# kb

id: glossary-of-geography-terms-n-z-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-2.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-geography-terms-n-z-20260505-0
summary:
orographic rainfall Precipitation that results when moist air is lifted over a topographic barrier, such as a mountain range. orography A branch of physical geography and geomorphology concerned with the scientific study and description of the topographic relief of the Earth, particularly of mountains and hills, and more broadly of any elevated terrain. orthodrome See great circle. orthodromic distance See great-circle distance. orthophotograph Also orthophoto, orthoimage, or orthoimagery. An aerial photograph or satellite image that has been geometrically corrected or orthorectified such that the scale is uniform across all parts of the image, allowing the image to align with a particular map projection. In an uncorrected aerial photo, distances on the ground may be distorted by topographic relief, camera tilt, or the curvature of the Earth; techniques of digital image processing can compensate for these distortions, often by combining multiple images captured from slightly different perspectives into a single composite image. Orthophotos can be used to measure true distances because they accurately depict the relative sizes and positions of features on the Earth's surface. outback In Australia, the vast, remote, sparsely populated backcountry. See also bush. outcrop Also outcropping. Any visible exposure of bedrock or ancient superficial deposits on the


id: glossary-of-geography-terms-n-z-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-3.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-geography-terms-n-z-20260505-0
summary:
pediment An eroded, often bare rock platform, cut into the local bedrock, usually slightly concave and triangular in shape and extending over a considerable area at the foot of an abrupt mountain slope or face, the lower edge sloping gently away. Pediments form basal slopes of transport for weathered material derived from the steeper slope above, and are characteristic of arid and semi-arid lands. pediplain pedology The scientific study of the morphology, composition, and spatial distribution of soils, with an emphasis on classifying soils and understanding their formation and evolution. pedosphere The uppermost layer of the Earth's crust that is composed of soils and subject to pedological processes such as soil formation and erosion, a consequence of dynamic interactions between the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. pelagic zone peneplain A low-relief plain leveled by long-term erosion, often implying a landscape that is in the final stages of fluvial erosion during an extended period of tectonic stability, i.e. approaching the point at which all initial topographic inequalities such as mountains and hills have been eroded and evenly redistributed into a broad, flat, uniform surface at or near sea level. peninsula A piece of land surrounded almost entirely by water while still


id: glossary-of-geography-terms-n-z-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-4.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-geography-terms-n-z-20260505-0
summary:
place A particular point on the Earth's surface, or the area surrounding such a point, having or encompassing a definite position; a location, often specifically named, that is identifiable in social interaction because humans have endowed it with meaning or purpose; or a mental representation of a physical space created from functional or emotional associations in the human mind. The concept of place – how places are created, identified, mapped, connected, and used – is fundamental to all of geography. place identity place utility The measure of approval or satisfaction accorded by an individual to a location in his or her action space; the value or usefulness of a particular place as perceived by a particular person. Dissatisfaction with place utility may result in migration. placename See toponym. placer 1. (mineral deposit) An accumulation of valuable minerals, particularly gold, formed by gravity separation from a source rock during natural sedimentary processes. The minerals, weathered from rocks or veins, are washed out by streams and mixed with alluvial deposits of sand or gravel, from which they can then be extracted by placer mining. 2. (reef) A flat, shallow sandbank or reef submerged beneath the ocean surface, often with a sandy bottom


id: glossary-of-geography-terms-n-z-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-5.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-geography-terms-n-z-20260505-0
summary:
polar ice cap Also polar ice sheet. Either of the two very large regions near the Earth's geographical poles that are seasonally or persistently covered in ice, which occurs because high-latitude regions receive less direct solar radiation than other regions and therefore experience much lower surface temperatures. The Earth's polar ice may cover both land and sea, and varies in size seasonally and with long-term climate change. They typically cover a much larger area than true ice caps and are more correctly termed ice sheets. polar region Either of the two high-latitude regions surrounding the Earth's geographical poles (the North and South Poles), which are characterized by frigid climates and extensive polar ice caps. The polar region of the Northern Hemisphere is often called the Arctic and that of the Southern Hemisphere is called the Antarctic. polder Also empolder. A low-lying tract of land enclosed by dikes, forming an artificial hydrological entity by creating land from a naturally inundated area, e.g. by reclaiming land from a lake or sea, or by building barriers around a floodplain or marsh and then draining it. All polders are eventually below the surrounding water table some or all of the time, making them especially


id: glossary-of-geography-terms-n-z-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-6.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-geography-terms-n-z-20260505-0
summary:
pothole Also pot, swirlhole, churn hole, evorsion, rock mill, and eddy mill. 1. Any smooth, bowl-shaped or cylindrical hollow, generally deeper than it is wide, that is carved into the rocky bed of a watercourse such as a stream or river. Fluvial potholes are created by the grinding action of stones or coarse sediment kept in perpetual motion in the same spot by the turbulence of the current. The term is also used to refer to plunge pools beneath waterfalls, which are created by similar processes. See also kolk. 2. A vertical or steeply inclined karstic shaft in a limestone deposit. 3. In the Great Plains of North America, a shallow depression, generally less than 10 acres (4.0 ha) in area, occurring between dunes or on morainic relief on a prairie and often filled by an intermittent pond or marsh. 4. Another name for a kettle. 5. Another name for a panhole. prairie A type of temperate grassland ecosystem dominated by a characteristic composition of grasses, herbs, and shrubs, rather than by trees. The term is used primarily in North America, but similar ecosystems can be found across the world. Precambrian rock The oldest rocks, generally more than 600 million


id: glossary-of-geography-terms-n-z-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-7.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-geography-terms-n-z-20260505-0
summary:
rake A sloping terrace on a mountainside or rock face. The term is used primarily in Scotland. rapid Also rapids or whitewater. A section of a river or stream where the riverbed is sufficiently steep, the rate of flow is sufficiently fast, and/or the channel is sufficiently narrow or obstructed by shallow or protruding rocks or other obstacles that the water at the surface is visibly swift, turbulent, and broken, often forming large white-capped breaking waves, eddies, whirlpools, and "holes", in contrast to other sections where relatively slow, steady, laminar flows predominate. Rapids can persist long enough to form distinct, stable patterns at particular locations, though they are ultimately dependent on water volume and thus may change seasonally, disappearing entirely if water levels are too low or too high. Generally, watercourses are more likely to form rapids closer to their source, where channels are relatively shallow and narrow and often pass through mountainous or highly eroded terrain, than to downstream portions near their mouth, where channels tend to be deeper and wider. raster A representation of spatial data within a two-dimensional image that defines space as a rectangular array or grid of equally sized cells arranged in rows and columns,


id: glossary-of-geography-terms-n-z-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-8.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-geography-terms-n-z-20260505-0
summary:
relief The actual physical surface of a region of the Earth, i.e. the specific shape, dimensions, and particularities of its terrain; or the deviation of a real-world surface from a reference surface such as the geoid, a sphere, or a plane. When only the patterns and contours of the natural surface are considered and man-made features are ignored, relief is more or less synonymous with topography. relief map See topographic map. religion The belief in a supernatural power that is regarded as the creator and maintainer of the universe, as well as the system of beliefs itself. remote (of a particular location) Isolated or inaccessible, either by being physically very distant from another location or by lacking connectivity to transportation or communication networks which would otherwise make exchange between locations convenient. remote sensing The gathering of information about an object or place from a remote location (i.e. without making physical on-site observations), most commonly by the use of satellite- or aircraft-based electromagnetic sensor technologies. representative fraction (RF) The fraction expressing the ratio between the distance measured between two points on a map and the corresponding actual distance measured between those points in the real world, used to indicate the map's


id: glossary-of-geography-terms-n-z-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-9.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-geography-terms-n-z-20260505-0
summary:
rose A diagram printed on a map consisting of a set of lines radiating from a point and marked so as to indicate velocity or some other quantity having direction; e.g. a compass rose or current rose. route 1. A way or course taken in getting from one place to another; an established or selected course of travel or action; a line of travel or means of access, especially when marked by a path, track, road, or rail. 2. A circuit traveled in delivering, selling, or collecting goods, e.g. by a mail carrier. routefinding The determination of a viable route or line of travel between two places, especially in rugged or unexplored areas such as mountainous terrain or in conditions of poor visibility, and especially when done without the benefits of prior knowledge of the area, maps, or other technology that might aid orienteering, instead relying entirely on recognition of natural features and landmarks and quick estimations of distance, scale, ease, and safety. rural An adjective describing any geographic area located outside areas of significant human population such as towns and cities; all population, housing, and territory not included within an urban area is often said to be rural. Rural


id: glossary-of-geography-terms-n-z-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-10.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-geography-terms-n-z-20260505-0
summary:
sea lane Also sea road, seaway, or shipping lane. A navigable route across a wide waterway such as an ocean, sea, or large lake that is regularly used for maritime trade by large vessels or ships because it is safe, direct, and economical. sea level The average level of the surface of one or more of Earth's oceans from which heights such as elevation and altitude are commonly measured. Often called mean sea level (MSL), it is a type of standardized geodetic vertical datum that is used in numerous applications, including surveying, cartography, and navigation. Mean sea level is commonly defined as the midpoint between the mean low and mean high tides at a particular location. sea stack See stack. seabed Also sea floor or ocean floor. The bottom of a sea or ocean. As with land terrain, the ocean floor may have ridges, mountains, valleys, and plains. seaboard Any extensive region of land adjacent to the sea, broadly synonymous with coast or coastline. seamount A mountain (often a volcano) rising from the ocean floor whose summit does not reach the water's surface and which is therefore entirely submerged and not an island or islet. search space In human geography,


id: glossary-of-geography-terms-n-z-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-11.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-geography-terms-n-z-20260505-0
summary:
shield volcano A class of volcano that resembles an inverted warrior's shield, with long gentle slopes produced by multiple eruptions of fluid lava flows. shoal Also sandbank, sandbar, or gravel bar. A natural submerged ridge, bank, or bar that consists of or is covered by sand or other unconsolidated material and rises from the bed of a body of water to just below or above the surface. shore Also shoreline. The fringe of land at the edge of a large body of water, such as an ocean, sea, or lake. Compare coast. shore platform See wave-cut platform. shoulder 1. A rounded spur on a mountainside; or a bench on the side of a glacier-deepened U-shaped valley, demarcating an abrupt transition between the gentle upper slopes which have been largely unaffected by glacial erosion and the steep lower slopes of the heavily eroded inner valley. 2. The part of a roadway between the edge of the graded or paved driving surface and the top of the foreslope of an adjacent ditch or embankment. shoulder drop See topographic prominence. side valley A valley whose mouth opens onto a larger, lower-order valley to which its drainage is tributary. sighting compass A handheld magnetic


id: glossary-of-geography-terms-n-z-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-12.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-geography-terms-n-z-20260505-0
summary:
soil building process The creation of organic matter from weathered rock, air, and water. soil horizon A distinct layer of soil which can be distinguished from other layers in vertical cross-section. solstice The time when the Sun reaches its most northerly or southerly excursion relative to the celestial equator on the celestial sphere. Two solstices occur annually, around 20–22 June and 20–22 December. In many countries, the seasons of the year are defined by reference to the solstices and the equinoxes. solution pan See panhole. solubility The degree to which a substance can be dissolved in another substance. In a geographical context, solubility is a characteristic of soil minerals that describes their tendency to be carried away in solution by water. See also leaching. sound 1. A large inlet of a sea or ocean that is larger than a bay, deeper than a bight, and wider than a fjord. 2. A narrow sea or ocean channel between two landmasses. sounding 1. A measured depth in water, usually a measurement of the distance from an instrument on a vessel at the surface to the bottom of the bed or floor of the body of water at a point directly below the


id: glossary-of-geography-terms-n-z-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-13.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-geography-terms-n-z-20260505-0
summary:
spatiomap A map that is not merely a diagrammatic representation of a place but is based on an aerial orthophotograph, such that the map includes actual imagery of ground-level features which are often omitted from conventional maps. Spatiomaps are usually created by overlaying annotations directly upon an orthophoto, such as a north arrow or compass rose, a scale bar, political boundaries and labels, or other cartographical information. They are useful when reliable data from ground-based surveys are missing for a particular geographical area or when accurate maps must be produced very quickly, especially during disaster relief efforts where a natural disaster has dramatically changed ground-level detail but new surveys have not yet been conducted. spirit level spit Also sandspit. A type of bar or shoal extending from a beach into an ocean or lake and which develops by the deposition of sediment as a result of longshore drift. Spits form where the shoreline sharply changes direction, such as at a headland, and often develop a "hooked" or recurve shape at their distal ends. spot elevation Also spot height. A point on a map or chart whose height or elevation above a specified reference datum (often mean sea level) is explicitly


id: glossary-of-geography-terms-n-z-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-14.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-geography-terms-n-z-20260505-0
summary:
strip map A map covering only a narrow band of territory in which the user is interested, e.g. alongside each side of a trail or vehicle route. subcontinent A large landmass forming a contiguous part of an even larger continent, though often separable by physiographic or political boundaries, e.g. the Indian subcontinent; or a non-contiguous but still very large landmass that is smaller than one usually termed a continent, e.g. Greenland. subduction zone The place where two lithospheric plates come together, one riding over the other. Most volcanoes on land occur parallel to and inland from the boundary between the two plates. subglacial Of, relating to, or formed on or by the underside of a glacier. Contrast englacial and superglacial. sublittoral 1. Of or relating to the coastal area of the sea between the intertidal zone and the edge of the continental shelf. Compare littoral zone. 2. Of or relating to the deepest parts of a lake or other large body of freshwater, distant from the shore, where plants cannot root. See also aphotic zone. subsequent (of a stream, river, or any natural water flow) Flowing along a course determined by the structure of the local bedrock. Contrast consequent and


id: glossary-of-geography-terms-n-z-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-15.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-geography-terms-n-z-20260505-0
summary:
tectonic plate Any of several very large divisions of the Earth's crust consisting of solid rock which "floats" on top of the semi-solid mantle. temperate zone Traditionally, either of the two mid-latitude regions of the Earth defined by their latitudinal position between the tropics and the polar zones, i.e. the region between latitudes 23°30' N and 66°30' N, or that between 23°30' S and 66°30' S. In modern usage, the term may refer instead to regions of mild or temperate climate, regardless of latitude. temperature inversion An increase in temperature with height above the Earth's surface, a reversal of the normal pattern, often observed in deep valleys and basins that are mostly or entirely enclosed by high mountain ranges. tephra Solid material of all sizes explosively ejected from a volcano into the atmosphere. terminal moraine Also end moraine. A moraine that forms at the terminus or snout of a glacier, marking its furthest advance. Debris transported by plucking and abrasion accumulates at the glacier's leading edge, where it is deposited in an unsorted pile of sediment as the ice begins to retreat. terracette One of a series of regularly spaced, horizontal, step-like ridges forming a distinctive ribbed pattern on a


id: glossary-of-geography-terms-n-z-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-16.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-geography-terms-n-z-20260505-0
summary:
tidal creek Also tidal channel. A narrow inlet or estuary that is affected by the ebb and flow of tides from an adjacent ocean. Water in the lower portions of these channels tends to vary greatly in depth, salinity, electrical conductivity, and other hydrological properties over the course of the tidal cycle, but is often slow-moving and rich in organic sediment drained from upstream freshwater sources, making them important habitats for many species. tidal flat An extensive, nearly horizontal, and barren or sparsely vegetated tract of land at the edge of a sea or ocean that is alternately covered and uncovered by the tide. tidal prism The total volume of water that flows in and out of a coastal inlet or estuary with each cycle of the tides, excluding any freshwater discharges; i.e. the difference in the inlet's volume between the mean high and low tides. tidal range The difference in height between high tide and low tide at a given location. This range may vary over the course of the year, e.g. during neap tides and spring tides. tide The periodic rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the


id: glossary-of-geography-terms-n-z-20260505-17
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-17.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-geography-terms-n-z-20260505-0
summary:
township A type of populated place or administrative subdivision for which definitions vary widely between jurisdictions. In the United States, the township is the basic unit of land in the Public Land Survey System, a quadrangle with sides of approximately 6 miles (9.7 km) aligned to parallels and meridians and further subdivided into 36 one-square-mile sections. The location of each township is specified with respect to a designated reference parallel and a reference meridian. township and range The rectangular system of land subdivision used to plat real property for sale and settlement in much of the agriculturally settled United States west of the Appalachian Mountains, established by the Land Ordinance of 1785. towpath A road or path alongside a navigable river, canal, or other inland waterway designed to allow land vehicles, draught animals, or a team of human pullers to tow a boat or barge. trafficability The capacity of a soil or of a particular type of terrain to permit the movement of vehicles or pedestrians. trail transferability The extent to which a good or service can be moved from one location to another; the relative capacity for spatial interaction. transhumance The seasonal movement of people and animals in search


id: glossary-of-geography-terms-n-z-20260505-18
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-18.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-geography-terms-n-z-20260505-0
summary:
trough Any elongated, generally U-shaped valley, ravine, basin, or ditch, natural or artificial, dry or wet. Particularly common usages refer to a submarine trench or deep in the ocean floor, or to a geological syncline. true north Also geodetic north. The direction along the Earth's surface towards the Geographic North Pole. Geodetic true north differs from magnetic north and grid north, and also very slightly from astronomical true north, which is based on the direction of the north celestial pole. true south Also geodetic south. The direction along the Earth's surface that is exactly opposite (i.e. bearing 180 degrees) of true north, towards the Geographic South Pole. trunk See main stem. tsunami A giant ocean wave caused by an underwater earthquake or volcanic eruption with great destructive power. tundra A treeless plain characteristic of the Arctic and subarctic regions. tunnel valley A deep, greatly elongated, U-shaped valley carved from land beneath a mass of glacial ice, often near the margin of a continental ice sheet. Tunnel valleys may be up to 100 kilometres (62 mi) long, 2.5 kilometres (1.6 mi) wide, and 400 metres (1,300 ft) deep, and often occur side-by-side in a series of multiple parallel valleys. turlough In


id: glossary-of-geography-terms-n-z-20260505-19
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-19.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-geography-terms-n-z-20260505-0
summary:
volcanic avalanche Also debris avalanche. A large, chaotic mass of soil, rock, and volcanic debris moving swiftly down the slopes of a volcano. Volcanic avalanches can also occur without an eruption due to an earthquake, heavy rainfall, or unstable soil, rock, and volcanic debris. volcanic crater A type of crater created by volcanic activity, typically shaped like a bowl and containing one or more volcanic vents. Compare caldera. volcano A vent or opening in the Earth's surface through which magma erupts, or the landform that is constructed by the eruptive material. volcanology Also vulcanology. The scientific study of volcanoes, lava, magma, and the body of related geophysical phenomena known as volcanism. It is a branch of geology and Earth science which seeks to understand the formation, activity, and dormancy of volcanoes, their current and historic eruptions, and how to predict them. vrtače See doline. == W == wadi 1. A dry, ephemeral riverbed which contains water only when heavy rainfall occurs. 2. Another name for a valley, used primarily in Arabic-speaking parts of the world. warping 1. The slow, gentle deformation of the Earth's crust over a wide area, resulting in a raising or lowering of the surface. 2. (sedimentation)


id: glossary-of-geography-terms-n-z-20260505-20
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)-20.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of geography terms (N–Z)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geography_terms_(N–Z)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:38.512543+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-geography-terms-n-z-20260505-0
summary:
wave-cut platform Also shore platform, wave-cut cliff, or coastal bench. A flat erosion surface along the shore of a lake, bay, or sea that is formed by the undercutting and eventual collapse of a sea cliff as a result of repetitive wave action. waypoint A reference point in physical space used for purposes of navigation, especially when plotted on a map or in a GIS application as part of a traveled route. weathering The breaking of rocks into smaller rocks, gradually becoming soil. weir Also low head dam. A man-made obstruction built across the width of a river that alters its flow and usually results in a change in the height of the river level, commonly by permitting water to flow freely over a low barrier before cascading down to a lower level. Weirs may serve many purposes, including decreasing or increasing the force of the current, maintaining water depth, or diverting or impounding flow, typically for navigation, irrigation, fishing, to generate a head for a water mill, or to control outflow from a lake or reservoir. Compare dam and barrage. welfare geography An approach in human geography which considers the areal differentiation and spatial organization of human activity from


id: abstract-space-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_space-0.md
category: reference
title: Abstract space
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_space
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:39.743891+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: abstract-space-20260505-0
summary:
Abstract space, in geography, is a hypothetical space characterized by equal and consistent properties; a geographic space that is completely homogeneous. All movement and activity would be equally easy or difficult in all directions and all locations within this space. This concept is useful for modeling or analyzing spatial activity and behavior by limiting or eliminating extraneous variables, such as terrain. For example, if researchers want to study the relationship between culture and trade, they don't want their model to be overwhelmed or influenced by factors such as mountainous barriers and rivers because these would detract from the purpose of modeling how culture alone effects trade. == See also == Central Place Theory == References ==


id: activity-space-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activity_space-0.md
category: reference
title: Activity space
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activity_space
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:40.952263+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: activity-space-20260505-0
summary:
In social science, the activity space designates the "set of places individuals encounter as a result of their routine activities in everyday life." The activity space can include all relevant locations that an individual routinely go to, such as the place of residence, the workplace (or the place of study), but also gyms, supermarkets, or cinemas. == Definition == Activity space research started in the field of geography and urban planning, where scholars investigated the effect of urban spatial structure on individual behavior. Horton and Reynolds define the activity space "as the subset of all urban locations with which the individual has direct contact as the result of day-to-day activities." They consider the activity space as a subset of one's "action space," which they define as "the collection of all urban locations about which the individual has information and the subjective utility or preference he associates with these locations". The "action space" is often use synonymously with the terms "awareness space," "mental map," and "cognitive map." The emergence of the cognitive science has broadened the scope of activity space beyond the realm of physicality. Scientists like David Kirsh define activity space as the blend of several components. These components include:


id: alfoz-territory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfoz_(territory)-0.md
category: reference
title: Alfoz (territory)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfoz_(territory)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:42.153703+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alfoz-territory-20260505-0
summary:
The geographical term alfoz (plural alfoces) was used in the Iberian Peninsula during the Middle Ages to describe the rural territory, including subordinate hamlets, under the jurisdiction of a corresponding town (villa in Spanish). The villa and its alfoz, under the authority of the town's local council (concejo), sometimes underpinned what was called a Comunidad de Villa y Tierra, an autonomous political division. At the center of this community, the town (or sometimes a city) comprised an urban area and usually boasted of a castle and a fortified wall. By the 12th century, the alfoces had fiscal, judicial and military functions. Furthermore, they lent themselves to the communal use of land for silvopastoral agriculture; however, in the year 1100, monarchs began to allocate portions of land to the Church and the nobility, an act that undermined the very purpose of the alfoz. The alfoz and its villa formed what would later be known as a municipality. The word alfoz comes from the Arabic al-hawz, meaning "rural district". It is currently preserved in several placenames in Spain as well as is occasionally used as a modern-day common noun. == Notes == == References == == Bibliography == Martínez Sopena, Pascual (2005).


id: alluvial-fan-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_fan-0.md
category: reference
title: Alluvial fan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_fan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:43.613390+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alluvial-fan-20260505-0
summary:
An alluvial fan is an accumulation of sediments that fans outwards from a concentrated source of sediments, such as a narrow canyon emerging from an escarpment. They are characteristic of mountainous terrain in arid to semiarid climates, but are also found in more humid environments subject to intense rainfall and in areas of modern glaciation. They range in area from less than 1 square kilometer (0.4 sq mi) to almost 20,000 square kilometers (7,700 sq mi). Alluvial fans typically form where a flow of sediment or rocks emerge from a confined channel and are suddenly free to spread out in many directions. For example, many alluvial fans form when steep mountain valleys meet a flat plain. The transition from a narrow channel to a wide open area reduces the carrying capacity of flow and results in deposition of sediments. The flow can take the form of infrequent debris flows like in a landslide, or can be carried by an intermittent stream or creek. The reduction of flow is key to the formation of alluvial fans. If a river exits a mountain valley without any reduction in flow, it is more common to see the formation of an alluvial plain. The


id: alluvial-fan-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_fan-1.md
category: reference
title: Alluvial fan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_fan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:43.613390+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alluvial-fan-20260505-0
summary:
=== Debris flow === Debris flow fans receive most of their sediments in the form of debris flows. Debris flows are slurry-like mixtures of water and particles of all sizes, from clay to boulders, that resemble wet concrete. They are characterized by having a yield strength, meaning that they are highly viscous at low flow velocities but become less viscous as the flow velocity increases. This means that a debris flow can come to a halt while still on moderately tilted ground. The flow then becomes consolidated under its own weight. Debris flow fans occur in all climates but are more common where the source rock is mudstone or matrix-rich saprolite rather than coarser, more permeable regolith. The abundance of fine-grained sediments encourages the initial hillslope failure and subsequent cohesive flow of debris. Saturation of clay-rich colluvium by locally intense thunderstorms initiates slope failure. The resulting debris flow travels down the feeder channel and onto the surface of the fan. Debris flow fans have a network of mostly inactive distributary channels in the upper fan that gives way to mid- to lower-level lobes. The channels tend to be filled by subsequent cohesive debris flows. Usually only one lobe is active


id: alluvial-fan-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_fan-2.md
category: reference
title: Alluvial fan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_fan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:43.613390+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alluvial-fan-20260505-0
summary:
== Occurrences == Alluvial fans are characteristic of mountainous terrain in arid to semiarid climates, but are also found in more humid environments subject to intense rainfall and in areas of modern glaciation. They have also been found on other bodies of the Solar System. === Terrestrial === Alluvial fans are built in response to erosion induced by tectonic uplift. The upwards coarsening of the beds making up the fan reflects cycles of erosion in the highlands that feed sediments to the fan. However, climate and changes in base level may be as important as tectonic uplift. For example, alluvial fans in the Himalayas show older fans entrenched and overlain by younger fans. The younger fans, in turn, are cut by deep incised valleys showing two terrace levels. Dating via optically stimulated luminescence suggests a hiatus of 70,000 to 80,000 years between the old and new fans, with evidence of tectonic tilting at 45,000 years ago and an end to fan deposition 20,000 years ago. Both the hiatus and the more recent end to fan deposition are thought to be connected to periods of enhanced southwest monsoon precipitation. Climate has also influenced fan formation in Death Valley, California, US, where


id: alluvial-fan-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_fan-3.md
category: reference
title: Alluvial fan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_fan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:43.613390+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alluvial-fan-20260505-0
summary:
=== Flood hazards === Alluvial fans are subject to infrequent but often very damaging flooding, whose unusual characteristics distinguish alluvial fan floods from ordinary riverbank flooding. These include great uncertainty in the likely flood path, the likelihood of abrupt deposition and erosion of sediments carried by the flood from upstream sources, and a combination of the availability of sediments and of the slope and topography of the fan that creates extraordinary hazards. These hazards cannot reliably be mitigated by elevation on fill (raising existing buildings up to a meter (three feet) and building new foundations beneath them). At a minimum, major structural flood control measures are required to mitigate risk, and in some cases, the only alternative is to restrict development on the fan surface. Such measures can be politically controversial, particularly since the hazard is not obvious to property owners. In the United States, areas at risk of alluvial fan flooding are marked as Zone AO on flood insurance rate maps. Alluvial fan flooding commonly takes the form of short (several hours) but energetic flash floods that occur with little or no warning. They typically result from heavy and prolonged rainfall, and are characterized by high velocities and capacity


id: alluvial-plain-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_plain-0.md
category: reference
title: Alluvial plain
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial_plain
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:44.931749+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alluvial-plain-20260505-0
summary:
An alluvial plain is a plain (an essentially flat landform) created by the deposition of sediment over a long period by one or more rivers coming from highland regions, from which alluvial soil forms. A floodplain is part of the process, being the smaller area over which the rivers flood at a particular time. In contrast, the alluvial plain is the larger area representing the region over which the floodplains have shifted over geological time. As the highlands erode due to weathering and water flow, the sediment from the hills is transported to the lower plain. Various creeks will carry the water further to a river, lake, bay, or ocean. As the sediments are deposited during flood conditions in the floodplain of a creek, the elevation of the floodplain will be raised. As this reduces the channel floodwater capacity, the creek will, over time, seek new, lower paths, forming a meander (a curved path). The leftover higher locations, typically natural levees at the margins of the flood channel, will be eroded by lateral stream erosion, local rainfall, and possibly wind transport if the climate is arid and does not support soil-holding grasses. These processes, over geologic time, will form the


id: americas-terminology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americas_(terminology)-0.md
category: reference
title: Americas (terminology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americas_(terminology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:46.319434+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: americas-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
The Americas, also known as America, are lands of the Western Hemisphere, composed of numerous entities and regions variably defined by geography, politics, and culture. The Americas are recognized in the English-speaking world to include two separate continents: North America and South America. In parts of Europe and Latin America, America is considered to be a single continent, within which North and South America are subcontinents. == Physical geography == North America—the continent and associated islands of the Northern Hemisphere and (chiefly) Western Hemisphere. It lies northwest of South America and is bounded by the Atlantic, Arctic, and Pacific Oceans. Middle America—the territory between the southern Rocky Mountains and the northern tip of the Andes. This isthmus marks the transition between North and South America. It may also include the Caribbean. Central America—the narrow southern portion of mainland North America connecting with South America, extending from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec to the Isthmus of Panama; alternatively, the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt may delimit the region on the north. Caribbean—the region between southeastern North America and northern South America, consisting of the Caribbean Sea, its islands (most of which enclose the sea), and the surrounding coasts. The islands—composed of the Greater Antilles,


id: americas-terminology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americas_(terminology)-1.md
category: reference
title: Americas (terminology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americas_(terminology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:46.319434+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: americas-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Linguistic/cultural regions === Anglo-America—the region of the Americas having significant historical, linguistic, and cultural links to England or the British Isles, i.e., Anglophone; often just Canada and the United States. Latin America—the region of the Americas where Romance languages derived from Latin–namely Spanish, Portuguese, and variably French–are officially or primarily spoken. Though French is spoken in Quebec, it is typically not included due to Canada's links to Britain. Ibero-America—the region of the Americas having significant historical, linguistic, and cultural links to Spain or Portugal (both on the Iberian Peninsula), i.e., Hispanophone and Lusophone. Hispanic America (also Spanish America)—those countries inhabited by Spanish-speaking populations. French America—the Francophone region. Mesoamerica—a region of the Americas extending from central Mexico southeast to Nicaragua and Costa Rica; a term used especially in archaeology and ethnohistory for the region where an array of civilizations had flourished during the pre-Columbian era, and which shared a number of historical and cultural traditions. Mesoamerican Linguistic Area—a sprachbund, or linguistic region, defined as the area inhabited by speakers of a set of indigenous languages which have developed certain similarities as a result of their historic and geographical connections; roughly co-terminate with the archaeological/ethnohistorical Mesoamerica. Aridoamerica—an archaeological/ethnohistorical regional division, essentially


id: anatopism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatopism-0.md
category: reference
title: Anatopism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatopism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:47.579101+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anatopism-20260505-0
summary:
An anatopism (from the Ancient Greek ἀνά, "against," and τόπος, "place") is something that is out of its proper place. The concept of anatopism is less widely familiar than that of anachronism, perhaps because much that is anatopic is also anachronistic. Yet the distinction is a valid one; not all that is anatopic is necessarily also anachronistic. The online Collins English Dictionary gives a synonym for "anatopism": anachorism (from Greek: ana- + khōros, "place"): "a geographical misplacement; something located in an incongruent position". == Examples == Catherine Hardwicke's 2006 film The Nativity Story shows a field of maize in a Nazareth farming scene. Maize is native to Mesoamerica, not to the Middle East, and in pre-Columbian times was grown only in the Americas. The use of maize in this film is an anatopism as well as an anachronism. The same anatopism appears in the first part ("The Warrior Pharaohs") of a three-part 2002 PBS documentary series on "Egypt's Golden Empire" depicting the history of ancient Egypt's New Kingdom: ears of maize corn are shown in a scene recreating the battle and siege of Megiddo in the 15th century BC. Ridley Scott's 2000 film Gladiator, set in 180 AD, features Roman


id: anthropization-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropization-0.md
category: reference
title: Anthropization
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropization
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:48.874145+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anthropization-20260505-0
summary:
In geography and ecology, anthropization is the conversion of open spaces, landscapes, and natural environments by human action. Anthropic erosion is the process of human action degrading terrain and soil. An area may be classified as anthropized even though it looks natural, such as grasslands that have been deforested by humans. It can be difficult to determine how much a site has been anthropized in the case of urbanization because one must be able to estimate the state of the landscape before significant human action. == Origin == The earliest known stages of anthropization can be found as early as the Neolithic era and the basic farmland created in that time. With the continually-growing population of humans, the land that the Earth provides has been appropriated over the years. The ecological footprint created by anthropization is continually growing despite efficiency and technique improvements made in anthropization.. Whether anthropized or not, all land seldom a few locations has been claimed. Outside of the largely inhospitable Arctic and Antarctic circles and large portions of other uninhabitable landscapes, much of the globe has been used or altered in some direct way by humans. Land has been appropriated for many different reasons, but ultimately


id: glossary-of-arabic-toponyms-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_Arabic_toponyms-0.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of Arabic toponyms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_Arabic_toponyms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:50.237695+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-arabic-toponyms-20260505-0
summary:
The glossary of Arabic toponyms gives translations of Arabic terms commonly found as components in Arabic toponyms. A significant number of them were put together during the PEF Survey of Palestine carried out in the second half of the 19th century. == A == 'Ain, pl.: `Ayūn, ʿUyūn Spring, fountain, source. Examples: El Aaiún All pages with titles containing Ain All pages with titles containing Aiun Ab, Abu Father; as a geographical term it signifies "producing", "containing", etc.; All pages with titles containing Ab All pages with titles containing Abu Arak, pl.: Arkan Cavern or cliff (among various meanings); see All pages with titles containing Arak == B == Bab, pl.: Buwab Gate. Examples Bab el-Mandeb; see All pages with titles containing Bab Baḥr Arabic: بحر - Sea, large river. see All pages with titles containing Bahr Beit House. see All pages with titles containing Beit Balad Arabic: بلد (sometimes transliterated as Beled or Belled) - Town; see All pages with titles containing Balad Bir Arabic: بير, Well; see All pages with titles containing Bir Birkeh Artificial pool, tank; see All pages with titles containing Birkeh Buḥayra, Baḥeirah Arabic: بحيرة, Lake, lagoon; Diminutive of بَحْر (baḥr, “sea”). Burj Arabic: برج,


id: backcountry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backcountry-0.md
category: reference
title: Backcountry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backcountry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:51.538300+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: backcountry-20260505-0
summary:
In geography, a backcountry, back country or backwater is a geographical area that is remote, undeveloped, isolated, or difficult to access. These areas are typically rural or mountainous and sparsely populated. == Terminology == === Backcountry and wilderness within United States national parks === The National Park Service (NPS) generally uses the term "backcountry" to refer to "primitive, undeveloped portions of parks". Developments within backcountry areas are generally limited to trails, unpaved roads, and administrative facilities associated with dispersed recreational use. Dispersed recreational use is the most prevalent human use in backcountry areas, although research activities may also occur. The NPS defines wilderness within US national parks as any "backcountry areas which have been specifically designated as part of the National Wilderness Preservation System or any other area that has been determined to possess the characteristics of wilderness as defined by Section 2(c) of the Wilderness Act". Section 2(c) states in part that wilderness: (1) generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature, with the imprint of man's work substantially unnoticeable; (2) has outstanding opportunities for solitude or a primitive and unconfined type of recreation; (3) has at least five thousand acres of land or is


id: barrier-ridge-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrier_ridge-0.md
category: reference
title: Barrier ridge
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrier_ridge
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:54.171011+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: barrier-ridge-20260505-0
summary:
The terms barrier ridge, a term of art in the earth sciences, especially geology and sometimes barrier range (more common as a geography term) describing the existence of gross landforms describing long ridgelines which are particularly difficult to pass, especially in the context of being on foot or dependent upon other forms of animal powered transportation systems, in mountainous and sometimes hilly terrains. Barrier ridges such as the steep rising slopes or escarpments of the Allegheny Front, separating the ridge-and-valley Appalachians from the drainage divides of the uplands of the Appalachian Plateau. The ridge and valley region is filled with a succession of nearly impassible ridges from Northern Georgia, along the Appalachian chain all the way to Maine. == Notes == == References == == External links == Media related to Barrier ridge at Wikimedia Commons


id: binary-distribution-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_distribution-0.md
category: reference
title: Binary distribution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_distribution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:55.509941+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: binary-distribution-20260505-0
summary:
Binary distribution is the presence of two or more very large and dominant cities in a country. == Countries with binary distribution == Australia (Melbourne, Sydney) Brazil (São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro) Canada (Toronto, Montréal) China (Shanghai, Beijing) India (Mumbai, Delhi) Italy (Rome, Milan) Japan (Tokyo, Osaka-Kobe-Kyoto) Netherlands (Amsterdam, Rotterdam) Russia (Moscow, Saint Petersburg) Spain (Madrid, Barcelona) Turkey (Ankara, Istanbul) USA (New York City, Los Angeles) Vietnam (Ho Chi Minh City, Hanoi) == References ==


id: boundary-real-estate-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boundary_(real_estate)-0.md
category: reference
title: Boundary (real estate)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boundary_(real_estate)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:56.802552+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: boundary-real-estate-20260505-0
summary:
A unit of real estate or immovable property is limited by a legal boundary (sometimes also referred to as a property line, lot line or bounds). The boundary (in Latin: limes) may appear as a discontinuation in the terrain: a ditch, a bank, a hedge, a wall, or similar, but essentially, a legal boundary is a conceptual entity, a social construct, adjunct to the likewise abstract entity of property rights. A cadastral map displays how boundaries subdivide land into units of ownership. However, the relations between society, owner, and land in any culture or jurisdiction are conceived of in terms more complex than a tessellation. Therefore, the society concerned has to specify the rules and means by which the boundary concept is materialized and located on the ground. A 'Western' version of the boundary determination might be a legally specified procedure, performed by a chartered surveyor, supported by statements from neighbors and pertinent documents, and resulting in official recording in the cadastre as well as boundary markings in the field. Alternatively, indigenous people represent boundaries through ephemeral performances, such as song and dance, and, when in more permanent form, e.g. paintings or carvings, in an artistic or metaphorical manner. ==


id: butte-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butte-0.md
category: reference
title: Butte
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butte
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:19:58.123904+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: butte-20260505-0
summary:
In geomorphology, a butte ( BEWT) is an isolated hill with steep, often vertical sides and a small, relatively flat top; buttes are smaller landforms than mesas, plateaus, and tablelands. The word butte comes from the French word butte (French: [byt]), meaning 'knoll' (of any size); its use is prevalent in the Western United States, including the Southwest, where mesa (Spanish for 'table') is used for the larger landform. Due to their distinctive shapes, buttes are frequently landmarks in plains and mountainous areas. To differentiate the two landforms, geographers use the rule of thumb that a mesa has a top that is wider than its height, while a butte has a top that is narrower than its height. == Formation == Buttes form by weathering and erosion when hard caprock overlies a layer of less resistant rock that is eventually worn away. The harder rock on top of the butte resists erosion. The caprock provides protection for the less resistant rock below from wind abrasion which leaves it standing isolated. As the top is further eroded by abrasion and weathering, the excess material that falls off adds to the scree or talus slope around the base. On a much smaller


id: butts-and-bounds-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butts_and_bounds-0.md
category: reference
title: Butts and bounds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butts_and_bounds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:11.119592+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: butts-and-bounds-20260505-0
summary:
Butts and bounds, shortened form for "abuttals and boundaries" of a property, are the boundary lines delineated between plots of land, usually those which define the end of an estate, as used in legal deeds, titles, etc. These are usually descriptive features in the property, such as trees, outcroppings of stone, or riverine brooks, etc., and are signified in the legal deed for purposes of identification. == Historical uses == The practice of signifying butts and bounds in the sale of real estate and in legal deeds and contracts is an ancient practice, having attestation in the Hebrew Bible. In the episode of Abraham who purchased the field of Ephron in Genesis 23:17, and where it describes the cave and the trees in the outermost bounds of the property, the Sages of Israel learnt thereby that he that sells his field must write in the deed its landmarks and boundaries. According to rabbinic tradition, Joshua, when dividing the Land of Canaan among the twelve tribes of Israel, planted Sea squill (Hebrew: חצוב) to mark off the butts and bounds of tribal inheritance. The practice was still prevalent along the coast of the Syrian-Egyptian desert as late as the 20th-century. In


id: claim-club-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claim_club-0.md
category: reference
title: Claim club
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claim_club
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:12.319651+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: claim-club-20260505-0
summary:
Claim clubs, also called actual settlers' associations or squatters' clubs, were a nineteenth-century phenomenon in the American West. Usually operating within a confined local jurisdiction, these pseudo-governmental entities sought to regulate land sales in places where there was little or no legal apparatus to deal with land-related quarrels of any size. Some claim clubs sought to protect squatters, while others defended early land owners. In the twentieth century, sociologists suggested that claim clubs were a pioneer adaptation of democratic bodies on the East Coast, including town halls. == Purpose == Claim clubs were essentially designed to "do what politicians refused to do: make land available to needy settlers." Their general purpose was to protect the first settlers to arrive on unclaimed lands, particularly in their rights to speculate and cultivate. With the continuous availability of frontier lands from the 1830s through the 1890s, settlers kept moving west. Each claim club established its own rules of governance and enforcement; however, these were almost always vigilante actions. Period accounts report that in some areas, claim clubs were regarded with "the same majesty of the law of the Supreme Court of the United States." East Coast land speculators were prone to roam the


id: claim-club-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claim_club-1.md
category: reference
title: Claim club
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claim_club
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:12.319651+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: claim-club-20260505-0
summary:
=== Kansas === One story of claim club "justice" comes from Montgomery County, Kansas town in 1867. An early settler had tilled his land and improved on it, according to the provisions of the Homestead Act. However, he had not lived on it for five years. After he sold it to another man, this same settler reportedly went to the United States Land Office to preempt the man to whom he sold the land. After doing so this settler attempted to displace the man he sold the land to and claim it as his own. When the local claim club ordered the town sheriff to "put the man away", the original settler was never seen again. === Iowa === Claim clubs also secured members' stakes on land they speculated to become important to the federal government, for the purpose of selling it back to the government at a later date. Members of one Iowa claim club purchased 15,000 acres (61 km2) in central Iowa, which eventually was sold in order to develop both the state capitol in Des Moines and Iowa City, where the state university is today. Iowa had several other claim clubs, as well. In Fort Des Moines,


id: dell-landform-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell_(landform)-0.md
category: reference
title: Dell (landform)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell_(landform)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:13.753963+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dell-landform-20260505-0
summary:
In physical geography, a dell is a grassy hollow—or dried stream bed—often partially covered in trees. In literature, dells have pastoral connotations, frequently imagined as secluded and pleasant safe havens. The word "dell" comes from the Old English word dell, which is related to the Old English word dæl, modern 'dale'. The term is sometimes used interchangeably with the word "dingle", although "dingle" specifically refers to deep ravines or hollows that are embowered with trees. The terms have also been combined to form examples of tautological placenames in Dingle Dell, Kent, and Dingle Dell Reserve, Auckland. == In popular culture == Rivendell – Fictional valley of Elves in J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth — Tolkien's fictional Elvish locale. Derndingle — in The Lord of the Rings, the place in Fangorn Forest where the Entmoot is held. "The Farmer in the Dell" – an American folk song brought to United States by German immigrants. "This Lime-Tree Bower My Prison" - A poem by Samuel Taylor Coleridge, makes reference to a dell in lines 5-10. == Related places == Hollywood Dell, Los Angeles Hollywood Bowl – Amphitheater in Los Angeles, California Matthiessen State Park – State park in Illinois, US Wisconsin Dells


id: downstate-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downstate-0.md
category: reference
title: Downstate
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downstate
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:15.087080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: downstate-20260505-0
summary:
Downstate may refer to: Downstate Illinois, the portion of the U.S. state of Illinois south of the Chicago metropolitan area Downstate (play), a 2018 tragicomedy about sex offenders set in Downstate Illinois Downstate New York, the southeastern portion of the U.S. state of New York, including New York City SUNY Downstate Medical Center, sometimes referred to as "Downstate" == See also == Upstate (disambiguation) Down south (disambiguation)


id: dry-point-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dry_point-0.md
category: reference
title: Dry point
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dry_point
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:16.391971+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dry-point-20260505-0
summary:
In geography, a dry point is an area of firm or flood-free ground in an area of wetland, marsh or flood plains. The term typically applies to settlements, and dry point settlements were common in history. In the United Kingdom extreme examples of dry point settlements include Ely, situated on a small hill in the marshy Fens; Glastonbury, situated on a low hill in the marshy Somerset Levels; and Wareham surrounded by flood plains beside Poole Harbour. A dry point has the advantages of flood protection, fertile soil (due to previous floodings which would have deposited silt on the land) and fairly flat land which is ideal for agriculture and building. == References == == External links == Media related to Dry point at Wikimedia Commons


id: endorheic-lake-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endorheic_lake-0.md
category: reference
title: Endorheic lake
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endorheic_lake
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:17.716959+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: endorheic-lake-20260505-0
summary:
An endorheic lake (also called a sink lake or terminal lake) is a collection of water within an endorheic basin, or sink, with no evident outlet. Endorheic lakes are generally saline as a result of being unable to get rid of solutes left in the lake by evaporation. These lakes can be used as indicators of anthropogenic change, such as irrigation or climate change, in the areas surrounding them. Lakes with subsurface drainage are called cryptorheic. == Components of endorheic lakes == The two main ways that endorheic lakes accumulate water are through river flow into the lake (discharge) and precipitation falling into the lake. The collected water of the lake, instead of discharging, can only be lost due to either evapotranspiration or percolation (water sinking underground, e.g., to become groundwater in an aquifer). Because of this lack of an outlet, endorheic lakes are mostly salt water rather than fresh water. The salinity in the lake gradually builds up through years as water evaporates and leaves its solutes behind. == Similar types of lakes == Depending on water losses, precipitation, and inflow (e.g., a spring, a tributary, or flooding), the temporal result of a lake in a sink may change.


id: field-geography-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_(geography)-0.md
category: reference
title: Field (geography)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_(geography)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:19.055094+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: field-geography-20260505-0
summary:
In the context of spatial analysis, geographic information systems, and geographic information science, a field is a property that fills space, and varies over space, such as temperature or density. This use of the term has been adopted from physics and mathematics, due to their similarity to physical fields (vector or scalar) such as the electromagnetic field or gravitational field. Synonymous terms include spatially dependent variable (geostatistics), statistical surface ( thematic mapping), and intensive property (physics and chemistry) and crossbreeding between these disciplines is common. The simplest formal model for a field is the function, which yields a single value given a point in space (i.e., t = f(x, y, z) ) == History == The modeling and analysis of fields in geographic applications was developed in five essentially separate movements, all of which arose during the 1950s and 1960s: Cartographic techniques for visualizing fields in thematic maps, including choropleth and isarithmic maps. In theoretical cartography, the concept of a "statistical surface" had gained wide acceptance by 1960, using the metaphor of a third dimension to conceptualize continuous quantitative variation in a variable. The statistical surface as a concept and term has persisted in cartography to the present. The quantitative


id: field-geography-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_(geography)-1.md
category: reference
title: Field (geography)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_(geography)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:19.055094+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: field-geography-20260505-0
summary:
== Representation models == Because, in theory, a field consists of an infinite number of values at an infinite number of locations, exhibiting a non-parametric pattern, only finite sample-based representations can be used in analytical and visualization tools such as GIS, statistics, and maps. Thus, several conceptual, mathematical and data models have emerged to approximate fields, including: An irregular point sample, a finite set of sample locations, at either random or strategic locations. Examples include data from weather stations or Lidar point clouds. A lattice, or regular point sample, consisting of locations that are evenly spaced in each cartesian direction. These are typically stored in a Raster data structure. Examples include the Digital elevation model. A Choropleth, an irregular a priori partition, in which space is partitioned into regions unrelated to the field itself, such as countries, and field values are summarized over each region. These are typically stored using vector polygons. Examples would include Population density by county, derived from census returns. A Chorochromatic map or Area-class map, an irregular strategic partition usually used for discrete fields, in which space is partitioned into regions intended to match regions of homogeneous field value, typically stored as vector polygons. Examples include


id: gazetteer-abbreviations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gazetteer_abbreviations-0.md
category: reference
title: Gazetteer abbreviations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gazetteer_abbreviations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:20.584200+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gazetteer-abbreviations-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of common atlas and gazetteer abbreviations. These abbreviations are not always used consistently between publications; some terms have fallen out of use over time. Older gazetteers and atlases often neglect to define abbreviations and underlying terms. Gazetteer and map abbreviations can show up in several forms: upper or lower case, with or without periods, sometimes with hyphens (e.g., Post Village may be P.V., PV, p.v., or p-v). This list does not include direction headings (e.g., N. or No. for north, etc.), which are generally clear. == References == == See also == Administrative division


id: genius-loci-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genius_loci-0.md
category: reference
title: Genius loci
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genius_loci
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:21.863810+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genius-loci-20260505-0
summary:
In classical Roman religion, a genius loci (pl.: genii locorum) was the protective spirit of a place. It was often depicted in religious iconography as a figure holding attributes such as a cornucopia, patera (libation bowl), or snake. Many Roman altars found throughout the Western Roman Empire were dedicated to a particular genius loci. The Roman imperial cults of the Emperor and the imperial house developed in part in connection with the sacrifices made by neighborhood associations (vici) to the local genius. These 265 local districts had their cult organised around the Lares Compitales (guardian spirits or lares of the crossroads), which the emperor Augustus transformed into Lares Augusti along with the Genius Augusti. The emperor's genius is then regarded as the genius loci of the Roman Empire as a whole. Roman examples of these genii can be found, for instance, at the church of St. Giles, Tockenham, Wiltshire, England, where the genius loci is depicted as a relief in the wall of a Norman church built of Roman material. This shows "a youthful and curly-haired Roman Genius worked in high relief, holding a cornucopia in his left hand and a patera in his right", which previously has been "erroneously


id: geocell-cartography-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geocell_(cartography)-0.md
category: reference
title: Geocell (cartography)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geocell_(cartography)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:23.207666+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geocell-cartography-20260505-0
summary:
In geographic information systems, a geocell (or geo-cell) is a patch on the surface of the Earth that is 1 degree of latitude by 1 degree of longitude in extent. At the equator, a geocell is approximately a 111x111 kilometres (69 mi) square - but the east-west dimension of geocells gradually decreases and the shape of the geocell becomes increasingly trapezoidal towards the poles. At the North and South poles, geocells are distorted into long, thin triangles which are still approximately 111 kilometres (69 mi) in the north/south direction but with a base of just 969 metres (3,179 ft). == References ==


id: geographic-levels-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_levels-0.md
category: reference
title: Geographic levels
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_levels
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:24.602609+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geographic-levels-20260505-0
summary:
In geography, different geographic (scale) levels are distinguished: The local scale level relates to a small area, usually a city or municipality; The regional scale level relates to a larger area, usually a region, state or province; The national scale level relates to a country; The continental scale level refers to a continent; The global scale applies to the entire world; The fluvial scale level relates to river basins (this scale level is mainly used in the context of pollution, for example). Within geography the use of geographic levels is also known as scales of analysis. An area of several countries (such as the Middle East or West Africa) is sometimes counted under the continental scale level, sometimes under the regional scale. Actually, both are incorrect, because it does not include a continent but is larger than a country, while the regional scale is smaller than the national scale. Sometimes the international scale level is also used for this, but this term is not in general use. == Use == The concept is used to describe, for example, disasters, climate models, cartographic matters, epidemiological studies or effects of human actions on the environment. Using the concept of Geographic levels it


id: geographic-targeting-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_targeting-0.md
category: reference
title: Geographic targeting
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_targeting
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:26.010109+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geographic-targeting-20260505-0
summary:
Geographic targeting is a viable way for resource allocation, especially to alleviate poverty in a country. In this context, public expenditure and policy interventions can be deployed to reach the neediest people in the poorest areas. Geographical targeting for poverty alleviation employs a variety of techniques, such as database, and geographic information systems to construct poverty maps. == References ==


id: geographical-cluster-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographical_cluster-0.md
category: reference
title: Geographical cluster
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographical_cluster
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:27.401132+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geographical-cluster-20260505-0
summary:
A geographical cluster is a localized anomaly, usually an excess of something given the distribution or variation of something else. Often it is considered as an incidence rate that is unusual in that there is more of some variable than might be expected. Examples would include: a local excess disease rate, a crime hot spot, areas of high unemployment, accident blackspots, unusually high positive residuals from a model, high concentrations of flora or fauna, physical features or events like earthquake epicenters etc... Identifying these extreme regions may be useful in that there could be implicit geographical associations with other variables that can be identified and would be of interest. Pattern detection via the identification of such geographical clusters is a very simple and generic form of geographical analysis that has many applications in many different contexts. The emphasis is on localized clustering or patterning because this may well contain the most useful information. A geographical cluster is different from a high concentration as it is generally second order, involving the factoring in of the distribution of something else. == Geographical cluster detection == Identifying geographical clusters can be an important stage in a geographical analysis. Mapping the locations of unusual


id: geographical-feature-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographical_feature-0.md
category: reference
title: Geographical feature
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographical_feature
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:28.730253+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geographical-feature-20260505-0
summary:
In geography and particularly in geographic information science, a geographic feature or simply feature (also called an object or entity) is a representation of phenomenon that exists at a location in the space and scale of relevance to geography; that is, at or near the surface of Earth. It is an item of geographic information, and may be represented in maps, geographic information systems, remote sensing imagery, statistics, and other forms of geographic discourse. Such representations of phenomena consist of descriptions of their inherent nature, their spatial form and location, and their characteristics or properties. == Terminology == The term "feature" is broad and inclusive, and includes both natural and human-constructed objects. The term covers things which exist physically (e.g. a building) as well as those that are conceptual or social creations (e.g. a neighbourhood). Formally, the term is generally restricted to things which endure over a period. A feature is also discrete, meaning that it has a clear identity and location distinct from other objects, and is defined as a whole, defined more or less precisely by the boundary of its geographical extent. This differentiates features from geographic processes and events, which are perdurants that only exist in time;


id: geographical-feature-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographical_feature-1.md
category: reference
title: Geographical feature
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographical_feature
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:28.730253+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geographical-feature-20260505-0
summary:
Cartographic features are types of abstract geographical features, which appear on maps but not on the planet itself, even though they are located on the planet. For example, grid lines, latitudes, longitudes, the Equator, the prime meridian, and many types of boundary, are shown on maps of Earth, but do not physically exist. They are theoretical lines used for reference, navigation, and measurement. == Features and Geographic Information == In GIS, maps, statistics, databases, and other information systems, a geographic feature is represented by a set of descriptors of its various characteristics. A common classification of those characteristics has emerged based on developments by Peuquet, Mennis, and others, including the following : Identity, the fact that a feature is unique and distinct from all other features. This does not have an inherent description, but humans have created many systems for attempting to express identity, such as names and identification numbers/codes. Existence, the fact that a feature exists in the world. At first, this may seem trivial, but complex situations are common, such as features that are proposed or planned, abstract concepts (e.g., the Equator), under construction, or that no longer exist. Kind (also known as class, type, or category), one


id: geographical-segregation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographical_segregation-0.md
category: reference
title: Geographical segregation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographical_segregation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:30.043055+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geographical-segregation-20260505-0
summary:
Geographical segregation exists whenever the proportions of population rates of two or more populations are not homogeneous throughout a defined space. Populations can be considered any plant or animal species, human genders, followers of a certain religion, people of different nationalities, ethnic groups, etc. In social geography segregation of ethnic groups, social classes and genders is often measured by the calculation of indices such as the index of dissimilarity. Different dimensions of segregation (or its contrary) are recognized: exposure, evenness, clustering, concentration, centralization, etc. More recent studies also highlight new local indices of segregation. Geographical segregation is most often measured with individuals' place of residence, but increasing geographical data availability makes it now possible to compute segregation indexes using individuals' activity space, in whole or in part. == Human geographical segregation == Segregation, as a broad concept, has appeared in all parts of the world where people exist—in different contexts and times it takes on different forms, shaped by the physical and human environments. The spatial concentration of population groups is not a new phenomenon. Since societies began to form there have been segregated inhabitants. Either segregated purposefully by force, or gradually over time, segregation was based on socio-economic, religious,


id: geographical-segregation-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographical_segregation-1.md
category: reference
title: Geographical segregation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographical_segregation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:30.043055+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geographical-segregation-20260505-0
summary:
=== Social segregation and gentrification === Segregation can also be caused by social factors that become evident as they happen, but are not necessarily government sanctioned. This could be things like informal ghettos, or simply rich neighborhoods. In terms of land capital, over time in a given area, humans will settle down and buy or take land. Some privileged people will acquire better land (that is, more arable, proximate to potential capital, more pleasing views). Demand for these nicer habitats drives up prices, and areas deemed "better" based solely on geography become inherently exclusionary in their population makeup. West Point Grey, an area of Vancouver Canada, is in part rich because of the views offered of Downtown Vancouver, the Gulf Islands, and its location near the water and University of British Columbia. Wealthy people had the resources to pay for advantages, and subsequently drove up prices. Examples of this can be seen all over the world. Geographical segregation is not always defined by the sightline of places. It also occurs around certain structures, or simply in areas that are specifically developed with an income bracket in mind. These social factors are commonly attributed to the impacts of gentrification. Gentrification is


id: geosophy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geosophy-0.md
category: reference
title: Geosophy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geosophy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:31.277311+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geosophy-20260505-0
summary:
Geosophy is a concept introduced to geography by J.K. Wright in 1947. The word is a compound of ‘geo’ (Greek for earth) and ‘sophia’ (Greek for wisdom). Wright defined it thus: Geosophy ... is the study of geographical knowledge from any or all points of view. It is to geography what historiography is to history; it deals with the nature and expression of geographical knowledge both past and present—with what Whittlesey has called ‘man’s sense of [terrestrial] space’. Thus it extends far beyond the core area of scientific geographical knowledge or of geographical knowledge as otherwise systematized by geographers. Taking into account the whole peripheral realm, it covers the geographical ideas, both true and false, of all manner of people—not only geographers, but farmers and fishermen, business executives and poets, novelists and painters, Bedouins and Hottentots—and for this reason it necessarily has to do in large degree with subjective conceptions. THE CONCEPT OF GEOSPHY Geosophy is the school of thought that asserts that earth cannot be studied independent of the people who live & experiences Earth. The range of perception of the Earth is so varied & there are as many perception as people themselves, so, it is impossible to


id: getting-lost-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Getting_lost-0.md
category: reference
title: Getting lost
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Getting_lost
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:32.527678+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: getting-lost-20260505-0
summary:
Getting lost is the occurrence of a person or animal losing spatial reference. This situation consists of two elements: the feeling of disorientation and a spatial component. While getting lost, being lost or totally lost, etc. are popular expressions for someone in a desperate situation (perhaps not literally lost), getting lost is also a positive term for a goal some travellers have in exploring without a plan. Getting lost can also occur in metaphorical senses, such as being unable to follow a conversation. == Process == Psychology and neuroscience help to understand the underlying processes which take place before, during and after getting lost. Getting lost is an aspect of behavioral geography, in which human wayfinding and cognitive and environmental factors play a role. For successful travel, it is necessary to be able to identify origin and destination, to determine turn angles, to identify segment lengths and directions of movement, to recognize on-route and distant landmarks. This information is required to plot a course designed to reach a destination (previously known or unknown) or to return to a home base after wandering. If a destination is known but is not directly connected by a path, road, or track to the


id: head-of-the-valley-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_of_the_valley-0.md
category: reference
title: Head of the valley
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_of_the_valley
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:33.763831+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: head-of-the-valley-20260505-0
summary:
The head of the valley or, less commonly, the valley head, refers to the uppermost part of a valley. == Description == The head of a valley may take widely differing forms; for example, in highland regions the valley often ends in a broad, evenly sloping hollow. The higher the head of the valley, the more likely it is to resemble the geomorphological shape of a cirque. In glacial valleys or trough valleys, it may be referred to as the trough head or trough end. In mountains with predominantly crystalline rock the heads of the valleys are generally very wet, sometimes boggy and often support lush alpine meadows, whilst those made of limestone are usually dry and covered in talus or gravel. Where there has been ice age glaciation, the valley bottoms are modified by moraines and mountain lakes are common. == See also == Structural basin U-shaped or trough valley Landform Valley step == References == == Bibliography == Leser, Hartmut, ed. (2005). Wörterbuch Allgemeine Geographie, 13th ed., dtv, Munich, ISBN 978-3-423-03422-7.


id: glossary-of-hebrew-toponyms-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_Hebrew_toponyms-0.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of Hebrew toponyms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_Hebrew_toponyms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:35.076948+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-hebrew-toponyms-20260505-0
summary:
This glossary gives translations of Hebrew terms commonly found as components in Hebrew toponyms. == B == Be'er Beer Be'erot (plural) בְּאֵר, wiktionary:באר, 'well'; plural בְּאֵרוֹת All pages with titles beginning with Beer All pages with titles beginning with Be'er All pages with titles beginning with Be'erot BeitBayit (sometimes)BethBet בֵּית, wiktionary:בית, 'house' All pages with titles beginning with Beit All pages with titles beginning with Bayit All pages with titles beginning with Beth All pages with titles beginning with Bet == E == Ein'En עַיִן, wiktionary:עין, 'spring, fountain' All pages with titles beginning with Ein All pages with titles beginning with 'En Emek עֵמֶק, wiktionary:עמק, 'valley' All pages with titles beginning with Emek == G == Gan גַּן, wiktionary:גן, 'garden' All pages with titles containing Gan Giv'atGivatGivatayim (dual)Giv'ot (plural) גִּבְעַת, wiktionary:גבעה, 'hill' All pages with titles beginning with Givat All pages with titles beginning with Giv'at All pages with titles beginning with Giv'ot == H == Har הַר, wiktionary:הר, 'mountain' All pages with titles beginning with Har == I == Illit עילית, wiktionary:עילית, 'upper' All pages with titles containing Illit == K == Kerem כֶּרֶם, wiktionary:כרם, 'vineyard' All pages with titles beginning with Kerem Kfar כְּפַר, wiktionary:כפר, 'village' All pages


id: height-above-mean-sea-level-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Height_above_mean_sea_level-0.md
category: reference
title: Height above mean sea level
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Height_above_mean_sea_level
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:36.390299+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: height-above-mean-sea-level-20260505-0
summary:
Height above mean sea level is a measure of a location's vertical distance (height, elevation or altitude) in reference to a vertical datum based on a historic mean sea level. In geodesy, it is formalized as orthometric height. The zero level varies in different countries due to different reference points and historic measurement periods. Climate change and other forces can cause sea levels and elevations to vary over time. == Uses == Elevation or altitude above sea level is a standard measurement for: Geographic locations such as towns, mountains and other landmarks. The top of buildings and other structures. Mining infrastructure, particularly underground. Flying objects such as airplanes or helicopters below a transition altitude defined by local regulations. == Units and abbreviations == Elevation or altitude is generally expressed as "metres above mean sea level" in the metric system, or "feet above mean sea level" in United States customary and imperial units. Common abbreviations in English are: AMSL – above mean sea level AOD or AODN – above ordnance datum ASL – above sea level FAMSL – feet above mean sea level FASL – feet above sea level MAMSL – metres above mean sea level MASL – metres above sea


id: hermit-kingdom-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermit_kingdom-0.md
category: reference
title: Hermit kingdom
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermit_kingdom
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:37.694417+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hermit-kingdom-20260505-0
summary:
The term hermit kingdom is an epithet used to refer to any country, organization or society that willfully isolates itself off, either metaphorically or physically, from the rest of the world. North Korea is the most commonly cited example of a hermit kingdom-like country due to its Juche state ideology which is heavily focused on isolationist and self-sufficient internal politics. Other less prominent quoted examples are Turkmenistan, Eritrea, and Bhutan. == North Korea == The first country to be described as a "hermit kingdom" was Korea during the Joseon dynasty, in William Elliot Griffis's 1882 book Korea: The Hermit Nation. Korea, which had become increasingly isolationist since the 17th century, was frequently described as a hermit kingdom until 1905, when it became a protectorate of Japan. Today, historical Korea is split into South Korea and North Korea, two states with starkly contrasting economic ideologies. Whereas South Korea is a major developed economy and trade-dependent economy as well as a major importer of overseas goods, North Korea pursues a largely isolationist state ideology known as Juche with a planned economy. == Cold War uses == During the Cold War, Enver Hoxha's Albania was widely considered a "hermit kingdom" as it was


id: hinterland-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinterland-0.md
category: reference
title: Hinterland
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinterland
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:38.987118+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hinterland-20260505-0
summary:
Hinterland is the area under the influence of a particular human settlement. The word comes from a German word meaning 'land behind' a city, a port, or similar. Its use in English was first documented by the geographer George Chisholm in his Handbook of Commercial Geography (1888). Originally the term was associated with the area of a port in which materials for export and import are stored and shipped. Subsequently, the use of the word expanded to its current use. == History == The word hinterland was recorded in English was by Scottish geographer George Chisholm in 1888, to describe the region behind a port that was economically connected to it for imports and exports. The term was later adopted during the era of European colonialism, particularly during the Scramble for Africa to refer to inland areas that coastal powers claimed as their own. == Geographic region == An area behind a coast or the shoreline of a river. Specifically, by the doctrine of the hinterland, the hinterland is the inland region lying behind a port and is claimed by the state that owns the coast. In shipping usage, a port's hinterland is the area that it serves, both for


id: honeypot-tourism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honeypot_(tourism)-0.md
category: reference
title: Honeypot (tourism)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honeypot_(tourism)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:40.164805+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: honeypot-tourism-20260505-0
summary:
A honeypot site is a location attractive to tourists who, due to their numbers, place pressure on the environment and local people. Honeypots are often used by cities or countries to manage their tourism industry. The use of honeypots can protect fragile land away from major cities while satisfying tourists. One such example is the establishment of local parks to prevent tourists from damaging more valuable ecosystems further from their main destination. Honeypots have the added benefit of concentrating many income-generating visitors in one place, therefore developing that area, and in turn making it more appealing to tourists. However, honeypots can suffer from problems of overcrowding, including litter, vandalism, and strain on facilities and transport networks. Honeypots attract tourists due to parking spaces, shopping centres, public parks, and public toilets. The tourist shops are normally placed all over the shopping centre, which creates pressure on the whole centre to keep the area looking tidy. For example, Stratford-upon-Avon has shops that are aimed mostly at tourists. On a particular street, five shops were aimed towards the locals, and ten shops catered to tourists, reflecting the business opportunity that tourism presents for shopkeepers and other businesspeople in the local economy. The once


id: imaginary-line-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imaginary_line-0.md
category: reference
title: Imaginary line
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imaginary_line
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:41.419962+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: imaginary-line-20260505-0
summary:
In general, an imaginary line is usually any sort of geometric line (more generally, curves) that has only an abstract definition and does not physically exist. They are often used to properly identify places on a map. Some outside geography do exist. A centerline is a nautical term for a line down the center of a vessel lengthwise. == Examples == === Geography === As a geographical concept, an imaginary line may serve as an arbitrary division, such as Antarctic Circle Arctic Circle Border International Date Line Latitude, including the Equator, the Tropic of Capricorn and the Tropic of Cancer Longitude, the Prime Meridian Any axis about which an object spins is an imaginary line. Mason–Dixon line, which informally marks pieces of the borders of four U.S. states: Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia, once part of Virginia. Symbolically, the line separates the Northern United States from the Southern United States Missouri Compromise Line Time zones === Science and engineering === Line of sight Optical ray Force lines in mechanical and structural engineering Field lines for electric and magnetic fields == See also == Imaginary line (mathematics) == References == == External links == World Geography Glossary


id: intermontane-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermontane-0.md
category: reference
title: Intermontane
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermontane
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:42.599087+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: intermontane-20260505-0
summary:
Intermontane is a physiographic adjective formed from the prefix "inter-" (signifying among, between, amid, during, within, mutual, reciprocal) and the adjective "montane" (inhabiting, or growing in mountainous regions, especially cool, moist upland slopes below the timberline). The corresponding physiographic noun is intermountain, while the noun intermontane is an ecologic noun meaning among, between, amid, or within "flora and fauna of a montane habitat." As an example, an alpine region would be an intermontane for a species that migrates between a glacial region and a subalpine region. == Use of the term == Intermontane Basin, a wide valley between mountain ranges that is partly filled with alluvium such as New Zealand's Mackenzie Basin. Intermontane Belt, a physiogeological region in the North American Pacific Northwest. Intermontane Plateaus, the United States physiographic region of the Intermountain West. Intermontane Steppe, a term used mainly in reference to the Sayan Intermontane Steppe. In palaeogeography, intermontane may refer to Intermontane Islands, an ancient Pacific Ocean chain of volcanic islands of the Intermontane Plate that were active during the Triassic period. Intermontane Plate, an ancient oceanic tectonic plate on the west coast of North America about 195 million years ago. Intermontane Trench, an ancient oceanic trench of


id: intertropical-convergence-zone-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intertropical_Convergence_Zone-0.md
category: reference
title: Intertropical Convergence Zone
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intertropical_Convergence_Zone
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:43.875765+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: intertropical-convergence-zone-20260505-0
summary:
The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ ITCH, or ICZ), known by sailors as the doldrums or the calms because of its monotonous windless weather, is the area where the northeast and the southeast trade winds converge. It encircles Earth near the thermal equator, though its specific position varies seasonally. When it lies near the geographic equator, it is called the near-equatorial trough. Where the ITCZ is drawn into and merges with a monsoonal circulation, it is sometimes referred to as a monsoon trough (a usage that is more common in Australia and parts of Asia). == Meteorology == The ITCZ was originally identified from the 1920s to the 1940s as the Intertropical Front (ITF); however, after the recognition of the significance of wind field convergence in tropical weather production in the 1940s and 1950s, the term Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) was then applied. The ITCZ appears as a band of clouds, typically thunderstorms, that encircle the globe near the Equator. In the Northern Hemisphere, the trade winds move in a southwestward direction from the northeast, while in the Southern Hemisphere, they move northwestward from the southeast. When the ITCZ is positioned north or south of the Equator, these directions change according


id: intertropical-convergence-zone-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intertropical_Convergence_Zone-1.md
category: reference
title: Intertropical Convergence Zone
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intertropical_Convergence_Zone
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:43.875765+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: intertropical-convergence-zone-20260505-0
summary:
== Hazards == In the Age of Sail, to find oneself becalmed in this region in a hot and muggy climate could mean death when wind was the only effective way to propel ships across the ocean. Calm periods within the doldrums could strand ships for days or weeks. Even today, leisure and competitive sailors attempt to cross the zone as quickly as possible as the erratic weather and wind patterns may cause unexpected delays. In 2009, thunderstorms along the Intertropical Convergence Zone played a role in the loss of Air France Flight 447, which crashed while flying from Rio de Janeiro–Galeão International Airport to Charles de Gaulle Airport near Paris. The aircraft crashed with no survivors while flying through a series of large ITCZ thunderstorms, and ice forming rapidly on airspeed sensors was the precipitating cause for a cascade of human errors which ultimately doomed the flight. Most aircraft flying these routes are able to avoid the larger convective cells without incident. == Effects of climate change == Based on paleoclimate proxies, the position and intensity of the ITCZ varied in prehistoric times along with changes in global climate. During Heinrich events within the last 100 ka, a southward


id: land-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land-0.md
category: reference
title: Land
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:45.096604+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: land-20260505-0
summary:
Land, also known as dry land, ground, or earth, is the solid terrestrial surface of Earth not submerged by the ocean or another body of water. It makes up 29.2% of Earth's surface and includes all continents and islands. Earth's land surface is almost entirely covered by regolith, a layer of rock, soil, and minerals that forms the outer part of the crust. Land plays an important role in Earth's climate system, being involved in the carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle, and water cycle. One-third of land is covered in trees, another third is used for agriculture, and one-tenth is covered in permanent snow and glaciers. The remainder consists of desert, savannah, and prairie. Land terrain varies greatly, consisting of mountains, deserts, plains, plateaus, glaciers, and other landforms. In physical geology, the land is divided into two major categories: Mountain ranges and relatively flat interiors called cratons. Both form over millions of years through plate tectonics. Streams – a major part of Earth's water cycle – shape the landscape, carve rocks, transport sediments, and replenish groundwater. At high elevations or latitudes, snow is compacted and recrystallized over hundreds or thousands of years to form glaciers, which can be so heavy that


id: land-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land-1.md
category: reference
title: Land
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:45.096604+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: land-20260505-0
summary:
The earliest material found in the Solar System is dated to 4.5672±0.0006 bya (billion years ago); therefore, Earth itself must have been formed by accretion around this time. The formation and evolution of the Solar System bodies occurred in tandem with the Sun. In theory, a solar nebula partitions a volume out of a molecular cloud by gravitational collapse, which begins to spin and flatten into a circumstellar disc, out of which the planets then grow (in tandem with the star). A nebula contains gas, ice grains and dust (including primordial nuclides). In the nebular hypothesis, planetesimals begin to form as particulate matter accumulates by cohesive clumping and then by gravity. The primordial Earth's assembly took 10–20 myr. By 4.54±0.04 bya, the primordial Earth had formed. Earth's atmosphere and oceans were formed by volcanic activity and outgassing that included water vapour. The origin of the world's oceans was condensation augmented by water and ice delivered by asteroids, protoplanets, and comets. In this model, atmospheric "greenhouse gases" kept the oceans from freezing while the newly formed Sun was only at 70% luminosity. By 3.5 bya, the Earth's magnetic field was established, which helped prevent the atmosphere from being stripped away by


id: land-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land-2.md
category: reference
title: Land
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:45.096604+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: land-20260505-0
summary:
Geomorphology refers to the study of the natural processes that shape land's surface, creating landforms. Erosion and tectonics, volcanic eruptions, flooding, weathering, glaciation, the growth of coral reefs, and meteorite impacts are among the processes that constantly reshape Earth's surface over geological time. Erosion transports one part of land to another via natural processes, such as wind, water, ice, and gravity. In contrast, weathering wears away rock and other solid land without transporting the land somewhere else. Natural erosional processes usually take a long time to cause noticeable changes in the landscape—for example, the Grand Canyon was created over the past 70 million years by the Colorado River, which scientists estimate continues to erode the canyon at a rate of 0.3 meters (0.98 feet) every 200 years. However, humans have caused erosion to be 10–40 times faster than normal, causing half the topsoil of the surface of Earth's land to be lost within the past 150 years. Plate tectonics refers to the theory that Earth's lithosphere is divided into "tectonic plates" that move over the mantle. This results in continental drift, with continents moving relative to each other. The scientist Alfred Wegener first hypothesized the theory of continental drift in


id: land-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land-3.md
category: reference
title: Land
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:45.096604+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: land-20260505-0
summary:
The shoreline is the interface between the land and the ocean. It migrates each day as tides rise and fall and moves over long periods of time as sea levels change. The shore extends from the low tide line to the highest elevation that can be reached by storm waves, and the coast stretches out inland until the point where ocean-related features are no longer found. When land is in contact with bodies of water, it can be eroded. The weathering of a coastline may be impacted by the tides, caused by changes in gravitational forces on larger bodies of water. Coasts are important zones in natural ecosystems, often home to a wide range of biodiversity. On land, they harbour important ecosystems such as freshwater or estuarine wetlands, which are important for bird populations and other terrestrial animals. In wave-protected areas they harbor saltmarshes, mangroves or seagrasses, all of which can provide nursery habitat for finfish, shellfish, and other aquatic species. Rocky shores are usually found along exposed coasts and provide habitat for a wide range of sessile animals (e.g. mussels, starfish, barnacles) and various kinds of seaweeds. Along tropical coasts with clear, nutrient-poor water, coral reefs can often be


id: land-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land-4.md
category: reference
title: Land
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:45.096604+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: land-20260505-0
summary:
Land cover refers to the material physically present on the land surface, for example, woody crops, herbaceous crops, barren land, and shrub-covered areas. Artificial surfaces (including cities) account for about a third of a percent of all land. Land use refers to human allocation of land for various purposes, including farming, ranching, and recreation (e.g. national parks); worldwide, there are an estimated 16.7 million km2 (6.4 million sq mi) of cropland, and 33.5 million km2 (12.9 million sq mi) of pastureland. Land cover change detection using remote sensing and geospatial data provides baseline information for assessing the climate change impacts on habitats and biodiversity, as well as natural resources, in the target areas. Land cover change detection and mapping is a key component of interdisciplinary land change science, which uses it to determine the consequences of land change on climate. Land change modeling is used to predict and analyze changes in land cover and use. === Soil === Soil is a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, liquids, and organisms that together support life. Soil consists of a solid phase of minerals and organic matter (the soil matrix), as well as a porous phase that holds gases (the soil atmosphere)


id: land-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land-5.md
category: reference
title: Land
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:45.096604+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: land-20260505-0
summary:
Deserts have an arid climate, generally defined to mean that they receive less than 25 centimetres (9.8 in) of precipitation per year. They make up around one fifth of the Earth's land area, are found on every continent, and can be very hot or very cold (see polar desert). They are home to animals and plants which evolved to be tolerant of droughts. In deserts, most erosion is caused by running water, usually during violent thunderstorms, which cause flash floods. Deserts are expanding due to desertification, which is caused by excessive deforestation and overgrazing. Tundra is a biome where tree growth is hindered by frigid temperatures and short growing seasons. There are types of tundra associated with different regions: Arctic tundra, alpine tundra, and Antarctic tundra. A forest is an area of land dominated by trees. Many definitions of "forest" are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing, and ecological function. The United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) defines a forest as: "land spanning more than 0.5 hectares with trees higher than 5 meters and a canopy cover of more than 10 per cent, or trees able to reach these


id: land-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land-6.md
category: reference
title: Land
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:45.096604+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: land-20260505-0
summary:
Humans have commonly traveled for business, pleasure, discovery, and adventure, all made easier in recent human history as a result of technologies like cars, trains, planes, and ships. Land navigation is an aspect of travel and refers to progressing through unfamiliar terrain using navigational tools like maps with references to terrain, a compass, or satellite navigation. Navigation on land is often facilitated by reference to landmarks – enduring and recognizable natural or artificial features that stand out from their nearby environment and are often visible from long distances. Natural landmarks can be characteristic features, such as mountains or plateaus, with examples including Table Mountain in South Africa, Mount Ararat in Turkey, the Grand Canyon in the United States, Uluru in Australia, and Mount Fuji in Japan. Two major eras of exploration occurred in human history: one of divergence, and one of convergence. The former saw humans moving out of Africa, settling in new lands, and developing distinct cultures in relative isolation. Early explorers settled in Europe and Asia; 14,000 years ago, some crossed the Ice Age land bridge from Siberia to Alaska and moved southbound to settle in the Americas. For the most part, these cultures were ignorant of each


id: land-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land-7.md
category: reference
title: Land
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:45.096604+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: land-20260505-0
summary:
The phrase "the law of the land" first appeared in 1215 in Magna Carta, inspiring its later usage in the United States Constitution. The idea of common land also originated with medieval English law, and refers collective ownership of land, treating it as a common good. In environmental science, economics, and game theory, the tragedy of the commons refers to individuals' use of common spaces for their own gain, deteriorating the land overall by taking more than their fair share and not cooperating with others. The idea of common land suggests public ownership; but there is still some land that can be privatized as property for an individual, such as a landlord or king. In the developed world, land is expected to be privately owned by an individual with legal title, but in the developing world the right to use land is often divided, with the rights to land resources being given to different people at different times for the same area of land. Beginning in the late 20th century, the international community has begun to recognise Indigenous land rights in law, for example, the Treaty of Waitangi for Māori people, the Act on Greenland Self-Government for Inuit, and the


id: land-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land-8.md
category: reference
title: Land
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:45.096604+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: land-20260505-0
summary:
Ground pollution is soil contamination via pollutants, such as hazardous waste or litter. Ground pollution can be prevented by properly monitoring and disposing of waste, along with reducing unnecessary chemical and plastic use. Unfortunately, proper disposal of waste often is not economically beneficial or technologically viable, leading to short-term solutions of waste disposal that pollute the earth. Examples include dumping harmful industrial byproducts, overusing agricultural fertilizers and other chemicals, and poorly maintaining landfills. Some landfills can be thousands of acres in size, such as the Apex Regional landfill in Las Vegas. Water pollution on land is the contamination of non-oceanic hydrological surface and underground water features such as lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, wetlands, aquifers, reservoirs, and groundwater as a result of human activities. It may be caused by toxic substances (e.g., oil, metals, plastics, pesticides, persistent organic pollutants, industrial waste products), stressful conditions (e.g., changes of pH, hypoxia or anoxia, increased temperatures, excessive turbidity, unpleasant taste or odor, and changes of salinity), or pathogenic organisms. === Biodiversity loss === The biodiversity of Earth—the variety and variability of life—is threatened by climate change, human activities, and invasive species. Due to an increase in the rate of extinction, biodiversity loss is increasing.


id: landmark-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landmark-0.md
category: reference
title: Landmark
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landmark
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:46.360078+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: landmark-20260505-0
summary:
A landmark is a recognizable natural or artificial feature used for navigation, a feature that stands out from its near environment and is often visible from long distances. In modern-day use, the term can also be applied to smaller structures or features that have become local or national symbols. == Etymology == In Old English, the word landmearc (from land + mearc (mark)) was used to describe a boundary marker, an "object set up to mark the boundaries of a kingdom, estate, etc." Starting around 1560, this interpretation of "landmark" was replaced by a more general one. A landmark became a "conspicuous object in a landscape". A landmark literally meant a geographic feature used by explorers and others to find their way back to their departure point, or through an area. For example, Table Mountain near Cape Town, South Africa, was used as a landmark to help sailors navigate around the southern tip of Africa during the Age of Exploration. Artificial structures are also sometimes built to assist sailors in navigation. The Lighthouse of Alexandria and the Colossus of Rhodes are ancient structures built to lead ships to the port. In modern usage, a landmark includes anything that is easily


id: list-of-financial-districts-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_financial_districts-0.md
category: reference
title: List of financial districts
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_financial_districts
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:48.889586+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-financial-districts-20260505-0
summary:
A financial district is usually a central area in a city where financial services firms such as banks, insurance companies, and other related finance corporations have their headquarters offices. In major cities, financial districts often host skyscrapers and other buildings of architectural importance and are called financial centres; such major centres also include important financial utilities such as stock exchanges and the offices of the main financial regulatory authorities. == List == Notable financial districts around the world include the following: === Africa === ==== Algeria ==== Algiers (الجزائر): Bab Ezzouar (باب الزوار) Belouizdad, Algiers (بلوزداد) Hydra, Algiers (حيدرة) ==== Egypt ==== Cairo: Downtown Cairo Giza: Mohandessin Alexandria: Central District Port Said: East Port Said New Capital: Central Business District ==== Kenya ==== Nairobi: Upper Hill ==== Nigeria ==== Lagos: Lagos Island, Marina Lagos is a financial district. ==== Mauritius ==== Port Louis: Place D'armes Place D’ armes is financial district in Port Louis ==== Morocco ==== Casablanca (الدار البيضاء): Anfa (أنفا), Maârif (المعاريف), Sidi Belyout (سيدي بليوط), Sidi Maârouf (سيدي معروف), Bouskoura (بو سكورة) ==== South Africa ==== Johannesburg: Sandton Cape Town: Cape Town CBD === Americas === ==== Argentina ==== Buenos Aires: Microcentro and Diagonal Norte Córdoba: Central


id: lowest-bridging-point-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lowest_bridging_point-0.md
category: reference
title: Lowest bridging point
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lowest_bridging_point
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:50.046334+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lowest-bridging-point-20260505-0
summary:
The lowest bridging point (or lowest crossing point) is the location on a river which is crossed by a bridge at its closest point to the sea. Historically—that is, before the development of engineering technology that allowed the construction of tunnels and high-level road bridges—the lowest bridging point of a river was frequently the point at which an important town or city grew up, and particularly where trade and commerce took place. The place could be served by roads on either side of the river, allowing access from a wide hinterland; had river transport available upstream; and often was at a location that allowed seagoing traffic to approach it from a downstream direction. == Examples == === Britain === Examples of historic lowest bridging points in Britain include: London (London Bridge), the lowest bridging point on the Thames; Lancaster, the lowest bridging point on the Lune; York, the lowest bridging point on the Ouse; Exeter (the Old Exe Bridge) on the River Exe; Gloucester, the lowest bridging point on the Severn. Glasgow grew up at the lowest bridging point on the Clyde, which was about 19 kilometres (12 mi) upstream from its lowest fording point at Dumbuck. Matthew Paris's map


id: macedonia-terminology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)-0.md
category: reference
title: Macedonia (terminology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:52.983196+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: macedonia-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
The name Macedonia is used in a number of competing or overlapping meanings to describe geographical, political and historical areas, languages and peoples in a part of south-eastern Europe. It has been a major source of political controversy since the early 20th century. The situation is complicated because different ethnic groups use different terminology for the same entity, or the same terminology for different entities, with different political connotations. Historically, the region has presented markedly shifting borders across the Balkan peninsula. Geographically, no single definition of its borders or the names of its subdivisions is accepted by all scholars and ethnic groups. Demographically, it is mainly inhabited by four ethnic groups, three of which self-identify as Macedonians: two, a Bulgarian and a Greek one at a regional level, while a third ethnic Macedonian one at a national level. Linguistically, the names and affiliations of languages and dialects spoken in the region are a source of controversy. Politically, the rights to the extent of the use of the name Macedonia and its derivatives has led to a diplomatic dispute between Greece and the then-Republic of Macedonia, now North Macedonia. After using the provisional reference of the "former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia"


id: macedonia-terminology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)-1.md
category: reference
title: Macedonia (terminology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:52.983196+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: macedonia-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
During the 7th century, most of the Balkans were overrun by Slavic invasions, which left only the fortified towns and the coasts in the hands of the Greek-speaking Byzantine Empire. "Macedonia" was then used for a new theme in the late 8th century under Irene of Athens. Geographically however it was located in Thrace and not in Macedonia, which was under the themes of Thessalonica, Strymon and other smaller commands such as Boleron or Drougoubiteia. Themes were not named geographically and the original sense was "army". They became districts during the military and fiscal crisis of the seventh century, when the Byzantine armies were instructed to find their supplies from the locals, wherever they happened to be. Thus the Armeniac theme was considerably west of Armenia; the Thracesian Theme was in Asia Minor, not in Thrace. The Macedonian dynasty of the Byzantine Empire acquired its name from its founder, Basil I the Macedonian, an Armenian by descent, who was born in the theme of Macedonia. The interior of Macedonia remained in Slavic and later Bulgarian hands until the campaigns of Basil II, which ended the existence of the Bulgarian state and extended Byzantine authority across the central and northern Balkans.


id: macedonia-terminology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)-2.md
category: reference
title: Macedonia (terminology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:52.983196+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: macedonia-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
In a historic context, the term Macedonia was used in various ways. Macedonia was not an administrative division of the Ottoman Empire; its entire territory was part of the beylerbeylik of Rumelia. The geographer H. R. Wilkinson suggests that the region "defies definition" but that many mappers agree "on its general location". Macedonia was well enough defined in 1897 for Gladstone to propose "Macedonia for the Macedonians"; philhellenes argued that the phrase could not be used by a man of impartiallity, while Turcophiles asserted that there are six different kinds of Macedonians, and only Turkish rule could prevail total anarchy in the region. The Balkan nations began to proclaim their rights to it after the Treaty of San Stefano in 1878 and its revision at the Congress of Berlin. Many ethnographic maps were produced in this period of controversy; these differ primarily in the areas given to each nationality within Macedonia. This was in part a result of the choice of definition: an inhabitant of Macedonia might well have different nationalities depending on whether the basis of classification was denomination, descent, language, self-identification or personal choice. In addition, the Ottoman census, taken on the basis of religion, was misquoted by


id: macedonia-terminology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)-3.md
category: reference
title: Macedonia (terminology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:52.983196+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: macedonia-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
The self-identifying Macedonians (collectively referring to the inhabitants of the region) that inhabit or inhabited the area are: As an ethnic group, Macedonians refers to the majority (58.4%, 2021) of the population of North Macedonia. Statistics for 2021 indicate the population of ethnic Macedonians within the country as c. 1,100,000. On the other hand, as a legal term, it refers to all the citizens of the Republic of North Macedonia, irrespective of their ethnic or religious affiliation. However, the preamble of the constitution distinguishes between "the Macedonian people" and the "Albanians, Turks, Vlachs, Romanics and other nationalities living in the Republic of Macedonia", but for whom "full equality as citizens" is provided. As of 2021 the total population of the country is 1,836,713. As a regional group in Greece, Macedonians refers to ethnic Greeks (98%, 2001) living in regions referred to as Macedonia, and particularly Greek Macedonia. This group composes the vast majority of the population of the Greek region of Macedonia. The 2001 census for the total population of the Macedonia region in Greece shows 2,625,681. The same term in antiquity described the inhabitants of the kingdom of Macedon, including their notable rulers Philip II and Alexander the Great


id: macedonia-terminology-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)-4.md
category: reference
title: Macedonia (terminology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:52.983196+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: macedonia-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
For almost three decades, Republic of Macedonia was the constitutional name of North Macedonia, the sovereign state which occupies the northern part of the geographical region of Macedonia, which roughly coincides with the geographic subregion of Vardar Macedonia. The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) was a term used for this state by the main international organisations, including the United Nations, European Union, NATO, IMF, WTO, IOC, World Bank, EBRD, OSCE, FIFA, and FIBA. The term was introduced in 1993 by the United Nations, following a naming dispute with Greece. Some countries used this term as a stop-gap measure, pending resolution of the naming dispute. Greece and North Macedonia each considered this name a compromise: it was opposed by some Greeks for containing the Greek self-identifying name Macedonia, and by many in North Macedonia for not being the short self-identifying name. For years Greece used it in both the abbreviated (FYROM or ΠΓΔΜ) and spellout form (Πρώην Γιουγκοσλαβική Δημοκρατία της Μακεδονίας). The Macedonia naming dispute ended on 12 February 2019 when the two countries reached the Prespa agreement and the then-Republic of Macedonia changed its name to North Macedonia. Macedonia refers also to a geographic region in Greece, which roughly


id: macedonia-terminology-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)-5.md
category: reference
title: Macedonia (terminology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:52.983196+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: macedonia-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
From the Greek nationalist perspective there cannot be a Macedonian nation since there has never been an independent Macedonian state: the Macedonian nation is an "artificial creation", an "invention", of Tito, who "baptized" a "mosaic of nationalities" with the Greek name "Macedonians". Similarly Greek nationalists claim that because the language spoken by the ancient Macedonians was Greek, the Slavic language spoken by the "Skopians" cannot be called "the Macedonian language." Greek sources generally refer to it as "the linguistic idiom of Skopje" and describe it as a corrupt and impoverished dialect of Bulgarian. Finally, the Greek government denies the existence of a Macedonian minority in northern Greece, claiming that there exists only a small group of "Slavophone Hellenes" or "bilingual Greeks", who speak Greek and "a local Slavic dialect" but have a "Greek national consciousness". Thus from the Greek nationalist perspective the use of the term "Macedonian" by the "Slavs of Skopje" constitutes a "felony", an "act of plagiarism" against the Greek people. Greek nationalists believe that, by calling themselves "Macedonians", the ethnic Macedonians are "stealing" a Greek name, "embezzling" Greek cultural heritage, and "falsifying" Greek history. Greek fears that the use of the name "Macedonia" by the ethnic Macedonians


id: macedonia-terminology-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)-6.md
category: reference
title: Macedonia (terminology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(terminology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:52.983196+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: macedonia-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Greek === Macedonia (Μακεδονία) usually refers to the region of Greek Macedonia. It can also refer to the modern general definition of Macedonia, but rarely so. Macedonian or Makedon (Μακεδόνας, Μακεδών) refers to an ethnically Greek Macedonian. Ancient Macedonian or Makedon (Αρχαίος Μακεδόνας, Μακεδών) refers to an Ancient Macedonian. Macedonian Slav, Slavic Macedonian or Slavomacedonian (Σλαβομακεδόνας) refers to a member of the Macedonian ethnic group. Macedonian Slavic, Slavic Macedonian or Slavomacedonian language (Σλαβομακεδονικά) refers to the Macedonian language. Republic of Skopje or State of Skopje (Δημοκρατία των Σκοπίων, Κράτος των Σκοπίων) refers to North Macedonia. Skopje (Σκόπια) refers to either North Macedonia or its capital city of Skopje. Skopjan (Σκοπιανός) refers to a member of the ethnic Macedonian group living in North Macedonia or outside it, but not to any group native to Greece. Skopjan language or language of Skopje (Σκοπιανά, γλώσσα των Σκοπίων) refers to the Macedonian language. Slavophone (Σλαβόφωνος), meaning Slavic speaker, refers to a member of the Slavic speaking minority in Greece. The last six terms are often considered offensive in North Macedonia. === Ethnic Macedonian === Macedonia (Македонија) can refer to either the region of Macedonia or the Republic of North Macedonia. Macedonians (Македонци) generally


id: massenerhebung-effect-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massenerhebung_effect-0.md
category: reference
title: Massenerhebung effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massenerhebung_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:54.199026+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: massenerhebung-effect-20260505-0
summary:
The Massenerhebung effect (German for "mountain mass elevation") describes variation in the tree line based on mountain size and location. In general, mountains surrounded by large ranges will tend to have higher tree lines than more isolated mountains due to heat retention and wind shadowing. This effect is important for determining weather patterns in mountainous regions, as regions of similar altitude and latitude may nonetheless have much warmer or colder climates based on surrounding mountain ranges. For example, in Borneo, Gunung Palung, located on the coast, has moss forest at 900 m, while the montane forest on Gunung Mulu starts at 1200 m and at 1800 m on Mount Kinabalu. == See also == Altitudinal zonation Elevational diversity gradient Krummholz == References ==


id: megafan-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megafan-0.md
category: reference
title: Megafan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megafan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:55.408814+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: megafan-20260505-0
summary:
An alluvial megafan is a large cone or fan-shaped deposit built up by complex deposition patterns of stream flows originating from a single source point known as an apex. Megafans differ from alluvial fans in their sheer size. Due to their larger size, they may be formed by different geomorphic processes. The criterion of what differentiates megafans from typical alluvial fans is an artificial one of scale. The scale divide varies in the literature, with the most common being a 100-km apex-to-toe length. Alternative values as little of 30-km apex-to-toe length have been proposed, as well as alternative metrics like coverage areas of greater than 10,000 square-km. == Formation == The flow source from the apex occupies a portion of the fans apron, building up that portion with depositions. Through complex processes like avulsion, the stream changes course over time occupying different areas of the fan. Over long periods of time, sediment builds up creating a fan formation. Generally the three-dimensional architecture of megafan deposits consists of multi-storied sandsheets, gravel in upper reaches, interbedded with overbank muddy layers, thickness and facies distribution vary from upstream to downstream reaches Rivers forming large fans happen in various settings around the world most


id: mesa-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesa-0.md
category: reference
title: Mesa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:56.665563+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mesa-20260505-0
summary:
A mesa is an isolated, flat-topped elevation, ridge, or hill, bounded from all sides by steep escarpments and standing distinctly above a surrounding plain. Mesas consist of flat-lying soft sedimentary rocks, such as shales, capped by a resistant layer of harder rock, like sandstone or limestone, forming a caprock that protects the flat summit. The caprock may also include dissected lava flows or eroded duricrust. Unlike a plateau, which is a broader, elevated region that may not have horizontal bedrock (e.g., Tibetan Plateau), a mesa is defined by flat-lying strata and steep-sided isolation. Large, flat-topped plateaus with horizontal strata, less isolated and often part of extensive plateau systems, are called tablelands. A butte is a smaller, eroded mesa with a limited summit, while a cuesta has a gentle dip slope and one steep escarpment due to tilted strata. == Names, definition and etymology == As noted by geologist Kirk Bryan in 1922, mesas "...stand distinctly above the surrounding country, as a table stands above the floor upon which it rests". It is from this appearance that the term mesa was adopted from the Spanish word mesa, meaning "table". A mesa is similar to, but has a more extensive summit area


id: monolith-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monolith-0.md
category: reference
title: Monolith
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monolith
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:57.896574+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: monolith-20260505-0
summary:
A monolith is a geological feature consisting of a single massive stone or rock, such as some mountains. Erosion usually exposes the geological formations, which are often made of very hard and solid igneous or metamorphic rock. Some monoliths are volcanic plugs, solidified lava filling the vent of an extinct volcano. In architecture, the term has considerable overlap with megalith, which is normally used for prehistory, and may be used in the contexts of rock-cut architecture that remains attached to solid rock, as in monolithic church, or for exceptionally large stones such as obelisks, statues, monolithic columns or large architraves, that may have been moved a considerable distance after quarrying. It may also be used of large glacial erratics moved by natural forces. The word derives, via the Latin monolithus, from the Ancient Greek word μονόλιθος (monólithos), from μόνος (mónos) meaning "one" or "single" and λίθος (líthos) meaning "stone". == Geological monoliths == Large, well-known monoliths include: === Africa === Aso Rock, Nigeria Ben Amera, Mauritania Brandberg Mountain, Namibia Sibebe, Eswatini Zuma Rock, Nigeria Mount Lubiri, Angola Mount Poi, Kenya Great Sphinx of Giza Oruku Rock, Ososo, Edo State, Nigeria === Antarctica === Scullin monolith === Asia === Batu Caves,


id: mountain-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain-0.md
category: reference
title: Mountain
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:59.225811+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mountain-20260505-0
summary:
A mountain is an elevated portion of the surface of a planet, generally with steep sides that show significant exposed bedrock. Although there are no universally accepted definitions, a mountain is usually considered higher than a hill. Minimum height requirements range from 300 m (984 ft) above the surrounding land, 610 m (2,001 ft) above sea level and average elevations between 1,000 m (3,281 ft) and 3,500 m (11,483 ft) or higher. It may either have a limited summit area or be a smaller plateau with high elevation and steep sides. A few mountains are isolated summits, but most occur in mountain ranges. Mountains are formed through tectonic forces, erosion, or volcanism, which act on time scales of up to tens of millions of years. Once mountain building ceases, mountains are slowly leveled through the action of weathering, through slumping and other forms of mass wasting, as well as through erosion by rivers and glaciers. High elevations on mountains produce colder climates than at sea level at similar latitude. These colder climates strongly affect the ecosystems of mountains: different elevations have different plants and animals. Because of the less hospitable terrain and climate, mountains tend to be used less for


id: mountain-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain-1.md
category: reference
title: Mountain
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:59.225811+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mountain-20260505-0
summary:
Fold mountains occur when two plates collide: shortening occurs along thrust faults and the crust is overthickened. Since the less dense continental crust "floats" on the denser mantle rocks beneath, the weight of any crustal material forced upward to form hills, plateaus or mountains must be balanced by the buoyancy force of a much greater volume forced downward into the mantle. Thus the continental crust is normally much thicker under mountains, compared to lower lying areas. Rock can fold either symmetrically or asymmetrically. The upfolds are anticlines and the downfolds are synclines: in asymmetric folding there may also be recumbent and overturned folds. The Balkan Mountains and the Jura Mountains are examples of fold mountains. === Block mountains === Block mountains are caused by faults in the crust: a plane where rocks have moved past each other. When rocks on one side of a fault rise relative to the other, it can form a mountain. The uplifted blocks are block mountains or horsts. The intervening dropped blocks are termed graben: these can be small or form extensive rift valley systems. This kind of landscape can be seen in East Africa, the Vosges and Rhine valley, and the Basin and Range


id: mountain-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain-2.md
category: reference
title: Mountain
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:59.225811+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mountain-20260505-0
summary:
The colder climate on mountains affects the plants and animals residing on mountains. A particular set of plants and animals tend to be adapted to a relatively narrow range of climate. Thus, ecosystems tend to lie along elevation bands of roughly constant climate. This is called altitudinal zonation. In regions with dry climates, the tendency of mountains to have higher precipitation as well as lower temperatures also provides for varying conditions, which enhances zonation. Some plants and animals found in altitudinal zones tend to become isolated since the conditions above and below a particular zone will be inhospitable and thus constrain their movements or dispersal. These isolated ecological systems are known as sky islands. Altitudinal zones tend to follow a typical pattern. At the highest elevations, trees cannot grow, and whatever life may be present will be of the alpine type, resembling tundra. Just below the tree line, one may find subalpine forests of needleleaf trees, which can withstand cold, dry conditions. Below that, montane forests grow. In the temperate portions of the earth, those forests tend to be needleleaf trees, while in the tropics, they can be broadleaf trees growing in a rainforest. == Mountains and humans == The


id: mountain-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain-3.md
category: reference
title: Mountain
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:20:59.225811+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mountain-20260505-0
summary:
Heights of mountains are typically measured above sea level. Using this metric, Mount Everest is the highest mountain on Earth, at 8,848 metres (29,029 ft). There are at least 100 mountains with heights of over 7,200 metres (23,622 ft) above sea level, all of which are located in central and southern Asia. The highest mountains above sea level are generally not the highest above the surrounding terrain. There is no precise definition of surrounding base, but Denali, Mount Kilimanjaro and Nanga Parbat are possible candidates for the tallest mountain on land by this measure. The bases of mountain islands are below sea level, and given this consideration Mauna Kea (4,207 m (13,802 ft) above sea level) is the world's tallest mountain and volcano, rising about 10,203 m (33,474 ft) from the Pacific Ocean floor. The highest mountains are not generally the most voluminous. Mauna Loa (4,169 m or 13,678 ft) is the largest mountain on Earth in terms of base area (about 2,000 sq mi or 5,200 km2) and volume (about 18,000 mi3 or 75,000 km3). Mount Kilimanjaro is the largest non-shield volcano in terms of both base area (245 sq mi or 635 km2) and volume (1,150 mi3 or


id: municipal-territory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipal_territory-0.md
category: reference
title: Municipal territory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipal_territory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:00.472902+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: municipal-territory-20260505-0
summary:
Municipal territory (in Spanish: término municipal), ejido or municipal radius is the territory over which the administrative action of a local government (city council or municipality) extends. == Spain == A municipal territory (in Spanish: término municipal, T.M.), in Spain, is the territory, perfectly delimited, of a municipality; the territory to which the administrative action of a city council extends. Law 7/1985, of April 2, 1985, Regulating the Bases of the Local Regime, in its Article 12.1 defines it as follows:The municipal district is the territory in which the municipality exercises its competences.Each Spanish province is defined as the territorial grouping of its municipalities. Practically the entire national territory is divided into municipalities. There are currently 8131 municipalities in Spain. The extension of a municipality, according to the National Statistics Institute, is the extension of its municipal area. Within the municipal area there may be one or several singular population entities. One of these, where the town hall is located, is the capital of the municipality. The singular entities can be grouped into collective population entities, which receive different names depending on the area: parishes, pedanías, elizates, etc. == Argentina == The municipal territory in Argentina is called ejido or


id: natural-barrier-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_barrier-0.md
category: reference
title: Natural barrier
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_barrier
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:01.657592+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-barrier-20260505-0
summary:
A natural barrier is a physical feature that protects or hinders travel through or over. Mountains, swamps, deserts and ice fields are among the clearest examples of natural barriers. Rivers are a more ambiguous example, as they may obstruct large-scale movement across them (especially by armies) but may facilitate smaller-scale movement along them in boats, once some of the people in the region have developed the relevant technologies. Seas have likewise been an obstacle at first, then a convenient medium for transport along coastlines, and finally a medium for intercontinental transport. Water can protect island states like the Venetian Republic or Great Britain from dangerous neighbors, and simultaneously connect them to the wider world. Natural barriers have been important factors in human history, by obstructing migration and invasion. For example, Jared Diamond argues that West European nations have been the dominant powers of the last 500 years because Europe's many natural barriers divided it into competing nation-states and this competition forced the European nations to encourage innovation and avoid technological stagnation. Natural barriers are similarly important to biogeography. Some examples of natural barriers are the: Himalayas Grand Canyon Dead Sea Mississippi River Sierra Madre == References ==


id: natural-landscape-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_landscape-0.md
category: reference
title: Natural landscape
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_landscape
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:03.025164+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-landscape-20260505-0
summary:
A natural landscape is the original landscape that exists before it is acted upon by human culture. The natural landscape and the cultural landscape are separate parts of the landscape. However, in the 21st century, landscapes that are totally untouched by human activity no longer exist, so that reference is sometimes now made to degrees of naturalness within a landscape. In Silent Spring (1962) Rachel Carson describes a roadside verge as it used to look: "Along the roads, laurel, viburnum and alder, great ferns and wildflowers delighted the traveler’s eye through much of the year" and then how it looks now following the use of herbicides: "The roadsides, once so attractive, were now lined with browned and withered vegetation as though swept by fire". Even though the landscape before it is sprayed is biologically degraded, and may well contains alien species, the concept of what might constitute a natural landscape can still be deduced from the context. The phrase "natural landscape" was first used in connection with landscape painting, and landscape gardening, to contrast a formal style with a more natural one, closer to nature. Alexander von Humboldt (1769 – 1859) was to further conceptualize this into the idea of


id: natural-landscape-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_landscape-1.md
category: reference
title: Natural landscape
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_landscape
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:03.025164+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-landscape-20260505-0
summary:
==== America ==== What is meant by natural, within the American conservation movement, has been changing over the last century and a half. In the mid-nineteenth century American began to realize that the land was becoming more and more domesticated and wildlife was disappearing. This led to the creation of American National Parks and other conservation sites. Initially it was believed that all that was needed to do was to separate what was seen as natural landscape and "avoid disturbances such as logging, grazing, fire and insect outbreaks." This, and subsequent environmental policy, until recently, was influenced by ideas of the wilderness. However, this policy was not consistently applied, and in Yellowstone Park, to take one example, the existing ecology was altered, firstly by the exclusion of Native Americans and later with the virtual extermination of the wolf population. A century later, in the mid-twentieth century, it began to be believed that the earlier policy of "protection from disturbance was inadequate to preserve park values", and that is that direct human intervention was necessary to restore the landscape of National Parks to its ‘'natural'’ condition. In 1963 the Leopold Report argued that "A national park should represent a vignette of


id: list-of-natural-phenomena-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_phenomena-0.md
category: reference
title: List of natural phenomena
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_phenomena
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:04.294720+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-natural-phenomena-20260505-0
summary:
A natural phenomenon is an observable event which is not man-made. Examples include: sunrise, weather, fog, thunder, tornadoes; biological processes, decomposition, germination; physical processes, wave propagation, erosion; tidal flow, and natural disasters such as electromagnetic pulses, volcanic eruptions, hurricanes and earthquakes. == History == Over many intervals of time, natural phenomena have been observed by a series of countless events as a feature created by nature. == Physical phenomena == The act of: Freezing Boiling Gravity Magnetism === Gallery === == Chemical phenomena == Oxidation Fire Rusting == Biological phenomena == Metabolism Catabolism Anabolism Decomposition – by which organic substances are broken down into a much simpler form of matter Fermentation – converts sugar to acids, gases and/or alcohol. Growth Birth Death Population decrease === Gallery === == Astronomical phenomena == Supernova Gamma ray bursts Quasars Blazars Pulsars Cosmic microwave background radiation == Geological phenomena == Mineralogic phenomena Lithologic phenomena Rock types Igneous rock Igneous formation processes Sedimentary rock Sedimentary formation processes (sedimentation) Quicksand Metamorphic rock Endogenic phenomena Plate tectonics Continental drift Earthquake Oceanic trench Phenomena associated with igneous activity Geysers and hot springs Bradyseism Volcanic eruption Earth's magnetic field Exogenic phenomena Slope phenomena Slump Landslide Weathering phenomena Erosion Glacial


id: occident-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occident-0.md
category: reference
title: Occident
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occident
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:05.523221+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: occident-20260505-0
summary:
The Occident is a term for the West, traditionally comprising anything that belongs to the Western world. It is the antonym of the term Orient, referring to the Eastern world. In English, it has largely fallen into disuse. The term occidental is often used to describe objects from the Occident but can be considered an outdated term by some. The term originated with geographical divisions mirroring the cultural divide between the Greek East and the Latin West, and the political divide between the Western and Eastern Roman Empires. == Etymology == The term "Occident" derives from the Latin word occidens meaning "west" (lit. "setting" (where the sun sets) < occido "fall/set"). In Arabic, the Maghreb (maḡrib, Arabic: مَغْرِب < Arabic ḡarb غَرْب‎ "to go down, to set") literally means "the sunset", "the west". Historically, the Maghreb was the southern part of the Western Roman Empire. Another word for Occident in German is Abendland (rarely: Okzident), now mainly poetic, which literally translates as "evening land". The antonym "Morgenland" is also mainly poetic, and refers to Asia. The opposite term "Orient" derives from the Latin word oriens, meaning "east" (lit. "rising" < orior "rise"). == History of the term == The adjectival


id: orient-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orient-0.md
category: reference
title: Orient
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orient
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:06.763632+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: orient-20260505-0
summary:
The Orient is a term referring to the East in relation to Europe, traditionally comprising anything belonging to the Eastern world. It is the antonym of the term Occident, which refers to the Western world. In English, it is largely a metonym for, and coterminous with, the continent of Asia – loosely classified into Southwest Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia, Central Asia, East Asia, and sometimes including the Caucasus. Originally, the term Orient was used to designate only the Near East, but later its meaning evolved and expanded, designating also Central Asia, Southwest Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, or the Far East. The term oriental is a dated term which was often used to describe objects and people coming from the Orient/eastern Asia. == Etymology == The term "Orient" derives from the Latin word oriens, meaning "east" (lit. "rising" < orior "rise"). The use of the word for "rising" to refer to the east (where the sun rises) has analogues from many languages: compare the terms "Arevelk" in Armenian: Արեւելք (Armenian Arevelk means "East" or "Sunrise"), "Levant" (< French levant "rising"), "Vostok" Russian: Восток (< Russian voskhod Russian: восход "sunrise"), "Anatolia" (< Greek anatole), "mizrah" in Hebrew ("zriha" meaning sunrise),


id: orient-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orient-1.md
category: reference
title: Orient
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orient
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:06.763632+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: orient-20260505-0
summary:
Territorialization of the Roman term Orient occurred during the reign of emperor Diocletian (284–305), when the Diocese of the Orient (Latin: Dioecesis Orientis) was formed. Later in the 4th century, the Praetorian prefecture of the Orient (Latin: Praefectura Praetorio Orientis) was also formed, including most of the Eastern Roman Empire, from the Thrace eastwards; its easternmost part was the original Diocese of the Orient, corresponding roughly to the region of Syria. Over time, the common understanding of "the Orient" has continually shifted eastwards, as European people travelled farther into Asia. It finally reached the Pacific Ocean, in what Westerners came to call "the Far East". These shifts in time and identification sometimes confuse the scope (historical and geographic) of Oriental Studies. Yet there remain contexts where "the Orient" and "Oriental" have kept their older meanings (e.g., "Oriental spices" typically are from the regions extending from the Middle East to sub-continental India to Indo-China). Travellers may again take the Orient Express train from Paris to its terminus in the European part of Istanbul, a route established in the early 20th century. In European historiography, the meaning of "the Orient" changed in scope several times. Originally, the term referred to Egypt, the


id: orient-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orient-2.md
category: reference
title: Orient
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orient
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:06.763632+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: orient-20260505-0
summary:
=== British English === In British English, the term Oriental is sometimes still used to refer to people from East and Southeast Asia (such as those from China, Taiwan, Japan, Korea, Mongolia, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia, Singapore, Myanmar, Philippines, Indonesia, Timor-Leste and Brunei). Judges in the United Kingdom have been issued with guidelines to encourage political correctness where oriental should be avoided because it is imprecise and may be considered racist or offensive. Oriental is still a common name for Chinese takeaways and traditional chip shops in Britain. "Asian" in Great Britain usually refers to people who come specifically from South Asia (in particular Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Maldives, Bhutan, and Afghanistan), since British Asians as a whole make up approximately 9.3% of the population within the United Kingdom, and people of an ethnically South Asian background comprise the largest group within this category. "Orientals" refers exclusively to people of East and Southeast Asian origin, who constitute approximately 0.7% of the UK population as a whole. Of these, the majority are of Chinese descent. Orient is also a word for the lustre of a fine pearl. Hong Kong, a former British colony, has been called "Pearl of


id: pan-region-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-region-0.md
category: reference
title: Pan-region
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-region
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:08.081930+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pan-region-20260505-0
summary:
A pan-region is a geographic region or state's sphere of economic, political and cultural influence extending beyond that state's borders. For example, the pan-region of the United States of America (US) regions both bordering the US and its close neighbours including, Canada, Mexico, and many other South America states. == Origin of term == The idea of pan-regions or spheres of economic and cultural influence was first developed by Karl Ernst Haushofer (August 27, 1869 – March 10, 1946), a German general, geographer and geo-politician. Pan-regions contributed to Geopolitic or the German theories of foreign policy during the interwar period (1918–1939) or the time from the end of World War I and the beginning of World War II. Haushofer's pan-regions divided the world under three supreme leading states in economy, politics and culture. Those three states included the USA who controlled North America and much of South America, Germany who controlled Europe, much of Africa and western Asia and Japan who controlled central, eastern, and the islands of southern Asia. These leading states could expect their regions to develop economic and political alliance with their leading state as well as yield to sanctions and major cultural designations. == Historical examples


id: physiographic-province-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiographic_province-0.md
category: reference
title: Physiographic province
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiographic_province
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:09.310080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physiographic-province-20260505-0
summary:
A physiographic province is a geographic region with a characteristic geomorphology, and often specific subsurface rock type or structural elements. The continents are subdivided into various physiographic provinces, each having a specific character, relief, and environment which contributes to its distinctiveness. The physiographic provinces are then subdivided into smaller physiographic sections. == Examples == In eastern North America, the Atlantic Coastal Plain, Piedmont, Blue Ridge Mountains, Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians, and Appalachian Plateau are specific physiographic provinces. In the Western United States of western North America: the Basin and Range Province, Cascade Range, Colorado Plateau, Rio Grande rift, Great Basin, Central Valley (California), Peninsular Ranges, Los Angeles Basin, and Transverse Ranges are examples of physiographic provinces. == See also == Physiographic provinces — index Physiographic sections — index Physiographic regions of the world — chart with physiographic provinces and sections by continent. Physiographic regions of Mexico Physiographic regions of the United States Geologic province Geologic provinces of the United States == References ==


id: placer-geography-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placer_(geography)-0.md
category: reference
title: Placer (geography)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placer_(geography)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:10.464421+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: placer-geography-20260505-0
summary:
Placer (Portuguese: parcel or pracel) is a term used by Portuguese and Spanish navigators and cartographers to refer to a certain kind of submerged bank or reef. Commonly the bottom of such a reef is sandy, but there are some where the bottom is muddy or stoney. Although most reefs designated as placer are flat and shallow, exceptionally there are some that do not share those characteristics and are known as placer acantilado. A placer usually provides an anchorage for seagoing vessels. == Etymology == The word placer derives from the Spanish placer, meaning shoal or alluvial/sand deposit, from plassa (place) from Medieval Latin placea (place) the origin word for "place" and "plaza" in English. The word in Spanish is thus derived from placea and refers directly to an alluvial or glacial deposit of sand or gravel. Spanish navigator and explorer Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa commented that placer likely originated as a term derived from placer mining in the Antilles, where pearl fishing was done mostly on shallow sandy reefs, which were compared to the sandy grounds in rivers where gold nuggets were found. Since the word Placer in Spanish means 'pleasure', according to 16th century scientist Juan Pérez de


id: plain-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plain-0.md
category: reference
title: Plain
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plain
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:11.780194+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: plain-20260505-0
summary:
In geography, a plain, commonly known as flatland, is a flat expanse of land that generally has few rapid or steep changes in elevation. Natural vegetation in plains can include prairies/grasslands, forests, savanah, tundra, and desert biomes, among others. Plains occur as lowlands along valleys or at the base of mountains, as coastal plains, and as plateaus or uplands. Plains are one of the major landforms on earth, being present on all continents and covering more than one-third of the world's land area. Plains in many areas are important for agriculture. There are various types of plains, and biomes on them. == Description == A plain or flatland is a flat expanse of land with few rapid or steep changes in elevation. Plains occur as lowlands along valleys or at the base of mountains, as coastal plains, and as plateaus or uplands. Plains are one of the major landforms on earth, where they are present on all continents, and cover more than one-third of the world's land area. In a valley, a plain is enclosed on two sides, but in other cases a plain may be delineated by a complete or partial ring of hills, by mountains, or by cliffs.


id: plain-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plain-1.md
category: reference
title: Plain
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plain
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:11.780194+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: plain-20260505-0
summary:
==== Central Europe ==== Limagne (France) North German Plain Ochsenfeld (France) Pannonian Basin (Central Europe) Parndorf Plain (Austria) Westphalian Lowland (Germany) ==== Eastern Europe ==== Bărăgan Plain (Romania) Danubian Plain (Bulgaria) Dnieper Lowland (Ukraine) East European Plain European Plain Great Hungarian Plain Kosovo field (Kosovo) Little Hungarian Plain (Austria, Hungary, and Slovakia) Pannonian Steppe (Hungary) Polesian Lowland (Ukraine and Belarus) Upper Thracian Plain (Bulgaria) Wallachian Plain (Romania) ==== Northern Europe ==== Cheshire Plain (England) Hardangervidda (Norway) Kaffiøyra (Svalbard, Norway) Muddus plains (Sweden) North European Plain North Northumberland Coastal Plain (Northern England) North Somerset Levels (North Somerset, England) Salisbury Plain (England) Solway Plain (Cumbria, England) Somerset Levels (Somerset, England) South Coast Plain (Hampshire and Sussex, England) South Småland peneplain (Sweden) Stora Alvaret (Öland, Sweden) Strandflat (Norway) Sub-Cambrian peneplain (Nordic countries) Central Swedish lowland Ostrobothnian Plain (Finland) The Fylde (Lancashire, England) ==== Southern Europe ==== Agro Nocerino Sarnese (Italy) Campidano (Italy) Lelantine Plain (Greece) Mesaoria (Cyprus) Messara Plain (Greece) Nurra (Sardinia, Italy) Po Valley (Italy) Rieti Valley (Central Italy) Tavoliere delle Puglie (Southern Italy) === Oceania === ==== Australia ==== Bogong High Plains (Victorian Alps, Australia) Cumberland Plain (Sydney, Australia) Esperance Plains (Western Australia) Molonglo Plain (Australian Capital Territory) Mulga Lands (eastern


id: polynya-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynya-0.md
category: reference
title: Polynya
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynya
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:13.001767+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: polynya-20260505-0
summary:
A polynya () is an area of open water surrounded by sea ice. It is now used as a geographical term for an area of unfrozen seawater within otherwise contiguous pack ice or fast ice. It is a loanword from the Russian word polynya (полынья; IPA: [pəɫɨˈnʲja]), which refers to a natural ice hole and was adopted in the 19th century by polar explorers to describe navigable portions of the sea. There are two main types of polynyas: coastal polynyas, which can be found year-round near the Antarctic and Arctic coasts and are mainly created by strong winds pushing the ice away from the coast, and mid-sea or open-ocean polynyas, which may be found more sporadically in the middle of ice pack in certain locations, especially around Antarctica. These locations are generally preconditioned by certain oceanic dynamics. One of the most famous mid-sea polynyas is the Weddell Polynya, also known as the Maud Rise Polynya, which occurs in the Lazarev Sea over the Maud Rise seamount. It was first spotted in September 1973, persisted through multiple winters (1974–1976), and recently recurred in September 2017. == Formation == Coastal polynyas are formed through two main processes: A sensible heat polynya is


id: polynya-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynya-1.md
category: reference
title: Polynya
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynya
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:13.001767+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: polynya-20260505-0
summary:
== Human dependency == Polynyas have also supported human populations throughout history. For example, the North Water Polynya, the largest and most biologically productive Arctic polynya, serves as a critical source of food in an otherwise barren region, enabling the existence of high-latitude human communities in the region for thousands of years. It may have served as a stepping stone for the original settlers of Greenland as they traversed through what is now northern Canada 4500 years ago. There are also indications that the North Water Polynya has aided Thule, Inuit, Norse, and western explorers throughout history. Today, the North Water Polynya enables the existence of Greenland's northernmost towns, such as Qaanaaq, Qeqertat, Savissivik and Siorapaluk. == Arctic navigation == When submarines of the U.S. Navy made expeditions to the North Pole in the 1950s and 1960s, there was significant concern about surfacing through the thick pack ice of the Arctic Ocean. In 1962, both the USS Skate and USS Seadragon surfaced within the same large polynya near the North Pole for the first polar rendezvous of the U.S. Atlantic Fleet and the U.S. Pacific Fleet. == See also == Lead (sea ice) == References == == External links ==


id: population-density-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_density-0.md
category: reference
title: Population density
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_density
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:14.289017+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: population-density-20260505-0
summary:
Population density is a measurement of population size per unit land area. It is mostly applied to humans, but sometimes to other living organisms too. It is a key concept in population geography. In botany and agronomy, it's known as plant density. == Biological population densities == Population density is population divided by total land area, sometimes including seas and oceans, as appropriate. Low densities may cause an extinction vortex and further reduce fertility. This is called the Allee effect after the scientist who identified it. Examples of the causes of reduced fertility in low population densities are: Increased problems with locating sexual mates Increased inbreeding === Human densities === Population density is the number of people per unit of area, usually transcribed as "per square kilometre" or square mile, and which may include or exclude, for example, areas of water or glaciers. Commonly this is calculated for a county, city, country, another territory or the entire world. World population is around 8,000,000,000 and the Earth's total area (including land and water) is 510,000,000 km2 (200,000,000 sq mi). Therefore, the worldwide human population density is approximately 8,000,000,000 ÷ 510,000,000 = 16/km2 (41/sq mi). However, if only the Earth's land area


id: potamal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potamal-0.md
category: reference
title: Potamal
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potamal
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:15.528127+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: potamal-20260505-0
summary:
Potamal is a technical geographical term of limnology and hydrology of the lower stretches of a stream or river. It describes the overall habitat, stability and ecology of the biomass. == Further reading == The FILION ., Pienitz R., "Physical Geography: Natural environments" General Documents, Winter 2007, Université Laval, pp 30–31.


id: precordillera-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precordillera-0.md
category: reference
title: Precordillera
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precordillera
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:16.814534+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: precordillera-20260505-0
summary:
Precordillera is a Spanish geographical term for hills and mountains lying before a greater range, similar to foothills. The term is derived from cordillera (mountain range)—literally "pre-mountain range"—and applied usually to the Andes. Some places usually called precordillera are: Andean mountains east of the main ranges of Andes in Argentina. It is separated from the much higher Frontal Cordillera to the west by Uspallata Valley in Argentina. Precordillera mountains reach around 3,000 m a.s.l. in Sierras de Villavicencio. Used all over Chile from north to south as a morphological unit lying just between the Andes and the Intermediate Depression. == See also == Geological history of the precordillera terrane Cuyania – Ancient microcontinent now part of Argentina == References ==


id: region-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Region-0.md
category: reference
title: Region
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Region
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:18.006092+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: region-20260505-0
summary:
In geography, regions, otherwise referred to as areas, zones, lands or territories, are portions of the Earth's surface that are broadly divided by physical characteristics (physical geography), human impact characteristics (human geography), and/or the interaction of humanity and the environment (environmental geography). Geographic regions and sub-regions are mostly described by their imprecisely defined, and sometimes transitory boundaries, except in human geography, where jurisdiction areas such as national borders are defined in law. More confined or well bounded portions are called locations or places. The areal extent of a geographical region is often expressed in square kilometres or hectares (as in, for example, the largest countries). Apart from the global continental regions, there are also hydrospheric and atmospheric regions that cover the oceans, and discrete climates above the land and water masses of the planet. The land and water global regions are divided into subregions geographically bounded by large geological features that influence large-scale ecologies, such as plains and features. As a way of describing spatial areas, the concept of regions is important and widely used among the many branches of geography, each of which can describe areas in regional terms. For example, ecoregion is a term used in environmental geography,


id: region-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Region-1.md
category: reference
title: Region
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Region
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:18.006092+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: region-20260505-0
summary:
The field of historical geography involves the study of human history as it relates to places and regions, or the study of how places and regions have changed over time. D. W. Meinig, a historical geographer of America, describes many historical regions in his book The Shaping of America: A Geographical Perspective on 500 Years of History. For example, in identifying European "source regions" in early American colonization efforts, he defines and describes the Northwest European Atlantic Protestant Region, which includes sub-regions such as the "Western Channel Community", which itself is made of sub-regions such as the English West Country of Cornwall, Devon, Somerset, and Dorset. In describing historic regions of America, Meinig writes of "The Great Fishery" off the coast of Newfoundland and New England, an oceanic region that includes the Grand Banks. He rejects regions traditionally used in describing American history, like New France, "West Indies", the Middle Colonies, and the individual colonies themselves (Province of Maryland, for example). Instead he writes of "discrete colonization areas", which may be named after colonies but rarely adhere strictly to political boundaries. Among other historic regions of this type, he writes about "Greater New England" and its major sub-regions of "Plymouth",


id: region-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Region-2.md
category: reference
title: Region
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Region
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:18.006092+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: region-20260505-0
summary:
Belgium (in French, région; in German, Region; the Dutch term gewest is often mistakenly translated as "regio") Chile (región) Côte d'Ivoire (région) Denmark (effective from 2007) Eritrea France (région) Ghana Guinea (région) Guinea-Bissau (região) Guyana Hungary (régió) Italy (regione) Madagascar (région) Mali (région) Malta (reġjun) Namibia New Zealand Peru (región) Portugal (região) Philippines (rehiyon) Senegal (région) Tanzania Thailand Togo (région) Trinidad and Tobago (Regional Corporation) The Canadian province of Québec also uses the "administrative region" (région administrative). Regions of England (not the United Kingdom as a whole) used to be administrative units until 2011. Since then they're only used for statistical purposes. Scotland had local government regions from 1975 to 1996. In Spain the official name of the autonomous community of Murcia is Región de Murcia. Also, some single-province autonomous communities such as Madrid use the term región interchangeably with comunidad autónoma. Two län (counties) in Sweden are officially called 'regions': Skåne and Västra Götaland, and there is currently a controversial proposal to divide the rest of Sweden into large regions, replacing the current counties. The government of the Philippines uses the term "region" (in Filipino, rehiyon) when it is necessary to group provinces, the primary administrative subdivision of the


id: remote-and-isolated-community-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_and_isolated_community-0.md
category: reference
title: Remote and isolated community
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_and_isolated_community
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:19.277872+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: remote-and-isolated-community-20260505-0
summary:
In Canada, the designations remote, isolated, outport and fly-in refer to a settlement that is either a long distance from larger settlements or lacks transportation links that are typical in more populated areas. == Definition == In responding to the avian flu outbreak of 2009, a Canadian government body (Public Health Network H1N1 Task Force) published the following working definitions. The definition of isolated is borrowed from Indian and Northern Affairs Canada (INAC) and the definition of remote is borrowed from Health Canada. Remote: describes a geographical area where a community is located over 350 km from the nearest service centre having year-round road access. Isolated: describes a geographical area that has scheduled flights and good telephone services; however, it is without year-round road access. It is noted that not all homes in a community have phones, and that flights may be cancelled or delayed due to weather. Canada also has fly-in communities that lack road, rail, or water connections and rely entirely on bush aviation. Other remote communities lack road and rail but have water access, such as the Newfoundland outports, and those that have road access part of the year on ice roads, or can only be reached


id: sandplain-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandplain-0.md
category: reference
title: Sandplain
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandplain
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:20.475676+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sandplain-20260505-0
summary:
A sandplain is an area where the soil is sand deposited from elsewhere by processes such as wind or ocean, rather than direct weathering of bedrock. Sandplains are quite flat. There may be dune systems, and given time and the right conditions these may form eolianite ridges, but other than that there is little to give a sandplain any topographical character. Inland sandplains are often extremely infertile, because the sand is often low in nutrients when deposited, plus the good drainage means any nutrients are rapidly leached away. Coastal sandplains in intertidal zones like those seen in the Wadden Sea in western Europe for example, are wet with nutrients added continuously, so they can often support a very rich and important fauna of birds, worms, mussels, etc.. In North America, sandplains are often vegetated by pine barrens. In Western Australia, kwongan is the dominant vegetation. == See also == Outwash plain == References == == External links == Sand Plains/Sand Sheets (U.S. Army Geospatial Center)


id: scale-geography-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale_(geography)-0.md
category: reference
title: Scale (geography)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale_(geography)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:21.680186+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scale-geography-20260505-0
summary:
In geography, scale is the level at which a geographical phenomenon occurs or is described. This concept is derived from the map scale in cartography. Geographers describe geographical phenomena and differences using different scales. From an epistemological perspective, scale is used to describe how detailed an observation is, while ontologically, scale is inherent in the complex interaction between society and nature. == Scale effect == The concept of scale is central to geography. To study any geographical phenomenon, one must first determine the scale or resolution, because different scales or resolutions may result in different observations and hence different conclusions. This problem is called scale effect or scale dependency. For example, the answer to the famous question "How Long Is the Coast of Britain" is highly dependent on the choice of cartographic scales. In cartography and spatial analysis, scale effect and zoning effect (different ways of zoning lead to different statistical outcomes) combined can lead to modifiable areal unit problem (MAUP). == Types == In geography, the term "scale" can be spatial, temporal, or spatio-temporal, but often (though not always) means spatial scale in spatial analysis. In different contexts, "scale" could have very different connotations, which could be classified as


id: sector-model-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sector_model-0.md
category: reference
title: Sector model
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sector_model
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:22.969492+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sector-model-20260505-0
summary:
The sector model, also known as the Hoyt model, is a model of urban land use proposed in 1939 by land economist Homer Hoyt. It is a modification of the concentric zone model of city development. The benefits of the application of this model include the fact it allows for an outward progression of growth. As with all simple models of such complex phenomena, its validity is limited. == Application == This model applies to numerous British cities. Also, if it is turned 90 degrees counter-clockwise it fits the city of Mönchengladbach reasonably accurately. This may be because of the age of the cities when transportation was a key, as a general rule older cities follow the Hoyt model and more recent cities follow the Burgess (concentric zone) model. == Limitations == The theory is based on early twentieth-century rail transport and does not make allowances for private cars that enable commuting from cheaper land outside city boundaries. This occurred in Calgary in the 1930s when many near-slums were established outside the city but close to the termini of the street car lines. These are now incorporated into the city boundary but are pockets of low-cost housing in medium cost


id: sense-of-place-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense_of_place-0.md
category: reference
title: Sense of place
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense_of_place
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:24.143517+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sense-of-place-20260505-0
summary:
The term sense of place refers to a multidimensional, complex construct used to characterize the relationship between people and spatial settings. It is a characteristic that some geographic places have and some do not, while to others it is a feeling or perception held by people (not by the place itself). It is often used in relation to those characteristics that make a place special or unique, as well as to those that foster a sense of authentic human attachment and belonging. Others, such as geographer Yi-Fu Tuan, have pointed to senses of place that are not "positive," such as fear. Some students and educators engage in "place-based education" in order to improve their "sense(s) of place," as well as to use various aspects of place as educational tools in general. The term is used in urban and rural studies in relation to place-making and place-attachment of communities to their environment or homeland. The term sense of place is used to describe how someone perceives and experiences a place or environment. Anthropologists Steven Feld and Keith Basso define sense of place as: 'the experiential and expressive ways places are known, imagined, yearned for, held, remembered, voiced, lived, contested and struggled


id: sense-of-place-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense_of_place-1.md
category: reference
title: Sense of place
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense_of_place
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:24.143517+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sense-of-place-20260505-0
summary:
== Music and place == Ethnomusicologists, among other social scientists (like anthropologists, sociologists, and urban geographers), have begun to point toward music’s role in defining people’s “sense of place.” British ethnomusicologist Martin Stokes suggests that humans can construct an idea of “place” through music that signals their position in the world in terms of social boundaries and moral and political hierarchies. Stokes argues that music does not simply serve as a reflection of existing social structures, but yields the potential to actively transform a given space. Music denoting place can “preform” a knowledge of social boundaries and hierarchies that people use to negotiate and understand the identities of themselves and others and their relation to place. Examples of music’s role in defining a sense of place include ethnomusicologist George Lipsitz’s research on the performance of Mexican-American cultural identity in Los Angeles. In response to mechanical reproduction and increasingly commodified forms of culture, Walter Benjamin once argued that cultural objects have become increasingly removed from their original context and place of creation. In this context, ethnomusicologist George Lipsitz suggests that a consciousness of invisibility and alienation marks the cultural identity of minority groups excluded from political power and cultural recognition. Lipsitz


id: side-valley-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Side_valley-0.md
category: reference
title: Side valley
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Side_valley
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:25.338337+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: side-valley-20260505-0
summary:
Side valleys and tributary valleys are valleys whose brooks or rivers flow into greater ones. Upstream, the valleys can be classified in an increasing order which is equivalent to the usual orographic order: the tributaries are ordered from those nearest to the source of the river to those nearest to the mouth of the river. A confluence is where two or more tributaries or rivers flow together. == Orographic order (e.g. Humber) == In the orographic classification (order of rivers) the tributary river has order n+1, if n describes the primary (or main) river. A river which flows directly into the ocean (e.g. the English rivers Thames or Humber) has the orographic order n=1, the River Ouse n=2, the Wharfe n=3 and so on. == Geomorphology == The term "side valley" is used for higher order valleys near mountains (example above: the Pennines), as opposed to lower valleys that do not have a strong relief. This is because the "main stem river" (into which the secondary river flows) passes much more water than its tributaries and therefore has a lower current. has finer sediments that are deposited in a more flat manner. The higher the order of a valley, the


id: singular-population-entity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singular_population_entity-0.md
category: reference
title: Singular population entity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singular_population_entity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:26.566087+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: singular-population-entity-20260505-0
summary:
From a statistical point of view, in Spain, a singular population entity (in Spanish: entidad singular de población) is defined as "any inhabited area within a municipality, inhabited or exceptionally uninhabited, clearly differentiated within that municipality and that is known by a specific name that identifies it without the possibility of confusion", according to the definition of the National Statistics Institute. == Population entities == The gazetteer published by the INE, usually on the dates when the population census was carried out, distinguishes, within each municipality, the following population entities, each of which has a delimited territorial scope. Collective population entity (in Spanish: Entidad colectiva de población): a grouping of two or more singular population entities. Singular population entity (in Spanish: Entidad singular de población): any inhabited area of a municipality, inhabited or exceptionally uninhabited, clearly differentiated within the municipality and known by a specific denomination that identifies it without the possibility of confusion. Population nucleus (in Spanish: Núcleo de población): is a group of at least ten buildings that form streets, squares and other urban roads. By exception, the number of buildings may be less than 10, as long as the population that inhabits them exceeds 50 inhabitants. The


id: small-state-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_state-0.md
category: reference
title: Small state
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_state
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:27.863702+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: small-state-20260505-0
summary:
Small state is a generic term for a small country, that has limited land, population, or resources. The term "small state" is similar to the term microstate or ministate, a sovereign state having a very small population or land area, usually both. However, the meanings of "state" and "very small" are not well-defined in international law. Two important definitions for a small state are World Bank, which defines small state as those with less than 1.5 million people, which is about 40-50 countries, and the U.N. Forum on Small States which has higher threshold and includes about 100 countries, most of which are under 5 million people. The term small state is a usually inclusive to microstates; while microstates can be considered small states, not all small states are microstates. There is different criteria for defining small states. A small state may be considered a small power if they are able to project political power regionally. == Definitions of a Small State == Metrics for defining a small state look at aspects of country including area, population, size of the government, territory, and political situation. One of the most common metrics to look at is population, which constraints other aspects,


id: spatial-scale-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial_scale-0.md
category: reference
title: Spatial scale
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial_scale
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:29.115608+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: spatial-scale-20260505-0
summary:
Spatial scale is a specific application of the term scale for describing or categorizing (e.g. into orders of magnitude) the size of a space (hence spatial), or the extent of it at which a phenomenon or process occurs. For instance, in physics an object or phenomenon can be called microscopic if too small to be visible. In climatology, a micro-climate is a climate which might occur in a mountain, valley or near a lake shore. In statistics, a megatrend is a political, social, economical, environmental or technological trend which involves the whole planet or is supposed to last a very large amount of time. The concept is also used in geography, astronomy, and meteorology. These divisions are somewhat arbitrary; where, on this table, mega- is assigned global scope, it may only apply continentally or even regionally in other contexts. The interpretations of meso- and macro- must then be adjusted accordingly. == See also == == References ==


id: spatiomap-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatiomap-0.md
category: reference
title: Spatiomap
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatiomap
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:30.307161+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: spatiomap-20260505-0
summary:
A spatiomap is a document similar to a map, but based on an orthophoto. Often, some annotations are added to the orthophoto. Similar to normal maps, can display a north arrow, a scale bar and cartographical information like the used projection. Spatiomaps are useful when other reliable source are missing for a certain area and/or when a map must be produced in very short time (e.g. for disaster management). Spatiomaps are frequently used during disaster relief. An image map or orthophotomap is a similar document, but is mostly regarded as an orthophotomosaic with some points, lines or polygon layers of a traditional map drawn over the orthophoto. An image map resembles a standard general purpose map but adds the use of an orthophotomosaic as a background. == References ==


id: synekism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synekism-0.md
category: reference
title: Synekism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synekism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:31.623643+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: synekism-20260505-0
summary:
Synekism is a concept in urban studies coined by Edward Soja. It refers to the dynamic formation of the polis state — the union of several small urban settlements under the rule of a "capital" city (or so-called city-state or urban system). Soja's definition of synekism, mentioned in Writing the city spatially, is "the stimulus of urban agglomeration." == Social science == From the social sciences' view, it is also a "nucleated and hierarchically nested process of political governance, economic development, social order, and cultural identity" Soja. In densely settled urban places, a critical mass provides potential for innovation that is not typically available in rural environments, therefore synekism can be thought of as the geographical relationships that create and give importance to cities. == Notes == == Further reading == Bell, Thomas L.; Muller, Peter O. (March 2003). "Book Review". Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 93 (1): 248–250. doi:10.1111/1467-8306.93122. S2CID 144744015. (A review of Soja's Postmetropolis: Critical Studies of Cities and Regions, ISBN 1-57718-001-1.) Soja, Edward (2000). Postmetropolis: Critical Studies of Cities and Regions. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Soja, Edward (November 2003). "Writing the city spatially". City. 7 (3): 269–280. doi:10.1080/1360481032000157478. ISSN 1360-4813. Wikidata Q29997800.


id: tableland-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tableland-0.md
category: reference
title: Tableland
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tableland
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:32.903996+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tableland-20260505-0
summary:
A tableland is an area containing elevated landforms characterized by a distinct, flat, nearly level, or gently undulating surface. They often exhibit steep, cliff-like edges, known as escarpments, that separate them from surrounding lowlands. Depending on either their size, other physical characteristics, or geographic location, the landforms comprising a tableland are individually referred to by a number of names including butte, mesa, plateau, potrero, tepui, or tuya. A homologous landform under the sea is called either a tablemount or guyot. == Sedimentary tablelands == Sedimentary tablelands are tablelands that typically have developed from the erosion of coarse-grained, clastic, sedimentary rocks in the form of relatively flat-lying sandstones and conglomerates that have not been strongly deformed by tectonics. The primary control on the geomorphology of sedimentary tablelands is the dip of the layers of the sandstones, conglomerates, and associated sedimentary strata. Sedimentary tablelands only form if the dip of the sedimentary layers is negligible. If the sedimentary layers are tilted, although otherwise little deformed, asymmetric ridges known as cuestas develop. A really extensive sedimentary tablelands are often known as plateaus. As plateaus are dissected by the headward erosion and incision of river and stream courses and the retreat of their bounding


id: topocide-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topocide-0.md
category: reference
title: Topocide
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topocide
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:34.092905+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: topocide-20260505-0
summary:
Topocide is the deliberate alteration or destruction of a locale through industrial expansion and change, so that its original landscape and character are destroyed. Topocide can be the result of deliberate industrial expansion, as when industries form, then the people's center of life revolves around that industry. New jobs are formed and the environmental and cultural landscape is forever changed. A related term is domicide (from Latin domus, meaning home or abode, and caedo, meaning deliberate killing) the destruction of home; the two may be viewed as synonyms or they may be opposed, with topocide referring to destruction from the point of view of the perpetrator(s) and domicide from the perspective of those affected. == See also == Domicide == References == == Further reading == Bibliography of genocide studies


id: tourist-city-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tourist_city-0.md
category: reference
title: Tourist city
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tourist_city
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:35.302388+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tourist-city-20260505-0
summary:
A tourist city is a place where the economy is mainly run by the tourism industry, and a large part of the city consists of areas dedicated to visitors. Some cities, such as New York City, Singapore, and London are not exclusively tourist cities, but do have tourist districts and are well known for their reputation as having a lot of international tourists. A tourist city differs from a regular city in the sense that it is trying to appeal to everyone who is not native to that area. This causes there to be a lot of advertising and attractions to try to draw people to the city. To regulate tourism, tourist cities also establish regions designed specifically for visitors on vacation. One example of this would be Cancún and its isolated Hotel Zone. == Examples of notable tourist cities == Entries are listed in the form of "name of city (country name)." Data from Euromonitor. == See also == List of cities by international visitors - cities ranked by number of visitors in a year Honeypot (tourism) == References ==


id: trailhead-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trailhead-0.md
category: reference
title: Trailhead
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trailhead
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:36.613774+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: trailhead-20260505-0
summary:
A trailhead is the point where a trail begins or is accessed, where the trail is often intended for hiking, biking, horseback riding, or off-road vehicles. Modern trailheads often contain restrooms, maps, signposts, and distribution centers for informational brochures about the trail and its features and parking areas for vehicles and trailers. The United States Access Board defines a trailhead "as an outdoor space that is designated by an entity responsible for administering or maintaining a trail to serve as an access point to the trail." The intersection of two trails is a trail junction and does not constitute a trailhead. Historically, the cities located at the terminus of major pathways for foot traffic, such as the Natchez Trace and the Chisholm Trail, were also known as trailheads. For mountain climbing and hiking, the elevation of the trailhead above sea level is posted to give an idea of how high the mountain is above the average terrain. A trailhead may also feature a trail grade, which determines the walking difficulty of the trail. == See also == Trail blazing == References == == External links == Trailheads, a crowd-sourced database of trailheads in the United States


id: tunnel-valley-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_valley-0.md
category: reference
title: Tunnel valley
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_valley
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:37.968444+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tunnel-valley-20260505-0
summary:
A tunnel valley is a U-shaped valley originally cut under the glacial ice near the margin of continental ice sheets such as that now covering Antarctica and formerly covering portions of all continents during past glacial ages. They can be as long as 100 km (62 mi), 4 km (2.5 mi) wide, and 400 m (1,300 ft) deep. Tunnel valleys were formed by subglacial erosion by water and served as subglacial drainage pathways carrying large volumes of meltwater. Their cross-sections often exhibit steep-sided flanks similar to fjord walls. They presently appear as dry valleys, lakes, seabed depressions, and as areas filled with sediment. If they are filled with sediment, their lower layers are filled primarily with glacial, glaciofluvial or glaciolacustrine sediment, supplemented by upper layers of temperate infill. They can be found in areas formerly covered by glacial ice sheets including Africa, Asia, North America, Europe, Australia and offshore in the North Sea, the Atlantic and in waters near Antarctica. Tunnel valleys appear in the technical literature under several terms, including tunnel channels, subglacial valleys, iceways and linear incisions. == Significance == Tunnel valleys play a role in identifying oil-rich areas in Arabia and North Africa. The Upper Ordovician–Lower Silurian


id: tunnel-valley-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_valley-1.md
category: reference
title: Tunnel valley
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_valley
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:37.968444+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tunnel-valley-20260505-0
summary:
=== Evidence of erosion mechanisms === Evidence suggests that erosion in a tunnel valley is primarily the result of water flow. They erode by meltwater, which it has been argued, episodically drains in repeated jökulhlaups from subglacial lakes and reservoirs; examples of such motion have been observed in Antarctica. Although there is evidence of ice erosion such as linear striations in the bedrock, these are observed only in the widest valleys, and are believed to have played a secondary role. The subglacial layout of valley tunnels is predominantly oriented parallel to glacial ice flow lines – essentially they stretch from areas of thicker sheet ice toward areas of thinner sheet ice. They can exhibit reverse gradients, which result when pressurized meltwater flows over obstacles such as ridges or hills along the glacier bed. Tunnel valleys can be formed under extremely thick glacial ice – examples have been observed on the bottom of Lake Superior and in the oceans offshore in Antarctica. The course of a tunnel valley typically runs from thickest glacial ice to the glacier margin; as a result the glacial ice pressurizes the water such that it runs uphill toward its end. == Formation of tunnel valleys ==


id: tunnel-valley-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_valley-2.md
category: reference
title: Tunnel valley
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_valley
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:37.968444+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tunnel-valley-20260505-0
summary:
=== Jökulhlaup driven erosion === There is evidence that meltwater discharges are episodic. This can result because as water continues to collect, more ice is lifted, and the water moves outward in a growing under-ice lake. Areas where the ice is most easily lifted (i.e., areas with thinner overlying ice sheets) are lifted first. Hence the water may move up the terrain underlying the glacier if it moves toward areas of lower overlying ice. As water collects, additional ice is lifted until a release path is created. If no preexisting channel is present, the water is initially released in a broad-front jökulhlaup which can have a flow front that is tens of kilometers wide, spreading out in a thin front. As the flow continues, it tends to erode the underlying materials and the overlying ice, creating a channel even as the reduced pressure allows most of the glacial ice to settle back to the underlying surface, sealing off the broad front release and channelizing the flow. The direction of the channel is defined primarily by the overlying ice thickness and secondarily by the gradient of the underlying earth, and may be observed to “run uphill” as the pressure of the


id: tunnel-valley-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_valley-3.md
category: reference
title: Tunnel valley
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_valley
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:37.968444+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tunnel-valley-20260505-0
summary:
=== Large-scale structure === Ice flow within glaciers results from an increase in the surface slope of the glacier, which result from geographic features combined with an imbalance between the amounts of ice accumulated through precipitation and lost through ablation. The increased gradient increases the shear stress on a glacier until it begins to flow. The flow velocity and deformation are also affected by the slope of the ice, the ice thickness and temperature. Punkari identified that continental ice sheets typically flow in fan-shaped lobes, which converge from separate sources and move at differing speeds. Lobes are separated by interlobate zones, which have thinner ice coverage. Water collects in this interlobate area. The hydraulic head (pressure) is lower in areas of thinner ice; hence subglacial water tends to converge on the interlobate joint. The separate lobes move at different speeds, generating friction at the ice boundary; the heat released melts ice to release additional water. The surface of the interlobate area is crevassed, allowing surface meltwater, which runs down the ice surface to the lower area, to penetrate into the ice. As a result, the ice-flow patterns and the debris accumulation are different in interlobate zones. Specifically, tunnel valleys and


id: tunnel-valley-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_valley-4.md
category: reference
title: Tunnel valley
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_valley
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:37.968444+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tunnel-valley-20260505-0
summary:
Tunnel valleys have been observed in Minnesota, Wisconsin and Michigan at the margins of the Laurentide Ice Sheet. Examples of bedrock tunnel valleys in Minnesota include River Warren Falls and several valleys which lie deep beneath till deposited by the glaciers which created them, but can be traced in many places by the Chain of Lakes in Minneapolis and lakes and dry valleys in St. Paul. The Kawartha lakes of Ontario formed in the Late Wisconsinan glacial period. Ice melt from the Niagara Escarpment flowed through tunnel valleys beneath the ice expanded to form a west-to-east passage between the main Laurentide Ice Sheet and a mass of ice in the Lake Ontario basin. Cedar Creek Canyon is a tunnel valley located in Allen County, Indiana. It is a very straight, narrow gorge about 50 to 100 ft (15 to 30 m) deep that contains part of the lower segment of Cedar Creek, the largest tributary of the St. Joseph River. In the Laurentian Channel offshore eastern Canada, numerous tunnel valleys have been identified originating from the submerged valley of the St. Lawrence River, which is also of glacial origin. Seismic reflection profiles of the fill of tunnel valleys suggest that


id: upstate-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upstate-0.md
category: reference
title: Upstate
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upstate
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:39.233282+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: upstate-20260505-0
summary:
The term upstate may refer to the northerly portions of several U.S. states. On the east coast, upstate generally refers to places away from the Atlantic Ocean. It also can refer to parts of states that have a higher elevation, away from sea level. These regions tend to be rural; exceptions include Delaware and Illinois. Places Maine, except for "Down East" Upstate California, a 2001 marketing campaign to promote the northern half of Northern California Upstate New York, much of New York north of the New York City metropolitan area Upstate South Carolina, the northwestern "corner" of South Carolina Upstate Pennsylvania, a tourism region that includes much of Northeastern Pennsylvania Other SUNY Upstate Medical University, often referred to as "Upstate" Upstate University Hospital, Syracuse, New York A term used to refer to going to the penitentiary in New York, as all of New York's state prisons are upstate. == See also == Articles beginning with "Upstate" Downstate (disambiguation) Up North (disambiguation) Down south (disambiguation)


id: glossary-of-geology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-0.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of geology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:41.187286+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-geology-20260505-0
summary:
This glossary of geology is a list of definitions of terms and concepts relevant to geology, its sub-disciplines, and related fields. For other terms related to the Earth sciences, see Glossary of geography terms (disambiguation). == A == abiotic Non-living chemical or physical component of the environment affecting living organisms and the functioning of ecosystems. abyssal plain A flat or very gently sloping area on the floor of a deep ocean basin. absolute dating The process of determining a specific date (in years or some other unit of time) for an archaeological, geological or paleontological site or artifact. accident A sudden discontinuity of ground, such as a fault of great thickness, bed or lentil of unstable ground. accretion A process by which material is added to a tectonic plate or landmass. achnelith A small, glassy volcanic bomb, sphere, dumbbell, or droplet-shaped stone resulting from very liquid magma. acid rock The groups ultrabasic, basic, intermediate and acid constitute a series with progressively increasing SiO2 content. aftershock A small earthquake that follows a main shock. agglomerate An indurated rock built of large angular rock fragments embedded in an ashy matrix and resulting from explosive volcanic activity. Occurs typically in volcanic vents. aggregate


id: glossary-of-geology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-1.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of geology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:41.187286+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-geology-20260505-0
summary:
autochthon A fossil, sediment, or rock that was formed or produced in the location where it is now found. The term is widely applied to a coal or peat that originated at the place where the plants comprising it grew and decayed and to rocks that have not been displaced by overthrust faulting. An object of this type is referred to as autochthonous. Contrast allochthon. == B == bajada A series of coalescing alluvial fans along a mountain front. banded iron formation A distinctive type of rock often found in primordial sedimentary rocks. basalt A fine-grained, mafic igneous rock composed predominantly of ferromagnesian minerals and with lesser amounts of calcium-rich plagioclase feldspar. basement rock The thick foundation of ancient, and oldest metamorphic and igneous rock that forms the crust of continents, often in the form of granite. basic rock Igneous rock with low silica content (<54%). The groups ultrabasic, basic, intermediate, and acid constitute a series with progressively increasing SiO2 content. basin A landform scooped out by water erosion. Basin and Range Province A particular topography covering much of the southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico that is typified by elongate north-south trending arid valleys bounded by mountain ranges which


id: glossary-of-geology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-2.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of geology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:41.187286+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-geology-20260505-0
summary:
cleavage The tendency of a rock to break along preferred planes of weakness, caused by the development of a planar fabric as a result of deformation. cobble coccolith An individual plate of calcium carbonate formed by coccolithophores which are arranged around them in a so-called coccosphere. coccolithophore Also called a coccolithophorid. A type of microfossil of single-celled algae, protists and phytoplankton belonging to the division of haptophytes. These fossils are distinguished by special calcium carbonate plates called coccoliths. compaction The process by which a newly deposited sediment decreases its porosity and progressively expels its original pore water due to the effects of loading. This forms part of the process of lithification. compression The process by which rocks shorten or decrease in volume when exposed to certain forces. conchoidal A type of fracture that results in smoothly curved surface faces. concretion A volume of sedimentary rock in which a mineral cement fills the porosity (i.e. the spaces between the sediment grains). Not to be confused with nodule. conglomerate Any type of rock consisting of individual stones that have become cemented together. contact metamorphism Metamorphism due to the local heating of rocks by the intrusion of magma nearby. continental crust The layer


id: glossary-of-geology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-3.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of geology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:41.187286+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-geology-20260505-0
summary:
dolerite 1. A basic igneous rock of medium grain size, occurring as minor intrusions or in the central parts of thick lava flows. 2. A dark-coloured, basic, igneous rock, composed essentially of pyroxene and a triclinic feldspar with magnetic iron. Considered by some authors to be equivalent to a coarse-grained basalt. 3. A dark, crystalline, igneous rock, chiefly pyroxene with labradorite. 4. Coarse-grained basalt. 5. Diabase. 6. Any dark igneous rock composed chiefly of silicates of iron and magnesium with some feldspar. dome A geological formation consisting of symmetrical anticlines that intersect each other at their respective apices. drill core A drill specifically designed to remove a cylinder of material, much like a hole saw. drumlin An elongated, whale-shaped hill formed by glacial action. dunite An ultrabasic plutonic rock in which the mafic material is almost entirely olivine, with accessory chromite almost always present. Feldspar mainly plagioclase. See also peridotite. duricrust A general term for hard crust existing as a layer in or on the surface of the upper horizons of a soil in semi-arid climates. Duricrust is formed by the accumulation of solid minerals deposited by water moving upwards by capillary action and evaporating in the dry season. Compare


id: glossary-of-geology-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-4.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of geology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:41.187286+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-geology-20260505-0
summary:
fossil Any mineralized or otherwise preserved remains or traces (such as footprints) of animals, plants, or other once-living organisms. fossiliferous Bearing or being composed of fossils in rocks or strata. fossilization fracture Any crack or discontinuity. In its geological definition, it is only used when no displacement can be distinguished. fumarole A vent in the Earth's surface from which hot gases and vapors are emitted. == G == Ga A non-standard but widely used abbreviation for one billion (1,000,000,000) years, using the metric prefix G (for "Giga") to indicate a quantity of one billion. When not otherwise qualified, it usually indicates 1,000,000,000 years Before Present (or 1,000,000,000 years ago). gabbro A dark, coarse-grained, intrusive igneous rock chemically equivalent to basalt. garnet gastrolith A rock which is or was once held inside the digestive tract of a living animal. gemology Also spelled gemmology. The branch of geology and mineralogy that studies natural and artificial gemstones. gemstone Also called a gem, fine gem, jewel, precious stone, or semi-precious stone. geogenic Of geologic origin – Resulting from naturally occurring geological processes. geological map A special-purpose map made to show geological features. geological time scale Also geologic time scale. geology geosyncline A mobile down-warping


id: glossary-of-geology-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-5.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of geology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:41.187286+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-geology-20260505-0
summary:
joint A discrete discontinuity surface without evidence of displacement. See also diaclase or bedding. Jurassic A major unit of the geologic timescale that extended from about 199.6 ± 0.6 Ma (million years ago) to 145.4 ± 4.0 Ma, between the end of the Triassic and the beginning of the Cretaceous. == K == Ka A non-standard but widely used abbreviation for one thousand (1,000) years, using the metric prefix K (for "Kilo") to indicate a quantity of one thousand. When not otherwise qualified, it usually indicates 1,000 years Before Present (or 1,000 years ago). kame An irregularly shaped hill or mound composed of sand, gravel and till that accumulates in a depression on a retreating glacier and is then deposited on the land surface with further melting of the glacier. kaolinite A finely crystalline form of hydrated aluminium silicate occurring as minute monoclinic flaky crystals with a perfect basal cleavage, resulting mainly from the alteration of feldspars under conditions of hydrothermal or pneumatolytic metamorphism. karst A distinct type of landscape shaped by the dissolution of a layer or layers of soluble bedrock, usually carbonate rock such as limestone or dolomite. Karst topography is usually characterised by closed depressions or sinkholes,


id: glossary-of-geology-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-6.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of geology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:41.187286+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-geology-20260505-0
summary:
metasilicate A salt of the non-existing metasilicic acid H2SiO3 based on an analogy with the carbonate system. metatexis Low-grade anatexis: partial or differential melting of rock components with a low melting point. mica Any of a set of minerals which crystallise in the monoclinic system. They have similar chemical compositions and highly perfect basal cleavage. micropaleontology A branch of paleontology which studies microfossils. mid-oceanic ridge An underwater mountain range typically having a valley known as a rift running along its axis, formed by plate tectonics. migmatite A composite rock composed of igneous or igneous-looking and/or metamorphic materials which are generally distinguishable megascopically. mineral mineralization The hydrothermal deposition of economically important metals in the formation of ore bodies or "lodes". mineralogy miogeosyncline A geosyncline in which volcanism is not associated with sedimentation, or the non-volcanic part of the orthogeosyncline located near the craton. Mohs scale of mineral hardness Also simply called the Mohs scale. molasse A partly marine, partly continental or deltaic sedimentary facies consisting of a very thick sequence of soft ungraded cross-bedded fossiliferous conglomerates, sandstones, shales, and marls. molding The process of manufacturing by shaping pliable raw material using a rigid frame or model called a mold. montmorillonite Swelling


id: glossary-of-geology-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-7.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of geology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:41.187286+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-geology-20260505-0
summary:
phenoclast A large, conspicuous fragment in sediment or sedimentary rock composed of various sizes of material. phenocryst A relatively large crystal in an igneous rock. phyllite Any of a set of argillaceous rocks in a condition of metamorphism between slate and mica-schist. phyllonite A rock that macroscopically resembles phyllite but that is formed by mechanical degradation (mylonization) of initially coarser rocks (e.g., graywacke, granite, or gneiss). piercing point A feature that is cut by a fault and moved. Reconstruction of that object can show how much the fault has moved. pillar A vertical, standing, often spire-shaped, natural rock formation. pitchstone A black, opaque volcanic glass that may contain irregular, whitish clusters of minerals. Resembles pitch in appearance. plate tectonics The set of natural processes and phenomena which result in large-scale movements of portions of the Earth's lithosphere, which is fragmented into multiple tectonic plates of various sizes. Pleistocene The geologic epoch which lasted from about 2,588,000 to 11,700 years ago, spanning the world's recent period of repeated glaciations. The Pleistocene is the first epoch of the Quaternary Period and the sixth epoch of the Cenozoic Era. Pliocene The geologic period that extends from 5.332 million to 2.588[2] million years Before


id: glossary-of-geology-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-8.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of geology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:41.187286+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-geology-20260505-0
summary:
rudite A generic term for any of a set of sedimentary rocks composed of rounded or angular detrital grains, i.e. granules, pebbles, cobbles, and boulders, which are coarser than sand in size. == S == saccharoidal Having a texture similar to that of granulated sugar. Saldanian orogeny sand sandstone Sand (with grains up to 2 mm in diameter) in which the grains are cemented together by secondary silica or calcite. Sandstone may be loosely cemented and soft or well cemented and hard, and is usually buff to brownish in color, sometimes reddish, due to the presence of iron oxides, or greenish, due to the presence of glauconite. sanidine A form of potash feldspar identical in composition with orthoclase but physically different, formed under different conditions and occurring in different rock types. It is the high temperature form of orthoclase, into which it inverts at 900 °C (1,650 °F). Occurs in lavas and dyke rocks. schist A group of medium-grade metamorphic rocks, chiefly notable for the preponderance of lamellar minerals such as micas, chlorite, talc, hornblende, graphite, and others. In French, schist is understood as shale. scree See talus. sediment trap A depression in which sediments substantially accumulate over time. sedimentary


id: glossary-of-geology-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology-9.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of geology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_geology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:41.187286+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-geology-20260505-0
summary:
tempestite Storm deposits found in sedimentary formations where shell debris accumulate under the effect of waves and seawater movement. tenacity A mineral's behavior when deformed or broken. tephra Fragmental material produced by a volcanic eruption regardless of composition, fragment size or emplacement mechanism. Once clasts have fallen to the ground they remain as tephra unless hot enough to fuse together into pyroclastic rock or tuff. Tethys Ocean A prehistoric ocean that existed between the continents of Gondwana and Laurasia during the Mesozoic era before the opening of the Indian Ocean. till Also called glacial till. Unsorted glacial sediment. Glacial drift is a general term for the coarsely graded and extremely heterogeneous sediments of glacial origin. Glacial till is that part of glacial drift which was deposited directly by the glacier. tillite A type of sedimentary rock derived from glacial till which has been indurated or lithified by subsequent burial into solid rock. titanite A calcium titanium nesosilicate mineral, CaTiSiO5. See also sphene. topography The arrangement of the natural and artificial physical features of an area. tor A large, free-standing residual mass (rock outcrop) that rises abruptly from the surrounding smooth and gentle slopes of a rounded hill summit or ridge


id: chronostratigraphy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronostratigraphy-0.md
category: reference
title: Chronostratigraphy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronostratigraphy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:42.400088+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chronostratigraphy-20260505-0
summary:
Chronostratigraphy is the branch of stratigraphy that studies the ages of rock strata in relation to time. The ultimate aim of chronostratigraphy is to arrange the sequence of deposition and the time of deposition of all rocks within a geological region, and eventually, the entire geologic record of the Earth. The standard stratigraphic nomenclature is a chronostratigraphic system based on palaeontological intervals of time defined by recognised fossil assemblages (biostratigraphy). The aim of chronostratigraphy is to give a meaningful age date to these fossil assemblage intervals and interfaces. == Methodology == Chronostratigraphy relies heavily upon isotope geology and geochronology to derive hard dating of known and well defined rock units which contain the specific fossil assemblages defined by the stratigraphic system. In practice, as it is very difficult to isotopically date most fossils and sedimentary rocks directly, inferences must be made in order to arrive at an age date which reflects the beginning of the interval. The methodology used is derived from the law of superposition and the principles of cross-cutting relationships. Because igneous rocks occur at specific intervals in time and are essentially instantaneous on a geologic time scale, and because they contain mineral assemblages which may be dated


id: chronozone-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronozone-0.md
category: reference
title: Chronozone
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronozone
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:43.591424+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chronozone-20260505-0
summary:
A chronozone or chron is a unit in chronostratigraphy, defined by events such as geomagnetic reversals (magnetozones), or based on the presence of specific fossils (biozone or biochronozone). According to the International Commission on Stratigraphy, the term "chronozone" refers to the rocks formed during a particular time period, while "chron" refers to that time period. Although non-hierarchical, chronozones have been recognized as useful markers or benchmarks of time in the rock record. Chronozones are non-hierarchical in that chronozones do not need to correspond across geographic or geologic boundaries, nor be equal in length. Although a former, early constraint required that a chronozone be defined as smaller than a geological stage. Another early use was hierarchical in that Harland et al. (1989) used "chronozone" for the slice of time smaller than a faunal stage defined in biostratigraphy. The ICS superseded these earlier usages in 1994. The key factor in designating an internationally acceptable chronozone is whether the overall fossil column is clear, unambiguous, and widespread. Some accepted chronozones contain others, and certain larger chronozones have been designated which span whole defined geological time units, both large and small. For example, the chronozone Pliocene is a subset of the chronozone Neogene, and


id: depocenter-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depocenter-0.md
category: reference
title: Depocenter
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depocenter
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:46.122412+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: depocenter-20260505-0
summary:
A depocenter or depocentre in geology is the part of a sedimentary basin where a particular rock unit has its maximum thickness. Depending on the controls on subsidence and the sedimentary environment, the location of a basin's depocenter may vary with time, such as in active rift basins as extensional faults grow, link or become abandoned. == References ==


id: discrete-debris-accumulation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_debris_accumulation-0.md
category: reference
title: Discrete debris accumulation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_debris_accumulation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:48.559798+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: discrete-debris-accumulation-20260505-0
summary:
Discrete debris accumulation (DDA) is a non-genetic term in mountain glacial geology to aid identification of non-lithified sediments on a valley or mountain slope or floor. It is intended that the debris accumulation is discrete such that it can be mapped, in the field and/or from aerial or satellite imagery. The origin or formative process may well not be known clearly or be changed by subsequent investigators it is advisable to have a non-genetic field reference so that discussion can then be used to ascertain, if possible, the origin. Mountain areas may currently have glaciers (glacierized) or have had glaciers (glaciated) or be subject to forms of periglacial activity. A moraine would be an easily identified DDA as would an esker. Although scree (talus) is generally easily identified and mapped, these deposits may be modified by ice, avalanches or downslope movement to create essentially new landforms. Many small slope failures and landslides can give the appearance of moraines or protalus ramparts on slopes. After mapping as a DDA, further investigation might draw light on the origin of the feature. The term was apparently first used by Sven Lukas for a very specific feature in Svalbard. Independently, it was suggested in


id: eonothem-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eonothem-0.md
category: reference
title: Eonothem
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eonothem
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:49.745512+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eonothem-20260505-0
summary:
In stratigraphy and geology, an eonothem is the totality of rock strata laid down in the stratigraphic record deposited during a certain eon of the continuous geologic timescale. The eonothem is not to be confused with the eon itself, which is a corresponding division of geologic time spanning a specific number of (hundreds of millions of) years, during which rocks were formed that are classified within the eonothem. Eonothems have the same names as their corresponding eons, which means during the history of the Earth only four eonothems were formed. Oldest to newest these are the Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic. A rock stratum, fossil or feature present in the "upper Phanerozoic" eonothem would therefore have originated within the "later Phanerozoic" eon. In practice, the rock column is discontinuous: Technically, a complete geologic record doesn't occur anywhere. For such a record to develop would require the area to have been receiving sedimentary deposits continually ever since the origin of the earth. Nowhere is such a situation known to exist. If it did exist, we could not effectively look at the strata because they would still be buried, and modern strata would continue to be deposited on top of them. The


id: erathem-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erathem-0.md
category: reference
title: Erathem
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erathem
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:50.980515+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: erathem-20260505-0
summary:
In stratigraphy, paleontology, geology, and geobiology, an erathem is the total stratigraphic unit deposited during a certain corresponding span of time during an era in the geologic timescale. It can therefore be used as a chronostratigraphic unit of time which delineates a large span of years – less than a geological eon, but greater than its successively smaller and more refined subdivisions (geologic periods, epochs, and geologic ages). By 3,500 million years ago (Mya) simple life had developed on earth (the oldest known microbial fossils in Australia are dated to this figure). The atmosphere was a mix of noxious and poisonous gases (methane, ammonia, sulfur compounds, etc. – a so-called reducing atmosphere lacking much free oxygen which was bound up in compounds). These simple organisms, cyanobacteria ruled the still cooling earth for approximately a billion years and gradually transformed the atmosphere to one containing free oxygen. These changes, along with tectonic activity left chemical trails (red bed formation, etc.) and other physical clues (magnetic orientation, layer formation factors) in the rock record, and it is these changes along with the later richer fossil record which specialists use to demarcate times early in planet earth's history in various disciplines. Erathems are


id: friability-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friability-0.md
category: reference
title: Friability
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friability
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:52.287947+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: friability-20260505-0
summary:
In materials science, friability ( FRY-ə-BIL-ə-tee), the condition of being friable, describes the tendency of a solid substance to break into smaller pieces under stress or contact, especially by rubbing. The opposite of friable is indurate. Substances that are designated hazardous, such as asbestos or crystalline silica, are often said to be friable if small particles are easily dislodged and become airborne, and hence respirable (able to enter human lungs), thereby posing a health hazard. Tougher substances, such as concrete, may also be mechanically ground down and reduced to finely divided mineral dust. However, such substances are not generally considered friable because of the degree of difficulty involved in breaking the substance's chemical bonds through mechanical means. Some substances, such as polyurethane foams, show an increase in friability with exposure to ultraviolet radiation, as in sunlight. Friable is sometimes used metaphorically to describe "brittle" personalities who can be "rubbed" by seemingly-minor stimuli to produce extreme emotional responses. == General == A friable substance is any substance that can be reduced to fibers or finer particles by the action of a small amount of pressure or friction, such as rubbing or inadvertently brushing up against the substance. The term could also


id: geological-event-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geological_event-0.md
category: reference
title: Geological event
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geological_event
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:53.471312+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geological-event-20260505-0
summary:
A geological event is a temporary and spatially heterogeneous and dynamic (diachronous) happening in Earth history that contributes to the transformation of Earth system and the formation of geological strata. Event stratigraphy was first proposed as a system for the recognition, study and correlation of the effects of important physical or biological events on the broader stratigraphical record. Geological events range in time span by orders of magnitude, from seconds to millions of years, and in spatial scale from local to regional and, ultimately, global. In contrast to chronostratigraphic or geochronological units, that define the boundaries between periods, epochs and other units of the geologic time scale, complex dynamic diachronous changes are inherent to the event-stratigraphy paradigm. The lithostratigraphic or biostratigraphic boundaries that mark the onset and termination of geological events in the stratigraphic record may be diachronous, whereas those of formal chronostratigraphic or geochronologic units have basal boundaries that are isochronous. Examples of geological events include a single footprint, an earthquake, a series of volcanic eruptions, the formation of mountains (orogenies), the Great Oxidation Event (GOE) of 2.4-2.0 billion years ago and the Great Ordovician Biodiversification Event (GOBE) ~500 Ma. The event paradigm is firmly embedded in Quaternary science,


id: stratigraphic-unit-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratigraphic_unit-0.md
category: reference
title: Stratigraphic unit
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratigraphic_unit
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:54.692438+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stratigraphic-unit-20260505-0
summary:
A stratigraphic unit is a volume of rock of identifiable origin and relative age range that is defined by the distinctive and dominant, easily mapped and recognizable petrographic, lithologic or paleontologic features (facies) that characterize it. Units must be mappable and distinct from one another, but the contact need not be particularly distinct. For instance, a unit may be defined by terms such as "when the sandstone component exceeds 75%". == Lithostratigraphic units == Sequences of sedimentary and volcanic rocks are subdivided on the basis of their shared or associated lithology. Formally identified lithostratigraphic units are structured in a hierarchy of lithostratigraphic rank, higher rank units generally comprising two or more units of lower rank. Going from smaller to larger in rank, the main lithostratigraphic ranks are bed, member, formation, group and supergroup. Formal names of lithostratigraphic units are assigned by geological surveys. Units of formation or higher rank are usually named for the unit's type location, and the formal name usually also states the unit's rank or lithology. A lithostratigraphic unit may have a change in rank over a some distance; a group may thin to a formation in another region and a formation may reduce in rank for


id: geon-geology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geon_(geology)-0.md
category: reference
title: Geon (geology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geon_(geology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:55.910880+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geon-geology-20260505-0
summary:
The term geon (for geological eon) refers to large, geologic units of time. Geologists traditionally subdivide Earth history into a hierarchy of named intervals: eons, eras, periods, etc. (e.g., the Jurassic Period of the Mesozoic Era). Historians subdivide the history of human activity into intervals that are comparatively much shorter. In both geological and historical scales, the divisions of equal rank are characteristically of unequal duration, and the identification of a particular interval is primarily based on its fossil, artifact, or cultural content (e.g., Carboniferous, Neolithic, Dark Ages, Ming Dynasty). Both scales are calibrated against numerical ages obtained separately. An alternative way of referring to the past is to use a scale with intervals of equal duration. We speak of a given decade, century, or millennium. For the enormously long geologic time frame, it is advantageous to use corresponding large, equal time intervals encompassing the events and processes that have shaped our planet. The development of mountain ranges, ocean basins, and continents takes tens to hundreds of millions of years, and large time units thus are convenient for discussing long-term trends. Astronomers use light years and parsecs to deal with huge distances, rather than kilometres. Geologists have geons to refer


id: geosphere-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geosphere-0.md
category: reference
title: Geosphere
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geosphere
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:57.160011+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geosphere-20260505-0
summary:
There are several conflicting usages of geosphere, variously defined. == History == === Aristotelian physics === In Aristotelian physics, the term was applied to four spherical natural places, concentrically nested around the center of the Earth, as described in the lectures Physica and Meteorologica. They were believed to explain the motions of the four terrestrial elements: Earth, Water, Air, and Fire. === Modern era === In modern texts and in Earth system science, geosphere refers to the solid parts of the Earth; it is used along with atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere to describe the systems of the Earth (the interaction of these systems with the magnetosphere is sometimes listed). In that context, sometimes the term lithosphere is used instead of geosphere or solid Earth. The lithosphere, however, only refers to the uppermost layers of the solid Earth (oceanic and continental crustal rocks and uppermost mantle). == Other usages == "Geosphere" may also be taken as the collective name for the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the cryosphere, and the atmosphere. The different collectives of the geosphere are able to exchange different mass and/or energy fluxes (the measurable amount of change). The exchange of these fluxes affects the balance of the different spheres


id: glossary-of-meteoritics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteoritics-0.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of meteoritics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteoritics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:58.418684+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-meteoritics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a glossary of terms used in meteoritics, the science of meteorites. == # == 2 Pallas – an asteroid from the asteroid belt and one of the likely parent bodies of the CR meteorites. 4 Vesta – second-largest asteroid in the asteroid belt and likely source of the HED meteorites. 221 Eos – an asteroid from the asteroid belt and one of the likely parent bodies of the CO meteorites. 289 Nenetta – an asteroid from the asteroid belt and one of the likely parent bodies of the angrites. 3103 Eger – an asteroid from the asteroid belt and one of the likely parent bodies of the aubrites. 3819 Robinson – an asteroid from the asteroid belt and one of the likely parent bodies of the angrites. IA meteorite – an iron meteorite group now part of the IAB group/complex. IAB meteorite – an iron meteorite and primitive achondrite of the IAB group/complex. IB meteorite – an iron meteorite group now part of the IAB group/complex. IC meteorite – an iron meteorite that is part of the IC group. == A == Ablation – the process of a meteorite losing mass during the passage through the atmosphere. Acapulcoite


id: glossary-of-meteoritics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteoritics-1.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of meteoritics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_meteoritics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:58.418684+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-meteoritics-20260505-0
summary:
== I == Impact breccia – rock composed of fragments of terrestrial, extraterrestrial or mixed origin fused by the energy of impact Impactite – informal term for a terrestrial rock resulting from the shocking impact of a meteor. Insoluble organic matter – Kerogen-like macromolecule residue from carbonaceous chondrite meteorites after soluble organic matter has been removed. Iron–nickel alloy – an alternative expression for meteoric iron. Iron meteorite – a meteorite that is mainly composed of meteoric iron. == K == Kakangari chondrite – a group of chondrite meteorites. Kamacite – a native metal (mineral) found in meteorites. == L == Lodranite – member of a small group of primitive achondrites thought to derive from deeper within the same parent body as acapulcoites Lunaite – a meteorite that originated from the Moon (synonym of Lunar meteorite). Compare Category:Meteorites found on bodies other than Earth. Lunar meteorite – a meteorite that originated from the Moon (synonym of Lunaite). Compare Category:Meteorites found on bodies other than Earth. == M == Main group pallasite – a pallasite belonging to the main group. Main mass – the largest/heaviest piece of a fragmented meteorite, typically found in a strewn field. Magmatic meteorite Martian meteorite – a


id: graviquake-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graviquake-0.md
category: reference
title: Graviquake
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graviquake
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:21:59.590808+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: graviquake-20260505-0
summary:
A graviquake is an earthquake occurring in an extensional tectonic setting, where the gravitational energy stored during the interseismic period is delivered by the collapse of a brittle upper crustal volume, slipping along a normal fault and generating the double couple recorded in the moment tensor solution. == References ==


id: joint-geology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_(geology)-0.md
category: reference
title: Joint (geology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_(geology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:00.828531+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: joint-geology-20260505-0
summary:
In geology, and more specifically in structural geology, a joint is a break (fracture) of natural origin in a layer or body of rock that lacks visible or measurable movement parallel to the surface (plane) of the fracture ("Mode 1" Fracture). Although joints can occur singly, they most frequently appear as joint sets and systems. A joint set is a family of parallel, evenly spaced joints that can be identified through mapping and analysis of their orientations, spacing, and physical properties. A joint system consists of two or more intersecting joint sets. The distinction between joints and faults hinges on the terms visible or measurable, a difference that depends on the scale of observation. Faults differ from joints in that they exhibit visible or measurable lateral movement between the opposite surfaces of the fracture ("Mode 2" and "Mode 3" Fractures). Thus a joint may be created by either strict movement of a rock layer or body perpendicular to the fracture or by varying degrees of lateral displacement parallel to the surface (plane) of the fracture that remains "invisible" at the scale of observation. Joints are among the most universal geologic structures, found in almost every exposure of rock. They vary


id: joint-geology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_(geology)-1.md
category: reference
title: Joint (geology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_(geology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:00.828531+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: joint-geology-20260505-0
summary:
==== Nonsystematic ==== Nonsystematic joints are joints that are so irregular in form, spacing, and orientation that they cannot be readily grouped into distinctive, through-going joint sets. === By formation === Joints can be classified according to their origin, under the labels of tectonics, hydraulics, exfoliation, unloading (release), and cooling. Different authors have proposed contradictory hypotheses for the same joint sets and types. And, joints in the same outcrop may form at different times under varied circumstances. ==== Tectonic ==== Tectonic joints are joints formed when the relative displacement of the joint walls is normal to its plane as the result of brittle deformation of bedrock in response to regional or local tectonic deformation of bedrock. Such joints form when directed tectonic stress causes the tensile strength of bedrock to be exceeded as the result of the stretching of rock layers under conditions of elevated pore fluid pressure and directed tectonic stress. Tectonic joints often reflect local tectonic stresses associated with local folding and faulting. Tectonic joints occur as both nonsystematic and systematic joints, including orthogonal and conjugate joint sets. ==== Hydraulic ==== Hydraulic joints are formed when pore fluid pressure becomes elevated as a result of vertical gravitational loading.


id: joint-geology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_(geology)-2.md
category: reference
title: Joint (geology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_(geology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:00.828531+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: joint-geology-20260505-0
summary:
== Importance == Joints are important not only in understanding the local and regional geology and geomorphology but also in developing natural resources, in the safe design of structures, and in environmental protection. Joints have a profound control on weathering and erosion of bedrock. As a result, they exert a strong control on how topography and morphology of landscapes develop. Understanding the local and regional distribution, physical character, and origin of joints is a significant part of understanding the geology and geomorphology of an area. Joints often impart a well-develop fracture-induced permeability to bedrock. As a result, joints strongly influence, even control, the natural circulation (hydrogeology) of fluids, e.g. groundwater and pollutants within aquifers, petroleum in reservoirs, and hydrothermal circulation at depth, within bedrock. Thus, joints are important to the economic and safe development of petroleum, hydrothermal, and groundwater resources and the subject of intensive research relative to these resources. Regional and local joint systems exert a strong control on how ore-forming hydrothermal fluids (consisting largely of H2O, CO2, and NaCl — which formed most of Earth's ore deposits) circulated within its crust. As a result, understanding their genesis, structure, chronology, and distribution is an important part of finding and


id: landmass-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landmass-0.md
category: reference
title: Landmass
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landmass
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:02.140535+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: landmass-20260505-0
summary:
A landmass, or land mass, is a large region or area of land that is in one piece and not noticeably broken up by oceans. The term is often used to refer to lands surrounded by an ocean or sea, such as a continent or a large island. In the field of geology, a landmass is a defined section of continental crust extending above sea level. Continents are often thought of as distinct landmasses and may include any islands that are part of the associated continental shelf. When multiple continents form a single contiguous land connection, the connected continents may be viewed as a single landmass. Earth's largest landmasses are (starting with largest): Afro-Eurasia (main landmass of the geoscheme region of the same name and its continental parts Africa and Eurasia, or Europe and Asia; the center of Earth's land hemisphere, comprising more than half of Earth's landmass) Americas (main landmass of the geo-region of the same name and its continental parts North and South America; comprising most of the landmass of the Western Hemisphere) Antarctica (main landmass of the geo-region and continent of the same name) Mainland Australia (main landmass of the geo-region Oceania, its subregion Australasia, the continent


id: leaverite-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaverite-0.md
category: reference
title: Leaverite
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaverite
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:03.396042+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: leaverite-20260505-0
summary:
Leaverite is a slang term used by geologists, mineralogists, archaeologists, and amateur rock collectors to identify a specimen in the field that may look interesting or valuable but not worth removing. Rocks identified as such are generally left where they were found, as there is not sufficient reason to attempt to remove them. The term leaverite derives from the phrase "leave 'er right there". There are several kinds of leaverites: Man-made features Unrocks; objects that may initially appear to be geologic in origin (also referred to as anthropogenicite). Large fossils and pseudofossils Additional forms of leaverites include: Specimens that are too large to move or transport Legality of the removal of the specimen is questionable or outright illegal Collection of the specimen may result in death or dismemberment (e.g. the specimen is hanging on the side of a 300 ft cliff, removal of the specimen would result in a boulder falling on the collector, a rattlesnake is sunning itself on the specimen) == References ==


id: paralithic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paralithic-0.md
category: reference
title: Paralithic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paralithic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:06.822156+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: paralithic-20260505-0
summary:
A paralithic horizon is a weathered layer of bedrock. The term comes from the Greek words para, meaning "akin to", and lithic, meaning "stony". == References == Pietrasiak, Nicole (7 October 2008). "Mineralogy of a Paralithic Horizon (Well Weathered Bedrock) in the Mojave Desert". The 2008 Joint Annual Meeting. Soil Survey Staff (2010). "Paralithic contact". Keys to Soil Taxonomy, 2010 (11th ed.). Washington: Agriculture Department. p. 26. ISBN 9780160854279. Soil Survey Staff (2010). "Paralithic material". Keys to Soil Taxonomy, 2010 (11th ed.). Washington: Agriculture Department. p. 26. ISBN 9780160854279.


id: primary-rock-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_rock-0.md
category: reference
title: Primary rock
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_rock
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:09.228469+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: primary-rock-20260505-0
summary:
Primary rock is an early term in geology that refers to crystalline rock formed first in geologic time, containing no organic remains, such as granite, gneiss and schist as well as igneous and magmatic formations from all ages. Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary published in 1913 provides the following term as used in geology: Primary rocks (geol.) a term early used for rocks supposed to have been first formed, being crystalline and containing no organic remains, as granite, gneiss, etc.; – called also primitive rocks. The terms Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary rocks have also been used in like manner, but of these the last two only are now in use. Ninety years later the McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific & Technical Terms published in 2003 places the term in the geologic field of petrology: Primary rocks [′prī‚mer·ē ′räks] (petrology) Rocks whose constituents are newly formed particles that have never been constituents of previously formed rocks and that are not the products of alteration or replacement, such as limestones formed by precipitation from solution. The term dates from the late 18th century (see Giovanni Arduino and Abraham Gottlob Werner) when the first attempts to formulate a geologic time scale divided crustal rocks into


id: relict-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relict-0.md
category: reference
title: Relict
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relict
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:10.570192+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: relict-20260505-0
summary:
A relict is a surviving remnant of a natural phenomenon. == Biology == A relict is an organism that at an earlier time was abundant in a large area but now occurs at only one or a few small areas. == Geology and geomorphology == In geology, a relict is a structure or mineral from a parent rock that did not undergo metamorphosis when the surrounding rock did, or a rock that survived a destructive geologic process. In geomorphology, a relict landform is a landform formed by either erosive or constructive surficial processes that are no longer active as they were in the past. A glacial relict is a cold-adapted organism that is a remnant of a larger distribution that existed in the ice ages. == Human populations == As revealed by DNA testing, a relict population is an ancient people in an area, who have been largely supplanted by a later group of migrants and their descendants. In various places around the world, minority ethnic groups represent lineages of ancient human migrations in places now occupied by more populous ethnic groups, whose ancestors arrived later. For example, the first human groups to inhabit the Caribbean islands were hunter-gatherer tribes


id: sag-pond-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sag_pond-0.md
category: reference
title: Sag pond
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sag_pond
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:11.868316+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sag-pond-20260505-0
summary:
A sag pond is a body of fresh water collected in the lowest parts of a depression formed between two sides of an active strike-slip, transtensional or normal fault zone. == Formation == A sag pond is formed along a strike-slip fault, which may create a depression in the earth. When water enters the depression from rivers, streams, rainfall or snowfall, it fills the low-lying area, and a pond is the result. == Scientific significance == Sag pond formation is common in California, and many of them can be found on the San Andreas Fault, which runs through the western part of the state. Aerial photography or high-resolution topography can easily determine their locations. == Uses == Sag ponds have been converted into stock reservoirs. Larger sag ponds are converted into reservoirs for public water sources, such as San Andreas Lake == Examples == Sag ponds of various sizes can be found along the San Andreas Fault, most notably within the Carrizo Plain and Sierra Pelona Mountains. Some have been converted into reservoirs like the San Andreas Reservoir near San Bruno, California. Various lagoons on the plateau of Pico Island in the Azores are the result of a graben. ==


id: sector-collapse-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sector_collapse-0.md
category: reference
title: Sector collapse
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sector_collapse
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:13.195652+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sector-collapse-20260505-0
summary:
A sector collapse or lateral collapse is the structural failure and subsequent collapse of a minimum volume of 1 km3 (0.24 cu mi) of a volcano. Unlike smaller flank collapses, a sector collapse can involve the central volcanic pipe and historically this term had been restricted by some writers to such events in arc stratovolcanoes, but is now used for large events in any volcano. Sector collapses are one of the most hazardous volcanic events, often resulting in lateral blasts, landslides, and changes in volcanic eruptive behavior. Sector collapse can be caused by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, gradual volcanic deformation, and other processes. Sector collapse events can occur on volcanoes at convergent and divergent plate boundaries. Sector collapses are generally very sudden; however, some attempts have been made to predict collapse events. == Causes == === Internal === Sector collapse can result from internal volcanic processes. Volcanic eruption can damage originally stable magma chambers, causing a portion of the volcano to collapse. While eruption is one cause, sector collapse can occur without any eruption. Magmatic intrusions can also lead to sector collapse. Dikes fracture and deform rock, leaving the volcano weaker and more susceptible to collapse. Hydrothermal activity is another internal


id: series-stratigraphy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Series_(stratigraphy)-0.md
category: reference
title: Series (stratigraphy)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Series_(stratigraphy)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:14.371039+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: series-stratigraphy-20260505-0
summary:
Series are subdivisions of rock layers based on the age of the rock and formally defined by international conventions of the geological timescale. A series is therefore a sequence of strata defining a chronostratigraphic unit. Series are subdivisions of systems and are themselves divided into stages. Series is a term defining a unit of rock layers formed during a certain interval of time (a chronostratigraphic unit); it is equivalent (but not synonymous) to the term geological epoch (see epoch criteria) which defines the interval of time itself, although the two words are sometimes confused in informal literature. == Series in the geological timescale == The geological timescale has all systems in the Phanerozoic eonothem subdivided into series. Some of these have their own names; in other cases a system is simply divided into a Lower, Middle and Upper series, with official series being capitalized and unofficial designations (such as "middle Cretaceous") being left uncapitalized. The Cretaceous system is, for example, divided into the Upper Cretaceous and Lower Cretaceous Series, while the Carboniferous System is divided into the Pennsylvanian and Mississippian Series. As of 2008, the International Commission on Stratigraphy had not yet named all four series of the Cambrian. Currently


id: stage-stratigraphy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stage_(stratigraphy)-0.md
category: reference
title: Stage (stratigraphy)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stage_(stratigraphy)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:15.598010+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stage-stratigraphy-20260505-0
summary:
In chronostratigraphy, a stage is a succession of rock strata laid down in a single age on the geologic timescale, which usually represents millions of years of deposition. A given stage of rock and the corresponding age of time will by convention have the same name, and the same boundaries. Rock series are divided into stages, just as geological epochs are divided into ages. Stages are divided into smaller stratigraphic units called chronozones or substages, and added together into superstages. The term faunal stage is sometimes used, referring to the fact that the same fauna (animals) are found throughout the layer (by definition). == Definition == Stages are primarily defined by a consistent set of fossils (biostratigraphy) or a consistent magnetic polarity (see paleomagnetism) in the rock. Usually one or more index fossils that are common, found worldwide, easily recognized, and limited to a single, or at most a few, stages are used to define the stage's bottom. Thus, for example in the local North American subdivision, a paleontologist finding fragments of the trilobite Olenellus would identify the beds as being from the Waucoban Stage whereas fragments of a later trilobite such as Elrathia would identify the stage as Albertan.


id: subaerial-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subaerial-0.md
category: reference
title: Subaerial
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subaerial
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:17.882294+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: subaerial-20260505-0
summary:
In natural science, subaerial (literally "under the air") has been used since 1833, notably in geology and botany, to describe features and events occurring or formed on or near the Earth's land surface. They are thus exposed to Earth's atmosphere. This may be contrasted with subaqueous events or features located below a water surface, submarine events or features located below a sea surface, subterranean events or features located below ground, or subglacial events or features located below glacial ice such as ice sheets. == Geology == For example, a subaerial eruption of a volcano is one that ejects material in the open but "under the air" (under the atmosphere). Subaerial weathering is weathering by rain, frost, rivers etc. The term "subaerial" may exclude processes occurring in caves. The term is often used in sedimentology. == Botany == Leaves are subaerial organs of plants. Some plants may have subaerial roots, either totally (epiphytic plants such as some orchids) or more commonly only partly so. The oil palm tree can grow roots into accumulations of decaying leaves on the soil surface; these roots are said to be subaerial. Epiphyte plants growing above ground that do not feed from their tree support (for


id: subbasin-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subbasin-0.md
category: reference
title: Subbasin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subbasin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:19.116933+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: subbasin-20260505-0
summary:
A subbasin or sub-basin is a structural geologic feature where a larger basin is divided into a series of smaller basins with intervening intrabasinal highs. The term subbasin has common use in geologic literature, but has yet to be included in the API Glossary of Geology. == References ==


id: system-stratigraphy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_(stratigraphy)-0.md
category: reference
title: System (stratigraphy)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_(stratigraphy)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:20.304965+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: system-stratigraphy-20260505-0
summary:
A system in stratigraphy is a sequence of strata (rock layers) that were laid down together within the same corresponding geological period. The associated period is a chronological time unit, a part of the geological time scale, while the system is a unit of chronostratigraphy. Systems are unrelated to lithostratigraphy, which subdivides rock layers on their lithology. Systems are subdivisions of erathems and are themselves divided into series and stages. == Systems in the geological timescale == The systems of the Phanerozoic were defined during the 19th century, beginning with the Cretaceous (by Belgian geologist Jean d'Omalius d'Halloy in the Paris Basin) and the Carboniferous (by British geologists William Conybeare and William Phillips in 1822). The Paleozoic and Mesozoic were divided into the currently used systems before the second half of the 19th century, except for a minor revision when the Ordovician system was added in 1879. The Cenozoic has seen more recent revisions by the International Commission on Stratigraphy. It has been divided into three systems with the Paleogene and Neogene replacing the former Tertiary System though the succeeding Quaternary remains. The one-time system names of Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene and Pliocene are now series within the Paleogene and


id: upper-mantle-body-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_mantle_body-0.md
category: reference
title: Upper mantle body
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_mantle_body
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:21.562858+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: upper-mantle-body-20260505-0
summary:
An upper mantle body is a geological region where upper mantle rocks (peridotite) outcrop on the surface of the Earth (including the ocean floor). Upper mantle outcrops include: upper mantle made at constructive plate boundaries, but preserved in ophiolites, for example Isabela ophiolite in the Philippines upper mantle above subduction zones, so called suprasubduction ophiolites (such as Troodos Ophiolite, Cyprus) upper mantle exposed by thinning of continental crust by extension to continental crust removal (Ligurian "Ophiolites" and conjugate margin of Iberia and Newfoundland) upper mantle exposures on earth's surface above sea-water level in Oceans (whose ocean floor is covered with oceanic crust). Examples are Macquarie Island in the Pacific and the St. Peter and St. Paul Islands in the Atlantic. upper mantle exposures on earth's surface on the ocean floor. Examples include Gakkel Ridge and Lena Trough. upper mantle exposures on earth's surface of disputed origin upper mantle exposure on earth's surface of not understood environment == References ==


id: vug-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vug-0.md
category: reference
title: Vug
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vug
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:22.821989+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vug-20260505-0
summary:
A vug, vugh, or vugg () is a small- to medium-sized cavity inside rock. It may be formed through a variety of processes. Most commonly, cracks and fissures opened by tectonic activity (folding and faulting) are partially filled by quartz, calcite, and other secondary minerals. Open spaces within breccias formed by an ancient collapse are another important source of vugs. Vugs may also form when mineral crystals or fossils inside a rock matrix are later removed through erosion or dissolution processes, leaving behind irregular voids. The inner surfaces of such vugs are often coated with a crystal druse. Fine crystals are often found in vugs where the open space allows the free development of external crystal form. The term vug is not applied to veins and fissures that have become completely filled, but may be applied to any small cavities within such veins. Geodes are a vug-formed rock, although that term is usually reserved for more rounded crystal-lined cavities in sedimentary rocks and ancient lavas. The word vug was introduced to the English language by Cornish miners, from the days when Cornwall was a major supplier of tin. The Cornish word was vooga, which meant "cave". == Images == ==


id: aboutness-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aboutness-0.md
category: reference
title: Aboutness
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aboutness
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:24.487269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aboutness-20260505-0
summary:
Aboutness is a term used in library and information science (LIS), linguistics, philosophy of language, and philosophy of mind. In general, the term refers to the concept that a text, utterance, image, or action is on or of something. In LIS, it is often considered synonymous with a document's subject. In the philosophy of mind, it has been often considered synonymous with intentionality, perhaps since John Searle (1983). In the philosophy of logic and language, it is understood as the way a piece of text relates to a subject matter or topic. R. A. Fairthorne (1969) is credited with coining the exact term "aboutness", which became popular in LIS since the late 1970s, perhaps due to arguments put forward by William John Hutchins (1975, 1977, 1978). Hutchins argued that "aboutness" was to be preferred to "subject" because it removed some epistemological problems. Birger Hjørland (1992, 1997) argued, however, that the same epistemological problems also were present in Hutchins' proposal, why "aboutness" and "subject" should be considered synonymous. While information scientists may well be concerned with the literary aboutness (John Hutchins, 1975, 1977, 1978), philosophers of mind and psychologists with the psychological or intentional aboutness (John Searle, 1983) and language of


id: authority-control-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authority_control-0.md
category: reference
title: Authority control
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authority_control
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:25.700102+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: authority-control-20260505-0
summary:
In information science, authority control is a process that organizes information, for example in library catalogs, by using a single, distinct spelling of a name (heading) or an identifier (generally persistent and alphanumeric) for each topic or concept. The word authority in authority control derives from the idea that the names of people, places, things, and concepts are authorized, i.e., they are established in one particular form. These one-of-a-kind headings or identifiers are applied consistently throughout catalogs which make use of the respective authority file, and are applied for other methods of organizing data such as linkages and cross references. Each controlled entry is described in an authority record in terms of its scope and usage, and this organization helps the library staff maintain the catalog and make it user-friendly for researchers. Catalogers assign each subject—such as author, topic, series, or corporation—a particular unique identifier or heading term which is then used consistently, uniquely, and unambiguously for all references to that same subject, which removes variations from different spellings, transliterations, pen names, or aliases. The unique header can guide users to all relevant information including related or collocated subjects. Authority records can be combined into a database and called an


id: authority-control-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authority_control-1.md
category: reference
title: Authority control
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authority_control
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:25.700102+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: authority-control-20260505-0
summary:
Generally, there are different authority file headings and identifiers used by different libraries in different countries, possibly inviting confusion, but there are different approaches internationally to try to lessen the confusion. One international effort to prevent such confusion is the Virtual International Authority File which is a collaborative attempt to provide a single heading for a particular subject. It is a way to standardize information from different authority files around the world such as the Integrated Authority File (GND) maintained and used cooperatively by many libraries in German-speaking countries and the United States Library of Congress. The idea is to create a single worldwide virtual authority file. For example, the ID for Princess Diana in the GND is 118525123 (preferred name: Diana < Wales, Prinzessin>) while the United States Library of Congress uses the term Diana, Princess of Wales, 1961–1997; other authority files have other choices. The Virtual International Authority File choice for all of these variations is VIAF ID: 107032638 — that is, a common number representing all of these variations. The English Wikipedia prefers the term "Diana, Princess of Wales", but at the bottom of the article about her, there are links to various international cataloging efforts for


id: authority-control-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authority_control-2.md
category: reference
title: Authority control
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authority_control
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:25.700102+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: authority-control-20260505-0
summary:
For example, the Irish writer Brian O'Nolan, who lived from 1911 to 1966, wrote under many pen names such as Flann O'Brien and Myles na Gopaleen. Catalogers at the United States Library of Congress chose one form—"O'Brien, Flann, 1911–1966"—as the official heading. The example contains all three elements of a valid authority record: the first heading O'Brien, Flann, 1911–1966 is the form of the name that the Library of Congress chose as authoritative. In theory, every record in the catalog that represents a work by this author should have this form of the name as its author heading. What follows immediately below the heading beginning with Na Gopaleen, Myles, 1911–1966 are the see references. These forms of the author's name will appear in the catalog, but only as transcriptions and not as headings. If a user queries the catalog under one of these variant forms of the author's name, he or she would receive the response: "See O'Brien, Flann, 1911–1966." There is an additional spelling variant of the Gopaleen name: "Na gCopaleen, Myles, 1911–1966" has an extra C inserted because the author also employed the non-anglicized Irish spelling of his pen-name, in which the capitalized C shows the correct root


id: bibliomining-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliomining-0.md
category: reference
title: Bibliomining
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliomining
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:26.830125+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bibliomining-20260505-0
summary:
Bibliomining is the use of a combination of data mining, data warehousing, and bibliometrics for the purpose of analyzing library services. The term was created in 2003 by Scott Nicholson, Assistant Professor, Syracuse University School of Information Studies, in order to distinguish data mining in a library setting from other types of data mining. == How bibliomining works == First a data warehouse must be created. This is done by compiling information on the resources, such as titles and authors, subject headings, and descriptions of the collections. Then the demographic surrogate information is organized. Finally the library information (such as the librarian, whether or not the information came from the reference desk or circulation desk, and the location of the library) is obtained. Once this is organized, the data can be processed and analyzed. This can be done via a few methods, such as online analytical processing (OLAP), using a data mining program, or through data visualization. == Uses of bibliomining == Bibliomining is used to discover patterns in what people are reading and researching and allows librarians to target their community better. Bibliomining can also help library directors focus their budgets on resources that will be utilized. Another use


id: born-digital-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born-digital-0.md
category: reference
title: Born-digital
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born-digital
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:28.033797+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: born-digital-20260505-0
summary:
The term born-digital refers to materials that originate in a digital form. This is in contrast to digital reformatting, through which analog materials become digital, as in the case of files created by scanning physical paper records. It is most often used in relation to digital libraries and the issues that go along with said organizations, such as digital preservation and intellectual property. However, as technologies have advanced and spread, the concept of being born-digital has also been discussed in relation to personal consumer-based sectors, with the rise of e-books and evolving digital music. Other terms that might be encountered as synonymous include "natively digital", "digital-first", and "digital-exclusive". == Discrepancies in definition == There exists some inconsistency in defining born-digital materials. Some believe such materials must exist in digital form exclusively; in other words, if they can be transferred into a physical, analog form, they are not truly born-digital. However, others maintain that while these materials will often not have a subsequent physical counterpart, having one does not bar them from being classified as 'born-digital'. For instance, Mahesh and Mittal identify two types of born-digital content, "exclusive digital" and "digital for print", allowing for a broader base of classification than


id: born-digital-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born-digital-1.md
category: reference
title: Born-digital
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born-digital
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:28.033797+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: born-digital-20260505-0
summary:
==== Sound recordings ==== Digital sound recordings have played a role since the 1970s with the acceptance of pulse-code modulation (PCM) in the recording process. Since then, numerous means of storing and delivering digital audio have been developed, including web streams, compact discs and mp3 audio files. Increasingly, digital audio are only available via download, lacking any kind of tangible counterpart. One example of this trend is the 2008 recording of Hector Berlioz's Symphonie fantastique by Los Angeles Philharmonic under Gustavo Dudamel. Available through download only, it has presented problems for libraries which may want to carry this work but cannot due to licensing limitations. Another example is Radiohead's 2007 release In Rainbows, released initially as a digital download, before later receiving a physical release. ==== Other media ==== WebExhibits are websites that act as virtual museums for any variety of content. These often use both primary and secondary historical sources, maps, timelines, infographics, and other data visualizations to showcase the historical past. One example is Clio Visualizing History's Click! The Ongoing Feminist Revolution, a web exhibit about the American women's movement from the 1940s to the present. Clio Visualizing History was founded by Lola Van Wagenen in 1996 to


id: born-digital-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born-digital-2.md
category: reference
title: Born-digital
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born-digital
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:28.033797+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: born-digital-20260505-0
summary:
=== Licensing === Laws created to protect the intellectual property were written for analog works; as such, provisions such as the first-sale doctrine of US copyright law, which enables libraries to lend materials to patrons, have not been applied to the digital realm. Therefore, certain copyrighted digital content that is licensed rather than owned, as is common with many digital materials, is often of limited use since it cannot be transmitted to patrons at various computers or lent through an interloan agreement. However, with regards to the preservation functions of libraries and archives and the subsequent need to make copies of born-digital materials, the laws of many countries have been changing, allowing for agreements to be made between these institutions and the rights holders of born-digital content. Consumers have also had to deal with intellectual property as it concerns their ownership of and ability to control the born-digital material that they buy. Piracy proves to be a bigger problem with digital objects, including those that are born-digital, because such materials can be copied and spread in perfect condition with speed and distance on a scale inconceivable for traditional print and physical materials. Again, the first-sale doctrine, which, from a consumer


id: discoverability-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discoverability-0.md
category: reference
title: Discoverability
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discoverability
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:29.265231+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: discoverability-20260505-0
summary:
Discoverability is the degree to which something, especially a piece of content or information, can be found in a search of a file, database, or other information system. Discoverability is a concern in library and information science, many aspects of digital media, software and web development, and in marketing, since products and services cannot be used if people cannot find it or do not understand what it can be used for. Metadata, or "information about information", such as a book's title, a product's description, or a website's keywords, affects how discoverable something is on a database or online. Adding metadata to a product that is available online can make it easier for end users to find the product. For example, if a song file is made available online, making the title, band name, genre, year of release, and other pertinent information available in connection with this song means the file can be retrieved more easily. The organization of information through the implementation of alphabetical structures or the integration of content into search engines exemplifies strategies employed to enhance the discoverability of information. The concept of discoverability, while related to but distinct from accessibility and usability, which are other qualities that


id: discoverability-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discoverability-1.md
category: reference
title: Discoverability
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discoverability
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:29.265231+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: discoverability-20260505-0
summary:
=== Specific to digital media === In relation to audiovisual content, according to the meaning given by the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) for the purpose of its 2016 Discoverability Summit, discoverability can be summed up to the intrinsic ability of given content to "stand out of the lot", or to position itself so as to be easily found and discovered. A piece of audiovisual content can be a movie, a TV series, music, a book (eBook), an audio book or podcast. When audiovisual content such as a digital file for a TV show, movie, or song, is made available online, if the content is "tagged" with identifying information such as the names of the key artists (e.g., actors, directors and screenwriters for TV shows and movies; singers, musicians and record producers for songs) and the genres (for movies genres, music genres, etc.). When users interact with online content, algorithms typically determine what types of content the user is interested in, and then a computer program suggests "more like this", which is other content that the user may be interested in. Different websites and systems have different algorithms, but one approach, used by Amazon (company) for its online store,


id: discoverability-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discoverability-2.md
category: reference
title: Discoverability
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discoverability
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:29.265231+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: discoverability-20260505-0
summary:
=== Internet search === For items that are searched for online, the goal of discoverability is to be at or near the top of the search results. Organizations may make efforts to make it more likely, that "their" content or webpages are at the top, or close to the top, of search results; these approaches are often collectively called search engine optimization (SEO). Note that when an organization takes action to increase the SEO of its website, this does not normally involve changes to the search engine itself; rather, it involves adding metadata tags and original content, among other strategies, to increase the "visibility" of the website to search engine algorithms. Recent discussions of discoverability have also considered AI-generated answer systems, in which visibility may depend not only on ranking in conventional search results but also on whether sources are selected, cited, and synthesized in generated responses. ==== Services ==== In a service delivery context, the application of this principle requires collecting information about the service during the service analysis phase as during this phase; maximum information is available about the service's functional context and the capabilities of the service. At this stage, the domain knowledge of the business experts


id: discoverability-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discoverability-3.md
category: reference
title: Discoverability
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discoverability
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:29.265231+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: discoverability-20260505-0
summary:
=== Algorithms === In the digital economy, sophisticated algorithms are required for the analysis of the ways that end users search for, access and use different content or products online. Thus, not only is metadata created regarding the content or product, but also data about specific users' interaction with this content. If a social media website has a user profile for a given person, indicating demographic information (age, gender, location of residence, employment status, education, etc.), then this website can collect and analyse information about tendencies and preferences of a given user or a subcategory of users. This raises potential privacy concerns. Algorithms have been called “black boxes”, because the factors used by the leading websites in their algorithms are typically proprietary information which is not released to the public. While a number of search engine optimization (SEO) firms offer the services of attempting to increase the ranking of a client's web content or website, these SEO firms do not typically know the exact algorithms used by Google and Facebook. Web crawlers can only access 26% of new online content "...by recrawling a constant fraction of the entire web". One concern raised with the increasing role of algorithms in search


id: genreflecting-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genreflecting-0.md
category: reference
title: Genreflecting
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genreflecting
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:30.577856+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genreflecting-20260505-0
summary:
Genreflecting is the process of examining and analyzing the patterns and characteristics of literary genres—both fiction and recreational nonfiction—and using that analysis to identify titles with similar appeals to readers (i.e., read-alikes), in order to make reading suggestions to individuals who are looking for something to read. The term "genreflecting" was first coined by Betty Rosenberg, a prominent library science educator, in 1982. Since that time, the term has been adopted by readers' advisory in libraries and extended to nonfiction genres as well as fiction. A similar practice in retail bookstores is called "hand-selling." == History == At the time the first edition of Rosenberg's Genreflecting was written, adding popular reading materials to library collections and recommending those titles to readers were controversial practices. Dr. Rosenberg's First Law of Reading—"Never apologize for your reading taste"—has since been adopted by growing numbers of librarians, and the field of readers' advisory has become increasingly central to the practice of librarianship. Nancy Pearl, the well known model of the librarian action figure and author of Book Lust and More Book Lust, has promoted and further popularized the practice of readers' advisory within the library community and beyond. In recent years, a number of


id: information-grazing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_grazing-0.md
category: reference
title: Information grazing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_grazing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:31.783951+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: information-grazing-20260505-0
summary:
Information grazing refers to the ability to quickly obtain knowledge and facts just in time to solve new problems or answer questions. "Information grazing" can also be "information jumping", jumping from site to site and cherry-picking information seems to "rewire" the brain to deleterious effects or focus on something long enough to fully understand all its implications. Unlike traditional learning, where learning a subject in depth was necessary to draw enough pertinent knowledge to solve new problems or answer questions, information grazing assumes some subjects are so large, fast-changing, interdependent, or esoteric, that traditional methods of learning may be unable to solve new problems or answer questions as efficiently. Information grazing is also one of the most commonly used coping techniques for stress and experts have noticed a trend with people many under the age of 35. The change from a traditional in-depth learning and memorizing of facts to a mentality of quickly finding, using, and then forgetting knowledge, stems from the technological singularity concept that information is growing so fast (see information explosion or information overload) that an individual can no longer hope to be a "renaissance man" or effectively keep up with some fields of knowledge. Examples of


id: knowledge-organization-system-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_organization_system-0.md
category: reference
title: Knowledge organization system
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_organization_system
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:33.029933+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: knowledge-organization-system-20260505-0
summary:
Knowledge organization system (KOS), concept system, or concept scheme is the generic term used in knowledge organization (KO) for the selection of concepts with an indication of selected semantic relations. Despite their differences in type, coverage, and application, all KOS aim to support the organization of knowledge and information to facilitate their management and retrieval. KOS vary in complexity from simple sorted lists to complex relational networks. They represent both structural and functional features, and serve to eliminate ambiguity, control synonyms, establish relationships, and present properties. From their origins in library and information science (LIS), KOS have been applied to other domains and disciplines within science and industry, although scholarly research and debate remain primarily within the KO field. Challenges of KOS include ambiguity of terminology, repercussions of biased systems, and potential obsolescence. KOS can be expressed in RDF and RDFS as per the Simple Knowledge Organization System (SKOS) recommendation by W3C, which aims to enable the sharing and linking of KOS via the Web. One of the largest collections of KOS is the BARTOC registry. == Types == While different schema of KOS have been proposed, most are generally arranged in terms of the complexity of their construction and


id: preservation-of-meaning-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preservation_of_meaning-0.md
category: reference
title: Preservation of meaning
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preservation_of_meaning
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:34.255393+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preservation-of-meaning-20260505-0
summary:
Preservation of meaning in library, archival or museum collections involves understanding spiritual, ritual, or cultural perceptions of value for specific objects, and ensuring these values are maintained and respected. Meaning is something assigned to objects of cultural or spiritual significance based on interpretations and perceived values by user populations, a process known as social construction of an object. When moved to memory institutions such as libraries or museums, these objects of social construction require unique approaches to preservation and maintenance in order to remain relevant as representations of cultural or spiritual societies. In many memory institutions of the Western World, including libraries and museums, focus is often placed on the informational content and physical attributes, or artifactual value, of collected materials. Preservation policies are primarily concerned with the maintenance of these two things, either through reformatting to preserve textual information, or repairs and environmental controls to ensure continued existence of their physical structure. However, it is necessary to look beyond the physical and informational aspects of objects in order to ensure we are also preserving the integrity of the spiritual or cultural values which may be fundamental in defining the object. Concerns arise when actions taken to preserve the physical


id: provenance-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provenance-0.md
category: reference
title: Provenance
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provenance
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:35.468635+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: provenance-20260505-0
summary:
Provenance (from French provenir 'to come from/forth') is the chronology of the ownership, custody or location of a historical object. The term was originally mostly used in relation to works of art, but is now used in similar senses in a wide range of fields, including archaeology, paleontology, archival science, economy, computing, and scientific enquiry in general. The primary purpose of tracing the provenance of an object or entity is normally to provide contextual and circumstantial evidence for its original production or discovery, by establishing, as far as practicable, its later history, especially the sequences of its formal ownership, custody and places of storage. The practice has a particular value in helping authenticate objects. Comparative techniques, expert opinions and the results of scientific tests may also be used to these ends, but establishing provenance is essentially a matter of documentation. The term dates to the 1780s in English. Provenance is conceptually comparable to the legal term chain of custody. For museums and the art trade, in addition to helping establish the authorship and authenticity of an object, provenance has become increasingly important in helping establish the moral and legal validity of a chain of custody, given the increasing amount of


id: provenance-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provenance-1.md
category: reference
title: Provenance
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provenance
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:35.468635+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: provenance-20260505-0
summary:
The objective of provenance research is to produce a complete list of owners (together, where possible, with the supporting documentary proof) from when the painting was commissioned or in the artist's studio through to the present time. In practice, there are likely to be gaps in the list and documents that are missing or lost. The documented provenance should also list when the painting has been part of an exhibition and a bibliography of when it has been discussed, or illustrated in print. Where the research is proceeding backwards, to discover the previous provenance of a painting whose current ownership and location are known, it is important to record the physical details of the painting – style, subject, signature, materials, dimensions, frame, etc. The titles of paintings and the attribution to a particular artist may change over time. The size of the work and its description can be used to identify earlier references to the painting. The back of a painting can contain significant provenance information. There may be exhibition marks, dealer stamps, gallery labels and other indications of previous ownership. There may be shipping labels. In the BBC TV programme Fake or Fortune? the provenance of the painting Bords


id: provenance-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provenance-2.md
category: reference
title: Provenance
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provenance
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:35.468635+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: provenance-20260505-0
summary:
== Books == In the case of books, the study of provenance refers to the study of the ownership of individual copies of books. It is usually extended to include the study of the circumstances in which individual copies of books have changed ownership, and of evidence left in books that shows how readers interacted with them. Provenance studies may shed light on the books themselves, providing evidence of the role particular titles have played in social, intellectual and literary history. Such studies may also add to our knowledge of particular owners of books. For instance, looking at the books owned by a writer may help to show which works influenced him or her. Many provenance studies are historically focused, and concentrated on books owned by writers, politicians and public figures. The recent ownership of books is studied, however, as is evidence of how ordinary or anonymous readers have interacted with books. Provenance can be studied both by examining the books themselves, for instance looking at inscriptions, marginalia, bookplates, book rhymes, and bindings, and by reference to external sources of information such as auction catalogues. == Pianos == Provenance for pianos is authenticated before a piano is inducted into a


id: provenance-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provenance-3.md
category: reference
title: Provenance
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provenance
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:35.468635+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: provenance-20260505-0
summary:
Archaeology and anthropology researchers use the word provenience (or alternatively find-spot) to refer to the exact location of discovery of an artifact, a bone or other remains, a soil sample, or a feature within an ancient site, whereas the word provenance covers an object's complete documented history. Ideally, in modern excavations, the provenience is recorded in three dimensions on a site grid with great precision, and may also be recorded on video to provide additional proof and context. In older work, often undertaken by amateurs, only the general site or approximate area may be known, especially when an artifact was found outside a professional excavation and its specific position not recorded. The term provenience appeared in the 1880s, about a century after provenance. Outside of academic contexts, it has been used as a synonymous variant spelling of provenance, especially in American English. Digital analytical methods have also been applied to the reconstruction of archaeological provenience. For example, a 2025 study used high-resolution three-dimensional surface comparison to identify ancient Egyptian artefacts produced from the same mould, contributing to the reassessment of their original context. Any given antiquity may have both a provenience, where it was found, and a provenance, where it


id: provenance-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provenance-4.md
category: reference
title: Provenance
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provenance
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:35.468635+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: provenance-20260505-0
summary:
=== Computer science === Within computer science, informatics uses the term "provenance" to mean the lineage of data, as per data provenance, with research in the last decade extending the conceptual model of causality and relation to include processes that act on data and agents that are responsible for those processes. See, for example, the proceedings of the International Provenance Annotation Workshop (IPAW) and Theory and Practice of Provenance (TaPP). Semantic web standards bodies, including the World Wide Web Consortium in 2014, have ratified a standard data model for provenance representation known as PROV which draws from many of the better-known provenance representation systems that preceded it, such as the Proof Markup Language and the Open Provenance Model. Interoperability is a design goal of most recent computer science provenance theories and models, for example the Open Provenance Model (OPM) 2008 generation workshop aimed at "establishing inter-operability of systems" through information exchange agreements. Data models and serialisation formats for delivering provenance information typically reuse existing metadata models where possible to enable this. Both the OPM Vocabulary and the PROV Ontology make extensive use of metadata models such as Dublin Core and Semantic Web technologies such as the Web Ontology Language (OWL).


id: provenance-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provenance-5.md
category: reference
title: Provenance
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provenance
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:35.468635+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: provenance-20260505-0
summary:
== Computers and law == The term provenance is used when ascertaining the source of goods such as computer hardware to assess if they are genuine or counterfeit. Chain of custody is an equivalent term used in law, especially for evidence in criminal or commercial cases. Software provenance encompasses the origin of software and its licensing terms. For example, when incorporating a free, open source or proprietary software component in an application, one may wish to understand its provenance to ensure that licensing requirements are fulfilled and that other software characteristics can be understood. Data provenance covers the provenance of computerized data. There are two main aspects of data provenance: ownership of the data and data usage. Ownership will tell the user who is responsible for the source of the data, ideally including information on the originator of the data. Data usage gives details regarding how the data has been used and modified and often includes information on how to cite the data source or sources. Data provenance is of particular concern with electronic data, as data sets are often modified and copied without proper citation or acknowledgement of the originating data set. Databases make it easy to select specific


id: realia-library-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realia_(library_science)-0.md
category: reference
title: Realia (library science)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realia_(library_science)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:36.750177+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: realia-library-science-20260505-0
summary:
In library classification systems, realia are three-dimensional objects from real life such as coins, tools, and textiles, that do not fit into the traditional categories of library material. They can be either human-made (artifacts, tools, utensils, etc.) or naturally occurring (specimens, samples, etc.), usually borrowed, purchased, or received as donation by a teacher, library, or museum for use in classroom instruction or in exhibits. Archival and manuscript collections often receive items of memorabilia such as badges, emblems, insignias, jewelry, leather goods, needlework, etc., in connection with gifts of personal papers. Most government or institutional archives reject gifts of non-documentary objects, unless they have a documentary value. When accepting large bequests of mixed objects, they normally have the donors sign legal documents giving permission to the archive to destroy, exchange, sell, or dispose in any way those objects which, according to the best judgement of the archivist, are not manuscripts (which can include typescripts or printouts) or are not immediately useful for understanding the manuscripts. Recently, the usage of this term has been criticized by librarians based on the usage of the term realia to refer to artistic and historical artifacts and objects. The noun phrase "real world object" has been


id: realia-library-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realia_(library_science)-1.md
category: reference
title: Realia (library science)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realia_(library_science)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:36.750177+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: realia-library-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Hair, wool, and silk === Little research has been conducted regarding the preservation and conservation of human hair within the context of the archival world. However, much is known of the chemical structure and behavior of human hair, thanks in large part to the cosmetology industry; there is certainly a great deal of scholarship surrounding the care of other protein-based fibers, silk, and wool. Loose, braided, tied lovingly in silk ribbons, hair was memorialized especially by the Victorians. Often, hair would be encased within a glass or woven with metallic threads, paired with a metal setting to be worn as mourning jewelry, a memento of a friend or loved one. Hairwork, an art still practiced today by the Victorian Hairwork Society Archived 2016-08-23 at the Wayback Machine, was a popular needlework method, often resulting in two-dimensional mourning wreaths and graveyard scenes, worked in hair on a fabric ground. Wool, because of its ability to wick moisture and resist flame, was commonly used in Western textiles throughout history, and might present itself in the form of bed linens, clothing, and needlework. Hair (both human and animal) mainly consists of a protein, keratin, the fibers of which give the inner core


id: relevance-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relevance-0.md
category: reference
title: Relevance
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relevance
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:38.060447+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: relevance-20260505-0
summary:
Relevance is the connection between topics that makes one useful for dealing with the other. Relevance is studied in many different fields, including cognitive science, logic, and library and information science. Epistemology studies it in general, and different theories of knowledge have different implications for what is considered relevant. == Definition == "Something (A) is relevant to a task (T) if it increases the likelihood of accomplishing the goal (G), which is implied by T." A thing might be relevant, a document or a piece of information may be relevant. Relevance does not depend on whether we speak of "things" or "information". == Epistemology == If you believe that schizophrenia is caused by bad communication between mother and child, then family interaction studies become relevant. If, on the other hand, you subscribe to a genetic theory of relevance then the study of genes becomes relevant. If you subscribe to the epistemology of empiricism, then only intersubjectively controlled observations are relevant. If, on the other hand, you subscribe to feminist epistemology, then the sex of the observer becomes relevant. == Logic == In formal reasoning, relevance has proved an important but elusive concept. It is important because the solution of any


id: relevance-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relevance-1.md
category: reference
title: Relevance
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relevance
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:38.060447+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: relevance-20260505-0
summary:
In 1986, Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson drew attention to the central importance of relevance decisions in reasoning and communication. They proposed an account of the process of inferring relevant information from any given utterance. To do this work, they used what they called the "Principle of Relevance": namely, the position that any utterance addressed to someone automatically conveys the presumption of its own optimal relevance. The central idea of Sperber and Wilson's theory is that all utterances are encountered in some context, and the correct interpretation of a particular utterance is the one that allows most new implications to be made in that context on the basis of the least amount of information necessary to convey it. For Sperber and Wilson, relevance is conceived as relative or subjective, as it depends upon the state of knowledge of a hearer when they encounter an utterance. Sperber and Wilson stress that this theory is not intended to account for every intuitive application of the English word "relevance". Relevance, as a technical term, is restricted to relationships between utterances and interpretations, and so the theory cannot account for intuitions such as the one that relevance relationships obtain in problems involving physical objects.


id: search-retrieve-web-service-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Search/Retrieve_Web_Service-0.md
category: reference
title: Search/Retrieve Web Service
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Search/Retrieve_Web_Service
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:39.231473+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: search-retrieve-web-service-20260505-0
summary:
Search/Retrieve Web service (SRW) is a web service for search and retrieval. SRW provides a SOAP interface to queries, to augment the URL interface provided by its companion protocol Search/Retrieve via URL (SRU). Queries in SRU and SRW are expressed using the Contextual Query Language (CQL). Standards for SRW, SRU, and CQL are promulgated by the United States Library of Congress. The SRW service and SRU protocol were both created by as part of the ZING (Z39.50 International: Next Generation) initiative as successors to the Z39.50 protocol. == Example usage == == See also == Z39.50 === Implementations === refbase RefDB Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand == External links == SRU: Search/Retrieve via URL SRW: Search/Retrieve Web Service CQL: Contextual Query Language


id: secondary-data-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_data-0.md
category: reference
title: Secondary data
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_data
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:40.477953+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: secondary-data-20260505-0
summary:
Secondary data refers to data that is collected by someone other than the primary user. Common sources of secondary data for social science include censuses, information collected by government departments, organizational records and data that was originally collected for other research purposes. Primary data, by contrast, are collected by the investigator conducting the research. Secondary data analysis can save time that would otherwise be spent collecting data and, particularly in the case of quantitative data, can provide larger and higher-quality databases that would be unfeasible for any individual researcher to collect on their own. In addition, analysts of social and economic change consider secondary data essential, since it is impossible to conduct a new survey that can adequately capture past change and/or developments. However, secondary data analysis can be less useful in marketing research, as data may be outdated or inaccurate. == Sources of secondary data == Secondary data can be obtained from many sources: censuses and government departments like housing, social security, electoral statistics, tax records internet searches and libraries GPS and remote sensing km progress reports journals, newspapers and magazines === Administrative data and census === Government departments and agencies routinely collect information when registering people or carrying


id: secondary-source-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_source-0.md
category: reference
title: Secondary source
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_source
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:41.737889+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: secondary-source-20260505-0
summary:
In scholarship, a secondary source is a document or recording that relates or discusses information originally presented elsewhere. A secondary source contrasts with a primary, or original, source of the information being discussed. A primary source can be a person with direct knowledge of a situation or it may be a document created by such a person. A secondary source is one that gives information about a primary source. In a secondary source, the original information is selected, modified and arranged in a suitable format. Secondary sources involve generalization, analysis, interpretation, or evaluation of the original information. The most accurate classification for any given source is not always obvious. "Primary" and "secondary" are relative terms, and some sources may be classified as primary or secondary, depending on how they are used. A third level, the tertiary source, such as an encyclopedia or dictionary, resembles a secondary source in that it contains analysis, but a tertiary source has a different purpose: it aims to elaborate a broad introductory overview of the topic at hand. == Classification of sources == Making distinctions between primary and secondary symbolic sources (objects meant to communicate information) is both subjective and contextual, such that precise definitions


id: secondary-source-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_source-1.md
category: reference
title: Secondary source
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_source
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:41.737889+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: secondary-source-20260505-0
summary:
=== Humanities and history === Secondary sources in history and humanities are usually books or scholarly journals, from the perspective of a later interpreter, especially by a later scholar. In the humanities, a peer reviewed article is always a secondary source. The delineation of sources as primary and secondary first arose in the field of historiography, as historians attempted to identify and classify the sources of historical writing. In scholarly writing, an important objective of classifying sources is to determine the independence and reliability of sources. In original scholarly writing, historians rely on primary sources, read in the context of the scholarly interpretations. Following the Rankean model established by German scholarship in the 19th century, historians use archives of primary sources. Most undergraduate research projects rely on secondary source material, with perhaps snippets of primary sources. ==== Law ==== In the legal field, source classification is important because the persuasiveness of a source usually depends upon its history. Primary sources may include cases, constitutions, statutes, administrative regulations, and other sources of binding legal authority, while secondary legal sources may include books, the headnotes of case reports, articles, and encyclopedias. Legal writers usually prefer to cite primary sources because only primary


id: selective-dissemination-of-information-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_dissemination_of_information-0.md
category: reference
title: Selective dissemination of information
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_dissemination_of_information
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:42.915152+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: selective-dissemination-of-information-20260505-0
summary:
Selective dissemination of information (SDI) was originally a phrase related to library and information science. SDI refers to tools and resources used to keep a user informed of new resources on specified topics, including the current-awareness services used to inform about new library acquisitions. SDI services pre-date the World Wide Web, and the term itself is somewhat dated. Contemporary analogous systems for SDI services include alerts, current awareness tools or trackers. These systems provide automated searches that inform the user of the availability of new resources meeting the user's specified keywords and search parameters. Alerts can be received a number of ways, including email, RSS feeds, voice mail, Instant messaging, and text messaging. Selective dissemination of information was a concept first described by Hans Peter Luhn of IBM in the 1950s. Software was developed in many companies and in government to provide this service in the 1950s and 60s, which allowed distribution of items recently published in abstract journals to be routed to individuals who are likely to be interested in the contents. For example, the system at Ft. Monmouth automatically sent out (by mail) a different set of abstracts to each of about 1,000 scientists and engineers in the


id: shelfmark-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shelfmark-0.md
category: reference
title: Shelfmark
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shelfmark
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:44.090781+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: shelfmark-20260505-0
summary:
A shelfmark is a mark in a book or manuscript that denotes the cupboard or bookcase where it is kept as well as the shelf and possibly even its location on the shelf. The closely related term pressmark (from press, meaning cupboard) denotes only the cupboard or case. It is distinct from a call number, which is the code under which a book or manuscript is registered and which is used to identify it when ordering it. Sometimes a shelfmark or pressmark may be used as a call number, but in other cases the call number contains no information about the book's physical location. In certain American institutions, shelfmark and call number are combined to create a long code containing information on location, classification, size, binding, author and date. Shelfmarks and pressmarks were usually written, inscribed or stamped on the pastedowns. When a book was moved, the old shelfmark was usually crossed out and a new one added. Old shelfmarks can sometimes provide valuable information about a manuscript's provenance. Shelfmarks originated in the early Middle Ages, usually as combinations of numbers and letters, probably indicating the cupboard and shelf. Letters later came to be assigned to specific batch acquisitions. In


id: source-literature-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_literature-0.md
category: reference
title: Source literature
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_literature
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:45.321851+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: source-literature-20260505-0
summary:
Source literature (understood as printed texts) is a kind of information source. It might, for example, be cited and used as sources in academic writings, and then called the literature on the subject. The meaning of "source literature" is relative. From the point of view of a bibliographic index the indexed papers are "source literature". For example, the Social Sciences Citation Index is a "source index" covering the journals being indexed. These journals are the source literature from the point of view of this index. But from the point of view of the indexed papers they are the bibliographical references contained in the single papers "source literature". In the humanities, the term "source literature" has a more precise meaning than "published sources": Many archives, for example, publish important sources to be used by historians and other scholars as reliable editions of formerly unpublished sources. The publishing of such sources requires knowledge of text philology and other fields. But this kind of expertise put into the publishing of source literature should be differentiated from the kind of expertise needed in order to use the sources in, for example, historical research. A historian may or may not use such "source literature" and


id: subject-documents-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject_(documents)-0.md
category: reference
title: Subject (documents)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject_(documents)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:46.645452+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: subject-documents-20260505-0
summary:
In library and information science documents (such as books, articles and pictures) are classified and searched by subject – as well as by other attributes such as author, genre and document type. This makes "subject" a fundamental term in this field. Library and information specialists assign subject labels to documents to make them findable. There are many ways to do this and in general there is not always consensus about which subject should be assigned to a given document. To optimize subject indexing and searching, we need to have a deeper understanding of what a subject is. The question: "what is to be understood by the statement 'document A belongs to subject category X'?" has been debated in the field for more than 100 years (see below) == Theoretical view == === Charles Ammi Cutter (1837–1903) === For Cutter the stability of subjects depends on a social process in which their meaning is stabilized in a name or a designation. A subject "referred [...] to those intellections [...] that had received a name that itself represented a distinct consensus in usage" (Miksa, 1983a, p. 60) and: the "systematic structure of established subjects" is "resident in the public realm" (Miksa, 1983a,


id: subject-documents-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject_(documents)-1.md
category: reference
title: Subject (documents)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject_(documents)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:46.645452+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: subject-documents-20260505-0
summary:
Ranganathan's definition of "subject" is strongly influenced by his Colon Classification system. The colon system is based on the combination of single elements from facets to subject designation. This is the reason why the combined nature of subjects are emphasized so strongly. It leads, however, to absurdities such as the claim that gold cannot be a subject (but is alternatively termed "an isolate"). This aspect of the theory has been criticized by Metcalfe (1973, p. 318). Metcalfe's skepticism regarding Ranganathan's theory is formulated in hard words (op. cit., p. 317): "This pseudo-science imposed itself on British disciples from about 1950 on...". It seems unacceptable that Ranganathan defines the word subject in a way that favors his own system. A scientific concept like "subject" should make it possible to compare different ways of establishing access to information. Whether or not subjects are combined or not should be examined once their definition has been given, it should not determined a priori, in the definition. Besides the emphasis on the combined, organizing and systematizing nature of subjects contains Ranganathan's definition of subject the pragmatic demand, that a subject should be determined in a way that suits a normal person's competency or specialization. Again


id: subject-documents-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject_(documents)-2.md
category: reference
title: Subject (documents)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject_(documents)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:46.645452+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: subject-documents-20260505-0
summary:
=== Other views and definitions === In the ISO-standard for topic maps the concept of subject is defined this way: "Subject Anything whatsoever, regardless of whether it exists or has any other specific characteristics, about which anything whatsoever may be asserted by any means whatsoever." ISO 13250-1, here cited from draft: http://www1.y12.doe.gov/capabilities/sgml/sc34/document/0446.htm#overview) This definition may work well with the closed system of concepts provided by the topic maps standard. In broader contexts, however, is not fruitful because it does not contain any specification of what to identify in a document or in a discourse when ascribing subject identification terms or symbols to it. If different methods of subject analysis imply different results, which of these results can then be said to reflect the (true) subject? (Given that the expression "a true subject assignment" is meaningful at all, which is an important part of the problem). Different persons may have different opinions about what the subject of a specific document is. How can a theoretical understanding of the term "subject" be helpful deciding principles of subject analysis? == Related concepts == === Indexing words versus concepts versus subjects === A proposal for the differentiation between concept indexing and subject indexing was


id: transliteracy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transliteracy-0.md
category: reference
title: Transliteracy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transliteracy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:47.829817+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transliteracy-20260505-0
summary:
Transliteracy is "a fluidity of movement across a range of technologies, media and contexts". It is an ability to use diverse techniques to collaborate across different social groups. Transliteracy combines a range of capabilities required to move across a range of contexts, media, technologies and genres. Conceptually, transliteracy is situated across five capabilities: information capabilities (see information literacy), ICT (information and communication technologies), communication and collaboration, creativity and critical thinking. It is underpinned by literacy and numeracy. (See figure below) The concept of transliteracy is impacting the system of education and libraries. == History == While the term appears to come from the prefix trans- ('across') and the word literacy, the scholars who coined it say they developed it from the practice of transliteration, which means to use the letters of one language to write down a different language. The study of transliteracy was first developed in 2005 by the Transliteracies Research Project, directed by University of California at Santa Barbara Professor Alan Liu. The concept of 'transliteracies' was developed as part of research into online reading. It was shared and refined at the Transliteracies conference, held at UC Santa Barbara in 2005. The conference inspired the at the time


id: transliteracy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transliteracy-1.md
category: reference
title: Transliteracy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transliteracy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:47.829817+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transliteracy-20260505-0
summary:
== Transliteracy in libraries == In 2009, Dr. Susie Andretta, senior lecturer in Information Management at London Metropolitan University, conducted interviews with four different information professionals including an academic librarian, an outreach librarian, a content manager, and a scholar within the library science and information discipline. She was aiming to explore how transliteracy was colliding and combining with the print-world of libraries. Dr. Andretta defines transliteracy as "an umbrella term encompassing different literacies and multiple communication channels that require active participation with and across a range of platforms, and embracing both linear and non-linear messages (3)." The goals of these interviews ranged from the following: to test the information professional's awareness of transliteracy, to have them identify transliteracy and how it is integrated into their work, and to explain the impact transliteracy has had on they library they work at. Andretta found that out of all the information professionals interviewed, it was only the academic librarian who was vaguely familiar with the concept of transliteracy. Bernadette Daly Swanson, an Academic Librarian at UC Davis, expresses in her interview with Dr. Andretta how she would "like to think that the transliterate library is more of an environment where we do different


id: glossary-of-mathematical-jargon-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_jargon-0.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of mathematical jargon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_jargon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:49.499904+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-mathematical-jargon-20260505-0
summary:
The language of mathematics has a wide vocabulary of specialist and technical terms. It also has a certain amount of jargon: commonly used phrases which are part of the culture of mathematics, rather than of the subject. Jargon often appears in lectures, and sometimes in print, as informal shorthand for rigorous arguments or precise ideas. Much of this uses common English words, but with a specific non-obvious meaning when used in a mathematical sense. Some phrases, like "in general", appear below in more than one section. == Philosophy of mathematics == abstract nonsense A tongue-in-cheek reference to category theory, using which one can employ arguments that establish a (possibly concrete) result without reference to any specifics of the present problem. For that reason, it is also known as general abstract nonsense or generalized abstract nonsense. [The paper of Eilenberg and Mac Lane (1942)] introduced the very abstract idea of a 'category' — a subject then called 'general abstract nonsense'! [Grothendieck] raised algebraic geometry to a new level of abstraction...if certain mathematicians could console themselves for a time with the hope that all these complicated structures were 'abstract nonsense'...the later papers of Grothendieck and others showed that classical problems...which had resisted


id: glossary-of-mathematical-jargon-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_jargon-1.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of mathematical jargon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_jargon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:49.499904+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-mathematical-jargon-20260505-0
summary:
== Descriptive informalities == Although ultimately every mathematical argument must meet a high standard of precision, mathematicians use descriptive but informal statements to discuss recurring themes or concepts with unwieldy formal statements. Note that many of the terms are completely rigorous in context.


id: glossary-of-mathematical-jargon-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_jargon-2.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of mathematical jargon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_jargon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:49.499904+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-mathematical-jargon-20260505-0
summary:
almost all A shorthand term for "all except for a set of measure zero", when there is a measure to speak of, with the phrases almost surely and almost everywhere having related meanings. For example, "almost all real numbers are transcendental" because the algebraic real numbers form a countable subset of the real numbers with measure zero. One can also speak of "almost all" integers having a property to mean "all except finitely many", despite the integers not admitting a measure for which this agrees with the previous usage, such as "almost all prime numbers are odd". There is a more complicated meaning for integers as well, discussed in the main article. Finally, this term is sometimes used synonymously with generic, below. arbitrarily large Notions which arise mostly in the context of limits, referring to the recurrence of a phenomenon as the limit is approached. A statement such as that predicate P is satisfied by arbitrarily large values, can be expressed in more formal notation by ∀x : ∃y ≥ x : P(y). See also frequently. The statement that quantity f(x) depending on x "can be made" arbitrarily large, corresponds to ∀y : ∃x : f(x) ≥ y. arbitrary A


id: glossary-of-mathematical-jargon-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_jargon-3.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of mathematical jargon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_jargon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:49.499904+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-mathematical-jargon-20260505-0
summary:
These properties might include possessing a specified number of derivatives, with the function and its derivatives exhibiting some nice property (see nice above), such as Hölder continuity. Informally, this term is sometimes used synonymously with smooth, below. These imprecise uses of the word regular are not to be confused with the notion of a regular topological space, which is rigorously defined. resp. (Respectively) A convention to shorten parallel expositions. "A (resp. B) [has some relationship to] X (resp. Y)" means that A [has some relationship to] X and also that B [has (the same) relationship to] Y. For example, squares (resp. triangles) have 4 sides (resp. 3 sides); or compact (resp. Lindelöf) spaces are ones where every open cover has a finite (resp. countable) open subcover. sharp Often, a mathematical theorem will establish constraints on the behavior of some object; for example, a function will be shown to have an upper or lower bound. The constraint is sharp (sometimes optimal) if it cannot be made more restrictive without failing in some cases. For example, for arbitrary non-negative real numbers x, the exponential function ex, where e = 2.7182818..., gives an upper bound on the values of the quadratic function x2.


id: glossary-of-mathematical-jargon-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_jargon-4.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of mathematical jargon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_jargon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:49.499904+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-mathematical-jargon-20260505-0
summary:
== Proof terminology == The formal language of proof draws repeatedly from a small pool of ideas, many of which are invoked through various lexical shorthands in practice. aliter An obsolescent term which is used to announce to the reader an alternative method, or proof of a result. In a proof, it therefore flags a piece of reasoning that is superfluous from a logical point of view, but has some other interest. by way of contradiction (BWOC), or "for, if not, ..." The rhetorical prelude to a proof by contradiction, preceding the negation of the statement to be proved. if and only if (iff) An abbreviation for logical equivalence of statements. in general In the context of proofs, this phrase is often seen in induction arguments when passing from the base case to the induction step, and similarly, in the definition of sequences whose first few terms are exhibited as examples of the formula giving every term of the sequence. necessary and sufficient A minor variant on "if and only if"; "A is necessary (and sufficient) for B" means "A if (only if) B". For example, "For a field K to be algebraically closed it is necessary and sufficient that


id: glossary-of-mathematical-jargon-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_jargon-5.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of mathematical jargon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_jargon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:49.499904+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-mathematical-jargon-20260505-0
summary:
angle chasing Used to describe a geometrical proof that involves finding relationships between the various angles in a diagram. back-of-the-envelope calculation An informal computation omitting much rigor without sacrificing correctness. Often this computation is "proof of concept" and treats only an accessible special case. brute force Rather than finding underlying principles or patterns, this is a method where one would evaluate as many cases as needed to sufficiently prove or provide convincing evidence that the thing in question is true. Sometimes this involves evaluating every possible case (where it is also known as proof by exhaustion). by example A proof by example is an argument whereby a statement is not proved but instead illustrated by an example. If done well, the specific example would easily generalize to a general proof. by inspection A rhetorical shortcut made by authors who invite the reader to verify, at a glance, the correctness of a proposed expression or deduction. If an expression can be evaluated by straightforward application of simple techniques and without recourse to extended calculation or general theory, then it can be evaluated by inspection. It is also applied to solving equations; for example to find roots of a quadratic equation by


id: glossary-of-mathematical-jargon-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_jargon-6.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of mathematical jargon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_mathematical_jargon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:49.499904+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-mathematical-jargon-20260505-0
summary:
multivalued A "multivalued function” from a set A to a set B is a function from A to the subsets of B. It has typically the property that, for almost all points x of B, there is a neighbourhood of x such that the restriction of the function to the neighbourhood can be considered as a set of functions from the neighbourhood to B. projection A projection is, roughly, a map from some space or object to another that omits some information on the object or space. For example, R 2 → R , ( x , y ) ↦ x {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}\to \mathbb {R} ,(x,y)\mapsto x} is a projection and its restriction to a graph of a function, say, is also a projection. The terms “idempotent operator” and “forgetful map” are also synonyms for a projection. structure A mathematical structure on an object is an additional set of objects or data attached to the object (e.g., relation, operation, metric, topology). == See also == Glossary of areas of mathematics List of mathematical constants List of mathematical symbols Category:Mathematical terminology == Notes == == References == Eilenberg, Samuel; Mac Lane, Saunders (1942), "Natural Isomorphisms in Group Theory", Proc.


id: partial-differential-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_differential-0.md
category: reference
title: Partial differential
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_differential
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:50.785154+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: partial-differential-20260505-0
summary:
The character ∂ (Unicode: U+2202) is a stylized cursive d mainly used as a mathematical symbol, usually to denote a partial derivative such as ∂ z / ∂ x {\displaystyle {\partial z}/{\partial x}} (read as "the partial derivative of z with respect to x"). It is also used for boundary of a set, the boundary operator in a chain complex, and the conjugate of the Dolbeault operator on smooth differential forms over a complex manifold. It should be distinguished from other similar-looking symbols such as lowercase Greek letter delta (δ) or the lowercase Latin letter eth (ð). == History == The symbol was introduced originally in 1770 by Nicolas de Condorcet, who used it for a partial differential, and adopted for the partial derivative by Adrien-Marie Legendre in 1786. It represents a specialized cursive type of the letter d, just as the integral sign originates as a specialized type of a long s (first used in print by Leibniz in 1686). Use of the symbol was discontinued by Legendre, but it was taken up again by Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi in 1841, whose usage became widely adopted. == Names and coding == The symbol is variously referred to as "partial",


id: abstract-nonsense-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_nonsense-0.md
category: reference
title: Abstract nonsense
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_nonsense
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:52.017389+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: abstract-nonsense-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics, abstract nonsense, general abstract nonsense, generalized abstract nonsense, and general nonsense are nonderogatory terms used by mathematicians to describe long, theoretical parts of a proof they skip over when readers are expected to be familiar with them. These terms are mainly used for abstract methods related to category theory and homological algebra. More generally, "abstract nonsense" may refer to a proof that relies on category-theoretic methods, or even to the study of category theory itself. == Background == Roughly speaking, category theory is the study of the general form, that is, categories of mathematical theories, without regard to their content. As a result, mathematical proofs that rely on category-theoretic ideas often seem out-of-context, somewhat akin to a non sequitur. Authors sometimes dub these proofs "abstract nonsense" as a light-hearted way of alerting readers to their abstract nature. Labeling an argument "abstract nonsense" is usually not intended to be derogatory, and is instead used jokingly, in a self-deprecating way, affectionately, or even as a compliment to the generality of the argument. Alexander Grothendieck was critical of this notion, and stated that: The introduction of the cipher 0 or the group concept was general nonsense too, and mathematics was more


id: abstract-structure-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_structure-0.md
category: reference
title: Abstract structure
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_structure
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:53.223922+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: abstract-structure-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics and related fields, an abstract structure is a way of describing a set of mathematical objects and the relationships between them, focusing on the essential rules and properties rather than any specific meaning or example. For example, in a game such as chess, the rules of how the pieces move and interact define the structure of the game, regardless of whether the pieces are made of wood or plastic. Similarly, an abstract structure defines a framework of objects, operations, and relationships. These structures are studied in their own right, revealing fundamental mathematical principles. While a real-world object or computer program might represent, instantiate, or implement an abstract structure, the structure itself exists as an abstract concept, independent of any particular representation. This abstraction allows to see common patterns across seemingly different areas of mathematics and to apply the same reasoning and tools to analyze them. Abstract structures are studied not only in logic and mathematics but in the fields that apply them, as computer science and computer graphics, and in the studies that reflect on them, such as philosophy (especially the philosophy of mathematics). An abstract structure has a richer structure than a concept or an idea. An


id: abstraction-mathematics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstraction_(mathematics)-0.md
category: reference
title: Abstraction (mathematics)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstraction_(mathematics)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:54.412897+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: abstraction-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
Abstraction in mathematics is the process of extracting the underlying structures, patterns or properties of a mathematical concept, removing any dependence on real world objects with which it might originally have been connected, and generalizing it so that it has wider applications or matching among other abstract descriptions of equivalent phenomena. In other words, to be abstract is to remove context and application. Two of the most highly abstract areas of modern mathematics are category theory and model theory. == Description == Many areas of mathematics began with the study of real world problems, before the underlying rules and concepts were identified and defined as abstract structures. For example, geometry has its origins in the calculation of distances and areas in the real world, and algebra started with methods of solving problems in arithmetic. Abstraction is an ongoing process in mathematics and the historical development of many mathematical topics exhibits a progression from the concrete to the abstract. For example, the first steps in the abstraction of geometry were historically made by the ancient Greeks, with Euclid's Elements being the earliest extant documentation of the axioms of plane geometry—though Proclus tells of an earlier axiomatisation by Hippocrates of Chios. In


id: abuse-of-notation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abuse_of_notation-0.md
category: reference
title: Abuse of notation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abuse_of_notation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:55.629926+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: abuse-of-notation-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics, abuse of notation occurs when an author uses a mathematical notation in a way that is not entirely formally correct, but which might help to simplify the exposition or to suggest the correct intuition, while possibly minimizing errors and confusion at the same time. A closely related concept is abuse of language or abuse of terminology, where a term — rather than a notation — is used informally. For example, while the word representation properly designates a group homomorphism from a group G to GL(V), where V is a vector space, it is common to call V itself a "representation of G." Since both mathematical notation and terminology vary across time and context, what is flagged as abuse in one context could be formally correct in another. Furthermore, abuse of notation should not be conflated with misuse of notation, which does not have the presentational benefits of the former and should be avoided, such as the misuse of constants of integration. == Examples == === Suppression of parameters === Many mathematical objects consist of a set, often called the underlying set, equipped with some additional structure, such as a mathematical operation or a topology. It is a common


id: abuse-of-notation-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abuse_of_notation-1.md
category: reference
title: Abuse of notation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abuse_of_notation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:55.629926+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: abuse-of-notation-20260505-0
summary:
( E × F ) × G = E × ( F × G ) = E × F × G {\displaystyle (E\times F)\times G=E\times (F\times G)=E\times F\times G} . But this is strictly speaking not true: if x ∈ E {\displaystyle x\in E} , y ∈ F {\displaystyle y\in F} and z ∈ G {\displaystyle z\in G} , the identity ( ( x , y ) , z ) = ( x , ( y , z ) ) {\displaystyle ((x,y),z)=(x,(y,z))} would imply that ( x , y ) = x {\displaystyle (x,y)=x} and z = ( y , z ) {\displaystyle z=(y,z)} , and so ( ( x , y ) , z ) = ( x , y , z ) {\displaystyle ((x,y),z)=(x,y,z)} would mean nothing. However, these equalities can be legitimized and made rigorous in category theory—using the idea of a natural isomorphism. Another example of similar abuses occurs in statements such as "there are two non-Abelian groups of order 8", which more strictly stated means "there are two isomorphism classes of non-Abelian groups of order 8". === Equivalence classes === Referring to an equivalence class of an equivalence relation by x {\displaystyle x} instead of


id: active-and-passive-transformation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_and_passive_transformation-0.md
category: reference
title: Active and passive transformation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_and_passive_transformation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:56.857340+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: active-and-passive-transformation-20260505-0
summary:
Geometric transformations can be distinguished into two types: active or alibi transformations which change the physical position of a set of points relative to a fixed frame of reference or coordinate system (alibi meaning "being somewhere else at the same time"); and passive or alias transformations which leave points fixed but change the frame of reference or coordinate system relative to which they are described (alias meaning "going under a different name"). For instance, active transformations are useful to describe successive positions of a rigid body. On the other hand, passive transformations may be useful in human motion analysis to observe the motion of the tibia relative to the femur, that is, its motion relative to a (local) coordinate system which moves together with the femur, rather than a (global) coordinate system which is fixed to the floor. In three-dimensional Euclidean space, any proper rigid transformation, whether active or passive, can be represented as a screw displacement, the composition of a translation along an axis and a rotation about that axis. The terms active transformation and passive transformation were first introduced in 1957 by Valentine Bargmann for describing Lorentz transformations in special relativity. == Example == As an example, let


id: active-and-passive-transformation-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_and_passive_transformation-1.md
category: reference
title: Active and passive transformation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_and_passive_transformation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:56.857340+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: active-and-passive-transformation-20260505-0
summary:
The distinction between active and passive transformations can be seen mathematically by considering abstract vector spaces. Fix a finite-dimensional vector space V {\displaystyle V} over a field K {\displaystyle K} (thought of as R {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} } or C {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} } ), and a basis B = { e i } 1 ≤ i ≤ n {\displaystyle {\mathcal {B}}=\{e_{i}\}_{1\leq i\leq n}} of V {\displaystyle V} . This basis provides an isomorphism C : K n → V {\displaystyle C:K^{n}\rightarrow V} via the component map ( v i ) 1 ≤ i ≤ n = ( v 1 , ⋯ , v n ) ↦ ∑ i v i e i {\textstyle (v_{i})_{1\leq i\leq n}=(v_{1},\cdots ,v_{n})\mapsto \sum _{i}v_{i}e_{i}} . An active transformation is then an endomorphism on V {\displaystyle V} , that is, a linear map from V {\displaystyle V} to itself. Taking such a transformation τ ∈ End ( V ) {\displaystyle \tau \in {\text{End}}(V)} , a vector v ∈ V {\displaystyle v\in V} transforms as v ↦ τ v {\displaystyle v\mapsto \tau v} . The components of τ {\displaystyle \tau } with respect to the basis B {\displaystyle {\mathcal {B}}} are defined via the equation τ


id: adequality-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adequality-0.md
category: reference
title: Adequality
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adequality
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:58.075678+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: adequality-20260505-0
summary:
Adequality is a technique developed by Pierre de Fermat in his treatise Methodus ad disquirendam maximam et minimam (a Latin treatise circulated in France c. 1636 ) to calculate maxima and minima of functions, tangents to curves, area, center of mass, least action, and other problems in calculus. According to André Weil, Fermat "introduces the technical term adaequalitas, adaequare, etc., which he says he has borrowed from Diophantus. As Diophantus V.11 shows, it means an approximate equality, and this is indeed how Fermat explains the word in one of his later writings." (Weil 1973). Diophantus coined the word παρισότης (parisotēs) to refer to an approximate equality. Claude Gaspard Bachet de Méziriac translated Diophantus's Greek word into Latin as adaequalitas. Paul Tannery's French translation of Fermat's Latin treatises on maxima and minima used the words adéquation and adégaler. == Fermat's method == Fermat used adequality first to find maxima of functions, and then adapted it to find tangent lines to curves. To find the maximum of a term p ( x ) {\displaystyle p(x)} , Fermat equated (or more precisely adequated) p ( x ) {\displaystyle p(x)} and p ( x + e ) {\displaystyle p(x+e)} and after doing algebra he


id: adequality-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adequality-1.md
category: reference
title: Adequality
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adequality
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:58.075678+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: adequality-20260505-0
summary:
This, I believe, was the real significance of his use of Diophantos' πἀρισον, stressing the smallness of the variation. The ordinary translation of 'adaequalitas' seems to be "approximate equality", but I much prefer "pseudo-equality" to present Fermat's thought at this point.He further notes that "there was never in M1 (Method 1) any question of the variation E being put equal to zero. The words Fermat used to express the process of suppressing terms containing E was 'elido', 'deleo', and 'expungo', and in French 'i'efface' and 'i'ôte'. We can hardly believe that a sane man wishing to express his meaning and searching for words, would constantly hit upon such tortuous ways of imparting the simple fact that the terms vanished because E was zero.(p. 51) Claus Jensen (1969) wrote:Moreover, in applying the notion of adégalité – which constitutes the basis of Fermat's general method of constructing tangents, and by which is meant a comparition of two magnitudes as if they were equal, although they are in fact not ("tamquam essent aequalia, licet revera aequalia non sint") – I will employ the nowadays more usual symbol ≈ {\displaystyle \scriptstyle \approx } . The Latin quotation comes from Tannery's 1891 edition of Fermat,


id: adjoint-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjoint-0.md
category: reference
title: Adjoint
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjoint
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:22:59.225743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: adjoint-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics, the term adjoint applies in several situations. Several of these share a similar formalism: if A is adjoint to B, then there is typically some formula of the type (Ax, y) = (x, By). Specifically, adjoint or adjunction may mean: Adjoint of a linear map, also called its transpose in case of matrices Hermitian adjoint (adjoint of a linear operator) in functional analysis Adjoint endomorphism of a Lie algebra Adjoint representation of a Lie group Adjoint functors in category theory Adjunction (field theory) Adjunction formula (algebraic geometry) Adjunction space in topology Conjugate transpose of a matrix in linear algebra Adjugate matrix, related to its inverse Adjoint equation The upper and lower adjoints of a Galois connection in order theory The adjoint of a differential operator with general polynomial coefficients Kleisli adjunction Monoidal adjunction Quillen adjunction Axiom of adjunction in set theory Adjunction (rule of inference)


id: almost-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almost-0.md
category: reference
title: Almost
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almost
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:23:11.268039+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: almost-20260505-0
summary:
In set theory, when dealing with sets of infinite size, the term almost or nearly is used to refer to all but a negligible amount of elements in the set. The notion of "negligible" depends on the context, and may mean "of measure zero" (in a measure space), "finite" (when infinite sets are involved), or "countable" (when uncountably infinite sets are involved). For example: The set S = { n ∈ N | n ≥ k } {\displaystyle S=\{n\in \mathbb {N} \,|\,n\geq k\}} is almost N {\displaystyle \mathbb {N} } for any k {\displaystyle k} in N {\displaystyle \mathbb {N} } , because only finitely many natural numbers are less than k {\displaystyle k} . The set of prime numbers is not almost N {\displaystyle \mathbb {N} } , because there are infinitely many natural numbers that are not prime numbers. The set of transcendental numbers are almost R {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} } , because the algebraic real numbers form a countable subset of the set of real numbers (which is uncountable). The Cantor set is uncountably infinite, but has Lebesgue measure zero. So almost all real numbers in (0, 1) are members of the complement of the Cantor set.


id: almost-all-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almost_all-0.md
category: reference
title: Almost all
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almost_all
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:23:12.516857+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: almost-all-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics, the term "almost all" means "all but a negligible quantity". More precisely, if X {\displaystyle X} is a set, "almost all elements of X {\displaystyle X} " means "all elements of X {\displaystyle X} but those in a negligible subset of X {\displaystyle X} ". The meaning of "negligible" depends on the mathematical context; for instance, it can mean finite, countable, or null. In contrast, "almost no" means "a negligible quantity"; that is, "almost no elements of X {\displaystyle X} " means "a negligible quantity of elements of X {\displaystyle X} ". == Meanings in different areas of mathematics == === Prevalent meaning === Throughout mathematics, "almost all" is sometimes used to mean "all (elements of an infinite set) except for finitely many". This use occurs in philosophy as well. Similarly, "almost all" can mean "all (elements of an uncountable set) except for countably many". Examples: Almost all positive integers are greater than 1012. Almost all prime numbers are odd (2 is the only exception). Almost all polyhedra are irregular (as there are only nine exceptions: the five platonic solids and the four Kepler–Poinsot polyhedra). If P is a nonzero polynomial, then P(x) ≠ 0 for almost all


id: almost-everywhere-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almost_everywhere-0.md
category: reference
title: Almost everywhere
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almost_everywhere
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:23:13.771862+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: almost-everywhere-20260505-0
summary:
In measure theory (a branch of mathematical analysis), a property holds almost everywhere if, in a technical sense, the set for which the property holds takes up nearly all possibilities. The notion of "almost everywhere" is a companion notion to the concept of measure zero, and is analogous to the notion of almost surely in probability theory. More specifically, a property holds almost everywhere if it holds for all elements in a set except a subset of measure zero, or equivalently, if the set of elements for which the property holds is conull. In cases where the measure is not complete, it is sufficient that the set be contained within a set of measure zero. When discussing sets of real numbers, the Lebesgue measure is usually assumed unless otherwise stated. The term almost everywhere is abbreviated a.e.; in older literature p.p. is used, to stand for the equivalent French phrase presque partout. A set with full measure is one whose complement is of measure zero. In probability theory, the terms almost surely, almost certain and almost always refer to events with probability 1 not necessarily including all of the outcomes. These are exactly the sets of full measure in a


id: almost-everywhere-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almost_everywhere-1.md
category: reference
title: Almost everywhere
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almost_everywhere
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:23:13.771862+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: almost-everywhere-20260505-0
summary:
== Definition using ultrafilters == Outside of the context of real analysis, the notion of a property true almost everywhere is sometimes defined in terms of an ultrafilter. An ultrafilter on a set X is a maximal collection F of subsets of X such that: If U ∈ F and U ⊆ V then V ∈ F The intersection of any two sets in F is in F The empty set is not in F A property P of points in X holds almost everywhere, relative to an ultrafilter F, if the set of points for which P holds is in F. For example, one construction of the hyperreal number system defines a hyperreal number as an equivalence class of sequences that are equal almost everywhere as defined by an ultrafilter. The definition of almost everywhere in terms of ultrafilters is closely related to the definition in terms of measures, because each ultrafilter defines a finitely-additive measure taking only the values 0 and 1, where a set has measure 1 if and only if it is included in the ultrafilter. == See also == Dirichlet's function, a function that is equal to 0 almost everywhere. Cantor function == References ==


id: almost-surely-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almost_surely-0.md
category: reference
title: Almost surely
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almost_surely
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:23:15.024547+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: almost-surely-20260505-0
summary:
In probability theory, an event is said to happen almost surely (sometimes abbreviated as a.s.) if it happens with probability 1 (with respect to the probability measure). In other words, the set of outcomes on which the event does not occur has probability 0, even though the set might not be empty. The concept is analogous to the concept of "almost everywhere" in measure theory. In probability experiments on a finite sample space with a non-zero probability for each outcome, there is no difference between almost surely and surely (since having a probability of 1 entails including all the sample points); however, this distinction becomes important when the sample space is an infinite set, because an infinite set can have non-empty subsets of probability 0. Some examples of the use of this concept include the strong and uniform versions of the law of large numbers, the continuity of the paths of Brownian motion, and the infinite monkey theorem. The terms almost certainly (a.c.) and almost always (a.a.) are also used. Almost never describes the opposite of almost surely: an event that happens with probability zero happens almost never. == Formal definition == Let ( Ω , F , P )


id: almost-surely-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almost_surely-1.md
category: reference
title: Almost surely
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almost_surely
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:23:15.024547+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: almost-surely-20260505-0
summary:
== Asymptotically almost surely == In asymptotic analysis, a property is said to hold asymptotically almost surely (a.a.s.) if over a sequence of sets, the probability converges to 1. This is equivalent to convergence in probability. For instance, in number theory, a large number is asymptotically almost surely composite, by the prime number theorem; and in random graph theory, the statement " G ( n , p n ) {\displaystyle G(n,p_{n})} is connected" (where G ( n , p ) {\displaystyle G(n,p)} denotes the graphs on n {\displaystyle n} vertices with edge probability p {\displaystyle p} ) is true a.a.s. when, for some ε > 0 {\displaystyle \varepsilon >0} p n > ( 1 + ε ) ln ⁡ n n . {\displaystyle p_{n}>{\frac {(1+\varepsilon )\ln n}{n}}.} In number theory, this is referred to as "almost all", as in "almost all numbers are composite". Similarly, in graph theory, this is sometimes referred to as "almost surely". == See also == Almost Almost everywhere, the corresponding concept in measure theory Convergence of random variables, for "almost sure convergence" With high probability Cromwell's rule, which says that probabilities should almost never be set as zero or one Degenerate distribution, for "almost surely


id: ansatz-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ansatz-0.md
category: reference
title: Ansatz
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ansatz
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:23:16.301104+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ansatz-20260505-0
summary:
In physics and mathematics, an ansatz (; German: [ˈʔanzats] , meaning: "initial placement of a tool at a work piece", plural ansatzes or, from German, ansätze ; German: [ˈʔanzɛtsə] ) is an educated guess or an additional assumption made to help solve a problem, and which may later be verified to be part of the solution by its results. == Use == An ansatz is the establishment of the starting equation(s), the theorem(s), or the value(s) describing a mathematical or physical problem or solution. It typically provides an initial estimate or framework to the solution of a mathematical problem. In fact, an ansatz is sometimes thought of as a "trial answer" and an important technique in solving differential equations, possibly with initial or boundary conditions. After an ansatz, which constitutes nothing more than an assumption, has been established, the equations are solved more precisely for the general function of interest, which then constitutes a confirmation of the assumption. In essence, an ansatz makes assumptions about the form of the solution to a problem so as to make the solution easier to find. It has been demonstrated that machine learning techniques can be applied to provide initial estimates similar to those


id: apotome-mathematics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apotome_(mathematics)-0.md
category: reference
title: Apotome (mathematics)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apotome_(mathematics)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:23:18.760476+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: apotome-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
In the historical study of mathematics, an apotome is a line segment formed from a longer line segment by breaking it into two parts, one of which is commensurable only in power to the whole; the other part is the apotome. In this definition, two line segments are said to be "commensurable only in power" when the ratio of their lengths is an irrational number but the ratio of their squared lengths is rational. Translated into modern algebraic language, an apotome can be interpreted as a quadratic irrational number formed by subtracting one square root of a rational number from another. This concept of the apotome appears in Euclid's Elements beginning in book X, where Euclid defines two special kinds of apotomes. In an apotome of the first kind, the whole is rational, while in an apotome of the second kind, the part subtracted from it is rational; both kinds of apotomes also satisfy an additional condition. Euclid Proposition XIII.6 states that, if a rational line segment is split into two pieces in the golden ratio, then both pieces may be represented as apotomes. == References ==


id: arbitrarily-large-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbitrarily_large-0.md
category: reference
title: Arbitrarily large
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbitrarily_large
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:23:20.271509+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: arbitrarily-large-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics, the phrases arbitrarily large, arbitrarily small and arbitrarily long are used in statements to make clear the fact that an object is large, small, or long with little limitation or restraint, respectively. The use of "arbitrarily" often occurs in the context of real numbers (and its subsets thereof), though its meaning can differ from that of "sufficiently" and "infinitely". == Examples == The statement " f ( x ) {\displaystyle f(x)} is non-negative for arbitrarily large x {\displaystyle x} ." is a shorthand for: "For every real number n {\displaystyle n} , f ( x ) {\displaystyle f(x)} is non-negative for some value of x {\displaystyle x} greater than n {\displaystyle n} ." In the common parlance, the term "arbitrarily long" is often used in the context of sequence of numbers. For example, to say that there are "arbitrarily long arithmetic progressions of prime numbers" does not mean that there exists any infinitely long arithmetic progression of prime numbers (there is not), nor that there exists any particular arithmetic progression of prime numbers that is in some sense "arbitrarily long". Rather, the phrase is used to refer to the fact that no matter how large a number n


id: arithmetic-and-geometric-frobenius-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_and_geometric_Frobenius-0.md
category: reference
title: Arithmetic and geometric Frobenius
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_and_geometric_Frobenius
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:23:21.492710+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: arithmetic-and-geometric-frobenius-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics, the Frobenius endomorphism is defined in any commutative ring R that has characteristic p, where p is a prime number. Namely, the mapping φ that takes r in R to rp is a ring endomorphism of R. The image of φ is then Rp, the subring of R consisting of p-th powers. In some important cases, for example finite fields, φ is surjective. Otherwise φ is an endomorphism but not a ring automorphism. The terminology of geometric Frobenius arises by applying the spectrum of a ring construction to φ. This gives a mapping φ*: Spec(Rp) → Spec(R) of affine schemes. Even in cases where Rp = R this is not the identity, unless R is the prime field. Mappings created by fibre product with φ*, i.e. base changes, tend in scheme theory to be called geometric Frobenius. The reason for a careful terminology is that the Frobenius automorphism in Galois groups, or defined by transport of structure, is often the inverse mapping of the geometric Frobenius. As in the case of a cyclic group in which a generator is also the inverse of a generator, there are in many situations two possible definitions of Frobenius, and without a


id: brown-measure-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_measure-0.md
category: reference
title: Brown measure
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_measure
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:23:22.881835+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: brown-measure-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics, the Brown measure of an operator in a finite factor is a probability measure on the complex plane which may be viewed as an analog of the spectral counting measure (based on algebraic multiplicity) of matrices. It is named after Lawrence G. Brown. == Definition == Let M {\displaystyle {\mathcal {M}}} be a finite factor with the canonical normalized trace τ {\displaystyle \tau } and let I {\displaystyle I} be the identity operator. For every operator A ∈ M , {\displaystyle A\in {\mathcal {M}},} the function λ ↦ τ ( log ⁡ | A − λ I | ) , λ ∈ C , {\displaystyle \lambda \mapsto \tau (\log \left|A-\lambda I\right|),\;\lambda \in \mathbb {C} ,} is a subharmonic function and its Laplacian in the distributional sense is a probability measure on C {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} } μ A ( d ( a + b i ) ) := 1 2 π ∇ 2 τ ( log ⁡ | A − ( a + b i ) I | ) d a d b {\displaystyle \mu _{A}(\mathrm {d} (a+b\mathbb {i} )):={\frac {1}{2\pi }}\nabla ^{2}\tau (\log \left|A-(a+b\mathbb {i} )I\right|)\mathrm {d} a\mathrm {d} b} which is called the Brown measure of


id: canonical-form-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canonical_form-0.md
category: reference
title: Canonical form
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canonical_form
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:23:25.219824+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: canonical-form-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics and computer science, a canonical, normal, or standard form of a mathematical object is a standard way of presenting that object as a mathematical expression. Often, it is one which provides the simplest representation of an object and allows it to be identified in a unique way. The distinction between "canonical" and "normal" forms varies from subfield to subfield. In most fields, a canonical form specifies a unique representation for every object, while a normal form simply specifies its form, without the requirement of uniqueness. The canonical form of a positive integer in decimal representation is a finite sequence of digits that does not begin with zero. More generally, for a class of objects on which an equivalence relation is defined, a canonical form consists in the choice of a specific object in each class. For example: Jordan normal form is a canonical form for matrix similarity. The row echelon form is a canonical form, when one considers as equivalent a matrix and its left product by an invertible matrix. In computer science, and more specifically in computer algebra, when representing mathematical objects in a computer, there are usually many different ways to represent the same object. In


id: canonical-form-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canonical_form-1.md
category: reference
title: Canonical form
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canonical_form
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:23:25.219824+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: canonical-form-20260505-0
summary:
The equation of a line: Ax + By = C, with A2 + B2 = 1 and C ≥ 0 The equation of a circle: ( x − h ) 2 + ( y − k ) 2 = r 2 {\displaystyle (x-h)^{2}+(y-k)^{2}=r^{2}} By contrast, there are alternative forms for writing equations. For example, the equation of a line may be written as a linear equation in point-slope and slope-intercept form. Convex polyhedra can be put into canonical form such that: All faces are flat, All edges are tangent to the unit sphere, and The centroid of the polyhedron is at the origin. === Integrable systems === Every differentiable manifold has a cotangent bundle. That bundle can always be endowed with a certain differential form, called the canonical one-form. This form gives the cotangent bundle the structure of a symplectic manifold, and allows vector fields on the manifold to be integrated by means of the Euler-Lagrange equations, or by means of Hamiltonian mechanics. Such systems of integrable differential equations are called integrable systems. === Dynamical systems === The study of dynamical systems overlaps with that of integrable systems; there one has the idea of a normal form (dynamical systems). ===


id: canonical-map-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canonical_map-0.md
category: reference
title: Canonical map
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canonical_map
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:23:26.446232+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: canonical-map-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics, a canonical map, also called a natural map, is a map or morphism between objects that arises naturally from the definition or the construction of the objects. Often, it is a map which preserves the widest amount of structure. A choice of a canonical map sometimes depends on a convention (e.g., a sign convention). A closely related notion is a structure map or structure morphism; the map or morphism that comes with the given structure on the object. These are also sometimes called canonical maps. A canonical isomorphism is a canonical map that is also an isomorphism (i.e., invertible). In some contexts, it might be necessary to address an issue of choices of canonical maps or canonical isomorphisms; for a typical example, see prestack. == Examples == If N is a normal subgroup of a group G, then there is a canonical surjective group homomorphism from G to the quotient group G / N, that sends an element g to the coset determined by g. If I is an ideal of a ring R, then there is a canonical surjective ring homomorphism from R onto the quotient ring R / I, that sends an element r to its


id: cauchy-wavelet-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cauchy_wavelet-0.md
category: reference
title: Cauchy wavelet
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cauchy_wavelet
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:23:27.637906+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cauchy-wavelet-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics, Cauchy wavelets are a family of continuous wavelets, used in the continuous wavelet transform. == Definition == The Cauchy wavelet of order p {\displaystyle p} is defined as: ψ p ( t ) = Γ ( p + 1 ) 2 π ( j t + j ) p + 1 {\displaystyle \psi _{p}(t)={\frac {\Gamma (p+1)}{2\pi }}\left({\frac {j}{t+j}}\right)^{p+1}} where p > 0 {\displaystyle p>0} and j = − 1 {\displaystyle j={\sqrt {-1}}} therefore, its Fourier transform is defined as ψ p ^ ( ξ ) = ξ p e − ξ I [ ξ ≥ 0 ] {\displaystyle {\hat {\psi _{p}}}(\xi )=\xi ^{p}e^{-\xi }I_{[\xi \geq 0]}} . Sometimes it is defined as a function with its Fourier transform ψ p ^ ( ξ ) = ρ ( ξ ) ξ p e − ξ I [ ξ ≥ 0 ] {\displaystyle {\hat {\psi _{p}}}(\xi )=\rho (\xi )\xi ^{p}e^{-\xi }I_{[\xi \geq 0]}} where ρ ( ξ ) ∈ L ∞ ( R ) {\displaystyle \rho (\xi )\in L^{\infty }(\mathbb {R} )} and ρ ( ξ ) = ρ ( a ξ ) {\displaystyle \rho (\xi )=\rho (a\xi )} for ξ ∈ R {\displaystyle \xi \in \mathbb {R} } almost


id: cauchy-wavelet-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cauchy_wavelet-1.md
category: reference
title: Cauchy wavelet
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cauchy_wavelet
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:23:27.637906+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cauchy-wavelet-20260505-0
summary:
f ( t ) = ∑ n = − ∞ ∞ L n ( f ) e j n t {\displaystyle f(t)=\sum _{n=-\infty }^{\infty }L_{n}(f)e^{jnt}} . and in fact we have Parseval's identity | | f | | 2 = ∑ n = − ∞ ∞ | L n ( f ) | 2 {\displaystyle ||f||^{2}=\sum _{n=-\infty }^{\infty }|L_{n}(f)|^{2}} . where | | f | | 2 = 1 2 π ∫ − π π | f ( t ) | 2 d t {\displaystyle ||f||^{2}={\frac {1}{2\pi }}\int _{-\pi }^{\pi }|f(t)|^{2}\,dt} i.e. the norm defined in L 2 ( [ − π , π ] ) {\displaystyle L^{2}([-\pi ,\pi ])} . Hence, in this example, the index set I {\displaystyle I} is the integer Z {\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} } , the vector space V {\displaystyle V} is L 2 ( [ − π , π ] ) {\displaystyle L^{2}([-\pi ,\pi ])} and the linear form L n {\displaystyle L_{n}} is the Fourier coefficient. Furthermore, the absolute value of Fourier coefficients { | L n ( f ) | } n ∈ Z {\displaystyle \{|L_{n}(f)|\}_{n\in \mathbb {Z} }} can only determine the norm of f {\displaystyle f} defined in L 2


id: characterization-mathematics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Characterization_(mathematics)-0.md
category: reference
title: Characterization (mathematics)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Characterization_(mathematics)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:23:28.881720+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: characterization-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics, a characterization of an object is a set of conditions that, while possibly different from the definition of the object, is logically equivalent to it. To say that "Property P characterizes object X" is to say that not only does X have property P, but that X is the only thing that has property P (i.e., P is a defining property of X). Similarly, a set of properties P is said to characterize X, when these properties distinguish X from all other objects. Even though a characterization identifies an object in a unique way, several characterizations can exist for a single object. Common mathematical expressions for a characterization of X in terms of P include "P is necessary and sufficient for X", and "X holds if and only if P". It is also common to find statements such as "Property Q characterizes Y up to isomorphism". The first type of statement says in different words that the extension of P is a singleton set, while the second says that the extension of Q is a single equivalence class (for isomorphism, in the given example — depending on how up to is being used, some other equivalence relation might


id: characterization-mathematics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Characterization_(mathematics)-1.md
category: reference
title: Characterization (mathematics)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Characterization_(mathematics)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:23:28.881720+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: characterization-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
The least-upper-bound property The greatest-lower-bound property The nested interval property The Bolzano-Weierstrass theorem The convergence of Cauchy sequences A typical real analysis university course would begin with the first of these, the least-upper-bound property, as an axiomatic definition of the reals (sometimes called the "axiom of completeness" in texts), and gradually prove its way to the last, the convergence of Cauchy sequences. The proofs are quite nontrivial. Among these five characterizations, the Cauchy-sequence perspective turns out to be the easiest to generalize, and is chosen as the definition for the completeness of an abstract metric space. However, the least-upper-bound property is often the most useful to prove facts about real numbers themselves, such as the intermediate value theorem. Thus the most useful and most generalizable characterizations are at times different. Another example of this phenomenon is found in physics. Hamiltonian mechanics is a characterization of classical mechanics, being equivalent to Newton’s laws. However, it is much easier to generalize to quantum mechanics and statistical mechanics, which is its primary virtue. However, it is a different characterization, Lagrangian mechanics, that is often preferred for the study of classical mechanics itself. Since a characterization result is equivalent to the initial definition or


id: coefficient-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coefficient-0.md
category: reference
title: Coefficient
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coefficient
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:23:30.073796+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: coefficient-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics, a coefficient is a multiplicative factor involved in some term of a polynomial, a series, or any other type of expression. It may be a number without units, in which case it is known as a numerical factor. It may also be a constant with units of measurement, in which it is known as a constant multiplier. In general, coefficients may be any expression (including variables such as a, b and c). When the combination of variables and constants is not necessarily involved in a product, it may be called a parameter. For example, the polynomial 2 x 2 − x + 3 {\displaystyle 2x^{2}-x+3} has coefficients 2, −1, and 3, and the powers of the variable x {\displaystyle x} in the polynomial a x 2 + b x + c {\displaystyle ax^{2}+bx+c} have coefficient parameters a {\displaystyle a} , b {\displaystyle b} , and c {\displaystyle c} . A constant coefficient, also known as constant term or simply constant, is a quantity either implicitly attached to the zeroth power of a variable or not attached to other variables in an expression; for example, the constant coefficients of the expressions above are the number 3 and the parameter


id: coefficient-of-determination-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coefficient_of_determination-0.md
category: reference
title: Coefficient of determination
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coefficient_of_determination
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:23:31.318214+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: coefficient-of-determination-20260505-0
summary:
In statistics, the coefficient of determination, denoted R2 or r2 and pronounced "R squared", is the proportion of the variation in the dependent variable that is predictable from the independent variable(s). It is a statistic used in the context of statistical models whose main purpose is either the prediction of future outcomes or the testing of hypotheses, on the basis of other related information. It provides a measure of how well observed outcomes are replicated by the model, based on the proportion of total variation of outcomes explained by the model. There are several definitions of R2 that are only sometimes equivalent. In simple linear regression (which includes an intercept), r2 is simply the square of the sample correlation coefficient (r), between the observed outcomes and the observed predictor values. If additional regressors are included, R2 is the square of the coefficient of multiple correlation. In both such cases, the coefficient of determination is always smaller than 1 and usually greater than 0. Cases where R2 is negative can arise when the predictions that are being compared to the corresponding outcomes have not been derived from a model-fitting procedure using those data. Even if a model-fitting procedure has been used,


id: coefficient-of-determination-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coefficient_of_determination-1.md
category: reference
title: Coefficient of determination
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coefficient_of_determination
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:23:31.318214+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: coefficient-of-determination-20260505-0
summary:
where the qi are arbitrary values that may or may not depend on i or on other free parameters (the common choice qi = xi is just one special case), and the coefficient estimates α ^ {\displaystyle {\widehat {\alpha }}} and β ^ {\displaystyle {\widehat {\beta }}} are obtained by minimizing the residual sum of squares. This set of conditions is an important one and it has a number of implications for the properties of the fitted residuals and the modelled values. In particular, under these conditions: f ¯ = y ¯ . {\displaystyle {\bar {f}}={\bar {y}}.\,} === As squared correlation coefficient === In linear least squares multiple regression (with fitted intercept and slope), R2 equals ρ 2 ( y , f ) {\displaystyle \rho ^{2}(y,f)} the square of the Pearson correlation coefficient between the observed y {\displaystyle y} and modeled (predicted) f {\displaystyle f} data values of the dependent variable. In a linear least squares regression with a single explanator (with fitted intercept and slope), this is also equal to ρ 2 ( y , x ) {\displaystyle \rho ^{2}(y,x)} the squared Pearson correlation coefficient between the dependent variable y {\displaystyle y} and explanatory variable x {\displaystyle x} .


id: coefficient-of-determination-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coefficient_of_determination-2.md
category: reference
title: Coefficient of determination
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coefficient_of_determination
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:23:31.318214+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: coefficient-of-determination-20260505-0
summary:
where, for the ith case, Y i {\displaystyle {Y_{i}}} is the response variable, X i , 1 , … , X i , p {\displaystyle X_{i,1},\dots ,X_{i,p}} are p regressors, and ε i {\displaystyle \varepsilon _{i}} is a mean zero error term. The quantities β 0 , … , β p {\displaystyle \beta _{0},\dots ,\beta _{p}} are unknown coefficients, whose values are estimated by least squares. The coefficient of determination R2 is a measure of the global fit of the model. Specifically, R2 is an element of [0, 1] and represents the proportion of variability in Yi that may be attributed to some linear combination of the regressors (explanatory variables) in X. R2 is often interpreted as the proportion of response variation "explained" by the regressors in the model. Thus, R2 = 1 indicates that the fitted model explains all variability in y {\displaystyle y} , while R2 = 0 indicates no 'linear' relationship (for straight line regression, this means that the straight line model is a constant line (slope = 0, intercept = y ¯ {\displaystyle {\bar {y}}} ) between the response variable and regressors). An interior value such as R2 = 0.7 may be interpreted as follows: "Seventy


id: coefficient-of-determination-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coefficient_of_determination-3.md
category: reference
title: Coefficient of determination
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coefficient_of_determination
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:23:31.318214+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: coefficient-of-determination-20260505-0
summary:
This equation corresponds to the ordinary least squares regression model with two regressors. The prediction is shown as the blue vector in the figure on the right. Geometrically, it is the projection of true value onto a larger model space in R 2 {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}} (without intercept). Noticeably, the values of β 0 {\displaystyle \beta _{0}} and β 0 {\displaystyle \beta _{0}} are not the same as in the equation for smaller model space as long as X 1 {\displaystyle X_{1}} and X 2 {\displaystyle X_{2}} are not zero vectors. Therefore, the equations are expected to yield different predictions (i.e., the blue vector is expected to be different from the red vector). The least squares regression criterion ensures that the residual is minimized. In the figure, the blue line representing the residual is orthogonal to the model space in R 2 {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}} , giving the minimal distance from the space. The smaller model space is a subspace of the larger one, and thereby the residual of the smaller model is guaranteed to be larger. Comparing the red and blue lines in the figure, the blue line is orthogonal to the space, and any other line


id: coefficient-of-determination-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coefficient_of_determination-4.md
category: reference
title: Coefficient of determination
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coefficient_of_determination
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:23:31.318214+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: coefficient-of-determination-20260505-0
summary:
The adjusted R2 can be interpreted as an instance of the bias-variance tradeoff. When we consider the performance of a model, a lower error represents a better performance. When the model becomes more complex, the variance will increase whereas the square of bias will decrease, and these two metrics add up to be the total error. Combining these two trends, the bias-variance tradeoff describes a relationship between the performance of the model and its complexity, which is shown as a u-shape curve on the right. For the adjusted R2 specifically, the model complexity (i.e. number of parameters) affects the R2 and the term / frac and thereby captures their attributes in the overall performance of the model. R2 can be interpreted as the variance of the model, which is influenced by the model complexity. A high R2 indicates a lower bias error because the model can better explain the change of Y with predictors. For this reason, we make fewer (erroneous) assumptions, and this results in a lower bias error. Meanwhile, to accommodate fewer assumptions, the model tends to be more complex. Based on bias-variance tradeoff, a higher complexity will lead to a decrease in bias and a better performance


