# kb

id: relationship-between-mathematics-and-physics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_mathematics_and_physics-1.md
category: reference
title: Relationship between mathematics and physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_mathematics_and_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:26.526982+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: relationship-between-mathematics-and-physics-20260505-0
summary:
Rigor is indispensable in pure mathematics. But many definitions and arguments found in the physics literature involve concepts and ideas that are not up to the standards of rigor in mathematics. For example, Freeman Dyson characterized quantum field theory as having two "faces". The outward face looked at nature and there the predictions of quantum field theory are exceptionally successful. The inward face looked at mathematical foundations and found inconsistency and mystery. The success of the physical theory comes despite its lack of rigorous mathematical backing. Some mathematicians, such as Arthur Jaffe and Frank Quinn, argue that non-rigorous mathematical work can sometimes bring benefits too. == Philosophical problems == Some of the problems considered in the philosophy of mathematics are the following: Explain the effectiveness of mathematics in the study of the physical world: "At this point an enigma presents itself which in all ages has agitated inquiring minds. How can it be that mathematics, being after all a product of human thought which is independent of experience, is so admirably appropriate to the objects of reality?" —Albert Einstein, in Geometry and Experience (1921). Clearly delineate mathematics and physics: For some results or discoveries, it is difficult to say to


id: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion-0.md
category: reference
title: Relationship between science and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:27.836352+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-0
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The relationship between science and religion involves discussions that interconnect the study of the natural world, history, philosophy, and theology. Even though the ancient and medieval worlds did not have conceptions resembling the modern understandings of "science" or of "religion", certain elements of modern ideas on the subject recur throughout history. The pair-structured phrases "religion and science" and "science and religion" first emerged in the literature during the 19th century. This coincided with the refining of "science" (from the studies of "natural philosophy") and of "religion" as distinct concepts in the preceding few centuries—partly due to professionalization of the sciences, the Protestant Reformation, colonization, and globalization. Since then the relationship between science and religion has been characterized in terms of "conflict", "harmony", "complexity", and "mutual independence", among others. Both science and religion are complex social and cultural endeavors that may vary across cultures and change over time. Most scientific and technical innovations until the scientific revolution were achieved by societies organized by religious traditions. Ancient pagan, Islamic, and Christian scholars pioneered individual elements of the scientific method. Roger Bacon, often credited with formalizing the scientific method, was a Franciscan friar, and medieval Christians who studied nature emphasized natural explanations. Confucian


id: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion-1.md
category: reference
title: Relationship between science and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:27.836352+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-0
summary:
=== Concepts of science and religion === The concepts of "science" and "religion" are a recent invention: "religion" emerged in the 17th century in the midst of colonization, globalization and as a consequence of the Protestant reformation. "Science" emerged in the 19th century in the midst of attempts to narrowly define those who studied nature. Originally what is now known as "science" was pioneered as "natural philosophy". It was in the 19th century that the terms "Buddhism", "Hinduism", "Taoism", "Confucianism" and "World Religions" first emerged. In the ancient and medieval world, the etymological Latin roots of both science (scientia) and religion (religio) were understood as inner qualities of the individual or virtues, never as doctrines, practices, or actual sources of knowledge. The 19th century also experienced the concept of "science" receiving its modern shape with new titles emerging such as "biology" and "biologist", "physics", and "physicist", among other technical fields and titles; institutions and communities were founded, and unprecedented applications to and interactions with other aspects of society and culture occurred. The term scientist was coined by the naturalist-theologian William Whewell in 1834 and it was applied to those who sought knowledge and understanding of nature. From the ancient world,


id: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion-2.md
category: reference
title: Relationship between science and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:27.836352+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-0
summary:
"In matters that are obscure and far beyond our vision, even in such as we may find treated in Holy Scripture, different interpretations are sometimes possible without prejudice to the faith we have received. In such a case, we should not rush in headlong and so firmly take our stand on one side that, if further progress in the search of truth justly undermines this position, we too fall with it. That would be to battle not for the teaching of Holy Scripture but for our own, wishing its teaching to conform to ours, whereas we ought to wish ours to conform to that of Sacred Scripture." (Gen. ad lit. i, 18) In medieval universities, the faculty for natural philosophy and theology were separate, and discussions pertaining to theological issues were often not allowed to be undertaken by the faculty of philosophy. Natural philosophy, as taught in the arts faculties of the universities, was seen as an essential area of study in its own right and was considered necessary for almost every area of study. It was an independent field, separated from theology, and enjoyed a good deal of intellectual freedom as long as it was restricted to the natural


id: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion-3.md
category: reference
title: Relationship between science and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:27.836352+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-0
summary:
According to Guillermo Paz-y-Miño-C and Avelina Espinosa, the historical conflict between evolution and religion is intrinsic to the incompatibility between scientific rationalism/empiricism and the belief in supernatural causation/faith. According to evolutionary biologist Jerry Coyne, views on evolution and levels of religiosity in some countries, along with the existence of books explaining reconciliation between evolution and religion, indicate that people have trouble in believing both at the same time, thus implying incompatibility. According to physical chemist Peter Atkins, "whereas religion scorns the power of human comprehension, science respects it." Planetary scientist Carolyn Porco describes a hope that "the confrontation between science and formal religion will come to an end when the role played by science in the lives of all people is the same played by religion today." Geologist and paleontologist Donald Prothero has stated that religion is the reason "questions about evolution, the age of the earth, cosmology, and human evolution nearly always cause Americans to flunk science literacy tests compared to other nations." However, Jon Miller, who studies science literacy across nations, states that Americans in general are slightly more scientifically literate than Europeans and the Japanese. According to cosmologist and astrophysicist Lawrence Krauss, compatibility or incompatibility is a


id: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion-4.md
category: reference
title: Relationship between science and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:27.836352+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-0
summary:
The conflict thesis, which holds that religion and science have been in conflict continuously throughout history, was popularized in the 19th century by John William Draper's and Andrew Dickson White's accounts. It was in the 19th century that relationship between science and religion became an actual formal topic of discourse, while before this no one had pitted science against religion or vice versa, though occasional complex interactions had been expressed before the 19th century. Most contemporary historians of science now reject the conflict thesis in its original form and no longer support it. Instead, it has been superseded by subsequent historical research which has resulted in a more nuanced understanding. Historian of science, Gary Ferngren, has stated: "Although popular images of controversy continue to exemplify the supposed hostility of Christianity to new scientific theories, studies have shown that Christianity has often nurtured and encouraged scientific endeavour, while at other times the two have co-existed without either tension or attempts at harmonization. If Galileo and the Scopes trial come to mind as examples of conflict, they were the exceptions rather than the rule." Most historians today have moved away from a conflict model, which is based mainly on two historical episodes


id: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion-5.md
category: reference
title: Relationship between science and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:27.836352+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-0
summary:
Science and religion are based on different aspects of human experience. In science, explanations must be based on evidence drawn from examining the natural world. Scientifically based observations or experiments that conflict with an explanation eventually must lead to modification or even abandonment of that explanation. Religious faith, in contrast, does not depend on empirical evidence, is not necessarily modified in the face of conflicting evidence, and typically involves supernatural forces or entities. Because they are not a part of nature, supernatural entities cannot be investigated by science. In this sense, science and religion are separate and address aspects of human understanding in different ways. Attempts to put science and religion against each other create controversy where none needs to exist. According to Archbishop John Habgood, both science and religion represent distinct ways of approaching experience and these differences are sources of debate. He views science as descriptive and religion as prescriptive. He stated that if science and mathematics concentrate on what the world ought to be, in the way that religion does, it may lead to improperly ascribing properties to the natural world as happened among the followers of Pythagoras in the sixth century B.C. In contrast, proponents of


id: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion-6.md
category: reference
title: Relationship between science and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:27.836352+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-0
summary:
=== Integration === As a general view, this holds that while interactions are complex between influences of science, theology, politics, social, and economic concerns, the productive engagements between science and religion throughout history should be duly stressed as the norm. Scientific and theological perspectives often coexist peacefully. Christian and non-Christian religions have historically integrated well with scientific ideas, as in the ancient Egyptian technological mastery applied to monotheistic ends, the scientific advances made by Muslim scholars during the Ottoman Empire and mathematics under Hinduism and Buddhism. Even many 19th-century Christian communities welcomed scientists who claimed that science was not at all concerned with discovering the ultimate nature of reality. According to Lawrence M. Principe, the Johns Hopkins University Drew Professor of the Humanities, from a historical perspective this points out that much of the current-day clashes occur between limited extremists—both religious and scientistic fundamentalists—over a very few topics, and that the movement of ideas back and forth between scientific and theological thought has been more usual. To Principe, this perspective would point to the fundamentally common respect for written learning in religious traditions of rabbinical literature, Christian theology, and the Islamic Golden Age, including a Transmission of the Classics from


id: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion-7.md
category: reference
title: Relationship between science and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:27.836352+00:00
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parent: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-0
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Among early Christian teachers, Tertullian (c. 160–220) held a generally negative opinion of Greek philosophy, while Origen (c. 185–254) regarded it much more favorably and required his students to read nearly every work available to them. Earlier attempts at reconciliation of Christianity with Newtonian mechanics appear quite different from later attempts at reconciliation with the newer scientific ideas of evolution or relativity. Many early interpretations of evolution polarized themselves around a struggle for existence. These ideas were significantly countered by later findings of universal patterns of biological cooperation. According to John Habgood, the universe seems to be a mix of good and evil, beauty and pain, and that suffering may somehow be part of the process of creation. Habgood holds that Christians should not be surprised that suffering may be used creatively by God, given their faith in the symbol of the Cross. Robert John Russell has examined consonance and dissonance between modern physics, evolutionary biology, and Christian theology. Christian philosophers Augustine of Hippo (354–430) and Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) held that scriptures can have multiple interpretations on certain areas where the matters were far beyond their reach, therefore one should leave room for future findings to shed light on the


id: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion-8.md
category: reference
title: Relationship between science and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:27.836352+00:00
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parent: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-0
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==== Perspectives on evolution ==== In recent history, the theory of evolution has been at the center of some controversy between Christianity and science. Christians who accept a literal interpretation of the biblical account of creation find incompatibility between Darwinian evolution and their interpretation of the Christian faith. Creation science or scientific creationism is a branch of creationism that attempts to provide scientific support for a literal reading of the Genesis creation narrative in the Book of Genesis and attempts to disprove generally accepted scientific facts, theories and scientific paradigms about the geological history of the Earth, cosmology of the early universe, the chemical origins of life and biological evolution. It began in the 1960s as a fundamentalist Christian effort in the United States to prove Biblical inerrancy and falsify the scientific evidence for evolution. It has since developed a sizable religious following in the United States, with creation science ministries branching worldwide. In 1925, The State of Tennessee passed the Butler Act, which prohibited the teaching of the theory of evolution in all schools in the state. Later that year, a similar law was passed in Mississippi, and likewise, Arkansas in 1927. In 1968, these "anti-monkey" laws were struck


id: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion-9.md
category: reference
title: Relationship between science and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:27.836352+00:00
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parent: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-0
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According to Andrew Dickson White's 1896 book A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom, a biblical world view affected negatively the progress of science through time. Dickinson also argues that immediately following the Reformation matters were even worse. The interpretations of Scripture by Luther and Calvin became as sacred to their followers as the Scripture itself. For instance, when Georg Calixtus ventured, in interpreting the Psalms, to question the accepted belief that "the waters above the heavens" were contained in a vast receptacle upheld by a solid vault, he was bitterly denounced as heretical. Today, much of the scholarship in which the conflict thesis was originally based is considered to be inaccurate. For instance, the claim that early Christians rejected scientific findings by the Greco-Romans is false, since the "handmaiden" view of secular studies was seen to shed light on theology. This view was widely adapted throughout the early medieval period and afterwards by theologians (such as Augustine) and ultimately resulted in fostering interest in knowledge about nature through time. Also, the claim that people of the Middle Ages widely believed that the Earth was flat was first propagated in the same period that originated the


id: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion-10.md
category: reference
title: Relationship between science and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:27.836352+00:00
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parent: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-0
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==== Reconciliation in Britain in the early 20th century ==== In Reconciling Science and Religion: The Debate in Early-twentieth-century Britain, historian of biology Peter J. Bowler argues that in contrast to the conflicts between science and religion in the U.S. in the 1920s (most famously the Scopes Trial), during this period Great Britain experienced a concerted effort at reconciliation, championed by intellectually conservative scientists, supported by liberal theologians but opposed by younger scientists and secularists and conservative Christians. These attempts at reconciliation fell apart in the 1930s due to increased social tensions, moves towards neo-orthodox theology and the acceptance of the modern evolutionary synthesis. In the 20th century, several ecumenical organizations promoting a harmony between science and Christianity were founded, most notably the American Scientific Affiliation, The Biologos Foundation, Christians in Science, The Society of Ordained Scientists, and The Veritas Forum. === Confucianism and traditional Chinese religion === The historical process of Confucianism has largely been antipathic towards scientific discovery. However the religio-philosophical system itself is more neutral on the subject than such an analysis might suggest. In his writings On Heaven, Xunzi espoused a proto-scientific world view. However, during the Han Synthesis the more anti-empirical Mencius was favored and


id: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion-11.md
category: reference
title: Relationship between science and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:27.836352+00:00
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parent: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-0
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Pratyakṣa or Dṛṣṭam – direct sense perception, Anumāna – logical inference and Śabda or Āptavacana – verbal testimony. Nyaya, the Hindu school of logic, accepts all these 3 means and in addition accepts one more – Upamāna (comparison). The accounts of the emergence of life within the universe vary in description, but classically the deity called Brahma, from a Trimurti of three deities also including Vishnu and Shiva, is described as performing the act of 'creation', or more specifically of 'propagating life within the universe' with the other two deities being responsible for 'preservation' and 'destruction' (of the universe) respectively. In this respect some Hindu schools do not treat the scriptural creation myth literally and often the creation stories themselves do not go into specific detail, thus leaving open the possibility of incorporating at least some theories in support of evolution. Some Hindus find support for, or foreshadowing of evolutionary ideas in scriptures, namely the Vedas. The incarnations of Vishnu (Dashavatara) is almost identical to the scientific explanation of the sequence of biological evolution of man and animals. The sequence of avatars starts from an aquatic organism (Matsya), to an amphibian (Kurma), to a land-animal (Varaha), to a humanoid (Narasimha),


id: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion-12.md
category: reference
title: Relationship between science and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:27.836352+00:00
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parent: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-0
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The Ahmadiyya movement emphasize that "there is no contradiction between Islam and science". For example, Ahmadi Muslims universally accept in principle the process of evolution, albeit divinely guided, and actively promote it. Over the course of several decades the movement has issued various publications in support of the scientific concepts behind the process of evolution, and frequently engages in promoting how religious scriptures, such as the Qur'an, supports the concept. For general purposes, the second Khalifa of the community, Mirza Basheer-ud-Din Mahmood Ahmad says: The Holy Quran directs attention towards science, time and again, rather than evoking prejudice against it. The Quran has never advised against studying science, lest the reader should become a non-believer; because it has no such fear or concern. The Holy Quran is not worried that if people will learn the laws of nature its spell will break. The Quran has not prevented people from science, rather it states, "Say, 'Reflect on what is happening in the heavens and the earth.'" (Al Younus) === Jainism === ==== Biology ==== Jainism classifies life into two main divisions those who are static by nature (sthavar) and those who are mobile (trasa). Jain texts describes life in plant long


id: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion-13.md
category: reference
title: Relationship between science and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:27.836352+00:00
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parent: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-0
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==== United States ==== In 1916, 1,000 leading American scientists were randomly chosen from American Men of Science and 42% believed God existed, 42% disbelieved, and 17% had doubts/did not know; however, when the study was replicated 80 years later using American Men and Women of Science in 1996, the results were very much the same with 39% believing God exists, 45% disbelieved, and 15% had doubts/did not know. In the same 1996 survey, for scientists in the fields of biology, mathematics, and physics/astronomy, belief in a god that is "in intellectual and affective communication with humankind" was most popular among mathematicians (about 45%) and least popular among physicists (about 22%). In terms of belief in God among elite scientists, such as "great scientists" in the "American Men of Science" or members of the National Academies of Science; 53% disbelieved, 21% were agnostic, and 28% believed in 1914; 68% disbelieved, 17% were agnostic, and 15% believed in 1933; and 72% disbelieved, 21% were agnostic, and 7% believed in 1998. However Eugenie Scott argued that there are methodological issues in the study, including ambiguity in the questions such using a personal definition of God instead of broader definitions of God. A


id: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion-14.md
category: reference
title: Relationship between science and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:27.836352+00:00
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==== Other or multiple countries ==== According to the Study of Secularism in Society and Culture's report on 1,100 scientists in India: 66% are Hindu, 14% did not report a religion, 10% are atheist/no religion, 3% are Muslim, 3% are Christian, 4% are Buddhist, Sikh or other. 39% have a belief in a god, 6% have belief in a god sometimes, 30% do not believe in a god but believe in a higher power, 13% do not know if there is a god, and 12% do not believe in a god. 49% believe in the efficacy of prayer, 90% strongly agree or somewhat agree with approving degrees in Ayurvedic medicine. Furthermore, the term "secularism" is understood to have diverse and simultaneous meanings among Indian scientists: 93% believe it to be tolerance of religions and philosophies, 83% see it as involving separation of church and state, 53% see it as not identifying with religious traditions, 40% see it as absence of religious beliefs, and 20% see it as atheism. Accordingly, 75% of Indian scientists had a "secular" outlook in terms of being tolerant of other religions. According to the Religion Among Scientists in International Context (RASIC) study on 1,581 scientists from


id: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion-15.md
category: reference
title: Relationship between science and religion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:27.836352+00:00
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parent: relationship-between-science-and-religion-20260505-0
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==== United States ==== According to a 2015 Pew Research Center Study on the public perceptions on science, people's perceptions on conflict with science have more to do with their perceptions of other people's beliefs than their own personal beliefs. For instance, the majority of people with a religious affiliation (68%) saw no conflict between their own personal religious beliefs and science while the majority of those without a religious affiliation (76%) perceived science and religion to be in conflict. The study noted that people who are not affiliated with any religion, also known as "religiously unaffiliated", often have supernatural beliefs and spiritual practices despite them not being affiliated with any religion and also that "just one-in-six religiously unaffiliated adults (16%) say their own religious beliefs conflict with science." Furthermore, the study observed, "The share of all adults who perceive a conflict between science and their own religious beliefs has declined somewhat in recent years, from 36% in 2009 to 30% in 2014. Among those who are affiliated with a religion, the share of people who say there is a conflict between science and their personal religious beliefs dropped from 41% to 34% during this period." In a 2024 Pew


id: science-in-the-renaissance-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_the_Renaissance-0.md
category: reference
title: Science in the Renaissance
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_the_Renaissance
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:29.093609+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-in-the-renaissance-20260505-0
summary:
Science in the Renaissance was predominantly an extension of medieval traditions of natural philosophy but also produced new ideas and methods in mathematics, anatomy and astronomy and included a revolution in the European understanding of the Earth's geography. The collection of ancient scientific texts began in earnest at the start of the 15th century and continued up to the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, and the invention of printing allowed a faster propagation of new ideas. Some scholars have argued that the era was scientifically backward because Renaissance humanists favored human-centered subjects like politics and history over study of natural philosophy or applied mathematics. More recently, however, scholars have acknowledged the positive impact of the rediscovery of lost or obscure texts and the increased focus on the study of language and the correct reading of texts, while also emphasizing how the invention and rapid spread of the moveable type printing press and the encounter with the Americas served as necessary preconditions for the Scientific Revolution of the 17th century. == Context == During and after the Renaissance of the 12th century, Europe experienced an intellectual revitalization, especially with regard to the investigation of the natural world. In the 14th century,


id: science-in-the-renaissance-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_the_Renaissance-1.md
category: reference
title: Science in the Renaissance
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_the_Renaissance
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:29.093609+00:00
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parent: science-in-the-renaissance-20260505-0
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While differing in some respects, alchemy and chemistry often had similar goals during the Renaissance period, and together they are sometimes referred to as chymistry. Alchemy is the study of the transmutation of materials through obscure processes. Although it is often viewed as a pseudoscientific endeavor, many of its practitioners utilized widely accepted scientific theories of their times to formulate hypotheses about the constituents of matter and the ways matter could be changed. One of the main aims of alchemists was to find a method of creating gold and other precious metals from the transmutation of base materials. A common belief of alchemists was that there is an essential substance from which all other substances formed, and that if you could reduce a substance to this original material, you could then construct it into another substance, like lead to gold. Medieval alchemists worked with two main elements or "principles", sulphur and mercury. Paracelsus was a chymist and physician of the Renaissance period who believed that, in addition to sulphur and mercury, salt served as one of the primary alchemical principles from which everything else was made. Paracelsus was also instrumental in helping to put chemical practices to practical medicinal use


id: science-in-the-renaissance-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_the_Renaissance-2.md
category: reference
title: Science in the Renaissance
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_the_Renaissance
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:29.093609+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-in-the-renaissance-20260505-0
summary:
The accomplishments of Greek mathematicians survived throughout Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages through a long and indirect history. Much of the work of Euclid, Archimedes, and Apollonius, along with later authors such as Hero and Pappus, were copied and studied in both Byzantine culture and in Islamic centers of learning. Translations of these works began already in the 12th century, with the work of translators in Spain and Sicily, working mostly from Arabic and Greek sources into Latin. Two of the most prolific were Gerard of Cremona and William of Moerbeke. The greatest of all translation efforts, however, took place in the 15th and 16th centuries in Italy, as attested by the numerous manuscripts dating from this period currently found in European libraries. Virtually all leading mathematicians of the era were obsessed with the need for restoring the mathematical works of the ancients. Not only did humanists assist mathematicians with the retrieval of Greek manuscripts, they also took an active role in translating these work into Latin, often commissioned by religious leaders such as Nicholas V and Cardinal Bessarion. Some of the leading figures in this effort include Regiomontanus, who made a copy of the Latin Archimedes and had


id: repression-of-science-in-the-soviet-union-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repression_of_science_in_the_Soviet_Union-0.md
category: reference
title: Repression of science in the Soviet Union
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repression_of_science_in_the_Soviet_Union
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:30.233071+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: repression-of-science-in-the-soviet-union-20260505-0
summary:
Many fields of scientific research in the Soviet Union were banned or suppressed with various justifications. All humanities and social sciences were tested for strict accordance with dialectical materialism. These tests served as a cover for political suppression of scientists who engaged in research labeled as "idealistic" or "bourgeois". Many scientists were fired, others were arrested and sent to Gulags. The suppression of scientific research began during the Stalin era and continued after his death. The ideologically motivated persecution damaged many fields of Soviet science. == Examples == === Biology === In the mid-1930s, the agronomist Trofim Lysenko started a campaign against genetics and was supported by Stalin. If the field of genetics' connection to Nazis wasn't enough, Mendelian genetics was also suppressed due to beliefs that it was "bourgeoisie science" and its association with the priest Gregor Mendel due to hostility to religion because of the Soviet policy of state atheism. In 1950, the Soviet government organized the Joint Scientific Session of the USSR Academy of Sciences and the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, the "Pavlovian session". Several prominent Soviet physiologists (L.A. Orbeli, P.K. Anokhin, Aleksey Speransky, Ivane Beritashvili) were accused of deviating from Pavlov's teaching. As a consequence


id: repression-of-science-in-the-soviet-union-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repression_of_science_in_the_Soviet_Union-1.md
category: reference
title: Repression of science in the Soviet Union
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repression_of_science_in_the_Soviet_Union
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:30.233071+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: repression-of-science-in-the-soviet-union-20260505-0
summary:
=== Physics === In the late 1940s, some areas of physics, were also criticized on grounds of "idealism". In quantum mechanics Soviet physicists Dmitry Blokhintsev, Yaakov Terletsky and K. V. Nikolsky developed a version of the statistical interpretation of quantum mechanics, which was seen as more adhering to the principles of dialectical materialism. Special and general relativity were a matter of controversy among the Soviet scientists since 1920. Some of them argued that this theory is grounded in Machism (acutely criticized by Vladimir Lenin in his Materialism and Empiriocriticism), others were a group of so-called "mechanists" (see Mechanists and dialecticians controversy), later "Young Stalinists" joined the ranks of the relativity theory. At the same time a considerable number of prominent Soviet physicists defended the relativity theory. The attacks on the relativity theory intensified in 1949 under the auspices of the struggle against the "physical idealism" in the work of Leonid Mandelstam. Initially Sergey Vavilov, President of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union, managed to defend Mandelstam, but in 1952 the political attacks on "reactionary Einsteinianism" intensified further. This pseudoscientific campaign sizzled after the death of Stalin. Although initially planned, the process of "ideological cleansing" in physics did not


id: roman-science-origins-development-and-influence-to-the-later-middle-ages-20260505-0
category: reference
title: Roman Science: Origins, Development, and Influence to the Later Middle Ages
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:35.903880+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: roman-science-origins-development-and-influence-to-the-later-middle-ages-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Science:_Origins,_Development,_and_Influence_to_the_Later_Middle_Ages-0.md

summary:
Roman Science: Origins, Development, and Influence to the Later Middle Ages is a book by science historian William Harris Stahl, published in 1962 by University of Wisconsin Press. == Synopsis == This book covers the history of science in the Latin-speaking West from its Greek origins to the time of the Graeco-Arabic revival, focusing on the influence of Greek science in the Latin world, and on how this influence shaped both scientific education and scientific culture all the way to the Middle Ages. The volume follows what the author calls "the handbooks movement", the production of encyclopedic material originating with Greek authors, such as Posidonius and Theon of Smyrna, and follows this tradition among the Romans. Stahl devotes specific chapters to Pliny, Solinus, Chalcidius, Macrobius, Capella, Boethius, Cassiodorus, Isidore, Bede, and other authors till about 1250, and discusses the genesis and subsequent development of the liberal arts in the Quadrivium and Trivium from the age of Plato (428–424 BC) and Isocrates (436–338 BC) till the Middle Ages and Renaissance. == Content == The initial section on "Classical Greek Origins" treats the discoveries of Aristarchus of Samos, Pythagora, the Sophists Hippias of Elis and Isocrates, Plato, the mathematician Eudoxus – credited

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Science:_Origins,_Development,_and_Influence_to_the_Later_Middle_Ages


id: romanticism-in-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism_in_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Romanticism in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:37.034889+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: romanticism-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
19th-century science was greatly influenced by Romanticism (or the Age of Reflection, c. 1800–1840), an intellectual movement that originated in Western Europe as a counter-movement to the late-18th-century Enlightenment. Romanticism incorporated many fields of study, including politics, the arts, and the humanities. In contrast to the Enlightenment's mechanistic natural philosophy, European scientists of the Romantic period held that observing nature implied understanding the self and that knowledge of nature "should not be obtained by force". They felt that the Enlightenment had encouraged the abuse of the sciences, and they sought to advance a new way to increase scientific knowledge, one that they felt would be more beneficial not only to mankind but to nature as well. Romanticism advanced a number of themes: it promoted anti-reductionism (that the whole is more valuable than the parts alone) and epistemological optimism (man was connected to nature), and encouraged creativity, experience, and genius. It also emphasized the scientist's role in scientific discovery, holding that acquiring knowledge of nature meant understanding man as well; therefore, these scientists placed a high importance on respect for nature. Romanticism declined beginning around 1840 as a new movement, positivism, took hold of intellectuals, and lasted until about 1880. As


id: romanticism-in-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism_in_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Romanticism in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:37.034889+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: romanticism-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Naturphilosophie == In Friedrich Schelling's Naturphilosophie, he explained his thesis regarding the necessity of reuniting man with nature; it was this German work that first defined the Romantic conception of science and vision of natural philosophy. He called nature "a history of the path to freedom" and encouraged a reunion of man's spirit with nature. === Biology === The "new science of biology" was first termed biologie by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck in 1801, and was "an independent scientific discipline born at the end of a long process of erosion of 'mechanical philosophy,' consisting in a spreading awareness that the phenomena of living nature cannot be understood in the light of the laws of physics but require an ad hoc explanation." The mechanical philosophy of the 17th century sought to explain life as a system of parts that operate or interact like those of a machine. Lamarck stated that the life sciences must detach from the physical sciences and strove to create a field of research that was different from the concepts, laws, and principles of physics. In rejecting mechanism without entirely abandoning the research of material phenomena that do occur in nature, he was able to point out that "living


id: romanticism-in-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism_in_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Romanticism in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:37.034889+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: romanticism-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== Organic chemistry ==== The development of organic chemistry in the 19th century necessitated the acceptance by chemists of ideas deriving from Naturphilosophie, modifying the Enlightenment concepts of organic composition put forward by Lavoisier. Of central importance was the work on the constitution and synthesis of organic substances by contemporary chemists. == Popular image of science == Science was a subject of great interest to important romantic writers and artists. The English poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge, for example, was a passionate student of chemistry as well as optics, medicine, and the now-discredited field of animal magnetism. William Wordsworth was one of several writers whose poetry about the natural world is associated with the rise of ecology, even though ecology would not be formalized as a discipline until the second half of the nineteenth century. Another British Romantic writer interested in science was Mary Shelley. Her famous book Frankenstein also conveyed important aspects of Romanticism in science as she included elements of anti-reductionism and manipulation of nature, both key themes that concerned Romantics, as well as the scientific fields of chemistry, anatomy, and natural philosophy. She stressed the role and responsibility of society regarding science, and through the moral of her


id: s-i-vavilov-institute-for-the-history-of-science-and-technology-ras-20260505-0
category: reference
title: S.I. Vavilov Institute for the History of Science and Technology RAS
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S.I._Vavilov_Institute_for_the_History_of_Science_and_Technology_RAS
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:39.492842+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: s-i-vavilov-institute-for-the-history-of-science-and-technology-ras-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S.I._Vavilov_Institute_for_the_History_of_Science_and_Technology_RAS-0.md

summary:
The Sergey Vavilov Institute for the History of Science and Technology of the Russian Academy of Sciences (or Institute for the History of Science and Technology named after S. I. Vavilov RAS (IHIT or IIET RAS)) is the only research institute in Russia for the study of the history of science and technology. It managed by the Presidium of the Russian Academy of Sciences. == History == In 1921, the Russian Academy of Sciences established the "Commission for the Study of the History, Philosophy and Technology" under the chairmanship of Vladimir Vernadsky (later renamed the Commission on the History of Knowledge). From 1930, the commission was chaired by N. I. Bukharin. === Institute of the History of Science and Technology === On February 28, 1932, the Institute of the History of Science and Technology was established on the basis of the CHK, with Bukharin appointed as its first director. Later, the institution was headed by A. A. Maximov, B. G. Kuznetsov, and V. V. Osinsky-Obolensky (1935–1937). The institute was dissolved on February 5, 1938, after being declared a "center of anti-Soviet conspiracy". === Modern Institute === On November 22, 1944, the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR issued a


id: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa-0.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology in Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:40.805209+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
summary:
Africa has the world's oldest record of human technological achievement: the oldest surviving stone tools in the world have been found in eastern Africa, and later evidence for tool production by humans' hominin ancestors has been found across West, Central, Eastern and Southern Africa. The history of science and technology in Africa since then has, however, received relatively little attention compared to other regions of the world, despite notable African developments in mathematics, metallurgy, architecture, and other fields. == Early humans == The Great Rift Valley of Africa provides critical evidence for the evolution of early hominins. The earliest tools in the world can be found there as well: An unidentified hominin, possibly Australopithecus afarensis or Kenyanthropus platyops, created stone tools dating to 3.3 million years ago at Lomekwi in the Turkana Basin, eastern Africa. Homo habilis, residing in eastern Africa, developed another early toolmaking industry, the Oldowan, around 2.3 million years ago. Homo erectus developed the Acheulean stone tool industry, specifically hand-axes, at 1.5 million years ago. This tool industry spread to the Middle East and Europe around 800,000 to 600,000 years ago. Homo erectus also begins using fire. Homo sapiens, or modern humans, created bone tools and backed


id: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa-1.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology in Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:40.805209+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
summary:
=== Eastern Africa === Megalithic "pillar sites", known as "namoratunga", date to as early as 5,000 years ago and can be found surrounding Lake Turkana in Kenya. Although somewhat controversial today, initial interpretations suggested that they were used by Cushitic speaking people as an alignment with star systems tuned to a lunar calendar of 354 days. === Southern Africa === Today, South Africa has cultivated a burgeoning astronomy community. It hosts the Southern African Large Telescope, the largest optical telescope in the southern hemisphere. South Africa is currently building the Karoo Array Telescope as a pathfinder for the $20 billion Square Kilometer Array project. South Africa is a finalist, with Australia, to be the host of the SKA. Due to archeological findings it has been speculated that the kingdoms of Zimbabwe such as Great Zimbabwe and mapungubwe used astronomy. Monolith stones with special engravings thought to be used to track Venus were found. They were compared to Mayan calendars and were found to be more accurate than them == Mathematics == According to Paulus Gerdes, the development of geometrical thinking started early in African history, as early humans learned to "geometricize" in the context of their labor activities. For example,


id: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa-2.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology in Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:40.805209+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
summary:
Mathematical notation was decimal, and based on hieroglyphic signs for each power of ten up to one million. Each of these could be written as many times as necessary to add up to the desired number; so to write the number eighty or eight hundred, the symbol for ten or one hundred was written eight times respectively. Because their methods of calculation could not handle most fractions with a numerator greater than one, ancient Egyptian fractions had to be written as the sum of several fractions. For example, the fraction two-fifths was resolved into the sum of one-third + one-fifteenth; this was facilitated by standard tables of values. Some common fractions, however, were written with a special glyph; the equivalent of the modern two-thirds is shown on the right. Ancient Egyptian mathematicians had a grasp of the principles underlying the Pythagorean theorem, knowing, for example, that a triangle had a right angle opposite the hypotenuse when its sides were in a 3–4–5 ratio. They were able to estimate the area of a circle by subtracting one-ninth from its diameter and squaring the result: Area ≈ [(8⁄9)D]2 = (256⁄81)r2 ≈ 3.16r2, a reasonable approximation of the formula πr2. The golden ratio


id: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa-3.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology in Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:40.805209+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
summary:
=== Northern Africa and the Nile Valley === Nubia was a major source of gold in the ancient world. Gold was a major source of Kushitic wealth and power. Gold was mined East of the Nile in Wadi Allaqi and Wadi Cabgaba. Around 500 BCE, Nubia, during the Meroitic phase, became a major manufacturer and exporter of iron. This was after being expelled from Egypt by Assyrians, who used iron weapons. === East Africa === The Aksumites produced coins around 270 CE, under the rule of King Endybis. Aksumite coins were issued in gold, silver, and bronze. Since 600 BCE, Bantu peoples in Uganda had been producing high-grade carbon steels using preheated forced draft furnaces, a technique achieved in Europe only with the Siemons process in the mid-19th century. Anthropologist Peter Schmidt discovered through the communication of oral tradition that the Haya in Tanzania have been forging steel for over 2000 years. This discovery was made accidentally while Schmidt was learning about the history of the Haya via their oral tradition. He was led to a tree which was said to rest on the spot of an ancestral furnace used to forge steel. When later tasked with the challenge of


id: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa-4.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology in Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:40.805209+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
summary:
=== West Africa and the Sahel === The knowledge of inoculating oneself against smallpox seems to have been known to West Africans, more specifically the Akan. A slave named Onesimus explained the inoculation procedure to Cotton Mather during the 18th century; he reported to have gotten the knowledge from Africa. Bonesetting is practiced by many groups of West Africa (the Akan, Mano, and Yoruba, to name a few). In Djenné the mosquito was isolated to be the cause of malaria, and the removal of cataracts was a common surgical procedure (as in many other parts of Africa). The dangers of tobacco smoking were known to African Muslim scholars, based on Timbuktu manuscripts. Palm oil was important in health and hygiene. A German visiting in 1603-1604 reported that people washed themselves three times a day, "after which they anoint themselves with tallow or with palm oil, which is an excellent medicine". Palm oil protected the skin and hair, and it had cosmetic value in many cultures. Women (and sometimes men) spread palm oil on their skin to "shine the whole day". Palm oil was also a useful way of applying decorative color and perfumes, like powdered camwood. Many Africans considered palm


id: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa-5.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology in Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:40.805209+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
summary:
=== East Africa === European travelers in the Great Lakes region of Africa during the 19th century reported cases of surgery in the kingdom of Bunyoro-Kitara. Medical historians, such as Jack Davies argued in 1959 that Bunyoro's traditional healers were perhaps the most highly skilled in precolonial sub-Saharan Africa, possessing a remarkable level of medical knowledge. One observer noted a "surgical skill which had reached a high standard". Caesarean sections and other abdominal and thoracic operations were performed on a regular basis with the avoidance of haemorrhage and sepsis using antiseptics, anaesthetics and cautery iron. The expectant mother was normally anesthetized with banana wine, and herbal mixtures were used to encourage healing. From the well-developed nature of the procedures employed, European observers concluded that they had been employed for some time. Bunyoro surgeons treated lung inflammations, Pneumonia and pleurisy by punching holes in the chest until the air passed freely. Trephining was carried out and the bones of depressed fractures were elevated. Horrible war wounds, even penetrating abdominal and chest wounds were treated with success, even when this involved quite heroic surgery. Amputations were done by tying a tight ligature just above the line of amputation and neatly cutting off


id: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa-6.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology in Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:40.805209+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
summary:
=== Southern Africa === A South African, Max Theiler, developed a vaccine against yellow fever in 1937. Allan McLeod Cormack developed the theoretical underpinnings of CT scanning and co-invented the CT-scanner. The first human-to-human heart transplant was performed by South African cardiac surgeon Christiaan Barnard at Groote Schuur Hospital in December 1967. See also Hamilton Naki. During the 1960s, South African Aaron Klug developed crystallographic electron microscopy techniques, in which a sequence of two-dimensional images of crystals taken from different angles are combined to produce three-dimensional images of the target. The Zulu king represented the ultimate public health official. As Ndukwana, one of Stuart's respondents, explains, "All people like the land they lived on belonged to the king. If any man got seriously ill, his illness would be notified to the mnumzana[head-man], who would instantly report the fact to the izinduna (chiefs) and they to the king. The king would then most likely give the order to consult diviners so as to discover the nature and cause of his illness. A sick man in Zululand was always an object of great importance.' In theory the Zulu king and his local chiefs took responsibility for the well-being of their people and


id: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa-7.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology in Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:40.805209+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
summary:
== Agriculture == Tropical soils are typically low in organic matter and so present special problems to agriculturalists. Indeed, African soils, (outside alluvial and volcanic areas) are in large part deficient in the characteristics of structure, texture, and chemistry which mainly determine soil fertility. Tropical areas do not have a winter season, so micro-organisms continue to break down organic matter throughout the year. Tropical soils typically have very small percentages of organic matter or humus (sometimes as little as 1%) as a result. Soils in temperate climates may, in contrast, consist of 12 to 14 or (in virgin soils in the Midwestern United States) up to 16% organic materials, because the cold winters slow the processes of decomposition and allow organic material to build up over time. In many tropical regions, farmers practice a semi-sedentary form of agriculture, using fields for two or three years and then abandoning them for a decade or more (up to 25 years after two years of cultivation in the case of savanna woodlands in Africa), until the humus content has been restored by natural processes. Through careful observation, experimentation and selection of desirable traits over the course of 2,000 years, Africans managed to create


id: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa-8.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology in Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:40.805209+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
summary:
Since communications and markets were relatively poorly developed, the farmer had to sow a great variety of crops with a great variety of characteristics, in order to survive no matter what the climatic variations, so that he would not be, in effect, wiped out. By taking a single ecological zone, understanding its complexity with a thoroughness incomprehensible to even a Westerner, developing a rich and subtle language with a profusion of terms for the understanding of local ecology, planting dozens of crops to which the environment was peculiarly suited, the farmer sought to defeat famine, to cheat death. within the African Great Lakes advanced agriculture practices were employed such as "hydraulic practices in the mountains, man-made watering places, river diversions, hollowed-out tree-trunk pipes, irrigation on cultivated slopes, mounding in drained marshes, and irrigation of banana and palm tree gardens" as well as extensive use of terraces and the practice of double and triple cropping. The agrarian success of the Great Lakes civilization accounts for its exceptionally high levels of human density. Many foreign experts were impressed by the sophistication of the areas traditional methods of intensive farming. The agriculture of the great lakes was described below: The "beautiful irrigated fields",


id: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa-9.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology in Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:40.805209+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
summary:
=== Southern Africa === In order to prevent erosion, southern Africans built dry-stone terraces on steep hillsides. Randall MacIver describes the irrigation technology used in Nyanga, Zimbabwe: The country about Inyanga is well watered, but it would seem that the old inhabitants required a more general distribution of the supply than was afforded by the numerous streams running down from the hills. Accordingly, they adopted a practice which has been prevalent under similar conditions in several other countries, Algeria being one instancewhich has come under the waiter's own observation. The stream was tapped at a point near its source, and part of the water deflected by a stone dam. This gave them a high-level conduit, by which the water could be carried along the side of a hill and allowed to descend more gradually than the parent stream. There are very many such conduits in the Inyanga region, and they often run for several miles. The gradients are admirably calculated, with a skill which is not always equalled by modern engineers with their elaborate instruments. The dams are well and strongly built of unworked stones without mortar; the conduits themselves are simple trenches about one metre in depth. The earth


id: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa-10.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology in Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:40.805209+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
summary:
=== Northern Africa === Egyptians wore linen from the flax plant, and used looms as early as 4000 BCE. Nubians mainly wore cotton, beaded leather, and linen. The Djellaba was made typically of wool and worn in the Maghreb. === West Africa and the Sahel === Valentim Fenandes, writing in the early sixteenth century on the basis of news received in Lisbon from early travellers, praised the high quality of Mandinka cotton cloth that was found all along the west coast of West Africa Such comments were repeated with regard to the cotton cloth of the "Slave Coast" and Benin as well, produced especially in centers in the Yoruba country. John Phillips, an English captain who sailed to the Slave Coast at the end of the seventeenth century, was particularly impressed with local cloth, some of which was purchased by the European traders and fetched high prices in the New World. Some of the oldest surviving African textiles were discovered at the archaeological site of Kissi in northern Burkina Faso. They are made of wool or fine animal hair in a weft-faced plain weave pattern. Fragments of textile have also survived from the thirteenth century Benin City in Nigeria. In


id: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa-11.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology in Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:40.805209+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
summary:
=== Central Africa === Among Kuba people, in present-day Democratic Republic of Congo, raffia clothes were woven. They used the fibers of the leaves on the raffia palm tree. Weaving with palm leaves was a highly developed art in Central Africa, and European travelers and missionaries compared woven palm-leaf cloth to the finest European-made silks. Filippo Pigafetta praised the "marvelous arte" of "making cloaths of sundry sortes, as Velvets shorne and unshorne, Sattens, Taffata, Damaskes, Sarcenettes and such like" in the eastern provinces and areas adjoining Kongo. Sarcenet was a fine silk, but, unlike that made in Europe, the type made in "this countrey and other places thereabouts" was "not of any silken stuffe" but "of the leaves of Palme trees." Indeed, the finest specimens were too "precious" for any but "the king, and such as it pleaseth him". Cavazzi wrote that the beaten leaves of one type of palm resulted in such fine, soft fibers that the weave of the cloth thus produced brought him to "astonishment". To produce such finely woven luxury cloth, the leaves had to be worked to a greater degree than the tying and laying required for thatching. Pigafetta noted that the process started with


id: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa-12.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology in Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:40.805209+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
summary:
=== Northern Africa and the Nile Valley === Carthage's fleet included large numbers of quadriremes and quinqueremes, warships with four and five ranks of rowers. Its ships dominated the Mediterranean. The Romans however were masters at copying and adapting the technology of other peoples. According to Polybius, the Romans seized a shipwrecked Carthaginian warship, and used it as a blueprint a massive naval build-up, adding their own refinement – the corvus – which allowed an enemy vessel to be "gripped" and boarded for hand-to-hand fighting. This negated initially superior Carthaginian seamanship and ships. Early Egyptians knew how to assemble planks of wood into a ship hull as early as 3000 BC (5000 BCE). The oldest ships yet unearthed, a group of 14 discovered in Abydos, were constructed from wooden planks which were "sewn" together. Woven straps were used to lash the planks together, and reeds or grass stuffed between the planks helped to seal the seams. Because the ships are all buried together and near a mortuary complex belonging to Pharaoh Khasekhemwy, originally the boats were all thought to have belonged to him. One of the 14 ships dates to 3000 BCE, however, and is now thought to perhaps have


id: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa-13.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology in Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:40.805209+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
summary:
=== West Africa and the Sahel === A Nok sculpture portrays two individuals, along with their goods, in a dugout canoe. Both of the anthropomorphic figures in the watercraft are paddling. The Nok terracotta depiction of a dugout canoe may indicate that Nok people utilized dugout canoes to transport cargo, along tributaries (e.g., Gurara River) of the Niger River, and exchanged them in a regional trade network. The Nok terracotta depiction of a figure with a seashell on its head may indicate that the span of these riverine trade routes may have extended to the Atlantic Coast. In the maritime history of Africa, there is the earlier Dufuna canoe, which was constructed approximately 8000 years ago in the northern region of Nigeria; as the second earliest form of water vessel known in Sub-Saharan Africa, the Nok terracotta depiction of a dugout canoe was created in the central region of Nigeria during the first millennium BCE. In the 14th century CE King Abubakari II, the brother of King Mansa Musa of the Mali Empire is thought to have had a great number of boats sitting on the coast of West Africa. The boats would communicate with each other by drums. Malian


id: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa-14.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology in Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:40.805209+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
summary:
=== East Africa === It is known that ancient Axum traded with India, and there is evidence that ships from Northeast Africa may have sailed back and forth between India/Sri Lanka and Nubia trading goods and even to Persia, Himyar and Rome. Aksum was known by the Greeks for having seaports for ships from Greece and Yemen. Elsewhere in Northeast Africa, the 1st century CE Greek travelogue Periplus of the Red Sea reports that Somalis, through their northern ports such as Zeila and Berbera, were trading frankincense and other items with the inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula as well as with the then Roman-controlled Egypt. Middle Age Swahili kingdoms are known to have had trade port islands and trade routes with the Islamic world and Asia and were described by Greek historians are "metropolises". Famous African trade ports such as Mombasa, Zanzibar, Mogadishu and Kilwa were known to Chinese sailors such as Zheng He and medieval Islamic historians such as the Berber Islamic voyager Abu Abdullah ibn Battuta. The dhow was the ship of trade used by the Swahili. They could be massive. It was a dhow that transported a giraffe to Chinese Emperor Yong Le's court, in 1414. Few


id: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa-15.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology in Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:40.805209+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
summary:
=== Northern Africa and the Nile Valley === Africa's first writing system and the beginning of the alphabet was Egyptian hieroglyphs. Two scripts have been the direct offspring of Egyptian hieroglyphs, the Proto-Sinaitic script and the Meroitic alphabet. Out of Proto-Sinaitic came the South Arabian alphabet and Phoenician alphabet, out of which the Aramaic alphabet, Greek alphabet, the Brāhmī script, Arabic alphabet were directly or indirectly derived. Out of the South Arabian alphabet came the Ge'ez alphabet which is used to write Blin(cushitic), Amharic, Tigre, and Tigrinya in Ethiopia and Eritrea. Out the Phoenician Alphabet came tifinagh, the berber alphabet mainly used by the Tuaregs. The other direct offspring of Egyptian hieroglyphs was the Meroitic alphabet. It began in the Napatan phase of Nubian history, Kush (700–300 BCE). It came into full fruition in the 2nd century, under the successor Nubian kingdom of Meroë. The script can be read but not understood, with the discovery at el-Hassa, Sudan of ram statues bearing meroitic inscriptions might assist in its translation. === The Sahel === With the arrival of Islam came the Arabic alphabet in the Sahel. Arabic writing is widespread in the Sahel. The Arabic script was also used to write


id: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa-16.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology in Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:40.805209+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
summary:
It is especially interesting that the form of writing that developed in Bunyoro was based on a floral code, as the absence of both writing and flowers in African culture have been used by Jack Goody as evidence of African culture's separateness from that of "Eurasia." Goody has written that African peoples generally did not make significant use of flowers in worship, gift-giving or decoration. He does "not know of any indigenous use of odours", nor of plants playing a role in stories or myths. This is thought to be because of Africa's "simple" agriculture, "non-complex" societies and absence of a "culture of luxury". This description of African life does not fit well with what we know of precolonial Bunyoro, a large, relatively ancient, and extremely hierarchical kingdom, and the analysis of the role of flowers was quite inaccurate. The ancient court music composers of Buganda discovered how human auditory perception processes a complex sequence of rapid, irregular sound impulses by splitting the total image into perceptible units at different pitch levels. They had made use of their discovery in composition, creating indirectly polyphonies of interweaving melodic lines that would suggest words to a Luganda speaker, as if some spirit


id: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-17
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa-17.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology in Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:40.805209+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
summary:
=== West Africa === Between 3200 BP and 1000 BP, various Central Saharan rock art sites from the Horse Period were created depicting charioteers, mostly upon horse-driven chariots and rarely upon cattle-driven chariots; these painted and engraved depictions were distributed in 81 painted and 120 engraved depictions in Algeria, 18 painted and 44 engraved depictions in Libya, 6 engraved depictions in Mali, 125 engraved depictions in Mauritania, 96 engraved depictions in Morocco, 29 engraved depictions in Niger, and 21 engraved depictions in Western Sahara, and were likely created by the Garamantes, whose ancestors were ancient Berbers and Saharan pastoralists. Rock art engravings of ox-drawn wagons and horse-driven chariots can be found in Algeria, Libya, southern Morocco, Mauritania, and Niger. At Dhar Tichitt, there is Neolithic rock art that depicts a human figure with a link in their hand, connecting him to yoked oxen that are pulling a cart. At Dhar Walata, there is Neolithic rock art that depicts a human figure in relation to an ox cart. At Bled Initi, which is a hamlet near Akreijit, there are two depictions of ox carts that have been estimated to date between 650 BCE and 380 BCE, and are consistent with the


id: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-18
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa-18.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology in Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:40.805209+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
summary:
=== West Africa === Fortification was a major part of defense, integral to warfare. Massive earthworks were built around cities and settlements in West Africa, typically defended by soldiers with bow and poison-tipped arrows. The earthworks are some of the largest man made structures in Africa and the world such as the walls of Benin and Sungbo's Eredo. In Central Africa, the Angola region, one find preference for ditches, which were more successful for defense against wars with Europeans. African infantry did not just include men. The state of Dahomey included all-female units, the so-called Dahomey Amazons, who were personal bodyguards of the king. The Queen Mother of Benin had her own personal army, 'The Queen's Own.' Biologicals were extensively used in many parts of Africa, most of the time in the form of poisoned arrows, but also powder spread on the war front or in the form of the poisoning of horses and water supply of the opponents. In Borgu, there were specific mixtures to kill, for hypnosis, to make the enemy bold, and to act as an antidote against the enemies' poison. A specific class of medicine-men was responsible for the making of the biologicals. In South Sudan,


id: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-19
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa-19.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology in Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:40.805209+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
summary:
=== Northern Africa and the Nile Valley === Carthage imported gold, copper, ivory, and slaves from tropical Africa. Carthage exported salt, cloth, metal goods. Before camels were used in the trans-Saharan trade pack animals, oxen, donkeys, mules, and horses were utilized. Extensive use of camels began in the 1st century CE. Carthage minted gold, silver, bronze, and electrum(mix gold and silver) coins mainly for fighting wars with Greeks and Romans. Most of their fighting force were mercenaries, who had to be paid. Islamic North Africa made use of the Almoravid dinar and Fatimid dinar, gold coins. The Almoravid dinar and the Fatimid dinar were printed on gold from the Sahelian empires. The ducat of Genoa and Venice and the florine of Florence were also printed on gold from the Sahelian empires. Ancient Egypt imported ivory, gold, incense, hardwood, and ostrich feather. Nubia exported gold, cotton/cotton cloth, ostrich feathers, leopard skins, ivory, ebony, and iron/iron weapons. === West Africa and the Sahel === Cowries have been used as currency in West Africa since the 11th century when their use was first recorded near Old Ghana. Its use may have been much older. Sijilmasa in present-day Morocco seems to be a major


id: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-20
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa-20.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology in Africa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:40.805209+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-in-africa-20260505-0
summary:
=== West Africa === Igbo Olokun, also known as Olokun Grove, may be one of the earliest workshops for producing glass in West Africa. Glass production may have begun during, if not before, the 11th century. The 11th–15th century were the peak of glass production. High lime, high alumina (HLHA) and low lime, high alumina (LLHA) glass are distinct compositions that were developed using locally sourced recipes, raw materials, and pyrotechnology. The presence of HLHA glass beads discovered throughout West Africa (e.g., Igbo-Ukwu in southern Nigeria, Gao and Essouk in Mali, and Kissi in Burkina Faso), after the ninth century CE, reveals the broader importance of this glass industry in the region and shows its participation in regional trade networks (e.g., trans-Saharan trade, trans-Atlantic trade). Glass beads served as "the currency for negotiating political power, economic relations, and cultural/spiritual values" for "Yoruba, West Africans, and the African diaspora." == Science and traditional worldviews == Bandama and Babalola (2023) states: The view of science as "embedded practice", intimately connected with ritual, for example, is considered "ascientific", "pseudo-science", or "magic" in Western perspective. In Africa, there is a strong connection between the physical and the terrestrial worlds. The deities and gods are


id: science-and-technology-in-germany-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Germany-0.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology in Germany
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Germany
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:43.618760+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-in-germany-20260505-0
summary:
Science and technology in Germany has a long and illustrious history, and research and development efforts form an integral part of the country's economy. Germany has been the home of some of the most prominent researchers in various scientific disciplines, notably physics, mathematics, chemistry and engineering. Before World War II, Germany had produced more Nobel laureates in scientific fields than any other nation, and was the preeminent country in the natural sciences. Germany is currently the nation with the 3rd most Nobel Prize winners, 115. The German language, along with English and French, was one of the leading languages of science from the late 19th century until the end of World War II. After the war, because so many scientific researchers' and teachers' careers had been ended either by Nazi Germany which started a brain drain, the denazification process, the American Operation Paperclip and Soviet Operation Osoaviakhim which exacerbated the brain drain in post-war Germany, or simply losing the war, "Germany, German science, and German as the language of science had all lost their leading position in the scientific community." Today, scientific research in the country is supported by industry, the network of German universities and scientific state-institutions such as


id: science-and-technology-in-germany-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Germany-1.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology in Germany
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Germany
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:43.618760+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-in-germany-20260505-0
summary:
Johannes Kepler discovered the laws according to which planets are moving around the Sun, who were called Kepler's laws after him. With his introduction to calculating with logarithms, Kepler contributed to the spread of this type of calculation. In mathematics, a numerical method for calculating the volume of wine barrels with integrals was named former Kepler's barrel rule. He made optics to a subject of scientific investigation and confirmed the discoveries made with the telescope by his Italian contemporary Galileo Galilei (1564–1642). He worked on the theory of the telescope and invented the refracting astronomical or Keplerian telescope, which involved a considerable improvement over the Galilean telescope. Kepler also made the invention of the valveless gear pump, because a mine owner needed a device to pump water out of his mine. === Physics === Otto von Guericke (1602–1686) was a scientist, inventor, mathematician and physicist from Magdeburg. He is best known for his experiments on air pressure using the Magdeburg hemispheres. With the invention of the vacuum pump he laid the foundation of vacuum technology. Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686–1736) was a physicist and inventor of measuring instruments from Danzig. The temperature unit degrees Fahrenheit (°F) was named after him. Gustav


id: science-and-technology-in-germany-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Germany-2.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology in Germany
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Germany
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:43.618760+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-in-germany-20260505-0
summary:
Germany has been the home of many famous inventors and engineers, such as Johannes Gutenberg, who is credited with the invention of movable type printing press in Europe; Hans Geiger, the creator of the Geiger counter; and Konrad Zuse, who built the first electronic computer. German inventors, engineers and industrialists such as Zeppelin, Siemens, Daimler, Otto, Wankel, Von Braun and Benz helped shape modern automotive and air transportation technology including the beginnings of space travel. The engineer Otto Lilienthal laid some of the fundamentals for the science of aviation. The physicist and optician Ernst Abbe (1840–1905) founded in the 19th century together with the entrepreneurs Carl Zeiss (1840–1905) and Otto Schott (1851–1935) the basics of modern Optical engineering and developed many optical instruments like microscopes and telescopes. Since 1899 he was the sole owner of the Carl Zeiss AG and played a decisive role of setting up the enterprise Jenaer Glaswerk Schott & Gen (today Schott AG). These enterprises are very successful worldwide up to present time (21st century). The engineer Rudolf Diesel (1858–1913) was the inventor of an internal combustion engine, the Diesel engine. He first published his idea of an engine with a particularly high level of efficiency


id: science-and-technology-in-germany-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Germany-3.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology in Germany
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Germany
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:43.618760+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-in-germany-20260505-0
summary:
Besides natural sciences, German researchers have added much to the development of humanities. Albertus Magnus (c. 1200–1280) was a polymath, philosopher, lawyer, natural scientist, theologian, Dominican and Bishop of Regensburg. His great, diverse knowledge earned him the name Magnus ("the Great"), the title of Doctor of the Church and the honorary title of doctor universalis. Johann Joachim Winckelmann (1717–1768) was a German art historian and archaeologist, "the prophet and founding hero of modern archaeology". Heinrich Schliemann (1822–1890) was a wealthy businessman and a devotee of the historicity of places mentioned in the works of Homer and an archaeological excavator of Hisarlik (since 1871), now presumed to be the site of Troy, along with the Mycenaean sites Mycenae and Tiryns. Theodor Mommsen (1817–1903) is widely counted as one of the greatest classicists of the 19th century; his work regarding Roman history is still of fundamental importance for contemporary research. Max Weber (1864–1920) was together with Karl Marx (1818–1883) among the most important theorists of the development of modern Western society and is regarded as one of the founder of the Sociology. Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) was a philosopher of the Enlightenment and professor of logic and metaphysics in Königsberg. Kant is one


id: science-and-technology-in-germany-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Germany-4.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology in Germany
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Germany
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:43.618760+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-in-germany-20260505-0
summary:
Benjamin List, Chemistry, 2021 Klaus Hasselmann, Physics, 2021 Reinhard Genzel, Physics, 2020 Joachim Frank, Chemistry, 2017 Thomas C. Südhof, Physiology or Medicine, 2013 Harald zur Hausen, Physiology or Medicine, 2008 Gerhard Ertl, Chemistry, 2007 Peter Grünberg, Physics, 2007 Theodor W. Hänsch, Physics, 2005 Wolfgang Ketterle, Physics, 2001 Herbert Kroemer, Physics, 2000 Günter Blobel, Physiology or Medicine, 1999 Horst L. Störmer, Physics, 1998 Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard, Physiology or Medicine, 1995 Reinhard Selten, Economics, 1994 Bert Sakmann, Physiology or Medicine, 1991 Erwin Neher, Physiology or Medicine, 1991 Hans G. Dehmelt, Physics, 1989 Wolfgang Paul, Physics, 1989 Johann Deisenhofer, Chemistry, 1988 Robert Huber, Chemistry, 1988 Hartmut Michel, Chemistry, 1988 J. Georg Bednorz, Physics, 1987 Ernst Ruska, Physics, 1986 Gerd Binnig, Physics, 1986 Klaus von Klitzing, Physics, 1985 Georges J.F. Köhler, Physiology or Medicine, 1984 Georg Wittig, Chemistry, 1979 Ernst Otto Fischer, Chemistry, 1973 Karl von Frisch, Physiology or Medicine, 1973 Max Delbrück, Physiology or Medicine, 1969 Manfred Eigen, Chemistry, 1967 Feodor Felix Konrad Lynen, Physiology or Medicine, 1964 Karl Ziegler, Chemistry, 1963 Maria Goeppert-Mayer, Physics, 1963 J. Hans D. Jensen, Physics, 1963 Rudolf Mössbauer, Physics, 1961 Werner Forssmann, Physiology or Medicine, 1956 Polykarp Kusch, Physics, 1955 Max Born, Physics, 1954 Walther Bothe, Physics, 1954


id: science-in-the-enlightenment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_the_Enlightenment-0.md
category: reference
title: Science in the Enlightenment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_the_Enlightenment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:44.987341+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-in-the-enlightenment-20260505-0
summary:
The history of science during the Enlightenment traces developments in science and technology as Enlightenment ideas and ideals were being disseminated across Europe and North America. Generally, the period spans from the final days of the 16th- and 17th-century Scientific Revolution until roughly the 19th century, after the French Revolution (1789) and the Napoleonic era (1799–1815). The scientific revolution saw the creation of the first scientific societies, the rise of Copernicanism, and the displacement of Aristotelian natural philosophy and Galen's ancient medical doctrine. By the 18th century, scientific authority began to displace religious authority, and the disciplines of alchemy and astrology lost scientific credibility. While the Enlightenment cannot be pigeonholed into a specific doctrine or set of dogmas, science came to play a leading role in Enlightenment discourse and thought. Many Enlightenment writers and thinkers had backgrounds in the sciences and associated scientific advancement with the overthrow of religion and traditional authority in favour of the development of free speech and thought. Broadly speaking, Enlightenment science greatly valued empiricism and rational thought, and was embedded with the Enlightenment ideal of advancement and progress. As with most Enlightenment views, the benefits of science were not seen universally; Jean-Jacques Rousseau criticized the


id: science-in-the-enlightenment-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_the_Enlightenment-1.md
category: reference
title: Science in the Enlightenment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_the_Enlightenment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:44.987341+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-in-the-enlightenment-20260505-0
summary:
Universities in France tended to serve a downplayed role in the development of science during the Enlightenment; that role was dominated by the scientific academies, such as the French Academy of Sciences. The contributions of universities in Britain were mixed. On the one hand, the University of Cambridge began teaching Newtonianism early in the Enlightenment, but failed to become a central force behind the advancement of science. On the other end of the spectrum were Scottish universities, which had strong medical faculties and became centres of scientific development. Under Frederick II, German universities began to promote the sciences. Christian Wolff's unique blend of Cartesian-Leibnizian physics began to be adopted in universities outside of Halle. The University of Göttingen, founded in 1734, was far more liberal than its counterparts, allowing professors to plan their own courses and select their own textbooks. Göttingen also emphasized research and publication. A further influential development in German universities was the abandonment of Latin in favour of the German vernacular. In the 17th century, the Netherlands had played a significant role in the advancement of the sciences, including Isaac Beeckman's mechanical philosophy and Christiaan Huygens' work on the calculus and in astronomy. Professors at universities in


id: science-in-the-enlightenment-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_the_Enlightenment-2.md
category: reference
title: Science in the Enlightenment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_the_Enlightenment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:44.987341+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-in-the-enlightenment-20260505-0
summary:
The limitations of such academic journals left considerable space for the rise of independent periodicals. Some eminent examples include Johann Ernst Immanuel Walch's Der Naturforscher (The Natural Investigator) (1725–1778), Journal des sçavans (1665–1792), the Jesuit Mémoires de Trévoux (1701–1779), and Leibniz's Acta Eruditorum (Reports/Acts of the Scholars) (1682–1782). Independent periodicals were published throughout the Enlightenment and excited scientific interest in the general public. While the journals of the academies primarily published scientific papers, independent periodicals were a mix of reviews, abstracts, translations of foreign texts, and sometimes derivative, reprinted materials. Most of these texts were published in the local vernacular, so their continental spread depended on the language of the readers. For example, in 1761 Russian scientist Mikhail Lomonosov correctly attributed the ring of light around Venus, visible during the planet's transit, as the planet's atmosphere; however, because few scientists understood Russian outside of Russia, his discovery was not widely credited until 1910. Some changes in periodicals occurred during the course of the Enlightenment. First, they increased in number and size. There was also a move away from publishing in Latin in favour of publishing in the vernacular. Experimental descriptions became more detailed and began to be accompanied by reviews.


id: science-in-the-enlightenment-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_the_Enlightenment-3.md
category: reference
title: Science in the Enlightenment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_the_Enlightenment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:44.987341+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-in-the-enlightenment-20260505-0
summary:
As an Encyclopédie, it is to set forth as well as possible the order and connection of the parts of human knowledge. As a Reasoned Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades, it is to contain the general principles that form the basis of each science and each art, liberal or mechanical, and the most essential facts that make up the body and substance of each. The massive work was arranged according to a "tree of knowledge". The tree reflected the marked division between the arts and sciences, which was largely a result of the rise of empiricism. Both areas of knowledge were united by philosophy, or the trunk of the tree of knowledge. The Enlightenment's desacrilization of religion was pronounced in the tree's design, particularly where theology accounted for a peripheral branch, with black magic as a close neighbour. As the Encyclopédie gained popularity, it was published in quarto and octavo editions after 1777. The quarto and octavo editions were much less expensive than previous editions, making the Encyclopédie more accessible to the non-elite. Robert Darnton estimates that there were approximately 25 000 copies of the Encyclopédie in circulation throughout France and Europe before the French Revolution. The extensive,


id: science-in-the-enlightenment-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_the_Enlightenment-4.md
category: reference
title: Science in the Enlightenment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_the_Enlightenment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:44.987341+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-in-the-enlightenment-20260505-0
summary:
=== Popular science in print === Increasing literacy rates in Europe during the course of the Enlightenment enabled science to enter popular culture through print. More formal works included explanations of scientific theories for individuals lacking the educational background to comprehend the original scientific text. Sir Isaac Newton's celebrated Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica was published in Latin and remained inaccessible to readers without education in the classics until Enlightenment writers began to translate and analyze the text in the vernacular. The first French introduction to Newtonianism and the Principia was Eléments de la philosophie de Newton, published by Voltaire in 1738. Émilie du Châtelet's translation of the Principia, published after her death in 1756, also helped to spread Newton's theories beyond scientific academies and the university. However, science took an ever greater step towards popular culture before Voltaire's introduction and Châtelet's translation. The publication of Bernard de Fontenelle's Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds (1686) marked the first significant work that expressed scientific theory and knowledge expressly for the laity, in the vernacular, and with the entertainment of readers in mind. The book was produced specifically for women with an interest in scientific writing and inspired a variety of similar


id: science-in-the-enlightenment-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_the_Enlightenment-5.md
category: reference
title: Science in the Enlightenment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_the_Enlightenment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:44.987341+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-in-the-enlightenment-20260505-0
summary:
Despite these limitations, there was support for women in the sciences among some men, and many made valuable contributions to science during the 18th century. Two notable women who managed to participate in formal institutions were Laura Bassi and the Russian Princess Yekaterina Dashkova. Bassi was an Italian physicist who received a PhD from the University of Bologna and began teaching there in 1732. Dashkova became the director of the Russian Imperial Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg in 1783. Her personal relationship with Empress Catherine the Great (r. 1762–1796) allowed her to obtain the position, which marked in history the first appointment of a woman to the directorship of a scientific academy. Eva Ekeblad became the first woman inducted into the Royal Swedish Academy of Science (1748). More commonly, women participated in the sciences through an association with a male relative or spouse. Caroline Herschel began her astronomical career, although somewhat reluctantly at first, by assisting her brother William Herschel. Caroline Herschel is most remembered for her discovery of eight comets and her Index to Flamsteed's Observations of the Fixed Stars (1798). On August 1, 1786, Herschel discovered her first comet, much to the excitement of scientifically minded women.


id: science-in-the-enlightenment-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_the_Enlightenment-6.md
category: reference
title: Science in the Enlightenment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_the_Enlightenment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:44.987341+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-in-the-enlightenment-20260505-0
summary:
The chemical revolution was a period in the 18th century marked by significant advancements in the theory and practice of chemistry. Despite the maturity of most of the sciences during the scientific revolution, by the mid-18th century chemistry had yet to outline a systematic framework or theoretical doctrine. Elements of alchemy still permeated the study of chemistry, and the belief that the natural world was composed of the classical elements of earth, water, air and fire remained prevalent. The key achievement of the chemical revolution has traditionally been viewed as the abandonment of phlogiston theory in favour of Antoine Lavoisier's oxygen theory of combustion; however, more recent studies attribute a wider range of factors as contributing forces behind the chemical revolution. Developed under Johann Joachim Becher and Georg Ernst Stahl, phlogiston theory was an attempt to account for products of combustion. According to the theory, a substance called phlogiston was released from flammable materials through burning. The resulting product was termed calx, which was considered a 'dephlogisticated' substance in its 'true' form. The first strong evidence against phlogiston theory came from pneumatic chemists in Britain during the later half of the 18th century. Joseph Black, Joseph Priestley and Henry Cavendish


id: second-international-congress-of-the-history-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_International_Congress_of_the_History_of_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Second International Congress of the History of Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_International_Congress_of_the_History_of_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:52.133338+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: second-international-congress-of-the-history-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The Second International Congress of the History of Science was held in London from June 29 to July 4, 1931. The Congress was organised by the International Committee of History of Science, in conjunction with the Comité International des Sciences Historiques. The History of Science Society and the Newcomen Society also supported the event. Charles Singer presided over the congress. Although organised by the International Committee of History of Science, it was during this congress that this organisation was transformed into an individual membership organisation called the International Academy of the History of Science. The inaugural session was held in the Great Hall of the Royal Geographical Society. This was opened by Hastings Lees-Smith, President of the Board of Education. The rest of the congress was conducted in four sessions held in the lecture hall of the Science Museum. == Sessions == === The Sciences as an integral Part of General Historical Study === This session was chaired by Gino Loria (University of Genoa). George Clark (University of Oxford) initiated the session pleading that science has a truer sense of history than any other sphere of human activity. William Cecil Dampier then presented a hierarchical approach to the history of


id: small-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Small science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:53.295198+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: small-science-20260505-0
summary:
Small science (in contrast to big science) is science performed in a smaller scale, such as by individuals, small teams or within community projects. Bodies which fund research, such as the National Science Foundation, DARPA, and the EU with its Framework programs, have a tendency to fund larger-scale research projects. Reasons include the idea that ambitious research needs significant resources devoted for its execution and the reduction of administrative and overhead costs on the funding body side. However, small science which has data that is often local and is not easily shared is funded in many areas such as chemistry and biology by these funding bodies. == Importance == Small Science helps define the goals and directions of large scale scientific projects. In turn, results of large scale projects are often best synthesized and interpreted by the long-term efforts of the Small Science community. In addition, because Small Science is typically done at universities, it provides students and young researchers with an integral involvement in defining and solving scientific problems. Hence, small science can be seen as an important factor for bringing together science and society. According to the Chronicle for Higher Education, James M. Caruthers, a professor of chemical


id: stalin-and-the-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stalin_and_the_Scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: Stalin and the Scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stalin_and_the_Scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:54.446250+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stalin-and-the-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
Stalin and the Scientists: A History of Triumph and Tragedy 1905–1953 is a 2016 popular science non-fiction book on the history of science in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin by English novelist and science writer, Simon Ings. It is Ings' second non-fiction book, the first being The Eye: A Natural History (2007). He had previously published eight novels. Stalin and the Scientists was longlisted for the 2016 Baillie Gifford Prize for Non-Fiction. == Background == Ings' inspiration for Stalin and the Scientists came from Soviet psychologist, Alexander Luria's book Mind of a Mnemonist, about the life of Russian journalist and mnemonist, Solomon Shereshevsky. Ings said in 2016 interviews that Luria is often referred to as the founder of modern neuroanatomy and "the godfather of the literary genre we call popular science". "Luria's account more or less set the template for modern popular science and ... pretty much set me on the path I'm on now." Ings had considered writing a biography about Luria, but felt that while Luria's achievements were "extraordinary", considering the climate of political repression he worked in, Ings was concerned that Western readers would consider his career too ordinary, and would miss the context in which


id: supersymmetry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetry-0.md
category: reference
title: Supersymmetry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:55.598580+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: supersymmetry-20260505-0
summary:
Supersymmetry is a theoretical framework in physics that suggests the existence of a symmetry between particles with integer spin (bosons) and particles with half-integer spin (fermions). It proposes that for every known particle, there exists a partner particle with different spin properties. There have been multiple experiments on supersymmetry that have failed to provide evidence that it exists in nature. If evidence is found, supersymmetry could help explain certain phenomena, such as the nature of dark matter and the hierarchy problem in particle physics. A supersymmetric theory is a theory in which the equations for force and the equations for matter are identical. In theoretical and mathematical physics, any theory with this property has the principle of supersymmetry (SUSY). Dozens of supersymmetric theories exist. In theory, supersymmetry is a type of spacetime symmetry between two basic classes of particles: bosons, which have an integer-valued spin and follow Bose–Einstein statistics, and fermions, which have a half-integer-valued spin and follow Fermi–Dirac statistics. The names of bosonic partners of fermions are prefixed with s-, because they are scalar particles. For example, if the electron existed in a supersymmetric theory, then there would be a particle called a selectron (superpartner electron), a bosonic partner


id: supersymmetry-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetry-1.md
category: reference
title: Supersymmetry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:55.598580+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: supersymmetry-20260505-0
summary:
{ Q α , Q ¯ β ˙ } = 2 ( σ μ ) α β ˙ P μ {\displaystyle \{Q_{\alpha },{\bar {Q}}_{\dot {\beta }}\}=2(\sigma ^{\mu })_{\alpha {\dot {\beta }}}P_{\mu }} and all other anti-commutation relations between the Q {\displaystyle Q} s and commutation relations between the Q {\displaystyle Q} s and P {\displaystyle P} s vanish. In the above expression P μ = − i ∂ μ {\displaystyle P_{\mu }=-i\partial _{\mu }} are the generators of translation and σ μ {\displaystyle \sigma ^{\mu }} are the Pauli matrices. There are representations of a Lie superalgebra that are analogous to representations of a Lie algebra. Each Lie algebra has an associated Lie group and a Lie superalgebra can sometimes be extended into representations of a Lie supergroup. === Supersymmetric quantum mechanics === Supersymmetric quantum mechanics adds the SUSY superalgebra to quantum mechanics as opposed to quantum field theory. Supersymmetric quantum mechanics often becomes relevant when studying the dynamics of supersymmetric solitons, and due to the simplified nature of having fields which are only functions of time (rather than space-time), a great deal of progress has been made in this subject and it is now studied in its own right.


id: supersymmetry-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetry-2.md
category: reference
title: Supersymmetry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:55.598580+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: supersymmetry-20260505-0
summary:
All stochastic (partial) differential equations, the models for all types of continuous time dynamical systems, possess topological supersymmetry. In the operator representation of stochastic evolution, the topological supersymmetry is the exterior derivative which is commutative with the stochastic evolution operator defined as the stochastically averaged pullback induced on differential forms by SDE-defined diffeomorphisms of the phase space. The topological sector of the so-emerging supersymmetric theory of stochastic dynamics can be recognized as the Witten-type topological field theory. The meaning of the topological supersymmetry in dynamical systems is the preservation of the phase space continuity—infinitely close points will remain close during continuous time evolution even in the presence of noise. When the topological supersymmetry is broken spontaneously, this property is violated in the limit of the infinitely long temporal evolution and the model can be said to exhibit (the stochastic generalization of) the butterfly effect. From a more general perspective, spontaneous breakdown of the topological supersymmetry is the theoretical essence of the ubiquitous dynamical phenomenon variously known as chaos, turbulence, self-organized criticality etc. The Goldstone theorem explains the associated emergence of the long-range dynamical behavior that manifests itself as ⁠1/f⁠ noise, butterfly effect, and the scale-free statistics of sudden (instantonic) processes,


id: supersymmetry-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetry-3.md
category: reference
title: Supersymmetry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:55.598580+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: supersymmetry-20260505-0
summary:
Incorporating supersymmetry into the Standard Model requires doubling the number of particles since there is no way that any of the particles in the Standard Model can be superpartners of each other. With the addition of new particles, there are many possible new interactions. The simplest possible supersymmetric model consistent with the Standard Model is the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model (MSSM) which can include the necessary additional new particles that are able to be superpartners of those in the Standard Model. One of the original motivations for the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model came from the hierarchy problem. Due to the quadratically divergent contributions to the Higgs mass squared in the Standard Model, the quantum mechanical interactions of the Higgs boson causes a large renormalization of the Higgs mass and unless there is an accidental cancellation, the natural size of the Higgs mass is the greatest scale possible. Furthermore, the electroweak scale receives enormous Planck-scale quantum corrections. The observed hierarchy between the electroweak scale and the Planck scale must be achieved with extraordinary fine tuning. This problem is known as the hierarchy problem. Supersymmetry close to the electroweak scale, such as in the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model, would solve the hierarchy


id: supersymmetry-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetry-4.md
category: reference
title: Supersymmetry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:55.598580+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: supersymmetry-20260505-0
summary:
=== Searches and constraints for supersymmetry === SUSY extensions of the Standard Model are constrained by a variety of experiments, including measurements of low-energy observables – for example, the anomalous magnetic moment of the muon at Fermilab; the WMAP dark matter density measurement and direct detection experiments – for example, XENON-100 and LUX; and by particle collider experiments, including B-physics, Higgs phenomenology and direct searches for superpartners (sparticles), at the Large Electron–Positron Collider, Tevatron and the LHC. In fact, CERN publicly states that if a supersymmetric model of the Standard Model "is correct, supersymmetric particles should appear in collisions at the LHC". Historically, the tightest limits were from direct production at colliders. The first mass limits for squarks and gluinos were made at CERN by the UA1 experiment and the UA2 experiment at the Super Proton Synchrotron. LEP later set very strong limits, which in 2006 were extended by the D0 experiment at the Tevatron. From 2003 to 2015, WMAP's and Planck's dark matter density measurements have strongly constrained supersymmetric extensions of the Standard Model, which, if they explain dark matter, have to be tuned to invoke a particular mechanism to sufficiently reduce the neutralino density. Prior to the beginning


id: supersymmetry-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetry-5.md
category: reference
title: Supersymmetry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersymmetry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:55.598580+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: supersymmetry-20260505-0
summary:
=== Extended supersymmetry === It is possible to have more than one kind of supersymmetry transformation. Theories with more than one supersymmetry transformation are known as extended supersymmetric theories. The more supersymmetry a theory has, the more constrained are the field content and interactions. Typically the number of copies of a supersymmetry is a power of 2 (1, 2, 4, 8...). In four dimensions, a spinor has four degrees of freedom and thus the minimal number of supersymmetry generators is four in four dimensions and having eight copies of supersymmetry means that there are 32 supersymmetry generators. The maximal number of supersymmetry generators possible is 32. Theories with more than 32 supersymmetry generators automatically have massless fields with spin greater than 2. It is not known how to make massless fields with spin greater than two interact, so the maximal number of supersymmetry generators considered is 32. This is due to the Weinberg–Witten theorem. This corresponds to an N = 8 supersymmetry theory. Theories with 32 supersymmetries automatically have a graviton. For four dimensions there are the following theories, with the corresponding multiplets (CPT adds a copy, whenever they are not invariant under such symmetry): === Supersymmetry in alternate numbers


id: history-of-synthetic-aperture-radar-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_synthetic-aperture_radar-0.md
category: reference
title: History of synthetic-aperture radar
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_synthetic-aperture_radar
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:56.783779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-synthetic-aperture-radar-20260505-0
summary:
The history of synthetic-aperture radar begins in 1951, with the invention of the technology by mathematician Carl A. Wiley, and its development in the following decade. Initially developed for military use, the technology has since been applied in the field of planetary science. == Invention == Carl A. Wiley, a mathematician at Goodyear Aircraft Company in Litchfield Park, Arizona, invented synthetic-aperture radar in June 1951 while working on a correlation guidance system for the Atlas ICBM program. In early 1952, Wiley, together with Fred Heisley and Bill Welty, constructed a concept validation system known as DOUSER ("Doppler Unbeamed Search Radar"). During the 1950s and 1960s, Goodyear Aircraft (later Goodyear Aerospace) introduced numerous advancements in SAR technology, many with help from Don Beckerleg. Independently of Wiley's work, experimental trials in early 1952 by Sherwin and others at the University of Illinois' Control Systems Laboratory showed results that they pointed out "could provide the basis for radar systems with greatly improved angular resolution" and might even lead to systems capable of focusing at all ranges simultaneously. In both of those programs, processing of the radar returns was done by electrical-circuit filtering methods. In essence, signal strength in isolated discrete bands of Doppler


id: history-of-synthetic-aperture-radar-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_synthetic-aperture_radar-1.md
category: reference
title: History of synthetic-aperture radar
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_synthetic-aperture_radar
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:56.783779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-synthetic-aperture-radar-20260505-0
summary:
=== Technical and scientific basis === The required data processing amounted to calculating cross-correlations of the received signals with samples of the forms of signals to be expected from unit-amplitude sources at the various ranges. At that time, even large digital computers had capabilities somewhat near the levels of today's four-function handheld calculators, hence were nowhere near able to do such a huge amount of computation. Instead, the device for doing the correlation computations was to be an optical correlator. It was proposed that signals received by the traveling antenna and coherently detected be displayed as a single range-trace line across the diameter of the face of a cathode-ray tube, the line's successive forms being recorded as images projected onto a film traveling perpendicular to the length of that line. The information on the developed film was to be subsequently processed in the laboratory on equipment still to be devised as a principal task of the project. In the initial processor proposal, an arrangement of lenses was expected to multiply the recorded signals point-by-point with the known signal forms by passing light successively through both the signal film and another film containing the known signal pattern. The subsequent summation, or


id: history-of-synthetic-aperture-radar-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_synthetic-aperture_radar-2.md
category: reference
title: History of synthetic-aperture radar
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_synthetic-aperture_radar
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:56.783779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-synthetic-aperture-radar-20260505-0
summary:
=== Results === Michigan's chosen 5-foot (1.5 m)-wide World War II-surplus antenna was theoretically capable of 5-foot (1.5 m) resolution, but data from only 10% of the beamwidth was used at first, the goal at that time being to demonstrate 50-foot (15 m) resolution. It was understood that finer resolution would require the added development of means for sensing departures of the aircraft from an ideal heading and flight path, and for using that information for making needed corrections to the antenna pointing and to the received signals before processing. After numerous trials in which even small atmospheric turbulence kept the aircraft from flying straight and level enough for good 50-foot (15 m) data, one pre-dawn flight in August 1957 yielded a map-like image of the Willow Run Airport area which did demonstrate 50-foot (15 m) resolution in some parts of the image, whereas the illuminated beam width there was 900 feet (270 m). Although the program had been considered for termination by DoD due to what had seemed to be a lack of results, that first success ensured further funding to continue development leading to solutions to those recognized needs. == Public acknowledgement == The SAR principle was first


id: history-of-synthetic-aperture-radar-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_synthetic-aperture_radar-3.md
category: reference
title: History of synthetic-aperture radar
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_synthetic-aperture_radar
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:56.783779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-synthetic-aperture-radar-20260505-0
summary:
== Digitisation == After the initial work began, several of the capabilities for creating useful classified systems did not exist for another two decades. That seemingly slow rate of advances was often paced by the progress of other inventions, such as the laser, the digital computer, circuit miniaturization, and compact data storage. Once the laser appeared, optical data processing became a fast process because it provided many parallel analog channels, but devising optical chains suited to matching signal focal lengths to ranges proceeded by many stages and turned out to call for some novel optical components. Since the process depended on diffraction of light waves, it required anti-vibration mountings, clean rooms, and highly trained operators. Even at its best, its use of CRTs and film for data storage placed limits on the range depth of images. At several stages, attaining the frequently over-optimistic expectations for digital computation equipment proved to take far longer than anticipated. For example, the SEASAT system was ready to orbit before its digital processor became available, so a quickly assembled optical recording and processing scheme had to be used to obtain timely confirmation of system operation. In 1978, the first digital SAR processor was developed by


id: table-turning-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table-turning-0.md
category: reference
title: Table-turning
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table-turning
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:58.079786+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: table-turning-20260505-0
summary:
Table-turning (also known as table-tapping, table-tipping or table-tilting) is a type of séance in which participants sit around a table, place their hands on it, and wait for rotations. The table was purportedly made to serve as a means of communicating with the spirits; the alphabet would be slowly spoken aloud and the table would tilt at the appropriate letter, thus spelling out words and sentences. The process is similar to that of a Ouija board. Scientists and skeptics consider table-turning to be the result of the ideomotor effect, or of conscious trickery. == History == When the movement of spiritualism first reached Europe from America in the winter of 1852–1853, the most popular method of consulting the spirits was for several persons to sit round a table, with their hands resting on it, and wait for the table to move. If the experiment was successful, the table would rotate with considerable rapidity and would occasionally rise in the air, or perform other movements. Whilst most spiritualists ascribed the table movements to the agency of spirits, two investigators, count de Gasparin and professor Thury (father of René Thury) of Geneva, conducted a careful series of experiments. They claimed to have


id: thought-experiment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought_experiment-0.md
category: reference
title: Thought experiment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought_experiment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:59.237630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: thought-experiment-20260505-0
summary:
A thought experiment is an imaginary scenario that is meant to elucidate or test an argument or theory. It is often an experiment that would be hard, impossible, or unethical to actually perform. It can also be an abstract hypothetical that is meant to test our intuitions about morality or other fundamental philosophical questions. == History == The ancient Greek δείκνυμι, deiknymi, 'thought experiment', "was the most ancient pattern of mathematical proof", and existed before Euclidean mathematics, where the emphasis was on the conceptual, rather than on the experimental part of a thought experiment. Johann Witt-Hansen established that Hans Christian Ørsted was the first to use the equivalent German term Gedankenexperiment c. 1812. Ørsted was also the first to use the equivalent term Gedankenversuch in 1820. By 1883, Ernst Mach used Gedankenexperiment in a different sense, to denote exclusively the imaginary conduct of a real experiment that would be subsequently performed as a real physical experiment by his students. Physical and mental experimentation could then be contrasted: Mach asked his students to provide him with explanations whenever the results from their subsequent, real, physical experiment differed from those of their prior, imaginary experiment. The English term thought experiment was coined


id: thought-experiment-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought_experiment-1.md
category: reference
title: Thought experiment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought_experiment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:59.237630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: thought-experiment-20260505-0
summary:
challenge the prevailing status quo (which includes activities such as correcting misinformation (or misapprehension), identify flaws in the argument(s) presented, to preserve (for the long-term) objectively established fact, and to refute specific assertions that some particular thing is permissible, forbidden, known, believed, possible, or necessary) extrapolate beyond (or interpolate within) the boundaries of already established fact predict and forecast the (otherwise) indefinite and unknowable future explain the past facilitate the retrodiction, postdiction and hindcasting of the otherwise indefinite and unknowable past facilitate decision making, choice, and strategy selection solve problems, and generate ideas; move current unsolved problems into another more productive problem space (e.g. functional fixedness) attribute causation, preventability, blame, and responsibility for specific outcomes assess culpability and compensatory damages in social and legal contexts ensure the repeat of past success examine the extent to which past events might have occurred differently ensure the future avoidance of past failures == Fields == Thought experiments have been used in a variety of fields, including philosophy, law, physics, and mathematics. In philosophy they have been used at least since classical antiquity, some pre-dating Socrates. In law, they were well known to Roman lawyers quoted in the Digest. In physics and other sciences,


id: thought-experiment-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought_experiment-2.md
category: reference
title: Thought experiment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought_experiment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:12:59.237630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: thought-experiment-20260505-0
summary:
=== Possibility === In many thought experiments, the scenario would be nomologically possible, or possible according to the laws of nature. John Searle's Chinese room is nomologically possible. Some thought experiments present scenarios that are not nomologically possible. In his Twin Earth thought experiment, Hilary Putnam asks us to imagine a scenario in which there is a substance with all of the observable properties of water (e.g., taste, color, boiling point), but is chemically different from water. It has been argued that this thought experiment is not nomologically possible, although it may be possible in some other sense, such as metaphysical possibility. It is debatable whether the nomological impossibility of a thought experiment renders intuitions about it moot. In some cases, the hypothetical scenario might be considered metaphysically impossible, or impossible in any sense at all. David Chalmers says that we can imagine that there are zombies, or persons who are physically identical to us in every way but who lack consciousness. This is supposed to show that physicalism is false. However, some argue that zombies are inconceivable: we can no more imagine a zombie than we can imagine that 1+1=3. Others have claimed that the conceivability of a scenario


id: traditional-knowledge-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_knowledge-0.md
category: reference
title: Traditional knowledge
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_knowledge
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:00.402589+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: traditional-knowledge-20260505-0
summary:
Traditional knowledge (TK), indigenous knowledge (IK), folk knowledge, and local knowledge generally refers to knowledge systems embedded in the cultural traditions of regional, indigenous, or local communities. Traditional knowledge includes types of knowledge about traditional technologies of areas such as subsistence (e.g. tools and techniques for hunting or agriculture), midwifery, ethnobotany and ecological knowledge, traditional medicine, celestial navigation, craft skills, ethnoastronomy, climate, and others. These systems of knowledge are generally based on accumulations of empirical observation of and interaction with the environment, transmitted orally across generations. The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and the United Nations (UN) include traditional cultural expressions (TCE) in their respective definitions of indigenous knowledge. Traditional knowledge systems and cultural expressions exist in the forms of culture, stories, legends, folklore, rituals, songs, and laws, languages, songlines, dance, games, mythology, designs, visual art and architecture. == Characteristics and related concepts == A report of the International Council for Science (ICSU) Study Group on Science and Traditional Knowledge characterises traditional knowledge as: a cumulative body of knowledge, know-how, practices and representations maintained and developed by peoples with extended histories of interaction with the natural environment. These sophisticated sets of understandings, interpretations and meanings are part and parcel of


id: traditional-knowledge-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_knowledge-1.md
category: reference
title: Traditional knowledge
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_knowledge
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:00.402589+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: traditional-knowledge-20260505-0
summary:
International attention has turned to intellectual property laws to preserve, protect, and promote traditional knowledge. In 1992, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) recognized the value of traditional knowledge in protecting species, ecosystems and landscapes, and incorporated language regulating access to it and its use (discussed below). It was soon urged that implementing these provisions would require revision of international intellectual property agreements. This became even more pressing with the adoption of the World Trade Organization Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs), which established rules for creating and protecting intellectual property that could be interpreted to conflict with the agreements made under the CBD. In response, the states who had ratified the CBD requested the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) to investigate the relationship between intellectual property rights, biodiversity and traditional knowledge. WIPO began this work with a fact-finding mission in 1999. Considering the issues involved with biodiversity and the broader issues in TRIPs (involving all forms of cultural expressions, not just those associated with biodiversity – including traditional designs, music, songs, stories, etc.), WIPO established the Intergovernmental Committee on Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge and Folklore (IGC-GRTKF). WIPO Lex provides support for collections of


id: traditional-knowledge-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_knowledge-2.md
category: reference
title: Traditional knowledge
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_knowledge
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:00.402589+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: traditional-knowledge-20260505-0
summary:
=== Public domain === Literary and artistic works based upon, derived from or inspired by traditional culture or folklore may incorporate new elements or expressions. Hence these works may be "new" works with a living and identifiable creator, or creators. Such contemporary works may include a new interpretation, arrangement, adaptation or collection of pre-existing cultural heritage that is in the public domain. Traditional culture or folklore may also be "repackaged" in digital formats, or restoration and colorization. Contemporary and tradition based expressions and works of traditional culture are generally protected under existing copyright law, a form of intellectual property law, as they are sufficiently original to be regarded as "new" upon publication. Copyright protection is normally temporary. When a work has existed for a long enough period (often for the rest of the author's life plus an additional 50 to 70 years), the legal ability of the creator to prevent other people from reprinting, modifying, or using the property lapses, and the work is said to enter the public domain. Copyright protection also does not extend to folk songs and other works that developed over time, with no identifiable creators. Having an idea, story, or other work legally protected only


id: traditional-knowledge-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_knowledge-3.md
category: reference
title: Traditional knowledge
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_knowledge
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:00.402589+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: traditional-knowledge-20260505-0
summary:
The interpretation of these provisions has been elaborated through decisions by the parties (ratifiers of the Convention) (see the Convention on Biological Diversity Handbook, available free in digital format from the Secretariat). Nevertheless, the provisions regarding Access and Benefit Sharing contained in the Convention on Biological Diversity never achieved consensus and soon the authority over these questions fell back to WIPO. At the Convention on Biological Diversity meeting, in Buenos Aires, in 1996, emphasis was put on local knowledge. Key players, such as local communities and indigenous peoples, should be recognized by States, and have their sovereignty recognised over the biodiversity of their territories, so that they can continue protecting it. The parties to the Convention set a 2010 target to negotiate an international legally binding regime on access and benefit sharing (ABS) at the Eighth meeting (COP8), 20–31 March 2006 in Curitiba, Brazil. This target was met in October 2010 in Nagoya, Japan, by conclusion of the Nagoya Protocol to the CBD. The agreement is now open for ratification, and will come into force when 50 signatories have ratified it. It entered into force on 12 October 2014. As of August 2020, 128 nations ratified the Nagoya Protocol. The


id: troughton-scale-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troughton_scale-0.md
category: reference
title: Troughton scale
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troughton_scale
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:01.485380+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: troughton-scale-20260505-0
summary:
The Troughton scale is a measurement scale that de facto served as the first national standard of length in the United States, from 1832 until 1856. == Physical description == The measurement scale spans 82 inches and is subdivided to tenths of inches. It is marked on a silver inlay in a brass bar; the bar itself is about 86 inches long. == History == The scale was prepared for the Office of Coast Survey by Troughton of London and was brought to the United States in 1815 by F. R. Hassler, who a year later became first Superintendent of the Survey of the Coast and, in 1832, first Superintendent of Weights and Measures. At the time, the United States Government was principally financed by duties on imports and exports (the federal income tax did not become a permanent feature of the US system until 1913). The appropriate import and export taxes on commercial items were determined at customhouses maintained by the federal government at various ports of entry. A reliable and uniform system of weights and measure was necessary for this system to work, as well as for settling commercial disputes. In 1830, the US Senate requested the Secretary


id: universal-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Universal science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:02.694505+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: universal-science-20260505-0
summary:
Universal science (German: Universalwissenschaft; Latin: scientia generalis, scientia universalis) is a branch of metaphysics, dedicated to the study of the underlying principles of all science. Instead of viewing knowledge as being separated into branches, Universalists view all knowledge as being part of a single category. Universal science is related to, but distinct from, universal language. == Precursors == Logic and rationalism lie at the foundation of the ideas of universal science. In a broad sense, logic is the study of reasoning. Although there were individuals that implicitly utilized logical methods prior to Aristotle, it is generally agreed he was the originator of modern systems of logic. The Organon, Aristotle's books on logic, details this system. In Categories, Aristotle separates everything into 10 "categories": substance, quantity, quality, relation, place, time, position, state, action, and passion. In De Interpretatione, Aristotle studied propositions, detailing what he determined were the most basic propositions and the relationships between them. The Organon had several other books, which further detailed the process of constructing arguments, deducing logical consequences, and even contained the foundations of the modern scientific method. The most immediate predecessor to universal science is the system of formal logic, which is the study of the


id: welbeck-academy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welbeck_Academy-0.md
category: reference
title: Welbeck Academy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welbeck_Academy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:06.862893+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: welbeck-academy-20260505-0
summary:
The Welbeck Academy or Welbeck Circle is a name that has been given to the loose intellectual grouping around William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne in the first half of the 17th century. It takes its name from Welbeck Abbey, a country house in Nottinghamshire that was a Cavendish family seat. Another term used is Newcastle Circle. The geographical connection is, however, more notional than real; and these terms have been regarded also as somewhat misleading. Cavendish was Viscount Mansfield in 1620, and moved up the noble ranks to Duke, step by step; "Newcastle" applies by 1628. Newcastle was a royalist exile in continental Europe in the latter part of the First English Civil War and the Interregnum. He then returned to England and lived to 1676. His life shows many instances of cultural and intellectual patronage. == Science and mathematics == A scientific interest was optics. The group involved in these studies included Charles Cavendish (William's brother), Thomas Hobbes, Robert Payne and Walter Warner. This core "academy" group was disrupted when Newcastle took on responsibility for the Prince of Wales, in 1638. At a later point John Pell was in Newcastle's service. Charles Cavendish's circle included Henry Bond, Richard


id: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology-0.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:08.247145+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
Western esotericism and psychology surveys the documented exchanges between Western esotericism—including Westernized hybrids of Asian traditions—and selected areas of psychology, psychotherapy, and popular psychology. From the late eighteenth century onward, conduits such as animal magnetism and early hypnosis (reinterpreted from mesmeric “somnambulism”), Spiritualism/psychical research, and fin de siècle occultism and comparative projects created channels by which esoteric repertoires (e.g., alchemy, astrology, and subtle body schemes) were translated into psychological idioms or embedded in therapeutic and self-development techniques. In the twentieth century, these exchanges were variously articulated in analytical psychology (including Jung’s alchemical hermeneutics), humanistic workshop cultures and the human potential movement, transpersonal psychology, and symbolic counselling that repurposed oracular media (e.g., tarot, astrology, or the I Ching). Rather than a single genealogy, historians emphasise plural processes of transmission, translation, and hybridisation across specific networks and publics—among them Theosophy (with codified chakras and subtle bodies), Anthroposophy (linking esoteric doctrines to pedagogical and para-clinical projects), the Eranos circle (mediating Jungian hermeneutics and history-of-religions), and late-modern markets often labelled “New Age”. Sociological accounts frame the broader diffusion via the late-modern “cultic milieu” and “occulture”, which describe how esoteric symbols and narratives circulate beyond formal religion through publishing, workshops, retreats and wellness/coaching niches, where


id: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology-1.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:08.247145+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Rejected knowledge by academic psychology === In this line of analysis, Wouter J. Hanegraaff introduced the notion of rejected knowledge to describe bodies of thought and practice that once claimed rational or scientific legitimacy but were later excluded from academic discourse. The concept provides historians with a tool for understanding why movements such as mesmerism, psychical research, or vitalist biophysics—though not self-identified as “esoteric”—nonetheless display structural affinities with the esoteric field through their use of subtle-force cosmologies, analogical reasoning, and transformative techniques. === Psychologization of esotericism (historiographical models) === Scholarship has used “psychologization” to describe how esoteric repertoires were reframed in psychological idioms or channelled through therapeutic formats. Wouter J. Hanegraaff proposed a bidirectional traffic—“psychologization of religion” and “sacralization of psychology”—as a lens for modern encounters between esotericism and psychology. Complementarily, long-duration histories of dynamic psychiatry (as theorized by the historiographer of psychiatry Henri Ellenberger) trace continuities from exorcism to mesmerism, hypnosis and the emergence of clinical psychologies, providing a background against which such reframings occurred. Recent work has refined “psychologization” by distinguishing several modes (e.g., complementary, terminological, reductive, idealist) and by analysing the appeal to a distinct “magical plane” (a separate-but-connected psychic locus) that insulates ritual practice from


id: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology-2.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:08.247145+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
In the milieu of the Occult Revival of the 19th century in Western societies the Society for Psychical Research (SPR) became a key contact zone between séance cultures and emerging psychological inquiry. Its programmes covered hypnotism, dissociation, mediumship and “thought-transference” (later standardised as telepathy by Frederic W. H. Myers), with figures such as William James engaging controversy around mediums like Eusapia Palladino and critics like Hugo Münsterberg. Historians read these investigations as part of the broader traffic in which esoteric repertoires (trance techniques, oracular devices) and laboratory or literary methods cross-pollinated, even as medical framings recoded practice in secular psychological terms. Around 1900, currents grouped under modern occultism and comparative projects systematised repertoires that would become salient in psychological translation. Theosophy articulated a modern discourse on subtle bodies and diffused codified “chakra” schemes through handbooks and visual plates that circulated well beyond initiatory settings; these maps furnished a flexible idiom for inner states and “energy” later reframed in counselling and self-development. At the same time, Anthroposophy extended esoteric doctrines into education and para-clinical practice, associating imagination and development with disciplined movement and arts-based therapies (e.g., Eurythmy). Organisationally, anthroposophic centres linked doctrine, pedagogy and therapeutic experiments, creating channels by which symbolic


id: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology-3.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:08.247145+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
Institutional and editorial hubs in this period The Eranos meetings (Ascona) interfaced Jungian circles with history-of-religions scholarship, stabilising psychological readings of premodern symbol-systems (including Asian corpora) in interpretive, non-realist frames. Mid-century workshop venues such as the Esalen Institute (Big Sur) structured experiential formats—encounter, movement, guided imagination—in which symbolic and ritual devices circulated alongside clinical and educational experimentation; associations and journals consolidated Transpersonal psychology as a field. At the boundary of psychology proper, parapsychology laboratories and surveys extended the nineteenth-century psychical-research agenda (e.g., studies of telepathy/clairvoyance) into experimental and questionnaire-based programmes. === Late 20th century to present: hybrids, wellness and coaching === From the late twentieth century, repertoires previously clustered in specialist milieus migrated into wider self-help, wellness and coaching cultures. Modern transpositions of yoga supplied somatic and attentional techniques that could be framed in secular or symbolic terms, sometimes retaining subtle-body vocabularies and sometimes recoded physiologically; posture-based systems and allied practices entered therapeutic and educational niches where they functioned as vehicles for self-regulation without requiring adherence to esoteric cosmologies. In counselling and workshop circuits, oracular media such as tarot, astrology and the I Ching were repurposed as projective tools within interpretive frames, foregrounding narrative construction and reflective dialogue rather than


id: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology-4.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:08.247145+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
Founded by Roberto Assagioli, psychosynthesis articulated a developmental model integrating will, imagination and symbolic techniques (guided imagery, reflective exercises), framed for psychotherapy and education. While drawing selectively on religious and esoteric vocabularies (e.g., stages, higher/unifying self), psychosynthesis presented these as symbolic devices for integration and meaning-making rather than as doctrinal commitments, and established dedicated training and counselling contexts distinct from Jungian institutions. In workshop and clinical formats, psychosynthesis employed structured sequences (evocation of imagery, reflective processing, value clarification) that align with humanistic and transpersonal milieus in which ritualised settings and symbolic repertoires were redeployed for experiential learning. Reviews at the psychology–religion interface underline the need to separate genealogical description from empirical appraisal and to keep realist–occult claims distinct from interpretive, “as-if real” framings. === Somatic and bioenergetic psychology === Wilhelm Reich’s somatic psychotherapy, developed as vegetotherapy and later orgonomy, sought to integrate emotional release with muscular and respiratory dynamics. Although Reich presented his model as biophysics rather than spirituality, his concept of orgone—a universal life energy said to permeate both psyche and cosmos—echoed older vitalist and mesmerist cosmologies. Scholars such as Christopher Partridge and Egil Asprem interpret Reich’s system as part of the modern afterlife of esoteric vitalism, where notions


id: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology-5.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:08.247145+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Parapsychology (boundary-field interface) === Nineteenth-century psychical research evolved into twentieth-century parapsychology, which pursued experimental and survey studies of anomalous cognition (e.g., telepathy, clairvoyance) at the boundary of psychology proper. In this article parapsychology is treated as a historical interface with psychology—linked to case-genres on automatism and dissociation and intersecting selectively with transpersonal psychology debates on non-ordinary states—rather than as a psychological school; genealogical description is kept distinct from evidential claims. == Popular psychology and coaching == From the late twentieth century, repertoires associated with Western esotericism circulated widely through self-help and coaching markets. An American strand often labelled New Thought—later echoed in formulations such as the law of attraction—provided vocabularies of mental causation and affirmation that were readily repackaged as techniques for self-knowledge, motivation and optimisation. Historians read these idioms within the broader late-modern dynamics of occulture and the cultic milieu, which situate diffusion through publishing, workshops, retreats and media rather than through academic psychology. Early twentieth-century popular psychology also popularised relaxation-through-attention methods. Writers such as Annie Payson Call taught guided relaxation and posture–breath discipline for “nerves” and self-regulation in non-clinical settings, combining moral reform with bodily awareness (see relaxation techniques, guided imagery). Her work, including Power Through Repose


id: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology-6.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:08.247145+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
== Esoteric-linked mental health hospitals == In Brazil, Kardecist spiritism (a French origins branch of Spiritualism) developed durable interfaces with mental-health provision through Spiritist psychiatric hospitals that combine conventional psychiatric care with complementary Spiritist practices (e.g., “passes”, mediumistic counselling). Historical and clinical overviews document this model as emerging in the early–mid twentieth century and concentrated in Brazil; surveys describe operating structures, staffing and modalities of care across leading centres. In this article such institutions are treated as regional institutionalizations of an esoteric repertoire within modern healthcare systems; genealogical description is kept distinct from evidential claims about clinical outcomes. A different pathway of institutionalization appears in anthroposophic hospitals in Germany to Anthroposophy—where integrative frameworks include psychiatry/psychosomatics alongside arts-based and movement therapies (e.g., Eurythmy). Reviews of anthroposophic medicine situate these hospitals within an integrative multimodal system, while institutional profiles list dedicated departments (e.g., Gemeinschaftskrankenhaus Herdecke). As elsewhere in the article, institutional presence is reported separately from clinical validation, and interpretive/symbolic framings are distinguished from realist–occult claims. == Comparative techniques and devices == This section surveys devices that operate across otherwise distinct schools—symbolic tools, altered-state protocols, ritual/dramatic/artistic expression formats, body–attention practices, and sound-based procedures—and documents how they were translated into psychological frames (interpretive,


id: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology-7.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:08.247145+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
Sound-focused sessions—e.g., singing bowls and gong baths—are often framed through Pythagorean and (neo)hermetic (The Kybalion) narratives of hidden vibration and cosmic harmony (a Western esoteric lineage) while being presented with Asian aesthetics or branding (“Tibetan bowls”) in late-modern wellness markets. A parallel, secular rationale describes these formats as aids to relaxation, attentional focus and group containment. In either case, practice emphasises patterned sound, pacing and bounded ritual to scaffold meaning-making and regulation, with symbolic/interpretive efficacy foregrounded over realist claims. === Body and attention === Somatic and attentional practices—postures, movement sequences and contemplative exercises—were adopted in modern transpositions of yoga, Buddhist sati, and related repertoires, sometimes retaining Theosophical subtle body vocabularies and sometimes reframed in secular or physiological terms. Historical studies trace how posture-based systems and allied techniques entered wellness and therapeutic niches (e.g. relaxation techniques), where they could function as vehicles for self-regulation without adherence to esoteric or religious cosmologies. Earlier Western harmonial and breath-culture traditions (see Popular psychology and coaching) already framed breathing and relaxation as psychophysical techniques linking mind–body regulation and esoteric ideas of vital influx. === Energy-themed practices (subtle-body framings) === Under “energy” labels (e.g., reiki, “healing touch”, pranic variants), late-modern counselling and coaching milieus sometimes redeploy


id: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology-8.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:08.247145+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
== Bibliography == Faivre, Antoine; Needleman, Jacob, eds. (1992). Modern Esoteric Spirituality. World Spirituality: An Encyclopedic History of the Religious Quest, 21. New York: Crossroad. ISBN 978-0-8245-1145-6. Flournoy, Théodore (1900). From India to the Planet Mars: A Study of a Case of Somnambulism with Glossolalia. New York: Harper & Brothers. Hanegraaff, Wouter J. (1998). New Age Religion and Western Culture: Esotericism in the Mirror of Secular Thought. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-11035-9. Hanegraaff, Wouter J. (2012). Esotericism and the Academy: Rejected Knowledge in Western Culture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-02112-9. Leadbeater, C. W. (1927). The Chakras (PDF). Adyar: Theosophical Publishing House. Partridge, Christopher (2004). The Re-Enchantment of the West, Vol. 1: Alternative Spiritualities, Sacralization, Popular Culture and Occulture. London: T&T Clark. ISBN 978-0-567-08408-8. Campbell, Colin (1972). "The Cult, the Cultic Milieu and Secularization". A Sociological Yearbook of Religion in Britain. 5: 119–136. Rush, M. J. (2016). "The Contribution of Western Esotericism to Transpersonal Psychology". Transpersonal Psychology Review. 18 (1): 32–43. doi:10.53841/bpstran.2016.18.1.32. Singleton, Mark (2010). Yoga Body: The Origins of Modern Posture Practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-539535-8. Pittenger, David J. (1993). "Measuring the MBTI and Coming Up Short". Review of Educational Research. 63 (4): 467–488. doi:10.3102/00346543063004467. Moreira-Almeida, Alexander (2005).


id: western-esotericism-and-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:09.499471+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-science-20260505-0
summary:
The relationship between Western esotericism and science (and particularly the origins of experimental science) is a historiographical overview intersecting academic study of Western esotericism and history of science about how learned esoteric currents (e.g., natural magic, alchemy, hermeticism) interacted with natural philosophy, artisanal knowledge, and later scientific institutions from Antiquity to the twentieth century. It summarizes major debates (e.g., the “Yates thesis”), the role of printing and learned/artisanal networks, and the transformations that led from alchemy and chymistry to early modern chemistry, it also traces nineteenth–twentieth-century continuities in mesmerism, spiritualism, and psychical research. == Scope and definitions == The scope covers learned currents conventionally grouped under Western esotericism and their interactions with natural-philosophical, artisanal, and later scientific practices. In current scholarship, “Western esotericism” functions as an analytic label devised by historians of ideas rather than a stable emic category across periods. Within this remit fall astrology (including astral/astrological magic), alchemy/chymistry, hermetic and theurgic philosophies, “natural magic”, Christian Kabbalah and related Christianized appropriations, and selected nineteenth–twentieth-century continuities (e.g., mesmerism, spiritualisms, psychical research) insofar as they engaged scientific methods, publics, or institutions. Following standard usage, esotericism is treated as a family-resemblance category centered on literate, textually mediated, often elite discourses and practices,


id: western-esotericism-and-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:09.499471+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== From natural magic to infrastructures of credibility === Historians of ideas have charted the forms and fortunes of natural magic and learned magic from the Middle Ages through the seventeenth century, emphasizing ontologies of hidden properties, sympathies, and imaginal techniques, and their philosophical justifications and critics. Parallel research in the social history of science highlights infrastructures that filtered claims: manuscript and print circuits (including books of secrets), the Republic of Letters, early academies and learned societies, and the emergence of publication regimes such as the Philosophical Transactions. === Boundary-work and demarcation === Sociological approaches analyze how scientific communities drew boundaries against “occult” topics through norms of civility, replicable evidence, and credit allocation. Such “boundary-work” helps to explain why some esoteric claims were domesticated (e.g., elements of chemical practice) while others were marginalized, rebranded, or expelled. In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, studies of animal magnetism, spiritualism, and psychical research show continued negotiations at the edges of emerging disciplines, from clinics and laboratories to voluntary associations. === Long nineteenth century: disenchantment and “scientification” === Recent work situates esotericism within broader narratives of secularization and the reconfiguration of “religion” and “science.” One line of analysis tracks how scientific naturalism rearticulated


id: western-esotericism-and-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:09.499471+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Recipe literature and channels of diffusion === Technical books and compilations of “books of secrets” connected artisanal practice with learned theorizing, creating conduits that printers would later expand in the Renaissance. These manuals aggregated procedures for dyes, metallurgy, pharmacology, and image-making and helped form publics attuned to experiment, collection, and disclosure. === Scholastic uptake and debate === The influx of Arabic–Latin materials reshaped natural-philosophical vocabularies and controversies. Astronomical and medical applications of astrology, debates over hidden properties, and programmatic alchemical claims were selectively integrated into university teaching and commentary while also provoking clerical scrutiny—setting the stage for later medieval distinctions between licit “natural” explanations and illicit invocations. == Medieval Latin world (11th–15th centuries) == Between the eleventh and fifteenth centuries, the Latin West integrated translated corpora on astrology, alchemy, and learned magic into monastic, scholastic, and urban settings, while developing classifications later grouped under the “occult sciences.” Texts such as the Latin Picatrix, the Pseudo-Geber alchemical corpus, lapidaries, and image-magic handbooks circulated alongside natural-philosophical commentaries, medical compendia, and technical recipes. === Monastic collections and clerical readership === Monastic libraries and clerical readers preserved and annotated works on natural and ritual magic even as ecclesiastical norms constrained their use. Collections


id: western-esotericism-and-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:09.499471+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-science-20260505-0
summary:
Seventeenth-century practitioners reorganized late medieval and Renaissance repertoires into a mixed enterprise of alchemy and chemistry often labeled chymistry. Workshops and purpose-built laboratories standardized instruments (furnaces, crucibles, retorts, alembics) and procedures (calcination, distillation, sublimation, solution, precipitation), linking material operations to questions about analysis, composition, and medical utility. Programmatic attacks on Galenic medicine and defenses of chemical remedies by Paracelsian physicians fed a therapeutic and analytical turn that coexisted with transmutational ambitions. === Case-studies and overlapping repertoires === Studies of individual practitioners complicate linear stories of “disenchantment.” George Starkey (Eirenaeus Philalethes) developed furnace designs, protocols, and reagents that circulated widely; his collaboration and exchanges with Robert Boyle show how alchemical goals and experimental norms interpenetrated. Boyle’s experimental program drew on chymical skill and recipes while articulating new rhetorical and methodological expectations for public witnessing and replication, often highlighted in accounts of early modern experimental culture. At the mathematical end of natural philosophy, Isaac Newton pursued extensive alchemical reading and laboratory work—on metallic generation, “vegetation,” and the ignis secretus—integrating them with his broader investigations of nature. Rather than a clean break, scholarship depicts a spectrum of overlap in ends (medicine, analysis, perfection), media (glassware, heat management), and genres (notebooks, “secrets,” experimental reports)


id: western-esotericism-and-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_science-4.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:09.499471+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Egyptosophy and Egyptology === Scholars use the term Egyptosophy (Ägyptosophie) to denote the early-modern and modern Western construction of “ancient Egypt” as a reservoir of esoteric wisdom, a lineage that runs from late antique Hermeticism through Renaissance and Baroque syntheses and into nineteenth- and twentieth-century occult revivals. Within the historiography of science, this Egyptosophic imaginary is treated as a cultural precursor rather than a scientific ancestor: it sustained attention, collecting practices, and interpretive expectations (for example, Athanasius Kircher’s ambitious but largely erroneous readings), and it fed the broader current often labeled egyptomania. By contrast, Egyptology emerged in the 1820s as a distinct scholarly field grounded in philology and archaeology, following Jean-François Champollion’s phonetic decipherment of hieroglyphs (1822). In this sense, the relationship between Egyptosophy and Egyptology can be described—analogously to Astrology and Astronomy, or Alchemy and Chemistry—as a historical bifurcation: they share an object (ancient Egypt) and some early impulses, but diverge in method, evidentiary standards, and aims (soteriological and allegorical readings versus critical historicization and language-based analysis). Historians of science also interpret this shift as an instance of disciplinary boundary-making within the broader demarcation of science from non-science. == Nineteenth century: animal magnetism, spiritualisms, psychologies == Across the


id: western-esotericism-and-science-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_science-5.md
category: reference
title: Western esotericism and science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_esotericism_and_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:09.499471+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-esotericism-and-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Works cited == Asprem, Egil (2014). The Problem of Disenchantment: Scientific Naturalism and Esoteric Discourse, 1900–1939. Leiden: Brill. Copenhaver, Brian P. (1992). Hermetica: The Greek Corpus Hermeticum and the Latin Asclepius. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Copenhaver, Brian P. (2015). Magic in Western Culture: From Antiquity to the Enlightenment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Daston, Lorraine; Park, Katharine (1998). Wonders and the Order of Nature, 1150–1750. New York: Zone Books. Dear, Peter (2001). Revolutionizing the Sciences: European Knowledge and Its Ambitions, 1500–1700. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Debus, Allen G. (1977). The Chemical Philosophy: Paracelsian Science and Medicine in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. New York: Science History Publications. Eamon, William (1994). Science and the Secrets of Nature: Books of Secrets in Medieval and Early Modern Culture. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Faivre, Antoine (1994). Access to Western Esotericism. Albany: SUNY Press. Findlen, Paula (1994). Possessing Nature: Museums, Collecting, and Scientific Culture in Early Modern Italy. Berkeley: University of California Press. Fowden, Garth (1986). The Egyptian Hermes: A Historical Approach to the Late Pagan Mind. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Gieryn, Thomas F. (1999). Cultural Boundaries of Science: Credibility on the Line. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Gieryn, Thomas F. (1983). "Boundary-Work and the


id: william-phelps-ornithological-collection-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Phelps_Ornithological_Collection-0.md
category: reference
title: William Phelps Ornithological Collection
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Phelps_Ornithological_Collection
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:10.656243+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: william-phelps-ornithological-collection-20260505-0
summary:
The William Phelps Ornithological Collection, also known as the Phelps Ornithological Museum, is a museum of natural sciences dedicated to the study, exhibition and preservation of the birds of Venezuela and the rest of Latin America. The collection is located east of Caracas and in the geographic center of Greater Caracas, in the heart of the Sabana Grande district. The William Phelps ornithological collection is the most important in Latin America and it is also the most important private collection in the world in its research area. In this private museum one will find important Phelps family study books, as well as 8000 scientific volumes in the library, more than 83,000 anatomical specimens, more than 80,000 skins, etc. For the year 1990, it was said that the William Phelps Ornithological Collection contained more than 76,300 skins and a small number of anatomical specimens, in the Gran Sabana Building of Sabana Grande. The Phelps library in 1990 already had 6,000 books, 800 journals and 5,500 reprints, mostly from natural sciences. == History == The ornithological collection was born in 1938, although it did not have its own headquarters on the Boulevard of Sabana Grande until 1949. At the beginning of 2018,


id: atmospheric-chemistry-suite-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_Chemistry_Suite-0.md
category: reference
title: Atmospheric Chemistry Suite
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_Chemistry_Suite
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:14.456406+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: atmospheric-chemistry-suite-20260505-0
summary:
The Atmospheric Chemistry Suite (ACS) is a science payload consisting of three infrared spectrometer channels aboard the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO) orbiting Mars since October 2016. The three channels are: the near-infrared channel (NIR), the mid-infrared channel (MIR), and the far infrared channel (FIR, also called TIRVIM). The ACS was proposed in 2011 by Russian Academy Section and eventually accepted by the European Space Agency (ESA) and Roscosmos as one of two Russian instruments onboard TGO. The instrument was funded by Roscosmos and Centre national d'études spatiales (CNES) of France, and has components of both Russia and France. Its development and fabrication was under Russian leadership. The functionality of all the three channels was confirmed during cruise to Mars. == Objectives == The main objective of the ACS suite is to make an inventory and map minor atmospheric species or trace gases in the atmosphere of Mars. This will allow scientists to profile the upper limits on the methane contents, and to possibly to detect sulfur dioxide (SO2), a gas of volcanic origin. == Channels == The near-infrared channel (NIR), is a compact spectrometer operating in the range of 0.7–1.7 μm with a resolving power of λ/Δλ ~ 20,000


id: bailer-hydrogeology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bailer_(hydrogeology)-0.md
category: reference
title: Bailer (hydrogeology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bailer_(hydrogeology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:15.600585+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bailer-hydrogeology-20260505-0
summary:
A bailer in hydrogeology is a hollow tube used to retrieve groundwater samples from monitoring wells. The wells are typically built out of PVC casing which is slotted to allow groundwater to flow freely through the well. Bailers are tied to a piece of rope (usually made from nylon or polypropylene) or a piece of wire (composed of Teflon or stainless steel) and lowered into the water column. Once lowered, the bailer uses a simple ball check valve to seal at the bottom in order to pull up a sample of the groundwater table. Bailers can be disposable or reusable, and they are made out of polyethylene, PVC, FEP or stainless steel. There are advantages and disadvantages to using bailers for groundwater sampling. Bailers are simple devices to use and are relatively inexpensive. Disposable bailers are usually cleaned to United States Environmental Protection Agency specifications and individually packaged to protect sample integrity. In addition, bailers can be lowered to any depth while pumps have sharp limitations on the depth of the well. The main drawback of using bailers is aeration of the water as the sample is obtained, which could release volatile organic compounds that need to be tested. Also,


id: bathometer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathometer-0.md
category: reference
title: Bathometer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathometer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:16.779394+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bathometer-20260505-0
summary:
A bathometer (also bathymeter) is an instrument for measuring water depth. It was previously used mainly in oceanographical studies, but is rarely employed nowadays. The term originates from Greek βαθύς (bathys), "deep" and μέτρον (métron), "measure". == History == The earliest idea for a bathometer is due to Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472) who sunk a hollow sphere attached to some ballast with a hook. When the ball reached the bottom it detached from the ballast and resurfaced. The depth was determined (rather inaccurately) by the time it took to surface. Jacob Perkins (1766–1849) proposed a bathometer based on the compressibility of water. In this instrument the movement of a piston compressing a body of water enclosed in its cylinder is dependent on the pressure of the water outside the cylinder, and hence its depth. The amount the piston moved can be measured when it is returned to the surface. A bathometer that did not need to be submerged was invented in 1876 by William Siemens, stimulated by the needs of the telegraph industry. Siemens' instrument was the first to come into widespread use and is so different and so much more practical than anything that had gone before that he


id: cary-14-spectrophotometer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cary_14_Spectrophotometer-0.md
category: reference
title: Cary 14 Spectrophotometer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cary_14_Spectrophotometer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:18.009956+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cary-14-spectrophotometer-20260505-0
summary:
The Cary Model 14 UV-VIS Spectrophotometer was a double beam recording spectrophotometer designed to operate over the wide spectral range of ultraviolet, visible and near infrared wavelengths (UV/Vis/NIR). This included wavelengths ranging from 185 nanometers to 870 nanometers. (The Cary Model 14B, almost identical in exterior appearance, measured wavelengths from .5 to 6.0 microns.) The Cary 14 spectrophotometer was first produced in 1954 by the Applied Physics Corporation, which later was named the Cary Instruments Corporation after co-founder Howard Cary. The instrument was a successor to the Cary 11, which was the first commercially available recording UV/Vis spectrophotometer. It was produced until 1980, and refurbished models can still be obtained. == Design and use == The double beam design of the Cary 14 provided rapid, simplified analysis by simultaneously measuring the transmittance of both the sample and the reference over the entire spectral range. The optics of the Cary 14 were a key feature. The double monochromator in particular was described and patented. The Cary 14 was one of the first instruments to incorporate high-quality gratings into its monochromators. To take readings in the ultraviolet or visible range, either a deuterium or tungsten lamp was used, with the light focussed


id: celloscope-automated-cell-counter-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celloscope_automated_cell_counter-0.md
category: reference
title: Celloscope automated cell counter
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celloscope_automated_cell_counter
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:19.188118+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: celloscope-automated-cell-counter-20260505-0
summary:
Celloscope automated cell counter was developed in the 1950s for enumeration of erythrocytes, leukocytes, and thrombocytes in blood samples. Together with the Coulter counter, the Celloscope analyzer can be considered one of the predecessors of today's automated hematology analyzers, as the principle of the electrical impedance method is still utilized in cell counters installed in clinical laboratories around the world. == History == The Celloscope was developed for the Swedish company AB Lars Ljungberg & Co under the direction of engineer Erik Öhlin at Linson Instrument AB. In an interview published in the Clinical Biochemistry in the Nordics, a membership magazine for the Nordic Association for Clinical Chemistry, Lars Ljungberg explains that he and his coworkers had been considering different solutions for counting blood cells for some time when they came across a method presented by the American Navy on how particles could be counted when allowed to pass a capillary hole through which a weak direct current was passed simultaneously. The Celloscope method exploits the feature of blood cells not being conductive and therefore make interruptions (pulses) to the current, which then can be counted. What Ljungberg and coworkers did not know was that Wallace H. Coulter in Chicago


id: colorimeter-chemistry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorimeter_(chemistry)-0.md
category: reference
title: Colorimeter (chemistry)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorimeter_(chemistry)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:23.481845+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: colorimeter-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
A colorimeter is a device used in colorimetry that measures the absorbance of particular wavelengths of light by a specific solution. It is commonly used to determine the concentration of a known solute in a given solution by the application of the Beer–Lambert law, which states that the concentration of a solute is proportional to the absorbance. == Construction == The essential parts of a colorimeter are: a light source (often an ordinary low-voltage filament lamp); an adjustable aperture; a set of colored filters; a cuvette to hold the working solution; a detector (usually a photoresistor) to measure the transmitted light; a meter to display the output from the detector. In addition, there may be: a voltage regulator, to protect the instrument from fluctuations in mains voltage; a second light path, cuvette and detector. This enables comparison between the working solution and a "blank", consisting of pure solvent, to improve accuracy. There are many commercialized colorimeters as well as open source versions with construction documentation for education and for research. === Filters === Changeable optics filters are used in the colorimeter to select the wavelength which the solute absorbs the most, in order to maximize accuracy. The usual wavelength range


id: cosmic-dust-analyzer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_Dust_Analyzer-0.md
category: reference
title: Cosmic Dust Analyzer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_Dust_Analyzer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:24.632084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cosmic-dust-analyzer-20260505-0
summary:
The Cosmic Dust Analyzer (CDA) was a large-area (0.1 m2 total sensitive area) multi-sensor dust instrument included on the Cassini spacecraft, which was launched in 1997 and orbited Saturn from 2004 to 2017. The instrument included a chemical dust analyzer (time-of-flight mass spectrometer), a highly reliable impact ionization detector, and two high rate polarized polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) detectors. Over 7 years en route to Saturn, the CDA analysed the interplanetary dust cloud, the stream of interstellar dust, and Jupiter dust streams. During 13 years in orbit around Saturn, the CDA studied the E ring, dust in the plumes of Enceladus, and dust in Saturn's environment. == Overview == The Cosmic Dust Analyzer was the seventh dust instrument from the Max Planck Institute for Nuclear Physics (MPIK), Heidelberg (Germany) following the dust detectors on the HEOS 2 satellite and dust detectors on the Galileo and Ulysses space probes and the more complex dust analyzers on the Helios spacecraft, the Giotto and VeGa spacecraft to Halley's Comet. The new dust analyzer system was developed by a team of scientists led by Eberhard Grün and engineers led by Dietmar Linkert to analyze dust in the Saturn system on board the Cassini spacecraft. This


id: deposit-gauge-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deposit_gauge-0.md
category: reference
title: Deposit gauge
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deposit_gauge
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:25.831510+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: deposit-gauge-20260505-0
summary:
A deposit gauge is a large, funnel-like scientific instrument used for capturing and measuring atmospheric particulates, notably soot, carried in air pollution and deposited back down to ground. == Design and construction == Deposit gauges are similar to rain gauges. They have a large circular funnel on top, made of a material that will not be corroded by acid rain (such as stone, in early versions, or anodized aluminium, in modern ones). This is mounted on a simple wooden or metal stand, which drains down into a collection bottle beneath. Typically the funnel has a wire-mesh screen around its perimeter to deter perching birds. They are made to a standardized design, which means the pollution collected in different places can be systematically studied and compared. The bottle is removed after a period of time (usually from a week to a month) and the contents taken away for analysis of water (such as rain, fog, and snow), insoluble matter (such as soot), and soluble matter. === Standard designs === The various standardized designs include: The standard deposit gauge, introduced in 1916 and formalized in a British Standard in 1951 The International Standard (ISO/DIS 4222.2) deposit gauge The Norwegian NILU gauge, which


id: dichroscope-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dichroscope-0.md
category: reference
title: Dichroscope
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dichroscope
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:27.051509+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dichroscope-20260505-0
summary:
A dichroscope is a pocket instrument used in the field of gemology, and can be used to test transparent gemstones (crystals). Experienced gemologists, observing the pleochroism of some gems, can successfully detect gemstones from other artificial stones using this instrument. There are two types of dichroscopes available: calcite and polarizing. Of the two, calcite gives better results and is widely used by experienced gemologists. With the polarizing type, only one pleochroic color can be seen at a time. This makes the process time-consuming and difficult, though it is the most economical way to get results. The dichroscope has been used since at least the start of the nineteenth century. == Calcite dichroscope == A calcite dichroscope shows a gem's pleochroic colors in contrast with one another, allowing the viewer to easily determine whether the stone is singly or doubly refractive (uniaxial or biaxial, respectively). Singly refractive stones do not split light that enters them, leaving light as a single beam as it exits the stone. On the contrary, doubly refractive stones may split an entering light beam into two rays (an ordinary ray and an extraordinary ray) depending on the angle, a property known as birefringence. Calcite dichroscopes are effective


id: dna-sequencer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequencer-0.md
category: reference
title: DNA sequencer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequencer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:28.229170+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dna-sequencer-20260505-0
summary:
A DNA sequencer is a scientific instrument used to automate the DNA sequencing process. Given a sample of DNA, a DNA sequencer is used to determine the order of the four bases: G (guanine), C (cytosine), A (adenine) and T (thymine). This is then reported as a text string, called a read. Some DNA sequencers can be also considered optical instruments as they analyze light signals originating from fluorochromes attached to nucleotides. The first automated DNA sequencer, invented by Lloyd M. Smith, was introduced by Applied Biosystems in 1987. It used the Sanger sequencing method, a technology which formed the basis of the "first generation" of DNA sequencers and enabled the completion of the Human Genome Project in 2001. This first generation of DNA sequencers are essentially automated electrophoresis systems that detect the migration of labelled DNA fragments. Therefore, these sequencers can also be used in the genotyping of genetic markers where only the length of a DNA fragment(s) needs to be determined (e.g. microsatellites, AFLPs). The Human Genome Project spurred the development of cheaper, high throughput and more accurate platforms known as Next Generation Sequencers (NGS) to sequence the human genome. These include the 454, SOLiD and Illumina DNA


id: dna-sequencer-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequencer-1.md
category: reference
title: DNA sequencer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequencer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:28.229170+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dna-sequencer-20260505-0
summary:
=== Roche === The 454 DNA sequencer was the first next-generation sequencer to become commercially successful. It was developed by 454 Life Sciences and purchased by Roche in 2007. 454 utilizes the detection of pyrophosphate released by the DNA polymerase reaction when adding a nucleotide to the template strain. Roche currently manufactures two systems based on their pyrosequencing technology: the GS FLX+ and the GS Junior System. The GS FLX+ System promises read lengths of approximately 1000 base pairs while the GS Junior System promises 400 base pair reads. A predecessor to GS FLX+, the 454 GS FLX Titanium system was released in 2008, achieving an output of 0.7G of data per run, with 99.9% accuracy after quality filter, and a read length of up to 700bp. In 2009, Roche launched the GS Junior, a bench top version of the 454 sequencer with read length up to 400bp, and simplified library preparation and data processing. One of the advantages of 454 systems is their running speed. Manpower can be reduced with automation of library preparation and semi-automation of emulsion PCR. A disadvantage of the 454 system is that it is prone to errors when estimating the number of bases in


id: dna-sequencer-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequencer-2.md
category: reference
title: DNA sequencer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequencer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:28.229170+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dna-sequencer-20260505-0
summary:
=== Beckman Coulter === Beckman Coulter (now Danaher) has previously manufactured chain termination and capillary electrophoresis-based DNA sequencers under the model name CEQ, including the CEQ 8000. The company now produces the GeXP Genetic Analysis System, which uses dye terminator sequencing. This method uses a thermocycler in much the same way as PCR to denature, anneal, and extend DNA fragments, amplifying the sequenced fragments. === Pacific Biosciences === Pacific Biosciences produces the PacBio RS and Sequel sequencing systems using a single molecule real time sequencing, or SMRT, method. This system can produce read lengths of multiple thousands of base pairs. Higher raw read errors are corrected using either circular consensus - where the same strand is read over and over again - or using optimized assembly strategies. Scientists have reported 99.9999% accuracy with these strategies. The Sequel system was launched in 2015 with an increased capacity and a lower price. === Oxford Nanopore === Oxford Nanopore Technologies' MinION sequencer is based on evolving nanopore sequencing technology to nucleic acid analyses. The device is four inches long and gets power from a USB port. MinION decodes DNA directly as the molecule is drawn at the rate of 450 bases/second through a


id: du-spectrophotometer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DU_spectrophotometer-0.md
category: reference
title: DU spectrophotometer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DU_spectrophotometer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:29.374364+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: du-spectrophotometer-20260505-0
summary:
The DU spectrophotometer or Beckman DU, introduced in 1941, was the first commercially viable scientific instrument for measuring the amount of ultraviolet light absorbed by a substance. This model of spectrophotometer enabled scientists to easily examine and identify a given substance based on its absorption spectrum, the pattern of light absorbed at different wavelengths. Arnold O. Beckman's National Technical Laboratories (later Beckman Instruments) developed three in-house prototype models (A, B, C) and one limited distribution model (D) before moving to full commercial production with the DU. Approximately 30,000 DU spectrophotometers were manufactured and sold between 1941 and 1976. Sometimes referred to as a UV–Vis spectrophotometer because it measured both the ultraviolet (UV) and visible spectra, the DU spectrophotometer is credited as being a truly revolutionary technology. It yielded more accurate results than previous methods for determining the chemical composition of a complex substance, and substantially reduced the time needed for an accurate analysis from weeks or hours to minutes. The Beckman DU was essential to several critical secret research projects during World War II, including the development of penicillin and synthetic rubber. == Background == Before the development of the DU spectrophotometer, analysis of a test sample to determine its


id: du-spectrophotometer-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DU_spectrophotometer-1.md
category: reference
title: DU spectrophotometer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DU_spectrophotometer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:29.374364+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: du-spectrophotometer-20260505-0
summary:
=== Model A (prototype) === The first prototype Beckman spectrophotometer, the Model A, was created at National Technologies Laboratories in 1940. It used a tungsten light source with a glass Fery prism as a monochromator. Tungsten was used for incandescent light filaments because it was strong, withstood heat, and emitted a steady light. Types of light sources differed in the range of wavelengths of light that they emitted. Tungsten lamps were useful in the visible light range but gave poor coverage in the ultraviolet range. However, they had the advantage of being readily available because they were used as automobile headlamps. An external amplifier from the Beckman pH meter and a vacuum tube photocell were used to detect wavelengths. === Model B (prototype) === It was quickly realized that a glass dispersive prism was not suitable for use in the ultraviolet spectrum. Glass absorbed electromagnetic radiation below 400 millimicrons rather than dispersing it. In the Model B, a quartz prism was substituted for the earlier glass. A tangent bar mechanism was used to adjust the monochromator. The mechanism was highly sensitive and required a skilled operator. Only two Model B prototypes were made. One was sold: in February 1941, to


id: du-spectrophotometer-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DU_spectrophotometer-2.md
category: reference
title: DU spectrophotometer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DU_spectrophotometer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:29.374364+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: du-spectrophotometer-20260505-0
summary:
When RCA could not meet Beckman's demand for experimental phototubes, National Technical Laboratories again had to design its own components in-house. They developed a pair of phototubes, sensitive to the red and blue areas of the spectrum, capable of amplifying the signals they received. With the incorporation of Beckman's UV-sensitive phototubes, the Model D became the Model DU UV–Vis spectrophotometer. Its designation as a "UV–Vis" spectrophotometer indicates its ability to measure light in both the visible and ultraviolet spectra. The DU was the first commercially viable scientific instrument for measuring the amount of ultraviolet light absorbed by a substance. As he had done with the pH meter, Beckman had replaced an array of complicated equipment with a single, easy-to-use instrument. One of the first fully integrated instruments or "black boxes" used in modern chemical laboratories, it sold for $723 in 1941. It is generally assumed that the "DU" in the name was a combination of "D" for the Model D on which it was based, and "U" for the ultraviolet spectrum. However, it has been suggested that "DU" may also reference Beckman's fraternity at the University of Illinois, Delta Upsilon, whose members were called "DU"s. A publication in the scholarly


id: du-spectrophotometer-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DU_spectrophotometer-3.md
category: reference
title: DU spectrophotometer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DU_spectrophotometer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:29.374364+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: du-spectrophotometer-20260505-0
summary:
The Beckman spectrophotometer was the first easy-to-use single instrument containing both the optical and electronic components needed for ultraviolet-absorption spectrophotometry within a single housing. The user could insert a cell tray with standard and sample cells, dial up the desired wavelength of light, confirm that the instrument was properly set by measuring the standard, and then measure the amount of absorption of the sample, reading the frequency from a simple meter. A series of readings at different wavelengths could be taken without disturbing the sample. The DU spectrophotometer's manual scanning method was extremely fast, reducing analysis times from weeks or hours to minutes. It was accurate in both the visible and ultraviolet ranges. Working in both the ultraviolet and the visible regions of the spectrum, the model DU produced accurate absorption spectra which could be obtained with relative ease and accurately replicated. The National Bureau of Standards ran tests to certify that the DU's results were accurate and repeatable and recommended its use. Other advantages included its high resolution and the minimization of stray light in the ultraviolet region. Although it was not cheap, its initial price of $723 made it available to the average laboratory. In comparison, in 1943,


id: du-spectrophotometer-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DU_spectrophotometer-4.md
category: reference
title: DU spectrophotometer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DU_spectrophotometer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:29.374364+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: du-spectrophotometer-20260505-0
summary:
=== Enzyme assays and DNA research === Gerty Cori and her husband Carl Ferdinand Cori won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1947 in recognition of their work on enzymes. They made several discoveries critical to understanding carbohydrate metabolism, including the isolation and discovery of the Cori ester, glucose 1-phosphate, and the understanding of the Cori cycle. They determined that the enzyme phosphorylase catalyzes formation of glucose 1-phosphate, which is the beginning and ending step in the conversions of glycogen into glucose and blood glucose to glycogen. Gerty Cori was also the first to show that a defect in an enzyme can be the cause of a human genetic disease. The Beckman DU spectrophotometer was used in the Cori laboratory to calculate enzyme concentrations, including phosphorylase. Another researcher who spent six months in 1947 at the Cori laboratory, "the most vibrant place in biochemistry" at that time, was Arthur Kornberg. Kornberg was already familiar with the DU spectrophotometer, which he had used at Severo Ochoa's laboratory at New York University. The "new and scarce" Beckman DU, loaned to Ochoa by the American Philosophical Society, was highly prized and in constant use. Kornberg used it to purify aconitase, an


id: dual-polarization-interferometry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual-polarization_interferometry-0.md
category: reference
title: Dual-polarization interferometry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual-polarization_interferometry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:30.582869+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dual-polarization-interferometry-20260505-0
summary:
Dual-polarization interferometry (DPI) is an analytical technique that probes molecular layers adsorbed to the surface of a waveguide using the evanescent wave of a laser beam. It is used to measure the conformational change in proteins, or other biomolecules, as they function (referred to as the conformation activity relationship). == Instrumentation == DPI focuses laser light into two waveguides. One of these functions as the "sensing" waveguide having an exposed surface while the second one functions to maintain a reference beam. A two-dimensional interference pattern is formed in the far field by combining the light passing through the two waveguides. The DPI technique rotates the polarization of the laser, to alternately excite two polarization modes of the waveguides. Measurement of the interferogram for both polarizations allows both the refractive index and the thickness of the adsorbed layer to be calculated. The polarization can be switched rapidly, allowing real-time measurements of chemical reactions taking place on a chip surface in a flow-through system. These measurements can be used to infer conformational information about the molecular interactions taking place, as the molecule size (from the layer thickness) and the fold density (from the RI) change. DPI is typically used to characterize biochemical


id: ecotron-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecotron-0.md
category: reference
title: Ecotron
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecotron
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:31.755715+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecotron-20260505-0
summary:
An Ecotron is an experimental instrument in ecology consisting of a controlled environment which makes it possible to simultaneously condition the environment of natural, simplified, or completely artificial ecosystems and measure the processes generated by living beings present in these ecosystems, in particular the flow of matter and energy. == Design == Its principle is to confine ecosystems in totally or partially waterproof enclosures which are permeable to energy flow and capable of generating a range of physical and chemical conditions applied to terrestrial or aquatic ecosystems, continental or marine. Environmental control and real-time measurements are precise enough to test hypotheses or operating models. For this purpose, the enclosures are fitted with significant equipment allowing continuous measurement of fluxes, states or biological characteristics. Other specific measurements, in situ and ex situ, on samples taken complete these online measurements. A sufficient number of independent confinement chambers is necessary to study several interacting factors in a framework of statistical inference. Depending on the case, we speak of a macrocosm when the space is large enough to study several m3 of reconstituted ecosystem over a period of time, generally measured in years (3-5 years or more for example), of microcosm for volumes measuring


id: filar-micrometer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filar_micrometer-0.md
category: reference
title: Filar micrometer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filar_micrometer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:32.890741+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: filar-micrometer-20260505-0
summary:
A filar micrometer is a specialized eyepiece used in astronomical telescopes for astrometry measurements, in microscopes for specimen measurements, and in alignment and surveying telescopes for measuring angles and distances on nearby objects. "Filar" derives from the Latin filum ("thread"). It refers to the fine threads or wires used in the device. == Construction and use == A typical filar micrometer consists of a reticle that has two fine parallel wires or threads that can be moved by the observer using a micrometer screw mechanism. The wires are placed in the focal image plane of the eyepiece so they remain sharply superimposed over the object under observation, while the micrometer motion moves the wires across the focal plane. Other designs employ a fixed reticle, against which one wire or a second reticle moves. By rotating the eyepiece assembly in the eyetube, the measurement axis can be aligned to match the orientation of the two points of observation. At one time, it was common to use spider silk as a thread. By placing one wire over one point of interest and moving the other to a second point, the distance between the two wires can be measured with the micrometer portion


id: fourier-transform-infrared-spectroscopy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier-transform_infrared_spectroscopy-0.md
category: reference
title: Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier-transform_infrared_spectroscopy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:34.037453+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fourier-transform-infrared-spectroscopy-20260505-0
summary:
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) is a technique used to obtain an infrared spectrum of absorption or emission of a solid, liquid, or gas. An FTIR spectrometer collects high-resolution spectral data over a wide spectral range. This confers a significant advantage over a dispersive spectrometer, which measures intensity over a narrow range of wavelengths at a time. The term Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy originates from the fact that a Fourier transform (a mathematical process) is required to convert the raw data into the actual spectrum. == Conceptual introduction == Absorption spectroscopy techniques (FTIR, ultraviolet-visible ("UV-vis") spectroscopy, etc.) measure how much light a sample absorbs at each wavelength. The most straightforward way to do this, the "dispersive spectroscopy" technique, is to shine a monochromatic light beam at a sample, measure how much of the light is absorbed, and repeat for each different wavelength (this is also how some UV–vis spectrometers take measurements). Fourier transform spectroscopy is a less intuitive way to obtain the same information. Rather than shining a monochromatic beam of light (a beam composed of only a single wavelength) at the sample, this technique shines a beam containing many frequencies of light at once and measures how much of


id: fourier-transform-infrared-spectroscopy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier-transform_infrared_spectroscopy-1.md
category: reference
title: Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier-transform_infrared_spectroscopy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:34.037453+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fourier-transform-infrared-spectroscopy-20260505-0
summary:
In a Michelson interferometer adapted for FTIR, light from the polychromatic infrared source, approximately a black-body radiator, is collimated and directed to a beam splitter. Ideally 50% of the light is refracted towards the fixed mirror and 50% is transmitted towards the moving mirror. Light is reflected from the two mirrors back to the beam splitter and some fraction of the original light passes into the sample compartment. There, the light is focused on the sample. On leaving the sample compartment the light is refocused on to the detector. The difference in optical path length between the two arms to the interferometer is known as the retardation or optical path difference (OPD). An interferogram is obtained by varying the OPD and recording the signal from the detector for various values of the OPD. The form of the interferogram when no sample is present depends on factors such as the variation of source intensity and splitter efficiency with wavelength. This results in a maximum at zero OPD, when there is constructive interference at all wavelengths, followed by series of "wiggles". The position of zero OPD is determined accurately by finding the point of maximum intensity in the interferogram. When a sample


id: fourier-transform-infrared-spectroscopy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier-transform_infrared_spectroscopy-2.md
category: reference
title: Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier-transform_infrared_spectroscopy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:34.037453+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fourier-transform-infrared-spectroscopy-20260505-0
summary:
The separation is the inverse of the maximum OPD. For example, a maximum OPD of 2 cm results in a separation of 0.5 cm−1. This is the spectral resolution in the sense that the value at one point is independent of the values at adjacent points. Most instruments can be operated at different resolutions by choosing different OPD's. Instruments for routine analyses typically have a best resolution of around 0.5 cm−1, while spectrometers have been built with resolutions as high as 0.001 cm−1, corresponding to a maximum OPD of 10 m. The point in the interferogram corresponding to zero path difference has to be identified, commonly by assuming it is where the maximum signal occurs. This so-called centerburst is not always symmetrical in real world spectrometers so a phase correction may have to be calculated. The interferogram signal decays as the path difference increases, the rate of decay being inversely related to the width of features in the spectrum. If the OPD is not large enough to allow the interferogram signal to decay to a negligible level there will be unwanted oscillations or sidelobes associated with the features in the resulting spectrum. To reduce these sidelobes the interferogram is usually


id: fourier-transform-infrared-spectroscopy-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier-transform_infrared_spectroscopy-3.md
category: reference
title: Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier-transform_infrared_spectroscopy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:34.037453+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fourier-transform-infrared-spectroscopy-20260505-0
summary:
=== IR sources === FTIR spectrometers are mostly used for measurements in the mid and near IR regions. For the mid-IR region, 2−25 μm (5,000–400 cm−1), the most common source is a silicon carbide (SiC) element heated to about 1,200 K (930 °C; 1,700 °F) (Globar). The output is similar to a blackbody. Shorter wavelengths of the near-IR, 1−2.5 μm (10,000–4,000 cm−1), require a higher temperature source, typically a tungsten-halogen lamp. The long wavelength output of these is limited to about 5 μm (2,000 cm−1) by the absorption of the quartz envelope. For the far-IR, especially at wavelengths beyond 50 μm (200 cm−1) a mercury discharge lamp gives higher output than a thermal source. === Detectors === Far-IR spectrometers commonly use pyroelectric detectors that respond to changes in temperature as the intensity of IR radiation falling on them varies. The sensitive elements in these detectors are either deuterated triglycine sulfate (DTGS) or lithium tantalate (LiTaO3). These detectors operate at ambient temperatures and provide adequate sensitivity for most routine applications. To achieve the best sensitivity the time for a scan is typically a few seconds. Cooled photoelectric detectors are employed for situations requiring higher sensitivity or faster response. Liquid nitrogen cooled


id: fourier-transform-infrared-spectroscopy-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier-transform_infrared_spectroscopy-4.md
category: reference
title: Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier-transform_infrared_spectroscopy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:34.037453+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fourier-transform-infrared-spectroscopy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Microscopy and imaging === An infrared microscope allows samples to be observed and spectra measured from regions as small as 5 microns across. Images can be generated by combining a microscope with linear or 2-D array detectors. The spatial resolution can approach 5 microns with tens of thousands of pixels. The images contain a spectrum for each pixel and can be viewed as maps showing the intensity at any wavelength or combination of wavelengths. This allows the distribution of different chemical species within the sample to be seen. This technique has been applied in various biological applications including the analysis of tissue sections as an alternative to conventional histopathology, examining the homogeneity of pharmaceutical tablets, and for differentiating morphologically-similar pollen grains. === Nanoscale and spectroscopy below the diffraction limit === The spatial resolution of FTIR can be further improved below the micrometer scale by integrating it into scanning near-field optical microscopy platform. The corresponding technique is called nano-FTIR and allows for performing broadband spectroscopy on materials in ultra-small quantities (single viruses and protein complexes) and with 10 to 20 nm spatial resolution. === FTIR as detector in chromatography === The speed of FTIR allows spectra to be obtained from


id: galileo-and-ulysses-dust-detectors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_and_Ulysses_Dust_Detectors-0.md
category: reference
title: Galileo and Ulysses Dust Detectors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_and_Ulysses_Dust_Detectors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:38.437042+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: galileo-and-ulysses-dust-detectors-20260505-0
summary:
The Galileo and Ulysses Dust Detectors are almost identical dust instruments on the Galileo and Ulysses missions. The instruments are large-area (0.1 m2 sensitive area) highly reliable impact ionization detectors of sub-micron and micron sized dust particles. With these instruments the interplanetary dust cloud was characterized between Venus’ and Jupiter's orbits and over the solar poles. A stream of interstellar dust passing through the planetary system was discovered. Close to and inside the Jupiter system streams nanometer sized dust particles that were emitted from volcanoes on Jupiter's moon Io and ejecta clouds around the Galilean moons were discovered and characterized. == Overview == Following the first dust instruments from the Max Planck Institute for Nuclear Physics (MPIK), Heidelberg (Germany) on the HEOS 2 satellite and the Helios spacecraft a new dust instrument was developed by a Team of Scientists and Engineers of Eberhard Grün to detect cosmic dust in the outer planetary system. This instrument had 10 times larger sensitive area (0.1 m2) and employed a multiple coincidence of impact signals in order to cope with the low fluxes of cosmic dust and the hostile environment in the outer planets magnetospheres. The Galileo and Ulysses dust detectors use impact ionization


id: harvard-collection-of-historical-scientific-instruments-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Collection_of_Historical_Scientific_Instruments-0.md
category: reference
title: Harvard Collection of Historical Scientific Instruments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Collection_of_Historical_Scientific_Instruments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:39.707733+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: harvard-collection-of-historical-scientific-instruments-20260505-0
summary:
Harvard University's Collection of Historical Scientific Instruments (CHSI), established 1948, is "one of the three largest university collections of its kind in the world". Waywiser, the online catalog of the collection, lists over 60% of the collection's 20,000 objects as of 2014. The collection was originally curated by Mr. David P Wheatland in his office to prevent obsolete equipment from being cannibalized for its component parts and materials. == Physical facilities == A selection of instruments and artifacts from the collection comprise the exhibition Time, Life, & Matter: Science in Cambridge. This permanent display can be found in the Putnam Gallery on the first floor of the Harvard Science Center, which is free and open to the public during regularly scheduled hours, Sunday through Friday. In addition, rotating collaborative exhibitions drawn in part from the collection are shown in the Special Exhibitions Gallery on the second floor, as well as the more modest Foyer Gallery on the third floor. The physical facilities in the Science Center were expanded in 2004, by replacing a one-story wing of the building with a four-story "townhouse"-style structure with offices, classrooms, and a fully-glazed internal stairway. The new wing houses the Department of the History


id: helios-dust-instrumentation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helios_Dust_Instrumentation-0.md
category: reference
title: Helios Dust Instrumentation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helios_Dust_Instrumentation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:40.867741+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: helios-dust-instrumentation-20260505-0
summary:
The Helios 1 and 2 spacecraft each carried two dust instruments to characterize the Zodiacal dust cloud inside the Earth’s orbit down to spacecraft positions 0.3 AU from the sun. The Zodiacal light instrument measured the brightness of light scattered by interplanetary dust along the line of sight. The in situ Micrometeoroid analyzer recorded impacts of meteoroids onto the sensitive detector surface and characterized their composition. The instruments delivered radial profiles of their measured data. Comet or meteoroid streams, and even interstellar dust were identified in the data. == Overview == The two Helios spacecraft were the result of a joint venture of West Germany's space agency DLR and NASA. The spacecraft were built in Germany and launched from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida. Helios 1 was launched in December 1974 onto an elliptic orbit between 1 and 0.31 au. Helios 2 followed in January 1976 and reached 0.29 au perihelion distance. The orbital periods were about 6 months. The Helios spacecraft were spinning with the spin axis perpendicular to the ecliptic plane. The Helios 1 spin axis pointed to ecliptic north whereas the Helios 2 orientation was inverted and the spin axis pointed to ecliptic south. The despun


id: helios-dust-instrumentation-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helios_Dust_Instrumentation-1.md
category: reference
title: Helios Dust Instrumentation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helios_Dust_Instrumentation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:40.867741+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: helios-dust-instrumentation-20260505-0
summary:
The South sensor was shielded by the spacecraft rim from direct sun light, whereas the ecliptic sensor was directly exposed to the intense solar radiation (up to 13 kW/m2). Therefore, the interior of the sensor was protected by a 0.3 μm thick aluminized parylene film which was attached to the first entrance grid. In order to study the effect of micrometeoroids penetrating the film, extensive dust accelerator studies with various materials were performed. It was shown that the penetration limit of the Helios film depends strongly on the density of meteoroids. Impact experiments with a lab version of the Helios micrometeoroid sensor were performed using several materials at the accelerators at the Max Planck Institute for Nuclear Physics in Heidelberg and at the Ames Research Center, ARC, in Moffet Field. The projectile materials included iron (Fe), quartz, glass, aluminium (Al), aluminium oxide (Al2O3), polystyrene, and kaolin. The mass resolution of the mass spectra of the Helios sensors was low R = M Δ M ∼ 10 {\displaystyle R={\cfrac {M}{\Delta M}}\sim 10} , i.e. only ions of atomic mass 10 Da could be separated from ions of mass 11 Da. These mass spectra served as reference for the spectra obtained in


id: holotomography-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holotomography-0.md
category: reference
title: Holotomography
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holotomography
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:42.064553+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: holotomography-20260505-0
summary:
Holotomography (HT) is a laser technique to measure the three-dimensional refractive index (RI) tomogram of a microscopic sample such as biological cells and tissues. Because the RI can serve as an intrinsic imaging contrast for transparent or phase objects, measurements of RI tomograms can provide label-free quantitative imaging of microscopic phase objects. In order to measure 3-D RI tomogram of samples, HT employs the principle of holographic imaging and inverse scattering. Typically, multiple 2D holographic images of a sample are measured at various illumination angles, employing the principle of interferometric imaging. Then, a 3D RI tomogram of the sample is reconstructed from these multiple 2D holographic images by inversely solving light scattering in the sample. == History == The first theoretical proposal was presented by Emil Wolf, and the first experimental demonstration was shown by Fercher et al. From 2000s, HT techniques had been extensively studied and applied to the field of biology and medicine, by several research groups including the MIT spectroscopy laboratory. Both the technical developments and applications of HT have been significantly advanced. In 2012 the first commercial HT company Nanolive was founded, later followed by Tomocube in 2014. == Principles == The principle of HT is


id: kymograph-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kymograph-0.md
category: reference
title: Kymograph
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kymograph
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:43.239711+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kymograph-20260505-0
summary:
A kymograph (from Greek κῦμα, swell or wave + γραφή, writing; also called a kymographion) is a type of two-dimensional plot that represents spatial position or signal intensity over time. In its modern usage, a kymograph is typically a space–time plot used in fields such as microscopy, cell biology, and speech science to track dynamic processes. These plots are generated by extracting intensity values along a predefined path across sequential image frames. The resulting image reduces the dimension to show time on one axis and sequential spatial information on the other. Using this technique allows for the visualization of dynamics within the image sequence, often by measuring the resulting slope of lines or streaks. This allows researchers to quantify velocity and directionality of movement, especially in applications like mitochondrial transport, vesicle trafficking, or vocal fold vibration. Although they reduce spatial information to a one-dimensional line, kymographs offer high temporal resolution and are often used alongside or in place of particle tracking techniques. == Kymograph device == A kymograph is also an analog device that draws a graphical representation of spatial position over time. The graphical representation is a graph in which the y axis shows position and the x axis


id: liulin-type-instruments-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liulin_type_instruments-0.md
category: reference
title: Liulin type instruments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liulin_type_instruments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:44.389426+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: liulin-type-instruments-20260505-0
summary:
Liulin-type is a class of spectrometry-dosimetry instruments. The instruments are specific types of semiconductor-based ionizing radiation sensors that are capable of measuring the deposited energy of the particle in silicon PIN diode and also the flux of particles. The measured data output is then a time series of spectral intensity. The data about mixed field radiation (usually the secondary cosmic rays) is then used to calculate radiation dose relevant to the specific mission e.g. for a crew or aerospace equipment. The main advantages of this type of ionizing radiation detector compared to classical setups with scintillators are a significant reduction in weight, and size together with extremely low power consumption. == History == The first Liulin device was developed in 1986–1988 time period for the scientific program of the second Bulgarian cosmonaut for the flight on MIR space station. After the MIR station deorbit similar experiments with revised versions of detectors continue on ISS. Since the beginning of 2015, open-source hardware detectors based on the same technology called SPACEDOS have been developed. Then the SPACEDOS instruments in different variants are used on board ISS parallel to Liulin dosimeters. == Principle of function == All Liulin type dosimetric instruments use one


id: mass-spectrometry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_spectrometry-0.md
category: reference
title: Mass spectrometry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_spectrometry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:45.652814+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mass-spectrometry-20260505-0
summary:
Mass spectrometry (MS) is an analytical technique that is used to measure the mass-to-charge ratio of ions. The results are presented as a mass spectrum, a plot of intensity as a function of the mass-to-charge ratio. Mass spectrometry is used in many different fields and is applied to pure samples as well as complex mixtures. A mass spectrum is a type of plot of the ion signal as a function of the mass-to-charge ratio. These spectra are used to determine the elemental or isotopic signature of a sample, the masses of particles and of molecules, and to elucidate the chemical identity or structure of molecules and other chemical compounds. In a typical MS procedure, a sample, which may be solid, liquid, or gaseous, is ionized, for example by bombarding it with a beam of electrons. This may cause some of the sample's molecules to break up into positively charged fragments or simply become positively charged without fragmenting. These ions (fragments) are then separated according to their mass-to-charge ratio, for example by accelerating them and subjecting them to an electric or magnetic field: ions of the same mass-to-charge ratio will undergo the same amount of deflection. The ions are detected by


id: mass-spectrometry-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_spectrometry-1.md
category: reference
title: Mass spectrometry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_spectrometry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:45.652814+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mass-spectrometry-20260505-0
summary:
=== Theoretical example === The following describes the operation of a spectrometer mass analyzer, which is of the sector type. (Other analyzer types are treated below.) Consider a sample of sodium chloride (table salt). In the ion source, the sample is vaporized (turned into gas) and ionized (transformed into electrically charged particles) into sodium (Na+) and chloride (Cl−) ions. Sodium atoms and ions are monoisotopic, with a mass of about 23 daltons (symbol: Da or older symbol: u). Chloride atoms and ions come in two stable isotopes with masses of approximately 35 u (at a natural abundance of about 75 percent) and approximately 37 u (at a natural abundance of about 25 percent). The analyzer part of the spectrometer contains electric and magnetic fields, which exert forces on ions traveling through these fields. The speed of a charged particle may be increased or decreased while passing through the electric field, and its direction may be altered by the magnetic field. The magnitude of the deflection of the moving ion's trajectory depends on its mass-to-charge ratio. Lighter ions are deflected by the magnetic force to a greater degree than heavier ions (based on Newton's second law of motion, F = ma).


id: mass-spectrometry-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_spectrometry-2.md
category: reference
title: Mass spectrometry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_spectrometry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:45.652814+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mass-spectrometry-20260505-0
summary:
== Mass selection == Mass analyzers separate the ions according to their mass-to-charge ratio. The following two laws govern the dynamics of charged particles in electric and magnetic fields in vacuum: F = Q ( E + v × B ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} =Q(\mathbf {E} +\mathbf {v} \times \mathbf {B} )} (Lorentz force law); F = m a {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} =m\mathbf {a} } (Newton's second law of motion in the non-relativistic case, i.e. valid only at ion velocity much lower than the speed of light). Here F is the force applied to the ion, m is the mass of the ion, a is the acceleration, Q is the ion charge, E is the electric field, and v × B is the vector cross product of the ion velocity and the magnetic field Equating the above expressions for the force applied to the ion yields: ( m / Q ) a = E + v × B . {\displaystyle (m/Q)\mathbf {a} =\mathbf {E} +\mathbf {v} \times \mathbf {B} .} This differential equation is the classic equation of motion for charged particles. Together with the particle's initial conditions, it completely determines the particle's motion in space and time in terms


id: mass-spectrometry-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_spectrometry-3.md
category: reference
title: Mass spectrometry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_spectrometry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:45.652814+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mass-spectrometry-20260505-0
summary:
The quadrupole ion trap works on the same physical principles as the quadrupole mass analyzer, but the ions are trapped and sequentially ejected. Ions are trapped in a mainly quadrupole RF field, in a space defined by a ring electrode (usually connected to the main RF potential) between two endcap electrodes (typically connected to DC or auxiliary AC potentials). The sample is ionized either internally (e.g. with an electron or laser beam), or externally, in which case the ions are often introduced through an aperture in an endcap electrode. There are many mass/charge separation and isolation methods but the most commonly used is the mass instability mode in which the RF potential is ramped so that the orbit of ions with a mass a > b are stable while ions with mass b become unstable and are ejected on the z-axis onto a detector. There are also non-destructive analysis methods. Ions may also be ejected by the resonance excitation method, whereby a supplemental oscillatory excitation voltage is applied to the endcap electrodes, and the trapping voltage amplitude and/or excitation voltage frequency is varied to bring ions into a resonance condition in order of their mass/charge ratio. ==== Cylindrical ion trap


id: mass-spectrometry-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_spectrometry-4.md
category: reference
title: Mass spectrometry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_spectrometry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:45.652814+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mass-spectrometry-20260505-0
summary:
A tandem mass spectrometer is one capable of multiple rounds of mass spectrometry, usually separated by some form of molecule fragmentation. For example, one mass analyzer can isolate one peptide from many entering a mass spectrometer. A collision cell then stabilizes the peptide ions while they collide with a gas, causing them to fragment by collision-induced dissociation (CID). A further mass analyzer then sorts the fragments produced from the peptides. Tandem MS can also be done in a single mass analyzer over time, as in a quadrupole ion trap. There are various methods for fragmenting molecules for tandem MS, including collision-induced dissociation (CID), electron capture dissociation (ECD), electron transfer dissociation (ETD), infrared multiphoton dissociation (IRMPD), blackbody infrared radiative dissociation (BIRD), electron-detachment dissociation (EDD) and surface-induced dissociation (SID). An important application using tandem mass spectrometry is in protein identification. Tandem mass spectrometry enables a variety of experimental sequences. Many commercial mass spectrometers are designed to expedite the execution of such routine sequences as selected reaction monitoring (SRM), precursor ion scanning, product ion scanning, and neutral loss scanning. In SRM, the first analyzer allows only a single mass through and the second analyzer monitors for multiple user-defined fragment ions over longer dwell-times


id: mass-spectrometry-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_spectrometry-5.md
category: reference
title: Mass spectrometry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_spectrometry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:45.652814+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mass-spectrometry-20260505-0
summary:
Ion mobility spectrometry-mass spectrometry (IMS/MS or IMMS) is a technique where ions are first separated by drift time through some neutral gas under an applied electrical potential gradient before being introduced into a mass spectrometer. Drift time is a measure of the collisional cross section relative to the charge of the ion. The duty cycle of IMS (the time over which the experiment takes place) is longer than most mass spectrometric techniques, such that the mass spectrometer can sample along the course of the IMS separation. This produces data about the IMS separation and the mass-to-charge ratio of the ions in a manner similar to LC-MS. The duty cycle of IMS is short relative to liquid chromatography or gas chromatography separations and can thus be coupled to such techniques, producing triple modalities such as LC/IMS/MS. == Data and analysis == === Data representations === Mass spectrometry produces various types of data. The most common data representation is the mass spectrum. Certain types of mass spectrometry data are best represented as a mass chromatogram. Types of chromatograms include selected ion monitoring (SIM), total ion current (TIC), and selected reaction monitoring (SRM), among many others. Other types of mass spectrometry data are


id: mass-spectrometry-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_spectrometry-6.md
category: reference
title: Mass spectrometry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_spectrometry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:45.652814+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mass-spectrometry-20260505-0
summary:
Mass spectrometry has both qualitative and quantitative uses. These include identifying unknown compounds, determining the isotopic composition of elements in a molecule, and determining the structure of a compound by observing its fragmentation. Other uses include quantifying the amount of a compound in a sample or studying the fundamentals of gas phase ion chemistry (the chemistry of ions and neutrals in a vacuum). MS is now commonly used in analytical laboratories that study physical, chemical, or biological properties of a great variety of compounds. Quantification can be relative (analyzed relative to a reference sample) or absolute (analyzed using a standard curve method). As an analytical technique it possesses distinct advantages such as: Increased sensitivity over most other analytical techniques because the analyzer, as a mass-charge filter, reduces background interference, Excellent specificity from characteristic fragmentation patterns to identify unknowns or confirm the presence of suspected compounds, Information about molecular weight, Information about the isotopic abundance of elements, Temporally resolved chemical data. A few of the disadvantages of the method is that it often fails to distinguish between optical and geometrical isomers and the positions of substituent in o-, m- and p- positions in an aromatic ring. Also, its scope is limited


id: mass-spectrometry-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_spectrometry-7.md
category: reference
title: Mass spectrometry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_spectrometry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:45.652814+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mass-spectrometry-20260505-0
summary:
Mass spectrometry is an important method for the characterization and sequencing of proteins. The two primary methods for ionization of whole proteins are electrospray ionization (ESI) and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI). In keeping with the performance and mass range of available mass spectrometers, two approaches are used for characterizing proteins. In the first, intact proteins are ionized by either of the two techniques described above, and then introduced to a mass analyzer. This approach is referred to as "top-down" strategy of protein analysis. The top-down approach however is largely limited to low-throughput single-protein studies. In the second, proteins are enzymatically digested into smaller peptides using proteases such as trypsin or pepsin, either in solution or in gel after electrophoretic separation. Other proteolytic agents are also used. The collection of peptide products are often separated by chromatography prior to introduction to the mass analyzer. When the characteristic pattern of peptides is used for the identification of the protein the method is called peptide mass fingerprinting (PMF), if the identification is performed using the sequence data determined in tandem MS analysis it is called de novo peptide sequencing. These procedures of protein analysis are also referred to as the "bottom-up" approach, and


id: mems-testing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MEMS_testing-0.md
category: reference
title: MEMS testing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MEMS_testing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:47.219773+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mems-testing-20260505-0
summary:
MEMS testing is one of the processes in the development of a MEMS device. It is a collection of testing methods such as electrical, mechanical and environment tests. == Motivation == When looking at the electronic market it becomes obvious, as there is a need for production output, high system performance, product reliability and long lifecycle, for MEMS to create trust in the eyes of customers. If those conditions would not be met customers would not invest into technologies using MEMS, which justifies the need for testing as a part of a high quality standard. Testing is also fairly important from an economical point of view. As it is said that the failure cost increase by a factor of ten for each stage before it gets discovered. Most MEMS producers check their products at two distinct stages(at the wafer level, and the packaging), as well as random sampling on every stage. If one includes this into cost calculation for a MEMS device the costs for testing amounts to 20-50% of the overall unit costs. Even when looking at producers that manufacture MEMS, and CMOS devices it is not really possible to reduce the costs by including the economy of scopes


id: microscope-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope-0.md
category: reference
title: Microscope
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:48.490463+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: microscope-20260505-0
summary:
A microscope (from Ancient Greek μικρός (mikrós) 'small' and σκοπέω (skopéō) 'to look (at); examine, inspect') is a laboratory instrument used to examine objects that are too small to be seen by the naked eye. Microscopy is the science of investigating small objects and structures using a microscope. Microscopic means being invisible to the eye unless aided by a microscope. There are many types of microscopes, and they may be grouped in different ways. One way is to describe the method an instrument uses to interact with a sample and produce images, either by sending a beam of light or electrons through a sample in its optical path, by detecting photon emissions from a sample, or by scanning across and a short distance from the surface of a sample using a probe. The most common microscope (and the first to be invented) is the optical microscope, which uses lenses to refract visible light that passed through a thinly sectioned sample to produce an observable image. Other major types of microscopes are the fluorescence microscope, electron microscope (both the transmission electron microscope and the scanning electron microscope) and various types of scanning probe microscopes. == History == Although objects resembling lenses


id: microscope-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope-1.md
category: reference
title: Microscope
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:48.490463+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: microscope-20260505-0
summary:
In the early 20th century a significant alternative to the light microscope was developed, an instrument that uses a beam of electrons rather than light to generate an image. The German physicist, Ernst Ruska, working with electrical engineer Max Knoll, developed the first prototype electron microscope in 1931, a transmission electron microscope (TEM). The transmission electron microscope works on similar principles to an optical microscope but uses electrons in the place of light and electromagnets in the place of glass lenses. Use of electrons, instead of light, allows for much higher resolution. Development of the transmission electron microscope was quickly followed in 1935 by the development of the scanning electron microscope by Max Knoll. Although TEMs were being used for research before WWII, and became popular afterwards, the SEM was not commercially available until 1965. Transmission electron microscopes became popular following the Second World War. Ernst Ruska, working at Siemens, developed the first commercial transmission electron microscope and, in the 1950s, major scientific conferences on electron microscopy started being held. In 1965, the first commercial scanning electron microscope was developed by Professor Sir Charles Oatley and his postgraduate student Gary Stewart, and marketed by the Cambridge Instrument Company as the


id: microscope-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope-2.md
category: reference
title: Microscope
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:48.490463+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: microscope-20260505-0
summary:
Microscopes can be separated into several different classes. One grouping is based on what interacts with the sample to generate the image, i.e., light or photons (optical microscopes), electrons (electron microscopes) or a probe (scanning probe microscopes). Alternatively, microscopes can be classified based on whether they analyze the sample via a scanning point (confocal optical microscopes, scanning electron microscopes and scanning probe microscopes) or analyze the sample all at once (wide field optical microscopes and transmission electron microscopes). Wide field optical microscopes and transmission electron microscopes both use the theory of lenses (optics for light microscopes and electromagnet lenses for electron microscopes) in order to magnify the image generated by the passage of a wave transmitted through the sample, or reflected by the sample. The waves used are electromagnetic (in optical microscopes) or electron beams (in electron microscopes). Resolution in these microscopes is limited by the wavelength of the radiation used to image the sample, where shorter wavelengths allow for a higher resolution. Scanning optical and electron microscopes, like the confocal microscope and scanning electron microscope, use lenses to focus a spot of light or electrons onto the sample then analyze the signals generated by the beam interacting with the


id: microscope-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope-3.md
category: reference
title: Microscope
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:48.490463+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: microscope-20260505-0
summary:
The different types of scanning probe microscopes arise from the many different types of interactions that occur when a small probe is scanned over and interacts with a specimen. These interactions or modes can be recorded or mapped as function of location on the surface to form a characterization map. The three most common types of scanning probe microscopes are atomic force microscopes (AFM), near-field scanning optical microscopes (NSOM or SNOM, scanning near-field optical microscopy), and scanning tunneling microscopes (STM). An atomic force microscope has a fine probe, usually of silicon or silicon nitride, attached to a cantilever; the probe is scanned over the surface of the sample, and the forces that cause an interaction between the probe and the surface of the sample are measured and mapped. A near-field scanning optical microscope is similar to an AFM but its probe consists of a light source in an optical fiber covered with a tip that has usually an aperture for the light to pass through. The microscope can capture either transmitted or reflected light to measure very localized optical properties of the surface, commonly of a biological specimen. Scanning tunneling microscopes have a metal tip with a single apical atom;


id: multi-component-gas-analyzer-system-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-component_gas_analyzer_system-0.md
category: reference
title: Multi-component gas analyzer system
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-component_gas_analyzer_system
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:49.715672+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: multi-component-gas-analyzer-system-20260505-0
summary:
A multi-component gas analyzer system (Multi-GAS) is an instrument package used to take real-time high-resolution measurements of volcanic gases. A Multi-GAS package includes an infrared spectrometer for CO2, two electrochemical sensors for SO2 and H2S, and pressure–temperature–humidity sensors, all in a weatherproof box. The system can be used for individual surveys or set up as permanent stations connected to radio transmitters for transmission of data from remote locations. The instrument package is portable, and its operation and data analysis are simple enough to be conducted by non-specialists. Multi-GAS instruments have been used to measure volcanic gases at Mount Etna, Stromboli, Vulcano Italy, Villarrica (volcano) Chile, Masaya Volcano Nicaragua, Mount Yasur, Miyake-jima and Mount Asama Japan, Soufrière Hills Montserrat, with permanent installations at Etna and Stromboli. The development of this instrument has helped scientists to monitor real-time changes in volcanic gas composition, allowing for more rapid hazard mitigation and an enhanced understanding of volcano processes. == System mechanics == Multi-component gas analyzer systems are used for measuring the major components of volcanic gases. CO2, SO2, H2S, and pressure-temperature-humidity sensors are typically included in a package. Other electrochemical sensors have been successfully incorporated as well, including for H2 and HCl. The instruments


id: multi-parametric-surface-plasmon-resonance-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-parametric_surface_plasmon_resonance-0.md
category: reference
title: Multi-parametric surface plasmon resonance
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-parametric_surface_plasmon_resonance
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:53.984554+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: multi-parametric-surface-plasmon-resonance-20260505-0
summary:
Multi-parametric surface plasmon resonance (MP-SPR) is based on surface plasmon resonance (SPR), an established real-time label-free method for biomolecular interaction analysis, but it uses a different optical setup, a goniometric SPR configuration. While MP-SPR provides same kinetic information as SPR (equilibrium constant, dissociation constant, association constant), it provides also structural information (refractive index, layer thickness). Hence, MP-SPR measures both surface interactions and nanolayer properties. == History == The goniometric SPR method was researched alongside focused beam SPR and Otto configurations at VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland since 1980s by Janusz Sadowski. The goniometric SPR optics was commercialized by Biofons Oy for use in point-of-care applications. Introduction of additional measurement laser wavelengths and first thin film analyses were performed in 2011 giving way to MP-SPR method. == Principle == The MP-SPR optical setup measures at multiple wavelengths simultaneously (similarly to spectroscopic SPR), but instead of measuring at a fixed angle, it rather scans across a wide range of θ angles (for instance 40 degrees). This results in measurements of full SPR curves at multiple wavelengths providing additional information about structure and dynamic conformation of the film. == Measured values == The measured full SPR curves (x-axis: angle, y-axis: reflected light


id: ozone-monitoring-instrument-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_monitoring_instrument-0.md
category: reference
title: Ozone monitoring instrument
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_monitoring_instrument
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:55.160851+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ozone-monitoring-instrument-20260505-0
summary:
The ozone monitoring instrument (OMI) is a nadir-viewing visual and ultraviolet spectrometer aboard the NASA Aura spacecraft, which is part of the satellite constellation A-Train. In this group of satellites Aura flies in formation about 15 minutes behind Aqua satellite, both of which orbit the Earth in a polar Sun-synchronous pattern, and which provides nearly global coverage in one day. Aura satellite was launched on July 15, 2004, and OMI has collected data since August 9, 2004. From a technical point of view, OMI instrument use hyperspectral imaging to observe solar-backscatter radiation to the space with an spectral range that covers the visible and ultraviolet. Its spectral capabilities were designed to achieve specific requirements of total ozone amounts retrievals in terms of accuracy and precision. Also its characteristics provide accurate radiometric and wavelength self calibration over the long-term project requirements. == OMI project == The OMI project is a cooperation between the Netherlands Agency for Aerospace Programmes (NIVR), the Finnish Meteorological Institute (FMI) and the National Aeronautics and Space Agency (NASA). The OMI project was carried out under the direction of the NIVR and financed by the Dutch Ministries of Economic Affairs, Transport and Public Works and the Ministry of


id: ozone-monitoring-instrument-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_monitoring_instrument-1.md
category: reference
title: Ozone monitoring instrument
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_monitoring_instrument
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:55.160851+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ozone-monitoring-instrument-20260505-0
summary:
== Scientific relevance == The OMI project has been monitoring the atmospheric composition and providing measurements widely used in the field of atmospheric chemistry research. The fact that it has been operational for more than a decade makes it also useful for trend monitoring. The reference describing the first 14 years of the OMI details the research data products provided by NASA, KNMI, FMI and SAO, also according to these authors, beyond the initial goals, OMI has been important due the high-resolution NO2 and SO2 measurements (OMI is the first instrument that is able to obtain daily global coverage combined with such spatial resolution), and the fact that top-down studies allowed for source attribution analyses. === Awards === The International Team of the Ozone Monitoring Instrument has received several awards for its contributions to a better understanding of the Earth system: USGS 2018 Pecora Award The Pecora award is annual to recognize individuals or teams using remote sensing in the field of Earth Science. It consider not only the scientific role but also its role informing decision makers and supporting natural or human-induced disaster responses. 2021 AMS Special Award A broad description of this award to OMI International Team is


id: particle-mass-analyser-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_mass_analyser-0.md
category: reference
title: Particle mass analyser
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_mass_analyser
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:56.448348+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: particle-mass-analyser-20260505-0
summary:
A Particle mass analyser (PMA) is an instrument for classifying aerosol particles according to their mass-to-charge ratio using opposing electrical and centrifugal forces. This allows the classifier to select particles of a specified mass-to-charge ratio independent of particle shape. It one of the three types of monodisperse aerosol classifier, the others being the differential mobility analyser (DMA, for electrical mobility size), and the aerodynamic aerosol classifier (AAC, for relaxation time, or aerodynamic diameter). The corresponding three quantities are related by the expression τ = mB, where τ is relaxation time, m is mass and B is mobility. Further work improved the technique by engineering the centrifugal force to match the electrostatic force across the whole classification region, thus increasing the throughput. == References ==


id: ph-meter-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH_meter-0.md
category: reference
title: PH meter
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH_meter
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:57.835455+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ph-meter-20260505-0
summary:
A pH meter is a scientific instrument that measures the hydrogen-ion activity in water-based solutions, indicating its acidity or alkalinity expressed as pH. The pH meter measures the difference in electrical potential between a pH electrode and a reference electrode, and so the pH meter is sometimes referred to as a "potentiometric pH meter". The difference in electrical potential relates to the acidity or pH of the solution. Testing of pH via pH meters (pH-metry) is used in many applications ranging from laboratory experimentation to quality control. == Applications == The rate and outcome of chemical reactions taking place in water often depends on the acidity of the water, and it is therefore useful to know the acidity of the water, typically measured by means of a pH meter. Knowledge of pH is useful or critical in many situations, including chemical laboratory analyses. pH meters are used for soil measurements in agriculture, water quality for municipal water supplies, swimming pools, environmental remediation; brewing of wine or beer; manufacturing, healthcare and clinical applications such as blood chemistry; and many other applications. Advances in the instrumentation and in detection have expanded the number of applications in which pH measurements can be conducted.


id: ph-meter-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH_meter-1.md
category: reference
title: PH meter
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH_meter
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:57.835455+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ph-meter-20260505-0
summary:
=== pH electrode and reference electrode design === Details of the fabrication and resulting microstructure of the glass membrane of the pH electrode are maintained as trade secrets by the manufacturers. However, certain aspects of design are published. Glass is a solid electrolyte, for which alkali-metal ions can carry current. The pH-sensitive glass membrane is generally spherical to simplify the manufacture of a uniform membrane. These membranes are up to 0.4 millimeters in thickness, thicker than original designs, so as to render the probes durable. The glass has silicate chemical functionality on its surface, which provides binding sites for alkali-metal ions and hydrogen ions from the solutions. This provides an ion-exchange capacity in the range of 10−6 to 10−8 mol/cm2. Selectivity for hydrogen ions (H+) arises from a balance of ionic charge, volume requirements versus other ions, and the coordination number of other ions. Electrode manufacturers have developed compositions that suitably balance these factors, most notably lithium glass. The silver chloride electrode is most commonly used as a reference electrode in pH meters, although some designs use the saturated calomel electrode. The silver chloride electrode is simple to manufacture and provides high reproducibility. The reference electrode usually consists of a


id: ph-meter-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH_meter-2.md
category: reference
title: PH meter
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH_meter
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:57.835455+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ph-meter-20260505-0
summary:
The concept of pH was defined in 1909 by S. P. L. Sørensen, and electrodes were used for pH measurement in the 1920s. In October 1934, Arnold Orville Beckman registered the first patent for a complete chemical instrument for the measurement of pH, U.S. Patent No. 2,058,761, for his "acidimeter", later renamed the pH meter. Beckman developed the prototype as an assistant professor of chemistry at the California Institute of Technology, when asked to devise a quick and accurate method for measuring the acidity of lemon juice for the California Fruit Growers Exchange (Sunkist). On April 8, 1935, Beckman's renamed National Technical Laboratories focused on the manufacture of scientific instruments, with the Arthur H. Thomas Company as a distributor for its pH meter. In its first full year of sales, 1936, the company sold 444 pH meters for $60,000 in sales. In years to come, the company sold millions of the units. In 2004 the Beckman pH meter was designated an ACS National Historic Chemical Landmark in recognition of its significance as the first commercially successful electronic pH meter. The Radiometer Corporation of Denmark was founded in 1935, and began marketing a pH meter for medical use around 1936, but


id: polarograph-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polarograph-0.md
category: reference
title: Polarograph
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polarograph
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:13:59.038684+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: polarograph-20260505-0
summary:
A Polarograph is a chemical analysis instrument used to record automatic voltage-intensity curves. The Polarograph uses an electrolytic cell consisting of an electrode or microelectrode small area, generally of the mercury drop type, which is a very fine capillary tube through which mercury flows slowly, which comes in the form of small droplets, which fall on the same surface of a much broader element, which is the other electrode . When one applies a variable voltage in this cell, the electrode's large area remains unchanged, while the microelectrode undergoes a change of potential, ( i.e. is polarized). It also has a potentiometer coupled to the motor that moves the recording paper so that a certain voltage variation corresponds to a constant length of recording paper, and a galvanometer suitable for measuring the intensity of the electric current, whose response is transmitted to the actuator that moves the needle of the recorder. The technique used is called polarography. The Czech chemist and Nobel Prize winner Jaroslav Heyrovský invented it. == References ==


id: post-office-box-electricity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post_office_box_(electricity)-0.md
category: reference
title: Post office box (electricity)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post_office_box_(electricity)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:00.168462+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: post-office-box-electricity-20260505-0
summary:
The post office box was a Wheatstone bridge–style testing device with pegs and spring arms to close electrical circuits and measure properties of the circuit under test. == Resistance measurement == The boxes were used in the United Kingdom by engineers from then General Post Office, who were responsible for UK telecommunications to trace electrical faults, i.e. to determine where a break occurred in a cable which could be several miles in length. It works on the principle of Wheatstone bridge to identify the resistance of wire connected and then by using wire resistivity and cross section calculating length of wire and thus determining where the cable had broken. Post office boxes were common pieces of scientific apparatus in the UK O-Level and A-Level schools public examination physics syllabus in the 1960s. == Construction == A typical post office box is in a wooden box with a hinged lid and a metal or bakelite panel showing circuit connections. Coils of wire are wound non-inductively, mounted in the body of the box, and have a negligible temperature coefficient. Pairs of ratio arms are each 5 10 20 ohms. Resistance arms contains a number of coils from 1 to 5000 ohms with


id: pqube-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PQube-0.md
category: reference
title: PQube
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PQube
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:01.355266+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pqube-20260505-0
summary:
PQube is a registered trademark of Power Standards Lab for an electronic measuring instrument that records power quality and electric energy on the electric power grid. == Applications == PQube instruments are widely used to gather data for academic research, and at United States Department of Energy National Laboratories and state energy regulators. U.S. federal government agencies use PQubes to detect power quality issues – for example, the Federal Aviation Administration tracks disturbances at radar control centers. Each PQube instrument is traceable to the National Institute of Standards and Technology, so often these instruments are used in international academic and research environments. PQubes are a key element in many smart grid projects, recording power disturbance and power flow data to examine efficiency and reliability effects. == Information on the Web == Approximately 50 PQubes, located in approximately 40 countries, have been designated by their owners as free public sources of information at http://map.pqube.com . The site is updated approximately every 2 minutes with worldwide power quality and energy recordings. Data from these PQubes can be used, for example, for developing and testing power quality algorithms. Available data include daily, weekly, and monthly files in GIF and Microsoft Excel CSV format.


id: probe-tip-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probe_tip-0.md
category: reference
title: Probe tip
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probe_tip
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:02.559156+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: probe-tip-20260505-0
summary:
A probe tip is an instrument used in scanning probe microscopes (SPMs) to scan the surface of a sample and make nano-scale images of surfaces and structures. The probe tip is mounted on the end of a cantilever and can be as sharp as a single atom. In microscopy, probe tip geometry (length, width, shape, aspect ratio, and tip apex radius) and the composition (material properties) of both the tip and the surface being probed directly affect resolution and imaging quality. Tip size and shape are extremely important in monitoring and detecting interactions between surfaces. SPMs can precisely measure electrostatic forces, magnetic forces, chemical bonding, Van der Waals forces, and capillary forces. SPMs can also reveal the morphology and topography of a surface. The use of probe-based tools began with the invention of scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM), collectively called scanning probe microscopy (SPM) by Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer at the IBM Zurich research laboratory in 1982. It opened a new era for probing the nano-scale world of individual atoms and molecules as well as studying surface science, due to their unprecedented capability to characterize the mechanical, chemical, magnetic, and optical functionalities of various samples


id: probe-tip-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probe_tip-1.md
category: reference
title: Probe tip
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probe_tip
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:02.559156+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: probe-tip-20260505-0
summary:
=== Non-conductive probe tip === Non-conductive nanoscale tips are widely used for AFM measurements. For non-conducting tip, surface forces acting on the tip/cantilever are responsible for deflection or attraction of tip. These attractive or repulsive forces are used for surface topology, chemical specifications, magnetic and electronic properties. The distance-dependent forces between substrate surface and tip are responsible for imaging in AFM. These interactions include van der Waals forces, capillary forces, electrostatic forces, Casimir forces, and solvation forces. One unique repulsion force is Pauli Exclusion repulsive force, which is responsible for single-atom imaging as in references and Figures 10 & 11 (contact region in Fig. 1). == Fabrication methods == Tip fabrication techniques fall into two broad classifications, mechanical and physicochemical. In the early stage of the development of probe tips, mechanical procedures were popular because of the ease of fabrication. === Mechanical methods === Reported mechanical methods in fabricating tips include cutting, grinding, and pulling.; an example would be cutting a wire at certain angles with a razor blade, wire cutter, or scissors. Another mechanical method for tip preparation is fragmentation of bulk pieces into small pointy pieces. Grinding a metal wire or rod into a sharp tip was also


id: probe-tip-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probe_tip-2.md
category: reference
title: Probe tip
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probe_tip
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:02.559156+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: probe-tip-20260505-0
summary:
==== Lamella method ==== In the double lamella method, the lower part of the metal is etched away, and the upper part of the tip is not etched further. Further etching of the upper part of the wire is prevented by covering it with a polymer coating. This method is usually limited to laboratory fabrication. The double lamella method schematic is shown in Fig. 5. === Single atom tip preparation === Transitional metals like Cu, Au and Ag adsorb single molecules linearly on their surface due to weak van der Waals forces. This linear projection of single molecules allows interactions of the terminal atoms of the tip with the atoms of the substrate, resulting in Pauli repulsion for single molecule or atom mapping studies. Gaseous deposition on the tip is carried out in an ultrahigh vacuum (5 × 10−8 mbar) chamber at a low temperature (10K). Depositions of Xe, Kr, NO, CH4 or CO on tip have been successfully prepared and used for imaging studies. However, these tips preparations rely on the attachment of single atoms or molecules on the tip and the resulting atomic structure of the tip is not known exactly. The probability of attachment of simple molecules


id: probe-tip-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probe_tip-3.md
category: reference
title: Probe tip
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probe_tip
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:02.559156+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: probe-tip-20260505-0
summary:
== Coating == The surface of silicon-based tips cannot be easily controlled because they usually carry the silanol group. The Si surface is hydrophilic and can be contaminated easily by the environment. Another disadvantage of Si tips is the wear and tear of the tip. It is important to coat the Si tip to prevent tip deterioration, and the tip coating may also enhance image quality. To coat a tip, an adhesive layer is pasted (usually chromium layer on 5 nm thick titanium) and then gold is deposited by vapor deposition (40-100 nm or less). Sometimes, the coating layer reduces the tunnelling current detection capability of probe tips. == Characterization == The most important aspect of a probe tip is imaging the surfaces efficiently at nanometre dimensions. Some concerns involving credibility of the imaging or measurement of the sample arise when the shape of the tip is not determined accurately. For example, when an unknown tip is used to measure a linewidth pattern or other high aspect ratio feature of a surface, there may remain some confusion when determining the contribution of the tip and of the sample in the acquired image. Consequently, it is important to fully and accurately


id: probe-tip-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probe_tip-4.md
category: reference
title: Probe tip
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probe_tip
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:02.559156+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: probe-tip-20260505-0
summary:
Imaging tip using microscopy is used to take image of tip with microscopy, except scanning probe microscopy (SPM) e.g. scanning tunnelling microscopy (STM), atomic force microscopy (AFM) are reported. Using known tip characterizer is when the shape of tip is deduced by taking an image of a sample of known measurement, which is known as tip characterizer. Blind method is where tip characterizer of either known or unknown measurement is used. == Applications == Probes tips have a wide variety of applications in different fields of science and technology. One of the major areas where probe tips are used is for application in SPM i.e., STM and AFM. For example, carbon nanotube tips in conjunction with AFM provides an excellent tool for surface characterization in the nanometer realm. CNT tips are also used in tapping-mode Scanning Force Microscopy (SFM), which is a technique where a tip taps a surface by a cantilever driven near resonant frequency of the cantilever. The CNT probe tips fabricated using CVD technique can be used for imaging of biological macromolecules, semiconductor and chemical structure. For example, it is possible to obtain an intermittent AFM contact image of IgM macromolecules with excellent resolution using a single


id: rheoscope-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rheoscope-0.md
category: reference
title: Rheoscope
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rheoscope
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:03.688504+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rheoscope-20260505-0
summary:
In fluid mechanics (specifically rheology), a rheoscope is an instrument for detecting or measuring the viscosity of a fluid. In the study of blood flow, a rheoscope is used to observe and measure the deformation of blood cells subject to different levels of fluid shear stress. == References == Stein, Jess, ed. (1980). The Random House college dictionary. Random House. p. 1132. ISBN 0-394-43600-8.


id: scale-of-chords-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale_of_chords-0.md
category: reference
title: Scale of chords
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale_of_chords
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:04.923985+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scale-of-chords-20260505-0
summary:
A scale of chords may be used to set or read an angle in the absence of a protractor. To draw an angle, compasses describe an arc from origin with a radius taken from the 60 mark. The required angle is copied from the scale by the compasses, and an arc of this radius drawn from the sixty mark so it intersects the first arc. The line drawn from this point to the origin will be at the target angle. == Mathematics == A chord is a line drawn between two points on the circumference of a circle. Look at the centre point of this line. For a circle of radius r, each half will be r sin ⁡ θ 2 {\displaystyle r\sin {\tfrac {\theta }{2}}} so the chord will be 2 r sin ⁡ θ 2 {\displaystyle 2r\sin {\tfrac {\theta }{2}}} . The line of chords scale represents each of these values linearly on a scale running from 0 to 60. == Availability == It appears on Gunter's scale and the Foster Serle dialing scales. The commercial company Stanley marketed a metal version (Stanley 60R Line of Chords Rule) in 2015. == See also == Ptolemy's table of chords


id: scanning-habitable-environments-with-raman-and-luminescence-for-organics-and-chemicals-20260505-0
category: reference
title: Scanning Habitable Environments with Raman and Luminescence for Organics and Chemicals
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:09.222442+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scanning-habitable-environments-with-raman-and-luminescence-for-organics-and-chemicals-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scanning_Habitable_Environments_with_Raman_and_Luminescence_for_Organics_and_Chemicals-0.md

summary:
Scanning Habitable Environments with Raman and Luminescence for Organics and Chemicals (SHERLOC) is an ultraviolet Raman spectrometer that uses fine-scale imaging and an ultraviolet (UV) laser to determine fine-scale mineralogy, and detect organic compounds designed for the Perseverance rover as part of the Mars 2020 mission. It was constructed at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory with major subsystems being delivered from Malin Space Science Systems and Los Alamos National Laboratory. SHERLOC has a calibration target with possible Mars suit materials, and it will measure how they change over time in the Martian surface environment. == Goals == According to a 2017 Universities Space Research Association (USRA) report: The goals of the SHERLOC investigation are to: Assess the habitability potential of a sample and its aqueous history. Assess the availability of key elements and energy source for life (C, H, N, O, P, S etc.). Determine if there are potential biosignatures preserved in Martian rocks and outcrops. Provide organic and mineral analysis for selective sample caching. To do this SHERLOC does the following: Detects and classifies organics and astrobiologically relevant minerals on the surface and near subsurface of Mars. Bulk organic sensitivity of 10-5 to 10-6 w/w over a 7 x 7

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scanning_Habitable_Environments_with_Raman_and_Luminescence_for_Organics_and_Chemicals


id: scintillating-bolometer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scintillating_bolometer-0.md
category: reference
title: Scintillating bolometer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scintillating_bolometer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:10.405931+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scintillating-bolometer-20260505-0
summary:
A scintillating bolometer (or luminescent bolometer) is a scientific instrument using particle physics in the search for events with low energy deposition. These events could include dark matter, low energy solar neutrinos, double beta decay or rare radioactive decay. It works by simultaneously measuring both the light pulse and heat pulse generated by a particle interaction within its internal scintillator crystal. The device was originally proposed by L. Gonzalez-Mestres and D. Perret-Gallix (LAPP, IN2P3/CNRS) In their rapporteur contribution to the Proceedings of the XXIV International Conference on High-Energy Physics, Munich, August 1988, Gonzalez-Mestres and Perret-Gallix wrote : Perhaps bolometry should in some cases be combined with other detection techniques (luminescence?) in order to produce a primary fast signal as timing strobe. If light is used as a complementary signature, particle identification can be achieved through the heat-light ratio, where nucleus recoil is expected to be less luminescent than ionizing particles. The success of such a development would open the way to unprecedented achievements in background rejection for rare event experiments. Further explanations, including a description of the detector and possible applications incorporating in particular BGO and tungstates, were given by these authors in other papers such as their contribution to


id: sensitive-high-resolution-ion-microprobe-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitive_high-resolution_ion_microprobe-0.md
category: reference
title: Sensitive high-resolution ion microprobe
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitive_high-resolution_ion_microprobe
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:11.541397+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sensitive-high-resolution-ion-microprobe-20260505-0
summary:
The sensitive high-resolution ion microprobe (also sensitive high mass-resolution ion microprobe or SHRIMP) is a large-diameter, double-focusing secondary ion mass spectrometer (SIMS) sector instrument that was produced by Australian Scientific Instruments in Canberra, Australia and now has been taken over by Chinese company Dunyi Technology Development Co. (DTDC) in Beijing. Similar to the IMS 1270-1280-1300 large-geometry ion microprobes produced by CAMECA, Gennevilliers, France and like other SIMS instruments, the SHRIMP microprobe bombards a sample under vacuum with a beam of primary ions that sputters secondary ions that are focused, filtered, and measured according to their energy and mass. The SHRIMP is primarily used for geological and geochemical applications. It can measure the isotopic and elemental abundances in minerals at a 10 to 30 μm-diameter scale and with a depth resolution of 1–5 μm. Thus, SIMS method is well-suited for the analysis of complex minerals, as often found in metamorphic terrains, some igneous rocks, and for relatively rapid analysis of statistical valid sets of detrital minerals from sedimentary rocks. The most common application of the instrument is in uranium–thorium–lead geochronology, although the SHRIMP can be used to measure some other isotope ratio measurements (e.g., δ7Li or δ11B) and trace element abundances.


id: sira-notified-body-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sira_(notified_body)-0.md
category: reference
title: Sira (notified body)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sira_(notified_body)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:12.660143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sira-notified-body-20260505-0
summary:
Sira is a UK-based notified body, specialising in ATEX, IECEX and North American product approvals. == Foundation == Sira began life as the British Scientific Instrument Research Association (BSIRA). It was founded in 1918 by a Committee of the Privy Council for the promotion of scientific and industrial research and supported by the DSIR. The first members of the association were representatives of the optical industry, but these were joined in the same year by the electrical scientific instrument, electromedical, and X-ray industries. Its first director of research was Sir Herbert Jackson (1863–1936). BSIRA's London headquarters were destroyed in the Second World War and, in 1947, the association moved to a site in South Hill, Chislehurst, a Grade II Listed former private house called 'Sitka' By the 1960s, the association had become better-known as 'Sira'. It evolved into a group of British engineering companies, based in south London, that designed test equipment and provided calibration services. == Fate == In 2006, Sira Test and Certification Ltd, Sira Defence and Security, and Sira Environmental were owned by Volveré plc. In July 2009, Volvere sold Sira Test and Certification Ltd, Sira Certification Service and Sira Environmental Ltd to CSA International. == Similar


id: spectronic-20-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectronic_20-0.md
category: reference
title: Spectronic 20
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectronic_20
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:13.785145+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: spectronic-20-20260505-0
summary:
The Spectronic 20 is a brand of single-beam spectrophotometer, designed to operate in the visible spectrum across a wavelength range of 340 nm to 950 nm, with a spectral bandpass of 20 nm. It is designed for quantitative absorption measurement at single wavelengths. Because it measures the transmittance or absorption of visible light through a solution, it is sometimes referred to as a colorimeter. The name of the instrument is a trademark of the manufacturer. Developed by Bausch & Lomb and launched in 1953, the Spectronic 20 was the first low-cost spectrophotometer. It rapidly became an industry standard due to its low cost, durability and ease of use, and has been referred to as an "iconic lab spectrophotometer". Approximately 600,000 units were sold over its nearly 60 year production run. It has been the most widely used spectrophotometer worldwide. Production was discontinued in 2011 when it was replaced by the Spectronic 200, but the Spectronic 20 is still in common use. It is sometimes referred to as the "Spec 20". == Design == The Bausch & Lomb Spectronic 20 colorimeter uses a diffraction grating monochromator combined with a system for the detection, amplification, and measurement of light wavelengths in the


id: spectronic-20-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectronic_20-1.md
category: reference
title: Spectronic 20
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectronic_20
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:13.785145+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: spectronic-20-20260505-0
summary:
== Use == Before testing a sample, the Spectronic 20 is calibrated using a blank solution, which is the pure solvent that is used in the experimental sample. It is typically water or an organic solvent. In this calibration, the transmittance is set at 100% using the calibration knob of the instrument (the amplifier control knob in the figure at right). The instrument can also optionally be calibrated with a stock solution of a sample at a concentration known to have an absorbance of 2 or else vendor supplied standards, using the light absorption knob in the diagram shown at right. After calibration, the user places a 1/2 inch test tube or cuvette containing the sample solution to be measured into the sample compartment. Calibration is repeated each time the wavelength is changed. It or a standard reference sample is generally used to periodically check for drift. To measure wavelengths above 650 nm, the bottom of the instrument is opened, and a red filter and a red-sensitive photocell is installed. The original design of the Spectronic 20 utilized an analog dial for readout of transmission from 100%T to 1%T (top scale), 0A - 2A (lower scale). Using the original instrument


id: total-ozone-mapping-spectrometer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_Ozone_Mapping_Spectrometer-0.md
category: reference
title: Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_Ozone_Mapping_Spectrometer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:14.947524+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: total-ozone-mapping-spectrometer-20260505-0
summary:
The Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) was a NASA satellite instrument, specifically a spectrometer, for measuring the ozone layer. Of the five TOMS instruments which were built, four entered successful orbit. The satellites carrying TOMS instruments were: Nimbus 7; launched October 24, 1978. Operated until 1 August 1994. Carried TOMS instrument number 1. Meteor-3-5; launched 15 August 1991. Operated until December 1994. Was the first and last Soviet satellite to carry a USA made instrument. Carried TOMS instrument number 2. ADEOS I; launched 17 August 1996. Operated until 30 June 1997. Mission was cut short by a spacecraft failure. TOMS-Earth Probe; launched on July 2, 1996. Operated until 2 December 2006. Carried TOMS instrument number 3. QuikTOMS; launched 21 September 2001. Suffered launch failure and did not enter orbit. Nimbus 7 and Meteor-3-5 provided global measurements of total column ozone on a daily basis and together provided a complete data set of daily ozone from November 1978 to December 1994. After an eighteen-month period when the program had no on-orbit capability, TOMS-Earth Probe launched on 2 July 1996, followed by ADEOS I. ADEOS I was launched on August 17, 1996, and the TOMS-instrument onboard provided data until the satellite which


id: xylotron-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XyloTron-0.md
category: reference
title: XyloTron
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XyloTron
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:16.064229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: xylotron-20260505-0
summary:
The XyloTron is an open-source, portable macroscopic wood identification system developed to support supply chain verification and the enforcement of laws against illegal logging. The device uses computer vision wood identification models to classify wood specimens based on their macroscopic anatomy and requires minimal operator training. Designed for use in laboratory and field settings, the system provides a non-destructive method to rapidly identify wood. The system's accuracy depends on the quality of the training data, the breadth and anatomical complexity of woods in the model, and the similarity of unknown samples to those included in the model. Use of the XyloTron is intended to help establish probable cause in cases of possible illegal logging, rather than for high-stakes legal enforcement or forensic confirmation. Microscopic analysis of wood specimens by a wood anatomist may still be required. == Overview == The XyloTron system was developed at the United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory in Madison, Wisconsin. Initial conceptual work began in late 2010. The XyloTron uses a laptop or desktop computer for computation and the XyloScope, which is specialized, custom-designed hardware that captures controlled imaging using a scientific-grade digital camera, lens, and lighting array. Unlike traditional wood


id: z-tube-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z-tube-0.md
category: reference
title: Z-tube
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z-tube
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:17.202821+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: z-tube-20260505-0
summary:
The Z-tube is an experimental apparatus for measuring the tensile strength of a liquid. It consists of a Z-shaped tube with open ends, filled with a liquid, and set on top of a spinning table. If the tube were straight, the liquid would immediately fly out one end or the other of the tube as it began to spin. By bending the ends of the tube back towards the center of rotation, a shift of the liquid away from center will result in the water level in one end of the tube rising and thus increasing the pressure in that end of the tube, and consequently returning the liquid to the center of the tube. By measuring the rotational speed and the distance from the center of rotation to the liquid level in the bent ends of the tube, the pressure reduction inside the tube can be calculated. Negative pressures, (i.e. less than zero absolute pressure, or in other words, tension) have been reported using water processed to remove dissolved gases. Tensile strengths up to 280 atmospheres have been reported for water in glass. == References ==


id: zeeman-slower-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeeman_slower-0.md
category: reference
title: Zeeman slower
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeeman_slower
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:18.309776+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: zeeman-slower-20260505-0
summary:
In atomic physics, a Zeeman slower is a scientific instrument that is commonly used in atomic physics to slow and cool a beam of hot atoms to speeds of several meters per second and temperatures below a kelvin. The gas-phase atoms used in atomic physics are often generated in an oven by heating a solid or liquid atomic sample to temperatures where the vapor pressure is high enough that a substantial number of atoms are in the gas phase. These atoms effuse out of a hole in the oven with average speeds on the order of hundreds of m/s and large velocity distributions (due to their high temperature). The Zeeman slower is attached close to where the hot atoms exit the oven and are used to slow them to less than 10 m/s (slowing) with a very small velocity spread (cooling). A Zeeman slower consists of a cylinder, through which an atomic beam travels, a pump laser that counterpropagates with respect to the beam's direction, and a magnetic field (commonly produced by a solenoid-like coil) that points along the cylinder's axis with a spatially varying magnitude. The pump laser, which is required to be near-resonant with atomic transition, Doppler-slows a


id: zeeman-slower-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeeman_slower-1.md
category: reference
title: Zeeman slower
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeeman_slower
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:18.309776+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: zeeman-slower-20260505-0
summary:
B ( z ) = ℏ k μ ′ v + ℏ δ μ ′ = ℏ k v i μ ′ 1 − 2 a v i 2 z + ℏ δ μ ′ , {\displaystyle B(z)={\frac {\hbar k}{\mu '}}v+{\frac {\hbar \delta }{\mu '}}={\frac {\hbar kv_{i}}{\mu '}}{\sqrt {1-{\frac {2a}{v_{i}^{2}}}z}}+{\frac {\hbar \delta }{\mu '}},} where v i {\displaystyle v_{i}} is the maximal velocity class that will be slowed; all the atoms in the velocity distribution that have velocities v < v i {\displaystyle v<v_{i}} will be slowed, and those with velocities v > v i {\displaystyle v>v_{i}} will not be slowed at all. The parameter η {\displaystyle \eta } (which determines the required laser intensity) is normally chosen to be around 0.5. If a Zeeman slower were to be operated with η ≈ 1 {\displaystyle \eta \approx 1} , then after absorbing a photon and moving to the excited state, the atom would preferentially re-emit a photon in the direction of the laser beam (due to stimulated emission), which would counteract the slowing process. == Realization == The required form of the spatially inhomogeneous magnetic field as we showed above has the form B ( z ) = B 0


id: alltrials-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AllTrials-0.md
category: reference
title: AllTrials
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AllTrials
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:24.154433+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alltrials-20260505-0
summary:
AllTrials (sometimes called All Trials or AllTrials.net) is a project advocating that clinical research adopt the principles of open research. The project summarizes itself as "All trials registered, all results reported": that is, all clinical trials should be listed in a clinical trials registry, and their results should always be shared as open data. At the center of the organisation is a petition signed by over 85,000 individuals and 599 organisations (as of August 2015): Thousands of clinical trials have not reported their results; some have not even been registered. Information on what was done and what was found in these trials could be lost forever to doctors and researchers, leading to bad treatment decisions, missed opportunities for good medicine, and trials being repeated. All trials past and present should be registered, and the full methods and the results reported. We call on governments, regulators and research bodies to implement measures to achieve this. Ben Goldacre, author of Bad Science and Bad Pharma, is a founder of the campaign and its most public spokesperson. In 2016, he participated in the launch of the OpenTrials database. AllTrials is an international initiative of Bad Science, BMJ, Centre for Evidence-based Medicine, Cochrane Collaboration,


id: alltrials-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AllTrials-1.md
category: reference
title: AllTrials
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AllTrials
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:24.154433+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alltrials-20260505-0
summary:
== Supporters == The campaign is an initiative of Sense about Science, Centre for Evidence Based Medicine, The Dartmouth Institute for Health Policy and Clinical Practice, James Lind Alliance, Cochrane Collaboration, BMJ Group, PLOS, and Bad Science. The petition statement of AllTrials has been signed by organizations including Wellcome Trust, British Library, Medical Research Council (UK), British Heart Foundation, Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care, National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, BioMed Central, National Physicians Alliance, Royal Society of Medicine, Health Research Authority, American Medical Student Association, GlaxoSmithKline, and others. As of May 2017, The AllTrials petition has been signed by 90,282 people and 721 organisations. In October 2016, AllTrials published a road map detailing steps that various types of organisations can take to get more trials registered and more results reported. 85 investors with >€3.5 trillion (£2.45trn; $3.83trn) of investments have supported AllTrials (as of July 2015), with Peter van der Werf of RobecoSAM saying: "We deem this to be a financially material factor and encourage all companies to gain credibility regarding their approach to clinical trial transparency by signing up to the AllTrials principles.". The Laura and John Arnold Foundation provided early and ongoing financial


id: c-glenn-begley-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._Glenn_Begley-0.md
category: reference
title: C. Glenn Begley
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._Glenn_Begley
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:25.259430+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: c-glenn-begley-20260505-0
summary:
C. Glenn Begley is a hematologist and oncologist who was the CEO of BioCurate, an Australia-based joint venture between the University of Melbourne and Monash University that was launched in 2016. The "C. Glenn Begley Award", created by Stanford University in 2025, was named in his honor. The award celebrates teams that uphold the highest standards of scientific integrity, fostering innovation that is both impactful and reliable. Previously, he worked at the California-based biotech company Akriveia Therapeutics as their chief scientific officer. His other previous positions include global head of hematology and oncology research at Amgen, senior vice president and chief scientific officer at TetraLogic Pharmaceuticals, and executive director of the Western Australian Institute of Medical Research. He studied medicine at the University of Melbourne. He is known for a study he co-authored in 2012 in which he found that only 6 out of 53 (11%) of landmark preclinical studies of cancer drugs could be reproduced. He was elected to the American Society for Clinical Investigation in 2000. Begley was elected Fellow of the Australian Academy of Health and Medical Sciences in 2015. == Education == Begley studied medicine at the University of Melbourne starting in 1972 and finishing in


id: berkeley-initiative-for-transparency-in-the-social-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkeley_Initiative_for_Transparency_in_the_Social_Sciences-0.md
category: reference
title: Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkeley_Initiative_for_Transparency_in_the_Social_Sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:26.397111+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: berkeley-initiative-for-transparency-in-the-social-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
The Berkeley Initiative for Transparency in the Social Sciences, abbreviated BITSS, is an academic initiative dedicated to advancing transparency, reproducibility, and openness in social science research. It was established in 2012 by the University of California, Berkeley's Center for Effective Global Action. It has worked with the Center for Open Science to define and promote a set of best practices for social scientists to maximize transparency in their research. BITSS has also worked to promote registered reports, supporting journals like the Journal of Development Economics in taking up the review track. In 2015, BITSS began awarding the annual Leamer-Rosenthal Prizes for Open Social Science to honor outstanding achievements and emerging leaders in promoting transparency in social science. Through its Catalyst program, the initiative also supports and empowers over 150 graduate students, faculty, librarians, and early career researchers to advance open science all over the world. Their annual Research Transparency and Reproducibility Training (RT2) provides an overview of and hands-on practice with tools and practices for transparent and reproducible social science research. Their Massive Open Online Course "Transparent and Open Social Science Research,” based on a UC Berkeley course taught by Edward Miguel, is available on the FutureLearn platform. In 2019,


id: burden-of-knowledge-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burden_of_knowledge-0.md
category: reference
title: Burden of knowledge
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burden_of_knowledge
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:27.531708+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: burden-of-knowledge-20260505-0
summary:
The burden of knowledge describes the difficulty of adding to a scientific field as the amount of previous work that must be understood increases over time. This is seen across scientific disciplines. Evidence for this burden includes a trend that people are older before they receive their first patent or publish in a prestigious journal, and the need for scientific groups to be larger as scientists need to collaborate so that the team has sufficient understanding of prior work. == Scholarship == Explicit scholarship of this idea has entered the mainstream with the works of Benjamin Jones, in particular The Burden of Knowledge and the Death of the Renaissance Man, and with the works of Jan Brendel and Sascha Schweitzer The Burden of Knowledge in Mathematics. == Overview == Theory and empirical studies reflect the case that researchers and innovators are not born with the required expertise and must first undertake education. With accumulating information and discoveries, the time to digest and improve on extant knowledge takes longer. Similarly, frontiers of knowledge advance at an overall increasing rate and are shifting over time. The "burden of knowledge" refers to the difficulty of catching up with this evolving knowledge frontier. A


id: conflicts-of-interest-in-academic-publishing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflicts_of_interest_in_academic_publishing-0.md
category: reference
title: Conflicts of interest in academic publishing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflicts_of_interest_in_academic_publishing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:28.683683+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conflicts-of-interest-in-academic-publishing-20260505-0
summary:
Conflicts of interest (COIs) often arise in academic publishing. Such conflicts may cause wrongdoing and make it more likely. Ethical standards in academic publishing exist to avoid and deal with conflicts of interest, and the field continues to develop new standards. Standards vary between journals and are unevenly applied. According to the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors, "[a]uthors have a responsibility to evaluate the integrity, history, practices and reputation of the journals to which they submit manuscripts". Conflicts of interest increase the likelihood of biases arising; they can harm the quality of research and the public good (even if disclosed). Conflicts of interest can involve research sponsors, authors, journals, journal staff, publishers, and peer reviewers. == Avoidance, disclosure, and tracking == The avoidance of conflicts of interest and the changing of the structure of institutions to make them easier to avoid are frequently advocated for. Some institutional ethics policies ban academics from entering into specific types of COIs, for instance by prohibiting them from accepting gifts from companies connected with their work. Education in ethical COI management is also a tool for avoiding COI problems. Disclosure of COIs has been debated since the 1980s; there is a general consensus


id: conflicts-of-interest-in-academic-publishing-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflicts_of_interest_in_academic_publishing-1.md
category: reference
title: Conflicts of interest in academic publishing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflicts_of_interest_in_academic_publishing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:28.683683+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conflicts-of-interest-in-academic-publishing-20260505-0
summary:
==== Owners and governing bodies ==== The owner of an academic journal has ultimate power over the hiring and firing of editorial staff; editors' interests in pleasing their employers conflict with some of their other editorial interests. Journals are also more likely to accept papers by authors who work for the journals' hosting institutions. Some journals are owned by publishers. When journals print reviews of books published by their own publishers, they rarely (as of 2013) add COI disclosures. The publishers' interest in maximizing profit will often conflict with academic interests or ethical standards. In the case of closed-access publications, publishers' desire for high subscription income may conflict with an editorial desire for broader access and readership. There have been multiple mass resignations of editorial boards over such conflicts, which are often followed by the editorial board founding a new, non-profit journal to compete with their former one. Some journals are owned by academic societies and professional organisations. Leading journals can be very profitable and there is often friction about revenue between the journal and the member society that owns it. Some academic societies and professional organisations are themselves funded by membership fees and/or donations. If the owners benefit financially


id: conflicts-of-interest-in-academic-publishing-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflicts_of_interest_in_academic_publishing-2.md
category: reference
title: Conflicts of interest in academic publishing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflicts_of_interest_in_academic_publishing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:28.683683+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conflicts-of-interest-in-academic-publishing-20260505-0
summary:
=== COIs of journal staff === Personal conflicts of interest faced by journal staff are individual. If a person leaves the journal—unlike the COIs of journals as institutions—their personal COIs will go with them. As of 2015, COIs of journal staff are less commonly reported than those of authors. For instance, one 2009 World Association of Medical Editors (WAME) policy document states, "Some journals list editors' competing interests on their website but this is not a standard practice". The ICMJE, however, requires that the COIs of editors and journal staff be regularly declared and published. One 2017 Open Payments study of influential US medical journals found half of the editors received payments from industry; another study that used a different sample of editors reported two-thirds. As of 2002, systems for reporting wrongdoing by editors often do not exist. Many journals have policies limiting COIs staff can enter into; for instance, accepting gifts of travel, accommodation, or hospitality may be prohibited. As of 2016, such policies are rarely published. Most journals do not offer COI training; as of 2015, many journals report a desire for better guidance on COI policy. === COIs of peer reviewers === The ICJME recommendations require peer


id: conflicts-of-interest-in-academic-publishing-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflicts_of_interest_in_academic_publishing-3.md
category: reference
title: Conflicts of interest in academic publishing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflicts_of_interest_in_academic_publishing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:28.683683+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conflicts-of-interest-in-academic-publishing-20260505-0
summary:
The ICMJE requires that "All those designated as authors should meet all four criteria for authorship, and all who meet the four criteria should be identified as authors. Those who do not meet all four criteria should be acknowledged." Academics who have had publication ethics training and those who are aware of the ICMJE authorship criteria are more stringent in their concepts of authorship and are more likely to consider breaches of authorship as misconduct, as are more junior researchers. Awareness is low; one study found only about half of researchers had read the ICJME criteria. === COIs of study sponsors === If a study requires outside funding, this can be a major source of conflicting interests; for instance in cases where the manufacturer of a drug is funding a study into its safety and efficacy or where the sponsor hopes to use the research to defend itself in litigation. Sponsors of a study may involve themselves in the design, execution, analysis, and write-up of a study. In extreme cases, they may carry out the research and ghostwrite the article with almost no involvement from the nominal author. Movie-style credits are advocated as a way to avoid this. There are


id: design-of-experiments-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_of_experiments-0.md
category: reference
title: Design of experiments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_of_experiments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:30.097260+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: design-of-experiments-20260505-0
summary:
The design of experiments (DOE), also known as experiment design or experimental design, is the design of any task that aims to describe and explain the variation of information under conditions that are hypothesized to reflect the variation. The term is generally associated with experiments in which the design introduces conditions that directly affect the variation, but may also refer to the design of quasi-experiments, in which natural conditions that influence the variation are selected for observation. In its simplest form, an experiment aims at predicting the outcome by introducing a change of the preconditions, which is represented by one or more independent variables, also referred to as "input variables" or "predictor variables." The change in one or more independent variables is generally hypothesized to result in a change in one or more dependent variables, also referred to as "output variables" or "response variables." The experimental design may also identify control variables that must be held constant to prevent external factors from affecting the results. Experimental design involves not only the selection of suitable independent, dependent, and control variables, but planning the delivery of the experiment under statistically optimal conditions given the constraints of available resources. There are multiple approaches


id: design-of-experiments-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_of_experiments-1.md
category: reference
title: Design of experiments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_of_experiments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:30.097260+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: design-of-experiments-20260505-0
summary:
Comparison In some fields of study it is not possible to have independent measurements to a traceable metrology standard. Comparisons between treatments are much more valuable and are usually preferable, and often compared against a scientific control or traditional treatment that acts as baseline. Randomization Random assignment is the process of assigning individuals at random to groups or to different groups in an experiment, so that each individual of the population has the same chance of becoming a participant in the study. The random assignment of individuals to groups (or conditions within a group) distinguishes a rigorous, "true" experiment from an observational study or "quasi-experiment". There is an extensive body of mathematical theory that explores the consequences of making the allocation of units to treatments by means of some random mechanism (such as tables of random numbers, or the use of randomization devices such as playing cards or dice). Assigning units to treatments at random tends to mitigate confounding, which makes effects due to factors other than the treatment to appear to result from the treatment. The risks associated with random allocation (such as having a serious imbalance in a key characteristic between a treatment group and a control group)


id: design-of-experiments-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_of_experiments-2.md
category: reference
title: Design of experiments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_of_experiments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:30.097260+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: design-of-experiments-20260505-0
summary:
Let yi be the measured difference for i = 1, ..., 8. The relationship between the true weights and experimental measurements may be represented with a general linear model, with the design matrix W {\displaystyle W} having entries from { − 1 , 0 , 1 } {\displaystyle \{-1,0,1\}} : y = W θ + ϵ {\displaystyle y=W\theta +\epsilon } The first design is represented by an identity matrix while the second design is represented by an 8x8 Hadamard matrix, H {\displaystyle H} , both examples of weighing matrices. The weights are typically estimated using the method of least squares. Using a weighing matrix, this is equivalent to inverting on the measurements: θ ^ A = I − 1 y = y {\displaystyle {\hat {\theta }}_{A}=I^{-1}y=y} θ ^ B = H − 1 y {\displaystyle {\hat {\theta }}_{B}=H^{-1}y} The question of design of experiments is: which experiment is better? Investigating estimate A vs B for the first weight: Var ⁡ ( θ ^ A , 1 ) = Var ⁡ ( y 1 ) = σ 2 {\displaystyle \operatorname {Var} ({\hat {\theta }}_{A,1})=\operatorname {Var} (y_{1})=\sigma ^{2}} Var ⁡ ( θ ^ B , 1 ) = Var ⁡ ( y


id: design-of-experiments-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_of_experiments-3.md
category: reference
title: Design of experiments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_of_experiments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:30.097260+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: design-of-experiments-20260505-0
summary:
== Causal attributions == In the pure experimental design, the independent (predictor) variable is manipulated by the researcher – that is – every participant of the research is chosen randomly from the population, and each participant chosen is assigned randomly to conditions of the independent variable. Only when this is done is it possible to certify with high probability that the reason for the differences in the outcome variables are caused by the different conditions. Therefore, researchers should choose the experimental design over other design types whenever possible. However, the nature of the independent variable does not always allow for manipulation. In those cases, researchers must be aware of not certifying about causal attribution when their design doesn't allow for it. For example, in observational designs, participants are not assigned randomly to conditions, and so if there are differences found in outcome variables between conditions, it is likely that there is something other than the differences between the conditions that causes the differences in outcomes, that is – a third variable. The same goes for studies with correlational design. == Statistical control == It is best that a process be in reasonable statistical control prior to conducting designed experiments. When


id: design-of-experiments-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_of_experiments-4.md
category: reference
title: Design of experiments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_of_experiments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:30.097260+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: design-of-experiments-20260505-0
summary:
== See also == Adversarial collaboration – Method of research Bayesian experimental design – Experimental design framework Block design – Structure in combinatorial mathematics Box–Behnken design – Experimental designs for response surface methodology Central composite design – Experimental design in statistical mathematics Clinical study design – Plan for research in clinical medicine Computer experiment – Experiment used to study computer simulation Controlling for a variable – Binning data according to measured values of the variable Experimetrics (econometrics-related experiments) Factor analysis – Statistical method Fractional factorial design – Statistical experimental design approach Glossary of experimental design Grey box model – Mathematical data production model with limited structure Industrial engineering – Branch of engineering which deals with the optimization of complex processes or systems Instrument effect Law of large numbers – Averages of repeated trials converge to the expected value Manipulation checks Multifactor design of experiments software One-factor-at-a-time method – Method of designing experiments Optimal design – Experimental design that is optimal with respect to some statistical criterionPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Plackett–Burman design – Type of experimental design Probabilistic design – Discipline within engineering design Protocol (natural sciences) – Procedural method for the design and implementation of an experimentPages


id: further-research-is-needed-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Further_research_is_needed-0.md
category: reference
title: Further research is needed
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Further_research_is_needed
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:31.281573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: further-research-is-needed-20260505-0
summary:
"Further research is needed" (FRIN), "more research is needed" and other variants of similar phrases are commonly used in research papers. The cliché is so common that it has attracted research, regulation and cultural commentary. == Meaning == Some research journals have banned the phrase "more research is needed" on the grounds that it is redundant; it is almost always true and fits almost any article, and so can be taken as understood. A 2004 metareview by the Cochrane collaboration of their own systematic medical reviews found that 93% of the reviews studied made indiscriminate FRIN-like statements, reducing their ability to guide future research. The presence of FRIN had no correlation with the strength of the evidence against the medical intervention. Authors who thought a treatment was useless were just as likely to recommend researching it further. Indeed, authors may recommend "further research" when, given the existing evidence, further research would be extremely unlikely to be approved by an ethics committee. Studies finding that a treatment has no noticeable effects are sometimes greeted with statements that "more research is needed" by those convinced that the treatment is effective, but the effect has not yet been found. Since even the largest


id: steven-n-goodman-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_N._Goodman-0.md
category: reference
title: Steven N. Goodman
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_N._Goodman
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:32.428701+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: steven-n-goodman-20260505-0
summary:
Steven N. Goodman (born 1954) is an American epidemiologist and Professor of Epidemiology and Population Health and of Medicine at the Stanford School of Medicine, where he serves as Associate Dean of Clinical and Translational Research. He is co-founder and co-director of the Meta-Research Innovation Center at Stanford (METRICS), a center dedicated to studying and improving the reproducibility and efficiency of biomedical research, alongside John Ioannidis. He is also founder and director of the Stanford Program on Research Rigor and Reproducibility (SPORR). Goodman has made extensive contributions to the foundations of scientific and statistical inference within the biosciences. In 1999, he coined the term "p-value fallacy" in a pair of landmark papers arguing for the adoption of Bayesian methods in medical research. He is a sibling of journalist and Democracy Now! host Amy Goodman and journalist David Goodman. == Education and career == Goodman received his AB in Biochemistry and Applied Mathematics from Harvard College in 1976, his MD from New York University School of Medicine, and his MHS and PhD in Biostatistics from the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, completing his doctoral dissertation Evidence and Clinical Trials in 1989 under the supervision of Richard Royall. He completed


id: icmje-recommendations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICMJE_recommendations-0.md
category: reference
title: ICMJE recommendations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICMJE_recommendations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:34.831046+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: icmje-recommendations-20260505-0
summary:
The ICMJE recommendations (full title, "Recommendations for the Conduct, Reporting, Editing, and Publication of Scholarly Work in Medical Journals") are a set of guidelines produced by the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors for standardising the ethics, preparation and formatting of manuscripts submitted to biomedical journals for publication. Compliance with the ICMJE recommendations is required by most leading biomedical journals. Levels of real compliance are subject to debate. As of 9 January 2020, 5570 journals worldwide claim to follow the ICMJE recommendations. The recommendations were first issued in 1979 under the title "Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals" (abbreviated URMs and often shortened to "Uniform Requirements"). After a series of revisions, they were given their current name in 2013. == International Committee of Medical Journal Editors == The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) was originally known as the Vancouver Group, after the location of their first meeting in Vancouver, British Columbia in Canada. As of 2017 members of the ICMJE are: Annals of Internal Medicine BMJ Bulletin of the World Health Organization Deutsches Ärzteblatt Ethiopian Journal of Health Sciences Iranian Journal of Medical Sciences Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA) New England Journal of Medicine


id: john-ioannidis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ioannidis-0.md
category: reference
title: John Ioannidis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ioannidis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:39.244360+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: john-ioannidis-20260505-0
summary:
John P. A. Ioannidis ( EE-ə-NEE-diss; Greek: Ιωάννης Ιωαννίδης, pronounced [i.oˈanis i.oaˈniðis]; born 21 August 1965) is a Greek-American physician-scientist, writer, and Stanford University professor who has made contributions to evidence-based medicine, epidemiology, and clinical research. Ioannidis studies scientific research itself (meta-research) primarily in clinical medicine and the social sciences. He has served on the editorial board of over twenty scientific journals including Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA), Journal of the National Cancer Institute (JNCI), and The Lancet. Ioannidis's 2005 essay "Why Most Published Research Findings Are False" was the most-accessed article in the history of Public Library of Science (PLOS) as of 2020, with more than three million views. Ioannidis was a prominent opponent of lockdowns during the COVID-19 pandemic, and he has been accused of promoting conspiracy theories about COVID-19 policies and public health and safety measures. == Early life and education == Born in New York City in 1965, Ioannidis was raised in Athens, Greece. He was valedictorian of his class at Athens College, graduating in 1984, and won a number of awards, including the National Award of the Greek Mathematical Society. He graduated in the top rank of his class at the University of


id: john-ioannidis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ioannidis-1.md
category: reference
title: John Ioannidis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ioannidis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:39.244360+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: john-ioannidis-20260505-0
summary:
=== Meta-analysis === Ioannidis has developed and popularized several methods for meta-analysis and has made several conceptual advances in this field. These include methods for assessing heterogeneity and its uncertainty, methods for meta-analysis involving multiple treatments, methods and processes for umbrella reviews, and several approaches to identifying bias and adjusting the results of meta-analyses for bias, such as publication bias and reporting bias resulting in funnel-plot asymmetry. He has also alerted about the misuse and misinterpretation of bias tests. Along with David Chavalarias, he catalogued 235 biases across the entire publication record of biomedical research. Ioannidis has been critical of flawed, misleading and redundant meta-analyses, estimating that few meta-analyses in medicine are both bias-free and clinically useful. He has performed empirical evaluations of the concordance of results between meta-analyses and large trials and between randomized trials and non-randomized studies. === Evidence-based medicine === Ioannidis has been one of the strong proponents and earlier advocates of evidence-based medicine. However, he has alerted that, over the years, as evidence-based medicine acquired more prominence and influence, it was hijacked to serve other agendas that are often biased. In an essay written to honor his late mentor David Sackett, he stated that: Influential randomized


id: john-ioannidis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ioannidis-2.md
category: reference
title: John Ioannidis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ioannidis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:39.244360+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: john-ioannidis-20260505-0
summary:
=== Neuroscience === Along with colleagues, Ioannidis has performed empirical evaluations and meta-research assessments of large numbers of scientific studies in neuroscience and have found that lack of power is a very common problem, leading to both false-negatives (the inability to discover true signals) and false-positives (finding spurious signals). === Economics === In empirical assessments of all meta-analyses that have been conducted on economics topics, Ioannidis and colleagues have found that most of the studies in these fields are small and under-powered. Using bias detection and correction methods, they have concluded that nearly 80% of the reported effects in the empirical economics literature is exaggerated; typically by a factor of two, and with one-third inflated by a factor of four or more. == Editorial appointments == Ioannidis has served on the editorial board of a number of scientific journals, including the European Journal of Clinical Investigation (editor-in-chief, 2010–2019), BMC Medicine, International Journal of Epidemiology, Journal of the American Medical Association, Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, Journal of Infectious Diseases, International Journal of Molecular Epidemiology and Genetics, International Journal of Epidemiology, Journal of Translational Medicine, Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice, Clinical Chemistry, Physiological Reviews, Royal Society Open Science, Research Integrity and


id: john-ioannidis-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ioannidis-3.md
category: reference
title: John Ioannidis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ioannidis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:39.244360+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: john-ioannidis-20260505-0
summary:
== COVID-19 == In an editorial on STAT published March 17, 2020, Ioannidis wondered whether the global response to the COVID-19 pandemic may be a "once-in-a-century evidence fiasco" and asked for obtaining more reliable data to deal with the pandemic. He made a rough estimation that the coronavirus could cause 10,000 U.S. deaths if it infected 1% of the U.S. population, but argued that more data was needed to determine how widely the virus would spread. The virus in fact eventually became widely disseminated, and would cause more than one million deaths in the U.S. Ioannidis expressed doubt that vaccines or treatments would be developed and tested in time to affect how the pandemic would unfold. Marc Lipsitch, Director of the Center for Communicable Disease Dynamics at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, objected to Ioannidis's characterization of the global response in a reply that was published on STAT the next day after Ioannidis's. In March 2020, Ioannidis tried to organize a meeting at the White House where he and colleagues would caution President Donald Trump against "shutting down the country for [a] very long time and jeopardizing so many lives in doing this", according to a proposal


id: john-ioannidis-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ioannidis-4.md
category: reference
title: John Ioannidis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ioannidis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:39.244360+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: john-ioannidis-20260505-0
summary:
== Reception == In the 2000s and 2010s, during a period of regular publications from Ioannidis on the replication crisis in science, observers in the popular press commented that Ioannidis "may be one of the most influential scientists alive", and was "cementing his role as one of medicine's top mythbusters". In 2014, The Economist featured Ioannidis and Steven Goodman in an article on the Meta-Research Innovation Center at Stanford, and George Johnson of the New York Times wrote an article on the importance of reproducible research, profiling Ioannidis's two 2005 papers as playing a critical role in raising concern about the issue in the scientific community, as later expressed by the journal Nature. This acclaim continued into the late 2010s, with Wired mentionining Ioannidis as "arguably the replication crisis' chief inquisitor". His research on replicability reached multiple fields, including the specious statistics behind some drug subscriptions, and findings from Ioannidis that only a minority of widely cited health research studies carried out over the last decade could be replicated, with at least 1 in 6 actually being contradicted by later studies,. Elsevier featured his analogy of reproducibility in research to "taming a complex beast". He was also an early critic


id: journalology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journalology-0.md
category: reference
title: Journalology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journalology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:40.445004+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: journalology-20260505-0
summary:
Journalology, also referred to as publication science, is the scholarly study of all aspects of the academic publishing process. The field seeks to improve the quality of scholarly research by implementing evidence-based practices in academic publishing. The term "journalology" was coined by Stephen Lock, the former editor-in-chief of the BMJ. The first Peer Review Congress, held in 1989 in Chicago, Illinois, is considered a pivotal moment in the founding of journalology as a distinct field. The field of journalology has exerted a significant influence in promoting the adoption of pre-registration in scientific research, particularly in the domain of clinical trials. Clinical trial registration is now expected in most countries. Journalology researchers also work to reform the peer review process. == History == The earliest scientific journals were founded in the seventeenth century. While most early journals used peer review, peer review did not become common practice in medical journals until after World War II. The scholarly publishing process (including peer review) did not arise by scientific means and still suffers from problems with reliability (consistency and dependability), such as a lack of uniform standards and validity (well-founded, efficacious). Attempts to reform the academic publishing practice began to gain traction in


id: open-peer-review-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_peer_review-0.md
category: reference
title: Open peer review
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_peer_review
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:41.654347+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-peer-review-20260505-0
summary:
Open peer review is the various possible modifications of the traditional scholarly peer review process. The three most common modifications to which the term is applied are: Open identities: Authors and reviewers are aware of each other's identity. Open reports: Review reports are published alongside the relevant article (rather than being kept confidential). Open participation: The wider community (and not just invited reviewers) are able to contribute to the review process. These modifications are supposed to address various perceived shortcomings of the traditional scholarly peer review process, in particular its lack of transparency, lack of incentives, wastefulness, bullying and harassment. == Definitions == Open identities Open peer review may be defined as "any scholarly review mechanism providing disclosure of author and referee identities to one another at any point during the peer review or publication process". Then reviewer's identities may or may not be disclosed to the public. This is in contrast to the traditional peer review process where reviewers remain anonymous to anyone but the journal's editors. Authors' names are disclosed during the process in a single-blind organisation of reviews. In the double-blind process, authors' names and reviewers' names all remain anonymous except to the editor. Open reports Open


id: open-peer-review-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_peer_review-1.md
category: reference
title: Open peer review
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_peer_review
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:41.654347+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-peer-review-20260505-0
summary:
== History == In 1997, the open participation journal Electronic Transactions on Artificial Intelligence was launched. Articles were first "published" (meaning the day when the article is first made public), then "reviewed" (meaning a open process of public discussion), and then "refereed" (meaning the confidential pass/fail decision of whether to accept the article or not). In 1999, the open access journal Journal of Medical Internet Research was launched, which from its inception decided to publish the names of the reviewers at the bottom of each published article. Also in 1999, the British Medical Journal moved to an open peer review system, revealing reviewers' identities to the authors but not the readers, and in 2000, the medical journals in the open access BMC series published by BioMed Central, launched using open peer review. As with the BMJ, the reviewers' names are included on the peer review reports. In addition, if the article is published the reports are made available online as part of the "pre-publication history"'. Several other journals published by the BMJ Group allow optional open peer review, as does PLoS Medicine, published by the Public Library of Science. The BMJ's Rapid Responses allows ongoing debate and criticism following publication.


id: open-peer-review-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_peer_review-2.md
category: reference
title: Open peer review
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_peer_review
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:41.654347+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-peer-review-20260505-0
summary:
Publishers: BioMed Central BMJ Group Copernicus Publications European Molecular Biology Organization (EMBO) Frontiers MDPI (authors have the option to publish peer review reports, etc.) Nature Research Open Research Europe (the European Union publishing platform for Horizon Europe and Horizon 2020 projects) Journals: eLife GigaScience Nature PeerJ PLOS ReScience C Semantic Web journal by IOS Press WikiJournal SciPost Peer review at The BMJ, BioMed Central, EMBO, eLife, ReScience C, and the Semantic Web journal involves posting the entire pre-publication history of the article online, including not only signed reviews of the article, but also its previous versions and in some cases names of handling editors and author responses to the reviewers. Furthermore, the Semantic Web journal publishes reviews of all submissions, including rejected ones, on its website, while eLife plans to publish the reviews not only for published articles, but also for rejected articles. The European Geosciences Union operates public discussions where open peer review is conducted before suitable articles are accepted for publication in the journal. Sci, an open access journal which covers all research fields, adapted a post publication public peer-review (P4R) in which it promised authors immediate visibility of their manuscripts on the journal's online platform after a


id: open-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:42.817357+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-science-20260505-0
summary:
Open science (also known as open research) is the movement to make scientific research, including publications, data, physical samples, software, and models, transparent and accessible to all levels of society through collaborative networks. This encompasses practices such as publishing open research, campaigning for open access, encouraging scientists to practice open-notebook science (such as openly sharing data and code), broader dissemination and public engagement in science, and generally making it easier to publish, access, and communicate scientific knowledge. Usage of the term varies substantially across disciplines, with a notable prevalence in the STEM disciplines. The term 'open research' has gained currency as a broader alternative to 'open science,' encompassing the humanities and arts alongside traditional scientific disciplines. The primary focus connecting all disciplines is the widespread uptake of new technologies and tools, and the underlying ecology of the production, dissemination and reception of knowledge from a research-based point-of-view. The term 'open scholarship' has also been proposed to include research from the arts and humanities as well as the different roles and practices that researchers perform as educators and communicators. Open science can be seen as continuing, rather than revolutionizing, practices that began in the 17th century with the academic journal, which


id: open-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:42.817357+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-science-20260505-0
summary:
Peer review is widely acknowledged as time-consuming. Citation impact, attributed to the authors, correlates more closely with journal circulation than with article quality. Open Science–aligned publishing formats rarely conform to traditional journal structures that calculate impact factors. Hence, this school argues that there are faster impact measurement technologies that can account for a range of publication types as well as social media web coverage of a scientific contribution to arrive at a complete evaluation of how impactful the science contribution was. The gist of the argument for this school is that hidden uses like reading, bookmarking, sharing, discussing and rating are traceable activities, and these traces can and should be used to develop a newer measure of scientific impact. The umbrella jargon for this new type of impact measurements is called altmetrics, coined in a 2011 article by Priem et al., (2011). Markedly, the authors discuss evidence that altmetrics differ from traditional webometrics which are slow and unstructured. Altmetrics are proposed to rely upon a greater set of measures that account for tweets, blogs, discussions, and bookmarks. Scholars propose that altmetrics should capture the entire research lifecycle, including collaboration patterns, to produce comprehensive impact measures. However, the authors are explicit


id: open-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:42.817357+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Before journals === Before the advent of scientific journals, scientists had little to gain and much to lose by publicizing scientific discoveries. Many scientists, including Galileo, Kepler, Isaac Newton, Christiaan Huygens, and Robert Hooke, made claim to their discoveries by describing them in papers coded in anagrams or cyphers and then distributing the coded text. Their intent was to develop their discovery into something off which they could profit, then reveal their discovery to prove ownership when they were prepared to make a claim on it. The system of not publicizing discoveries caused problems because discoveries were not shared quickly and because it sometimes was difficult for the discoverer to prove priority. Newton and Gottfried Leibniz both claimed priority in discovering calculus. Newton said that he wrote about calculus in the 1660s and 1670s, but did not publish until 1693. Leibniz published "Nova Methodus pro Maximis et Minimis", a treatise on calculus, in 1684. Debates over priority are inherent in systems where science is not published openly, and this was problematic for scientists who wanted to benefit from priority. Under aristocratic patronage, scientists received funding to develop useful innovations or provide entertainment, creating pressure to satisfy patrons' desires and


id: open-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:42.817357+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Internet and the free access to scientific documents === The open science movement, as presented in activist and institutional discourses at the beginning of the 21st century, refers to different ways of opening up science, especially in the Internet age. Its first pillar is free access to scientific publications. This issue entered the political landscape when the Budapest Open Access Initiative was released February 14, 2002, following a conference organized by the Open Society Institute (now Open Society Foundations) on December 1–2, 2001. The resulting declaration calls for the use of digital tools such as open archives and open access journals, free of charge for the reader. The idea of open access to scientific publications quickly became inseparable from the question of free licenses to guarantee the right to disseminate and possibly modify shared documents, such as the Creative Commons licenses, created in 2002. In 2011, a new text from the Budapest Open Initiative explicitly refers to the relevance of the CC-BY license to guarantee free dissemination and not only free access to a scientific document. Beyond publications, the open access principle has expanded to include research data — the empirical foundation of scientific studies across disciplines, as mentioned


id: open-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science-4.md
category: reference
title: Open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:42.817357+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Open Science and Research Assessment == A central aspect of the Open Science movement is the reform of research assessment. Initiatives such as the Coalition for Advancing Research Assessment (CoARA) (launched in 2022) and the San Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment (DORA) advocate moving away from traditional quantitative metrics like the Journal Impact Factor (JIF) and the h-Index, as these often exhibit biases and neglect qualitative aspects. Instead, alternative metrics and indicators, such as altmetrics and Open Science indicators, are to be given greater consideration. Open Science indicators include metrics such as the number of open access publications, data management plans, preprints, FAIR-licensed data, and open peer review reports. These approaches aim to promote the transparency and reusability of scientific outcomes, thereby enabling a fairer and more comprehensive evaluation of scientific achievements.While Open Science aims to enhance transparency, accessibility, and collaboration, the introduction of numerous new metrics to measure openness has led to unintended consequences. These metrics often rely on quantitative indicators, which conflict with the holistic and qualitative approaches advocated by initiatives such as CoARA and DORA. The core issue is that these metrics are designed not only to measure but also to influence researchers' behavior. This can


id: open-science-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science-5.md
category: reference
title: Open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:42.817357+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Disadvantages === Arguments against open science tend to focus on the advantages of data ownership and concerns about the misuse of data, but see. Other concerns around data misuse involve privacy and safety risks that arise from ecological data on protected animal populations or sensitive data on human specimens that could potentially be re-identified and lead to hard and stigma for certain populations. Potential misuse Allowing open access can bring documented cases of misuse, and such misuse can take various forms from accidental errors to intentional forms of misuse like misrepresenting data in order to manipulate or deceive. In 2011, Dutch researchers announced their intention to publish a research paper in the journal Science describing the creation of a strain of H5N1 influenza which can be easily passed between ferrets, the mammals which most closely mimic the human response to the flu. The announcement triggered a controversy in both political and scientific circles about the ethical implications of publishing scientific data which could be used to create biological weapons. These events are examples of how science data could potentially be misused. It has been argued that constraining the dissemination of dual-use knowledge can in certain cases be justified because,


id: open-science-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science-6.md
category: reference
title: Open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:42.817357+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Open-science projects === Different projects conduct, advocate, develop tools for, or fund open science. The Allen Institute for Brain Science conducts numerous open science projects while the Center for Open Science has projects to conduct, advocate, and create tools for open science. Other workgroups have been created in different fields, such as the Decision Analysis in R for Technologies in Health (DARTH) workgroup], which is a multi-institutional, multi-university collaborative effort by researchers who have a common goal to develop transparent and open-source solutions to decision analysis in health. Organizations have extremely diverse sizes and structures. The Open Knowledge Foundation (OKF) is a global organization sharing large data catalogs, running face to face conferences, and supporting open source software projects. In contrast, Blue Obelisk is an informal group of chemists and associated cheminformatics projects. The tableau of organizations is dynamic with some organizations becoming defunct, e.g., Science Commons, and new organizations trying to grow, e.g., the Self-Journal of Science. Common organizing forces include the knowledge domain, type of service provided, and even geography, e.g., OCSDNet's concentration on the developing world. The Allen Brain Atlas maps gene expression in human and mouse brains; the Encyclopedia of Life documents all the terrestrial


id: open-science-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science-7.md
category: reference
title: Open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:42.817357+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-science-20260505-0
summary:
F1000Research provides open publishing and open peer review for the life sciences. The Open Library of Humanities is a non-profit open access publisher for the humanities and social sciences. The Journals Library of the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) publishes all relevant documents and data from the onset of research projects, updating them alongside the progress of the study. Journal support for open-science does not conflict with preprint servers: figshare archives and shares images, readings, and other data; and Open Science Framework preprints, arXiv, and HAL Archives Ouvertes provide electronic preprints across many fields. === Software === A variety of computer resources support open science. These include software like the Open Science Framework from the Center for Open Science to manage project information, data archiving and team coordination; distributed computing services like Ibercivis to use unused CPU time for computationally intensive tasks; and services like Experiment.com to provide crowdsourced funding for research projects. Blockchain platforms for open science have been proposed. The first such platform is the Open Science Organization, which aims to solve urgent problems with fragmentation of the scientific ecosystem and difficulties of producing validated, quality science. Among the initiatives of Open Science Organization include


id: openneuro-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenNeuro-0.md
category: reference
title: OpenNeuro
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenNeuro
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:44.009841+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: openneuro-20260505-0
summary:
OpenNeuro (originally OpenfMRI) is an open-science neuroinformatics database storing datasets from human brain imaging research studies. The database is available online. OpenNeuro accepts datasets formatted from brain imaging research according to a community-developed standard, and uploaded datasets are made available with minimal restrictions to the public at large. The Research Resource Identifier for OpenNeuro is SCR_005031. Datasets that cannot be shared openly are not currently supported. The research group that runs OpenNeuro described the system in a Frontiers in Neuroinformatics article in 2013 and a NeuroImage article in 2015. As of 2025, the National Institutes of Health has awarded OpenNeuro over 8 million dollars in research funding, and researchers have mentioned OpenNeuro in over 200 articles in open access literature. == History == The Neuroimaging Informatics Tools and Resources Clearinghouse made available two other online neuroimaging databases, which both predated OpenNeuro. One was the fMRI Data Center (fMRIDC), which collected similar data but distributed via physical media. The fMRIDC no longer accepts data submissions. The other repository was the 1000 Functional Connectomes Project, which collected data from resting-state fMRI studies. In February 2018, the research group behind OpenfMRI renamed the database to OpenNeuro to reflect broader range of accepted data


id: preregistration-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preregistration_(science)-0.md
category: reference
title: Preregistration (science)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preregistration_(science)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:46.505705+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preregistration-science-20260505-0
summary:
Preregistration is the practice of registering the hypotheses, methods, or analyses of a scientific study before it is conducted. Clinical trial registration is similar, although it may not require the registration of a study's analysis protocol. Finally, registered reports include the peer review and in principle acceptance of a study protocol prior to data collection. Preregistration has the goal to transparently evaluate the severity of hypothesis tests, and can have a number of secondary goals (which can also be achieved without preregistering ), including (a) facilitating and documenting research plans, (b) identifying and reducing questionable research practices and researcher biases, (c) distinguishing between confirmatory and exploratory analyses, and, in the case of Registered Reports, (d) facilitating results-blind peer review, and (e) reducing publication bias. Although the idea of preregistration is old, the practice of preregistering studies has gained prominence to mitigate certain issues that contribute to the replication crisis in scientific studies. Among others, these issues include publication bias and questionable research practices, such as p-hacking and HARKing. == Types == === Standard preregistration === In the standard preregistration format, researchers prepare a research protocol document prior to conducting their research. Ideally, this document indicates the research hypotheses, sampling procedure,


id: preregistration-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preregistration_(science)-1.md
category: reference
title: Preregistration (science)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preregistration_(science)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:46.505705+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preregistration-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Creation and development === For many years, scientists and others have worried about reporting biases such that negative or null results from initiated clinical trials may be less likely to be published than positive results, thus skewing the literature and our understanding of how well interventions work. This worry has been international and written about for over 50 years. One of the proposals to address this potential bias was a comprehensive register of initiated clinical trials that would inform the public which trials had been started. Ethical issues were those that seemed to interest the public most, as trialists (including those with potential commercial gain) benefited from those who enrolled in trials, but were not required to "give back," telling the public what they had learned. Those who were particularly concerned by the double standard were systematic reviewers, those who summarize what is known from clinical trials. If the literature is skewed, then the results of a systematic review are also likely to be skewed, possibly favoring the test intervention when in fact the accumulated data do not show this, if all data were made public. ClinicalTrials.gov was originally developed largely as a result of breast cancer consumer lobbying,


id: preregistration-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preregistration_(science)-2.md
category: reference
title: Preregistration (science)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preregistration_(science)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:46.505705+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preregistration-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Benefits == Several articles have outlined the rationale for preregistration (e.g., Lakens, 2019; Nosek et al., 2018; Wagenmakers et al., 2012). The primary goal of preregistration is to improve the transparency of reported hypothesis tests, which allows readers to evaluate the extent to which decisions during the data analysis were pre-planned (maintaining statistical error control) or data-driven (increasing the Type 1 or Type 2 error rate). Meta-scientific research has revealed additional benefits. Researchers indicate preregistering a study leads to a more carefully thought through research hypothesis, experimental design, and statistical analysis. In addition, preregistration has been shown to encourage better learning of Open Science concepts and students felt that they understood their dissertation and it improved the clarity of the manuscript writing, promoted rigour and were more likely to avoid questionable research practices. In addition, it becomes a tool that supervisors can use to shape students to combat any questionable research practices. A 2024 study in the Journal of Political Economy: Microeconomics preregistration in economics journals found that preregistration reduced p-hacking and publication bias if the preregistration was accompanied by a preanalysis plan, but not if the preregistration did not specify the planned analyses. == Criticisms == === Analytical


id: preregistration-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preregistration_(science)-3.md
category: reference
title: Preregistration (science)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preregistration_(science)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:46.505705+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preregistration-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Practical Implementation === There are also concerns about the practical implementation of preregistration. Many preregistered protocols leave plenty of room for p-hacking (Bakker et al., 2020; Heirene et al., 2021; Ikeda et al., 2019; Singh et al., 2021; Van den Akker et al., 2023), and researchers rarely follow the exact research methods and analyses that they preregister (Abrams et al., 2020; Claesen et al., 2019; Heirene et al., 2021; Clayson et al., 2025; see also Boghdadly et al., 2018; Singh et al., 2021; Sun et al., 2019). In terms of credibility, pre-registered studies are only of higher quality than non-pre-registered studies if the former has a power analysis and higher sample size than the latter but other than that they do not seem to prevent p-hacking and HARKing, as both the proportion of positive results and effect sizes are similar between preregistered and non-preregistered studies (Van den Akker et al., 2023). In terms of adherence, a study of 92 EEG/ERP studies showed that only 60% of studies adhered to their preregistrations or disclosed all deviations. Notably, registered reports had the higher adherence rates (92%) than unreviewed preregistrations (60%). In general, around three-quarters of preregistered studies included at least one


id: publication-bias-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publication_bias-0.md
category: reference
title: Publication bias
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publication_bias
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:47.749261+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: publication-bias-20260505-0
summary:
In published academic research, publication bias occurs when the outcome of an experiment or research study biases the decision to publish or otherwise distribute it. Publishing only results that show a significant finding disturbs the balance of findings in favor of positive results. The study of publication bias is an important topic in metascience. Despite similar quality of execution and design, papers with statistically significant results are three times more likely to be published than those with null results. This unduly motivates researchers to manipulate their practices to ensure statistically significant results, such as by data dredging. Many factors contribute to publication bias. For instance, once a scientific finding is well established, it may become newsworthy to publish reliable papers that fail to reject the null hypothesis. Most commonly, investigators simply decline to submit results, leading to non-response bias. Investigators may also assume they made a mistake, find that the null result fails to support a known finding, lose interest in the topic, or anticipate that others will be uninterested in the null results. Attempts to find unpublished studies often prove difficult or are unsatisfactory. In an effort to combat this problem, some journals require that authors preregister their methods


id: publication-bias-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publication_bias-1.md
category: reference
title: Publication bias
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publication_bias
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:47.749261+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: publication-bias-20260505-0
summary:
Meta-analyses and systematic reviews can account for publication bias by including evidence from unpublished studies and the grey literature. The presence of publication bias can also be explored by constructing a funnel plot in which the estimate of the reported effect size is plotted against a measure of precision or sample size. The premise is that the scatter of points should reflect a funnel shape, indicating that the reporting of effect sizes is not related to their statistical significance. However, when small studies are predominately in one direction (usually the direction of larger effect sizes), asymmetry will ensue and this may be indicative of publication bias. Because an inevitable degree of subjectivity exists in the interpretation of funnel plots, several tests have been proposed for detecting funnel plot asymmetry. These are often based on linear regression including the popular Eggers regression test, and may adopt a multiplicative or additive dispersion parameter to adjust for the presence of between-study heterogeneity. Some approaches may even attempt to compensate for the (potential) presence of publication bias, which is particularly useful to explore the potential impact on meta-analysis results. In ecology and environmental biology, a study found that publication bias impacted the effect size,


id: rescience-c-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ReScience_C-0.md
category: reference
title: ReScience C
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ReScience_C
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:56.068754+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rescience-c-20260505-0
summary:
ReScience C is a scientific journal established in 2015 by Nicolas Rougier and Konrad Hinsen with the aim of publishing researchers' attempts to replicate computations made by other authors, using independently written, free and open-source software (FOSS), with an open process of peer review. The journal states that requiring the replication software to be free and open-source ensures the reproducibility of the original research. == Creation == The journal was established in 2015 by Nicolas Rougier and Konrad Hinsen in the context of the replication crisis of the early 2010s, in which concern about difficulty in replicating (different data or details of method) or reproducing (same data, same method) peer-reviewed, published research papers was widely discussed. The journal's scope is computational research, with the motivation that journals rarely require the provision of source code, and when source code is provided, it is rarely checked against the results claimed in the research article. == Policies and methods == The scope of the journal is mainly focussed on researchers' attempts to replicate computations made by other authors, using independently written, free and open-source software (FOSS). Articles are submitted using the "issues" feature of a git repository run by GitHub, together with other


id: research-question-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_question-0.md
category: reference
title: Research question
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_question
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:57.233428+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: research-question-20260505-0
summary:
A research question is "a question that a research project sets out to answer". Choosing a research question is an essential element of both quantitative and qualitative research. Investigation will require data collection and analysis, and the methodology for this will vary widely. Good research questions seek to improve knowledge on an important topic, and are usually narrow and specific. To form a research question, one must determine what type of study will be conducted such as a qualitative, quantitative, or mixed study. Additional factors, such as project funding, may not only affect the research question itself but also when and how it is formed during the research process. Literature suggests several variations on criteria selection for constructing a research question, such as the FINER or PICOT methods. == Definition == The answer to a research question will help address a research problem or question. Specifying a research question, "the central issue to be resolved by a formal dissertation, thesis, or research project," is typically one of the first steps an investigator takes when undertaking research. Considerations, such as project funding or methodological approaches may influence the research process, including when and how the research question is developed. Clearly and


id: research-question-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_question-1.md
category: reference
title: Research question
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_question
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:57.233428+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: research-question-20260505-0
summary:
In terms of priorities and related concepts, the proposed strategy of differential technological development suggests research to focus primarily on questions and tools that are thought to increase safety and mitigate issues rather than risky technologies which are instead best to delay. Concerning control strategies for gene drives, researchers have however cautioned that such may lead to a counterproductive false sense of security. Not all technological progress may be beneficial in general or in contemporary contexts (environments or systems) and various research may for example result in engineered pandemics. Many studies "ask uninteresting research questions, [and] make only marginal contributions". One study suggests that while research on climate change "is valuable, it does not tackle head-on the most urgent question: how to change society to mitigate climate change right now". In the ethical framework of effective altruism, research questions with the greatest potential benefits from investments (not necessarily of financial nature) are identified to maximize research benefits. 80,000 Hours has compiled a small list of "Research questions that could have a big social impact, organised by discipline". In public health research, "it is vital that research questions posed are important and that funded research meets a research need or a


id: research-question-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_question-2.md
category: reference
title: Research question
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_question
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:57.233428+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: research-question-20260505-0
summary:
Does _________ (name the theory) explain the relationship between _________ (independent variable) and _________ (dependent variable), controlling for the effects of _________ (control variable)? Alternatively, a script for a quantitative null hypothesis might be as follows: There is no significant difference between _________ (the control and experimental groups on the independent variable) on _________ (dependent variable). Quantitative studies also fall into two categories: Correlational studies: A correlational study is non-experimental, requiring the writer to research relationships without manipulating or randomly selecting the subjects of the research. The research question for a correlational study may look like this: What is the relationship between long-distance commuters and eating disorders? Experimental studies: An experimental study is experimental in that it requires the writer to manipulate and randomly select the subjects of the research. The research question for an experimental study may look like this: Does the consumption of fast food lead to eating disorders? === Mixed study === A mixed study integrates both qualitative and quantitative studies, so the writer's research must be directed at determining the why or how and the what, where, or when of the research topic. Therefore, the writer will need to craft a research question for each study


id: science-exchange-company-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Exchange_(company)-0.md
category: reference
title: Science Exchange (company)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Exchange_(company)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:58.417168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-exchange-company-20260505-0
summary:
Science Exchange is a cloud-based software company offering an R&D marketplace to buy and sell scientific services. The marketplace gives life sciences companies access to the outsourced research they need and the platform fully automates R&D outsourcing from source to pay. Commercial contract research organizations (CROs) and academic core facilities can sell their products and services directly through the marketplace. Science Exchange's enterprise clients include top pharma and emerging biotechnology companies, including Merck, Amgen, Gilead Sciences, Astellas Pharma, AbbVie, and Regeneron Pharmaceuticals. Science Exchange was founded in 2011 by Elizabeth Iorns, Ryan Abbott, and Dan Knox, taking part in the startup accelerator program Y Combinator in the summer of 2011. == History == In 2011, as an assistant professor at the University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Iorns came up with the idea for Science Exchange after needing to conduct immunology experiments, but having difficulty finding potential collaborators or providers to work with. Iorns formed Science Exchange with Knox and Abbott, and the company applied for a place in the Y Combinator startup accelerator program. The company was accepted into the Summer 2011 batch of Y Combinator and launched the first version of its website in August 2011. In


id: science-of-science-policy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_of_science_policy-0.md
category: reference
title: Science of science policy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_of_science_policy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:14:59.501630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-of-science-policy-20260505-0
summary:
Science of science policy (SoSP) is an emerging interdisciplinary research area that seeks to develop theoretical and empirical models of the scientific enterprise. This scientific basis can be used to help government, and society in general, make better R&D management decisions by establishing a scientifically rigorous, quantitative basis from which policy makers and researchers may assess the impacts of the nation's scientific and engineering enterprise, improve their understanding of its dynamics, and assess the likely outcomes. Examples of research in the science of science policy include models to understand the production of science, qualitative, quantitative and computational methods to estimate the impact of science, and processes for choosing from alternative science portfolios. == Federal effort == The federal government of the United States has long been a supporter of SoSP. In 2006, in response to Office of Science and Technology Policy Director John H. Marburger's challenge for a new "science of science policy", the National Science and Technology Council's Subcommittee on Social, Behavioral and Economic Sciences (SBE) established an Interagency Task Group on Science of Science Policy (ITG) to serve as part of the internal deliberative process of the Subcommittee. In 2008, the SoSP ITG developed and published "The Science


id: scientometrics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientometrics-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientometrics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientometrics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:03.468548+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientometrics-20260505-0
summary:
Scientometrics is a subfield of informetrics that studies science through mathematical and quantitative methods, analyzing both scientific output and the dynamics of research. Major research issues in scientometrics include the measurement of the impact of research papers and academic journals, the understanding of scientific citations, and the use of such measurements in policy and management contexts. In practice, there is a substantial overlap between scientometrics and other scientific fields, including information systems, information science, the science of science policy, the sociology of science, and metascience. Critics have argued that overreliance on scientometrics has created a system of perverse incentives, producing a publish or perish environment that leads to low-quality research. == Historical development == Modern scientometrics is mostly based on the work of Derek J. de Solla Price and Eugene Garfield. The latter created the Science Citation Index and founded the Institute for Scientific Information which is heavily used for scientometric analysis. A dedicated academic journal, Scientometrics, was established in 1978. The industrialization of science increased the number of publications and research outcomes and the rise of computers allowed effective analysis of this data. While the sociology of science focused on the behavior of scientists, scientometrics focused on the analysis


id: scientometrics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientometrics-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientometrics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientometrics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:03.468548+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientometrics-20260505-0
summary:
An acknowledgment index (British acknowledgement index) is a method for indexing and analyzing acknowledgments in the scientific literature and, thus, quantifies the impact of acknowledgments. Typically, a scholarly article has a section in which the authors acknowledge entities such as funding, technical staff, colleagues, etc. that have contributed materials or knowledge or have influenced or inspired their work. Like a citation index, it measures influences on scientific work, but in a different sense; it measures institutional and economic influences as well as informal influences of individual people, ideas, and artifacts. Unlike the impact factor, it does not produce a single overall metric, but analyzes the components separately. However, the total number of acknowledgments to an acknowledged entity can be measured and so can the number of citations to the papers in which the acknowledgment appears. The ratio of this total number of citations to the total number of papers in which the acknowledge entity appears can be construed as the impact of that acknowledged entity. == Altmetrics == In scholarly and scientific publishing, altmetrics are nontraditional bibliometrics proposed as an alternative or complement to more traditional citation impact metrics, such as impact factor and h-index. The term altmetrics was proposed


id: statcheck-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statcheck-0.md
category: reference
title: Statcheck
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statcheck
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:04.692667+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: statcheck-20260505-0
summary:
Statcheck is an R package designed to detect statistical errors in peer-reviewed psychology articles by searching papers for statistical results, redoing the calculations described in each paper, and comparing the two values to see if they match. It takes advantage of the fact that psychological research papers tend to report their results in accordance with the guidelines published by the American Psychological Association (APA). This leads to several disadvantages: it can only detect results reported completely and in exact accordance with the APA's guidelines, and it cannot detect statistics that are only included in tables in the paper. Another limitation is that Statcheck cannot deal with statistical corrections to test statistics, like Greenhouse–Geisser or Bonferroni corrections, which actually make tests more conservative. Some journals have begun piloting Statcheck as part of their peer review process. Statcheck is free software published under the GNU GPL v3. == Validity == In 2017, Statcheck's developers published a preprint paper concluding that the program accurately identified statistical errors over 95% of the time. This validity study comprised more than 1,000 hand-checked tests among which 5.00% turned out to be inconsistent. The study found that Statcheck recognized 60% of all statistical tests. A reanalysis of


id: yuasa-phenomenon-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuasa_Phenomenon-0.md
category: reference
title: Yuasa Phenomenon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuasa_Phenomenon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:07.343246+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: yuasa-phenomenon-20260505-0
summary:
The Yuasa Phenomenon, named after Japanese physicist and science historian Mitsutomo Yuasa (sometimes referred to as Mintomo Yuasa), suggests that, in the modern era, the world center of scientific activity (defined as producing more than 25% of the world's scientific achievements) moves from one country to another about every 80–100 years. == Analysis == Analyzed data indicate that the "modern world science centre has shifted from Italy (1504–1610) to the United Kingdom (1660–1750), to France (1760– 1840), to Germany (1875–1920), and to the United States (1920 to the present)." This phenomenon and its study methodology are an emerging scientometrics study area. Indicators point to China's rise as a world center of scientific activity. This phenomenon is also described by other names, including "the Bernal—Yuasa phenomenon". Shigeo Minowa links Yuasa's finding to Joseph Ben-David's movements of Centers of Learning. Ben-David's Centers of Learning migration observations are discussed in various works. == See also == Historic recurrence History of science == References ==


id: scientific-method-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific method
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:12.352300+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-method-20260505-0
summary:
The scientific method is an empirical method for acquiring knowledge through careful observation, rigorous skepticism, hypothesis testing, and experimental validation. Developed from ancient and medieval practices, it acknowledges that cognitive assumptions can distort the interpretation of the observation. The scientific method has characterized science since at least the 17th century. Scientific inquiry includes creating a testable hypothesis through inductive reasoning, testing it through experiments and statistical analysis, and adjusting or discarding the hypothesis based on the results. Although procedures vary across fields, the underlying process is often similar. In more detail: the scientific method involves making conjectures (hypothetical explanations), predicting the logical consequences of hypothesis, then carrying out experiments or empirical observations based on those predictions. A hypothesis is a conjecture based on knowledge obtained while seeking answers to the question. Hypotheses can be very specific or broad but must be falsifiable, implying that it is possible to identify a possible outcome of an experiment or observation that conflicts with predictions deduced from the hypothesis; otherwise, the hypothesis cannot be meaningfully tested. While the scientific method is often presented as a fixed sequence of steps, it actually represents a set of general principles. Not all steps take place in every


id: scientific-method-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientific method
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:12.352300+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-method-20260505-0
summary:
The scientific method is the process by which science is carried out. As in other areas of inquiry, science (through the scientific method) can build on previous knowledge, and unify understanding of its studied topics over time. Historically, the development of the scientific method was critical to the Scientific Revolution. The overall process involves making conjectures (hypotheses), predicting their logical consequences, then carrying out experiments based on those predictions to determine whether the original conjecture was correct. However, there are difficulties in a formulaic statement of method. The scientific method represents general principles rather than a fixed sequence, not all steps occur in every inquiry, nor always in the same order. It requires intelligence, imagination, and creativity rather than rigid adherence to procedure. ==== Factors of scientific inquiry ==== There are different ways of outlining the basic method used for scientific inquiry. The scientific community and philosophers of science generally agree on the following classification of method components. These methodological elements and organization of procedures tend to be more characteristic of experimental sciences than social sciences. Nonetheless, the cycle of formulating hypotheses, testing and analyzing the results, and formulating new hypotheses, will resemble the cycle described below.The scientific method is


id: scientific-method-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method-2.md
category: reference
title: Scientific method
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:12.352300+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-method-20260505-0
summary:
I am not accustomed to saying anything with certainty after only one or two observations. ==== Definition ==== The scientific definition of a term sometimes differs substantially from its natural language usage. For example, mass and weight overlap in meaning in common discourse, but have distinct meanings in mechanics. Scientific quantities are often characterized by their units of measure which can later be described in terms of conventional physical units when communicating the work. New theories are sometimes developed after realizing certain terms have not previously been sufficiently clearly defined. For example, Albert Einstein's first paper on relativity begins by defining simultaneity and the means for determining length. These ideas were skipped over by Isaac Newton with, "I do not define time, space, place and motion, as being well known to all." Einstein's paper then demonstrates that they (viz., absolute time and length independent of motion) were approximations. Francis Crick cautions us that when characterizing a subject, however, it can be premature to define something when it remains ill-understood. In Crick's study of consciousness, he actually found it easier to study awareness in the visual system, rather than to study free will, for example. His cautionary example was the gene;


id: scientific-method-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method-3.md
category: reference
title: Scientific method
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:12.352300+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-method-20260505-0
summary:
Watson and Crick showed an initial (and incorrect) proposal for the structure of DNA to a team from King's College London – Rosalind Franklin, Maurice Wilkins, and Raymond Gosling. Franklin immediately spotted the flaws which concerned the water content. Later Watson saw Franklin's photo 51, a detailed X-ray diffraction image, which showed an X-shape and was able to confirm the structure was helical. Once predictions are made, they can be sought by experiments. If the test results contradict the predictions, the hypotheses which entailed them are called into question and become less tenable. Sometimes the experiments are conducted incorrectly or are not very well designed when compared to a crucial experiment. If the experimental results confirm the predictions, then the hypotheses are considered more likely to be correct, but might still be wrong and continue to be subject to further testing. The experimental control is a technique for dealing with observational error. This technique uses the contrast between multiple samples, or observations, or populations, under differing conditions, to see what varies or what remains the same. We vary the conditions for the acts of measurement, to help isolate what has changed. Mill's canons can then help us figure out what


id: scientific-method-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method-4.md
category: reference
title: Scientific method
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:12.352300+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-method-20260505-0
summary:
Science is a social enterprise, and scientific work tends to be accepted by the scientific community when it has been confirmed. Crucially, experimental and theoretical results must be reproduced by others within the scientific community. Researchers have given their lives for this vision; Georg Wilhelm Richmann was killed by ball lightning (1753) when attempting to replicate the 1752 kite-flying experiment of Benjamin Franklin. If an experiment cannot be repeated to produce the same results, this implies that the original results might have been in error. As a result, it is common for a single experiment to be performed multiple times, especially when there are uncontrolled variables or other indications of experimental error. For significant or surprising results, other scientists may also attempt to replicate the results for themselves, especially if those results would be important to their own work. Replication has become a contentious issue in social and biomedical science where treatments are administered to groups of individuals. Typically an experimental group gets the treatment, such as a drug, and the control group gets a placebo. John Ioannidis in 2005 pointed out that the method being used has led to many findings that cannot be replicated. Peer review—anonymous expert evaluation


id: scientific-method-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method-5.md
category: reference
title: Scientific method
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:12.352300+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-method-20260505-0
summary:
=== Empiricism, rationalism, and more pragmatic views === Scientific endeavour can be characterised as the pursuit of truths about the natural world or as the elimination of doubt about the same. The former is the direct construction of explanations from empirical data and logic, the latter the reduction of potential explanations. It was established above how the interpretation of empirical data is theory-laden, so neither approach is trivial. The ubiquitous element in the scientific method is empiricism, which holds that knowledge is created by a process involving observation; scientific theories generalize observations. This is in opposition to stringent forms of rationalism, which holds that knowledge is created by the human intellect; later clarified by Popper to be built on prior theory. The scientific method embodies the position that reason alone cannot solve a particular scientific problem; it unequivocally refutes claims that revelation, political or religious dogma, appeals to tradition, commonly held beliefs, common sense, or currently held theories pose the only possible means of demonstrating truth. In 1877, C. S. Peirce characterized inquiry in general not as the pursuit of truth per se but as the struggle to move from irritating, inhibitory doubts born of surprises, disagreements, and the like,


id: scientific-method-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method-6.md
category: reference
title: Scientific method
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:12.352300+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-method-20260505-0
summary:
An example for how inductive and deductive reasoning works can be found in the history of gravitational theory. It took thousands of years of measurements, from the Chaldean, Indian, Persian, Greek, Arabic, and European astronomers, to fully record the motion of planet Earth. Kepler(and others) were then able to build their early theories by generalizing the collected data inductively, and Newton was able to unify prior theory and measurements into the consequences of his laws of motion in 1727. Another common example of inductive reasoning is the observation of a counterexample to current theory inducing the need for new ideas. Le Verrier in 1859 pointed out problems with the perihelion of Mercury that showed Newton's theory to be at least incomplete. The observed difference of Mercury's precession between Newtonian theory and observation was one of the things that occurred to Einstein as a possible early test of his theory of relativity. His relativistic calculations matched observation much more closely than Newtonian theory did. Though, today's Standard Model of physics suggests that we still do not know at least some of the concepts surrounding Einstein's theory, it holds to this day and is being built on deductively. A theory being assumed


id: scientific-method-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method-7.md
category: reference
title: Scientific method
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:12.352300+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-method-20260505-0
summary:
=== Hypothetico-deductive method === The hypothetico-deductive model, or hypothesis-testing method, or "traditional" scientific method is, as the name implies, based on the formation of hypotheses and their testing via deductive reasoning. A hypothesis stating implications, often called predictions, that are falsifiable via experiment is of central importance here, as not the hypothesis but its implications are what is tested. Basically, scientists will look at the hypothetical consequences a (potential) theory holds and prove or disprove those instead of the theory itself. If an experimental test of those hypothetical consequences shows them to be false, it follows logically that the part of the theory that implied them was false also. If they show as true however, it does not prove the theory definitively. The logic of this testing is what affords this method of inquiry to be reasoned deductively. The formulated hypothesis is assumed to be 'true', and from that 'true' statement implications are inferred. If the following tests show the implications to be false, it follows that the hypothesis was false also. If test show the implications to be true, new insights will be gained. It is important to be aware that a positive test here will at best strongly


id: scientific-method-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method-8.md
category: reference
title: Scientific method
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:12.352300+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-method-20260505-0
summary:
== Scientific inquiry == Scientific inquiry generally aims to obtain knowledge in the form of testable explanations that scientists can use to predict the results of future experiments. This allows scientists to gain a better understanding of the topic under study, and later to use that understanding to intervene in its causal mechanisms (such as to cure disease). The better an explanation is at making predictions, the more useful it frequently can be, and the more likely it will continue to explain a body of evidence better than its alternatives. The most successful explanations – those that explain and make accurate predictions in a wide range of circumstances – are often called scientific theories. Most experimental results do not produce large changes in human understanding; improvements in theoretical scientific understanding typically result from a gradual process of development over time, sometimes across different domains of science. Scientific models vary in the extent to which they have been experimentally tested and for how long, and in their acceptance in the scientific community. In general, explanations become accepted over time as evidence accumulates on a given topic, and the explanation in question proves more powerful than its alternatives at explaining the evidence.


id: scientific-method-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method-9.md
category: reference
title: Scientific method
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:12.352300+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-method-20260505-0
summary:
We are to admit no more causes of natural things than such as are both true and sufficient to explain their appearances. The concept of parsimony should not be held to imply complete frugality in the pursuit of scientific truth. The general process starts at the opposite end of there being a vast number of potential explanations and general disorder. An example can be seen in Paul Krugman's process, who makes explicit to "dare to be silly". He writes that in his work on new theories of international trade he reviewed prior work with an open frame of mind and broadened his initial viewpoint even in unlikely directions. Once he had a sufficient body of ideas, he would try to simplify and thus find what worked among what did not. Specific to Krugman here was to "question the question". He recognised that prior work had applied erroneous models to already present evidence, commenting that "intelligent commentary was ignored". Thus touching on the need to bridge the common bias against other circles of thought. ==== Elegance ==== Occam's razor might fall under the heading of "simple elegance", but it is arguable that parsimony and elegance pull in different directions. Introducing additional


id: scientific-method-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method-10.md
category: reference
title: Scientific method
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:12.352300+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-method-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific pluralism is a position within the philosophy of science that rejects various proposed unities of scientific method and subject matter. Scientific pluralists hold that science is not unified in one or more of the following ways: the metaphysics of its subject matter, the epistemology of scientific knowledge, or the research methods and models that should be used. Some pluralists believe that pluralism is necessary due to the nature of science. Others say that since scientific disciplines already vary in practice, there is no reason to believe this variation is wrong until a specific unification is empirically proven. Finally, some hold that pluralism should be allowed for normative reasons, even if unity were possible in theory. === Unificationism === Unificationism, in science, was a central tenet of logical positivism. Different logical positivists construed this doctrine in several different ways, e.g. as a reductionist thesis, that the objects investigated by the special sciences reduce to the objects of a common, putatively more basic domain of science, usually thought to be physics; as the thesis that all theories and results of the various sciences can or ought to be expressed in a common language or "universal slang"; or as the thesis that


id: scientific-method-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method-11.md
category: reference
title: Scientific method
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:15:12.352300+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-method-20260505-0
summary:
==== Thought collectives ==== A perhaps accessible lead into what is claimed is Fleck's thought, echoed in Kuhn's concept of normal science. According to Fleck, scientists' work is based on a thought-style, that cannot be rationally reconstructed. It gets instilled through the experience of learning, and science is then advanced based on a tradition of shared assumptions held by what he called thought collectives. Fleck also claims this phenomenon to be largely invisible to members of the group. Comparably, following the field research in an academic scientific laboratory by Latour and Woolgar, Karin Knorr Cetina has conducted a comparative study of two scientific fields (namely high energy physics and molecular biology) to conclude that the epistemic practices and reasonings within both scientific communities are different enough to introduce the concept of "epistemic cultures", in contradiction with the idea that a so-called "scientific method" is unique and a unifying concept. ==== Situated cognition and relativism ==== On the idea of Fleck's thought collectives sociologists built the concept of situated cognition: that the perspective of the researcher fundamentally affects their work; and, too, more radical views. Norwood Russell Hanson, alongside Thomas Kuhn and Paul Feyerabend, extensively explored the theory-laden nature of observation


