# kb

id: list-of-measuring-instruments-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_measuring_instruments-4.md
category: reference
title: List of measuring instruments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_measuring_instruments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:33.241775+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-measuring-instruments-20260505-0
summary:
== Uncategorized, specialized, or generalized application == Actograph measures and records animal activity within an experimental chamber. Densitometer measures light transmission through processed photographic film or transparent material or light reflection from a reflective material. Force platform measures ground reaction force. Gauge (engineering) A highly precise measurement instrument, also usable to calibrate other instruments of the same kind. Often found in conjunction with defining or applying technical standards. Gradiometer any device that measures spatial variations of a physical quantity. For example, as done in gravity gradiometry. Parking meter measures time a vehicle is parked at a particular spot, usually with a fee. Postage meter measures postage used from a prepaid account. S meter measures the signal strength processed by a communications receiver. Sensor, hypernym for devices that measure with little interaction, typically used in technical applications. Spectroscope is an important tool used by physicists. SWR meter check the quality of the match between the antenna and the transmission line. Universal measuring machine measures geometric locations for inspecting tolerances. === Alphabetical listing === == See also == Category:Instrument-making corporations Data logger measuring devices History of measurement History of weights and measures Instrumentation List of measuring devices List of physical quantities List


id: list-of-microorganisms-tested-in-outer-space-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_microorganisms_tested_in_outer_space-0.md
category: reference
title: List of microorganisms tested in outer space
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_microorganisms_tested_in_outer_space
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:34.509670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-microorganisms-tested-in-outer-space-20260505-0
summary:
The survival of some microorganisms exposed to outer space has been studied using both simulated facilities and low Earth orbit exposures. Bacteria were some of the first organisms investigated, when in 1960 a Russian satellite carried Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus, and Enterobacter aerogenes into orbit. Many kinds of microorganisms have been selected for exposure experiments since, as listed in the table below. Experiments of the adaption of microbes in space have yielded unpredictable results. While sometimes the microorganism may weaken, they can also increase in their disease-causing potency. It is possible to classify these microorganisms into two groups, the human-borne and the extremophiles. Studying the human-borne microorganisms is significant for human welfare and future crewed missions in space, whilst the extremophiles are vital for studying the physiological requirements of survival in space. NASA has pointed out that normal adults have ten times as many microbial cells as human cells in their bodies. They are also nearly everywhere in the environment and, although normally invisible, can form slimy biofilms. Extremophiles have adapted to live in some of the most extreme environments on Earth. This includes hypersaline lakes, arid regions, deep sea, acidic sites, cold and dry polar regions and permafrost. The existence


id: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents-0.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific misconduct incidents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:35.678731+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific misconduct is a serious form of violation of the standard codes of scholarly conduct and ethical behavior in the publication of professional scientific research. A Lancet review on Handling of Scientific Misconduct in Scandinavian countries gave examples of policy definitions. In Denmark, scientific misconduct is defined as "intention[al] negligence leading to fabrication of the scientific message or a false credit or emphasis given to a scientist", and in Sweden as "intention[al] distortion of the research process by fabrication of data, text, hypothesis, or methods from another researcher's manuscript form or publication; or distortion of the research process in other ways." A 2009 systematic review and meta-analysis of survey data found that about 2% of scientists admitted to falsifying, fabricating, or modifying data at least once. Incidents should only be included in this list if the individuals or entities involved have their own Wikipedia articles, or in the absence of an article, where the misconduct incident is covered in multiple reliable sources.


id: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents-1.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific misconduct incidents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:35.678731+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-0
summary:
== Biology and biomedical sciences == Bharat Aggarwal (US), a former Ransom Horne, Jr. Distinguished Professor of Cancer Research at the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, resigned from his position after fraud was discovered in 65 papers published by him in the area of curcumin as a treatment for cancer. As of 2024 Aggarwal has had 30 of his research papers retracted, with 10 others having received an expression of concern and 17 others having been corrected. Anna Ahimastos (Australia) resigned from her position at Melbourne's Baker IDI Heart & Diabetes Institute in 2015 after admitting to fabricating data in a trial of the blood pressure drug ramipril that analyzed if ramipril could reduce pain in people with peripheral artery disease. As of 2025, Ahimastos has had nine of their research publications retracted. Elias Alsabti (Iraq, US), was a medical practitioner who posed as a biomedical researcher. He plagiarized as many as 60 papers in the field of cancer research, many with non-existent co-authors. Werner Bezwoda (South Africa), formerly of the University of Witwatersrand, admitted to scientific misconduct in trials on high-dose chemotherapy on breast cancer, stating that he had "committed a serious breach of scientific honesty and


id: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents-2.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific misconduct incidents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:35.678731+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-0
summary:
Many major trials of the drug ivermectin that claimed it could prevent COVID-19 were found to show signs of fraud and had "either obvious signs of fabrication or errors so critical they invalidate the study," according to one of the groups investigating the studies. For example, some studies were found to list patients who had never actually participated in the research, and others placed patients who were already statistically more likely to die in the placebo group while putting the healthier patients in the experimental group that received ivermectin. Studies that were found to contain legitimate research were generally inconclusive about the effects of ivermectin on COVID-19. He Jiankui (China), former associate professor with the Southern University of Science and Technology, was in 2019 sentenced to three years in prison and fined three million yuan (about US$430,000) for illegally carrying out human embryo gene-editing intended for reproduction. The case is called the He Jiankui affair. Woo-suk Hwang (Hwang Woo-suk) (South Korea), former Professor of Biotechnology at Seoul National University, was found by a University committee to have committed "deliberate fabrication" in his research on stem cells, and to have coerced female members of his research team to donate their eggs.


id: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents-3.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific misconduct incidents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:35.678731+00:00
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parent: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-0
summary:
Krishna Murthy (US), a protein crystallographer and former research associate professor at the University of Alabama at Birmingham, was found in 2009 by a University committee to be "solely responsible for ... fraudulent data" on protein structures published in nine papers. In 2018 the United States Office of Research Integrity placed a 10-year ban on Federal funding for Murthy. As of 2020 ten of Krishna Murthy's publications have been retracted, and two others have received an expression of concern. Haruko Obokata (Japan) formerly of RIKEN and Harvard University, falsified data in the widely publicized STAP cell fraud. As of 2021, Obokata has had four of her research publications retracted. Luk Van Parijs (US), Associate Professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) fabricated and falsified data in research papers, unpublished manuscripts, and grant applications. He was convicted in 2011 of making a false statement on a federal grant application. Parijs has had five research publications retracted. Milena Penkowa (Denmark), a neuroscientist and former professor at the Panum Institute of the University of Copenhagen, was in 2010 convicted of fraud and embezzlement of research funds, and in 2012 was found to have committed "deliberate scientific malpractice". In 2017 the University of


id: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents-4.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific misconduct incidents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:35.678731+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-0
summary:
Wakefield's claims of a link between the MMR vaccine, autism and inflammatory bowel disease have been reported in the British Medical Journal as "based not on bad science but on a deliberate fraud", and the 1998 paper originally presenting his theory was retracted in 2010 by The Lancet. Wakefield was unsuccessful in an attempt to sue detractors/critics for libel and defamation. Wakefield has had two papers retracted and one corrected. Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories fabricated research data to the extent that upon FDA analysis of 867 studies, 618 (71%) were deemed invalid, including many of which were used to gain regulatory approval for widely used household and industrial products. The company Surgisphere claimed to have hospital data which was used to support studies of the effectiveness of hydroxychloroquine in treating COVID-19. Papers in the Lancet and New England Journal of Medicine were retracted in June 2020 when the data was found to be implausible. The National Centre for Biological Sciences, one of India's top research institutes and part of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, retracted one of its breakthrough scientific papers in 2021 describing the discovery of iron-sensing RNA after its findings and images were found to be manipulated. Eliezer


id: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents-5.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific misconduct incidents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:35.678731+00:00
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parent: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-0
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== Chemistry == Leo Paquette (US), an Ohio State University professor, plagiarized sections from an unfunded NIH grant application for use in his own NIH grant application. He also plagiarized a NSF proposal for use in one of his scientific publications. Kenichiro Itami (Japan), Nagoya University professor, and other members of his laboratory committed scientific misconduct in the graphene nanoribbon fraud. As a result of that misconduct, in 2022 Itami and the other implicated lab members were banned from receiving research support from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science for at least three years. As of 2023, Itami has had three of his research publications retracted, one other paper has received an expression of concern, and one other paper has been corrected. Itami was held responsible, and the Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST) and the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS), which determine the allocation of government research funds, have stopped granting research funds as a penalty until the end of March 2025 from the university. Despite this, RIKEN, which is funded mainly by research fees from the government, hired Itami and obtained about 50 million yen in research funding. He pioneered a loophole that


id: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents-6.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific misconduct incidents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:35.678731+00:00
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parent: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-0
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== Philosophy == Magali Elise Roques (France), a philosopher and a chargé de recherche at the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) in Paris, in 2020 became the subject of academic plagiarism inquiries. Several of her journal publications were subsequently retracted, with the journal Vivarium publishing a detailed retraction notice. A CNRS investigating committee reported that although the allegations of plagiarism against Roques were unjustified, "the whole body of [Roques'] work in English [...] is seriously flawed by the regular presence of bad scholarly practices, by what might be called a sort of active negligence". As of 2023, Roques has had 13 of her published articles retracted. Martin William Francis Stone, an Irish philosopher formerly at the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, plagiarized in more than 40 publications. Peter Johannes Schulz, a philosopher working at the Institute of Communication and Health at the University of Lugano, had articles both in philosophy and communications retracted for plagiarism and failure to credit sources properly. After a minor sanction, he was reinstated by the university in 2017. Mahmoud Khatami, an Iranian philosopher at the University of Tehran, was subject to plagiarism accusations in 2014. A retraction for one article by Khatami due to plagiarism


id: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents-7.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific misconduct incidents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:35.678731+00:00
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parent: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-0
summary:
== Social sciences == Mart Bax (Netherlands), former professor of political anthropology at the Vrije Universiteit, committed multiple acts of scientific misconduct including data fabrication, with a 2020 article in Ethnologia Europaea characterizing Bax's misconduct as "incredible and appalling." Bax, who as of 2020 has had nine of his research publications retracted, was found in 2013 to have never published 61 of the papers he listed on his CV. Bruno Frey (Switzerland), an economist formerly at the University of Zurich, in 2010–11 committed multiple acts of self-plagiarism in articles about the Titanic disaster. Frey admitted to the self-plagiarism, terming the acts "grave mistake[s]" and "deplorable." Karl-Theodor zu Guttenberg (Germany), former Minister of Defence of Germany, resigned from his office because of plagiarism in his doctoral dissertation from the University of Bayreuth. The university, which had awarded Guttenberg's dissertation with summa cum laude distinction, revoked his Ph.D. title on 23 February 2011, and Guttenberg resigned in March. Michael LaCour (US), former graduate student in political science at UCLA, was the lead author of the 2014 article "When contact changes minds". Published in Science and making international headlines, the paper was later retracted because of numerous irregularities in the methodology and falsified


id: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents-8.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific misconduct incidents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:35.678731+00:00
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parent: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-0
summary:
== Other == Cistercian historian Louis Lekai called attention to "a major case of modern plagiarism" when in 1959 he proved that almost all of Louis Dubois' influential biography of Abbot Armand Jean de Rancé, published in 1867, was copied from an unpublished manuscript by Francois Armand Gervaise. In 2016 the scientific publisher Springer Nature retracted 58 papers from seven journals, authored mostly by Iran-based researchers, because the papers showed evidence of authorship manipulation, peer-review manipulation, and/or plagiarism. Ohio University in 2006 alleged more than three dozen cases of plagiarism in master's degree theses dating back 20 years in its mechanical engineering department. A former faculty member involved in the plagiarism cases, Jay S. Gunasekera, was removed from his position as department chair, had his title of "distinguished professor" rescinded, and in 2011 settled a lawsuit he had brought against the university. Another former faculty member implicated in the plagiarism cases, Bhavin Mehta, in 2012 lost a defamation suit he had brought against the university. 486 Chinese cancer researchers were found guilty of engaging in a fraudulent peer-review scheme by China's Ministry of Science and Technology. The investigation was initiated after the retraction of 107 papers published in Tumor Biology


id: list-of-multiple-discoveries-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries-0.md
category: reference
title: List of multiple discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:36.830416+00:00
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parent: list-of-multiple-discoveries-20260505-0
summary:
Historians and sociologists have remarked the occurrence, in science, of "multiple independent discovery". Robert K. Merton defined such "multiples" as instances in which similar discoveries are made by scientists working independently of each other. "Sometimes", writes Merton, "the discoveries are simultaneous or almost so; sometimes a scientist will make a new discovery which, unknown to him, somebody else has made years before." Commonly cited examples of multiple independent discovery are the 17th-century independent formulation of calculus by Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz; the 18th-century discovery of oxygen by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Joseph Priestley, Antoine Lavoisier and others; and the theory of the evolution of species, independently advanced in the 19th century by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace. Multiple independent discovery, however, is not limited to such famous historic instances. Merton believed that it is multiple discoveries, rather than unique ones, that represent the common pattern in science. Merton contrasted a "multiple" with a "singleton"—a discovery that has been made uniquely by a single scientist or group of scientists working together. The distinction may blur as science becomes increasingly collaborative. A distinction is drawn between a discovery and an invention, as discussed for example by Bolesław Prus. However, discoveries


id: list-of-multiple-discoveries-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries-1.md
category: reference
title: List of multiple discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:36.830416+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-multiple-discoveries-20260505-0
summary:
1730: Stirling numbers – James Stirling (1730) and Masanobu Saka (1782). 1740s: Platinum – Antonio de Ulloa and Charles Wood (both in the 1740s). 1745: Leyden Jar – Ewald Georg von Kleist (1745) and Pieter van Musschenbroek (1745–46). 1749: Lightning rod – Benjamin Franklin (1749) and Prokop Diviš (1754) (debated: Diviš's apparatus is assumed to have been more effective than Franklin's lightning rods in 1754, but was intended for a different purpose than lightning protection). 1756: Law of conservation of matter – discovered by Mikhail Lomonosov, 1756; and independently by Antoine Lavoisier, 1778. 1773: Oxygen – Carl Wilhelm Scheele (Uppsala, 1773), Joseph Priestley (Wiltshire, 1774). The term was coined by Antoine Lavoisier (1777). Michael Sendivogius (Polish: Michał Sędziwój; 1566–1636) is claimed as an earlier discoverer of oxygen. 1783: Black-hole theory – John Michell, in a 1783 paper in The Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, wrote: "If the semi-diameter of a sphere of the same density as the Sun in the proportion of five hundred to one, and by supposing light to be attracted by the same force in proportion to its [mass] with other bodies, all light emitted from such a body would be made to return towards it,


id: list-of-multiple-discoveries-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries-2.md
category: reference
title: List of multiple discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:36.830416+00:00
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parent: list-of-multiple-discoveries-20260505-0
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1805: In a treatise written in 1805 and published in 1866, Carl Friedrich Gauss describes an efficient algorithm to compute the discrete Fourier transform. James W. Cooley and John W. Tukey reinvented a similar algorithm in 1965. 1817: Cadmium – Friedrich Strohmeyer, K.S.L Hermann (both in 1817). 1817: Grotthuss–Draper law (aka the Principle of Photochemical Activation) – first proposed in 1817 by Theodor Grotthuss, then independently, in 1842, by John William Draper. The law states that only that light which is absorbed by a system can bring about a photochemical change. 1825: Bromine discovered by Carl Jacob Löwig; and independently, in 1826, by Antoine Jérôme Balard. 1828: Beryllium – Friedrich Wöhler, A.A.B. Bussy (1828). 1830: Non-Euclidean geometry (hyperbolic geometry) – Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky (1830), János Bolyai (1832); preceded by Gauss (unpublished result) c. 1805. 1831: Electromagnetic induction was discovered by Michael Faraday in England in 1831, and independently about the same time by Joseph Henry in the U.S. 1831: Chloroform – Samuel Guthrie in the United States (July 1831), and a few months later Eugène Soubeiran (France) and Justus von Liebig (Germany), all of them using variations of the haloform reaction. Dandelin–Gräffe method, aka Lobachevsky method – an algorithm for


id: list-of-multiple-discoveries-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries-3.md
category: reference
title: List of multiple discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:36.830416+00:00
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parent: list-of-multiple-discoveries-20260505-0
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E = mc2, though only Einstein provided the accepted interpretation – Henri Poincaré, 1900; Olinto De Pretto, 1903; Albert Einstein, 1905; Paul Langevin, 1906. 1902: Walter Sutton and Theodor Boveri independently proposed that the hereditary information is carried in the chromosomes. 1902: Richard Assmann and Léon Teisserenc de Bort independently discovered the stratosphere. 1904: Epinephrine synthesized independently by Friedrich Stolz and by Henry Drysdale Dakin. 1905: Brownian motion was independently explained by Albert Einstein (in one of his 1905 papers) and by Marian Smoluchowski in 1906. 1905: The Einstein Relation was revealed independently by William Sutherland in 1905, by Albert Einstein in 1905, and by Marian Smoluchowski in 1906. 1905: The chromosomal XY sex-determination system—that males have XY, and females XX, sex chromosomes—was discovered independently by Nettie Stevens, at Bryn Mawr College, and by Edmund Beecher Wilson at Columbia University. 1907: Lutetium discovered independently by French scientist Georges Urbain and by Austrian mineralogist Baron Carl Auer von Welsbach. 1907: Hilbert space representation theorem, also known as Riesz representation theorem, the mathematical justification of the Bra-ket notation in the theory of quantum mechanics – independently proved by Frigyes Riesz and Maurice René Fréchet. 1908: The Hardy–Weinberg principle is a principle of


id: list-of-multiple-discoveries-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries-4.md
category: reference
title: List of multiple discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:36.830416+00:00
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parent: list-of-multiple-discoveries-20260505-0
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It was originally proved in 1934 by Aleksandr Gelfond, and again independently in 1935 by Theodor Schneider. 1934: The Penrose triangle, also known as the "tribar", is an impossible object. It was first created by the Swedish artist Oscar Reutersvärd in 1934. The mathematician Roger Penrose independently devised and popularized it in the 1950s. 1936: In computer science, the concept of the "universal computing machine" (now generally called the "Turing Machine") was proposed by Alan Turing, but also independently by Emil Post, both in 1936. Similar approaches, also aiming to cover the concept of universal computing, were introduced by S.C. Kleene, Rózsa Péter, and Alonzo Church that same year. Also in 1936, Konrad Zuse tried to build a binary electrically driven mechanical calculator with limited programability; however, Zuse's machine was never fully functional. The later Atanasoff–Berry Computer ("ABC"), designed by John Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford Berry, was the first fully electronic digital computing device; while not programmable, it pioneered important elements of modern computing, including binary arithmetic and electronic switching elements, though its special-purpose nature and lack of a changeable, stored program distinguish it from modern computers. 1938: Benford's law, also known as the Newcomb–Benford law, the law of anomalous


id: list-of-multiple-discoveries-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries-5.md
category: reference
title: List of multiple discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:36.830416+00:00
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parent: list-of-multiple-discoveries-20260505-0
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1967: The affine scaling method for solving linear programming was discovered by Soviet mathematician I.I. Dikin in 1967. It went unnoticed in the West for two decades, until two groups of researchers in the U.S. reinvented it in 1985. 1968: Neutral theory of molecular evolution was introduced by a Japanese biologist, Motoo Kimura, in 1968, and independently by two American biologists, Jack Lester King and Thomas Hughes Jukes, in 1969. 1969: Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) structure was determined, and the hormone synthesized, independently by Andrew V. Schally and Roger Guillemin, who shared the 1977 Nobel Prize in Medicine. 1970: Howard Temin and David Baltimore independently discovered reverse transcriptase enzymes. The Knuth–Morris–Pratt string searching algorithm was developed by Donald Knuth and Vaughan Pratt and independently by J. H. Morris. 1971: The Cook–Levin theorem (also known as "Cook's theorem"), a result in computational complexity theory, was proven independently by Stephen Cook (1971 in the U.S.) and by Leonid Levin (1973 in the USSR). Levin was not aware of Cook's achievement because of communication difficulties between East and West during the Cold War. The other way round, Levin's work was not widely known in the West until around 1978. 1972: The Bohlen–Pierce scale, a


id: list-of-multiple-discoveries-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries-6.md
category: reference
title: List of multiple discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:36.830416+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-multiple-discoveries-20260505-0
summary:
== 21st century == 2001: four different authors published different implementations of a distributed hash table. The Super Kamiokande and SNOLAB collaborations, whose findings were published in 1998 and 2001 respectively, both proved that neutrinos have mass. As a result, the 2015 Nobel Prize in Physics was shared by Takaaki Kajita of Japan and Arthur B. McDonald of Canada. 1996: James Allison of MD Anderson Cancer Center at the University of Texas at Houston discovered a mechanism enabling cancer immunotherapy. In 2002 Tasuku Honjo of Kyoto University discovered another such mechanism. This outcome, which led to them sharing the 2018 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, has been described as follows: "Each independently discovered that our immune system is restrained from attacking tumors by molecules that function as 'brakes.' Releasing these brakes (or 'brake receptors') allows our body to powerfully combat cancer." 2014: Paul Erdős' conjecture about prime gaps was proved by Kevin Ford, Ben Green, Sergei Konyagin, and Terence Tao, working together, and independently by James Maynard. 2020: Half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Reinhard Genzel and Andrea Ghez, who each have led a group of astronomers focused since the early 1990s on a


id: list-of-neurological-research-methods-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_neurological_research_methods-0.md
category: reference
title: List of neurological research methods
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_neurological_research_methods
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:38.076510+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-neurological-research-methods-20260505-0
summary:
There are numerous types of research methods used when conducting neurological research, all with the purpose of trying to view the activity that occurs within the brain during a certain activity or behavior. The disciplines within which these methods are used is quite broad, ranging from psychology to neuroscience to biomedical engineering to sociology. The following is a list of neuroimaging methods: Electroencephalography (EEG) Quantitative electroencephalography (QEEG) Stereoelectroencephalography (SEEG) Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) Magnetoencephalography (MEG) Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) Positron emission tomography (PET) Single-unit recording Transcranial direct-current stimulation (TDCS) Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) == See also == neuroimaging functional neuroimaging


id: list-of-noise-topics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_noise_topics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of noise topics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_noise_topics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:39.350048+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-noise-topics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of noise topics. == Engineering and physics == == Environmental == == Noise reduction == == Music == == See also == DB drag racing List of environment topics == External links == Noboomers


id: list-of-otomies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_-otomies-0.md
category: reference
title: List of -otomies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_-otomies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:40.442170+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-otomies-20260505-0
summary:
The suffix '-otomy' is derived from Greek τόμος (-tómos) 'cutting, sharp, separate'. == Medical procedures == Amniotomy – An incision created to accelerate labor. Androtomy – Dissection of the human body. Bilateral cingulotomy – Psychosurgery, treatment for depression and addiction . Bronchotomy – A procedure that ensures there is an open airway between a patient's lung/s and the outside world. Clitoridotomy – Plastic surgery of the clitorial hood. Coeliotomy – A large incision through the abdominal wall to gain access into the abdominal cavity Colpotomy – Extraction of fluid from the rectouterine pouch through a needle. Cordotomy – Procedure that disables selected pain-conducting tracts in the spinal cord, in order to achieve loss of pain and temperature perception. Craniotomy – A bone flap is temporarily removed from the skull to access the brain. Cricothyrotomy – An incision made through the skin and cricothyroid membrane to establish a patent airway during certain life-threatening situations. Escharotomy – Procedure used to treat full-thickness (third-degree) circumferential burns. Episiotomy – Surgical incision of the perineum and the posterior vaginal wall. Fasciotomy – Surgical procedure where the fascia is cut to relieve tension or pressure commonly to treat the resulting loss of circulation to an area


id: outline-of-academic-disciplines-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_academic_disciplines-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of academic disciplines
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_academic_disciplines
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:41.611121+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-academic-disciplines-20260505-0
summary:
An academic discipline or academic field is a subdivision of knowledge that is taught and researched at the college or university level. Disciplines are defined (in part) and recognized by the academic journals in which research is published, and the learned societies and academic departments or faculties within colleges and universities to which their practitioners belong. Academic disciplines are conventionally divided into the humanities (including philosophy, languages, art and cultural studies), the scientific disciplines (such as physics, chemistry, and biology); and the formal sciences like mathematics and computer science. The social sciences are sometimes considered a fourth category. It is also known as a field of study, field of inquiry, research field and branch of knowledge. The different terms are used in different countries and fields. Individuals associated with academic disciplines are commonly referred to as experts or specialists. Others, who may have studied liberal arts or systems theory rather than concentrating in a specific academic discipline, are classified as generalists. The following outline provides an overview of and topical guide to academic disciplines. In each case, an entry at the highest level of the hierarchy (e.g., Humanities) is a group of broadly similar disciplines; an entry at the next


id: list-of-petawatt-lasers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_petawatt_lasers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of petawatt lasers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_petawatt_lasers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:42.777629+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-petawatt-lasers-20260505-0
summary:
This page contains a list of petawatt-level lasers in operation, under construction, or proposed. The list is compiled from existing academic reviews. A petawatt laser is typically defined as a laser system whose pulse energy divided by its pulse duration reaches an order of magnitude of 1015 W, or 1 petawatt. These high-power laser pulses are capable of driving a strong electromagnetic field, giving rise to a number of novel applications. For instance, focusing large numbers of petawatt level lasers on a target containing deuterium and tritium creates enough energy density to drive inertial confinement fusion. Another potential application is using strong electric fields from petawatt laser pulses to drive steep density gradient structures in a plasma, which then creates field gradients capable of accelerating particles in a much shorter distance than linac; such concept is known as laser wakefield acceleration. In addition, as the laser pulse itself reaches extremely high field intensity, interaction of the high-energy particle beam with a petawatt laser pulse can achieve interactions with intensity beyond the Schwinger limit, enabling possible observation of effects such as vacuum polarization and Breit-Wheeler process. Generation of a petawatt laser pulse requires the pulse duration to be extremely short: to


id: list-of-polyurethane-applications-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyurethane_applications-0.md
category: reference
title: List of polyurethane applications
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyurethane_applications
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:47.586575+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-polyurethane-applications-20260505-0
summary:
Polyurethane products have many uses. Over three quarters of the global consumption of polyurethane products is in the form of foams, with flexible and rigid types being roughly equal in market size. In both cases, the foam is usually behind other materials: flexible foams are behind upholstery fabrics in commercial and domestic furniture; rigid foams are between metal, or plastic walls/sheets of most refrigerators and freezers, or other surface materials in the case of thermal insulation panels in the construction sector. Its use in garments is growing: for example, in lining the cups of brassieres. Polyurethane is also used for moldings which include door frames, columns, balusters, window headers, pediments, medallions and rosettes. Polyurethane formulations cover an extremely wide range of stiffness, hardness, and densities. These materials include: Low-density flexible foam used in upholstery, bedding, automotive and truck seating, and novel inorganic plant substrates for roof or wall gardens Low density elastomers used in footwear Hard solid plastics used as electronic instrument bezels and structural parts Flexible plastics used as straps and bands Cast and injection molded components for various markets – i.e., agriculture, military, automotive, industrial, etc. Polyurethane foam is widely used in high resiliency flexible foam seating, rigid


id: list-of-polyurethane-applications-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyurethane_applications-1.md
category: reference
title: List of polyurethane applications
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyurethane_applications
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:47.586575+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-polyurethane-applications-20260505-0
summary:
== Filling of spaces and cavities == Two binary liquids, one of which is a polyurethane (either T6 or 16), when mixed and aerated, expand into a hard, space-filling aerosolid. === Construction sealants and firestopping === Approved polyurethane sealants (which is different from foam) are available in one, two and three part systems, and in cartridges, buckets or drums. Polyurethane sealants are used to fill gaps thereby preventing air and water leakage. They are also used in conjunction with inorganic insulation, such as rockwool or ceramic fibres, for firestopping. Firestops can thwart smoke and hose-stream passage. The Browns Ferry Nuclear Power Plant used flammable polyurethane foam as a firestop, which was accidentally ignited and caused a major fire. == Water vessels == Polyurethane foam is widely used in the marine world in many applications: === Inflatable boats === Some raft manufacturers use urethane for the construction of inflatable boats. AIRE uses urethane membrane material as an air-retentive bladder inside a PVC shell, whereas SOTAR uses urethane membrane materials as a coating on some boats. Maravia uses a liquid urethane material which is spray-coated over PVC to enhance air retention and increase abrasion resistance. === Surfboards === Some surfboards are made


id: list-of-polyurethane-applications-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyurethane_applications-2.md
category: reference
title: List of polyurethane applications
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyurethane_applications
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:47.586575+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-polyurethane-applications-20260505-0
summary:
Polyurethane is also used in making solid tires and wheels. Industrial applications include forklift drive and load wheels, grocery and industrial carts, and roller coaster wheels. Modern roller blading and skateboarding became economical only with the introduction of tough, abrasion-resistant polyurethane parts, helping to usher in the popularity of what had once been an obscure 1960s craze. The durability of polyurethane wheels allowed the range of tricks and stunts performed on skateboards to expand considerably. Polyurethane is also used to make small equipment tires in the lawn and garden industry for wheelbarrows, hand trucks, lawn mowers, carts, etc. They provide the bounce and feel of an air-filled tire with the benefit of no punctures. They weigh about the same as air-filled tires as well, even though they are solid polyurethane all the way through. Other constructions have been developed for pneumatic tires, and microcellular foam variants are widely used in tires on wheelchairs, bicycles and other uses. These latter foam types are also widely encountered in car steering wheels and other interior and exterior automotive parts, including bumpers and fenders. == Automotive parts == Polyurethane usage has increased over the past twenty years in the automotive industry. It is being


id: list-of-polyurethane-applications-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyurethane_applications-3.md
category: reference
title: List of polyurethane applications
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyurethane_applications
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:47.586575+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-polyurethane-applications-20260505-0
summary:
Mining and mineral processing Aggregate Transportation Concrete Paper processing Power Inflatable boat manufacture Polyurethane is also used in the concrete construction industry to create formliners. Polyurethane formliners serves as a mold for concrete, creating a variety of textures and art. == Solid-fuel rockets == Polyurethane is used together with Ammonium perchlorate as solid fuel in the submarine launched Polaris missiles. == Body armor == Polyurethane urea elastomers have been investigated by researchers from the U.S. Army Research Laboratory and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for potential material for helmets, face shields, and ballistic vests for soldiers. == Inorganic plant substrates == Sheet and flaked semi-open cell hydrophilic polyurethane foams have found application in roof gardens and vertical green walls with commercial products now emerging on the market. Semi-open cell polyurethane foams substrates have much lower density and far greater water holding capacities than soil substrates. The semi-open cell structure facilitate the required plant root attachment for vertical wall gardens. Reductions in weight reduce building/wall supporting structure requirements, whilst increased water holding capacity reduces plant watering requirements. == Concrete raising == Closed cell polymers have been used to raise and support concrete roadways and bridge approaches since 1989. Originally developed in


id: list-of-popular-science-mass-media-outlets-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_popular_science_mass_media_outlets-0.md
category: reference
title: List of popular science mass media outlets
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_popular_science_mass_media_outlets
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:48.740367+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-popular-science-mass-media-outlets-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of popular science mass media outlets. == See also == List of science magazines List of science books == References ==


id: list-of-science-and-technology-awards-for-women-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_and_technology_awards_for_women-0.md
category: reference
title: List of science and technology awards for women
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_and_technology_awards_for_women
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:49.819321+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-science-and-technology-awards-for-women-20260505-0
summary:
This list of science and technology awards for women is an index to articles about notable awards made to women for work in science and the STEM (Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) fields generally. It includes awards for astronomy, space and atmospheric science; biology and medicine; chemistry; engineering; mathematics; neuroscience; physics; technology; and general or multiple fields. == Astronomy, space, atmospheric science == Annie Jump Cannon Award in Astronomy – annual award for outstanding contributions to astronomy by a woman within five years of earning a doctorate degree Peter B. Wagner Memorial Award for Women in Atmospheric Sciences – awarded annually since 1998, based on paper completion, to a woman studying for a Masters or PhD in atmospheric science at a university in the United States == Biology and medicine == Elizabeth Blackwell Medal, given by the American Medical Women's Association to a woman physician "who has made the most outstanding contributions to the cause of women in the field of medicine" Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology (FASEB) Excellence in Science Award Group on Women in Medicine and Science Leadership Awards, Association of American Medical Colleges Margaret Oakley Dayhoff Award from the Biophysical Society, Rockville, Maryland – given


id: lists-of-problems-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_problems-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of problems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_problems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:50.990677+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-problems-20260505-0
summary:
The following articles contain lists of problems. This includes unsolved problems, which may refer to several notable conjectures or open problems in various academic fields: == Natural sciences, engineering and medicine == List of unsolved problems in astronomy List of unsolved problems in biology List of unsolved problems in chemistry List of unsolved problems in geoscience Unsolved problems in medicine List of unsolved problems in neuroscience List of unsolved problems in physics == Mathematics == List of unsolved problems in mathematics List of undecidable problems List of NP-complete problems List of PSPACE-complete problems List of problems in loop theory and quasigroup theory == Social sciences, statistics, and information sciences == List of unsolved problems in economics List of unsolved problems in fair division List of unsolved problems in statistics List of unsolved problems in computer science List of unsolved problems in information theory == Other == List of philosophical problems List of unsolved deaths == See also == Cold case List of ciphertexts List of hypothetical technologies List of paradoxes Unknowability


id: list-of-prolific-inventors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_prolific_inventors-0.md
category: reference
title: List of prolific inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_prolific_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:52.205674+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-prolific-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
The 100 known most prolific inventors based on worldwide utility patents are shown in the following table. While in many cases this is the number of utility patents granted by the United States Patent and Trademark Office, it may include utility patents granted by other countries, as noted by the source references for an inventor. == Prolific Inventors == This table is usually updated every Tuesday, and is current as of April 28, 2026. The columns are defined as follows: Inventor: The name of the inventor. Pats: The number of utility patents that have been issued. Only utility patents (or the international equivalent) are listed, as a utility patent is a patent for an invention. Not all patents are for inventions. Other patent types include: design patents for the ornamental design of an object; plant patents for plant varieties; and reissue patents, where a correction is made to an already granted patent. This list does not include patent applications (patents pending) as there is no guarantee that a patent application actually describes a novel invention until the patent is granted. Fams: The number of patent families, which in USPTO data includes an original or continuation-in-part patent by itself or with


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-0.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:53.539791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of topics that have, either currently or in the past, been characterized as pseudoscience by academics or researchers. Detailed discussion of these topics may be found on their main pages. Criticism of pseudoscience, generally by the scientific community or skeptical organizations, involves critiques of the logical, methodological, or rhetorical bases of the topic in question. Though some of the listed topics continue to be investigated scientifically like psychoanalysis, others were only subject to scientific research in the past and today are considered refuted, but resurrected in a pseudoscientific fashion. Other ideas presented here are entirely non-scientific, but have in one way or another impinged on scientific domains or practices. Many adherents or practitioners of the topics listed here dispute their characterization as pseudoscience. Each section here summarizes the alleged pseudoscientific aspects of that topic. == Physical sciences == === Astronomy and space sciences === 2012 phenomenon – a range of eschatological beliefs that cataclysmic or otherwise transformative events would occur on or around 21 December 2012. This date was regarded as the end-date of a 5,126-year-long cycle in the Mesoamerican Long Count calendar and as such, festivities to commemorate the date took place on 21 December


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-1.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:53.539791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Earth sciences === Megalithic geometry or 366 geometry – posits the existence of an Earth-based geometry dating back to at least 3500 BCE and the possibility that such a system is still in use in modern Freemasonry. According to proponents, megalithic civilizations in Britain and Brittany had advanced knowledge of geometry and the size of Earth. The megalithic yard is correlated to the polar circumference of Earth using a circle divided into 366 degrees. The Bermuda Triangle – a region of the Atlantic Ocean that lies between Bermuda, Puerto Rico and (in its most popular version) Florida. Ship and aircraft disasters and disappearances perceived as frequent in this area have led to the circulation of stories of unusual natural phenomena, paranormal encounters and interactions with extraterrestrials. Climate change denial – involves denial, dismissal, unwarranted doubt or contrarian views which depart from the scientific consensus on climate change, including the extent to which it is caused by humans, its impacts on nature and human society, or the potential of adaptation to global warming by human actions. Flood geology – creationist form of geology that advocates most of the geologic features on Earth are explainable by a global flood. The Hollow


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-2.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:53.539791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Agriculture === Lysenkoism, or Lysenko-Michurinism – was a political campaign against genetics and science-based agriculture conducted by Trofim Lysenko, his followers and Soviet authorities. Lysenko served as the director of the Soviet Union's Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences. Lysenkoism began in the late 1920s and formally ended in 1964. The pseudoscientific ideas of Lysenkoism built on Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's concepts of the heritability of acquired characteristics. Lysenko's theory rejected Gregor Mendel's theory of inheritance and the concept of the "gene"; it departed from Darwinian evolutionary theory by rejecting natural selection, viewing that concept as being incompatible with Marxist ideology. Biodynamic agriculture – method of organic farming that treats farms as unified and individual organisms. Biodynamics uses a calendar which has been characterized as astrological. The substances and composts used by biodynamicists have been described as unconventional and homeopathic. For example, field mice are countered by deploying ashes prepared from field mice skin when Venus is in the Scorpius constellation. No difference in beneficial outcomes has been scientifically established between certified biodynamic agricultural techniques and similar organic and integrated farming practices. Biodynamic agriculture lacks strong scientific evidence for its efficacy and has been labeled a pseudoscience because of its overreliance


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-3.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:53.539791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
The abortion–breast cancer hypothesis posits that having an induced abortion can increase the risk of breast cancer. This hypothesis is at odds with mainstream scientific opinion and is rejected by major medical professional organizations. Access Consciousness is an alternative medicine technique similar to a combination of phrenology, reiki, energy therapies and therapeutic touch, where health and wellness can be improved by touching the 32 "Energy Bars" on a person's head. Acupuncture – use of fine needles to stimulate acupuncture points and balance the flow of qi. There is no known anatomical or histological basis for the existence of acupuncture points or meridians and acupuncture is regarded as an alternative medical procedure. Some acupuncturists regard them as functional rather than structural entities, useful in guiding evaluation and care of patients. Acupuncture has been the subject of active scientific research since the late 20th century and its effects and application remain controversial among medical researchers and clinicians. Some scholarly reviews conclude that acupuncture's effects are mainly attributable to the placebo effect and others find likelihood of efficacy for particular conditions. Dry needling is the therapeutic insertion of fine needles without regard to traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and is similarly controversial. Acupressure is


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-4.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:53.539791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
There is disputed evidence that it may be effective in combating postoperative nausea and vomiting. Auriculotherapy (also auricular therapy, ear acupuncture, and auriculoacupuncture) is a form of alternative medicine based on the idea that the ear is a micro-system which reflects the entire body, represented on the auricle, the outer portion of the ear. Conditions affecting the physical, mental or emotional health of the patient are assumed to be treatable by stimulation of the surface of the ear exclusively. Similar mappings are used in many areas of the body, including the practices of reflexology and iridology. These mappings are not based on or supported by any medical or scientific evidence and are therefore considered to be pseudoscience. Autistic enterocolitis is a nonexistent medical condition proposed by discredited British gastroenterologist Andrew Wakefield when he suggested a link between a number of common clinical symptoms and signs which he contended were distinctive to autism. The existence of such an enterocolitis has been dismissed by experts as having "not been established". Wakefield's now-retracted and fraudulent report used inadequate controls and suppressed negative findings and multiple attempts to replicate his results have been unsuccessful. Reviews in the medical literature have found no link between


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-5.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:53.539791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Chromotherapy, sometimes called color therapy, colorology or cromatherapy, is an alternative medicine method which is considered pseudoscience. Chromotherapists claim to be able to use light in the form of color to balance "energy" lacking from a person's body, whether it be on physical, emotional, spiritual, or mental levels. Color therapy is distinct from other types of light therapy, such as neonatal jaundice treatment and blood irradiation therapy, which is a scientifically accepted medical treatment for a number of conditions, and from photobiology, the scientific study of the effects of light on living organisms. French skeptic and lighting physicist Sébastien Point considers LED lamps at domestic radiance to be safe in normal use for the general population; he also pointed out the risk of overexposure to light from LEDs for practices like chromotherapy, when duration and time exposure are not under control. Chronic Lyme disease (not to be confused with Lyme disease) is a generally rejected diagnosis that encompasses "a broad array of illnesses or symptom complexes for which there is no reproducible or convincing scientific evidence of any relationship to Borrelia burgdorferi infection." Despite numerous studies, there is no clinical evidence that "chronic" Lyme disease is caused by a persistent


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-6.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:53.539791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
The field has been compared to pseudoscience due to irreproducible or contradictory findings, exaggerated claims of usefulness and lack of high quality research protocols. Ear candling, also called ear coning or thermal-auricular therapy, is a pseudoscientific alternative medicine practice claimed to improve general health and well-being by lighting one end of a hollow candle and placing the other end in the ear canal. Medical research has shown that the practice is both dangerous and ineffective and does not functionally remove earwax or toxicants, despite product design contributing to that impression.


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-7.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:53.539791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Earthing therapy or grounding is a therapy that is claimed to ease pain, provide a better night's sleep, and assist with symptoms of inflammation by being in direct physical contact with the ground or a device connected to electrical ground. Practitioners claim that Earth has an excess of electrons which people are missing due to insulating shoes and ground cover. Being in electrical contact with Earth is claimed to provide the body with those excess electrons, which then act as antioxidants. A 2012 systematic review study showed inconclusive results related to methodological issues across the literature. Subsequently, a 2017 systematic review of the benefits of spending time in forests demonstrated positive health effects, but not enough to generate clinical practice guidelines or demonstrate causality. Electrohomeopathy (or Mattei cancer cure) is a derivative of homeopathy invented in the 19th century by Count Cesare Mattei. The name is derived from a combination of electro (referring to an electric bio-energy content supposedly extracted from plants and of therapeutic value, rather than electricity in its conventional sense) and homeopathy (referring to an alternative medicinal philosophy developed by Samuel Hahnemann in the 18th century). Electrohomeopathy has been defined as the combination of electrical devices and


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-8.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:53.539791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Systematic reviews of clinical trials of Bach flower solutions have found no efficacy beyond a placebo effect. Iridology – means of medical diagnosis which proponents believe can identify and diagnose health problems through close examination of the markings and patterns of the iris. Practitioners divide the iris into 80–90 zones, each of which is connected to a particular body region or organ. This connection has not been scientifically validated and disorder detection is neither selective nor specific. Because iris texture is a phenotypical feature which develops during gestation and remains unchanged after birth (which makes the iris useful for Biometrics), iridology is all but impossible. Jilly Juice – a potentially dangerous fermented drink that has been claimed to treat a variety of medical conditions. Leaky gut syndrome – in alternative medicine, a proposed condition caused by the passage of harmful substances outward through the gut wall. It has been proposed as the cause of many conditions, including multiple sclerosis and autism, a claim which has been called pseudoscientific. According to the UK National Health Service, the theory is vague and unproven. Some skeptics and scientists say that the marketing of treatments for leaky gut syndrome is either misguided or an


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-9.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:53.539791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Radionics – means of medical diagnosis and therapy which proponents believe can diagnose and remedy health problems using various frequencies in a putative energy field coupled to the practitioner's electronic device. The first such "black box" devices were designed and promoted by Albert Abrams and were definitively proven useless by an independent investigation commissioned by Scientific American in 1924. The internal circuitry of radionics devices is often obfuscated and irrelevant, leading proponents to conjecture dowsing and ESP as operating principles. Similar devices continue to be marketed under various names, though none is approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration; there is no scientific evidence for the efficacy or underlying premise of radionics devices. The radionics of Albert Abrams and his intellectual descendants should not be confused with similarly named reputable and legitimate companies, products, or medical treatments such as radiotherapy or radiofrequency ablation. Reiki is a form of alternative medicine called energy healing. Reiki practitioners use a technique called palm healing or hands-on healing through which a "universal energy" is said to be transferred through the palms of the practitioner to the patient in order to encourage emotional or physical healing. Reiki is a pseudoscience, and is used as


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-10.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:53.539791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Research concerning qigong has been conducted for a wide range of medical conditions, including hypertension, pain and cancer, and with respect to quality of life. Most research concerning health benefits of qigong has been of poor quality, such that it would be unwise to draw firm conclusions at this stage. Zang-fu – concept of organs as functional yin and yang entities for the storage and manipulation of qi. These organs are not based in anatomy. Tomatis Method A type of auditory integration training devised by Alfred A. Tomatis and promoted, without supporting evidence, as being of benefit to people with autism. Urine therapy – drinking either one's own undiluted urine or homeopathic potions of urine for treatment of a wide variety of diseases is based on pseudoscience. Promotion of a link between autism and vaccines, in which the vaccines are accused of causing autism-spectrum conditions, triggering them, or aggravating them, has been characterized as pseudoscience. Many epidemiological studies have reported no association between either the MMR vaccine and autism, or thimerosal-containing vaccines and autism. Consequently, the Institute of Medicine has concluded that there is no causal link between either of these varieties of vaccines and autism. Similarly, "vaccine overload", a


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-11.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:53.539791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Technology === 5G conspiracies and 5G causes coronavirus theories – theory proposing that 5G causes health issues, including COVID-19. == Social sciences == === History === Christ myth theory – A fringe theory that proposes that the historical Jesus did not exist in any capacity whatsoever. While the divinity of Jesus is a matter of religious and philosophical rather than historical debate, Christian and non-Christian scholars of antiquity universally agree that Jesus of Nazareth was a Galilean Jew who lived in the first century, was baptized, and later crucified by Roman authorities. This is based on sources written by historians, scholars, and politicians who lived during the time of Christ. Holocaust denial – Historical revisionist movements associated with Holocaust denial have employed pseudoscientific evidence and conspiracy theories published in intradiegetic pseudo-academic journals and presented at fringe conferences (e.g. misconstruing cyanide residue studies, claiming despite all evidence to the contrary that gas chambers were built after the war). Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry – A fringe theory that postulates that Ashkenazi Jews were primarily, or to a large extent, descended from Khazars, a multi-ethnic conglomerate of mostly Turkic peoples who formed a semi-nomadic khanate in and around the northern and


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-12.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:53.539791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Psychology === Attachment therapy – common name for a set of potentially fatal clinical interventions and parenting techniques aimed at controlling aggressive, disobedient, or unaffectionate children using "restraint and physical and psychological abuse to seek their desired results." (The term "attachment therapy" may sometimes be used loosely to refer to mainstream approaches based on attachment theory, usually outside the US where the pseudoscientific form of attachment therapy is less known.) Probably the most common form is holding therapy, in which the child is restrained by adults for the purpose of supposed cathartic release of suppressed rage and regression. Perhaps the most extreme, but much less common, is "rebirthing", in which the child is wrapped tightly in a blanket and then made to simulate emergence from a birth canal. This is done by encouraging the child to struggle and pushing and squeezing them to mimic contractions. Despite the practice's name, it is not based on traditional attachment theory and shares no principles of mainstream developmental psychology research. In 2006, it was the subject of an almost entirely critical Taskforce Report commissioned by the American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children (APSAC). Conversion therapy – sometimes called reparative therapy, seeks


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-13.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:53.539791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
The Center for Applications of Psychological Type claims that the MBTI is scientifically supported, but most of the research on it is done through its own journal, Journal of Psychological Type, raising questions of bias. Results are said to follow the Barnum effect. Neuro-linguistic programming – an approach to communication, personal development, and psychotherapy created in the 1970s. The title refers to a stated connection between the neurological processes ("neuro"), language ("linguistic") and behavioral patterns that have been learned through experience ("programming") and can be organized to achieve specific goals in life. According to certain neuroscientists psychologists and linguists, NLP is unsupported by current scientific evidence, and uses incorrect and misleading terms and concepts. Reviews of empirical research on NLP indicate that NLP contains numerous factual errors, and has failed to produce reliable results for the claims for effectiveness made by NLP's originators and proponents. According to Devilly, NLP is no longer as prevalent as it was in the 1970s and 1980s. Criticisms go beyond the lack of empirical evidence for effectiveness; critics say that NLP exhibits pseudoscientific characteristics, title, concepts and terminology. NLP is used as an example of pseudoscience for facilitating the teaching of scientific literacy at the


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-14.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:53.539791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Racial theories === Scientific racism – claim that scientific evidence shows the inferiority or superiority of certain races. Aryanism – the claim that there is a distinct "Aryan race" that is superior to other putative races was an important tenet of Nazism and "the basis of the German government policy of exterminating Jews, Gypsies, and other 'non-Aryans.'" Drapetomania was a conjectural mental illness that, in 1851, American physician Samuel A. Cartwright hypothesized as the cause of enslaved Africans fleeing captivity. It has since been debunked as pseudoscience and part of the edifice of scientific racism. Melanin theory – belief founded in the distortion of known physical properties of melanin, a natural polymer, that posits the inherent superiority of dark-skinned people and the essential inhumanity and inferiority of light-skinned people. Turkish History Thesis – the belief that Turks from Central Asia migrated and brought civilization to China, India, the Middle East, and Europe. Eugenics – As a movement, eugenics was associated with pseudoscience including pseudoscientific journals and professional societies. This is to be contrasted with the common and scientifically accepted practice of selective breeding. === Sociology === Alpha and beta male – pseudoscientific terms for men derived from alpha and


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-15.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:53.539791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Animal mutilations – cases of animals, primarily domestic livestock, with seemingly inexplicable wounds. These wounds have been said to be caused by extraterrestrials, cults, covert government organizations, or cryptids such as el chupacabra, when in fact most such cases were found to be caused by natural predation. An aura or human energy field is, according to New Age beliefs, a colored emanation said to enclose a human body or any animal or object. In some esoteric positions, the aura is described as a subtle body. Psychics and holistic medicine practitioners often claim to have the ability to see the size, color and type of vibration of an aura. In New Age alternative medicine, the human aura is seen as a hidden anatomy that affects the health of a client, and is often understood to be composed of centers of vital force called chakra. Such claims are not supported by scientific evidence and are pseudoscience. When tested under controlled experiments, the ability to see auras has not been shown to exist. Channeling – communication of information to or through a person allegedly from a spirit or other paranormal entity. Crop circles – geometric designs of crushed or knocked-over crops created in


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-16.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:53.539791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Affirmative prayer is a form of prayer or a metaphysical technique that is focused on a positive outcome, rather than a negative situation. For instance, a person who is experiencing some form of illness would focus the prayer on the desired state of perfect health and affirm this desired intention "as if already happened" rather than identifying the illness and then asking God for help to eliminate it. William James described affirmative prayer as an element of the American metaphysical healing movement that he called the "mind-cure"; he described it as the United States' "only decidedly original contribution to the systemic philosophy of life." What sets affirmative prayer apart from secular affirmations of the autosuggestion type taught by the 19th century self-help author Émile Coué (whose most famous affirmation was "Every day in every way, I am getting better and better") is that affirmative prayer addresses the practitioner to God, the Divine, the Creative Mind, emphasizing the seemingly practical aspects of religious belief. Christian Science is generally considered a Christian new religious movement; however, some have called it "pseudoscience" because its founder, Mary Baker Eddy, used "science" in its name, and because of its former stance against medical science. Also,


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-17
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-17.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:53.539791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Scientology === Dianetics, a therapeutic technique promoted by Scientology, purports to treat a hypothetical reactive mind. There is no scientific evidence for the existence of an actual reactive mind, apart from the stimulus response mechanisms documented in behaviorist psychology. Narconon and Purification Rundown are Scientology programs that purport to clean the human body of toxins and drugs respectively. Their method consists of very long saunas over many days, extremely large (possibly toxic) doses of vitamins including niacin, and Scientology 'training routines', sometimes including attempts at telekinesis. The programs have been described as "medically unsafe", "quackery" and "medical fraud", while academic and medical experts have dismissed Narconon's educational programme as containing "factual errors in basic concepts such as physical and mental effects, addiction and even spelling". In turn, Narconon has claimed that mainstream medicine is "biased" against it, and that "people who endorse so-called controlled drug use cannot be trusted to review a program advocating totally drug-free living." Narconon has said that criticism of its programmes is "bigoted", and that its critics are "in favor of drug abuse [...] they are either using drugs or selling drugs". === Other === Quantum mysticism – builds on a superficial similarity between certain


id: index-of-quality-engineering-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_quality_engineering_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of quality engineering articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_quality_engineering_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:54.808992+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-quality-engineering-articles-20260505-0
summary:
This is an alphabetical list of articles pertaining specifically to quality engineering. For a broad overview of engineering, please see List of engineering topics. For biographies please see List of engineers. == A == American Customer Satisfaction Index (ACSI) active listening affinity diagram Automotive Industry Action Group (AIAG) American Society for Quality (ASQ) Audit Appraisal == B == Bar chart Benchmarking == C == change management Code of Ethics Continuous quality improvement Cost of Poor Execution (COPE) Cost of quality (CoQ) Cost of poor quality (COPQ) Customer satisfaction research == D == Define, measure, analyze, improve and control (DMAIC) == E == European Foundation for Quality Management (EFQM) == F == Five whys == G == Groupthink Gantt chart == H == House of Quality Human reliability assessment (HRA) == I == Incrementalism == J == Joseph M. Juran == K == Kaizen == L == Lean manufacturing == M == Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award Monitoring and evaluation Muda (Japanese term) == N == National Council on Physical Distribution Management (NCPDM) Next operation as customer(NOAC) Nine windows Nominal group technique == O == Organizational culture Overall equipment effectiveness (OEE) == P == Plan, Do, Check, Act (PDCA) Poka-yoke Process


id: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-delft-university-of-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_Delft_University_of_Technology-0.md
category: reference
title: List of rectores magnifici of Delft University of Technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_Delft_University_of_Technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:56.071113+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-delft-university-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
A rector of a Dutch university is called a rector magnificus. The following people have been rector magnificus of Delft University of Technology or its predecessor, Technische Hogeschool Delft: == References == Bruggemans, J.S. (1983). "Inventaris van de archieven van de Technische Hogeschool te Delft - Overzicht van de rectores magnifici tussen 1959 en 1972" (PDF). Nationaal Archief Den Haag: 8. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Bruggemans, J.S. (1983). "Inventaris van de archieven van de Technische Hogeschool te Delft - Overzicht van de rectores magnifici tussen 1905 en 1959" (PDF). Nationaal Archief Den Haag: 162–163. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)


id: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-the-eindhoven-university-of-technology-20260505-0
category: reference
title: List of rectores magnifici of the Eindhoven University of Technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_the_Eindhoven_University_of_Technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:57.288281+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-the-eindhoven-university-of-technology-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_the_Eindhoven_University_of_Technology-0.md

summary:
A rector of a Dutch university is called a rector magnificus. The following people have been rector magnificus of the Eindhoven University of Technology or its predecessor, the Technische Hogeschool Eindhoven (THE):


id: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-the-erasmus-university-rotterdam-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_the_Erasmus_University_Rotterdam-0.md
category: reference
title: List of rectores magnifici of the Erasmus University Rotterdam
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_the_Erasmus_University_Rotterdam
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:58.553889+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-the-erasmus-university-rotterdam-20260505-0
summary:
A rector of a Dutch university is called a rector magnificus. The following people have been rector magnificus of the Erasmus University Rotterdam: == External links == Website Erasmus University Rotterdam


id: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-leiden-university-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_Leiden_University-0.md
category: reference
title: List of rectores magnifici of Leiden University
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_Leiden_University
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:03.133116+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-leiden-university-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of chancellors (rectores magnifici) of Leiden University, as from 1575. Three Nobel laureates are among these chancellors: Hendrik Lorentz, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes and Willem Einthoven. == 16th century == === 1575–1600 === == 17th century == === 1601–1620 === === 1621–1640 === === 1641–1660 === === 1661–1680 === === 1681–1700 === == 18th century == === 1701–1720 === === 1721–1740 === === 1741–1760 === === 1761–1780 === === 1781–1800 === == 19th century == === 1801–1820 === === 1821–1840 === === 1841–1860 === === 1861–1880 === === 1881–1900 === == 20th century == === 1901–1920 === === 1921–1940 === === 1941–1960 === === 1961–2000 === == 21st century == == See also == List of Leiden University people == Literature == Harm Beukers [et al.].: Album Scholasticum academiae Lugduno-Batavae MCMLXXV-MCMLXXXIX. (1575–1989), Leids Universiteits-Fonds, Leiden, 1991 R.E.O. Ekkart: Athenae Batavae. De Leidse Universiteit / The University of Leiden 1575-1975. Universitaire Pers Leiden, 1975. ISBN 90-6021-222-3 Icones Leidenses. Leiden, Universitaire Pers, 1973. ISBN 9060211839 == References == == External links == Website Leiden University


id: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-maastricht-university-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_Maastricht_University-0.md
category: reference
title: List of rectores magnifici of Maastricht University
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_Maastricht_University
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:04.487525+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-maastricht-university-20260505-0
summary:
A rector of a Dutch university is called a rector magnificus. The following people have been rector magnificus of the Maastricht University: == External links == Maastricht University


id: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-the-vrije-universiteit-amsterdam-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_the_Vrije_Universiteit_Amsterdam-0.md
category: reference
title: List of rectores magnifici of the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_the_Vrije_Universiteit_Amsterdam
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:05.731748+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-the-vrije-universiteit-amsterdam-20260505-0
summary:
The rector of a Dutch university is called a rector magnificus. The following people have been rector magnificus of the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam: == Publication == A.Th. van Deursen: The distinctive character of the Free University in Amsterdam, 1880-2005. A commemorative history. Grand Rapids, Michigan, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2008. ISBN 9780802862518 == References == Jaarboek Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1880-1990 (digital)


id: list-of-robotics-journals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_robotics_journals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of robotics journals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_robotics_journals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:06.893485+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-robotics-journals-20260505-0
summary:
List of robotics journals includes notable academic and scientific journals that focus on research in the field of robotics and automation. == Journals == Acta Mechanica et Automatica Advanced Robotics Annual Review of Control, Robotics, and Autonomous Systems IEEE Robotics and Automation Letters IEEE Transactions on Robotics IEEE Transactions on Field Robotics The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology International Journal of Humanoid Robotics International Journal of Robotics Research Journal of Cognitive Engineering and Decision Making Journal of Field Robotics Journal of Intelligent & Robotic Systems Paladyn Robotics and Autonomous Systems Robotics Science Robotics SLAS Technology == See also == List of computer science journals List of artificial intelligence journals List of engineering journals and magazines List of open-source artificial intelligence software for robotics Robotics Automation === Robotics conferences === International Conference on Robotics and Automation International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems International Conference on Human–Robot Interaction Humanoids Summit Roboexotica Defcon Robot Contest == External links == IEEE Xplore Digital Library The International Journal of Robotics Research – Springer Science Robotics – AAAS


id: list-of-scientists-whose-names-are-used-as-units-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientists_whose_names_are_used_as_units-0.md
category: reference
title: List of scientists whose names are used as units
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientists_whose_names_are_used_as_units
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:07.971790+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientists-whose-names-are-used-as-units-20260505-0
summary:
Many scientists have been recognized with the assignment of their names as international units by the International Committee for Weights and Measures or as non-SI units. The International System of Units (abbreviated SI from French: Système international d'unités) is the most widely used system of units of measurement. There are 7 base units and 22 derived units (excluding compound units). These units are used both in science and in commerce. Two of the base SI units and 17 of the derived units are named after scientists. 28 non-SI units are named after scientists. By this convention, their names are immortalised. As a rule, the SI units are written in lowercase letters, but symbols of units derived from the name of a person begin with a capital letter. == Scientists and SI units == (colour legend) == Scientists and non-SI units == == See also == List of chemical elements named after people List of scientists whose names are used in physical constants == References == == Bibliography == == External links == Physical dimensions of the units


id: list-of-science-podcasts-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_podcasts-0.md
category: reference
title: List of science podcasts
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_podcasts
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:09.178506+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-science-podcasts-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of science podcasts. == List == == See also == Science communication Science journalism Popular science Nature documentary == References ==


id: list-of-scientific-demonstrations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_demonstrations-0.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific demonstrations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_demonstrations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:10.420225+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-demonstrations-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of scientific demonstrations used in educational demonstrations and popular science lectures. == Physics == Balsa wood bridge — demonstrates compressive strength and tensile strength, teaches engineering thinking Egg drop competition — demonstrates compressive strength, teaches engineering thinking Hand boiler — demonstrates vapour-liquid equilibrium and simple heat engine principles Newton's cradle — demonstrates elastic collision, conservation of momentum, and conservation of energy Gauss gun Plate trick or Dirac belt trick — demonstrates spinors and the double cover of SO(3) by SU(2) Prince Rupert's Drop — demonstrates supercooling and tensile stress Self-siphoning beads — demonstrates momentum, energy and inertia Water rocket — demonstrates conservation of momentum, conservation of energy, the gas laws and basic rocketry Franklin bells — demonstrate electric charges Oxford Electric Bell — an experimental electric bell that was set up in 1840 and which has run nearly continuously ever since Wimshurst machine — an electrostatic generator Shooting a candle through a plank Foucault pendulum — demonstrates the rotation of Earth == Chemistry == Ammonia fountain — introduces concepts like solubility and the gas laws at entry level. Barking dog reaction — demonstrates rapid exothermic chemical reaction Blue bottle (chemical reaction) — demonstrates reduction and oxidation


id: scientific-instrument-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_instrument-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific instrument
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_instrument
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:11.513532+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-instrument-20260505-0
summary:
A scientific instrument is a device or tool used for scientific purposes, including the study of both natural phenomena and theoretical research. == History == Historically, the definition of a scientific instrument has varied, based on usage, laws, and historical time period. Before the mid-nineteenth century such tools were referred to as "natural philosophical" or "philosophical" apparatus and instruments, and older tools from antiquity to the Middle Ages (such as the astrolabe and pendulum clock) defy a more modern definition of "a tool developed to investigate nature qualitatively or quantitatively." Scientific instruments were made by instrument makers living near a center of learning or research, such as a university or research laboratory. Instrument makers designed, constructed, and refined instruments for purposes, but if demand was sufficient, an instrument would go into production as a commercial product. In a description of the use of the eudiometer by Jan Ingenhousz to show photosynthesis, a biographer observed, "The history of the use and evolution of this instrument helps to show that science is not just a theoretical endeavor but equally an activity grounded on an instrumental basis, which is a cocktail of instruments and techniques wrapped in a social setting within a community


id: list-of-scientific-laws-named-after-people-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_laws_named_after_people-0.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific laws named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_laws_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:12.801423+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-laws-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of scientific laws named after people (eponymous laws). For other lists of eponyms, see eponym. == See also == Eponym Fields of science List of eponymous laws (overlaps with this list but includes non-scientific laws such as Murphy's law) List of legislation named for a person List of laws in science Lists of etymologies Scientific constants named after people Scientific phenomena named after people Stigler's law of eponymy == Further reading == Ballentyne, D. W. G.; Lovett, D. R. (1980). A dictionary of named effects and laws in chemistry, physics, and mathematics (4th ed.). Chapman and Hall. ISBN 978-0-412-22380-8.


id: outline-of-scientific-method-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_scientific_method-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of scientific method
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_scientific_method
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:14.026815+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-scientific-method-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to the scientific method: Scientific method – body of techniques for investigating phenomena and acquiring new knowledge, as well as for correcting and integrating previous knowledge. It is based on observable, empirical, reproducible, measurable evidence, and subject to the laws of reasoning. == Nature of scientific method == Scientific method Science Philosophy of science Sociology of knowledge Process of science Knowledge == Elements of scientific method == Research Basic research === Observation === Observation Scientific method Causation Investigation Measurement (Outline of metrology and measurement) === Hypothesis === Hypothesis pro:Karl Popper Falsifiability con:Paul Feyerabend Statistical hypothesis testing === Experiment === Experiment Laboratory Laboratory techniques Design of experiments Scientific control Natural experiment Observational study Field experiment Self-experimentation Self-experimentation in medicine Placebo effect === Theory === Scientific theory ==== Prediction ==== Prediction Bayesian inference – subjective use of statistical reasoning Deductive reasoning Retrodiction === Evaluation by scientific community === Peer review Medical peer review == Scientific method concepts == === Empirical methods === Empirical methods Empiricism Robert Grosseteste Peter Parker Empirical validation Operationalization === Use of statistics === Uncomfortable science — Inference from a limited sample of data Exploratory data analysis


id: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific phenomena named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:18.817718+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of scientific phenomena and concepts named after people (eponymous phenomena). For other lists of eponyms, see eponym. == A == Abderhalden–Fauser reaction – Emil Abderhalden and August Fauser (1856–1938) Abney effect – William de Wiveleslie Abney Abrikosov lattice – Alexei Alexeyevich Abrikosov Aharonov–Bohm effect – Yakir Aharonov and David Bohm Alfvén wave – Hannes Olof Gösta Alfvén Alhazen's problem – Alhazen Allais effect – Maurice Allais Allee effect – Warder Clyde Allee Amdahl's law, a.k.a. Amdahl's argument – Gene Amdahl Ampère's law – André-Marie Ampère Anderson–Higgs mechanism (a.k.a. Higgs mechanism) – Peter Higgs and Philip Warren Anderson Anderson–Darling test – Theodore Wilbur Anderson and Donald A. Darling Andreev reflection – Alexander F. Andreev Apgar score – Virginia Apgar Arago spot – Dominique François Jean Arago Michaelis–Arbuzov reaction – Aleksandr Erminingeldovich Arbuzov and August Karl Arnold Michaelis Archimedean spiral, Archimedes number – Archimedes Argand diagram – Jean Robert Argand Aristotle's lantern – Aristotle Armstrong limit or Armstrong's line – Harry George Armstrong Armstrong oscillator – Edwin Armstrong Arndt–Eistert synthesis – Fritz Arndt and Bernd Eistert Arndt–Schulz law/principle/rule – Rudolf Arndt and Hugo Paul Friedrich Schulz Arrhenius equation – Svante August Arrhenius Ashkin–Teller model (a.k.a. Potts model) –


id: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientific phenomena named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:18.817718+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
== B == Baeyer–Drewson indigo synthesis – Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Adolf von Baeyer and Viggo Drewsen Baeyer–Villiger oxidation and Baeyer–Villiger rearrangement – Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Adolf von Baeyer and Victor Villiger Babinet's principle – Jacques Babinet Babler–Dauben oxidation – James Babler and William Garfield Dauben Bagnold number – Ralph Alger Bagnold Baily's beads – Francis Baily Baker–Nathan effect – John William Baker and Wilfred S. Nathan Bakerian mimicry – Herbert G. Baker Baldwin effect (astronomy) – Jack Allen Baldwin Baldwin effect (Baldwinian evolution, Ontogenic evolution) – James Mark Baldwin Baldwin's rules – Jack Edward Baldwin Balmer line, series – Johann Jakob Balmer Bamberger rearrangement – Eugen Bamberger Bamford–Stevens reaction – William Randall Bamford and Thomas Stevens Stevens Barkhausen effect – Heinrich Barkhausen Barnett effect – Samuel Jackson Barnett Barnum effect (a.k.a. Forer effect) – Phineas Taylor Barnum (and Bertram R. Forer) Barton reaction – Derek Harold Richard Barton Barton–McCombie deoxygenation – Derek Harold Richard Barton and Stuart W. McCombie Baskerville effect – the fictional Charles Baskerville of the novel The Hound of the Baskervilles Batesian mimicry – Henry Walter Bates Bauschinger effect – Johann Bauschinger Bayes's theorem – Thomas Bayes Baylis–Hillman reaction – Anthony B. Baylis and Melville E. D.


id: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people-2.md
category: reference
title: Scientific phenomena named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:18.817718+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
== C == Cabannes–Daure effect – Jean Cabannes and Pierre Daure Cadiot–Chodkiewicz coupling, reaction – Paul Cadiot and Wladyslav Chodkiewicz Callendar effect – Guy Stewart Callendar Callippic cycle – Callippus of Cyzicus Calvin cycle (a.k.a. Calvin–Benson cycle) – Melvin Calvin (and Andy Benson) Cannizzaro reaction – Stanislao Cannizzaro Cardan angles (a.k.a. Tait–Bryan angles) – Gerolamo Cardano Carnot cycle, number – Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot Carpenter effect (a.k.a. Ideomotor effect) – William Benjamin Carpenter Cartan–Kähler theorem – Élie Cartan, Erich Kähler Casimir effect – Hendrik Casimir Catalan's conjecture (a.k.a. Mihăilescu's theorem), Catalan numbers – Eugène Charles Catalan Cauchy number (a.k.a. Hooke number) – Augustin-Louis Cauchy Cauchy–Kovalevskaya theorem – Augustin-Louis Cauchy, Sofia Kovalevskaya Cauer filter – Wilhelm Cauer Chandler wobble – Seth Carlo Chandler Chandrasekhar limit, number – Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar Chang–Refsdal lens – Kyongae Chang and Sjur Refsdal Chaplygin gas – Sergey Alexeyevich Chaplygin Charles's law – Jacques Charles Chebyshev distance, equation, filter, linkage, polynomials – Pafnuty Chebyshev Chebyshev's inequality (a.k.a. Bienaymé–Chebyshev inequality) – Pafnuty Chebyshev (and Irénée-Jules Bienaymé) Cherenkov radiation (a.k.a. Cherenkov–Vavilov radiation) – Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov (and Sergey Ivanovich Vavilov) Chichibabin reaction – Alexei Yevgenievich Chichibabin Christiansen effect – Christian Christiansen Christoffel symbol – Elwin Bruno Christoffel Christofilos effect –


id: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people-3.md
category: reference
title: Scientific phenomena named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:18.817718+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
== E == Early effect – James M. Early Eddington limit – Arthur Eddington Edgeworth–Bowley box – Francis Ysidro Edgeworth and Arthur Lyon Bowley Edison effect – Thomas Edison Edman degradation – Pehr Victor Edman Edward–Lemieux effect (a.k.a. Anomeric effect) – John Thomas Edward and Raymond U. Lemieux Eglinton reaction – Geoffrey Eglinton Ehrenfest paradox – Paul Ehrenfest Eimer's organ – Gustav Heinrich Theodor Eimer Einstein Cross, effect, radius, ring, shift – Albert Einstein Einstein–Chwolson ring or Chwolson ring – Albert Einstein and Orest Khvolson Einstein–de Haas effect – Albert Einstein and Wander Johannes de Haas Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox (a.k.a. EPR paradox, Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen–Bohm paradox) – Albert Einstein, Boris Podolsky, Nathan Rosen (and David Bohm) Ekman layer – Walfrid Ekman Elbs reaction – Karl Elbs Elliott–Halberstam conjecture – Peter D. T. A. Elliott and Heini Halberstam Elman network – Jeff Elman Elsasser number – Walter M. Elsasser Engel curve – Ernst Engel Engelbart's law – Douglas Engelbart Epimenides paradox – Epimenides of Knossos Erlenmeyer flask, rule, synthesis – Richard August Carl Emil Erlenmeyer Eschenmoser fragmentation – Albert Eschenmoser Eschweiler–Clarke reaction – Wilhelm Eschweiler and Hans Thacher Clarke Eshelby's inclusion – John D. Eshelby Étard reaction – Alexandre Léon Étard Ettingshausen effect –


id: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people-4.md
category: reference
title: Scientific phenomena named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:18.817718+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
== G == Gabriel synthesis – Siegmund Gabriel Gardner transition – Elizabeth Gardner Garman limit – Elspeth Garman Gattermann reaction – Ludwig Gattermann Gattermann–Koch reaction – Ludwig Gattermann and Julius Arnold Koch Gaunt factor (or Kramers–Gaunt factor) – John Arthur Gaunt (and Hendrik Anthony Kramers) Gause's principle – Georgii Gause Gauss's law – Carl Friedrich Gauss Gauss–Bonnet gravity, theorem – Carl Friedrich Gauss and Pierre Ossian Bonnet Geib–Spevack process (a.k.a. Girdler sulfide (GS) process) – Karl-Hermann Geib and Jerome S. Spevack (and the Girdler company, which built the first American plant using the process) Geiger counter (a.k.a. Geiger–Müller counter) – Johannes Wilhelm (Hans) Geiger (and Walther Müller) Geiger–Marsden experiment (a.k.a. Rutherford experiment) – Johannes Wilhelm (Hans) Geiger and Ernest Marsden Geiger–Müller tube – Johannes Wilhelm (Hans) Geiger and Walther Müller Geiger–Nuttall law/rule – Johannes Wilhelm (Hans) Geiger and John Mitchell Nuttall Geissler tube – Heinrich Geissler Gibbs entropy, free energy, paradox, Gibbs's phase rule, Gibbs phenomenon – Josiah Willard Gibbs Gibbs–Donnan effect (a.k.a. Donnan effect) – Josiah Willard Gibbs and Frederick G. Donnan Gibbs–Marangoni effect (a.k.a. Marangoni effect) – Josiah Willard Gibbs and Carlo Marangoni Gibbs–Helmholtz equation – Josiah Willard Gibbs and Hermann von Helmholtz Gibbs–Thomson effect – Josiah Willard


id: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people-5.md
category: reference
title: Scientific phenomena named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:18.817718+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
== J == Jaccard index, similarity coefficient, distance – Paul Jaccard Jaffe profile (or model) – Walter Jaffe Jahn–Teller effect – Hermann Arthur Jahn and Edward Teller Jaro–Winkler distance – Matthew A. Jaro and William E. Winkler Jarque–Bera test – Carlos M. Jarque and Anil K. Bera Jeans's theorem – James Hopwood Jeans Johnson–Nyquist noise – John B. Johnson and Harry Nyquist Jordan's rule/law – David Starr Jordan Josephson constant, effect, junction – Brian David Josephson Joule's law (a.k.a. Joule–Lenz law) – James Prescott Joule and Heinrich Friedrich Emil Lenz Joule–Thomson effect (a.k.a. Joule–Kelvin effect) – James Prescott Joule and William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin == K == K3 surface – Ernst Kummer, Erich Kähler, Kunihiko Kodaira Kähler differential, manifold, metric – Erich Kähler Kakutani's problem – see Collatz conjecture, above Kármán vortex street – Theodore von Kármán Karnaugh map (a.k.a. Karnaugh–Veitch map, Veitch diagram) – Maurice Karnaugh (and Edward W. Veitch) Karush–Kuhn–Tucker conditions (a.k.a. Kuhn–Tucker conditions) – William Karush, Harold W. Kuhn and Albert W. Tucker Kasha's rule – Michael Kasha Kater's pendulum – Captain Henry Kater Kaye effect – Alan Kaye Keeling Curve – Charles David Keeling Kelvin wave – William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism, instability


id: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people-6.md
category: reference
title: Scientific phenomena named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:18.817718+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
== M == Mach band/effect, number, principle – Ernst Mach Mach–Zehnder interferometer – Ludwig Mach and Ludwig Zehnder Madelung constant, rule, energy – Erwin Madelung Maggi–Righi–Leduc effect (Thermal Hall effect) – Gian Antonio Maggi, Augusto Righi and Sylvestre Anatole Leduc Magnus effect – Heinrich Gustav Magnus Magorrian relation – John Magorrian Mahalanobis distance – Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis (প্রশান্ত চন্দ্র মহলানবিস) Mahler measure, Mahler's theorem – Kurt Mahler Maillard reaction Malmquist bias, effect – Karl Gunnar Malmquist Malus's law – Étienne-Louis Malus Malthusian parameter – named by Ronald Fisher as a criticism of Thomas Robert Malthus Malthusian catastrophe, growth model – Thomas Robert Malthus Marangoni cell/convection (a.k.a. Bénard–Marangoni convection) – see Bénard–Marangoni cell/convection, above Marangoni effect (a.k.a. Gibbs–Marangoni effect) – see Gibbs–Marangoni effect, above Markov's inequality, chain, partition, Markovian process – Andrey Markov Mathieu functions – Émile Léonard Mathieu Matilda effect – Matilda Joslyn Gage Matthew effect – Matthew the Evangelist Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution – James Clerk Maxwell and Ludwig Boltzmann McCollough effect – Celeste McCollough McCulloch–Pitts neuron – Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts McGurk effect (a.k.a. McGurk–MacDonald effect) – Harry McGurk (and John MacDonald) Mealy machine – George H. Mealy Meissner effect (a.k.a. Meissner–Ochsenfeld effect) – Walther Meissner (and Robert Ochsenfeld)


id: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people-7.md
category: reference
title: Scientific phenomena named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:18.817718+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
== R == Rabi oscillations – Isidor Isaac Rabi Rademacher distribution, function, series, sum – Hans Adolph Rademacher Rademacher–Menchov theorem – Hans Adolph Rademacher and Dmitrii Menshov Radon transform – Johann Karl August Radon Raman scattering – Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman Ramsauer–Townsend effect (a.k.a. Ramsauer effect, Townsend effect) – Carl Ramsauer and John Sealy Townsend Ramsden circle/disc/eyepoint, eyepiece – Jesse Ramsden Ramsey theory – Frank Plumpton Ramsey Rapoport's rule – Eduardo H. Rapoport Raychaudhuri's equation – Amal Kumar Raychaudhuri (অমল কুমার রায়চৌধুরী) Raygor Estimate Graph – Alton L. Raygor Rayleigh criterion, distribution, fading, number, quotient, scattering, waves – Lord Rayleigh Rayleigh–Bénard cell/convection – Lord Rayleigh and Henri Bénard Rayleigh–Jeans law – Lord Rayleigh and James Jeans Rayleigh–Taylor instability – Lord Rayleigh and G. I. Taylor Rees–Sciama effect – Martin Rees and Dennis Sciama Reidemeister moves – Kurt Reidemeister Résal effect – Louis-Jean Résal Rescorla–Wagner rule – Robert A. Rescorla and Allan R. Wagner Reynolds number, Reynolds analogy – Osborne Reynolds Ribot's law (of Retrograde Amnesia) – Théodule-Armand Ribot Ricardian equivalence (a.k.a. Barro–Ricardo equivalence, or Ricardo–de Viti–Barro equivalence) – Robert Barro, David Ricardo, and Antonio de Viti de Marco Richards controller – Charles L. Richards Richardson's constant, equation, law – Owen Willans


id: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people-8.md
category: reference
title: Scientific phenomena named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:18.817718+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
== S == Sabatier or Sabattier effect – Sabat[t]ier, first name unknown Sachs–Wolfe effect – Rainer K. Sachs and Arthur M. Wolfe Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale – Herbert S. Saffir and Robert ("Bob") Simpson Sagnac effect – Georges Sagnac Saha ionization equation (a.k.a. Saha–Langmuir equation) – Megh Nad Saha (মেঘনাদ সাহা) (and Irving Langmuir) Salem number – Raphaël Salem Sapir–Whorf hypothesis – Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf Sasakian manifold, metric – Shigeo Sasaki Say's law – Jean-Baptiste Say Scheerer's phenomenon (Blue field entoptic phenomenon) – Richard Scheerer Schering Bridge – Harald Schering Schild plot, regression analysis – Heinz Otto Schild Schmidt law, Schmidt–Kennicutt law – see Kennicutt–Schmidt law, above Schottky effect – Walter H. Schottky Schröter effect – Johann Hieronymus Schröter Schülen–Wilson effect – see Wilson effect, below Schuler period, tuning – Maximilian Schuler Schultz's rule – Adolph Hans Schultz Schumann–Runge bands – Victor Schumann and Carle David Tolmé Runge Schwabe solar cycle – Samuel Heinrich Schwabe Schwarzschild effect, metric, radius – Karl Schwarzschild Scott effect – Elizabeth L. Scott Secchi (stellar) class, depth, disk – Pietro Angelo Secchi Seebeck effect – Thomas Johann Seebeck Seiberg–Witten gauge theory – Nathan Seiberg and Edward Witten Seiberg–Witten invariant – Nathan Seiberg and


id: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people-9.md
category: reference
title: Scientific phenomena named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:18.817718+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
== V == Vackář oscillator – Jirí Vackář Van Allen radiation belt – James Van Allen Van de Graaff generator – Dr. Robert Jemison Van de Graaff Van der Pol equation, oscillator – Balthasar van der Pol Van der Waals force – Johannes Diderik van der Waals Van Hove singularity – Léon Van Hove Vavilovian mimicry – Nikolai Ivanovich Vavilov Veblen effect – Thorstein Veblen Veitch diagram – see Karnaugh map, above Venturi effect – Giovanni Battista Venturi Venn diagram – John Venn Vieille's law (a.k.a. St. Robert's law, often misspelled as Vielle's law) – Paul Marie Eugène Vieille Vierordt's law – Karl von Vierordt Vogel-Fulcher-Tammann equation – Hans Vogel, Gordon Scott Fulcher, and Gustav Tammann Vogt–Russell theorem – Heinrich Vogt and Henry Norris Russell Voigt effect, notation, profile – Woldemar Voigt Voigt material – see Kelvin–Voigt material, above Von Klitzing constant – Klaus von Klitzing Von Neumann ordinal, von Neumann architecture – John von Neumann Von Restorff effect – Hedwig von Restorff Von Zeipel theorem – Edvard Hugo von Zeipel == W == Wadati–Benioff zone (a.k.a. Benioff zone) – Kiyoo Wadati and Hugo Benioff Wahlund effect – Sten Gösta William Wahlund Wallace's line – Alfred Russel Wallace Walras's law


id: list-of-scientific-priority-disputes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_priority_disputes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific priority disputes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_priority_disputes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:20.078053+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-priority-disputes-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of priority disputes in history of science and science-related fields (such as mathematics). == Astronomy == 1558 invention of the geoheliocentric system: Tycho Brahe, Nicolaus Raimarus Ursus 1609–1610 Galilean moons: Galileo, Simon Marius 1612 discovery of sunspots: Galileo Galilei, Christoph Scheiner 1846 prediction of Neptune: Urbain Le Verrier, John Couch Adams 2004–2005 controversy over the discovery of Haumea: José Luis Ortiz Moreno, Michael E. Brown. == Biology and medicine == 1652 discovery of the lymphatic system: Olof Rudbeck, Thomas Bartholin c. 1660 teaching a deaf-mute person to speak: John Wallis, William Holder c. 1667 first human blood transfusion: Richard Lower, Henry Oldenburg, Jean-Baptiste Denys c. 1859 development of the theory of evolution: Charles Darwin, Alfred Russel Wallace, Patrick Matthew 1877–1892 Bone Wars: Edward Drinker Cope, Othniel Charles Marsh. 1882–1889: Koch–Pasteur rivalry: Louis Pasteur, Robert Koch. 1899–1902 discovery of the life cycle of malarial parasite: Giovanni Battista Grassi, Ronald Ross 1953–1962 discovery of the DNA structure: Francis Crick, James D. Watson, Rosalind Franklin, Erwin Chargaff, Oswald Avery 1971–1973 discovery of opiate receptors: Candace Pert, Solomon H. Snyder1971–1975 invention of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): Paul Lauterbur, Peter Mansfield, Raymond Vahan Damadian, and others (see 2003 Nobel Prize in


id: scientific-research-on-the-international-space-station-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_research_on_the_International_Space_Station-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific research on the International Space Station
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_research_on_the_International_Space_Station
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:21.358987+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-research-on-the-international-space-station-20260505-0
summary:
The International Space Station is a platform for scientific research that requires one or more of the unusual conditions present in low Earth orbit (for example microgravity, (cosmic) -radiation and extreme temperatures). The primary fields of research include human research, space medicine, life sciences, physical sciences, astronomy and meteorology. The 2005 NASA Authorization Act designated the American segment of the International Space Station as a national laboratory with the goal of increasing the use of the ISS by other federal agencies and the private sector. Research on the ISS improves knowledge about the effects of long-term space exposure on the human body. Subjects currently under study include muscle atrophy, bone loss, and fluid shift. The data will be used to determine whether space colonization and lengthy human spaceflight are feasible. As of 2006, data on bone loss and muscular atrophy suggest that there would be a significant risk of fractures and movement problems if astronauts landed on a planet after a lengthy interplanetary cruise (such as the six-month journey time required to fly to Mars). Large scale medical studies are conducted aboard the ISS via the National Space Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI). Prominent among these is the Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound


id: scientific-research-on-the-international-space-station-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_research_on_the_International_Space_Station-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientific research on the International Space Station
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_research_on_the_International_Space_Station
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:21.358987+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-research-on-the-international-space-station-20260505-0
summary:
Ryutai Experiment Rack (Ryutai) Fluid Physics Experiment Facility (FPEF) Solution Crystallization Observation Facility (SCOF) Protein Crystallization Research Facility (PCRF) Image Processing Unit (IPU) Kobairo Rack : Gradient Heating Furnace (GHF) Saibo Experiment Rack (Saibo) Cell Biology Experiment Facility (CBEF) Clean Bench (CB) Lab Support Equipments and other smaller instruments The Minus Eighty Degree Celsius Laboratory Freezer for the International Space Station (MELFI) Biological Experiment Unit (BEU) High Definition TeleVision transmitting system (HDTV) Passive Dosimeter for Life Science Experiments in Space (PADLES) Human Research Facility Holter Monitor Payload Laptop Terminal (PLT) Microgravity Measurement Apparatus (MMA), Utility DC/DC Converter Unit (UDC) External scientific hardware: Japanese Experiment Module - Exposed Facility === Poisk === Multipurpose workstation (MWS) === ISS small hardware === Actiwatch (Actiwatch) BioServe Culture Apparatus (BCA) Biological Research in Canisters for OptiCells (BRIC-Opti) Human Research Facility Continuous Blood Pressure Device (CBPD) Hand Grip Dynamometer Pinch Force Dynamometer (HGD-PFD) Human Research Facility Holter Monitor (Holter) Kennedy Space Center Fixation Tube (KFT) Portable Clinical Blood Analyzer - i-STAT (PCBA) Radiation Area Monitor (RAM) Tissue Equivalent Proportional Counter (TEPC) Urine Monitoring System (UMS) Vegetable Production System (Veggie) === ISS sub-rack === Advanced Biological Research System (ABRS) Advanced Protein Crystallization Facility (APCF) ARCTIC Refrigerator-Freezer (ARCTIC)


id: scientific-research-on-the-international-space-station-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_research_on_the_International_Space_Station-2.md
category: reference
title: Scientific research on the International Space Station
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_research_on_the_International_Space_Station
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:21.358987+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-research-on-the-international-space-station-20260505-0
summary:
==== Cardiovascular and pulmonary systems ==== Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Control on Return from ISS (CCISS) Cardiac Atrophy and Diastolic Dysfunction During and After Long Duration Spaceflight: Functional Consequences for Orthostatic Intolerance, Exercise Capability and Risk for Cardiac Arrhythmias (Integrated_Cardiovascular) Test of Midodrine as a Countermeasure Against Post-flight Orthostatic Hypotension - Long (Midodrine-Long) Test of Midodrine as a Countermeasure Against Post-flight Orthostatic Hypotension - Short Duration Biological Investigation (Midodrine-SDBI) The Effects of EVA and Long-Term Exposure to Microgravity on Pulmonary Function (PuFF) Evaluation of Maximal Oxygen Uptake and Submaximal Estimates of VO2max Before, During, and After Long Duration International Space Station Missions (VO2max) Effect of Microgravity on the Peripheral Subcutaneous Veno-Arteriolar Reflex in Humans (Xenon1) ==== Crew healthcare systems ==== IntraVenous Fluid GENeration for Exploration Missions (IVGEN) Stability of Pharmacotherapeutic and Nutritional Compounds (Stability) ==== Human behaviour and performance ==== Bodies In the Space Environment was an experiment run from 2009 to 2010 studying how people perceive relative direction in space. Crewmember and Crew-Ground Interaction During International Space Station Missions (Interactions) Behavioral Issues Associated with Isolation and Confinement: Review and Analysis of ISS Crew Journals (Journals) Sleep-Wake Actigraphy and Light Exposure During Spaceflight-Long (Sleep-Long) Sleep-Wake Actigraphy and Light Exposure During Spaceflight-Short


id: scientific-research-on-the-international-space-station-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_research_on_the_International_Space_Station-3.md
category: reference
title: Scientific research on the International Space Station
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_research_on_the_International_Space_Station
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:21.358987+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-research-on-the-international-space-station-20260505-0
summary:
==== Plant biology ==== Advanced AstrocultureTM (ADVASC) Biomass Production System (BPS) Cambium (Cambium) Cell Wall/Reverse Genetic Approach to Exploring Genes Responsible for Cell Wall Dynamics in Supporting Tissues of Arabidopsis Under Microgravity Conditions and Resist Wall/Role of Microtubule-Membrane-Cell Wall Continuum in Gravity Resistance in Plants (CWRW) Gravity Related Genes in Arabidopsis - A (Genara-A) Threshold Acceleration for Gravisensing (Gravi) Threshold Acceleration for Gravisensing - 2 (Gravi-2) Validating Vegetable Production Unit (VPU) Plants, Protocols, Procedures and Requirements (P3R) Using Currently Existing Flight Resources (Lada-VPU-P3R) Molecular and Plant Physiological Analyses of the Microgravity Effects on Multigeneration Studies of Arabidopsis thaliana (Multigen) National Laboratory Pathfinder - Cells - 3: Jatropha Biofuels (NLP-Cells-3) The Optimization of Root Zone Substrates (ORZS) for Reduced Gravity Experiments Program (ORZS) Photosynthesis Experiment and System Testing and Operation (PESTO) Plant Generic Bioprocessing Apparatus (PGBA) Transgenic Arabidopsis Gene Expression System (TAGES) Analysis of a Novel Sensory Mechanism in Root Phototropism (Tropi) ==== Protein crystallization ==== Advanced Protein Crystallization Facility - Extraordinary Structural Features of Antibodies from Camelids (APCF-Camelids) Advanced Protein Crystallization Facility - Solution Flows and Molecular Disorder of Protein Crystals: Growth of High Quality Crystals, Motions of Lumazin Crystals and Growth of Ferritin Crystals (APCF-Crystal_Growth) Advanced Protein Crystallization Facility


id: scientific-research-on-the-international-space-station-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_research_on_the_International_Space_Station-4.md
category: reference
title: Scientific research on the International Space Station
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_research_on_the_International_Space_Station
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:21.358987+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-research-on-the-international-space-station-20260505-0
summary:
==== Spacecraft systems ==== Boiling eXperiment Facility - Microheater Array Boiling Experiment (BXF-MABE) Boiling eXperiment Facility - Nucleate Pool Boiling eXperiment (BXF-NPBX) Dust and Aerosol Measurement Feasibility Test (DAFT) Delay Tolerant Networking (DTN) Maui Analysis of Upper Atmospheric Injections (MAUI) Multi-User Droplet Combustion Apparatus - Flame Extinguishment Experiment (MDCA-FLEX) Smoke and Aerosol Measurement Experiment (SAME) Space Communications and Navigation Testbed (SCAN_Testbed) Shuttle Exhaust Ion Turbulence Experiments (SEITE) Shuttle Ionospheric Modification with Pulsed Localized Exhaust Experiments (SIMPLEX) Serial Network Flow Monitor (SNFM) ==== Spacecraft and orbital environments ==== Atmospheric Neutral Density Experiment - 2 (ANDE-2) Ram Burn Observations (RAMBO) Space Test Program-H2-Atmospheric Neutral Density Experiment (STP-H2-ANDE) ==== Other experiments ==== DEBris In Orbit Evaluator - 2 (DEBIE-2) EuTEF Thermometer (EuTemp) Earth Viewing Camera (EVC) Activation and Test Downlink of HDTV System (JAXA-HDTV) Particle Flux Demonstrator (Particle_Flux) Tribology Laboratory (TriboLab) === Earth and space science === ==== Earth science ==== Agricultural Camera (AgCam) Crew Earth Observations (CEO) Crew Earth Observations - International Polar Year (CEO-IPY) ISS-RapidScat ==== Space science ==== Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer - 02 (AMS-02) Neutron Star Interior Composition Explorer (NICER) ==== Other monitors and observatories from the field ==== DOSimetry TELescopes (DOSTEL) Flux (Phi) Probe EXperiment - Time resolved Measurement


id: solubility-table-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solubility_table-0.md
category: reference
title: Solubility table
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solubility_table
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:22.593439+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: solubility-table-20260505-0
summary:
The tables below provides information on the variation of solubility of different substances (mostly inorganic compounds) in water with temperature, at one atmosphere pressure. Units of solubility are given in grams of substance per 100 millilitres of water (g/100 ml), unless shown otherwise. The substances are listed in Latin alphabetical order. == Tables == === A === === B === === C === === D and E === === F and G === === H === === I === === L === === M === === N and O === === P === === R === === S === === T === === U, V, and X === === Y === === Z === == References == Chemicalc v4.0 - software that includes data on solubility Learning, Food resources Kaye and Laby Online ChemBioFinder.com(registration required) == External links == Solubility Database - International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry / National Institute of Standards and Technology CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics - Online resource that includes solubility data (requires subscription)


id: outline-of-space-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_space_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of space science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_space_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:23.697522+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-space-science-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview and topical guide to space science: Space science – field that encompasses all of the scientific disciplines that involve space exploration and study natural phenomena and physical bodies occurring in outer space, such as space medicine and astrobiology. == Branches of space sciences == === Astronomy === See astronomical object for a list of specific types of entities which scientists study. See Earth's location in the universe for an orientation. Subfields of astronomy: Astrophysics – branch of astronomy that deals with the physics of the universe, including the physical properties of celestial objects, as well as their interactions and behavior. Among the objects studied are galaxies, stars, planets, exoplanets, the interstellar medium and the cosmic microwave background; and the properties examined include luminosity, density, temperature, and chemical composition. The subdisciplines of theoretical astrophysics are: Computational astrophysics – The study of astrophysics using computational methods and tools to develop computational models. Plasma astrophysics – studies properties of plasma in outer space. Space physics – study of plasmas as they occur naturally in the Earth's upper atmosphere (aeronomy) and within the Solar System. Solar physics – Sun and its interaction with the remainder of


id: list-of-topics-in-space-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_in_space-0.md
category: reference
title: List of topics in space
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_in_space
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:24.931720+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-in-space-20260505-0
summary:
List of topics in space; topics as related to outer space. Accidents in space Animals in space Architecture in space Batteries in space Christmas in space Corrosion in space Death in space Dogs in space Dust in space Economy in space (Mining in space) Garbage in space Humans in space Hygiene in space Industry in space Interstellar and circumstellar molecules Locomotion in space Medicine in space Mice in space Microorganisms tested in outer space Monkeys and apes in space Music in space Nuclear power in space Neuroscience in space Plants in space Politics of outer space Religion in space Sex in space Solar power in space Solar power in space for Earth Telescopes in space Tourism in space War in space Weapons in space Weather in space Women in space Writing in space == See also == Outer space Spaceflight Space-based radar Space-based solar power Space and survival Space science Space station Space technology


id: index-of-structural-engineering-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_structural_engineering_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of structural engineering articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_structural_engineering_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:26.101834+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-structural-engineering-articles-20260505-0
summary:
This is an alphabetical list of articles pertaining specifically to structural engineering. For a broad overview of engineering, please see List of engineering topics. For biographies please see List of engineers. == A == A-frame – Aerodynamics – Aeroelasticity – Air-supported structure – Airframe – Aluminium – Analytical method – Angular frequency – Angular speed – Architecture – Architectural engineering – Arch – Arch bridge == B == Base isolation – Beam – Beam axle – Bending – Bifurcation theory – Biomechanics – Boat Building – Body-on-frame – Box girder bridge – Box truss – Bridge engineering – Buckling – Building – Building construction – Building engineering == C == Cable – Cable-stayed bridge – Cantilever – Cantilever bridge – Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer – Casing – Casting – Catastrophic failure – Center of mass – Chaos theory – Chassis – Chimneys – Coachwork – Coefficient of thermal expansion – Coil spring – Columns – Composite material – Composite structure – Compression – Compressive stress – Concrete – Concrete cover – Construction – Construction engineering – Construction management – Continuum mechanics – Corrosion – Crane – Creep – Crumple zone – Curvature == D == Dam – Damper – Damping ratio –


id: table-of-historic-and-prehistoric-climate-indicators-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_historic_and_prehistoric_climate_indicators-0.md
category: reference
title: Table of historic and prehistoric climate indicators
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_historic_and_prehistoric_climate_indicators
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:28.463102+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: table-of-historic-and-prehistoric-climate-indicators-20260505-0
summary:
This table is a reference tool for rapidly locating Wikipedia articles on Historic and Prehistoric climate indicators of all types. To Add: Alkenone analysis TEX-86 analysis Nile river flood levels Trace mineral ratios in deltaic sediment Wildlife distribution Pollen analysis Historic storm-related sinkings Sea temperature and atmospheric pressure (ENSO) Scientific meteorological measurements (since 1800s) air temperature air pressure wind speed and direction Ocean currents and marine productivity Flooding and drought observations on land Volcanic activity Elevated charcoal in lake sediments Sand dune activation records Eolian (wind-borne) sediment deposition == See also == == References ==


id: list-of-taxa-named-after-human-genitals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_taxa_named_after_human_genitals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of taxa named after human genitals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_taxa_named_after_human_genitals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:29.595130+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-taxa-named-after-human-genitals-20260505-0
summary:
This a list of species, genera, and other biological taxa named after human genitals. == Epithets == pubescens. The word originates from the Latin pubes, 'adult, full-grown'; "genital area, groin" (e.g., Pubis); 'the down or soft hair which begins to grow on young persons when they come to the age of puberty'. The use of the term in biology to refer to hairiness or soft down is recorded since 1760 for plants and since 1826 for insects. vaginalis. The common specific name is derived from the Latin vagina, originally meaning 'sheath, scabbard, covering; sheath of an ear of grain, hull, husk'. The specific epithet may refer to a sheathed trait or habit of an organism (e.g. Alysicarpus vaginalis), or may refer to resemblance/relation to the vagina (e.g. Gardnerella vaginalis) == Plants == === Families === Orchidaceae. The type genus is Orchis, whose name comes from the Ancient Greek ὄρχις (órkhis), literally meaning 'testicle', because of the shape of the twin tubers in some species of Orchis. === Subtribes === Clitoriinae === Genera === Amorphophallus Clitoria Clitoriopsis Orchis === Species === Alysicarpus vaginalis Baumea vaginalis Chenopodium vulvaria Festuca vaginalis Pontederia vaginalis === Varieties === Capsicum annum var. annum 'penis pepper' ==


id: list-of-tests-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tests-0.md
category: reference
title: List of tests
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tests
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:30.891991+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-tests-20260505-0
summary:
The following is an alphabetized and categorized list of notable tests. == Clinical psychology tests == == Cognitive development tests == == Intelligence tests == Cattell Culture Fair Kohs block Woodcock–Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities Multidimensional Aptitude Battery II Leiter International Performance Scale Miller Analogies Test Otis–Lennon School Ability Test Raven's Progressive Matrices Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales Sternberg Triarchic Abilities Test Turing test Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence Wonderlic Test Iq test Trust metric == Medical tests == == Self tests == == Statistical tests == Ames test Chi-squared test Draize test Dixon's Q test F-test Fisher's exact test GRIM test Kolmogorov–Smirnov test Kuiper's test Likelihood-ratio test Median test Mann–Whitney U test Pearson's chi-squared test Rank product test Shapiro–Wilk test Statistical hypothesis testing Student's t-test Tukey's range test Tukey's test of additivity Welch's t test == Personality tests == == Pure-mathematical tests == == Skills assessment tests == Student assessment test Scantron test Bourdon–Wiersma test Graduate Management Admission Test Graduate Record Examination (GRE) GRE Physics Test HESI exam Japanese-Language Proficiency Test Medical College Admission Test SAT college entrance test Screen test == Language tests == IELTS (International English Language Testing


id: list-of-unexplained-sounds-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unexplained_sounds-0.md
category: reference
title: List of unexplained sounds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unexplained_sounds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:35.515246+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unexplained-sounds-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of sounds which are currently, or were previously, unidentified. All of the NOAA sound files in this article have been sped up by at least a factor of 16 to increase intelligibility by condensing them and raising the frequency from infrasound to a more audible and reproducible range. == Currently unidentified sounds == === The Hum === The Hum is a persistent and invasive low-frequency humming, rumbling, or droning noise audible to many but not all people. Different causes have been attributed, including local mechanical sources, often from industrial plants, as well as manifestations of tinnitus or other biological auditory effects. === Longfellow Boom === The Longfellow Boom is a loud and unexplained phenomenon reported in the Longfellow community of Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States. The booms reportedly generally take place on summer nights, and have been described by residents as "house-shakingly loud" and at lower tone, distinct from a car crash or gunshot. === Skyquakes === Skyquakes or mistpouffers are a sound phenomenon generally occurring near large bodies of water, described as comparable to distant cannon fire or thunder. The sound has been reported around the world, with several cases documented in the 19th century.


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-neuroscience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_neuroscience-0.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in neuroscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_neuroscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:36.758220+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-neuroscience-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of notable unsolved problems in neuroscience. A problem is considered unsolved if no answer is known or if there is significant disagreement among experts about a proposed solution. == Consciousness == Consciousness: How can consciousness be defined? What is the neural basis of subjective experience, cognition, wakefulness, alertness, arousal, and attention? Binding problem: How exactly is it that objects, background, and abstract or emotional features are combined into a single experience? What is the neural basis of self? Quantum mind: Do quantum mechanical phenomena, such as entanglement and superposition, play an important part in the brain's function and can it explain critical aspects of consciousness? Is there a "hard problem of consciousness"? If so, how is it solved? Vertiginous question: Why is it that a specific subject of experience is "live" from a given perspective? What, if anything, is the function of consciousness? Problem of mental causation: How exactly do mental states cause intentional actions to happen? What is the nature and mechanism behind near-death experiences? How can death be defined? Can consciousness exist after death? If consciousness is generated by brain activity, then how do some patients with physically deteriorated brains suddenly gain a


id: list-of-vineyard-soil-types-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vineyard_soil_types-0.md
category: reference
title: List of vineyard soil types
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vineyard_soil_types
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:37.926102+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-vineyard-soil-types-20260505-0
summary:
The soil composition of vineyards is one of the most important viticultural considerations when planting grape vines. The soil supports the root structure of the vine and influences the drainage levels and amount of minerals and nutrients that the vine is exposed to. The ideal soil condition for a vine is a layer of thin topsoil and subsoil that sufficiently retains water but also has good drainage so that the roots do not become overly saturated. The ability of the soil to retain heat and/or reflect it back up to the vine is also an important consideration that affects the ripening of the grapes. There are several minerals that are vital to the health of vines that all good vineyard soils have. These include calcium which helps to neutralize the soil pH levels, iron which is essential for photosynthesis, magnesium which is an important component of chlorophyll, nitrogen which is assimilated in the form of nitrates, phosphates which encourages root development, and potassium which improves the vine metabolisms and increases its health for next year's crop. == List of soil terms == Unless otherwise noted the primary reference for this list is Sotheby's Wine Encyclopedia 2005 === A–C === Albariza


id: list-of-vineyard-soil-types-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vineyard_soil_types-1.md
category: reference
title: List of vineyard soil types
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vineyard_soil_types
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:37.926102+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-vineyard-soil-types-20260505-0
summary:
=== I–Q === Keuper – Soil type consisting of marl and limestone common in Alsace, dating to the Upper Triassic period. Kimmeridgian soil – A gray-colored limestone-based soil originally identified in Kimmeridge, England. Kimmeridgian clay is calcareous clay containing Kimmeridgian limestone. This is the principal soil type of the Loire Valley, Champagne and Burgundy regions. Lignite – Soil type used as fertilizer in Germany and Champagne. It is a brown-colored carbonaceous soil that is intermediate between peat and coal. Limestone – Sediment-based soil consisting of carbonates. The most common colored limestone found in wine-producing area is buff-gray in color (with the exception of white chalk). The water-retention abilities vary by composition, but limestone is consistently alkaline and is generally planted with grapes of high acidity levels. This is the main soil type in the Zinnkoepflé region of Alsace. Llicorella – A soil type found in the Priorat appellation of Spain. The soil is a mix of slate and quartz that dates to the Paleozoic era. The soil is very porous and drains well. Syrah, Grenache and Carignan have done well in this soil type. Loam – Warm, soft, fertile soil composed of roughly equal amounts of silt, sand and clay.


id: list-of-visual-mnemonics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_visual_mnemonics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of visual mnemonics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_visual_mnemonics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:39.128414+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-visual-mnemonics-20260505-0
summary:
Visual mnemonics are a type of mnemonic that work by associating an image with characters or objects whose name sounds like the item that has to be memorized. == Examples == === Digits === Digits can be memorized by their shapes, so that: 0 -looks like an egg, or a ball; 1 -a pencil, or a candle; 2 -a duck, or a swan; 3 -an ear; a pair of pouted lips. 4 -a sail, a yacht; 5 -a key; 6 -a comet; 7 -a knee; 8 -a snowman, or a pair of glasses; 9 -an apostrophe, or comma. === Biochemistry === Biochemical cycles (i.e., the urea cycle or the citric acid cycle) and their metabolites can be represented by means of hands and fingers (visual imagery mnemonics) which are associated to tales (narrative mnemonics). A hand, depending on its characteristics (e.g. having or not having a fingernail or a nail lunula), represents a biochemical structure and its associated chemical term. A visual mnemonic for the drug hydralazine could be represented as "lazy hydra" that is lying on a beach holding a sign "NO more work". "NO" in the above case symbolizes Nitric oxide, which is related to the drug's mechanism


id: list-of-visual-mnemonics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_visual_mnemonics-1.md
category: reference
title: List of visual mnemonics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_visual_mnemonics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:39.128414+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-visual-mnemonics-20260505-0
summary:
==== Other languages ==== A Lithuanian mnemonic is that the waxing moon at its first (lith:priešpilnis) quarter phase looks like a 'p', and the waning moon at its last (lith:delčia) quarter looks like a 'd'. A French mnemonic is that the waxing moon at its first (fr:premier) quarter phase looks like a 'p', and the waning moon at its last (fr:dernier) quarter looks like a 'd'. A more childlike mnemonic explains that the moon is a liar: the waxing moon looks like an upper-case D, which would correspond to the French verb décroître (meaning: to shrink) but since she (the moon) is une menteuse (a liar) she is in fact doing the opposite: growing. The waning moon looks like a(n upper-case) C, corresponding to the word croître (meaning: to grow), but will be a lie and therefore mean that the moon is 'shrinking'. In Germany, the curve of the moon was traditionally compared to the beginning stroke of the handwritten small letters a (Abnehmen = waning) and z (Zunehmen = waxing), but since this really makes sense only when thinking of the obsolete German handwriting it is rapidly falling into disuse. A more modern German version compares the moon to


id: list-of-volunteer-computing-projects-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_volunteer_computing_projects-0.md
category: reference
title: List of volunteer computing projects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_volunteer_computing_projects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:40.320802+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-volunteer-computing-projects-20260505-0
summary:
Volunteer computing projects are a type of distributed computing where volunteers donate computing time to specific causes. The donated computing power comes from idle CPUs and GPUs in personal computers, video game consoles, and Android devices. Each project seeks to utilize the computing power of many internet connected devices to solve problems and perform large scale computational research in a cost-effective manner. == Active projects == == Completed projects == == See also == == References ==


id: the-10-000-year-explosion-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_10,000_Year_Explosion-0.md
category: reference
title: The 10,000 Year Explosion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_10,000_Year_Explosion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:41.895451+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-10-000-year-explosion-20260505-0
summary:
The 10,000 Year Explosion: How Civilization Accelerated Human Evolution is a 2009 book by anthropologists Gregory Cochran and Henry Harpending. Starting with their own take on the conventional wisdom that the evolutionary process stopped when modern humans appeared, the authors explain the genetic basis of their view that human evolution is accelerating, illustrating it with some examples. Some reviewers considered that the book raised valuable questions but relied on discredited views. Others criticized it for oversimplifying history and reifying the concept of race. == Opinions in book == Cochran and Harpending put forward the idea that the development of agriculture has caused an enormous increase in the rate of human evolution, including numerous evolutionary adaptations to the different challenges and lifestyles that resulted. Moreover, they argue that these adaptations have varied across different human populations, depending on factors such as when the various groups developed agriculture, and the extent to which they mixed genetically with other population groups. Such changes, they argue, include not just well-known physical and biological adaptations such as skin colour, disease resistance, and lactose tolerance, but also personality and cognitive adaptations that are starting to emerge from genetic research. These may include tendencies towards (for example)


id: the-10-000-year-explosion-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_10,000_Year_Explosion-1.md
category: reference
title: The 10,000 Year Explosion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_10,000_Year_Explosion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:41.895451+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-10-000-year-explosion-20260505-0
summary:
=== Neanderthals === Wolpoff writes that Cochran and Harpending continue to refute conventional wisdom in their discussion of the Neanderthals. For natural selection to have a chance, they argue, there need to be favourable mutations, or favourable combinations of existing alleles such as genes for blue eyes or pale skin. Cochran and Harpending concentrate on the Neolithic farming revolution as the beginning of major population expansions that provided enough mutations to accelerate genetic change. Infectious diseases were another consequence of the early urban populations and soon became a new source of selection pressures. The origins of many recently adapted genes have now been traced to this period, creating effects such as regional differences in skin colour and skeletal gracility. Adaptations may have sacrificed muscle strength for higher intelligence and less aggressive human behaviours. By 5000 years ago, the authors estimate that adaptive alleles were coming into existence at a rate about 100 times faster than during the Pleistocene. This is the ‘‘explosion’’ of the book’s title. Research cited by Cochran and Harpending provides evidence of genetic mixing between modern humans and an ancient Homo lineage such as the Neanderthals. According to Cochran and Harpending, it supports the idea that modern


id: the-10-000-year-explosion-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_10,000_Year_Explosion-2.md
category: reference
title: The 10,000 Year Explosion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_10,000_Year_Explosion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:41.895451+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-10-000-year-explosion-20260505-0
summary:
=== Ashkenazi Jews === The second major argument, which takes up the final chapter, sets out to explain why Ashkenazi Jews have a mean IQ so much higher than that of the population in general, as well as a higher rate of some genetic disorders such as Tay-Sachs disease. This argument had been published previously in an earlier paper. This hypothesis proposes that from A.D. 800 until around 1700, Askhenazi Jews were restricted to professions that required high intelligence, and that this produced a selective pressure in favor of intelligence. When faced with a sudden threat, evolution may favor any change that offers protection, and Cochran and Harpending propose that selection for genes promoting high intelligence thus had the side effect of also selecting for these genetic disorders. The hypothesis has drawn a mixed reaction from scientists, with some arguing the hypothesis is highly implausible, and others regarding it as worth considering. According to cognitive psychologist Steven Pinker, this theory "meets the standards of a good scientific theory, though it is tentative and could turn out to be mistaken." According to the Southern Poverty Law Center, these claims were based on the work of discredited psychologist and antisemitic conspiracy theorist


id: about-time-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/About_Time_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: About Time (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/About_Time_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:43.096308+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: about-time-book-20260505-0
summary:
About Time: Einstein's Unfinished Revolution (ISBN 978-0-684-81822-1), published in 1995, is the second book written by Paul Davies, regarding the subject of time. His first book on time was his The Physics of Time Asymmetry (1977)(ISBN 0-520-02825-2). The intended audience is the general public, rather than science academics. About Time explores selected mysteries of spacetime, following on from Albert Einstein's theory of relativity, which Davies believes does not fully explain time as humans experience it. The author explains Important though Einstein's time turned out to be, it still did not solve "the riddle of time". The book delves into the nature of metaphysics, time, motion and gravity, covering a wide range of aspects surrounding the current cosmological debate, across 283 pages in great detail. It includes an index, a bibliography, and numerous diagrams. == See also == Basic introduction to the mathematics of curved spacetime Sense of time The Mind of God How to Build a Time Machine, 2002 fiction book by the same author == References ==


id: african-genesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_Genesis-0.md
category: reference
title: African Genesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_Genesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:44.266534+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: african-genesis-20260505-0
summary:
African Genesis: A Personal Investigation into the Animal Origins and Nature of Man is a 1961 nonfiction work by the American writer Robert Ardrey. It expounded on the killer ape theory, positing the hypothesis that man evolved on the African continent from carnivorous, predatory ancestors who distinguished themselves from apes by the use of weapons. The work bears on questions of human origins, human nature, and human uniqueness. Although some of his ideas were refuted by later science, it was widely read and continues to inspire significant controversy. African Genesis is the first in Robert Ardrey's Nature of Man Series. It is followed by The Territorial Imperative (1966), The Social Contract (1970), and The Hunting Hypothesis (1976). It was illustrated by Ardrey's wife, the South African actress and illustrator Berdine Ardrey (née Grunewald). == Background == Robert Ardrey, at the time a working playwright and screenwriter, travelled in 1955 to Africa, partly at the behest of Richard Foster Flint, to investigate claims made by Raymond Dart about a specimen of Australopithecus africanus. He met Dart in March 1955. Dart, in his laboratory at Witwatersrand University Medical School, had assembled evidence for a controversial thesis. Among the collection were fossil baboon


id: african-genesis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_Genesis-1.md
category: reference
title: African Genesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_Genesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:44.266534+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: african-genesis-20260505-0
summary:
== Legacy == African Genesis met with massive popular success and widespread recognition. It became an international bestseller and was translated into dozens of languages. In 1962 it was a finalist for the National Book Award in nonfiction. In 1969 Time magazine named African Genesis the most notable nonfiction book of the 1960s. The book has continued to bear on the popular imagination of human nature. The theories of Dart and Ardrey flew in the face of prevailing theories of human origins. At the time of the publication of African Genesis it was generally agreed that human beings evolved from Asian ancestors. Furthermore, it was taken for granted that these ancestors were herbivorous. The idea of an African Genesis of humanity was met with fervent resistance in the scientific community. On a grander scale, Ardrey challenged the reigning methodological assumption of the social sciences, that human behavior was fundamentally distinct from animal behavior. As he put it in his next book, The Territorial Imperative, "The dog barking at you from behind his master's fence acts for a motive indistinguishable from that of his master when the fence was built." Following the publication of African Genesis Ardrey's theories became mired in


id: the-age-of-wonder-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Age_of_Wonder-0.md
category: reference
title: The Age of Wonder
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Age_of_Wonder
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:45.472865+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-age-of-wonder-20260505-0
summary:
The Age of Wonder: How the Romantic Generation Discovered the Beauty and Terror of Science is a 2008 popular biography book about the history of science written by Richard Holmes. In it, the author describes the scientific discoveries of the polymaths of the late eighteenth century and how this period formed the basis for modern scientific discoveries. Holmes, a literary biographer, also looks at the influence of science on the arts in the Romantic era. The book won the 2009 Royal Society Prize for Science Books, the 2009 National Book Critics Circle Award for General Nonfiction, and the 2010 National Academies Communication Award. == Overview == Holmes focuses particularly on the lives and works of Sir Joseph Banks, the astronomers William and Caroline Herschel, and chemist Humphry Davy. Other profiles include African explorer Mungo Park. There is a chapter on the early history of ballooning including pioneers Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier, Vincent Lunardi, Jean-Pierre Blanchard and James Sadler. He also describes the relationships between the scientists of that time, and the early days of the Royal Society. A recurring theme of the book is the relation between science and poetry in the Romantic era. John Keats, in “On First Looking


id: aid-on-the-edge-of-chaos-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aid_on_the_Edge_of_Chaos-0.md
category: reference
title: Aid on the Edge of Chaos
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aid_on_the_Edge_of_Chaos
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:46.725909+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aid-on-the-edge-of-chaos-20260505-0
summary:
Aid on the Edge of Chaos is a 2013 book on applying science and innovation to international development, published by Oxford University Press and written by global development and humanitarian expert Ben Ramalingam. == Synopsis == The book focuses on the need to improve foreign aid and the value of complex systems science and research for how global international aid efforts should be designed, implemented and evaluated. == Critical reception and influence == Described in a leading development journal as 'one of the most lauded contributions to recent mainstream development thinking', Aid on the Edge of Chaos has been endorsed by many top scientists and international leaders, including four Nobel Laureates in Medicine, Economics and Chemistry and the heads of Red Cross and United Nations as well as many NGO leaders. It has been positively reviewed by various press outlets, including The Economist, the Financial Times, The Guardian, New Scientist, Nature, Lancet, Harvard Business Review and the British Medical Journal. It was also the focus of an interview feature with the author in Huffington Post. Aid on the Edge of Chaos was the subject of a public lecture by Ben Ramalingam at the Royal Society of Arts, London, in December


