vol. 51, no. 7. pp. 736–740. Aschbacher, Michael; Lyons, Richard; Smith, Stephen D.; Solomon, Ronald (2011), The Classification of Finite Simple Groups: Groups of Characteristic 2 Type, Mathematical Surveys and Monographs, vol. 172, ISBN 978-0-8218-5336-8 Conway, John Horton; Curtis, Robert Turner; Norton, Simon Phillips; Parker, Richard A; Wilson, Robert Arnott (1985), Atlas of Finite Groups: Maximal Subgroups and Ordinary Characters for Simple Groups, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-853199-9 Gorenstein, D. (1979), "The classification of finite simple groups. I. Simple groups and local analysis", Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, New Series, 1 (1): 43–199, doi:10.1090/S0273-0979-1979-14551-8, ISSN 0002-9904, MR 0513750 Gorenstein, D. (1982), Finite simple groups, University Series in Mathematics, New York: Plenum Publishing Corp., ISBN 978-0-306-40779-6, MR 0698782 Gorenstein, D. (1983), The classification of finite simple groups. Vol. 1. Groups of noncharacteristic 2 type, The University Series in Mathematics, Plenum Press, ISBN 978-0-306-41305-6, MR 0746470 Daniel Gorenstein (1985), "The Enormous Theorem", Scientific American, December 1, 1985, vol. 253, no. 6, pp. 104–115. Gorenstein, D. (1986), "Classifying the finite simple groups", Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, New


id: classification-of-low-dimensional-real-lie-algebras-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_low-dimensional_real_Lie_algebras-0.md
category: reference
title: Classification of low-dimensional real Lie algebras
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_low-dimensional_real_Lie_algebras
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:21.132152+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-low-dimensional-real-lie-algebras-20260505-0
summary:
This mathematics-related list provides Mubarakzyanov's classification of low-dimensional real Lie algebras, published in Russian in 1963. It complements the article on Lie algebra in the area of abstract algebra. An English version and review of this classification was published by Popovych et al. in 2003. == Mubarakzyanov's Classification == Let g n {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}_{n}} be n {\displaystyle n} -dimensional Lie algebra over the field of real numbers with generators e 1 , … , e n {\displaystyle e_{1},\dots ,e_{n}} , n ≤ 4 {\displaystyle n\leq 4} . For each algebra g {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}} we adduce only non-zero commutators between basis elements. === One-dimensional === g 1 {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}_{1}} , abelian. === Two-dimensional === 2 g 1 {\displaystyle 2{\mathfrak {g}}_{1}} , abelian R 2 {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}} ; g 2.1 {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}_{2.1}} , solvable a f f ( 1 ) = { ( a b 0 0 ) : a , b ∈ R } {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {aff}}(1)=\left\{{\begin{pmatrix}a&b\\0&0\end{pmatrix}}\,:\,a,b\in \mathbb {R} \right\}} , [ e 1 , e 2 ] = e 1 . {\displaystyle [e_{1},e_{2}]=e_{1}.} === Three-dimensional === 3 g 1 {\displaystyle 3{\mathfrak {g}}_{1}} , abelian, Bianchi I; g 2.1 ⊕ g 1 {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}_{2.1}\oplus


id: classification-of-low-dimensional-real-lie-algebras-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_low-dimensional_real_Lie_algebras-1.md
category: reference
title: Classification of low-dimensional real Lie algebras
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_low-dimensional_real_Lie_algebras
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:21.132152+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-low-dimensional-real-lie-algebras-20260505-0
summary:
g 4.1 {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}_{4.1}} , indecomposable nilpotent, [ e 2 , e 4 ] = e 1 , [ e 3 , e 4 ] = e 2 ; {\displaystyle [e_{2},e_{4}]=e_{1},\quad [e_{3},e_{4}]=e_{2};} g 4.2 {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}_{4.2}} , indecomposable solvable, [ e 1 , e 4 ] = β e 1 , [ e 2 , e 4 ] = e 2 , [ e 3 , e 4 ] = e 2 + e 3 , β ≠ 0 ; {\displaystyle [e_{1},e_{4}]=\beta e_{1},\quad [e_{2},e_{4}]=e_{2},\quad [e_{3},e_{4}]=e_{2}+e_{3},\quad \beta \neq 0;} g 4.3 {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}_{4.3}} , indecomposable solvable, [ e 1 , e 4 ] = e 1 , [ e 3 , e 4 ] = e 2 ; {\displaystyle [e_{1},e_{4}]=e_{1},\quad [e_{3},e_{4}]=e_{2};} g 4.4 {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}_{4.4}} , indecomposable solvable, [ e 1 , e 4 ] = e 1 , [ e 2 , e 4 ] = e 1 + e 2 , [ e 3 , e 4 ] = e 2 + e 3 ; {\displaystyle [e_{1},e_{4}]=e_{1},\quad [e_{2},e_{4}]=e_{1}+e_{2},\quad [e_{3},e_{4}]=e_{2}+e_{3};} g 4.5 {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {g}}_{4.5}} , indecomposable solvable, [ e 1 , e 4 ] = α e 1 , [ e 2 , e 4


id: classification-of-manifolds-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_manifolds-0.md
category: reference
title: Classification of manifolds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_manifolds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:22.311632+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-manifolds-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics, specifically geometry and topology, the classification of manifolds is a basic question, about which much is known, and many open questions remain. == Main themes == === Overview === Low-dimensional manifolds are classified by geometric structure; high-dimensional manifolds are classified algebraically, by surgery theory. "Low dimensions" means dimensions up to 4; "high dimensions" means 5 or more dimensions. The case of dimension 4 is somehow a boundary case, as it manifests "low dimensional" behaviour smoothly (but not topologically); see discussion of "low" versus "high" dimension. Different categories of manifolds yield different classifications; these are related by the notion of "structure", and more general categories have neater theories. Positive curvature is constrained, negative curvature is generic. The abstract classification of high-dimensional manifolds is ineffective: given two manifolds (presented as CW complexes, for instance), there is no algorithm to determine if they are isomorphic. === Different categories and additional structure === Formally, classifying manifolds is classifying objects up to isomorphism. There are many different notions of "manifold", and corresponding notions of "map between manifolds", each of which yields a different category and a different classification question. These categories are related by forgetful functors: for instance, a differentiable manifold is also


id: classification-of-manifolds-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_manifolds-1.md
category: reference
title: Classification of manifolds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_manifolds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:22.311632+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-manifolds-20260505-0
summary:
==== Computability ==== The Euler characteristic is a homological invariant, and thus can be effectively computed given a CW structure, so 2-manifolds are classified homologically. Characteristic classes and characteristic numbers are the corresponding generalized homological invariants, but they do not classify manifolds in higher dimension (they are not a complete set of invariants): for instance, orientable 3-manifolds are parallelizable (Steenrod's theorem in low-dimensional topology), so all characteristic classes vanish. In higher dimensions, characteristic classes do not in general vanish, and provide useful but not complete data. Manifolds in dimension 4 and above cannot be effectively classified: given two n-manifolds ( n ≥ 4 {\displaystyle n\geq 4} ) presented as CW complexes or handlebodies, there is no algorithm for determining if they are isomorphic (homeomorphic, diffeomorphic). This is due to the unsolvability of the word problem for groups, or more precisely, the triviality problem (given a finite presentation for a group, is it the trivial group?). Any finite presentation of a group can be realized as a 2-complex, and can be realized as the 2-skeleton of a 4-manifold (or higher). Thus one cannot even compute the fundamental group of a given high-dimensional manifold, much less a classification. This ineffectiveness is a


id: classification-of-manifolds-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_manifolds-2.md
category: reference
title: Classification of manifolds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_manifolds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:22.311632+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-manifolds-20260505-0
summary:
Four-dimensional manifolds are the most unusual: they are not geometrizable (as in lower dimensions), and surgery works topologically, but not differentiably. Since topologically, 4-manifolds are classified by surgery, the differentiable classification question is phrased in terms of "differentiable structures": "which (topological) 4-manifolds admit a differentiable structure, and on those that do, how many differentiable structures are there?" Four-manifolds often admit many unusual differentiable structures, most strikingly the uncountably infinitely many exotic differentiable structures on R4. Similarly, differentiable 4-manifolds is the only remaining open case of the generalized Poincaré conjecture. == Dimension 5 and more: surgery == In dimension 5 and above (and 4 dimensions topologically), manifolds are classified by surgery theory. The reason for dimension 5 is that the Whitney trick works in the middle dimension in dimension 5 and more: two Whitney disks generically don't intersect in dimension 5 and above, by general position ( 2 + 2 < 5 {\displaystyle 2+2<5} ). In dimension 4, one can resolve intersections of two Whitney disks via Casson handles, which works topologically but not differentiably; see Geometric topology: Dimension for details on dimension. More subtly, dimension 5 is the cut-off because the middle dimension has codimension more than 2: when the


id: classification-theorem-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_theorem-0.md
category: reference
title: Classification theorem
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_theorem
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:23.500509+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-theorem-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics, a classification theorem answers the classification problem: "What are the objects of a given type, up to some equivalence?". It gives a non-redundant enumeration: each object is equivalent to exactly one class. A few issues related to classification are the following. The equivalence problem is "given two objects, determine if they are equivalent". A complete set of invariants, together with which invariants are realizable, solves the classification problem, and is often a step in solving it. (A combination of invariant values is realizable if there in fact exists an object whose invariants take on the specified set of values) A computable complete set of invariants (together with which invariants are realizable) solves both the classification problem and the equivalence problem. A canonical form solves the classification problem, and is more data: it not only classifies every class, but provides a distinguished (canonical) element of each class. There exist many classification theorems in mathematics, as described below. == Geometry == Classification of Euclidean plane isometries – Isometry of the Eluclidean plane Classification of Platonic solids Classification theorems of surfaces Classification of two-dimensional closed manifolds – Two-dimensional manifoldPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Enriques–Kodaira classification – Mathematical classification of


id: elliptic-surface-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliptic_surface-0.md
category: reference
title: Elliptic surface
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliptic_surface
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:24.692093+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: elliptic-surface-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics, an elliptic surface is a surface that has an elliptic fibration, in other words a proper morphism with connected fibers to an algebraic curve such that almost all fibers are smooth curves of genus 1. (Over an algebraically closed field such as the complex numbers, these fibers are elliptic curves, perhaps without a chosen origin.) This is equivalent to the generic fiber being a smooth curve of genus one. This follows from proper base change. The surface and the base curve are assumed to be non-singular (complex manifolds or regular schemes, depending on the context). The fibers that are not elliptic curves are called the singular fibers and were classified by Kunihiko Kodaira. Both elliptic and singular fibers are important in string theory, especially in F-theory. Elliptic surfaces form a large class of surfaces that contains many of the interesting examples of surfaces, and are relatively well understood in the theories of complex manifolds and smooth 4-manifolds. They are similar to (have analogies with, that is), elliptic curves over number fields. == Examples == The product of any elliptic curve with any curve is an elliptic surface (with no singular fibers). All surfaces of Kodaira dimension 1 are


id: elliptic-surface-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliptic_surface-1.md
category: reference
title: Elliptic surface
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliptic_surface
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:24.692093+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: elliptic-surface-20260505-0
summary:
Here the multiple fibers of f (if any) are written as f ∗ ( p i ) = m i D i {\displaystyle f^{*}(p_{i})=m_{i}D_{i}} , for an integer mi at least 2 and a divisor Di whose coefficients have greatest common divisor equal to 1, and L is some line bundle on the smooth curve S. If S is projective (or equivalently, compact), then the degree of L is determined by the holomorphic Euler characteristics of X and S: deg(L) = χ(X,OX) − 2χ(S,OS). The canonical bundle formula implies that KX is Q-linearly equivalent to the pullback of some Q-divisor on S; it is essential here that the elliptic surface X → S is minimal. Building on work of Kenji Ueno, Takao Fujita (1986) gave a useful variant of the canonical bundle formula, showing how KX depends on the variation of the smooth fibers. Namely, there is a Q-linear equivalence K X ∼ Q f ∗ ( K S + B S + M S ) , {\displaystyle K_{X}\sim _{\bf {Q}}f^{*}(K_{S}+B_{S}+M_{S}),} where the discriminant divisor BS is an explicit effective Q-divisor on S associated to the singular fibers of f, and the moduli divisor MS is ( 1 / 12


id: enriques-kodaira-classification-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enriques–Kodaira_classification-0.md
category: reference
title: Enriques–Kodaira classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enriques–Kodaira_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:25.992556+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: enriques-kodaira-classification-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics, the Enriques–Kodaira classification groups compact complex surfaces into ten classes, each parametrized by a moduli space. For most of the classes the moduli spaces are well understood, but for the class of surfaces of general type the moduli spaces seem too complicated to describe explicitly, though some components are known. Max Noether began the systematic study of algebraic surfaces, and Guido Castelnuovo proved important parts of the classification. Federigo Enriques described the classification of complex projective surfaces. Kunihiko Kodaira later extended the classification to include non-algebraic compact surfaces. == Statement of the classification == The Enriques–Kodaira classification of compact complex surfaces states that every nonsingular minimal compact complex surface is of exactly one of the 10 types listed on this page; in other words, it is one of the rational, ruled (genus > 0), type VII, K3, Enriques, Kodaira, toric, hyperelliptic, properly quasi-elliptic, or general type surfaces. For the 9 classes of surfaces other than general type, there is a fairly complete description of what all the surfaces look like (which for class VII depends on the global spherical shell conjecture, still unproved in 2024). For surfaces of general type not much is known about their explicit classification,


id: enriques-kodaira-classification-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enriques–Kodaira_classification-1.md
category: reference
title: Enriques–Kodaira classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enriques–Kodaira_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:25.992556+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: enriques-kodaira-classification-20260505-0
summary:
χ = p g − q + 1 = h 0 , 2 − h 0 , 1 + 1. {\displaystyle \chi =p_{g}-q+1=h^{0,2}-h^{0,1}+1.} By Noether's formula it is also equal to the Todd genus 1 12 ( c 1 2 + c 2 ) . {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{12}}(c_{1}^{2}+c_{2}).} The signature of the second cohomology group for complex surfaces is denoted by τ {\displaystyle \tau } : τ = 4 χ − e = ∑ i , j ( − 1 ) j h i , j . {\displaystyle \tau =4\chi -e=\sum \nolimits _{i,j}(-1)^{j}h^{i,j}.} b ± {\displaystyle b^{\pm }} are the dimensions of the maximal positive and negative definite subspaces of H 2 , {\displaystyle H^{2},} so: { b + + b − = b 2 b + − b − = τ {\displaystyle {\begin{cases}b^{+}+b^{-}=b_{2}\\b^{+}-b^{-}=\tau \end{cases}}} c2 = e and c 1 2 = K 2 = 12 χ − e {\displaystyle c_{1}^{2}=K^{2}=12\chi -e} are the Chern numbers, defined as the integrals of various polynomials in the Chern classes over the manifold. === Other invariants === There are further invariants of compact complex surfaces that are not used so much in the classification. These include algebraic invariants such as the Picard


id: enriques-kodaira-classification-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enriques–Kodaira_classification-2.md
category: reference
title: Enriques–Kodaira classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enriques–Kodaira_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:25.992556+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: enriques-kodaira-classification-20260505-0
summary:
χ = h 0 , 0 − h 0 , 1 + h 0 , 2 c 2 = 2 − 2 b 1 + b 2 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\chi &=h^{0,0}-h^{0,1}+h^{0,2}\\c_{2}&=2-2b_{1}+b_{2}\end{aligned}}} we arrive at: 10 + 12 h 0 , 2 = 8 h 0 , 1 + 2 ( 2 h 0 , 1 − b 1 ) + b 2 {\displaystyle 10+12h^{0,2}=8h^{0,1}+2\left(2h^{0,1}-b_{1}\right)+b_{2}} Moreover since κ = 0 we have: h 0 , 2 = { 1 K = 0 0 otherwise {\displaystyle h^{0,2}={\begin{cases}1&K=0\\0&{\text{otherwise}}\end{cases}}} combining this with the previous equation gives: 8 h 0 , 1 + 2 ( 2 h 0 , 1 − b 1 ) + b 2 = { 22 K = 0 10 otherwise {\displaystyle 8h^{0,1}+2\left(2h^{0,1}-b_{1}\right)+b_{2}={\begin{cases}22&K=0\\10&{\text{otherwise}}\end{cases}}} In general 2h0,1 ≥ b1, so three terms on the left are non-negative integers and there are only a few solutions to this equation. For algebraic surfaces 2h0,1 − b1 is an even integer between 0 and 2pg. For compact complex surfaces 2h0,1 − b1 = 0 or 1. For Kähler surfaces 2h0,1 − b1 = 0 and h1,0 = h0,1. Most solutions to these conditions correspond to classes of surfaces, as in the following table: === K3 surfaces


id: enriques-kodaira-classification-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enriques–Kodaira_classification-3.md
category: reference
title: Enriques–Kodaira classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enriques–Kodaira_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:25.992556+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: enriques-kodaira-classification-20260505-0
summary:
== Surfaces of Kodaira dimension 1 == An elliptic surface is a surface equipped with an elliptic fibration (a surjective holomorphic map to a curve B such that all but finitely many fibers are smooth irreducible curves of genus 1). The generic fiber in such a fibration is a genus 1 curve over the function field of B. Conversely, given a genus 1 curve over the function field of a curve, its relative minimal model is an elliptic surface. Kodaira and others have given a fairly complete description of all elliptic surfaces. In particular, Kodaira gave a complete list of the possible singular fibers. The theory of elliptic surfaces is analogous to the theory of proper regular models of elliptic curves over discrete valuation rings (e.g., the ring of p-adic integers) and Dedekind domains (e.g., the ring of integers of a number field). In finite characteristic 2 and 3 one can also get quasi-elliptic surfaces, whose fibers may almost all be rational curves with a single node, which are "degenerate elliptic curves". Every surface of Kodaira dimension 1 is an elliptic surface (or a quasielliptic surface in characteristics 2 or 3), but the converse is not true: an elliptic surface


id: enriques-kodaira-classification-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enriques–Kodaira_classification-4.md
category: reference
title: Enriques–Kodaira classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enriques–Kodaira_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:25.992556+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: enriques-kodaira-classification-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == Barth, Wolf P.; Hulek, Klaus; Peters, Chris A.M.; Van de Ven, Antonius (2004), Compact Complex Surfaces, Ergebnisse der Mathematik und ihrer Grenzgebiete. 3. Folge., vol. 4, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, doi:10.1007/978-3-642-57739-0, ISBN 978-3-540-00832-3, MR 2030225 – the standard reference book for compact complex surfaces Beauville, Arnaud (1996), Complex algebraic surfaces, London Mathematical Society Student Texts, vol. 34 (2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press, doi:10.1017/CBO9780511623936, ISBN 978-0-521-49510-3, MR 1406314; (ISBN 978-0-521-49842-5 softcover) – including a more elementary introduction to the classification Bombieri, E.; Mumford, D. (1977). "Enriques' Classification of Surfaces in Char. P, II". Complex Analysis and Algebraic Geometry. pp. 23–42. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511569197.004. ISBN 9780521217774. Reid, Miles (1997), "Chapters on algebraic surfaces", Complex algebraic geometry (Park City, UT, 1993), IAS/Park City Math. Ser., vol. 3, Providence, R.I.: American Mathematical Society, pp. 3–159, arXiv:alg-geom/9602006, Bibcode:1996alg.geom..2006R, doi:10.1090/pcms/003/02, ISBN 9780821811450, MR 1442522, S2CID 116933286 Shafarevich, Igor R.; Averbuh, Boris G.; Vaĭnberg, Ju. R.; Zhizhchenko, A. B.; Manin, Yuri I.; Moishezon, Boris G.; Tjurina, Galina N.; Tjurin, Andrei N. (1967) [1965], "Algebraic surfaces", Proceedings of the Steklov Institute of Mathematics, 75, Providence, R.I.: American Mathematical Society: 1–215, ISBN 978-0-8218-1875-6, MR 0190143{{citation}}: CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN (link) Van de Ven, Antonius (1978), "On the


id: mathematics-subject-classification-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics_Subject_Classification-0.md
category: reference
title: Mathematics Subject Classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics_Subject_Classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:27.221756+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mathematics-subject-classification-20260505-0
summary:
The Mathematics Subject Classification (MSC) is an alphanumerical classification scheme that has collaboratively been produced by staff of, and based on the coverage of, the two major mathematical reviewing databases, Mathematical Reviews and Zentralblatt MATH. The MSC is used by many mathematics journals, which ask authors of research papers and expository articles to list subject codes from the Mathematics Subject Classification in their papers. The current version is MSC2020. == Structure == The MSC is a hierarchical scheme, with three levels of structure. A classification can be two, three or five digits long, depending on how many levels of the classification scheme are used. The first level is represented by a two-digit number, the second by a letter, and the third by another two-digit number. For example: 53 is the classification for differential geometry 53A is the classification for classical differential geometry 53A45 is the classification for vector and tensor analysis === First level === At the top level, 63 mathematical disciplines are labeled with a unique two-digit number. In addition to the typical areas of mathematical research, there are top-level categories for "History and Biography", "Mathematics Education", and for the overlap with different sciences. Physics (i.e. mathematical physics) is


id: mathematics-subject-classification-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics_Subject_Classification-1.md
category: reference
title: Mathematics Subject Classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics_Subject_Classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:27.221756+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mathematics-subject-classification-20260505-0
summary:
== First-level areas == 00: General (Includes topics such as recreational mathematics, philosophy of mathematics and mathematical modeling.) 01: History and biography 03: Mathematical logic and foundations (including model theory, computability theory, set theory, proof theory, and algebraic logic) 05: Combinatorics 06: Order, lattices, ordered algebraic structures 08: General algebraic systems 11: Number theory 12: Field theory and polynomials 13: Commutative algebra (Commutative rings and algebras) 14: Algebraic geometry 15: Linear and multilinear algebra; matrix theory 16: Associative rings and (associative) algebras 17: Non-associative rings and (non-associative) algebras 18: Category theory; homological algebra 19: K-theory 20: Group theory and generalizations 22: Topological groups, Lie groups (and analysis upon them) 26: Real functions (including derivatives and integrals) 28: Measure and integration 30: Functions of a complex variable (including approximation theory in the complex domain) 31: Potential theory 32: Several complex variables and analytic spaces 33: Special functions 34: Ordinary differential equations 35: Partial differential equations 37: Dynamical systems and ergodic theory 39: Difference equations and functional equations 40: Sequences, series, summability 41: Approximations and expansions 42: Harmonic analysis on Euclidean spaces (including Fourier analysis, Fourier transforms, trigonometric approximation, trigonometric interpolation, and orthogonal functions) 43: Abstract harmonic analysis 44: Integral transforms, operational


id: morphology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology-0.md
category: reference
title: Morphology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:28.729166+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morphology-20260505-0
summary:
Morphology, from the Greek and meaning "study of shape", may refer to: == Disciplines == Morphology (archaeology), study of the shapes or forms of artifacts Morphology (astronomy), study of the shape of astronomical objects such as nebulae, galaxies, or other extended objects Morphology (biology), the study of the form or shape of an organism or part thereof Morphology (folkloristics), the structure of narratives such as folk tales Morphology (linguistics), the study of the structure and content of word forms Mathematical morphology, a theoretical model based on lattice theory, used for digital image processing River morphology, the field of science dealing with changes of river platform Urban morphology, study of the form, structure, formation and transformation of human settlements Geomorphology, the study of landforms Morphology (architecture and engineering), research which is based on theories of two-dimensional and three-dimensional symmetries, and then uses these geometries for planning buildings and structures In chemistry and materials science, the study of allotropes, isomers, or material polymorphs == Other == Journal of Morphology, peer-reviewed scientific journal of anatomy and morphology Morphology (journal), peer-reviewed academic journal in linguistic morphology Morphology, 1994 album by Finnish band Neuroactive == See also == Morphological analysis (disambiguation)


id: morphological-analysis-problem-solving-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphological_analysis_(problem-solving)-0.md
category: reference
title: Morphological analysis (problem-solving)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphological_analysis_(problem-solving)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:29.923068+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morphological-analysis-problem-solving-20260505-0
summary:
Morphological analysis or general morphological analysis is a method for exploring possible solutions to a multi-dimensional, non-quantified complex problem. It was developed by Swiss astronomer Fritz Zwicky. General morphology has found use in fields including engineering design, technological forecasting, organizational development and policy analysis. == Overview == General morphology was developed by Fritz Zwicky, the Bulgarian-born, Swiss-national astrophysicist based at the California Institute of Technology. Among others, Zwicky applied morphological analysis to astronomical studies and jet and rocket propulsion systems. As a problem-structuring and problem-solving technique, morphological analysis was designed for multi-dimensional, non-quantifiable problems where causal modelling and simulation do not function well, or at all. Zwicky developed this approach to address seemingly non-reducible complexity: using the technique of cross-consistency assessment (CCA), the system allows for reduction by identifying the possible solutions that actually exist, eliminating the illogical solution combinations in a grid box (sometimes called a morphological box) rather than reducing the number of variables involved. == Decomposition versus morphological analysis == Problems that involve many governing factors, where most of them cannot be expressed numerically can be well suited for morphological analysis. The conventional approach is to break a complex system into parts, isolate the parts (dropping the


id: morphological-echo-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphological_Echo-0.md
category: reference
title: Morphological Echo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphological_Echo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:31.099360+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morphological-echo-20260505-0
summary:
Morphological Echo is a title shared by two oil-on-panel paintings created by the Spanish surrealist Salvador Dalí. == Description == The first of these works was painted between 1934 and 1936 and measures 64 cm × 54 cm (25 in × 21 in). It depicts a seemingly minimal architectural setting with several surrealist images in its finer details. In the distance is a wall housing a bell resembling the figure of a woman in bundled skirts. In the distance towards the center is a strangely eroded rock form. The most significant element of this image is a small figure in the lower right of a woman running with a large hoop. In the shadow cast by the figure, her arms appear to merge into a circle around her head. The shadow cast by the figure's head takes on the appearance of the hub of a wheel. This painting is displayed at the Salvador Dalí Museum in St. Petersburg, Florida on loan from the E. and A. Reynolds Morse collection. The second work by this title was painted in 1936 and measures 30.5 cm × 33 cm (12.0 in × 13.0 in). It depicts a table with three objects set upon


id: morphological-freedom-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphological_freedom-0.md
category: reference
title: Morphological freedom
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphological_freedom
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:32.229477+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morphological-freedom-20260505-0
summary:
Morphological freedom refers to a proposed civil right of a person to either maintain or modify their own body, on their own terms, through informed, consensual recourse to, or refusal of, available therapeutic or enabling medical technology. The term may have been coined by transhumanist Max More in his 1993 article, “Technological Self-Transformation: Expanding Personal Extropy”, where he defined it as "the ability to alter bodily form at will through technologies such as surgery, genetic engineering, nanotechnology, uploading". The term was later used by science debater and futurist Anders Sandberg as "an extension of one’s right to one’s body, not just self-ownership but also the right to modify oneself according to one’s desires." The Massachusetts-headquartered charity, the Freedom of Form Foundation, was founded in 2018 to advocate and fund scientific research furthering progress on morphological freedom, the tools required to achieve it and its general acceptance in society at large. == Politics == According to technocritic Dale Carrico, the politics of morphological freedom imply a commitment to the value, standing, and social legibility of the widest possible variety of desired morphologies and lifestyles. More specifically, morphological freedom is an expression of liberal pluralism, secularism, progressive cosmopolitanism, and posthumanist multiculturalisms applied


id: morphological-psychology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphological_psychology-0.md
category: reference
title: Morphological psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphological_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:33.405192+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morphological-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
Morphological psychology claims to be one of the most recent full psychology theories. It was developed in the 1960s by Professor Wilhelm Salber at the University of Cologne, Germany. In his understanding, morphology is the science of the structure of living things. "Morphing" describes the seamless transition from one state or appearance into another. Like the morphing technique used in films, morphological psychology studies the structures of our psyche and aims to understand the transitions, the metamorphosis of our mind. Morphological psychology recognizes that the mind is in a constant state of flux, being shaped and shaping at the same time. It is a psychological theory that considers our mental workings as a dynamic system. Morphology asserts that we are in a constant state of change throughout our life. In every millisecond we experience entire psychological worlds. The only constant in life is change, and Salber has taken this principle to morphological psychology. == Motivations == Morphological psychology identifies six motivations (Kerngestalten) which provide a natural framework for the mind, and defines their relationship to each other to explain the mind's holistic workings. It is within these six motivations that we literally "make up our mind". Each of these motivations


id: morphology-archaeology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology_(archaeology)-0.md
category: reference
title: Morphology (archaeology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology_(archaeology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:34.567437+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morphology-archaeology-20260505-0
summary:
In archaeology, morphology is the study of the shape of artefacts and ecofacts. Morphology is a major consideration in grouping artefacts into period styles and, despite modern techniques like radiocarbon dating, remains a crucial tool in the identification and dating not only of works of art but all classes of archaeological artefact, including purely functional ones (ignoring the question of whether purely functional artefacts exist). The term morphology ("study of shapes", from the Greek) is more often used for this. Morphological analyses of many individual artefacts are used to construct typologies for different types of artefact, and by the technique of seriation a relative dating based on shape and style for a site or group of sites is achieved where scientific absolute dating techniques cannot be used, in particular where only stone, ceramic or metal artefacts or remains are available, which is often the case. That artefacts such as pottery very often survive only in fragments makes precise knowledge of morphology even more necessary, as it is often necessary to identify and date a piece of pottery from only a few sherds. In contrast to recent trends in academic art history, the succession of schools of archaeological theory in the


id: morphology-folkloristics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology_(folkloristics)-0.md
category: reference
title: Morphology (folkloristics)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology_(folkloristics)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:35.754379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: morphology-folkloristics-20260505-0
summary:
In folkloristics, morphology is the study of the structure of folklore and fairy tales. Some pioneering work in this field was begun in the nineteenth century, such as Marian Roalfe Cox's work on Cinderella, Cinderella: Three Hundred and Forty-Five Variants of Cinderella, Catskin and, Cap O' Rushes, Abstracted and Tabulated with a Discussion of Medieval Analogues and Notes. However, folkloristic morphology took on much more form in the twentieth century, driven by the work of two researchers and theorists: Russian scholar Vladimir Propp and Finnish folklorist Antti Aarne. Antti Aarne's theories, enlarged and expanded by American folklorist Stith Thompson in 1961 and by Hans-Jörg Uther in 2004, look at motifs rather than actions – for example, "a soldier makes a deal with the devil" or "a soldier marries the youngest of three sisters". More than 2500 folk and fairy tales have been cataloged under this taxonomy; the AaTh or Aarne–Thompson number is as well-known to folklorists as Francis James Child's identification of ballads are to scholars of folk songs. Vladimir Propp was a Russian formalist scholar. He criticized Aarne's work for ignoring what motifs did in a tale, and analysed the basic plot, or action, components of Russian folk tales


id: shape-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shape-0.md
category: reference
title: Shape
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shape
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:36.879662+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: shape-20260505-0
summary:
A shape is a graphical representation of an object's form or its external boundary, outline, or external surface. It is distinct from other object properties, such as color, texture, or material type. In geometry, shape excludes information about the object's position, size, orientation and chirality. A figure is a representation including both shape and size (as in, e.g., figure of the Earth). A plane shape or plane figure is constrained to lie on a plane, in contrast to solid 3D shapes. A two-dimensional shape or two-dimensional figure (also: 2D shape or 2D figure) may lie on a more general curved surface (a two-dimensional space). == Classification of simple shapes == Some simple shapes can be put into broad categories. For instance, polygons are classified according to their number of edges as triangles, quadrilaterals, pentagons, etc. Each of these is divided into smaller categories; triangles can be equilateral, isosceles, obtuse, acute, scalene, etc. while quadrilaterals can be rectangles, rhombi, trapezoids, squares, etc. Other common shapes are points, lines, planes, and conic sections such as ellipses, circles, and parabolas. Among the most common three-dimensional shapes are polyhedra, which are shapes with flat faces; ellipsoids, which are egg-shaped or sphere-shaped objects; cylinders; and


id: shape-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shape-1.md
category: reference
title: Shape
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shape
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:36.879662+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: shape-20260505-0
summary:
In this paper ‘shape’ is used in the vulgar sense, and means what one would normally expect it to mean. [...] We here define ‘shape’ informally as ‘all the geometrical information that remains when location, scale and rotational effects are filtered out from an object.’ Shapes of physical objects are equal if the subsets of space these objects occupy satisfy the definition above. In particular, the shape does not depend on the size and placement in space of the object. For instance, a "d" and a "p" have the same shape, as they can be perfectly superimposed if the "d" is translated to the right by a given distance, rotated upside down and magnified by a given factor (see Procrustes superimposition for details). However, a mirror image could be called a different shape. For instance, a "b" and a "p" have a different shape, at least when they are constrained to move within a two-dimensional space like the page on which they are written. Even though they have the same size, there's no way to perfectly superimpose them by translating and rotating them along the page. Similarly, within a three-dimensional space, a right hand and a left hand have a


id: shape-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shape-2.md
category: reference
title: Shape
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shape
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:36.879662+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: shape-20260505-0
summary:
p ( 1 − p ) − 1 = S ( u , v , w ) S ( v , w , u ) = u − w v − w = S ( w , v , u ) . {\displaystyle p(1-p)^{-1}=S(u,v,w)S(v,w,u)={\frac {u-w}{v-w}}=S(w,v,u).} These relations are "conversion rules" for shape of a triangle. The shape of a quadrilateral is associated with two complex numbers p, q. If the quadrilateral has vertices u, v, w, x, then p = S(u,v,w) and q = S(v,w,x). Artzy proves these propositions about quadrilateral shapes: If p = ( 1 − q ) − 1 , {\displaystyle p=(1-q)^{-1},} then the quadrilateral is a parallelogram. If a parallelogram has | arg p | = | arg q |, then it is a rhombus. When p = 1 + i and q = (1 + i)/2, then the quadrilateral is square. If p = r ( 1 − q − 1 ) {\displaystyle p=r(1-q^{-1})} and sgn r = sgn(Im p), then the quadrilateral is a trapezoid. A polygon ( z 1 , z 2 , . . . z n ) {\displaystyle (z_{1},z_{2},...z_{n})} has a shape defined by n − 2 complex numbers S (


id: urban-morphology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_morphology-0.md
category: reference
title: Urban morphology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_morphology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:38.085549+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: urban-morphology-20260505-0
summary:
Urban morphology is the study of the formation of human settlements and the process of their formation and transformation. The study seeks to understand the spatial structure and character of a metropolitan area, city, town or village by examining the patterns of its component parts and the ownership or control and occupation. Typically, analysis of physical form focuses on street pattern, lot (or, in the UK, plot) pattern and building pattern, sometimes referred to collectively as urban grain. Analysis of specific settlements is usually undertaken using cartographic sources and the process of development is deduced from comparison of historic maps. Special attention is given to how the physical form of a city changes over time and to how different cities compare to each other. Another significant part of this subfield deals with the study of the social forms which are expressed in the physical layout of a city, and, conversely, how physical form produces or reproduces various social forms. The essence of the idea of morphology was initially expressed in the writings of the great poet and philosopher Goethe (1790). However, the term as such was first used in bioscience. Recently it is being increasingly used in geography, geology, philology


id: urban-morphology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_morphology-1.md
category: reference
title: Urban morphology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_morphology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:38.085549+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: urban-morphology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Chicago School === As an urban-industrial city, Chicago's socio-economic problems were obvious and crying out to be studied in depth. Therefore, several urban sociologists and geographers belonging to the so-called Chicago School, such as W.I. Thomas (concerned with migration), Robert E Park and Ernest Burgess, attempted to analyse the morphology of Chicago in order to solve these problems. Burgess employed an ecological approach in placing emphasis on the relationship between organisms and their environment. He used similar biological factors used in explaining plant distribution and established a concentric-zonal theory which included a Central Business District (CBD), an area of transition (invaded by business and migrants), and area of upper class apartments and several commuter zones and suburbs on the edge of the city. === Morphogenetic School === The scientist Maitri Singhai and the mathematician Nikos Salingaros have created a new school of urban morphology based on morphogenesis and emergence. In The Nature of Order Alexander proposes that urban development is a computational process similar to that of cell growth in an organism, and that the unfolding of these processes produces the urban landscape and its typologies. Some urbanists have sought to transform this theory into a practical emergent urbanism.


id: soil-classification-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_classification-0.md
category: reference
title: Soil classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:39.637346+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: soil-classification-20260505-0
summary:
Soil classification deals with the systematic categorization of soils based on distinguishing characteristics as well as criteria that dictate choices in use. Soil Classification is used in a variety of disciplines such as soil science, engineering, and environmental management, to elevate soil properties and determine the appropriate land use. Classification systems group soils according to measurable characteristics such as texture, structure, mineral composition, and the formation process. These new frameworks are designed to support research and help with infrastructure planning. Some of these major systems include soil taxonomy developed by the United States Department of Agriculture as well as engineering-based systems used to assess soil stability and performance. Educational resources from institutions such as the University of Idaho emphasize that these systems provide standardized methods for comparing soils across regions and applications. == Overview == Soil classification is a dynamic subject, from the structure of the system, to the definitions of classes, to the application in the field. Soil classification can be approached from the perspective of soil as a material and soil as a resource. Inscriptions at the temple of Horus at Edfu outline a soil classification used by Tanen to determine what kind of temple to build at


id: soil-classification-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_classification-1.md
category: reference
title: Soil classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:39.637346+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: soil-classification-20260505-0
summary:
For soil resources, experience has shown that a natural system approach to classification, i.e. grouping soils by their intrinsic property (soil morphology), behaviour, or genesis, results in classes that can be interpreted for many diverse uses. Differing concepts of pedogenesis, and differences in the significance of morphological features to various land uses can affect the classification approach. Despite these differences, in a well-constructed system, classification criteria group similar concepts so that interpretations do not vary widely. This is in contrast to a technical system approach to soil classification, where soils are grouped according to their fitness for a specific use and their edaphic characteristics. Natural system approaches to soil classification, such as the French Soil Reference System (Référentiel pédologique français) are based on presumed soil genesis. Systems have developed, such as USDA soil taxonomy and the World Reference Base for Soil Resources, which use taxonomic criteria involving soil morphology and laboratory tests to inform and refine hierarchical classes. Another approach is numerical classification, also called ordination, where soil individuals are grouped by multivariate statistical methods such as cluster analysis. This produces natural groupings without requiring any inference about soil genesis. In soil survey, as practiced in the United States, soil


id: soil-classification-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_classification-2.md
category: reference
title: Soil classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:39.637346+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: soil-classification-20260505-0
summary:
== See also == AASHTO Soil Classification System Australian Soil Classification Canadian system of soil classification French soil classification FAO soil classification (1974–1998) International Committee on Anthropogenic Soils (ICOMANTH) Unified Soil Classification System USDA soil taxonomy World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB) (1998-) == References == == Further reading == === Current international system === Buol, S.W., Southard, R.J., Graham, R.C., and McDaniel, P.A. (2003). Soil Genesis and Classification, 5th Edition. Iowa State Press - Blackwell, Ames, IA. Driessen, P., Deckers, J., Spaargaren, O., & Nachtergaele, F. (Eds.). (2001). Lecture notes on the major soils of the world. Rome: FAO. W. Zech, P. Schad, G. Hintermaier-Erhard: Soils of the World. Springer, Berlin 2022. ISBN 978-3-540-30460-9 IUSS Working Group WRB: World Reference Base for Soil Resources, fourth edition. International Union of Soil Sciences, Vienna 2022. ISBN 979-8-9862451-1-9 ([1]). P. Schad: World Reference Base for Soil Resources - Its fourth edition and its history. In: Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science 186, 2023, S. 151–163. doi: 10.1002/jpln.202200417 ([2]). === Current national systems === Agriculture Canada Expert Committee on Soil Survey. (1987). The Canadian system of soil classification (2nd ed.). Ottawa: Canadian Government Publishing Centre. Avery, B. W. (1980). Soil classification


id: aashto-soil-classification-system-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AASHTO_Soil_Classification_System-0.md
category: reference
title: AASHTO Soil Classification System
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AASHTO_Soil_Classification_System
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:40.762171+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aashto-soil-classification-system-20260505-0
summary:
The AASHTO Soil Classification System was developed by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, and is used as a guide for the classification of soils and soil-aggregate mixtures for highway construction purposes. The classification system was first developed by Hogentogler and Terzaghi in 1929, but has been revised several times since. Plasticity index of A-7-5 subgroup is equal to or less than the LL - 30. Plasticity index of A-7-6 subgroup is greater than LL - 30. == References == == See also == Unified Soil Classification System


id: argillic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argillic-0.md
category: reference
title: Argillic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argillic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:42.024958+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: argillic-20260505-0
summary:
Argillic is a term used in the United States Department of Agriculture Soil taxonomy to describe a subsurface horizon categorized by clay-enrichment. It is analogous to the Argic horizon in the World Reference Base system of soil taxonomy used outside of the United States. The term "Argillic" comes from the Latin argilla, meaning clay. The term Argic used by the WRB system also comes from this same root. Clay accumulation occurs in the mineral soil through primarily illuviation and translocation of preexisting clays with some formation in-situ in the soil. The red color is caused by the formation of iron oxides which form under the same wet conditions as the clay accumulation occurs. == North American distribution and importance == According to a study conduct by James Bockheim at the University of Wisconsin-Madison in 2014, the argillic horizon is found in 44% of soil series across the United States. The argillic horizon is also important as starting point from which the kandic and natric horizons form, as well as commonly from which fragipans develop. The kandic is a argillic horizon in which the clays are primarily 1:1 silicate clays causing the soil to have a low cation exchange capacity, meaning


id: argillic-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argillic-1.md
category: reference
title: Argillic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argillic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:42.024958+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: argillic-20260505-0
summary:
Translocation by eluviation The eluviation (downward movement) of clay particles through the soil by physical means (ie. water movement). Where the clay particles originate is termed the "zone of eluviation" and the "zone of illuviation" is the part of the horizon in which the clay particles move to. The argillic horizon is synonymous with the zone of illuviation. Translocation by eolian (wind) processes Previously existing clays are transported into new environments through wind and accumulate on the surface. Weathering in-situ Chemical and physical weathering both cause the reduction of particles into clay sized pieces (smaller than 2 micrometers). Neoformation (synthesis in solution) Clay minerals are precipitated in solution or formed by the alteration of amorphous (non-crystalline) minerals. === Clay mineralogy === There are seven clay primary mineral groups, all of which are silicates. Within these, clays fall under a variety of geometries including tetrahedral, octahedral, cubic, and dodecahedral. These geometries are then layered with different minerals between them contributing to the mineralogical properties. The type of clay formed in the pedogenesis of argillic horizons is dependent on the initial mineral availability and diversity in the parent material, as well as the pH of the soil, and the Eh of the


id: polish-soil-classification-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Soil_Classification-0.md
category: reference
title: Polish Soil Classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Soil_Classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:43.199739+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: polish-soil-classification-20260505-0
summary:
The Polish Soil Classification (Polish: Systematyka gleb Polski) is a soil classification system used to describe, classify and organize the knowledge about soils in Poland. == Overview == Presented below the 5th edition of Polish Soil Classification was published by Soil Science Society of Poland in 2011 and was in use to 2019 when 6th edition of Polish Soil Classification was published. Previous ones were published in 1956, 1959, 1974 and 1989, and they, following Dokuchaiev's ideas, were relied mostly on the natural's criteria (quality) like soil forming processes and soil morphological features (4th edition was transient because diagnostic soil horizons appeared there). 5th edition of classification, where it was possible, was built on quantitative criteria, like quantitative described diagnostic horizons, diagnostic materials and diagnostic properties. Soil forming processes are not a part of classification but the relationship between the processes and their morphological effects was taken into account during creating differentiating criteria of diagnostic horizons, materials and properties. The classification derives much of international systems: USDA soil taxonomy (1999) and World Reference Base for Soil Resources - WRB (2006). Polish soil science intellectual tradition has always maintained a balance between genetical-geographic approach (typical for the Russian scientific school) and


id: polish-soil-classification-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Soil_Classification-1.md
category: reference
title: Polish Soil Classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Soil_Classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:43.199739+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: polish-soil-classification-20260505-0
summary:
== Genetical classification of soils (2011-2019) == Order 1. Initial soils (Polish: Gleby inicjalne; WRB: Leptosols; ST: Entisols) The order covers all soils where there is thick organic layer or humus horizon (< 10 cm) on solid rock (carbonate or not carbonate) or unconsolidated sediment (like sand, loam, loess). Initial soils can be found both in lowland areas and in mountains. Forming factor of soils from that order can be solid bedrock resistant to weathering, dynamic geomorphologic processes (like erosion) or fluvial accumulation. - Type 1.1 "Rocky initial soils" (Polish: Gleby inicjalne skaliste; WRB: Lithic Leptosol, Nudilithic Leptosol, Lithic Leptosol (Calcaric); ST: Lithic Udorthents, Lithic Haplrendolls) - Type 1.2 "Rubble initial soils" (Polish: Gleby inicjalne rumoszowe; WRB: Haplic Leptosol (Dystric), Leptic Regosol (Dystric), Haplic Leptosol (Calcaric); ST: Lithic Udorthents, Typic Udorthents, Lithic Udifolists) - Type 1.3 "Erosional initial soils" (Polish: Gleby inicjalne erozyjne; WRB: Haplic Regosol; ST: Typic Udorthents) - Type 1.4 "Accumulative initial soils" (Polish: Gleby inicjalne akumulacyjne; WRB: Haplic Fluvisol; ST: Typic Udifluvents) Order 2. Weakly developed soils (Polish: Gleby słabo ukształtowane; WRB: Leptosols, Regosols; ST: Entisols) Soils from that order are the next development stage after initial soils. Humus horizon is deeper and under it are weekly


id: polish-soil-classification-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Soil_Classification-2.md
category: reference
title: Polish Soil Classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Soil_Classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:43.199739+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: polish-soil-classification-20260505-0
summary:
- Type 10.1 "Peat fibric soils" (Polish: Gleby torfowe fibrowe; WRB: Fibric or Fibric Hemic or Limnic Fibric Histosol; ST: Typic or Hemic or Limnic Haplofibrists) - Type 10.2 "Peat hemic soils" (Polish: Gleby torfowe hemowe; WRB: Hemic or Sapric Hemic or Fibric Hemic or Limnic Hemic Histosol; ST: Typic or Sapric or Fibric or Limnic or Fluvaquentic or Terric Haplohemists) - Type 10.3 "Peat sapric soils" (Polish: Gleby torfowe saprowe; WRB: Sapric or Fibric Sapric or Hemic Sapric or Limnic Sapric Histosol; ST: Typic or Hemic or Limnic or Fluvaquentic or Terric Haplosaprists) - Type 10.4 "Organic detritus soils" (Polish: Gleby organiczne ściółkowe; WRB: Folic or Folic Leptic Histosol; ST: Typic or Lithic Udifolists) - Type 10.5 "Organic limnic soils" (Polish: Gleby organiczne limnowe; WRB: Limnic or Hemic Limnic Histosol; ST: Limnic Haplohemists) - Type 10.6 "Organic mucky soils" (Polish: Gleby organiczne murszowe; WRB: Fibric Sapric or Hemic Sapric or Sapric or Limnic Sapric Histosol (Drainic); ST: Muck Haplofibrists) Order 11. Anthropogenic soils (Polish: Gleby antropogeniczne; WRB: Anthrosols, Technosols; ST: Inceptisols - Anthrept) This order covers soils visibly changed by human activity, not only industrial and associated with urbanization but also connected with intensive agriculture. - Type 11.1 "Agriculture


id: unified-soil-classification-system-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified_Soil_Classification_System-0.md
category: reference
title: Unified Soil Classification System
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified_Soil_Classification_System
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:44.378927+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: unified-soil-classification-system-20260505-0
summary:
The Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) is a soil classification system used in engineering and geology to describe the texture and grain size of a soil. The classification system can be applied to most unconsolidated materials, and is represented by a two-letter symbol. Each letter is described below: If the soil has 5–12% by weight of fines passing a #200 sieve (5% < P#200 < 12%), both grain size distribution and plasticity have a significant effect on the engineering properties of the soil, and dual notation may be used for the group symbol. For example, GW-GM corresponds to "well-graded gravel with silt." If the soil has more than 15% by weight retained on a #4 sieve (R#4 > 15%), there is a significant amount of gravel, and the suffix "with gravel" may be added to the group name, but the group symbol does not change. For example, SP-SM could refer to "poorly graded SAND with silt" or "poorly graded SAND with silt and gravel." == Symbol chart == === ASTM D-2487 === == See also == AASHTO Soil Classification System AASHTO ASTM International USDA Soil Taxonomy (Soil classification for agricultural purposes) == References == Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes:


id: usda-soil-taxonomy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USDA_soil_taxonomy-0.md
category: reference
title: USDA soil taxonomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USDA_soil_taxonomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:45.566443+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: usda-soil-taxonomy-20260505-0
summary:
USDA soil taxonomy (ST), developed by the United States Department of Agriculture and the National Cooperative Soil Survey, provides an elaborate classification of soil types according to several parameters (most commonly their properties) and in several levels: Order, Suborder, Great Group, Subgroup, Family, and Series. The classification was originally developed by Guy Donald Smith, former director of the U.S. Department of Agriculture's soil survey investigations. == Discussion == A taxonomy is an arrangement in a systematic manner; the USDA soil taxonomy has six levels of classification. They are, from most general to specific: order, suborder, great group, subgroup, family and series. Soil properties that can be measured quantitatively are used in this classification system – they include: depth, moisture, temperature, texture, structure, cation exchange capacity, base saturation, clay mineralogy, organic matter content and salt content. There are 12 soil orders (the top hierarchical level) in soil taxonomy. The names of the orders end with the suffix -sol. The criteria for the different soil orders include properties that reflect major differences in the genesis of soils. The orders are: Alfisol – soils with aluminium and iron. They have horizons of clay accumulation, and form where there is enough moisture and warmth


id: usda-soil-taxonomy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USDA_soil_taxonomy-1.md
category: reference
title: USDA soil taxonomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USDA_soil_taxonomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:45.566443+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: usda-soil-taxonomy-20260505-0
summary:
The percentages listed above are for land area free of ice. "Soils of Mountains", which constitute the balance (11.6%), have a mixture of those listed above, or are classified as "Rugged Mountains" which have no soil. The above soil orders in sequence of increasing degree of development are Entisols, Inceptisols, Aridisols, Mollisols, Alfisols, Spodosols, Ultisols, and Oxisols. Histosols and Vertisols may appear in any of the above at any time during their development. The soil suborders within an order are differentiated on the basis of soil properties and horizons which depend on soil moisture and temperature. Forty-seven suborders are recognized in the United States. The soil great group category is a subdivision of a suborder in which the kind and sequence of soil horizons distinguish one soil from another. About 185 great groups are recognized in the United States. Horizons marked by clay, iron, humus and hard pans and soil features such as the expansion-contraction of clays (that produce self-mixing provided by clay), temperature, and marked quantities of various salts are used as distinguishing features. The great group categories are divided into three kinds of soil subgroups: typic, intergrade and extragrade. A typic subgroup represents the basic or 'typical' concept


id: usda-soil-taxonomy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USDA_soil_taxonomy-2.md
category: reference
title: USDA soil taxonomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USDA_soil_taxonomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:45.566443+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: usda-soil-taxonomy-20260505-0
summary:
Alfisols: Must have argillic, natric, or kandic horizon; high-to-medium base saturation; moderately weathered; commonly form under boreal or broadleaf forests; rich in iron and aluminum; common in humid areas, semi-tropics, and mediterranean climates; 9.6% of global and 14.5% of U.S. ice-free land. Andisols: Form from volcanic ejecta, dominated by allophane or Al-humic complexes; Must have andic soil properties: high in poorly crystalline Fe and Al minerals, high in phosphorus, low bulk density, and high proportions of glass and amorphous colloidal materials, such as allophane, imogolite and ferrihydrite; high organic matter content, sometimes melanic epipedon; 0.7% of global and 1.7% of U.S. ice-free land. Aridisols: Dry soil (i.e., must have aridic moisture regime); ochric epipedon is common; Sometimes argillic or natric horizon; must have some diagnostic subsurface horizon; commonly in deserts; 12.7% of global and 8.8% of U.S. ice-free land. Entisols: Least soil profile development; ochric epipedon is common; no B horizons; most common order by surface area (16.3% of global and 12.2% of U.S. ice-free land). Gelisols: Soils with permafrost within 100 cm or cryoturbation (frost churning) within 100 cm plus permafrost within 200 cm; commonly at high latitudes and elevations; 8.6% of global and 7.5% of U.S. ice-free land.


id: world-reference-base-for-soil-resources-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Reference_Base_for_Soil_Resources-0.md
category: reference
title: World Reference Base for Soil Resources
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Reference_Base_for_Soil_Resources
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:46.764025+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-reference-base-for-soil-resources-20260505-0
summary:
The World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB) is an international soil classification system for naming soils and creating legends for soil maps. The currently valid version is the fourth edition 2022. It is edited by a working group of the International Union of Soil Sciences (IUSS). == Background == === History === Since the 19th century, several countries developed national soil classification systems. During the 20th century, the need for an international soil classification system became more and more obvious. From 1971 to 1981, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and UNESCO published the Soil Map of the World, 10 volumes, scale 1 : 5 M). The Legend for this map, published in 1974 under the leadership of Rudi Dudal, became the FAO soil classification. Many ideas from national soil classification systems were brought together in this worldwide-applicable system, among them the idea of diagnostic horizons as established in the '7th approximation to the USDA soil taxonomy' from 1960. The next step was the Revised Legend of the Soil Map of the World, published in 1988. In 1982, the International Soil Science Society (ISSS; now: International Union of Soil Sciences, IUSS) established a working group named International Reference Base


id: world-reference-base-for-soil-resources-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Reference_Base_for_Soil_Resources-1.md
category: reference
title: World Reference Base for Soil Resources
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Reference_Base_for_Soil_Resources
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:46.764025+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-reference-base-for-soil-resources-20260505-0
summary:
Mineral material < 20% soil organic carbon Organic material ≥ 20% soil organic carbon Soil organic carbon organic carbon that does not meet the diagnostic criteria of artefacts. The classification comprises two levels: The first level has 32 Reference Soil Groups (RSGs). At the second level, for further differentiation a set of qualifiers is added to the name of the RSG. There are 202 qualifiers in total. For every RSG, there is a list of available qualifiers, which are subdivided into two types: Principal qualifiers are ranked and given in an order of importance. The ranking of the principal qualifiers reflects major subdivisions of the respective RSG or properties strongly influencing the soil’s functionality. Supplementary qualifiers describe additional characteristics and are not ranked. Qualifiers may be principal for some RSGs and supplementary for others. The names of the RSGs and the qualifiers start with capital letters. They must be given in English and must not be translated into any other language in order to guarantee that a certain soil has the same name all over the world. === Naming a soil === A key is used for allocating a soil to a certain RSG. In a defined sequence, the key


id: world-reference-base-for-soil-resources-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Reference_Base_for_Soil_Resources-2.md
category: reference
title: World Reference Base for Soil Resources
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Reference_Base_for_Soil_Resources
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:46.764025+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-reference-base-for-soil-resources-20260505-0
summary:
Chapter 1 reports on background and basics. It includes tables of the diagnostics and of the RSGs. The latter is given below. Chapter 2 provides the rules for naming soils and creating map legends. It starts with the definition of some general terms in WRB, like ‘fine earth’ and ‘whole soil’. It is highly recommended to read this short chapter before using the WRB. Chapter 3 presents the diagnostic horizons, properties and materials, each with a general description, the diagnostic criteria and some additional information. For the decision, whether a diagnostic is present or absent in a soil, only the diagnostic criteria are relevant. Chapter 4 provides the key to the RSGs and for every RSG a list with the available principal and supplementary qualifiers. Chapter 5 gives the definitions of the qualifiers. Chapter 6 provides the codes for the RSGs, the qualifiers and the specifiers and the rules for the sequence of the codes for naming soils and creating map legends. Chapter 7 is the list of references. The seven chapters are followed by six annexes: Annex 1 is a field guide. It provides all field characteristics (including their definitions) needed for WRB classification and some additional general field


id: world-reference-base-for-soil-resources-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Reference_Base_for_Soil_Resources-3.md
category: reference
title: World Reference Base for Soil Resources
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Reference_Base_for_Soil_Resources
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:08:46.764025+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-reference-base-for-soil-resources-20260505-0
summary:
argic horizon (clay-richer horizon) stagnic properties (in the clay-richer horizon) reducing conditions (in the clay-richer horizon) claric material (light colours in the lower part of the clay-poorer topsoil) albic horizon (the claric material is the result of a soil-forming process, here: downward migration of clay minerals and oxides) Question 2: To which RSG does the soil belong? We have to go through the key, RSG for RSG. This soil is not a Histosol, not an Anthrosol, not a Technosol etc. Finally, we end up with the Luvisol. This is the first RSG in the key, the criteria of which our soil completely fulfils. Question 3: Which qualifiers apply? From the list of the principal qualifiers, Stagnic (stagnic properties and reducing conditions) and Albic (light colours resulting from a soil-forming process) apply. Stagnic is found further up in the list. Therefore, the soil has to be named until now Albic Stagnic Luvisol. From the list of the supplementary qualifiers, Siltic (silty from 0 to 60 cm), Loamic (loamy from 60 cm downwards), Aric (ploughed), Cutanic (clay coatings), Differentic (the clay migration led to a significant difference in clay content), Endic (the argic horizon starts below 50 cm) and Ochric (relatively small


