# kb

id: flying-and-gliding-animals-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals-7.md
category: reference
title: Flying and gliding animals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:27.546944+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: flying-and-gliding-animals-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == Davenport, J. (1994). "How and why do flying fish fly?". Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries. 40 (2): 184–214. Bibcode:1994RFBF....4..184D. doi:10.1007/BF00044128. S2CID 34720887. Saidel, W.M.; Strain, G.F.; Fornari, S.K. (2004). "Characterization of the aerial escape response of the African butterfly fish, Pantodon buchholzi Peters". Environmental Biology of Fishes. 71 (1): 63–72. Bibcode:2004EnvBF..71...63S. doi:10.1023/b:ebfi.0000043153.38418.cd. S2CID 11856131. Xu, Xing; Zhou, Zhonghe; Wang, Xiaolin; Kuang, Xuewen; Zhang, Fucheng; Du, Xiangke (2003). "Four-winged dinosaurs from China" (PDF). Nature. 421 (6921): 335–340. Bibcode:2003Natur.421..335X. doi:10.1038/nature01342. PMID 12540892. S2CID 1160118. Schiøtz, A.; Vosloe, H. (1959). "The gliding flight of Holaspis guentheri Gray, a west-African lacertid". Copeia. 1959 (3): 259–260. doi:10.2307/1440407. JSTOR 1440407. Arnold, E. N. (2002). "Holaspis, a lizard that glided by accident: mosaics of cooption and adaptation in a tropical forest lacertid (Reptilia, Lacertidae. )". Bulletin of the Natural History Museum, Zoology Series. 68 (2): 155–163. doi:10.1017/s0968047002000171. S2CID 49552361. McGuire, J. A. (2003). "Allometric Prediction of Locomotor Performance: An Example from Southeast Asian Flying Lizards". The American Naturalist. 161 (2): 337–349. Bibcode:2003ANat..161..337M. doi:10.1086/346085. PMID 12675377. S2CID 29494470. Demes, B.; Forchap, E.; Herwig, H. (1991). "They seem to glide. Are there aerodynamic effects in leaping prosimian primates?". Zeitschrift für Morphologie und Anthropologie. 78


id: geologic-time-scale-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale-0.md
category: reference
title: Geologic time scale
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:29.061904+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geologic-time-scale-20260505-0
summary:
The geologic time scale or geological time scale describes how geologic time is divided into standardised intervals. It uses the rock record together with the principles of chronostratigraphy to place rock sequences into their relative age positions, and geochronology techniques, such as radiometric dating, to precisely date the boundaries between them. It is used primarily by Earth scientists (including geologists, paleontologists, geophysicists, geochemists, and paleoclimatologists) to describe the timing and relationships of events in geologic history. The time scale has been developed through the study of rock layers and the observation of their relationships and identifying features such as lithologies, paleomagnetic properties, and fossils. The definition of standardised international units of geological time is the responsibility of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS), a constituent body of the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS), whose primary objective is to precisely define global chronostratigraphic units of the International Chronostratigraphic Chart (ICC) that are used to define divisions of geological time. The chronostratigraphic divisions are in turn used to define geochronologic units. == Principles == The geologic time scale is a way of representing deep time based on events that have occurred throughout Earth's history, a time span of about 4.54 ±


id: geologic-time-scale-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale-1.md
category: reference
title: Geologic time scale
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:29.061904+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geologic-time-scale-20260505-0
summary:
=== Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) === Historically, regional geologic time scales were used due to the litho- and biostratigraphic differences around the world in time equivalent rocks. The ICS has long worked to reconcile conflicting terminology by standardising globally significant and identifiable stratigraphic horizons that can be used to define the lower boundaries of chronostratigraphic units. A Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) defines the lower boundary of a stage as being at a precise point in a specific rock succession in a particular geographic location. These reference points are known informally as "golden" spikes. All the beds above the spike belong to one time interval and all those below it to another. This allows beds of a similar age around the world to be correlated with the strata that contain the golden spike. For example, the iridium anomaly produced by the Chicxulub asteroid impact marks the lower boundary of the Paleogene System and thus the boundary between the Cretaceous and Paleogene. Whilst the GSSP is defined at Oued Djerfane in Tunisia, strata containing the iridium anomaly are found worldwide. The Proterozoic (apart from the Ediacaran), Archean and Hadean are subdivided by absolute ages (Global Standard


id: geologic-time-scale-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale-2.md
category: reference
title: Geologic time scale
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:29.061904+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geologic-time-scale-20260505-0
summary:
=== Early history === The most modern geological time scale was not formulated until 1911 by Arthur Holmes (1890 – 1965), who drew inspiration from James Hutton (1726–1797), a Scottish Geologist who presented the idea of uniformitarianism or the theory that changes to the Earth's crust resulted from continuous and uniform processes. The broader concept of the relation between rocks and time can be traced back to (at least) the philosophers of Ancient Greece from 1200 BC to 600 AD. Xenophanes of Colophon (c. 570–487 BCE) observed rock beds with fossils of seashells located above the sea-level, viewed them as once living organisms, and used this to imply an unstable relationship in which the sea had at times transgressed over the land and at other times had regressed. This view was shared by a few of Xenophanes's scholars and those that followed, including Aristotle (384–322 BC) who (with additional observations) reasoned that the positions of land and sea had changed over long periods of time. The concept of deep time was also recognized by Chinese naturalist Shen Kuo (1031–1095) and Islamic scientist-philosophers, notably the Brothers of Purity, who wrote on the processes of stratification over the passage of time in


id: geologic-time-scale-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale-3.md
category: reference
title: Geologic time scale
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:29.061904+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geologic-time-scale-20260505-0
summary:
Respectively, these are the principles of superposition, original horizontality, lateral continuity, and cross-cutting relationships. From this Steno reasoned that strata were laid down in succession and inferred relative time (in Steno's belief, time from Creation). While Steno's principles were simple and attracted much attention, applying them proved challenging. These basic principles, albeit with improved and more nuanced interpretations, still form the foundational principles of determining the correlation of strata relative to geologic time. Over the course of the 18th-century geologists realised that: Sequences of strata often become eroded, distorted, tilted, or even inverted after deposition Strata laid down at the same time in different areas could have entirely different appearances The strata of any given area represented only part of Earth's long history === Formulation of a modern geologic time scale === The apparent, earliest formal division of the geologic record with respect to time was introduced during the era of Biblical models by Thomas Burnet who applied a two-fold terminology to mountains by identifying "montes primarii" for rock formed at the time of the 'Deluge', and younger "monticulos secundarios" formed later from the debris of the "primarii". Anton Moro (1687–1784) also used primary and secondary divisions for rock units


id: geologic-time-scale-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale-4.md
category: reference
title: Geologic time scale
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:29.061904+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geologic-time-scale-20260505-0
summary:
=== Modern international geological time scale === The establishment of the IUGS in 1961 and acceptance of the Commission on Stratigraphy (applied in 1965) to become a member commission of IUGS led to the founding of the ICS. One of the primary objectives of the ICS is "the establishment, publication and revision of the ICS International Chronostratigraphic Chart which is the standard, reference global Geological Time Scale to include the ratified Commission decisions". Following on from Holmes, several A Geological Time Scale books were published in 1982, 1989, 2004, 2008, 2012, 2016, and 2020. However, since 2013, the ICS has taken responsibility for producing and distributing the ICC citing the commercial nature, independent creation, and lack of oversight by the ICS on the prior published GTS versions (GTS books prior to 2013) although these versions were published in close association with the ICS. Subsequent Geologic Time Scale books (2016 and 2020) are commercial publications with no oversight from the ICS, and do not entirely conform to the chart produced by the ICS. The ICS produced GTS charts are versioned (year/month) beginning at v2013/01. At least one new version is published each year incorporating any changes ratified by the ICS since


id: geologic-time-scale-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale-5.md
category: reference
title: Geologic time scale
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:29.061904+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geologic-time-scale-20260505-0
summary:
==== Van Kranendonk et al. 2012 (GTS2012) ==== The book, Geologic Time Scale 2012, was the last commercial publication of an international chronostratigraphic chart that was closely associated with the ICS and the Subcommission on Precambrian Stratigraphy. It included a proposal to substantially revise the pre-Cryogenian time scale to reflect important events such as the formation of the Solar System and the Great Oxidation Event, among others, while at the same time maintaining most of the previous chronostratigraphic nomenclature for the pertinent time span. As of April 2022 these proposed changes have not been accepted by the ICS. The proposed changes (changes from the current scale [v2023/09]) are italicised: Hadean Eon (4567–4030 Ma) Chaotian Era/Erathem (4567–4404 Ma) – the name alluding both to the mythological Chaos and the chaotic phase of planet formation. Jack Hillsian or Zirconian Era/Erathem (4404–4030 Ma) – both names allude to the Jack Hills Greenstone Belt which provided the oldest mineral grains on Earth, zircons. Archean Eon/Eonothem (4030–2420 Ma) Paleoarchean Era/Erathem (4030–3490 Ma) Acastan Period/System (4030–3810 Ma) – named after the Acasta Gneiss, one of the oldest preserved pieces of continental crust. Isuan Period/System (3810–3490 Ma) – named after the Isua Greenstone Belt. Mesoarchean Era/Erathem (3490–2780


id: geologic-time-scale-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale-6.md
category: reference
title: Geologic time scale
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:29.061904+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geologic-time-scale-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == Aubry, Marie-Pierre; Van Couvering, John A.; Christie-Blick, Nicholas; Landing, Ed; Pratt, Brian R.; Owen, Donald E.; Ferrusquia-Villafranca, Ismael (2009). "Terminology of geological time: Establishment of a community standard". Stratigraphy. 6 (2): 100–105. doi:10.7916/D8DR35JQ. Gradstein, Felix M.; Ogg, James G. (June 2004). "Geologic Time Scale 2004 – why, how, and where next!". Lethaia. 37 (2): 175–181. Bibcode:2004Letha..37..175G. doi:10.1080/00241160410006483. Gradstein, Felix M.; Ogg, James G.; Smith, Alan G., eds. (2005). A Geologic Time Scale 2004. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511536045. ISBN 978-0-521-78673-7. Gradstein, Felix M.; Ogg, James G.; Smith, Alan G.; Bleeker, Wouter; Laurens, Lucas, J. (June 2004). "A new Geologic Time Scale, with special reference to Precambrian and Neogene". Episodes. 27 (2): 83–100. doi:10.18814/epiiugs/2004/v27i2/002. CORE output ID 11773078.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Ialenti, Vincent (28 September 2014). "Embracing 'Deep Time' Thinking". NPR. NPR Cosmos & Culture. Ialenti, Vincent (21 September 2014). "Pondering 'Deep Time' Could Inspire New Ways To View Climate Change". NPR. NPR Cosmos & Culture. Knoll, Andrew H.; Walter, Malcolm R.; Narbonne, Guy M.; Christie-Blick, Nicholas (30 July 2004). "A New Period for the Geologic Time Scale". Science. 305 (5684): 621–622. doi:10.1126/science.1098803. PMID 15286353. Levin, Harold L. (2010). "Time and Geology". The Earth Through Time.


id: humboldtian-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humboldtian_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Humboldtian science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humboldtian_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:31.591065+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: humboldtian-science-20260505-0
summary:
Humboldtian science refers to a movement in science in the 19th century closely connected to the work and writings of German scientist, naturalist, and explorer Alexander von Humboldt. It maintained a certain ethics of precision and observation, which combined scientific field work with the sensitivity and aesthetic ideals of the age of Romanticism. Like Romanticism in science, it was rather popular in the 19th century. The term was coined by Susan Faye Cannon in 1978. The example of Humboldt's life and his writings allowed him to reach out beyond the academic community with his natural history and address a wider audience with popular science aspects. It has supplanted the older Baconian method, related as well to a single person, Francis Bacon. == Brief biography == Humboldt was born in Berlin in 1769 and worked as a Prussian mining official in the 1790s until 1797 when he quit and began collecting scientific knowledge and equipment. His extensive wealth aided his infatuation with the spirit of Romanticism; he amassed an extensive collection of scientific instruments and tools as well as a sizeable library. In 1799 Humboldt, under the protection of King Charles IV of Spain, left for South America and New Spain,


id: humboldtian-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humboldtian_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Humboldtian science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humboldtian_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:31.591065+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: humboldtian-science-20260505-0
summary:
insistence on accuracy for all scientific instruments and observations; a mental sophistication in which theoretical mechanisms and entities of past science were taken lightly; a new set of conceptual tools, including isomaps, graphs, and a theory of errors; the application of accuracy, mental sophistication, and tools not to isolated science in laboratories, but to greatly variable real phenomena. == Humboldt's "terrestrial physicist" == Humboldt was committed to what he called 'terrestrial physics.' Essentially Humboldt's new scientific approach required a new type of scientist: Humboldtian science demanded a transition from the naturalist to the physicist. Humboldt described how his idea of terrestrial physics differs from traditional "descriptive" natural history when he stated, "[traveling naturalists] have neglected to track the great and constant laws of nature manifested in the rapid flux of phenomena…and to trace the reciprocal interaction of the divided physical forces." Humboldt did not consider himself an explorer, but rather a scientific traveler, who accurately measured what explorers had reported inaccurately. According to Humboldt, the goal of the terrestrial physicist was to investigate the confluence and interweaving of all physical forces. An incredibly extensive array of precise instrumentation had to be readily available for Humboldt's terrestrial physicist. The expansive amount


id: humboldtian-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humboldtian_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Humboldtian science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humboldtian_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:31.591065+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: humboldtian-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Transformation of Humboldtian science == Ralph Waldo Emerson once dubbed Humboldt to be "one of those wonders of the world… who appear from time to time, as if to show us the possibilities of the human mind." When Humboldt first began his studies of organisms and the environment he claimed that he wanted to "reorganize the general connections that link organic beings and to study the great harmonies of Nature". He is often considered one of the world's first genuine ecologists. Humboldt succeeded in developing a comprehensive science that joined the separate branches of natural philosophy under a model of natural order founded on the concept of dynamic equilibrium. Humboldt's work reached far beyond his personal expeditions and discoveries. Figures from all across the globe participated on his work. Some such participants included French naval officers, East India Company physicians, Russian provincial administrators, Spanish military commanders, and German diplomats. As was mentioned previously, Charles Darwin carried a copy of Humboldt's Personal Narrative aboard H.M.S. Beagle. Humboldt's projects, particularly those related to natural philosophy, played a significant role in the influx of European money and travelers to Spanish America in increasing numbers in the early 19th century. Sir Edward Sabine,


id: insect-collecting-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_collecting-0.md
category: reference
title: Insect collecting
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_collecting
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:32.821341+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: insect-collecting-20260505-0
summary:
Insect collecting refers to the collection of insects and other arthropods for scientific study or as a hobby. Most insects are small and the majority cannot be identified without the examination of minute morphological characters, so entomologists often make and maintain insect collections. Very large collections are preserved in natural history museums or universities where they are maintained and studied by specialists. Many college courses require students to form small collections. There are also amateur entomologists and collectors who keep collections. Historically, insect collecting has been widespread and was in the Victorian age a very popular educational hobby. Insect collecting has left traces in European cultural history, literature and songs, e.g., Georges Brassens's La chasse aux papillons (The Hunt for Butterflies). The practice is particularly common among Japanese youths. == Capture and kill techniques == Insects may be passively caught using traps such as funnels, pitfall traps, bottle traps, malaise traps, or flight interception traps, some of which are baited with small bits of sweet foods (such as honey). Entomologists collecting nocturnal insects (especially moths) during faunistic survey studies might utilize ultraviolet light traps such as the Robinson trap. Aspirators, sometimes called "pooters", suck up insects too small or delicate


id: insect-collecting-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_collecting-1.md
category: reference
title: Insect collecting
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_collecting
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:32.821341+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: insect-collecting-20260505-0
summary:
Direct pinning. Direct pinning is the insertion of an entomological pin directly through the thorax of a specimen. The insects are pinned vertically through the thorax with a suitably sized pin, but by convention they are not pinned on the midline, but to the right, so as to leave at least one side undamaged. Point. A point is a triangular piece of white card. Specially designed point punches permit the production of large numbers of points of standard sizes as required. To use a point, a pin is inserted through the broad base of the triangle. To mount the specimen, a tiny amount of glue is placed on the tip and applied to the right side of the insect's thorax. If appropriate the tip of the point may be bent at the necessary angle to hold the body of the specimen horizontal when the pin is vertical, with the long axis of the insect at right angles to the point. Minuten pins. Insect pins without heads, 12mm long. They are used for double mounting (staging) very small insects. They also may be used profitably for staging insects of moderate size, where they have the advantage of being less damaging to


id: list-of-natural-history-articles-by-gerard-krefft-in-the-sydney-mail-20260505-0
category: reference
title: List of Natural History articles by Gerard Krefft in The Sydney Mail
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Natural_History_articles_by_Gerard_Krefft_in_The_Sydney_Mail
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:34.064719+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-natural-history-articles-by-gerard-krefft-in-the-sydney-mail-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Natural_History_articles_by_Gerard_Krefft_in_The_Sydney_Mail-0.md

summary:
Johann Ludwig (Louis) Gerard Krefft (1830 – 1881), one of Australia's first and most influential zoologists and palaeontologists, was an artist, draughtsman, scientist, and natural historian who served as the curator of the Australian Museum, in Sydney, New South Wales, for 13 years (1861–1874). The following is a list of Krefft's articles that were regularly published in the "Natural History" Section of The Sydney Mail between 4 March 1871 and 26 June 1875. Although a small number of relevant items written by others appeared in The Sydney Mail's "Natural History" section from time to time — e.g., John William Brazier (2 March 1872), George Bennett (9 August 1873), Georgen Mivart (7 March 1874), "Anonymous" (16 May 1874), etc. — the section's very first article was Krefft's 4 March 1871 contribution, and its very last was Krefft's 26 June 1875 contribution: == See also == Krefft's "Natural History" articles in The Sydney Mail


id: kunstformen-der-natur-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunstformen_der_Natur-0.md
category: reference
title: Kunstformen der Natur
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunstformen_der_Natur
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:38.605024+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kunstformen-der-natur-20260505-0
summary:
Kunstformen der Natur (known in English as Art Forms in Nature) is a book of lithographic and halftone prints by German biologist Ernst Haeckel. == Publication == Originally published in sets of ten between 1899 and 1904 and collectively in two volumes in 1904, it consists of 100 prints of various organisms, many of which were first described by Haeckel himself. Over the course of his career, over 1000 prints were produced based on Haeckel's sketches and watercolors; many of the best of these were chosen for Kunstformen der Natur, translated from sketch to print by lithographer Adolf Giltsch. A second edition of Kunstformen, containing only 30 prints, was produced in 1914. == Themes == According to Haeckel scholar Olaf Breidbach, the work was "not just a book of illustrations but also the summation of his view of the world." The over-riding themes of the Kunstformen plates are symmetry and level of organization. The subjects were selected to embody these to the full, from the scale patterns of boxfishes to the spirals of ammonites to the perfect symmetries of jellies and microorganisms, while images composing each plate are arranged for maximum visual impact. Among the notable prints are numerous radiolarians,


id: list-of-parson-naturalists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_parson-naturalists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of parson-naturalists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_parson-naturalists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:39.762551+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-parson-naturalists-20260505-0
summary:
Parson-naturalists were ministers of religion who also studied natural history. The archetypical parson-naturalist was a priest in the Church of England in charge of a country parish, who saw the study of science as an extension of his religious work. The philosophy entailed the belief that God, as the Creator of all things, wanted man to understand his Creations and thus to study them through scientific techniques. They often collected and preserved natural artefacts such as leaves, flowers, birds' eggs, birds, insects, and small mammals to classify and study. Some wrote books or kept nature diaries. == Parson-naturalists == == See also == List of Christian thinkers in science Science in the Age of Enlightenment == References == == Bibliography == Armstrong, Patrick (2000). The English Parson-naturalist: A Companionship Between Science and Religion. Gracewing Publishing. ISBN 978-0-85244-516-7.


id: marine-counterparts-of-land-creatures-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_counterparts_of_land_creatures-0.md
category: reference
title: Marine counterparts of land creatures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_counterparts_of_land_creatures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:40.956845+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: marine-counterparts-of-land-creatures-20260505-0
summary:
The idea that there are specific marine counterparts to land creatures, inherited from the writers on natural history in Antiquity, was firmly believed in Islam and in Medieval Europe. It is exemplified by the creatures represented in the medieval animal encyclopedias called bestiaries, and in the parallels drawn in the moralising attributes attached to each. "The creation was a mathematical diagram drawn in parallel lines," T. H. White said a propos the bestiary he translated. "Things did not only have a moral they often had physical counterparts in other strata. There was a horse in the land and a sea-horse in the sea. For that matter there was probably a Pegasus in heaven". The idea of perfect analogies in the fauna of land and sea was considered part of the perfect symmetry of the Creator's plan, offered as the "book of nature" to mankind, for which a text could be found in Job: But ask the animals, and they will teach you, or the birds of the air, and they will tell you; or speak to the earth, and it will teach you, or let the fish of the sea inform you. Which of all these does not know that


id: natural-history-of-australia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history_of_Australia-0.md
category: reference
title: Natural history of Australia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history_of_Australia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:42.114564+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-history-of-australia-20260505-0
summary:
The natural history of Australia has been shaped by the geological evolution of the Australian continent from Gondwana and the changes in global climate over geological time. The building of the Australian continent and its association with other land masses, as well as climate changes over geological time, have created the unique flora and fauna present in Australia today. There are many species of flora and fauna that are unique to Australia, and do not exist in any other part of the world. The natural history of Australia begins with rock formation, followed by geological development, life evolution, and continues to change today. == Precambrian == Three areas of the Australian landmass that are made of Archaean rocks are more than 2.5 billion years old, among the oldest known rocks. These igneous and metamorphic rocks are found in the Yilgarn (West) and Pilbara (North) cratons in today's Western Australia and the Gawler (South) craton which makes up the Eyre Peninsula in South Australia. During the Proterozoic, 2,500 to 545 Ma, continent building took place around the existing cratons; the accretions include sedimentary deposition of the banded iron formations and the formation of Australia's major orebodies – sources of gold, copper,


id: natural-history-of-australia-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history_of_Australia-1.md
category: reference
title: Natural history of Australia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history_of_Australia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:42.114564+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-history-of-australia-20260505-0
summary:
During the Carboniferous glaciation, erosion by ice extended into the Early Permian. Crustal extension and subsidence around 295 Ma formed shallow basins in which thick coal deposits were formed. During the Mesozoic, when the Earth became much warmer, 251 to 140 Ma, the Australian landmass was covered with riverine plains. Humid conditions allowed the formation of peatlands, particularly in the east. Dinosaurs, reptiles and primitive mammals were present in Australia. Between 140 and 99 Ma, sea levels rose, and much of the continent was covered. In the same period (between 120 and 105 Ma), there was more volcanism in eastern Australia, leading to uplift creating the Tasman Sea to the southeast and the Coral Sea to the north. The earliest land plants preserved in Australia occur in deposits from the Upper Silurian and the Lower Devonian in marine sediments in Victoria, named the Baragwanathia Assemblage for its most prominent element, the simple vascular plant the lycopod Baragwanathia. The assemblage also included Rhyniophyta, Zosterophyllophyta, and Trimerophyta in addition to other lycopods. All these plants were herbaceous, coastal and required an aqueous environment for reproduction. During the Devonian the first shrub-sized to tree-sized lycopods appeared in Australia and Antarctica; they dominated the


id: nature-center-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_center-0.md
category: reference
title: Nature center
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_center
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:43.393710+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nature-center-20260505-0
summary:
A nature center (or nature centre) is an organization with a visitor center or interpretive center designed to educate people about nature and the environment. Usually in a protected open space, nature centers often have trails through their property. Some are in a state or city park, and some have special gardens or an arboretum. Their properties can be characterized as nature preserves and wildlife sanctuaries. Nature centers generally display small live animals, such as reptiles, rodents, insects, or fish. There are often museum exhibits and displays about natural history, or preserved mounted animals or nature dioramas. Nature centers are staffed by paid or volunteer naturalists and most offer educational programs to the general public, as well as summer camp, after-school and school group programs. These educational programs teach people about nature conservation as well as the scientific method, biology, and ecology. Some nature centers allow free admission but collect voluntary donations in order to help offset expenses. They usually rely on support from volunteers. Environmental education centers differ from nature centers in that their museum exhibits and education programs are available mostly by appointment, although casual visitors may be allowed to walk on their grounds. Some city, state and


id: nature-writing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_writing-0.md
category: reference
title: Nature writing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_writing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:44.729995+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nature-writing-20260505-0
summary:
Nature writing is nonfiction or fiction prose about the natural environment. It often draws heavily from scientific information and facts while also incorporating philosophical reflection upon various aspects of nature. Works are frequently written in the first person and include personal observations. Nature writing encompasses a wide variety of works, ranging from those that place primary emphasis on natural history (such as field guides) to those focusing on philosophical interpretation. It includes poetry, essays of solitude or escape, as well as travel and adventure writing. Modern-day nature writing traces its roots to works of natural history that initially gained popularity in the second half of the 18th century, and continued to do so throughout the 19th century. An important early figure in nature writing was the parson-naturalist Gilbert White (1720–1793), a pioneering English naturalist and ornithologist. He is best known for writing Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne (1789). William Bartram (1739–1823) was another significant American pioneer naturalist who became a respected figure in literary and scientific communities after his first work was published in 1791. == Early history == The tradition of clerical naturalists can be traced back to the monastic writings of the Middle Ages, although under modern-day


id: nature-writing-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_writing-1.md
category: reference
title: Nature writing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_writing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:44.729995+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nature-writing-20260505-0
summary:
== 20th century to date == The second half of the 20th century saw a significant increase in nature writing in fiction and non-fiction in Britain. One of the earliest of these works was John Moore (1907–1967), a best-selling pioneer conservationist. Writing from the 1930s to 1960s, he was described by Sir Compton Mackenzie as the most talented writer about the countryside of his generation. Moore's contemporaries included Henry Williamson (1895–1977), best known for Tarka the Otter, whose imaginative prose won him the Hawthornden Prize in 1928. Other 20th century writers included American authors Edward Abbey (1927–1989), Aldo Leopold (1887–1948) and Indian author M. Krishnan (1912–1996). After World War II, other writers emerged including English teacher and naturalist Margaret Hutchinson (1904–1997), who strongly advocated for raising children as naturalists from an early age. American author Rachel Carson (1907–1964) is known for Silent Spring, published in 1962. Carson heralded a new and pointed style of nature writing that carried stronger warnings of environmental loss as pesticide use in industrial agriculture became an increasing concern after World War II. Relevant contemporary nature writers in Britain include Richard Mabey, Roger Deakin, Mark Cocker, and Oliver Rackham. Rackham's books included Ancient Woodland (1980) and


id: naturhistorieselskabet-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturhistorieselskabet-0.md
category: reference
title: Naturhistorieselskabet
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturhistorieselskabet
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:46.133642+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: naturhistorieselskabet-20260505-0
summary:
Naturhistorieselskabet (lit. 'the Society for Natural History') was a private society that was the only institution to offer education in natural history in Denmark in the late 18th century. The spirit of the Age of Enlightenment and an escalating agricultural crisis, led the king and the Danish elite to call foreign experts on economy, including botany and silviculture, to the country. The autonomous University of Copenhagen, on the other hand, was reluctant to employ foreign experts in little-established disciplines. Naturhistorieselskabet was formed in 1788 in order to ensure education in botany, zoology and mineralogy based on private funds. For example, Martin Vahl lectured in botany. After the appointment in 1795 of a professor in geology and in 1797 one in botany, the society gradually lost its importance. It was soon abolished and its collections donated to the state (much later united with the university collections). == Sources == Wagner, P.H. 2001. Institutionaliseringen af botanik og geologi i Danmark-Norge i det 18. århundrede (colloquium). Institut for Videnskabshistorie.


id: peterson-identification-system-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peterson_Identification_System-0.md
category: reference
title: Peterson Identification System
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peterson_Identification_System
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:47.337124+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: peterson-identification-system-20260505-0
summary:
The Peterson Identification System is a practical method for the field identification of animals, plants and other natural phenomena. It was devised by ornithologist Roger Tory Peterson in 1934 for the first of his series of Field Guides (See Peterson Field Guides.) Peterson devised his system "so that live birds could be identified readily at a distance by their 'field marks' without resorting to the bird-in-hand characters that the early collectors relied on. During the last half century the binocular and the spotting scope have replaced the shotgun." As such, it both reflected and contributed to awareness of the emerging early environmental movement. Another application of this system was made when Roger Tory Peterson was enlisted in the US Army Corps of Engineers from 1943 to 1945. “...plane identification—the aircraft spotting technique—was based on Roger’s bird identification method-the Peterson system.”. == The system == Created for use by amateur naturalists and laymen, rather than specialists, the "Peterson System" is essentially a pictorial key based upon readily noticed visual impressions rather than on the technical features of interest to scientists. The technique involves patternistic drawings with arrows that pinpoint the key field comparisons between similar species. == Influence == Since the


id: plant-collecting-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_collecting-0.md
category: reference
title: Plant collecting
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_collecting
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:48.701818+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: plant-collecting-20260505-0
summary:
Plant collecting is the acquisition of plant specimens for the purposes of research, cultivation, or as a hobby. Plant specimens may be kept alive, but are more commonly dried and pressed to preserve the quality of the specimen. Plant collecting is an ancient practice with records of a Chinese botanist collecting roses over 5000 years ago. Herbaria are collections of preserved plants samples and their associated data for scientific purposes. The largest herbarium in the world exist at the Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, in Paris, France. Plant samples in herbaria typically include a reference sheet with information about the plant and details of collection. This detailed and organized system of filing provides horticulturist and other researchers alike with a way to find information about a certain plant, and a way to add new information to an existing plant sample file. The collection of live plant specimens from the wild, sometimes referred to as plant hunting, is an activity that has occurred for centuries. The earliest recorded evidence of plant hunting was in 1495 BC when botanists were sent to Somalia to collect incense trees for Queen Hatshepsut. The Victorian era saw a surge in plant hunting activity as botanical adventurers


id: plant-collecting-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_collecting-1.md
category: reference
title: Plant collecting
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_collecting
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:48.701818+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: plant-collecting-20260505-0
summary:
=== Preservation without pressing === Some specimens cannot be compressed, degrade when dried, or require other techniques for preservation and storage. Large seeds or fruits may be stored in boxes without compression. Aquatic plants and delicate plants may be stored in a liquid preservative. Cacti may be stored in ethanol. In cases where drying or pressing a plant may destroy or alter a plant feature being studied, 50-75% ethanol can be used to preserve the specimen for up to 4 weeks. This is commonly used when sectioning tissue samples. If a collector wishes to preserve a flower in its natural shape they will use a desiccant. The most commonly used desiccant is silica gel. To do this flowers are placed in a box, and the desiccant is added till the flowers are covered. After 2–7 days the desiccant is removed, revealing the preserved flowers. == Collection of herbarium specimens == Herbarium specimens of plants are collected for a number of different uses. They can assist in accurate identification and provide a species record for a time and place that can be used in distribution maps. They can also provide biological material for researchers, a reference point to document scientific names


id: plant-collecting-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_collecting-2.md
category: reference
title: Plant collecting
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_collecting
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:48.701818+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: plant-collecting-20260505-0
summary:
Another Victorian craze known as Orchidelirium similarly led to a drastic decline of several species of orchids. The lady's slipper orchid Cypripedium calceolus was declared extinct in the UK in 1917 and later rediscovered in 1930 as a single wild plant in the Yorkshire Dales, the only remaining site in the UK for these plants. Once found, the plant was guarded 24 hours a day. ==== Summer lady's-tresses orchid ==== In 1956, the UK's last remaining plants of the Spiranthes aestivalis, summer lady's-tresses orchid, were stolen. The orchid is still classified as extinct in the UK. === Modern examples === Many botanical gardens have been the target of plant theft, given the nature of their collections, which often house rare and valuable plants. ==== Kew Royal Botanic Gardens (2014) ==== In 2014, Kew Royal Botanic Gardens saw the theft of one of twenty-four of their Nymphaea thermarum, the world's smallest water lily ever discovered. There are about 100 of these species left, which survive solely in botanical gardens, last seen in the wild in 2008. ==== Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden (2014) ==== In 2014 in two separate incidents, a total of twenty four cycads were taken from the Kirstenbosch National


id: science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:20.804703+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-20260505-0
summary:
Science is a systematic discipline that builds and organises knowledge in the form of testable hypotheses and predictions about the universe. Modern science is typically divided into two – or three – major branches: the natural sciences, which study the physical world, and the social sciences, which study individuals and societies. While referred to as the formal sciences, the study of logic, mathematics, and theoretical computer science are typically regarded as separate because they rely on deductive reasoning instead of the scientific method as their main methodology. Meanwhile, applied sciences are disciplines that use scientific knowledge for practical purposes, such as engineering and medicine. The history of science spans the majority of the historical record, with the earliest identifiable predecessors to modern science dating to the Bronze Age in Egypt and Mesopotamia (c. 3000–1200 BCE). Their contributions to mathematics, astronomy, and medicine entered and shaped the Greek natural philosophy of classical antiquity and later medieval scholarship, whereby formal attempts were made to provide explanations of events in the physical world based on natural causes; while further advances, including the introduction of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, were made during the Golden Age of India and Islamic Golden Age. The recovery and


id: science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-1.md
category: reference
title: Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:20.804703+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-20260505-0
summary:
In classical antiquity, there is no real ancient analogue of a modern scientist. Instead, well-educated, usually upper-class, and almost universally male individuals performed various investigations into nature whenever they could afford the time. Before the invention or discovery of the concept of phusis or nature by the pre-Socratic philosophers, the same words tend to be used to describe the natural "way" in which a plant grows, and the "way" in which, for example, one tribe worships a particular god. For this reason, it is claimed that these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense and the first to clearly distinguish "nature" and "convention". The early Greek philosophers of the Milesian school, which was founded by Thales of Miletus and later continued by his successors Anaximander and Anaximenes, were the first to attempt to explain natural phenomena without relying on the supernatural. The Pythagoreans developed a complex number philosophy and contributed significantly to the development of mathematical science. The theory of atoms was developed by the Greek philosopher Leucippus and his student Democritus. Later, Epicurus would develop a full natural cosmology based on atomism, and would adopt a "canon" (ruler, standard) which established physical criteria or standards of scientific


id: science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-2.md
category: reference
title: Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:20.804703+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-20260505-0
summary:
From a single print shop in Mainz, Germany around 1440, the movable type printing-press had spread to no less than around 270 cities in Central, Western and Eastern Europe and had already produced more than 20 million volumes by the end of the 15th century. Printing made scholarly books more widely accessible, allowing researchers to consult ancient texts freely and to compare their own observations with those of fellow scholars. Printing ended the manuscript culture of the Middle Ages, where facts were few and far between, and replaced it with a printing culture where reliable and documented facts rapidly proliferated and became the secure foundation for scientific knowledge. In the 16th century, Nicolaus Copernicus formulated a heliostatic model of the Solar System, with the Sun positioned near the center of the Universe, motionless, with Earth and the other planets orbiting around it in circular motions, modified by epicycles, and at uniform speeds. The Copernican model challenged the dominant geocentric model of Ptolemy, which had placed Earth at the center of the Universe. 16th-century astronomers believed that Copernicus' elimination of the equant was his chief achievement but his model never displaced Ptolemy's, which only fell out of favor 70 years later


id: science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-3.md
category: reference
title: Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:20.804703+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-20260505-0
summary:
During the 19th century, many distinguishing characteristics of contemporary modern science began to take shape. These included the transformation of the life and physical sciences; the frequent use of precision instruments; the emergence of terms such as "biologist", "physicist", and "scientist"; an increased professionalisation of those studying nature; scientists gaining cultural authority over many dimensions of society; the industrialisation of numerous countries; the thriving of popular science writings; and the emergence of science journals. During the late 19th century, psychology emerged as a separate discipline from philosophy when Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory for psychological research in 1879. During the mid-19th century Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace independently proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection in 1858, which explained how different plants and animals originated and evolved. Their theory was set out in detail in Darwin's book On the Origin of Species, published in 1859. Separately, Gregor Mendel presented his paper, "Experiments on Plant Hybridisation" in 1865, which outlined the principles of biological inheritance, serving as the basis for modern genetics. Early in the 19th century John Dalton suggested the modern atomic theory, based on Democritus's original idea of indivisible particles called atoms. The laws of conservation


id: science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-4.md
category: reference
title: Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:20.804703+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-20260505-0
summary:
Social science is the study of human behaviour and the functioning of societies. It has many disciplines that include, but are not limited to anthropology, economics, history, human geography, political science, psychology, and sociology. In the social sciences, there are many competing theoretical perspectives, many of which are extended through competing research programmes such as the functionalists, conflict theorists, and interactionists in sociology. Due to the limitations of conducting controlled experiments involving large groups of individuals or complex situations, social scientists may adopt other research methods such as the historical method, case studies, and cross-cultural studies. Moreover, if quantitative information is available, social scientists may rely on statistical approaches to better understand social relationships and processes. === Formal === Formal science is an area of study that generates knowledge using formal systems. A formal system is an abstract structure used for inferring theorems from axioms according to a set of rules. It includes mathematics, systems theory, and theoretical computer science. The formal sciences share similarities with the other two branches by relying on objective, careful, and systematic study of an area of knowledge. They are, however, different from the empirical sciences as they rely exclusively on deductive reasoning, without the


id: science-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-5.md
category: reference
title: Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:20.804703+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific research involves using the scientific method, which seeks to objectively explain the events of nature in a reproducible way. Scientists usually take for granted a set of basic assumptions that are needed to justify the scientific method: there is an objective reality shared by all rational observers; this objective reality is governed by natural laws; these laws were discovered by means of systematic observation and experimentation. Mathematics is essential in the formation of hypotheses, theories, and laws, because it is used extensively in quantitative modelling, observing, and collecting measurements. Statistics is used to summarise and analyse data, which allows scientists to assess the reliability of experimental results. In the scientific method an explanatory thought experiment or hypothesis is put forward as an explanation using parsimony principles and is expected to seek consilience – fitting with other accepted facts related to an observation or scientific question. This tentative explanation is used to make falsifiable predictions, which are typically posted before being tested by experimentation. Disproof of a prediction is evidence of progress. Experimentation is especially important in science to help establish causal relationships to avoid the correlation fallacy, though in some sciences such as astronomy or geology, a predicted observation


id: science-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-6.md
category: reference
title: Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:20.804703+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-20260505-0
summary:
There are different schools of thought in the philosophy of science. The most popular position is empiricism, which holds that knowledge is created by a process involving observation; scientific theories generalise observations. Empiricism generally encompasses inductivism, a position that explains how general theories can be made from the finite amount of empirical evidence available. Many versions of empiricism exist, with the predominant ones being Bayesianism and the hypothetico-deductive method. Empiricism has stood in contrast to rationalism, the position originally associated with Descartes, which holds that knowledge is created by the human intellect, not by observation. Critical rationalism is a contrasting 20th-century approach to science, first defined by Austrian-British philosopher Karl Popper. Popper rejected the way that empiricism describes the connection between theory and observation. He claimed that theories are not generated by observation, but that observation is made in the light of theories, and that the only way theory A can be affected by observation is after theory A were to conflict with observation, but theory B were to survive the observation. Popper proposed replacing verifiability with falsifiability as the landmark of scientific theories, replacing induction with falsification as the empirical method. Popper further claimed that there is actually only


id: science-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-7.md
category: reference
title: Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:20.804703+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Awards === Science awards are usually given to individuals or organisations that have made significant contributions to a discipline. They are often given by prestigious institutions; thus, it is considered a great honour for a scientist receiving them. Since the early Renaissance, scientists have often been awarded medals, money, and titles. The Nobel Prize, a widely regarded prestigious award, is awarded annually to those who have achieved scientific advances in the fields of medicine, physics, and chemistry. == Society == === Funding and policies === Funding of science is often through a competitive process in which potential research projects are evaluated and only the most promising receive funding. Such processes, which are run by government, corporations, or foundations, allocate scarce funds. Total research funding in most developed countries is between 1.5% and 3% of GDP. In the OECD, around two-thirds of research and development in scientific and technical fields is carried out by industry, and 20% and 10%, respectively, by universities and government. The government funding proportion in certain fields is higher, and it dominates research in social science and the humanities. In less developed nations, the government provides the bulk of the funds for their basic scientific research.


id: science-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-8.md
category: reference
title: Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:20.804703+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-20260505-0
summary:
Attitudes towards science are often determined by political opinions and goals. Government, business and advocacy groups have been known to use legal and economic pressure to influence scientific researchers. Many factors can act as facets of the politicisation of science such as anti-intellectualism, perceived threats to religious beliefs, and fear for business interests. Politicisation of science is usually accomplished when scientific information is presented in a way that emphasises the uncertainty associated with the scientific evidence. Tactics such as shifting conversation, failing to acknowledge facts, and capitalising on doubt of scientific consensus have been used to gain more attention for views that have been undermined by scientific evidence. Examples of issues that have involved the politicisation of science include the global warming controversy, health effects of pesticides, and health effects of tobacco. === Challenges === The replication crisis is an ongoing systemic crisis that affects parts of science. The results of a fraction of scientific studies have been proven to be unreproducible. The crisis has long-standing roots; the phrase was coined in the early 2010s as part of a growing awareness of the problem. A 2026 replication study found low replication rates in social and behavioural sciences (business, economics, education,


id: aic-judd-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIC_Judd_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: AIC Judd Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIC_Judd_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:23.364410+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aic-judd-award-20260505-0
summary:
The AIC - Deane B. Judd Award is an international prize, created in 1973 and instituted for the first time in 1975 by the International Colour Association (AIC). It is given to researchers or research groups in recognition of outstanding contributions to the field of color science. The award is named in honor of Deane B. Judd, an American scientist who made significant contributions to colorimetry, color discrimination, color models, and color vision. The AIC has been carrying out the process of selection of the recipients for this award every two years, since 1975. The selection is an arduous procedure that includes nominations by AIC members and analysis of antecedents of the nominees by a Committee composed of previous recipients of the award and AIC past-presidents. The award is given at AIC Congresses. == Awardees == The researchers who have received this award in the past 50 years are: 1975: Dorothy Nickerson (USA); 1977: William David Wright (UK); 1979: Günter Wyszecki (Germany, USA, Canada); 1981: Manfred Richter (Germany); 1983: David L. MacAdam (USA); 1985: Leo Hurvich & Dorothea Jameson (USA); 1987: Robert William G. Hunt (UK); 1989: Tarow Indow (Japan, USA); 1991: Johannes J. Vos & Pieter L. Walraven (Netherlands);


id: eurotrac-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurotrac-0.md
category: reference
title: Eurotrac
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurotrac
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:24.459733+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eurotrac-20260505-0
summary:
EUROTRAC (European Experiment on Transportation and Transformation of Environmentally Relevant Trace Constituents) was a joint European scientific research programme within the Eureka Framework. EUROTRAC was accepted as a Eureka project at the second Eureka Ministerial Conference held in Hannover (Germany) in November 1985. After a two-year definition phase, the work started in January 1988 and ended in 1995. At the peak of the programme, it included more than 250 research groups from 24 European countries and its budget exceeded 16 million ECU per year (equivalent to approx. 16 million Euro). == Objectives and focus areas == The objectives of Eurotrac were to: Increase the basic knowledge in atmospheric science; Promote the technological development of sensitive, specific, and fast response instruments for environmental research and monitoring; Improve the scientific basis for future political decisions on environmental management in European countries. EUROTRAC studied the impact of human activities on the troposphere over Europe, focusing on: The chemistry and transport of photo-oxidants (especially ozone) in the troposphere The processes leading to the formation of acidity in the atmosphere The uptake and release of atmospheric trace substances by the biosphere. EUROTRAC was an interdisciplinary programme involving field experiments and campaigns, laboratory studies, comprehensive model


id: ideonomy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideonomy-0.md
category: reference
title: Ideonomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideonomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:25.646281+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ideonomy-20260505-0
summary:
Ideonomy is a combinatorial "science of ideas" developed by American independent scholar Patrick M. Gunkel (1947–2017). Specifically, Ideonomy is concerned with the systematic organization of ideas and the discovery of the rules behind how ideas combine, diverge, and transform. Gunkel defined ideonomy as "the science of the laws of ideas and of the application of such laws to the generation of all possible ideas in connection with any subject, idea, or thing." In his 1992 book A History of Knowledge, Charles Van Doren compared ideonomy to a "mining operation" that excavates meanings and thought to discover treasures hidden deep within language. Sources from the 1980s and 1990s demonstrate that ideonomy was useful to academic researchers in fields including biology, toxicology, and nursing/patient care. Beginning in the 2010s, academics in a wide range of fields including machine learning, marketing, computational modeling, and cybersecurity have relied on materials generated for ideonomy to provide methodological support for their research. == Etymology and definition == The word "ideonomy" combines the Greek roots ideo- (from idea, meaning pattern or form) and -nomy (from nomos, meaning law or custom). The suffix -nomy suggests the laws concerning or the totality of knowledge about a given subject, as


id: ideonomy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideonomy-1.md
category: reference
title: Ideonomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideonomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:25.646281+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ideonomy-20260505-0
summary:
Edward Fredkin, former director of MIT's computer science laboratory, who praised Gunkel's "provocative ideas on artificial intelligence." Marvin Minsky, AI scientist and MIT professor, who described ideonomy as "perhaps the most extensive study of ways to generate ideas." Frederick Seitz, president emeritus of Rockefeller University, who noted Gunkel's "encyclopedic scope" Robert C. Clark, Harvard law professor, who called Gunkel "the most intelligent person I ever met" However, skeptics questioned whether ideonomy constituted a genuine science. Fredkin himself noted that Gunkel "pours out about 60 ideas a minute, and 59 of them are bad," though he added that "even with one good idea out of 60, it's still an amazing accomplishment." Douglas Lenat observed that brainstorming with Gunkel was "a bit like being hit over the head by the muse with a sledgehammer" and that "he puts people off." Gunkel himself acknowledged that ideonomy was in its infancy and might seem "absurdly utopian." His planned magnum opus on ideonomy remained incomplete, and was posted on an MIT website thanks to faculty advisor Whitman Richards. Gunkel wrote: "Pioneering in a completely new field, yes in a new science, is almost unreal. It is heartbreaking, it is pitiable, it is almost inhuman. Honestly,


id: peter-lwabi-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Lwabi-0.md
category: reference
title: Peter Lwabi
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Lwabi
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:26.834130+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: peter-lwabi-20260505-0
summary:
Lwabi Peter Solomon is a consultant pediatric cardiologist at Mulago National Referral Hospital in Kampala, Uganda. He concurrently serves as the deputy executive director of Uganda Heart Institute (UHI). He also serves as the Head of the Pediatric Cardiology Division at Makerere University School of Medicine. Peter Lwabi also sits on the Board of Directors of UHI. Lwabi is a Senior Consultant cardiac pediatrician who has trained numerous medical personnel, including nurses, medical students, postgraduate students, and cardiology fellows. He provides mentorship and clinical oversight to research and training initiatives, == Education and background == He holds bachelors of medicine and bachelors of surgery and masters of medicine, paediatrics & child health == Leadership == He worked as the president of the Uganda Heart Association. He also head of the Pediatric Cardiology Division at the Makerere University School of Medicine.A member of the Board of Directors at the Uganda Heart Institute == See also == Roy Mugerwa Aggrey Kiyingi == References == == External links == Website of Uganda Ministry of Health Archived 2024-11-25 at the Wayback Machine A bad heart condition has caused her body to swell


id: physics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics-0.md
category: reference
title: Physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:28.076442+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physics-20260505-0
summary:
Physics is the scientific study of matter, its fundamental constituents, its motion and behavior through space and time, and the related entities of energy and force. It is one of the most fundamental scientific disciplines. A scientist who specializes in the field of physics is called a physicist. Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines. Over much of the past two millennia, physics, chemistry, biology, and certain branches of mathematics were part of natural philosophy, but during the Scientific Revolution in the 17th century, these natural sciences branched into separate research endeavors. Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the fundamental mechanisms studied by other sciences and suggest new avenues of research in these and other academic disciplines, such as mathematics and philosophy. Advances in physics often enable new technologies. For example, advances in the understanding of electromagnetism, solid-state physics, and nuclear physics led directly to the development of technologies that have transformed modern society, such as television, computers, domestic appliances, and nuclear weapons; advances in thermodynamics led to the development of industrialization; and advances in mechanics


id: physics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics-1.md
category: reference
title: Physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:28.076442+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physics-20260505-0
summary:
The Western Roman Empire fell to invaders and internal decay in the fifth century, resulting in a decline in intellectual pursuits in western Europe. By contrast, the Eastern Roman Empire (usually known as the Byzantine Empire) resisted the attacks from invaders and continued to advance various fields of learning, including physics. In the sixth century, John Philoponus challenged the dominant Aristotelian approach to science although much of his work was focused on Christian theology. In the sixth century, Isidore of Miletus created an important compilation of Archimedes' works that are copied in the Archimedes Palimpsest. Islamic scholarship inherited Aristotelian physics from the Greeks and during the Islamic Golden Age developed it further. The most notable innovations under Islamic scholarship were in the field of optics and vision, which came from the works of many scientists like Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi and Avicenna. In his Book of Optics (also known as Kitāb al-Manāẓir) Ibn al-Haytham presented the idea of light rays as an alternative to the ancient Greek idea about visual rays. Like Ptolemy, Ibn al-Haytham applied controlled experiments, verifying the laws of refraction and reflection with the new concept of light rays, but still lacking the concept of


id: physics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics-2.md
category: reference
title: Physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:28.076442+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physics-20260505-0
summary:
Classical physics includes the traditional branches and topics that were recognized and well-developed before the beginning of the 20th century—classical mechanics, thermodynamics, and electromagnetism. Classical mechanics is concerned with bodies acted on by forces and bodies in motion and may be divided into statics (study of the forces on a body or bodies not subject to an acceleration), kinematics (study of motion without regard to its causes), and dynamics (study of motion and the forces that affect it); mechanics may also be divided into solid mechanics and fluid mechanics (known together as continuum mechanics), the latter include such branches as hydrostatics, hydrodynamics and pneumatics. Acoustics is the study of how sound is produced, controlled, transmitted and received. Important modern branches of acoustics include ultrasonics, the study of sound waves of very high frequency beyond the range of human hearing; bioacoustics, the physics of animal calls and hearing; and electroacoustics, the manipulation of audible sound waves using electronics. Optics, the study of light, is concerned not only with visible light but also with infrared and ultraviolet radiation, which exhibit all of the phenomena of visible light except visibility, e.g., reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction, dispersion, and polarization of light. Heat is a


id: physics-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics-3.md
category: reference
title: Physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:28.076442+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Scope and aims === Physics covers a wide range of phenomena, from elementary particles (such as quarks, neutrinos, and electrons) to the largest superclusters of galaxies. Included in these phenomena are the most basic objects composing all other things. Therefore, physics is sometimes called the "fundamental science". Physics aims to describe the various phenomena that occur in nature in terms of simpler phenomena. Thus, physics aims to both connect the things observable to humans to root causes, and then connect these causes together. For example, the ancient Chinese observed that certain rocks (lodestone and magnetite) were attracted to one another by an invisible force. This effect was later called magnetism, which was first rigorously studied in the 17th century. But even before the Chinese discovered magnetism, the ancient Greeks knew of other objects such as amber, that when rubbed with fur would cause a similar invisible attraction between the two. This was also first studied rigorously in the 17th century and came to be called electricity. Thus, physics had come to understand two observations of nature in terms of some root cause (electricity and magnetism). However, further work in the 19th century revealed that these two forces were just


id: physics-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics-4.md
category: reference
title: Physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:28.076442+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physics-20260505-0
summary:
Atomic, molecular, and optical physics (AMO) is the study of matter—matter and light—matter interactions on the scale of single atoms and molecules. The three areas are grouped together because of their interrelationships, the similarity of methods used, and the commonality of their relevant energy scales. All three areas include both classical, semi-classical and quantum treatments; they can treat their subject from a microscopic view (in contrast to a macroscopic view). Atomic physics studies the electron shells of atoms. Current research focuses on activities in quantum control, cooling and trapping of atoms and ions, low-temperature collision dynamics and the effects of electron correlation on structure and dynamics. Atomic physics is influenced by the nucleus (see hyperfine splitting), but intra-nuclear phenomena such as fission and fusion are considered part of nuclear physics. Molecular physics focuses on multi-atomic structures and their internal and external interactions with matter and light. Optical physics is distinct from optics in that it tends to focus not on the control of classical light fields by macroscopic objects but on the fundamental properties of optical fields and their interactions with matter in the microscopic realm. ==== Condensed matter ==== Condensed matter physics is the field of physics that deals


id: physics-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics-5.md
category: reference
title: Physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:28.076442+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physics-20260505-0
summary:
Ontology is a prerequisite for physics, but not for mathematics. It means physics is ultimately concerned with descriptions of the real world, while mathematics is concerned with abstract patterns, even beyond the real world. Thus physics statements are synthetic, while mathematical statements are analytic. Mathematics contains hypotheses, while physics contains theories. Mathematics statements have to be only logically true, while predictions of physics statements must match observed and experimental data. The distinction is clear-cut, but not always obvious. For example, mathematical physics is the application of mathematics in physics. Its methods are mathematical, but its subject is physical. The problems in this field start with a "mathematical model of a physical situation" (system) and a "mathematical description of a physical law" that will be applied to that system. Every mathematical statement used for solving has a hard-to-find physical meaning. The final mathematical solution has an easier-to-find meaning, because it is what the solver is looking for. === Fundamental vs. applied physics === Physics is a branch of fundamental science (also called basic science). Physics is also called "the fundamental science" because all branches of natural science including chemistry, astronomy, geology, and biology are constrained by laws of physics. Similarly, chemistry


id: scienticide-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienticide-0.md
category: reference
title: Scienticide
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienticide
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:29.302484+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scienticide-20260505-0
summary:
Scienticide is a concept used to refer to various multifaceted processes or phenomena that lead to the harassment, reduction, or outright destruction of scientific and technological systems in some countries of the world, as well as the exile or abandonment of researchers from their places of training. These can occur for various reasons, such as wars, political repression, lack of opportunities, climate crises, foreign interventions, economic policies, or ideological persecution. == Etymology == The term metaphorically refers to the "murder of science," as it combines the word *science* with the Latin suffix - *cidium*, which comes from the root *caedĕre* ("to kill"). A comparative use of the term has been proposed alongside "femicide", as part of policies aimed at eliminating the scientific and technological systems of a country. == History == The first references to this concept using the English word "scienticide" date back to the 1990s when it was used to refer to the destruction of the network of educational, scientific, and research institutions created by the Anti-Fascist Council for the National Liberation of Yugoslavia between 1942 and 1945. The educational system established was systematically attacked by the Yugoslav Army in the Homeland, commonly known as *Chetniks*, a nationalist,


id: scientific-lacuna-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_lacuna-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific lacuna
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_lacuna
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:30.486703+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-lacuna-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific lacuna describes an area of science that has not been studied but has the potential to be studied scientifically. Often, this may be the case because it falls between different areas of sciences, such that it doesn't fall into a single specific discipline of science. However, it also may be the case that the right situation for study has not yet occurred, or the conditions for study have been too ephemeral. Scientific lacunae often have the potential to be studied in the future when more areas of sciences are explicitly defined or the right conditions do occur, yet this can be made difficult if the area of science is commonly not considered a proper area for scientific study. == References ==


id: scientism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:31.695544+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientism-20260505-0
summary:
Scientism is the belief that science and the scientific method are the best or only way to render truth about the world and reality. While the term was defined originally to mean "methods and attitudes typical of or attributed to natural scientists", some scholars, as well as political and religious leaders, have also adopted it as a pejorative term with the meaning "an exaggerated trust in the efficacy of the methods of natural science applied to all areas of investigation (as in philosophy, the social sciences, and the humanities)". == Overview == Francis Bacon has been viewed by some scholars as an early proponent of scientism, but this is a modern assertion as Bacon was a devout Anglican, writing in his Essays, "a little philosophy inclineth man's mind to atheism, but depth in philosophy bringeth men's minds about to religion." With respect to the philosophy of science, the term scientism frequently implies a critique of the more extreme expressions of logical positivism and has been used by social scientists such as Friedrich Hayek, philosophers of science such as Karl Popper, and philosophers such as Mary Midgley, the later Hilary Putnam, and Tzvetan Todorov to describe (for example) the dogmatic endorsement


id: scientism-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:31.695544+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientism-20260505-0
summary:
It is used to criticize a totalizing opinion of science as if it were capable of describing all reality and knowledge, or as if it were the only true method to acquire knowledge about reality and the nature of things; It is used, often pejoratively, to denote violations by which the theories and methods of one (scientific) discipline are applied inappropriately to another (scientific or non-scientific) discipline and its domain. An example of this second usage is to term as scientism any attempt to claim science as the only or primary source of human values (a traditional domain of ethics) or as the source of meaning and purpose (a traditional domain of religion and related worldviews). The term scientism was popularized by F. A. Hayek, who defined it in 1942 as the "slavish imitation of the method and language of Science". Mathematician Alexander Grothendieck, in his 1971 essay "The New Universal Church", characterized scientism as a religion-like ideology that advocates scientific reductionism, scientific authoritarianism, political technocracy and technological salvation, while denying the epistemological validity of feelings and experiences such as love, emotion, beauty and fulfillment. He predicted that "in coming years, the chief political dividing line will fall less and


id: scientism-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism-2.md
category: reference
title: Scientism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:31.695544+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientism-20260505-0
summary:
== Relevance to debates about science and religion == Both religious and non-religious scholars have applied the term scientism to individuals associated with New Atheism. Theologian John Haught argued that philosopher Daniel Dennett and other New Atheists subscribe to a belief system of scientific naturalism, which includes the dogma that "only nature, including humans and our creations, is real: that God does not exist; and that science alone can give us complete and reliable knowledge of reality." Haught argued that this belief system is self-refuting since it requires its adherents to assent to beliefs that violate its own stated requirements for knowledge. Christian philosopher Peter Williams argued in 2013 that it is only by conflating science with scientism that New Atheists feel qualified to "pontificate on metaphysical issues". Daniel Dennett responded to religious criticism of his 2006 book Breaking the Spell: Religion as a Natural Phenomenon by saying that accusations of scientism "[are] an all-purpose, wild-card smear ... When someone puts forward a scientific theory that [religious critics] really don't like, they just try to discredit it as 'scientism'. But when it comes to facts, and explanations of facts, science is the only game in town". Non-religious scholars have also


id: scientism-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism-3.md
category: reference
title: Scientism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:31.695544+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientism-20260505-0
summary:
Thomas M. Lessl argued that religious themes persist in what he terms scientism, the public rhetoric of science. There are two methods of describing this idea of scientism: the epistemological method (the assumption that the scientific method trumps other ways of knowing) and the ontological method (that the rational mind represents the world and both operate in knowable ways). According to Lessl, the ontological method is an attempt to "resolve the conflict between rationalism and skepticism". Lessl also argued that without scientism, there would not be a scientific culture. == Rationalization and modernity == In the introduction to his collected works on the sociology of religion, Max Weber asked why "the scientific, the artistic, the political, or the economic development [elsewhere] ... did not enter upon that path of rationalization which is peculiar to the Occident?" According to the German social theorist Jürgen Habermas, "For Weber, the intrinsic (that is, not merely contingent) relationship between modernity and what he called 'Occidental rationalism' was still self-evident." Weber described a process of rationalisation, disenchantment and the "disintegration of religious world views" that resulted in modern secular societies and capitalism. "Modernization" was introduced as a technical term only in the 1950s. It is


id: uganda-medical-association-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uganda_Medical_Association-0.md
category: reference
title: Uganda Medical Association
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uganda_Medical_Association
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:36.348617+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: uganda-medical-association-20260505-0
summary:
The Uganda Medical Association (UMA), is a registered non-governmental, professional organization that brings together all the qualified and duly registered medical doctors in Uganda. == Location == The association maintains its headquarters at Chrisams Designs Building, Kafeeero Road, Old Mulago. Kampala | P.O. Box 2243, Kampala, Uganda, in the central business district of Kampala, the capital and largest city of Uganda. The geographical coordinates of the headquarters of UMA are:Latitude: 0.344796; Longitude: 32.573614). == Objectives == The Association focuses on advocating for doctors' welfare, continuous medical education and training, upholding medical ethics and patient safety, and strengthening public health systems through partnerships with government and NGOs As an association for medical practitioners, this association also focuses on the following. To contribute to universal access to health and health care. To promote professional ethical standards among medical doctors in Uganda. To promote the welfare of medical doctors in Uganda. To mobilize doctors to join and encourage them to actively participate in the Association's activities. To strengthen the financial base of the Association. == Overview == According to the Association's website, UMA has five focus areas: (1) to "contribute to universal access to health and health care" (2) to "promote professional ethical


id: applied-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Applied science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:39.420865+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: applied-science-20260505-0
summary:
Applied science is the application of the scientific method and scientific knowledge to attain practical goals. It includes a broad range of disciplines, such as engineering and medicine. Applied science is often contrasted with basic science, which is focused on advancing scientific theories and laws that explain and predict natural or other phenomena. There are applied natural sciences, as well as applied formal and social sciences. Applied science examples include genetic epidemiology which applies statistics and probability theory, and applied psychology, including criminology. == Applied research == Applied research is the use of empirical methods to collect data for practical purposes. It accesses and uses accumulated theories, knowledge, methods, and techniques for a specific state, business, or client-driven purpose. In contrast to engineering, applied research does not include analyses or optimization of business, economics, and costs. Applied research can be better understood in any area when contrasting it with basic or pure research. Basic geographical research strives to create new theories and methods that aid in explaining the processes that shape the spatial structure of physical or human environments. Instead, applied research utilizes existing geographical theories and methods to comprehend and address particular empirical issues. Applied research usually has specific


id: formal-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Formal science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:40.581119+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: formal-science-20260505-0
summary:
Formal science is a branch of science studying disciplines concerned with abstract structures described by formal systems. Whereas the natural sciences and social sciences seek to characterize physical systems and social systems, respectively, using theoretical and empirical methods, the formal sciences use language tools concerned with characterizing abstract structures described by formal systems and the deductions that can be made from them. The formal sciences aid the natural and social sciences by providing information about the structures used to describe the physical world, and what inferences may be made about them. == Branches == Logic (also a branch of philosophy) Mathematics Statistics Theoretical computer science Artificial intelligence Game theory Systems theory Theoretical linguistics Decision theory Systems science Data science Information theory Computer science Cryptography == Differences from other sciences == One reason why mathematics enjoys special esteem, above all other sciences, is that its laws are absolutely certain and indisputable, while those of other sciences are to some extent debatable and in constant danger of being overthrown by newly discovered facts. Because of their non-empirical nature, formal sciences are construed by outlining a set of axioms and definitions from which other statements (theorems) are deduced. For this reason, in Rudolf


id: natural-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Natural science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:41.697253+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-science-20260505-0
summary:
Natural science or empirical science is a branch of science concerned with the description, understanding, and prediction of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation. Mechanisms such as peer review and reproducibility of findings are used to try to ensure the validity of scientific advances. Natural science can be divided into two main branches: life science and physical science. Life science is alternatively known as biology. Physical science is subdivided into physics, astronomy, Earth science, and chemistry. These branches of natural science may be further divided into more specialized branches, also known as fields. As empirical sciences, natural sciences use tools from the formal sciences, such as mathematics and logic, converting information about nature into measurements that can be explained as clear statements of the "laws of nature". Modern natural science succeeded more classical approaches to natural philosophy. Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler, René Descartes, Francis Bacon, and Isaac Newton debated the benefits of a more mathematical as against a more experimental method in investigating nature. Still, philosophical perspectives, conjectures, and presuppositions, often overlooked, remain necessary in natural science. Systematic data collection, including discovery science, succeeded natural history, which emerged in the 16th century by describing and classifying


id: natural-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Natural science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:41.697253+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-science-20260505-0
summary:
Planetary science, or planetology, is the scientific study of planets, which include terrestrial planets like the Earth, and other types of planets, such as gas giants and ice giants. Planetary science also concerns other celestial bodies, such as dwarf planets, moons, asteroids, and comets. This largely includes the Solar System, but recently has started to expand to exoplanets, particularly terrestrial exoplanets. It explores various objects, spanning from micrometeoroids to gas giants, to establish their composition, movements, genesis, interrelation, and past. Planetary science is an interdisciplinary domain, having originated from astronomy and Earth science, and currently encompassing a multitude of areas, such as planetary geology, cosmochemistry, atmospheric science, physics, oceanography, hydrology, theoretical planetology, glaciology, and exoplanetology. Related fields encompass space physics, which delves into the impact of the Sun on the bodies in the Solar System, and astrobiology. Planetary science comprises interconnected observational and theoretical branches. Observational research entails a combination of space exploration, primarily through robotic spacecraft missions utilizing remote sensing, and comparative experimental work conducted in Earth-based laboratories. The theoretical aspect involves extensive mathematical modelling and computer simulation. Typically, planetary scientists are situated within astronomy and physics or Earth sciences departments in universities or research centers. However, there are


id: natural-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Natural science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:41.697253+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-science-20260505-0
summary:
This discipline is the science of celestial objects and phenomena that originate outside the Earth's atmosphere. It is concerned with the evolution, physics, chemistry, meteorology, geology, and motion of celestial objects, as well as the formation and development of the universe. Astronomy includes examining, studying, and modeling stars, planets, and comets. Most of the information used by astronomers is gathered by remote observation. However, some laboratory reproduction of celestial phenomena has been performed (such as the molecular chemistry of the interstellar medium). There is considerable overlap with physics and in some areas of earth science. There are also interdisciplinary fields such as astrophysics, planetary sciences, and cosmology, along with allied disciplines such as space physics and astrochemistry. While the study of celestial features and phenomena can be traced back to antiquity, the scientific methodology of this field began to develop in the middle of the 17th century. A key factor was Galileo's introduction of the telescope to examine the night sky in more detail. The mathematical treatment of astronomy began with Newton's development of celestial mechanics and the laws of gravitation. However, it was triggered by earlier work of astronomers such as Kepler. By the 19th century, astronomy had developed


id: natural-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Natural science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:41.697253+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-science-20260505-0
summary:
Some scholars trace the origins of natural science as far back as pre-literate human societies, where understanding the natural world was necessary for survival. People observed and built up knowledge about the behaviour of animals and the usefulness of plants as food and medicine, which was passed down from generation to generation. These primitive understandings gave way to more formalized inquiry around 3500 to 3000 BC in the Mesopotamian and Ancient Egyptian cultures, which produced the first known written evidence of natural philosophy, the precursor of natural science. While the writings show an interest in astronomy, mathematics, and other aspects of the physical world, the ultimate aim of inquiry about nature's workings was, in all cases, religious or mythological, not scientific. A tradition of scientific inquiry also emerged in Ancient China, where Taoist alchemists and philosophers experimented with elixirs to extend life and cure ailments. They focused on the yin and yang, or contrasting elements in nature; the yin was associated with femininity and coldness, while yang was associated with masculinity and warmth. The five phases – fire, earth, metal, wood, and water – described a cycle of transformations in nature. The water turned into wood, which turned into the


id: natural-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science-4.md
category: reference
title: Natural science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:41.697253+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-science-20260505-0
summary:
Aristotle's works and other Greek natural philosophy did not reach the West until about the middle of the 12th century, when works were translated from Greek and Arabic into Latin. The development of European civilization later in the Middle Ages brought with it further advances in natural philosophy. European inventions such as the horseshoe, horse collar and crop rotation allowed for rapid population growth, eventually giving way to urbanization and the foundation of schools connected to monasteries and cathedrals in modern-day France and England. Aided by the schools, an approach to Christian theology developed that sought to answer questions about nature and other subjects using logic. This approach, however, was seen by some detractors as heresy. By the 12th century, Western European scholars and philosophers came into contact with a body of knowledge of which they had previously been ignorant: a large corpus of works in Greek and Arabic that were preserved by Islamic scholars. Through translation into Latin, Western Europe was introduced to Aristotle and his natural philosophy. These works were taught at new universities in Paris and Oxford by the early 13th century, although the practice was frowned upon by the Catholic church. A 1210 decree from the


id: natural-science-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science-5.md
category: reference
title: Natural science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:41.697253+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-science-20260505-0
summary:
The titles of Galileo's work Two New Sciences and Johannes Kepler's New Astronomy underscored the atmosphere of change that took hold in the 17th century as Aristotle was dismissed in favour of novel methods of inquiry into the natural world. Bacon was instrumental in popularizing this change; he argued that people should use the arts and sciences to gain dominion over nature. To achieve this, he wrote that "human life [must] be endowed with discoveries and powers." He defined natural philosophy as "the knowledge of Causes and secret motions of things; and enlarging the bounds of Human Empire, to the effecting of all things possible." Bacon proposed that scientific inquiry be supported by the state and fed by the collaborative research of scientists, a vision that was unprecedented in its scope, ambition, and forms at the time. Natural philosophers came to view nature increasingly as a mechanism that could be taken apart and understood, much like a complex clock. Natural philosophers including Isaac Newton, Evangelista Torricelli and Francesco Redi, Edme Mariotte, Jean-Baptiste Denis and Jacques Rohault conducted experiments focusing on the flow of water, measuring atmospheric pressure using a barometer and disproving spontaneous generation. Scientific societies and scientific journals emerged


id: natural-science-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science-6.md
category: reference
title: Natural science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:41.697253+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-science-20260505-0
summary:
Aside from the logical and mathematical sciences, there are three great branches of natural science which stand apart by reason of the variety of far reaching deductions drawn from a small number of primary postulates — they are mechanics, electrodynamics, and thermodynamics. Today, natural sciences are more commonly divided into life sciences, such as botany and zoology, and physical sciences, which include physics, chemistry, astronomy, and Earth sciences. == See also == Branches of science Empiricism List of academic disciplines and sub-disciplines Natural history Natural Sciences (Cambridge), for the Tripos at the University of Cambridge == References == === Bibliography === == Further reading == Defining Natural Sciences Ledoux, S. F., 2002: Defining Natural Sciences, Behaviourology Today, 5(1), 34–36. Stokes, Donald E. (1997). Pasteur's Quadrant: Basic Science and Technological Innovation. Revised and translated by Albert V. Carozzi and Marguerite Carozzi. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press. ISBN 978-0-8157-8177-6. The History of Recent Science and Technology Natural Sciences Contains updated information on research in the Natural Sciences including biology, geography and the applied life and earth sciences. Reviews of Books About Natural Science This site contains over 50 previously published reviews of books about natural science, plus selected essays on timely topics


id: social-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Social science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:42.932648+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-science-20260505-0
summary:
Social science (or the social sciences) is one of the branches of science, devoted to the study of societies and the relationships among members within those societies. The term was formerly used to refer to the field of sociology, the original "science of society", established in the 18th century. It now encompasses a wide array of additional academic disciplines, including anthropology, archaeology, economics, geography, history, linguistics, management, communication studies, psychology, sociology, culturology, and political science. The majority of positivist social scientists use methods resembling those used in the natural sciences as tools for understanding societies, and so define science in its stricter modern sense. Speculative social scientists, otherwise known as interpretivist scientists, by contrast, may use social critique or symbolic interpretation rather than constructing empirically falsifiable theories, and thus treat science in its broader sense. In modern academic practice, researchers are often eclectic, using multiple methodologies (combining both quantitative and qualitative research). To gain a deeper understanding of complex human behavior in digital environments, social science disciplines have increasingly integrated interdisciplinary approaches, big data, and computational tools. The term social research has also acquired a degree of autonomy as practitioners from various disciplines share similar goals and methods. == History


id: social-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Social science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:42.932648+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-science-20260505-0
summary:
Social science and humanities have a mutual contempt for one another, the former looking down on the latter as unscientific, the latter regarding the former as philistine. [...] The difference comes down to the fact that social science really wants to be predictive, meaning that man is predictable, while the humanities say that he is not. == Branches == The social science disciplines are branches of knowledge taught and researched at the college or university level. Social science disciplines are defined and recognized by the academic journals in which research is published, and the learned social science societies and academic departments or faculties to which their practitioners belong. Social science fields of study usually have several sub-disciplines or branches, and the distinguishing lines between these are often both arbitrary and ambiguous. The following are widely-considered to be social sciences: === Anthropology === Anthropology is the holistic "science of man", a science of the totality of human existence. The discipline deals with the integration of different aspects of the social sciences, humanities, and human biology. In the twentieth century, academic disciplines have often been institutionally divided into three broad domains. Firstly, the natural sciences seek to derive general laws through reproducible


id: social-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Social science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:42.932648+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-science-20260505-0
summary:
Economics has two broad branches: microeconomics, where the unit of analysis is the individual agent, such as a household or firm, and macroeconomics, where the unit of analysis is an economy as a whole. Another division of the subject distinguishes positive economics, which seeks to predict and explain economic phenomena, from normative economics, which orders choices and actions by some criterion; such orderings necessarily involve subjective value judgments. Since the early part of the 20th century, economics has focused largely on measurable quantities, employing both theoretical models and empirical analysis. Quantitative models, however, can be traced as far back as the physiocratic school. Economic reasoning has been increasingly applied in recent decades to other social situations such as politics, law, psychology, history, religion, marriage and family life, and other social interactions. The expanding domain of economics in the social sciences has been described as economic imperialism. === Education === Education encompasses teaching and learning specific skills, and also something less tangible but more profound: the imparting of knowledge, positive judgement and well-developed wisdom. Education has as one of its fundamental aspects the imparting of culture from generation to generation (see socialization). To educate means 'to draw out', from the Latin


id: social-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Social science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:42.932648+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-science-20260505-0
summary:
Linguistics investigates the cognitive and social aspects of human language. The field is divided into areas that focus on aspects of the linguistic signal, such as syntax (the study of the rules that govern the structure of sentences), semantics (the study of meaning), morphology (the study of the structure of words), phonetics (the study of speech sounds) and phonology (the study of the abstract sound system of a particular language); however, work in areas like evolutionary linguistics (the study of the origins and evolution of language) and psycholinguistics (the study of psychological factors in human language) cut across these divisions. The overwhelming majority of modern research in linguistics takes a predominantly synchronic perspective (focusing on language at a particular point in time), and a great deal of it—partly owing to the influence of Noam Chomsky—aims at formulating theories of the cognitive processing of language. However, language does not exist in a vacuum, or only in the brain, and approaches like contact linguistics, creole studies, discourse analysis, social interactional linguistics, and sociolinguistics explore language in its social context. Sociolinguistics often makes use of traditional quantitative analysis and statistics in investigating the frequency of features, while some disciplines, like contact linguistics, focus


id: social-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-4.md
category: reference
title: Social science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:42.932648+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-science-20260505-0
summary:
Sociology is the systematic study of society, individuals' relationship to their societies, the consequences of difference, and other aspects of human social action. The meaning of the word comes from the suffix -logy, which means "study of", derived from Ancient Greek, and the stem soci-, which is from the Latin word socius, meaning "companion", or society in general. Auguste Comte (1798–1857) coined the term sociology to describe a way to apply natural science principles and techniques to the social world in 1838. Comte endeavoured to unify history, psychology and economics through the descriptive understanding of the social realm. He proposed that social ills could be remedied through sociological positivism, an epistemological approach outlined in The Course in Positive Philosophy [1830–1842] and A General View of Positivism (1844). Though Comte is generally regarded as the "Father of Sociology", the discipline was formally established by another French thinker, Émile Durkheim (1858–1917), who developed positivism as a foundation to practical social research. Durkheim set up the first European department of sociology at the University of Bordeaux in 1895, publishing his Rules of the Sociological Method. In 1896, he established the journal L'Année sociologique. Durkheim's seminal monograph, Suicide (1897), a case study of suicide


id: social-science-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-5.md
category: reference
title: Social science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:42.932648+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-science-20260505-0
summary:
Archaeology, a science that is focused on the study of human cultures by means of the recovery, documentation, analysis, and interpretation of material remains and environmental data, including architecture, artifacts, features, and landscapes. Area studies, interdisciplinary fields of research and scholarship pertaining to particular geographical, national/federal, or cultural regions. Behavioural science, which encompasses disciplines that explore the activities of and interactions among organisms in the natural world. Computational social science, an umbrella field encompassing computational approaches within the social sciences. Demography, the statistical study of human populations. Development studies, a branch of social science that addresses issues of concern to developing countries. Environmental social science, the broad study of interrelations between humans and the natural environment. Environmental studies, which integrates social, humanistic, and natural science perspectives on the relation between humans and the natural environment. Gender studies, which is focused on the study of gender identity, masculinity, femininity, transgender issues, and sexuality. Information science, an interdisciplinary science primarily concerned with the collection, classification, manipulation, storage, retrieval and dissemination of information. International studies, which covers both international relations (the study of foreign affairs and global issues among states within the international system) and international education. Legal management, a social sciences discipline


id: social-science-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-6.md
category: reference
title: Social science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:42.932648+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-science-20260505-0
summary:
Quantitative designs approach social phenomena through quantifiable evidence, and often rely on statistical analysis of many cases (or across intentionally designed treatments in an experiment) to create valid and reliable general claims. Qualitative designs emphasize understanding of social phenomena through direct observation, communication with participants, or analysis of texts, and may stress contextual and subjective accuracy over generality. Social scientists will commonly combine quantitative and qualitative approaches as part of a multi-strategy design. Questionnaires, field-based data collection, archival database information and laboratory-based data collections are some of the measurement techniques used. It is noted the importance of measurement and analysis, focusing on the (difficult to achieve) goal of objective research or statistical hypothesis testing. A mathematical model uses mathematical language to describe a system. The process of developing a mathematical model is termed 'mathematical modelling' (also modeling). A mathematical model is "a representation of the essential aspects of an existing system (or a system to be constructed) that presents knowledge of that system in usable form". Mathematical models can take many forms, including but not limited to dynamical systems, statistical models, differential equations, or game theoretic models. These and other types of models can overlap, with a given model involving


id: social-science-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-7.md
category: reference
title: Social science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:42.932648+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Bibliography == Michie, Jonathan, ed. Reader's Guide to the Social Sciences (2 vol. 2001) 1970 pages annotating the major topics in the late 20th century in all the social sciences. === 20th and 21st centuries sources === Neil J. Smelser and Paul B. Baltes (2001). International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, Amsterdam: Elsevier. Byrne, D.S. (1998). Complexity theory and the social sciences: an introduction. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-16296-8 Kuper, A., and Kuper, J. (1985). The Social Science Encyclopedia. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. (ed., a limited preview of the 1996 version is available) Lave, C.A., and March, J.G. (1993). An introduction to models in the social sciences. Lanham, Md: University Press of America. Perry, John and Erna Perry. Contemporary Society: An Introduction to Social Science (12th Edition, 2008), college textbook Potter, D. (1988). Society and the social sciences: An introduction. London: Routledge [u.a.]. David L. Sills and Robert K. Merton (1968). International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. Seligman, Edwin R.A. and Alvin Johnson (1934). Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. (13 vol.) Ward, L.F. (1924). Dynamic sociology, or applied social science: As based upon statical sociology and the less complex sciences. New York: D. Appleton. Leavitt, F.M., and Brown,


id: branches-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branches_of_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:44.694631+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The branches of science, also referred to as sciences, scientific fields or scientific disciplines, are commonly divided into three major groups: Formal sciences: the study of formal systems, such as those under the branches of logic and mathematics, which use an a priori, as opposed to empirical, methodology. They study abstract structures described by formal systems. Natural sciences: the study of natural phenomena (including cosmological, geological, physical, chemical, and biological factors of the universe). Natural science can be divided into two main branches: physical science and life science. Social sciences: the study of human behavior in its social and cultural aspects. Scientific knowledge must be grounded in observable phenomena and must be capable of being verified by other researchers working under the same conditions. Natural, social, and formal science make up the basic sciences, which form the basis of interdisciplinarity - and applied sciences such as engineering and medicine. Specialized scientific disciplines that exist in multiple categories may include parts of other scientific disciplines but often possess their own terminologies and expertises. == Formal sciences == The formal sciences are the branches of science that are concerned with formal systems, such as logic, mathematics, theoretical computer science, information theory, systems


id: branches-of-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branches_of_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:44.694631+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
TCS covers a wide variety of topics including algorithms, data structures, computational complexity, parallel and distributed computation, probabilistic computation, quantum computation, automata theory, information theory, cryptography, program semantics and verification, machine learning, computational biology, computational economics, computational geometry, and computational number theory and algebra. Work in this field is often distinguished by its emphasis on mathematical technique and rigor. == Natural sciences == Natural science is a branch of science concerned with the description, prediction, and understanding of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation. Mechanisms such as peer review and repeatability of findings are used to try to ensure the validity of scientific advances. Natural science can be divided into two main branches: life science and physical science. Life science is alternatively known as biology, and physical science is subdivided into branches: physics, chemistry, astronomy and Earth science. These branches of natural science may be further divided into more specialized branches (also known as fields). === Physical science === Physical science is an encompassing term for the branches of natural science that study non-living systems, in contrast to the life sciences. However, the term "physical" creates an unintended, somewhat arbitrary distinction, since many branches of physical


id: branches-of-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branches_of_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:44.694631+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Life science, also known as biology, is the natural science that studies life such as microorganisms, plants, and animals including human beings, – including their physical structure, chemical processes, molecular interactions, physiological mechanisms, development, and evolution. Despite the complexity of the science, certain unifying concepts consolidate it into a single, coherent field. Biology recognizes the cell as the basic unit of life, genes as the basic unit of heredity, and evolution as the engine that propels the creation and extinction of species. Living organisms are open systems that survive by transforming energy and decreasing their local entropy to maintain a stable and vital condition defined as homeostasis. ==== Biochemistry ==== Biochemistry, or biological chemistry, is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. It is a sub-discipline of both biology and chemistry, and from a reductionist point of view it is fundamental in biology. Biochemistry is closely related to molecular biology, cell biology, genetics, and physiology. ==== Microbiology ==== Microbiology is the study of microorganisms, those being unicellular (single cell), multicellular (cell colony), or acellular (lacking cells). Microbiology encompasses numerous sub-disciplines including virology, bacteriology, protistology, mycology, immunology and parasitology. ==== Botany ==== Botany, also called plant science(s),


id: scientist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:46.187637+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientist-20260505-0
summary:
A scientist is an expert who conducts scientific research to advance knowledge in science. In classical antiquity, there was no real ancient analog of a modern scientist. Instead, philosophers engaged in the philosophical study of nature called natural philosophy. Though Thales (c. 624–545 BC) was arguably the first scientist for describing how cosmic events may be seen as natural, not necessarily caused by gods, it was not until the 19th century that the term scientist came into regular use: it was coined by the theologian, philosopher, and historian of science Wang Zhenyi and William Whewell to describe Mary Somerville. == History == The roles of "scientists", and their predecessors before the emergence of modern scientific disciplines, have evolved considerably over time. Scientists of different eras (and before them, natural philosophers, mathematicians, natural historians, natural theologians, engineers, and others who contributed to the development of science) have had widely different places in society, and the social norms, ethical values, and epistemic virtues associated with scientists—and expected of them—have changed over time as well. Accordingly, many different historical figures can be identified as early scientists, depending on which characteristics of modern science are taken to be essential. Some historians point to the


id: scientist-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:46.187637+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientist-20260505-0
summary:
=== 19th century === Until the late 19th or early 20th century, scientists were commonly referred to as "natural philosophers" or "men of science". English philosopher and historian of science William Whewell coined the term scientist in 1833. It first appeared in print in his anonymous 1834 review of Mary Somerville's On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences, published in the Quarterly Review. In the review, Whewell discussed what he described as an increasing tendency toward specialization within the sciences. As highly specific terms such as chemist, mathematician, and naturalist became common, the broader term philosopher no longer adequately described those engaged in scientific study. Whewell contrasted this trend with Somerville's aim of demonstrating how distinct branches of science had historically been unified through general principles. Whewell reported that members of the British Association for the Advancement of Science had expressed concern over the absence of a suitable collective term for "students of the knowledge of the material world." Referring indirectly to himself, he noted that "some ingenious gentleman" had proposed the word scientist by analogy with artist, arguing that similar formations such as economist and atheist were already in use. The suggestion, however, was not immediately well received. Whewell


id: scientist-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist-2.md
category: reference
title: Scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:46.187637+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientist-20260505-0
summary:
==== Research interests ==== Scientists include experimentalists who mainly perform experiments to test hypotheses, and theoreticians who mainly develop models to explain existing data and predict new results. There is a continuum between the two activities and the division between them is not clear-cut, with many scientists performing both tasks. Those considering science as a career often look to the frontiers. These include cosmology and biology, especially molecular biology and the human genome project. Other areas of active research include the exploration of matter at the scale of elementary particles as described by high-energy physics, and materials science, which seeks to discover and design new materials. Others choose to study brain function and neurotransmitters, which is considered by many to be the "final frontier". There are many important discoveries to make regarding the nature of the mind and human thought, much of which still remains unknown. === By specialization === ==== Natural science ==== ===== Physical science ===== ===== Life science ===== ==== Social science ==== ==== Formal science ==== ==== Applied ==== ==== Interdisciplinary ==== === By employer === Academic Independent scientist Industrial/applied scientist Citizen scientist Government scientist == Demography == === By country === The number of scientists


id: namara-catherine-misango-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namara_Catherine_Misango-0.md
category: reference
title: Namara Catherine Misango
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namara_Catherine_Misango
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:47.535229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: namara-catherine-misango-20260505-0
summary:
Namara Catherine Misango is a Ugandan medical doctor and researcher who specializes in emergency medicine. == Early life == Misango was born to Ibrahim Misango and Shirley Misango. Her academic life started at Green Hill Academy in the Uganda's central region. She received a scholarship from the Daily Monitor which earned her a free ordinary level education at Mount Saint Mary's College Namagunga from 2011 to 2014. She earned a scholarship from New Vision to continue in the same school, where she opted for the subject combination of physics, chemistry and biology aka PCB. She received a sponsorship to study at Makerere University, where she earned a Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery. She again got another sponsorship to do Master of Medicine in Emergency Medicine at Makerere University where Seed Global Health helped to pay for tuition, and research. Where still at her first degree course at Makerere University, she got an opportunity to study at Magna Graecia University in Italy on sponsorship, where she was able to compare the Italian medical system with that of Uganda. === Career === Misango started work at Aga Khan University Hospital as an intern doctor. == References ==


id: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-0.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:49.104429+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
Science and technology studies (STS) or science, technology, and society is an interdisciplinary field that examines the creation, development, and consequences of science and technology in their historical, cultural, and social contexts. == History == Like most interdisciplinary fields of study, STS emerged from the confluence of disciplines and disciplinary subfields, all of which had developed an interest—typically, during the 1960s or 1970s—in viewing science and technology as socially embedded enterprises. The key disciplinary components of STS took shape independently, beginning in the 1960s, and developed in isolation from each other well into the 1980s, although Ludwik Fleck's (1935) monograph Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact anticipated many of STS's key themes. In the 1970s Elting E. Morison founded the STS program at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), which served as a model. By 2011, 111 STS research centers and academic programs were counted worldwide. === Important key points === History of technology, that examines technology in its social and historical context. Starting in the 1960s, some historians questioned technological determinism, a doctrine that can induce public passivity to technologic and scientific "natural" development. At the same time, some historians began to develop similarly contextual approaches to the


id: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-1.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:49.104429+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
Social constructions are human-created ideas, objects, or events created by a series of choices and interactions. These interactions have consequences that change the perception that different groups of people have on these constructs. Some examples of social construction include class, race, money, and citizenship. The following also alludes to the notion that not everything is set, a circumstance or result could potentially be one way or the other. According to the article "What is Social Construction?" by Ian Hacking, "Social construction work is critical of the status quo. Social constructionists about X tend to hold that: X need not have existed, or need not be at all as it is. X, or X as it is at present, is not determined by the nature of things; it is not inevitable Very often they go further, and urge that: X is quite as bad as it is. We would be much better off if X were done away with, or at least radically transformed." In the past, there have been viewpoints that were widely regarded as fact until being called to question due to the introduction of new knowledge. Such viewpoints include the past concept of a correlation between intelligence and


id: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-2.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:49.104429+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
Social technical systems are an interplay between technologies and humans, this is clearly expressed in the sociotechnical systems theory. To expound on this interplay, humans fulfill and define tasks, then humans in companies use IT and IT supports people, and finally, IT processes tasks and new IT generates new tasks. This IT redefines work practices. This is what we call the sociotechnical systems. In socio-technical systems, there are two principles to internalize, that is joint optimization and complementarity. Joint optimization puts an emphasis on developing both systems in parallel and it is only in the interaction of both systems that the success of an organization arises. The principle of complementarity means that both systems have to be optimized. If you focus on one system and have bias over the other it will likely lead to the failure of the organization or jeopardize the success of a system. Although the above socio-technical system theory is focused on an organization, it is undoubtedly imperative to correlate this theory and its principles to society today and in science and technology studies. Understanding technology in the context of national development: critical reflections discusses how governance frameworks, digital infrastructure, and institutional capacity influence the societal


id: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-3.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:49.104429+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
==== Examples ==== Ford Pinto – Ford Motor Company sold and produced the Pinto during the 1970s. A flaw in the automobile design of the rear gas tank caused a fiery explosion upon impact. The exploding fuel tank killed and injured hundreds of people. Internal documents of test results proved Ford CEO Lee Iacocca and engineers were aware of the flaw. The company decided to ignore improving its technology because of profit-driven motives, strict internal control, and competition from foreign competitors such as Volkswagen. Ford Motor Company conducted a cost-benefit analysis to determine if altering the Ford Pinto model was feasible. An analysis conducted by Ford employees argued against a new design because of increased cost. Employees were also under tight control by the CEO who rushed the Pinto through production lines to increase profits. Ford finally changed after public scrutiny. Safety organizations later influenced this technology by requiring stricter safety standards for motor vehicles. DDT/toxins – DDT was a common and highly effective insecticide used during the 1940s until its ban in the early 1970s. It was utilized during World War 2 to combat insect-borne human diseases that plagued military members and civilian populations. People and companies soon realized


id: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-4.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:49.104429+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
==== Importance ==== Recently, there has been a movement towards greater transparency in the fields of policy and technology. Jasanoff comes to the conclusion that there is no longer a question of if there needs to be increased public participation in making decisions about science and technology, but now there need to be ways to make a more meaningful conversation between the public and those developing the technology. ==== In practice ==== Bruce Ackerman and James S. Fishkin offered an example of a reform in their paper "Deliberation Day." The deliberation is to enhance public understanding of popular, complex and controversial issues through devices such as Fishkin's deliberative polling, though implementation of these reforms is unlikely in a large government such as that of the United States. However, things similar to this have been implemented in small, local governments like New England towns and villages. New England town hall meetings are a good example of deliberative democracy in a realistic setting. An ideal deliberative democracy balances the voice and influence of all participants. While the main aim is to reach consensus, deliberative democracy should encourage the voices of those with opposing viewpoints, concerns due to uncertainties, and questions about assumptions


id: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-5.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:49.104429+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
Langdon Winner states that groups and social interests likely to be affected by a particular kind of technological change ought to be represented at an early stage in defining exactly what that technology will be. It is the idea that relevant parties have a say in technological developments and are not left in the dark. Spoken about by Massimiano Bucchi This ideal does not require the public to become experts on the topics of science and engineering, it only asks that the opinions and ideas be heard before making drastic decisions, as talked about by Steven L. Goldman. === Legacy thinking === Legacy thinking is defined as an inherited method of thinking imposed from an external source without objection by the individual because it is already widely accepted by society. Legacy thinking can impair the ability to drive technology for the betterment of society by blinding people to innovations that do not fit into their accepted model of how society works. By accepting ideas without questioning them, people often see all solutions that contradict these accepted ideas as impossible or impractical. Legacy thinking tends to advantage the wealthy, who have the means to project their ideas on the public. It


id: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-6.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:49.104429+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
== Academic programs == STS is taught in several countries. According to the STS wiki, STS programs can be found in twenty countries, including 45 programs in the United States, three programs in India, and eleven programs in the UK. STS programs can be found in Canada, Germany, Israel, Malaysia, and Taiwan. Some examples of institutions offering STS programs are Stanford University, University College London, Harvard University, the University of Oxford, Mines ParisTech, Bar-Ilan University, and York University. In Europe the European Inter-University Association on Society, Science and Technology (ESST) offers an MA degree in STS through study programs and student exchanges with over a dozen specializations. == Professional associations == The field has professional associations in regions and countries around the world. === In Europe === In Europe, the European Association for the Study of Science and Technology (EASST) was founded in 1981 to "improve scholarly communication and exchange in the field", "increase the visibility of the subject to policy-makers and to the general public", and "stimulate and support teaching on the subject at all levels". Similarly, the European Inter-University Association on Society, Science and Technology (ESST) researches and studies science and technology in society, in both historical and


id: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-7.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:49.104429+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == Bauchspies, Wenda; Croissant, Jennifer; Restivo, Sal (2005). Science, Technology, and Society: A Sociological Approach. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-23210-0. Bijker, Wiebe; Hughes, Thomas; Pinch, Trevor, eds. (1987). The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-02262-0. Felt, Ulrike; Fouché, Rayvon; Miller, Clark A.; Smith-Doerr, Laruel, eds. (2017). The Handbook of Science and Technology Studies (4th ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-03568-2. Fuller, Steve (1993). Philosophy, Rhetoric, and the End of Knowledge: The Coming of Science and Technology Studies. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press. (2nd edition, with James H. Collier, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2004) Hess, David J. (1997). Science Studies: An Advanced Introduction. New York: NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-3564-0. Jasanoff, Sheila; Markle, Gerald; Petersen, James; Pinch, Trevor, eds. (1994). Handbook of Science and Technology Studies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. ISBN 978-0-8039-4021-5. Kuhn, Thomas (1962). The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Latour, Bruno (1987). Science in action: How to follow scientists and engineers through society. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Restivo, Sal, ed. (2005). Science, Technology, and Society: An Encyclopedia. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-514193-1. Guglielmo Rinzivillo (2020), Raccontare la


id: abc-home-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABC@Home-0.md
category: reference
title: ABC@Home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABC@Home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:54.389128+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: abc-home-20260505-0
summary:
ABC@Home was an educational and non-profit network computing project finding abc-triples related to the abc conjecture in number theory using the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) volunteer computing platform. In March 2011, there were more than 7,300 active participants from 114 countries with a total BOINC credit of more than 2.9 billion, reporting about 10 teraflops (10 trillion operations per second) of processing power. In 2011, the project met its goal of finding all abc-triples of at most 18 digits. By 2015, the project had found 23.8 million triples in total, and ceased operations soon after. == See also == List of volunteer computing projects == References == == External links == The Mathematical Institute of Leiden University


id: africa-home-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa@home-0.md
category: reference
title: Africa@home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa@home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:55.583300+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: africa-home-20260505-0
summary:
Africa@home is a website that allow users to use their home computers to contribute for humanitarian causes at Africa. This project first went public on 13 July 2006. It partners with Swiss Tropical Institute, the University of Geneva, CERN, and ICVolunteers (ICV). It is sponsored by the Geneva International Academic Network (GIAN). Africa@home together with ICVolunteers, recruited volunteers across Africa to help with the project. The Malaria Control Project (MCP) was the first and the only volunteer computing project run by Africa@home. MCP ran for 10 years and became inactive since 21 June 2016. == See also == Malaria Control Project List of volunteer computing projects Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) Volunteer computing Grid computing Geneva International Academic Network == References ==


id: andrei-sakharov-prize-aps-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrei_Sakharov_Prize_(APS)-0.md
category: reference
title: Andrei Sakharov Prize (APS)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrei_Sakharov_Prize_(APS)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:56.798331+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: andrei-sakharov-prize-aps-20260505-0
summary:
The Andrei Sakharov Prize is a prize that is to be awarded every two years by the American Physical Society since 2006. The recipients are chosen for "outstanding leadership and/or achievements of scientists in upholding human rights." It is named after Andrei Sakharov (1921-1989), a Soviet nuclear physicist, dissident, and human rights activist. Since 2007, it has been valued at $10,000. The first Sakharov Prize was awarded to physicist and former Soviet gulag prisoner Yuri Orlov. == Recipients == Source: 2006 Yuri Orlov (Cornell University) 2008 Liangying Xu (Chinese Academy of Sciences) 2010 Herman Winick (Stanford Linear Accelerator Center), Joseph Birman (City University of New York), and Morris (Moishe) Pripstein (National Science Foundation) 2012 Mulugeta Bekele (University of Addis Ababa) and Richard Wilson (Harvard University) 2014 Boris Altshuler (P.N. Lebedev Physical Institute) and Omid Kokabee (University of Texas at Austin) 2016 Zafra M. Lerman (Malta Conferences Foundation) 2018 Narges Mohammadi (Iran Engineering Inspection Corporation) and Ravi Kuchimanchi (Association for India's Development) 2020 Ayşe Erzan (Istanbul Technical University) and Xiaoxing Xi (Temple University) 2022 John C. Polanyi (University of Toronto) 2024 Eugene Chudnovsky (City University of New York) == See also == List of American Physical Society prizes and awards List


id: aqua-home-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AQUA@home-0.md
category: reference
title: AQUA@home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AQUA@home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:57.981586+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aqua-home-20260505-0
summary:
AQUA@home was a volunteer computing project operated by D-Wave Systems that ran on the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) software platform. It ceased functioning in August 2011. Its goal was to predict the performance of superconducting adiabatic quantum computers on a variety of problems arising in fields ranging from materials science to machine learning. It designed and analyzed quantum computing algorithms, using Quantum Monte Carlo techniques. AQUA@home was the first BOINC project to provide multi-threaded applications. It was also the first project to deploy an OpenCL test application under BOINC. == References == == External links == Papers resulting from AQUA@home's computations


id: artificial-intelligence-system-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_Intelligence_System-0.md
category: reference
title: Artificial Intelligence System
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_Intelligence_System
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:59.183154+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: artificial-intelligence-system-20260505-0
summary:
Artificial Intelligence System (AIS) was a volunteer computing project undertaken by Intelligence Realm, Inc. with the long-term goal of simulating the human brain in real time, complete with artificial consciousness and artificial general intelligence. They claimed to have found, in research, the "mechanisms of knowledge representation in the brain which is equivalent to finding artificial intelligence", before moving into the developmental phase. == History == The project's initial goal was recreating the largest brain simulation to date, performed by neuroscientist Eugene M. Izhikevich of The Neurosciences Institute in San Diego, California. Izhikevich simulated 1 second of activity of 100 billion neurons (the estimated number of neurons in the human brain) in 50 days using a cluster of 27 3-gigahertz processors. He extrapolated that a real-time simulation of the brain could not be achieved before 2016. The project aimed to disprove this prediction. Artificial Intelligence System announced on Sep 5, 2007 that they will use the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) software to perform intensive calculations. On July 12, 2008, the first phase of the project had been completed by reaching the 100 billion neuron mark. The project then continued to simulate neurons while they completed the development of


id: australian-national-centre-for-the-public-awareness-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_National_Centre_for_the_Public_Awareness_of_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Australian National Centre for the Public Awareness of Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_National_Centre_for_the_Public_Awareness_of_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:00.417970+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: australian-national-centre-for-the-public-awareness-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The Centre for the Public Awareness of Science is part of the Australian National University. In March 2000 it became an accredited Centre for the Australian National Commission for UNESCO. == Work of the Centre == As a UNESCO Centre, CPAS engages with science communication and communicators in the Pacific region and beyond. In partnership with the UNESCO Pacific Office in Apia, Samoa, CPAS has focused on science teaching training and communication in Pacific nations. As well as running a science journalism workshop for Pacific Island journalists in 2001, CPAS followed up in the same year with a science teacher workshop and the first Pacific Science Communication Forum. The UNESCO office in Jakarta invited CPAS to join a mission to Cambodia to conduct a survey to identify and assess the needs of the country with respect to science education in schools and universities. Other activities include joining with UNESCO (Apia) to help in its aims to raise social participation in science in and around the Pacific. CPAS also established, as a pilot project, the Register of Pacific Scientists, an online database for those involved with Pacific Science to record their details and/or search for other people with similar or complementary


id: body-worlds-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds-0.md
category: reference
title: Body Worlds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:01.635422+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: body-worlds-20260505-0
summary:
Body Worlds (German title: Körperwelten) is a traveling exposition of dissected human bodies, animals, and other anatomical structures of the body that have been preserved through the process of plastination. Gunther von Hagens developed the preservation process which "unite[s] subtle anatomy and modern polymer chemistry", in the late 1970s. A series of Body Worlds anatomical exhibitions has toured many countries worldwide, sometimes raising controversies about the sourcing and display of actual human corpses and body parts. Von Hagens maintains that all human specimens were obtained with full knowledge and consent of the donors before they died, but this has not been independently verified, and in 2004 von Hagens returned seven corpses to China because they showed evidence of being executed prisoners. A competing exhibition, Bodies: The Exhibition, openly sources its bodies from "unclaimed bodies" in China, which can include executed prisoners. In addition to temporary traveling exhibitions, permanent Body Worlds exhibits exists in Berlin, Amsterdam, Heidelberg, Guben, and San Jose, CA. == Description == The exhibit states that its purpose and mission is the education of laypeople about the human body, leading to better health awareness. Each Body Worlds exhibition contains approximately 25 full-body plastinates with expanded or selective organs


id: body-worlds-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds-1.md
category: reference
title: Body Worlds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:01.635422+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: body-worlds-20260505-0
summary:
=== France === In response to the Paris exhibition of Our Body: The Universe Within, two local human rights groups filed a legal complaint against the owner of the exhibit, Gunther Von Hagens. The groups' lawyer Richard Sedillot argued that the existence of exhibits profiting from the display of human bodies creates a supply demand to produce and traffick more bodies through ethically dubious means to supply the exhibits. Potential scenarios given by the lawyer included structural violence such as neglecting medical patients or incentising an increase in death row convictions in China. Sedillot stated "I am convinced that the exhibition is the last step in a horrible traffic [sic] operation of human bodies originating in China." On Tuesday 21 April 2009, Judge Louis-Marie Raingeard ruled that exhibiting dead bodies for profit was a "violation of the respect owed to them". "Under the law, the proper place for corpses is in the cemetery". Raingeard ordered the exhibition to close within 24 hours or face a fine of €20,000 (over $26,000 USD) for each day it stayed open. The judge also ordered authorities to seize the 17 bodies on display and all of the organs on display from an unknown number


id: body-worlds-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds-2.md
category: reference
title: Body Worlds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:01.635422+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: body-worlds-20260505-0
summary:
==== Hawaii ==== In January 2009, Rep. Marcus Oshiro introduced two bills prompted by presentation of the BODIES Exhibition in that state. HB28 Relating to Dead Human Bodies would add to the prohibition against buying dead human bodies, the selling of dead human bodies and defines the term "dead human body" to include plastinated bodies and body parts. It would increase the fine for buying or selling a dead human body to up to $5,000. HB29 Relating to Dead Human Bodies would prohibit the commercial display of dead human bodies without a permit from the Department of Health. ==== New York ==== In June 2008, New York State Senate passed legislation regulating body exhibits. A bill that was sponsored by Senator Jim Alesi requires anyone showing an exhibit that uses real human bodies in New York museums to produce a permit detailing their origin. BODY WORLDS was hosted at Discovery Times Square in New York City. ==== Pennsylvania ==== Representative Mike Fleck's proposed bill would require evidence of informed consent from the decedent or relatives of all humans whose remains are put on display. BODY WORLDS exhibitions have been hosted in Philadelphia at the Franklin Institute and in Allentown at


id: body-worlds-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds-3.md
category: reference
title: Body Worlds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:01.635422+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: body-worlds-20260505-0
summary:
=== Religious objections === Religious groups, including some rabbis have objected to the display of human remains, stating that it is inconsistent with reverence towards the human body. A group of Catholic Christians voiced their opinions towards the Body Worlds exhibition in a reflection paper written by the Archdiocese of Milwaukee. This was in response to the arrival of the Body Worlds Exhibition in the Milwaukee Public Museum in 2014. The group were largely in favour of the exhibition due to its educational goals. But, the paper also discussed fears surrounding whether the exhibit's educational aims were secondary to the experience of voyeurism. There were also concerns over the display of plastinated fetuses, due to beliefs surrounding abortion. === Sex plastinate === In 2003, while promoting a display in the Hamburg Museum of Erotica, von Hagens announced his intention to create a sex plastinate. In May 2009 he unveiled a plastinate of a couple having sex, intended for a Berlin exhibition. === Lessening donor organ availability === In 2007, the Bishop of Manchester launched a campaign to coincide with the opening of Body Worlds in that city, accusing the exhibitors of being "body snatchers" and "robbing the NHS", arguing that


id: body-worlds-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds-4.md
category: reference
title: Body Worlds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_Worlds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:01.635422+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: body-worlds-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == Gottfried Bogusch, Renate Graf, Thomas Schnalke. Auf Leben und Tod Beiträge zur Diskussion um die Ausstellung "Körperwelten", Schriften aus dem Berliner Medizinhistorischen Museum, 2003, VII, 136 S. 62 Abb., Softcover ISBN 978-3798514249. Burns, Lawrence (2007). "Gunther Von Hagens' Body Worlds: Selling Beautiful Education". The American Journal of Bioethics. 7 (4): 12–23. doi:10.1080/15265160701220659. PMID 17454986. S2CID 31456090. Archived from the original on 9 December 2008. Liselotte Hermes da Fonseca: Wissenschaftliche Transzendenz der Körperwelten. Aufhebung der "Beschränkung von Freiheit" durch Leben, Tod und Körper. In: Wolf Gerhard Schmidt (Hg.): Körperbilder in Kunst und Wissenschaft Würzburg 2014, S. 107–138. Liselotte Hermes da Fonseca: "Ich will in meinem Knochenleben endlich zufrieden und glücklich sein": Eschatologie der Körperwelten. In: Dominik Groß, Brigitte Tag und Christoph Schweikardt (Hg.): Who wants to live forever? Frankfurt, New York 2011, S. 197–218. Liselotte Hermes da Fonseca: La plastination, une technique d'incarnation des espoirs scientifiques. In : Annette Leibing et Virginie Tournay (Hg.): Les technologies de l'espoir: La fabrique d'une histoire à accomplir. PUL-Presses de l'Université Laval, 2010. Liselotte Hermes da Fonseca. Wachsfigur – Mensch – Plastinat. Über die Mitteilbarkeit von Sehen, Nennen und Wissen, Deutsche Vierteljahrsschrift für Literaturwissenschaft und Geistesgeschichte (1999), Heft 1. Liselotte Hermes


id: bugscope-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bugscope-0.md
category: reference
title: Bugscope
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bugscope
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:02.959291+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bugscope-20260505-0
summary:
Bugscope is a web-based science outreach program that connects K-12 classrooms with microscopists at the Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology at UIUC to explore insects under a high-powered scanning electron microscope (SEM). Launched in 1998, Bugscope allows students to observe microscopic details of insects and other organisms, sparking curiosity and fostering scientific discovery. The program has reached students globally, offering live, interactive sessions that align with educational standards. == Award == The Science Prize for Online Resources in Education (SPORE) from AAAS was awarded to Bugscope for its impact on science education in 2011. == References ==


id: clean-energy-project-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean_Energy_Project-0.md
category: reference
title: Clean Energy Project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean_Energy_Project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:04.107393+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: clean-energy-project-20260505-0
summary:
The Clean Energy Project (CEP) was a virtual high-throughput discovery and design effort for the next generation of plastic solar cell materials that has finished. It studies millions of candidate structures to identify suitable compounds for the harvesting of renewable energy from the sun and for other organic electronic applications. It ran on the BOINC platform. == Project purpose == The project searched for the most suitable organic compounds with which to make solar cells, the best polymeric membranes with which to make fuel cells, and how best to assemble the molecules for such devices. == Current project status == On June 24, 2013, the Clean Energy Project released its database to the public and the research community. The release was featured on the White House Blog and by several news organizations including the MIT Technology Review. The database contains 150 million density functional theory calculations on 2.3 million molecules. == Publications == C. Amador-Bedolla, R. Olivares-Amaya, J. Hachmann, A. Aspuru-Guzik, Towards Materials Informatics for Organic Photovoltaics, in Informatics for Materials Science and Engineering, K. Rajan, Ed., Elsevier, Amsterdam (2013). In press. R. Olivares-Amaya, C. Amador-Bedolla, J. Hachmann, S. Atahan-Evrenk, R.S. Sánchez-Carrera, L. Vogt, A. Aspuru-Guzik, Accelerated Computational Discovery of


id: climateprediction-net-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climateprediction.net-0.md
category: reference
title: Climateprediction.net
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climateprediction.net
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:05.363360+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climateprediction-net-20260505-0
summary:
climateprediction.net (CPDN) is a volunteer computing project to investigate and reduce uncertainties in climate modelling. It aims to do this by running hundreds of thousands of different models (a large climate ensemble) using the donated idle time of ordinary personal computers, thereby leading to a better understanding of how models are affected by small changes in the many parameters known to influence the global climate. The project relies on the BOINC framework where voluntary participants agree to run some processes of the project at the client-side in their personal computers after receiving tasks from the server-side for treatment. CPDN, which is run primarily by Oxford University in England, has harnessed more computing power and generated more data than any other climate modelling project. It has produced over 100 million model years of data so far. As of June 2016, there are more than 12,000 active participants from 223 countries with a total BOINC credit of more than 27 billion, reporting about 55 teraflops (55 trillion operations per second) of processing power. == Aims == The aim of the climateprediction.net project is to investigate the uncertainties in various parameterizations that have to be made in state-of-the-art climate models. The model is


id: climateprediction-net-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climateprediction.net-1.md
category: reference
title: Climateprediction.net
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climateprediction.net
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:05.363360+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climateprediction-net-20260505-0
summary:
Classic Slab Model - The original experiment not under BOINC. See #The original model for further details. This model remains in use solely for the OU short course. BOINC Slab Model - The same as the classic Slab Model, but released under BOINC. ThermoHaline Circulation (THC) Model - An investigation of how the climate might change in the event of a decrease in the strength of the ThermoHaline Circulation. This experiment has now been closed to new participants as they have sufficient results. It was a four phase model totaling 60 model years. The first three phases were identical to the above Slab Models. The fourth phase imposed the effects of a 50% slowdown in the Thermohaline circulation by imposing SST changes in the north Atlantic derived from other runs. Sulfur Cycle Model - An investigation of the effect of sulfate aerosols on the climate. The experiment will model sulfur in a number of compound forms including dimethyl sulfide and sulfate aerosols. This experiment started in August 2005 and was a pre-requirement for the Hindcast. It is a 5 phase model totalling 75 model years. Timesteps are around 70% longer, making the model around 2.8 times longer than the initial


id: climateprediction-net-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climateprediction.net-2.md
category: reference
title: Climateprediction.net
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climateprediction.net
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:05.363360+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climateprediction-net-20260505-0
summary:
=== Explanation === Climate sensitivity is defined as the equilibrium response of global mean temperature to doubling levels of carbon dioxide. As of June 2025, current levels of carbon dioxide are 426 ppm and grew by 3.72ppm in the last year, compared with preindustrial levels of 280 ppm. Climate sensitivities of greater than 5 °C are widely accepted as being catastrophic. The possibility of such high sensitivities being plausible given observations had been reported prior to the climateprediction.net experiment but "this is the first time GCMs have produced such behaviour". Even the models with very high climate sensitivity were found to be "as realistic as other state-of-the-art climate models". The test of realism was done with a root mean square error test. This does not check on realism of seasonal changes and it is possible that more diagnostic measures may place stronger constraints on what is realistic. Improved realism tests are being developed. It is important to the experiment and the goal of obtaining a probability distribution function (pdf) of climate outcomes to get a very wide range of behaviours even if only to rule out some behaviours as unrealistic. Larger sets of simulations have more reliable pdfs. Therefore, models


id: climateprediction-net-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climateprediction.net-3.md
category: reference
title: Climateprediction.net
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climateprediction.net
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:05.363360+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: climateprediction-net-20260505-0
summary:
== Visualisations == Many volunteer computing projects have screensavers to visually indicate the activity of the application, but they do not usually show its results as they are being calculated. By contrast, climateprediction.net not only uses a built-in visualisation to show the climate of the world being modelled, but it is interactive which allows different aspects of climate (temperature, rainfall, etc.) to be displayed. In addition, there are other, more advanced visualisation programs that allow the user to see more of what the model is doing (usually by analysing previously generated results) and to compare different runs and models. The real-time desktop visualisation for the model launched in 2003 was developed by Jeremy Walton at NAG, enabling users to track the progress of their simulation as the cloud cover and temperature changes over the surface of the globe. Other, more advanced visualisation programs in use include CPView and IDL Advanced Visualisation. They have similar functionality. CPView was written by Martin Sykes, a participant in the experiment. The IDL Advanced Visualisation was written by Andy Heaps of the University of Reading (UK), and modified to work with the BOINC version by Tesella Support Services plc. Only CPView allows you to look


id: committee-on-the-public-understanding-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_on_the_Public_Understanding_of_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Committee on the Public Understanding of Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_on_the_Public_Understanding_of_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:10.327417+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: committee-on-the-public-understanding-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The Committee on the Public Understanding of Science or Copus was founded in 1985 by the British Association for the Advancement of Science (BAAS), the Royal Institution and the Royal Society. Copus came about as a result of the 'Bodmer Report' by the eminent geneticist Walter Bodmer. The aim of Copus was to interpret scientific advances and make them more accessible to non-scientists. It played a part in developing the public understanding of science it establishing standards for communicating science and technology The Copus Grant Schemes was set up in 1987 and the last round of grants was for 2003/4. The scheme was funded by the Office of Science and Technology and the Royal Society. 25 grants worth a total of over £750,000 were awarded in 2003/2004. In 2000 The new Copus Council was formed to be a more inclusive partnership for science communication in the UK. In 2002 following a report commissioned by the Office of Science and Technology the Copus Council was discontinued. == References ==


id: conversazione-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversazione-0.md
category: reference
title: Conversazione
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversazione
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:11.588668+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conversazione-20260505-0
summary:
A conversazione is a "social gathering [predominantly] held by [a] learned or art society" for conversation and discussion, especially about the arts, literature, medicine, and science. It would not be easy to devise a happier way [than the conversazione] of bringing novelties at once under practical criticism—of making the outliers of science acquainted with the centre, of enabling investigators to compare operations and discuss facts and speculations, and of giving occasion for renewal of intercourse and removal of misunderstandings. …[The] tangible gain to science [from the conversazione is that] inventors and experimentalists … hear [directly] what contemporaries say of their schemes and experiments, and much can be said and done with advantage amid the free talk of a general gathering which could not be permitted in the formal meeting of a scientific society. (Nature, 5 May 1870.) == Origin == The writer Horace Walpole is credited with the first recorded English use of conversazione in a letter written (from Italy) on 11 November 1739 to Richard West (1716–1742) in which he writes, "After the play we were introduced to the assembly, which they [viz., the Italians] call the conversazione". == Historical usage in Britain == In Italy, the term generally


id: cosmology-home-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmology@Home-0.md
category: reference
title: Cosmology@Home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmology@Home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:12.720963+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cosmology-home-20260505-0
summary:
Cosmology@Home was a volunteer computing project that used the BOINC platform and was formerly run at the Departments of Astronomy and Physics at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. The project has moved to the Institut Lagrange de Paris and the Institut d'Astrophysique de Paris, both of which are located in the Pierre and Marie Curie University. == Goals == The goal of Cosmology@Home is to compare theoretical models of the universe to the data measured to date and search for the model that best matches it. Other goals may include: results from Cosmology@Home can help design future cosmological observations and experiments. results from Cosmology@Home can help prepare for the analysis of future data sets, e.g. from the Planck spacecraft. == Science == The goal of Cosmology@Home is to search for the model that best describes our Universe and to find the range of models that agree with the available astronomical and particle physics data. The models generated by Cosmology@Home can be compared to measurements of the universe's expansion speed from the Hubble Space Telescope as well as fluctuations in the Cosmic microwave background as measured by the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe. == Method == Cosmology@Home uses an innovative way


id: denialism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denialism-0.md
category: reference
title: Denialism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denialism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:13.946180+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: denialism-20260505-0
summary:
In the sciences and in historiography, denialism is the rejection of basic facts and concepts that are undisputed, well-supported parts of the scientific consensus or historical record on a subject, in favor of ideas that are radical, controversial, or fabricated. Examples include Holocaust denial, AIDS denialism, and climate change denial. The forms of denialism present the common feature of the person rejecting overwhelming evidence and trying to generate political controversy in attempts to deny the existence of consensus. In psychology, denialism is a person's choice to deny reality as a way to avoid believing in an uncomfortable truth. Denialism is an essentially irrational human behavior that withholds the validation of a historical experience or event when a person refuses to accept an empirically verifiable reality. The motivations and causes of denialism include religion, self-interest (economic, political, or financial), and defence mechanisms meant to protect the psyche of the denialist against mentally disturbing facts and ideas; such disturbance is called cognitive dissonance. == Definition and tactics == Anthropologist Didier Fassin distinguishes between denial, defined as "the empirical observation that reality and truth are being denied", and denialism, which he defines as "an ideological position whereby one systematically reacts by refusing reality


id: denialism-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denialism-1.md
category: reference
title: Denialism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denialism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:13.946180+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: denialism-20260505-0
summary:
AIDS denialism is the denial that the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is the cause of acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). AIDS denialism has been described as being "among the most vocal anti-science denial movements". Some denialists reject the existence of HIV, while others accept that the virus exists but say that it is a harmless passenger virus and not the cause of AIDS. Insofar as denialists acknowledge AIDS as a real disease, they attribute it to some combination of recreational drug use, malnutrition, poor sanitation, and side effects of antiretroviral medication, rather than infection with HIV. However, the evidence that HIV causes AIDS is scientifically conclusive and the scientific community rejects and ignores AIDS-denialist claims as based on faulty reasoning, cherry picking, and misrepresentation of mainly outdated scientific data. With the rejection of these arguments by the scientific community, AIDS-denialist material is now spread mainly through the Internet. Thabo Mbeki, former president of South Africa, embraced AIDS denialism, proclaiming that AIDS was primarily caused by poverty. About 365,000 people died from AIDS during his presidency; it is estimated that around 343,000 premature deaths could have been prevented if proper treatment had been available. === COVID-19 === The term "COVID-19 denialism"


id: denialism-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denialism-2.md
category: reference
title: Denialism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denialism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:13.946180+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: denialism-20260505-0
summary:
Mental illness denial or mental disorder denial is where a person denies the existence of mental disorders. Serious analysts, as well as pseudoscientific movements, question the existence of certain disorders. A minority of professional researchers see disorders such as depression from a sociocultural perspective and argue that the solution to it is fixing a dysfunction in society, not in the person's brain. Some people may also deny that they have a mental illness after being diagnosed, and certain analysts argue this denialism is usually fueled by narcissistic injury. Anti-psychiatry movements such as Scientology promote mental illness denial by having alternative practices to psychiatry. === Election denial === Election denial is baseless rejection of the outcome of a fair election. Since the 2020 United States presidential election, there has been an ongoing narrative asserting that it was fraudulent. Similar events have occurred in different countries: Brazil in 2022 when former president Jair Bolsonaro after his defeat in the 2022 Brazilian general election, questioning the accuracy of the country's electronic voting system. In the 2021 Peruvian general election, presidential candidate Keiko Fujimori alleged fraud and irregularities in the voting count which were disproved by election authorities and international observers. == Historiography ==


id: docking-home-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Docking@Home-0.md
category: reference
title: Docking@Home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Docking@Home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:15.158607+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: docking-home-20260505-0
summary:
Docking@Home was a volunteer computing project hosted by the University of Delaware and running on the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) software platform. It models protein-ligand docking using the CHARMM program. Volunteer computing allows an extensive search of protein-ligand docking conformations and selection of near-native ligand conformations are achieved by using ligand based hierarchical clustering. The ultimate aim was the development of new pharmaceutical drugs. The project was retired on May 23, 2014. == See also == List of volunteer computing projects == References == == Further reading == "Computer Idle? Now You Can Donate Its Time to Find a Cure for Major Diseases". Newswise. June 16, 2009. Retrieved 2009-07-27. == External links == Official website Docking@Home screensaver video on YouTube


id: einstein-home-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-0.md
category: reference
title: Einstein@Home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:16.361890+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: einstein-home-20260505-0
summary:
Einstein@Home is a volunteer computing project that searches for signals from spinning neutron stars in data from gravitational-wave detectors, from large radio telescopes, and from a gamma-ray telescope. Neutron stars are detected by their pulsed radio and gamma-ray emission as radio and/or gamma-ray pulsars. They also might be observable as continuous gravitational wave sources if they are rapidly spinning and non-axisymmetrically deformed. The project was officially launched on 19 February 2005 as part of the American Physical Society's contribution to the World Year of Physics 2005 event. Einstein@Home searches data from the LIGO gravitational-wave detectors. The project conducts the most sensitive all-sky searches for continuous gravitational waves. While no such signal has yet been detected, the upper limits set by Einstein@Home analyses provide astrophysical constraints on the galactic population of spinning neutron stars in our Milky Way galaxy. Einstein@Home also searches radio telescope data from the Arecibo Observatory, and has in the past analyzed data from Parkes Observatory. On 12 August 2010, the first discovery by Einstein@Home of a previously undetected radio pulsar J2007+2722, found in data from the Arecibo Observatory, was published in Science. This was the first data-based discovery by a volunteer computing project. As of December 2023,


id: einstein-home-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-1.md
category: reference
title: Einstein@Home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:16.361890+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: einstein-home-20260505-0
summary:
Einstein@Home has carried out many analysis runs using data from the LIGO instruments. Since its first search run in 2005, the sensitivity of the LIGO detectors has been improved in a series of steps and upgrades. This is continuing with the current Advanced LIGO detectors. At the same time, Einstein@Home search algorithms have also improved. Together these have increased the search sensitivity by several orders of magnitude. Einstein@Home's first analysis used data from the "third science run" (S3) of LIGO. Processing of the S3 data set was conducted between 22 February 2005 and 2 August 2005. This analysis employed 60 segments from the LIGO Hanford 4-km detector, totaling ten hours of data each. Each 10-hour segment was analyzed for CW signals by the volunteers' computers using a matched-filtering technique. When all matched-filtering results were returned, the results from different segments were then combined in a "post-processing step" on Einstein@Home servers via a coincidence scheme to further enhance search sensitivity. Results were published on the Einstein@Home webpages. Work on the S4 data set (LIGO's fourth science run) was started via interlacing with the S3 calculations and finished in July 2006. This analysis used 10 segments of 30 hours each from the


id: einstein-home-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-2.md
category: reference
title: Einstein@Home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:16.361890+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: einstein-home-20260505-0
summary:
An Einstein@Home study on how to optimally use the limited computing power for directed searches (where prior information on the target object such as the sky position is available) was published on 31 January 2018. It describes the design of searches for continuous gravitational waves over a wide frequency range from three supernova remnants (Vela Jr, Cassiopeia A, and G347.3). The results from the directed Einstein@Home search for continuous gravitational waves from the central objects of the supernova remnants Vela Jr., Cassiopeia A, and G347.3 was published on 29 July 2019. It covered a frequency range from 20 Hertz to 1500 Hertz and used data from LIGO's first observing run O1. No signal was found and the most stringent upper limit at the time of publication were set, improving earlier results by a factor of two for all three targets. A follow-up of the Einstein@Home search for continuous gravitational waves from the central objects of the supernova remnants Vela Jr., Cassiopeia A, and G347.3 was published on 29 June 2020. It investigated the most promising 10,000 candidates from the previous search and followed them up in two stretches of data from LIGO's second observing run (O2). A single candidate associated


id: einstein-home-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-3.md
category: reference
title: Einstein@Home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:16.361890+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: einstein-home-20260505-0
summary:
== Radio data analysis and results == On 24 March 2009, it was announced that the Einstein@Home project was beginning to analyze data received by the PALFA Consortium at the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico. On 26 November 2009, a CUDA-optimized application for the Arecibo Binary Pulsar Search was first detailed on official Einstein@Home webpages. This application uses both a regular CPU and an NVIDIA GPU to perform analyses faster (in some cases up to 50% faster). On 12 August 2010, the Einstein@Home project announced the discovery of a new disrupted binary pulsar, PSR J2007+2722; it may be the fastest-spinning such pulsar discovered to date. The computers of Einstein@Home volunteers Chris and Helen Colvin and Daniel Gebhardt observed PSR 2007+2722 with the highest statistical significance. On 1 March 2011, the Einstein@Home project announced their second discovery: a binary pulsar system PSR J1952+2630. The computers of Einstein@Home volunteers from Russia and the UK observed PSR J1952+2630 with the highest statistical significance. By 15 May 2012 a new application for ATI/AMD graphic cards had been released. Using OpenCL, the new application was ten times faster than running on a typical CPU. On 22 July 2013, an Android application version of the radio


id: einstein-home-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-4.md
category: reference
title: Einstein@Home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:16.361890+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: einstein-home-20260505-0
summary:
== Gamma-ray data analysis and results == On 1 July 2011 the project announced a new application to search for pulsars in data from the Large Area Telescope on board the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope. On 26 November 2013, the discovery of four young gamma-ray pulsars in LAT data by the Einstein@Home project was published. All four pulsars are located in the plane of our Galaxy and have spin frequencies of less than 10 Hertz and characteristic ages between 35,000 and 56,000 years. No radio waves were detected from any of the pulsars. The discovery of the gamma-ray pulsar PSR J1906+0722 was published on 4 August 2015. The discovery confirmed the pulsar nature of the object which had been suspected since 2012 based on the energy distribution of the gamma-ray photons observed by the LAT. The pulsar is young and energetic. In August 2009 it suffered one of the largest glitches observed from a gamma-ray pulsar. No radio pulsations were detected in any follow-up search, making PSR J1906+0722 likely radio-quiet. Advanced methods of timing the arrival times of gamma-ray pulsations were introduced to improve the parameter inference of astrophysical properties. On 16 November 2016 the discovery and timing measurements of


id: einstein-home-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home-5.md
category: reference
title: Einstein@Home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein@Home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:16.361890+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: einstein-home-20260505-0
summary:
== Scientific Publications == Clark, C. J.; et al. (2016). "The Braking Index of a Radio-quiet Gamma-ray Pulsar". The Astrophysical Journal. 832 (1): L15. arXiv:1611.01292. Bibcode:2016ApJ...832L..15C. doi:10.3847/2041-8205/832/1/L15. ISSN 2041-8213. S2CID 54531854. Clark, Colin J.; et al. (2016). "The Einstein@Home Gamma-ray Pulsar Survey I: Search Methods, Sensitivity and Discovery of New Young Gamma-ray Pulsars". The Astrophysical Journal. 834 (2): 106. arXiv:1611.01015. Bibcode:2017ApJ...834..106C. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/834/2/106. S2CID 5750104. Lyne, A. G.; Stappers, B. W.; Bogdanov, S.; Freire, P. C. C.; Kaspi, V. M.; et al. (2016). "Timing of 29 Pulsars Discovered in the PALFA Survey". The Astrophysical Journal. 834 (2): 137. arXiv:1608.09007. Bibcode:2017ApJ...834..137L. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/834/2/137. S2CID 53639204. Papa, M. A.; Eggenstein, H.-B.; Walsh, S.; Di Palma, I.; Allen, B.; et al. (2016). "Hierarchical follow-up of sub-threshold candidates of an all-sky Einstein@Home search for continuous gravitational waves on LIGO sixth science run data". Physical Review D. 94 (12) 122006. arXiv:1608.08928. Bibcode:2016PhRvD..94l2006P. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.94.122006. S2CID 4595158. Lazarus, P.; et al. (2016). "Einstein@Home discovery of a Double-Neutron Star Binary in the PALFA Survey". The Astrophysical Journal. 831 (2): 150. arXiv:1608.08211. Bibcode:2016ApJ...831..150L. doi:10.3847/0004-637X/831/2/150. ISSN 1538-4357. S2CID 20833657. Zhu, Sylvia J.; et al. (2016). "Einstein@Home search for continuous gravitational waves from Cassiopeia A". Physical Review D. 94 (8) 082008. arXiv:1608.07589. Bibcode:2016PhRvD..94h2008Z.


id: eon-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EOn-0.md
category: reference
title: EOn
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EOn
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:17.623354+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eon-20260505-0
summary:
eOn was a volunteer computing project running on the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) platform, which uses theoretical chemistry techniques to solve problems in condensed matter physics and materials science. It was a project of the Institute for Computational Engineering and Sciences at the University of Texas. Traditional molecular dynamics can accurately model events that occur within a fraction of a millisecond. In order to model events that take place on much longer timescales, Eon combines transition state theory with kinetic Monte Carlo. The result is a combination of classical mechanics and quantum methods like density functional theory. Since the generation of new work units depended on the results of previous units, the project could only give each host a few units at a time. On May 26, 2014, it was announced that eOn would be retiring from BOINC. == See also == List of volunteer computing projects == References ==


id: ethical-legal-and-social-aspects-research-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethical,_Legal_and_Social_Aspects_research-0.md
category: reference
title: Ethical, Legal and Social Aspects research
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethical,_Legal_and_Social_Aspects_research
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:18.791380+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethical-legal-and-social-aspects-research-20260505-0
summary:
The acronyms ELSI (in the United States) and ELSA (in Europe) refer to research activities that anticipate and address ethical, legal and social implications (ELSI) or aspects (ELSA) of emerging sciences, notably genomics and nanotechnology. ELSI was conceived in 1988 when James Watson, at the press conference announcing his appointment as director of the Human Genome Project (HGP), suddenly and somewhat unexpectedly declared that the ethical and social implications of genomics warranted a special effort and should be directly funded by the National Institutes of Health. == Spread == Various ELSI or ELSA programs have been developed, in Canada, Europe and the Far East. Overview: U.S.A.: Ethical, ....Legal and Social Implications (ELSI) (funding agency: NIH, 1990) Canada: Genomics-related Ethical, Environmental, Economic, Legal and Social Aspects (GE3LS) (funding agency: Genome Canada, 2000) South-Korea: Ethical, Legal and Social Implications (ELSI) (funding: Government of South-Korea, 2001) United Kingdom: ESRC Genomics Network (EGN), including: Cesagen, Innogen, Egenis, Genomics Forum (funding agency: ESRC 2002) Netherlands: Centre for Society and the Life Sciences (CSG) (funding agency: Netherlands Genomics Initiative, 2002); more recently the ELSA labs programme related to Artificial Intelligence Norway: ELSA Program (funding agency: Research Council of Norway, 2002) Germany, Austria, Finland: ELSAGEN Transnational Research


id: ethnoscience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience-0.md
category: reference
title: Ethnoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:19.989526+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethnoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Ethnoscience has been defined as an attempt "to reconstitute what serves as science for others, their practices of looking after themselves and their bodies, their botanical knowledge, but also their forms of classification, of making connections, etc." (Augé, 1999: 118). == Origins == Ethnoscience has not always focused on ideas distinct from those of "cognitive anthropology", "component analysis", or "the New Ethnography"; it is a specialization of indigenous knowledge-systems, such as ethno-botany, ethno-zoology, ethno-medicine, etc. (Atran, 1991: 595). According to Scott Atran, ethnoscience looks at culture with a scientific perspective (1991: 650), although most anthropologists abhor this definition. Ethnoscience helps to understand how people develop with different forms of knowledge and beliefs, and focuses on the ecological and historical contributions people have been given (Atran, 1991: 650). Tim Ingold describes ethnoscience as a cross-discipline (2000: 160). He writes that ethnoscience is based on increased collaboration between social sciences and the humanities (e.g., anthropology, sociology, psychology, and philosophy) with natural sciences such as biology, ecology, or medicine (Ingold, 2000: 406–7). At the same time, ethnoscience is increasingly transdisciplinary in its nature (Ingold, 2000: 407). Of course, naturally over time, the ways in which data has been collected and studied has changed


id: ethnoscience-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience-1.md
category: reference
title: Ethnoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:19.989526+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethnoscience-20260505-0
summary:
== Early approaches == Early on, Franz Boas established cultural relativism as an approach to understanding indigenous scientific practices (Uddin, 2005: 980). Cultural relativism identifies people's differences and shows how they are a result of the social, historical, and geographical conditions (Uddin, 2005: 980). Boas is known for his work in Northern Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, working with the Kwakwaka'wakw Indians, which is where he established the importance of culture (Uddin, 2005: 980). Lévi-Strauss' structuralism was a strong contributor to the ideas of ethnoscience (Uddin, 2005: 980). It, itself, was the leading idea of providing structure to the research and a guide to organizing and relating different cultures. "Ethnoscience refers to a 'reduction of chaos' achieved by a particular culture, rather than to the 'highest possible and conscious degree' to which such chaos may be reduced"; basically, the ethnoscience of a society creates its culture (Sturtevant, 1964: 100). Much of the influence of anthropology, e.g., geographical determinism, was through the contributions of Jean Bodin (Harris, 1968: 42). In his text, he tried to explain why "northern people were faithful, loyal to the government, cruel, and sexually uninterested, compared to why southern people were malicious, craft, wise, expert in science but


id: ethnoscience-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience-2.md
category: reference
title: Ethnoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:19.989526+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethnoscience-20260505-0
summary:
== Development == Ethnoscience is a new term and study that came into anthropological theory in the 1960s. Often referred to as 'indigenous' or 'traditional' knowledge, ethnoscience introduces a perspective based on native perceptions. It is based on a complete emic perspective, which excludes all observations, interpretations and or any personal notions belonging to the ethnographer. The taxonomy and classification of indigenous systems, to name a few, used to categorize plants, animals, religion and life is adapted from a linguistic analysis. The concept of "Native Science" is also related to the understanding the role of the environment intertwined with the meaning humans place upon their lives. Understanding the language and the native people's linguistic system is one method to understand a native people's system of knowledge of organization. Not only is there categorization for things pertaining to nature and culture thought language, but more importantly and complex is the relationship between environment and culture. Ethnoscience looks at the intricacies of the connection between culture and its surrounding environment. There are also potential limitations and shortcomings in interpreting these systems of knowledge as a dictation of culture and behavior. Since an ethnographer is not able to physically enter inside an indigenous


id: ethnoscience-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience-3.md
category: reference
title: Ethnoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:19.989526+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethnoscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== System of classification – among cultures === Ethnoscience deals with how a given culture classifies certain principles in addition to how it is express through their language. By understanding a given culture through how they view the world, anthropologists attempt to eliminate any bias through translation as well as categorized their principles in their own ways. "The new methods, which focus on the discovery and description of folk systems, have come to be known as Ethnoscience. Ethnoscience analysis has thus far concentrated on systems of classification within such cultural and linguistic domains as colors, plants, and medicines" (Perchonock and Werner, 1969). An ethnoscientific approach can be used to better understand a given culture and their knowledge of their culture. Using an ethnographic approach can help anthropologists understand how that given culture views and categorizes their own foods, animal kingdom, medicines, as well as plants. === Contemporary research === Ethnoscience can be effectively summed up as a classification system for a particular culture in the same way that a botanist would use a taxonomic system for the classification of plant species. Everything from class levels, food consumption, clothing, and material culture objects would be subjected to a taxonomic classification system.


id: evolution-home-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution@Home-0.md
category: reference
title: Evolution@Home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution@Home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:21.149485+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evolution-home-20260505-0
summary:
evolution@home was a volunteer computing project for evolutionary biology, launched in 2001. The aim of evolution@home is to improve understanding of evolutionary processes. This is achieved by simulating individual-based models. The Simulator005 module of evolution@home was designed to better predict the behaviour of Muller's ratchet. The project was operated semi-automatically; participants had to manually download tasks from the webpage and submit results by email using this method of operation. yoyo@home used a BOINC wrapper to completely automate this project by automatically distributing tasks and collecting their results. Therefore, the BOINC version was a complete volunteer computing project. yoyo@home has declared its involvement in this project finished. == See also == Artificial life Digital organism Evolutionary computation Folding@home List of volunteer computing projects == References ==


id: fascial-net-plastination-project-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascial_Net_Plastination_Project-0.md
category: reference
title: Fascial Net Plastination Project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascial_Net_Plastination_Project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:26.719094+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fascial-net-plastination-project-20260505-0
summary:
The Fascial Net Plastination Project is an anatomical research initiative established in 2018 aimed at plastinating and studying the human fascial network. The collaboration was initiated by Robert Schleip as a joint effort between Body Worlds, Fascia Research Group, and the Fascia Research Society. The project focuses on preserving the fascia, a complex connective tissue network that plays a crucial role in the human body's structure and function. One outcome of this three-year project is the creation of the world's first 3-D representation of the fascial network of a whole human body, named FR:EIA (Fascia Revealed: Educating Interconnected Anatomy), which is on display at the Body Worlds museum in Berlin, Germany. == Origination and objectives == The project was conceived to provide a comprehensive and tangible understanding of the fascial system through plastination. This technique, developed by Gunther von Hagens, involves replacing water and fat in biological tissues with polymers to create durable, lifelike specimens. The specific goals of the project include: Enhancing Educational Outreach: By creating detailed and durable plastinated specimens of the fascial net, the project aims to elevate the anatomical education of medical professionals and the general public. Advancing Research: Detailed anatomical studies of plastinated fascia specimens


id: feminist-philosophy-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_philosophy_of_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Feminist philosophy of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_philosophy_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:28.043078+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: feminist-philosophy-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Feminist philosophy of science is a branch of feminist philosophy that seeks to understand how the acquirement of knowledge through scientific means has been influenced by notions of gender identity and gender roles in society. Feminist philosophers of science question how scientific research and scientific knowledge itself may be influenced and possibly compromised by the social and professional framework within which that research and knowledge is established and exists. The intersection of gender and science allows feminist philosophers to reexamine fundamental questions and truths in the field of science to reveal how gender biases may influence scientific outcomes. The feminist philosophy of science has been described as being located "at the intersections of the philosophy of science and feminist science scholarship" and has attracted considerable attention since the 1980s. Feminist philosophers of science use feminist epistemology as a lens through which to analyze scientific methods, results, and analysis. This epistemology emphasizes "situated knowledge" that hinges on one's individual perspectives on a subject; feminist philosophers often highlight the under-representation of female scientists in academia and the resulting androcentric biases that exist in science. Feminist philosophers suggest that integrating feminine modes of thought and logic that are undervalued by current scientific theory


id: feminist-philosophy-of-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_philosophy_of_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Feminist philosophy of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_philosophy_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:28.043078+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: feminist-philosophy-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Standpoint and knowledge === The feminist philosophy of science has traditionally been highly critical of the lack of access and opportunities for women in science, resulting in scientific results that have been "distorted by sexist values." Sharon Crasnow highlights how the "exclusion of women as researchers and subjects" in scientific research, studies and projects can lead to incomplete methods and methodologies and ultimately unreliable or inaccurate results. Some feminist philosophies of science question whether science can lay claim to "impartiality, neutrality, autonomy, and indifference to political positions and the values" when the "neutral" position is benchmarked against the values held by one culture (i.e. western patriarchy) among the multitude of cultures participating in modern science. A complete Standpoint theory contains seven parts to fully understand the location of power one has, their "epistemic privilege". Anderson lays these out in her journal Feminist Epistemology and Philosophy of Science. The first point of the theory must state the social location of the authority. The second, how large is the grasp of this authority, what does it claim privilege over. Third, what aspect of the social location allows authority. Fourth, the grounds of the authority, what justifies their privilege. Fifth, the type


id: freehal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FreeHAL-0.md
category: reference
title: FreeHAL
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FreeHAL
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:29.207419+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: freehal-20260505-0
summary:
FreeHAL was a volunteer computing project to build a self-learning chatbot. This project is no longer active. Originally, the program was called JEliza referring to the chatbot ELIZA by Joseph Weizenbaum. The J stood for Java because JEliza has first been programmed in Java. In May 2008, the program has been renamed to FreeHAL because the programming language has changed. The name is related to the computer in the film 2001: A Space Odyssey. FreeHAL uses a semantic network and technologies like pattern recognition, stemming, part of speech databases and Hidden Markov Models in order to imitate a human behaviour. FreeHAL learns autonomously. While communicating by keyboard, the program extends its database. Currently, English and German are supported. By using the BOINC platform, new semantic networks for the program are built. FreeHAL@home appears to have terminated operations. == Awards == In 2008, the program won the first prize in the category "Most Popular" at the Chatterbox Challenge, a yearly competition between different similar chatbots. == Publications == There was an article about FreeHAL in the Linux Magazine, Issue 97 from December 2008. In the German magazine com!, the program was on the CD/DVD and in the list of the Top-10-Open-Source


id: frontiers-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontiers_of_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Frontiers of Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontiers_of_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:30.468388+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: frontiers-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Frontiers of Science was an illustrated comic strip created by Professor Stuart Butler of the School of Physics at the University of Sydney in collaboration with Robert Raymond, a documentary maker from the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) in 1961. The artist was Andrea Bresciani. After 1970 the comic was illustrated by David Emerson. It explained scientific concepts and recent research and in a 3 or 4 panel illustrated strip in an accessible and easily comprehensible way. The strip was syndicated to over 200 newspapers around the world for 25 years, from 1961 to 1987. It was also published as soft cover books. As of 2011, it "retains the record of being the longest-running newspaper science comic strip in the world." The strips are archived at Rare Books and Special Collections in Fisher Library at the University of Sydney. The entire series is available for viewing online. == References == == External links == Drifting Through Inner Space Ocean deep exploration explained in 5 cartoon strips c late 1960s - at NASA website - Accessed July 2006. University of Sydney Outreach projects, Frontiers of Science, - Accessed July 2006. Frontiers of Science Digital Collections, University of Sydney - Accessed April 2019.


id: funding-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Funding of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:31.702550+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: funding-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Research funding is a term that generally encompasses any funding for scientific research in the areas of natural science, technology, and social science. While different methods can be used to disburse funding, the term generally connotes funding obtained through a competitive process, in which potential research projects are evaluated, with only the most promising and economically viable receiving funding. Usually, it is measured through gross domestic expenditure on research and development (GERD). GERD includes R&D performed within a country and funded from abroad but excludes payments for R&D performed abroad. The largest share of research funding comes from two major sources: corporations (through research and development departments) and government (primarily carried out through universities and specialized government agencies, often known as research councils). A smaller amount of scientific research is funded by charitable foundations, especially in relation to developing cures for diseases such as cancer, malaria, and AIDS. According to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), more than 60% of research and development in scientific and technical fields is carried out by industry, and 20% and 10% respectively by universities and government. Comparatively, in countries with a relatively lower national GDP, such as Portugal and Mexico, the industry


id: funding-of-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Funding of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:31.702550+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: funding-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Methodology to measure science funding == The guidelines for R&D data collections are laid down in the Frascati Manual published by the OECD. In the publication, R&D denotes three types of activities: basic research, applied research, and experimental development. This definition does not cover innovation, but it may feed into the innovative process. Additionally, the business sector innovation has a dedicated OECD manual. The most frequently used measurement for R&D is gross domestic expenditure on research and development (GERD). GERD is often represented in GERD-to-GDP ratios, as it allows for easier comparisons between countries. The data collection for GERD is based on reporting by performers. GERD differentiates according to the funding sector (business, enterprise, government, higher education, private non-profit, rest of the world) and the sector of performance (all funding sectors with the exception of rest of the world, as GERD only measures activity within the territory of a country). The two may coincide, for example, when the government funds government-performed R&D. Government funded science may also be measured by the Government budget appropriations and outlays for R&D (GBAORD/ GBARD). GBARD is a funder-based method, it denotes what governments committed to R&D (even if final payment might be different).


id: funding-of-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Funding of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:31.702550+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: funding-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== Conditionality ==== In addition to project deliverables, funders also increasingly introduce new eligibility requirements alongside traditional ones such as research integrity/ethics. The 2016 Open Science movement, tied funding increasingly tied to data management plans and making data FAIR. The Open Science requirement complements Open Access mandates which in 2025 are widespread. The gender dimension also gained ground in recent years. The European Commission mandates research applicants to adopt gender equality plans across their organization. The UK Research and Innovation Global Challenges Research Fund mandates a gender equality statement. As of 2022, the European Commission also introduced a "Do No Significant Harm" principle to the Framework Program which aims to curb the environmental footprint of scientific projects. "Do No Significant Harm" has been criticized as coupled with other eligibility requirements it is often characterized as red-tape. Since 2020, European Commission has been trying to simplify the Framework Program with limited success. Simplification attempts were also taken by the UK Research and Innovation. ==== Process ==== Often scientists apply for research funding which a granting agency may (or may not) approve to financially support. These grants require a lengthy process as the granting agency can inquire about the researcher(s)'s background, the


id: funding-of-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Funding of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:31.702550+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: funding-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Disclosure of potential conflicts of interest (COIs) is used by journals to guarantee credibility and transparency of the scientific process. Conflict of interest disclosure, however, is not systematically nor consistently dealt with by journals that publish scientific research results. When research is funded by the same agency that can be expected to gain from a favorable outcome there is a potential for biased results and research shows that results are indeed more favorable than would be expected from a more objective view of the evidence. A 2003 systematic review studied the scope and impact of industry sponsorship in biomedical research. The researchers found financial relationships among industry, scientific investigators, and academic institutions widespread. Results showed a statistically significant association between industry sponsorship and pro-industry conclusions and concluded that "Conflicts of interest arising from these ties can influence biomedical research in important ways." A British study found that a majority of the members on national and food policy committees receive funding from food companies. In an effort to cut costs, the pharmaceutical industry has turned to the use of private, nonacademic research groups (i.e., contract research organizations [CROs]) which can do the work for less money than academic investigators. In 2001


id: funding-of-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science-4.md
category: reference
title: Funding of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funding_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:31.702550+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: funding-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== By country === Different countries spend vastly different amounts on research, in both absolute and relative terms. For instance, South Korea and Israel dedicate more than 4% of their national GDP to research and development, while numerous less developed countries allocate less than 1% of their national GDP to R&D. In developed economies, GERD is financed mainly by the business sector, whereas the government and the university sector dominate in less-developed economies. In some countries, funding from the major part of the international community represents up to 20-30% of total GERD, which is likely due to FDI and foreign aid; however, only in the case of Mali it is the main source of funding. Private non-profit is not the main source of funds in any country, but it reaches 10% of total GERD in Colombia and Honduras. When comparing annual GERD and GDP Growth, it can be seen that countries with lower GERD are often growing faster. However, as most of these countries are developing, their growth is probably driven by other factors of production. On the other hand, developed countries with a higher share of GERD are usually also the ones that produce positive growth rates. GERD in


id: google-science-fair-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Science_Fair-0.md
category: reference
title: Google Science Fair
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Science_Fair
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:32.933261+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: google-science-fair-20260505-0
summary:
The Google Science Fair was a worldwide (excluding Cuba, Iran, North Korea, Sudan, Myanmar/Burma, Syria, Zimbabwe and any other U.S. sanctioned country) online science competition sponsored by Google, Lego, Virgin Galactic, National Geographic and Scientific American. It was an annual event from 2011 to 2018. The first Google Science Fair was announced in January 2011; entries were due on April 7, 2011, and judging occurred in July 2011. The competition is open to 13- to 18-year-old students around the globe, who formulate a hypothesis, perform an experiment, and present their results. All students had to have an internet connection and a Google Account to participate, and the projects had to be in English, German, Italian, Spanish, or French. The final submission had to include ten sections, which were the summary, an "About Me" page, the steps of the project, and a works cited page. Entries were judged on the student's presentation, question, hypothesis, research, experiment, data, observations, and conclusion. Prizes were awarded to three finalists. The grand prize included a National Geographic trip to the Galapagos Islands, and a US$50,000 scholarship; finalists received a US$15,000 scholarship and assorted packages from sponsoring organizations. == Guest interviews == The on-line site also


id: google-science-fair-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Science_Fair-1.md
category: reference
title: Google Science Fair
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Science_Fair
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:32.933261+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: google-science-fair-20260505-0
summary:
== 2015 Winners == The 2015 Google Science Fair closed for entries on May 18, 2015, with regional finalists announced in London on July 7, 2015. These included Lauren McKenzie (14) who built an automatic soil watering system, Shadab Karnachi (14) who designed a low-cost gaming device for people with visual impairments, Nishanth Kumar (16) who designed a low-cost 'hands-free' mouse for use by people with developmental disabilities, and Peter He (14) who developed an innovative wireless virtual reality system. The global finalists representing 10 countries were announced on August 4, 2015, and were as follows: Bosnia-Herzegovina Anela Arifi and Ilda Ismaili – A system for alternative fuel production and storage using chicken feathers Canada Isabella O'Brien – Trouble in Paradise: Recycling shell waste to reduce ocean acidification Calvin Rieder – Extracting clean water from air: solar-powered solution for providing potable water France Eliott Sarrey – Bot2Karot: gardening through a smartphone-activated robot India Lalita Prasida Sripada Srisai – Absorbing water pollutants with corn cobs Lithuania Laura Steponavičiūtė – Detecting the environmental dangers of nanomaterials Russia Alexey Tarasov - Using ternary logic on current electronics Singapore Girish Kumar – RevUp: improving learning through auto-generated study questions Zhilin Wang – Zinc air


id: gpugrid-net-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPUGRID.net-0.md
category: reference
title: GPUGRID.net
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPUGRID.net
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:34.200411+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gpugrid-net-20260505-0
summary:
GPUGRID is a volunteer computing project hosted by Pompeu Fabra University and running on the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) software platform. It performs full-atom molecular biology simulations that are designed to run on Nvidia's CUDA-compatible graphics processing units. == Former support for PS3s == Support for the PS3's Cell microprocessor and the subsequent PS3GRID project was dropped in 2009 due to updated firmware preventing the installation of required third-party software. This included Linux distributions that are required to run BOINC. The massive throughput of Nvidia GPUs has also made the PS3 client largely redundant. As of September 2009, a mid-range Nvidia GPU ran GPUGRID applications approximately five times faster than the Cell microprocessor. == See also == List of volunteer computing projects Molecular dynamics GPGPU == References == == Further reading == Research topics in GPUGRID website's science sections GPUGRID's about us Archived 2016-11-04 at the Wayback Machine section == External links == Official website Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC)


id: gridrepublic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GridRepublic-0.md
category: reference
title: GridRepublic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GridRepublic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:35.375240+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gridrepublic-20260505-0
summary:
GridRepublic is a BOINC Account Manager. It focuses on creating a clean and simple way to join and interact with BOINC. GridRepublic was started with a mission to raise public awareness and participation in volunteer computing with BOINC. GridRepublic was formed in 2004 by Matthew Blumberg as a mechanism to control the multiple projects from one place. The code for the BOINC software had to be redesigned to allow for the Account Manager system to be implemented. GridRepublic's website has won numerous awards including being named finalist at the 2007 SXSW Interactive Festival and the 2008 Stockholm Challenge. GridRepublic has also been the recipients of a Google Grant allowing for advertising through Google. == Projects == GridRepublic supports a wide range of the BOINC projects. The list of supported projects and the development status of projects are periodically updated. Some of its popular projects include: Climateprediction.net Climate change modeling on personal computers Einstein@home Pulsar stars from LIGO and GEO data Rosetta@home Protein folding research SETI@home Searching radio and light data for signs of intelligent life == Software == GridRepublic is a non-profit organisation, an online application, and software. The software is open source and a customized version of BOINC. ==


id: hashclash-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HashClash-0.md
category: reference
title: HashClash
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HashClash
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:36.616095+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hashclash-20260505-0
summary:
HashClash was a volunteer computing project running on the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) software platform to find collisions in the MD5 hash algorithm. It was based at Department of Mathematics and Computer Science at the Eindhoven University of Technology, and Marc Stevens initiated the project as part of his master's degree thesis. The project ended after Stevens defended his M.Sc. thesis in June 2007. However, SHA1 was added later, and the code repository was ported to git in 2017. The project was used to create a rogue certificate authority certificate in 2009. == See also == Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) List of volunteer computing projects == References == == External links == HashClash HashClash at Stevens' home page Create your own MD5 collisions on AWS, Nat McHugh's blog


id: help-conquer-cancer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help_Conquer_Cancer-0.md
category: reference
title: Help Conquer Cancer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help_Conquer_Cancer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:37.822452+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: help-conquer-cancer-20260505-0
summary:
Help Conquer Cancer is a volunteer computing project that runs on the BOINC platform. It is a joint project of the Ontario Cancer Institute and the Hauptman-Woodward Medical Research Institute. It is also the first project under World Community Grid to run with a GPU counterpart. == Project Purpose == The goal is to enhance the efficiency of protein X-ray crystallography, which will enable researchers to determine the structure of many cancer-related proteins faster. This will lead to improving the understanding of the function of these proteins, and accelerate the development of new pharmaceutical drugs. == See also == BOINC List of volunteer computing projects World Community Grid == References == == External links == Help Conquer Cancer Archived 2010-01-17 at the Wayback Machine


id: help-cure-muscular-dystrophy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help_Cure_Muscular_Dystrophy-0.md
category: reference
title: Help Cure Muscular Dystrophy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help_Cure_Muscular_Dystrophy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:42.553225+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: help-cure-muscular-dystrophy-20260505-0
summary:
Help Cure Muscular Dystrophy is a volunteer computing project that runs on the BOINC platform. It is a joint effort of the French muscular dystrophy charity, L'Association française contre les myopathies; and L'Institut de biologie moléculaire et cellulaire (Molecular and Cellular Biology Institute). == Project purpose == Help Cure Muscular Dystrophy studies the function of various proteins that are produced by the two hundred genes known to be involved in the production of neuromuscular proteins by modelling the protein-protein interactions of the forty thousand relevant proteins that are listed in the Protein Data Bank. More specifically, it models how a protein would be affected when another protein or a ligand docks with it. == Scientific publications == Decrypting protein surfaces by combining evolution, geometry, and molecular docking. Proteins: Structure, Function, and Bioinformatics (2019). Hidden partners: Using cross-docking calculations to predict binding sites for proteins with multiple interactions. Proteins: Structure, Function, and Bioinformatics (2018). Protein social behavior makes a stronger signal for partner identification than surface geometry. Proteins: Structure, Function, and Bioinformatics (2017). Great interactions: How binding incorrect partners can teach us about protein recognition and function. Proteins: Structure, Function, and Bioinformatics (2016). Protein-Protein Interactions in a Crowded Environment: An Analysis


id: helsinki-challenge-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsinki_Challenge-0.md
category: reference
title: Helsinki Challenge
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsinki_Challenge
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:43.734983+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: helsinki-challenge-20260505-0
summary:
Helsinki Challenge is a science-based competition and idea accelerator which brings together the academic community and society at large to solve the world's grand challenges in cooperation. The competition goal is not only to create new scientific information, but to influence society. Multidisciplinary teams consisting of experts from the academic and artistic communities, the business world, the public and third sectors, media and other actors of the society are welcome to take part in the competition. Participating teams are evaluated by the jury using the following criteria: originality, creativity, impact, focus on solutions and use of science-based methods. The competition prize is 375,000 euros and it is meant for the implementation of the solution. Helsinki Challenge was held for the first time in 2015. In 2017, the competition is organised by the University of Helsinki in collaboration with Aalto University, Hanken School of Economics, University of Eastern Finland, University of Jyväskylä, University of Oulu, University of the Arts Helsinki, University of Turku, University of Vaasa and Åbo Akademi University. == Helsinki Challenge 2014–2015 == The first ever Helsinki Challenge was organised by the University of Helsinki and celebrated the University's 375th anniversary in 2015. The first Helsinki Challenge competition themes


id: ibercivis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibercivis-0.md
category: reference
title: Ibercivis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibercivis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:44.935224+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ibercivis-20260505-0
summary:
Ibercivis was a volunteer computing platform which allows internet users to participate in scientific research by donating unused computer cycles to run scientific simulations and other tasks. The original project, which became operational in 2008, was a scientific collaboration between the Portuguese and Spanish governments, but it is open to the general public and scientific community, both within and beyond the Iberian Peninsula. The project's name is a portmanteau of Iberia and the Latin word civis, meaning 'citizen'. In April 2020, the volunteer computing platform was restarted by the Ibercivis Foundation and the Spanish National Research Council in order to screen existing drugs for antiviral activity against Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, the causative agent of the COVID-19 pandemic. == History == Ibercivis was developed in Spain with the cooperation of the Institute of Biocomputation and Physics of Complex Systems at the University of Zaragoza, CIEMAT, CETA-CIEMAT, the Spanish National Research Council (CSIC) and RedIris. The project tasks are issued by different scientific and technological centers in Spain with the aim of creating a functional platform for volunteer-based scientific computing. The project is a European counterpart to the successful United States-based SETI@home and Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing


id: ibercivis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibercivis-1.md
category: reference
title: Ibercivis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibercivis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:44.935224+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ibercivis-20260505-0
summary:
Fusion: a star on your screen: this application helped scientists at the Research Center for Energy Environment and Technology (CIEMAT) and at the Institute for Biocomputation and Physics of Complex Systems (BIFI) perform simulations of the plasmas that will be produced in the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER). The ITER project, which will begin operation in 2018, seeks to make nuclear fusion power a reality, replicating on Earth conditions typically found inside stars. Docking: looking for anti-cancer drugs: the Docking application assisted the search for new medicines through the simulation of protein docking. The Bioinformatics Unit of the Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa (CSIC-UAM) developed a platform to allow the automatic simulation of interactions of proteins and small molecules. Its purpose was to find effective drugs to treat serious illnesses, such as cancer. Materials: simulation of magnetic systems: the Materials application aided physicists from the Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Universidad de Extremadura and the Institute for Biocomputation and Physics of Complex Systems in discovering how non-magnetic impurities in magnetic materials modify the properties of their transition from a magnetic state to a non-magnetic one. The knowledge of these transitions is important not only from a theoretical point of view


id: industry-funding-of-academic-research-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industry_funding_of_academic_research-0.md
category: reference
title: Industry funding of academic research
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industry_funding_of_academic_research
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:46.161929+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: industry-funding-of-academic-research-20260505-0
summary:
Industry funding of academic research in the United States is one of the two major sources of research funding in academia along with government support. Currently, private funding of research accounts for the majority of all research and development funding in the United States as of 2007 overall. Overall, Federal and Industrial sources contribute similar amounts to research, while industry funds the vast majority of development work. While the majority of industry research is performed in-house, a major portion of this private research funding is directed to research in non-profit academic centers. As of 1999, industrial sources accounted for an estimated $2.2 billion of academic research funding in the US. However, there is little governmental oversight or tracking of industry funding on academic science and figures of the scale of industry research are often estimated by self-reporting and surveys which can be somewhat unreliable. Much of this industry funding of academic research is directed toward applied research. However, by some accounts, industry may even fund up to 40% of basic research in the United States, with Federal funding of basic research falling below 50%, although this figure does not consider where this research is conducted. The role for funding of


id: industry-funding-of-academic-research-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industry_funding_of_academic_research-1.md
category: reference
title: Industry funding of academic research
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industry_funding_of_academic_research
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:46.161929+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: industry-funding-of-academic-research-20260505-0
summary:
=== University Industry Research Centers (UIRCs) === On a larger scale, there have been numerous attempts to create collaborative University-Industry Research Centers (UIRCs) to jointly host academic and industry researchers to address industry problems with direct, large scale collaborative centers. Early forms of UIRCS started in the 1950s and 1960s with the formation of research parks with industry sponsors. In the 1970s, there were multiple proposals at the federal level in the US to help fund and expand early UIRCs. However, funding fell through at multiple points. The first UIRCs experienced difficulties in bridging the differences between academic and industrial culture. One such attempt occurred at Caltech where Caltech researchers partnered with Xerox and IBM through the Silicon Structures Project. Both industry and academic partners were concerned about the cultures of the other and found the structure ineffective. With such frustrations, it was difficult to secure partners to continue expanding UIRCs. In the late 1970s, RPI created two three new UIRCs: 1) the Center for Integrated Computer Graphics, which received both NSF and industry support 2) the Center for Manufacturing Productivity and Technology Transfer, which was funded entirely by industry support and 3) the Center for Integrated Electronics, which received


id: insect-fear-film-festival-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival-0.md
category: reference
title: Insect Fear Film Festival
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:47.468923+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: insect-fear-film-festival-20260505-0
summary:
The Insect Fear Film Festival or IFFF is an annual free event held every spring since 1984, and is the first university-sponsored event of its kind in the U.S., typically taking place on a Saturday in February. Organized by the Entomology Graduate Students Association at University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, the festival blends education with entertainment. It showcases films, shorts, and TV episodes that highlight insect biology and celebrate the role of insects in popular culture. The purpose of the event is to dispel fears of insects by providing relative knowledge while various insect-themed monster movies are shown. Before the films begin, May Berenbaum, the festival organizer, the UI Entomology department head and professor, typically introduces each film, providing scientific context, debunking inaccuracies, and exploring why we fear insects. She also points out "biological improbabilities" and filmmaking flaws, often noting that some films are "so bad they’re actually entertaining." (However, the organisers often have to watch the films several times in order to identify a theme and select the best films. "It’s really excruciating sometimes," Berenbaum said.) The festival typically includes several animated shorts and two or three feature-length films. The evening usually starts with a family-friendly film, as parents and


id: insect-fear-film-festival-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival-1.md
category: reference
title: Insect Fear Film Festival
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:47.468923+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: insect-fear-film-festival-20260505-0
summary:
=== Insect art contest === Since 1993, the lFFF also features an Insect Art Contest for K–12 students, since 1993, inviting them to explore their creativity while learning about insects. Students (K–12) are encouraged to submit artwork that depicts insects and arthropods in any medium. The contest aims to inspire young minds to appreciate the beauty and complexity of these creatures, fostering a deeper understanding of the insect world. Winning entries are often displayed at the festival, providing an opportunity for students to showcase their work to the community. In 1990s, the contest was held with the Natural History Museum, where the winning drawings were displayed for two weeks. Due to the pandemic, the 2021 and 2022 Insect Art Contests were held online with a virtual art gallery to showcase students' artwork. In 2023, the contest returned to an in-person format. The insect-themed artwork contest is usually due by mid-February annually. Please submit your artwork to the Entomology Graduate Student Association (EGSA), UIUC, or contact the IFFF coordinators, typically the EGSA presidents, for details. === Bugscope === At the Insect Fear Film Festival (IFFF), attendees will have the opportunity to experience a $600,000 high-resolution scanning electron microscope (SEM) firsthand, gaining


id: insect-fear-film-festival-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival-2.md
category: reference
title: Insect Fear Film Festival
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:47.468923+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: insect-fear-film-festival-20260505-0
summary:
=== 39th annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2022) === The 39th IFFF, themed "Venomous," took place online via Zoom on February 26, 2022. This year's festival featured a variety of engaging and educational activities, including a special presentation by Justin Schmidt, creator of the Schmidt Sting Pain Index, which rates the pain caused by insect stings. Attendees could explore a virtual insect petting zoo, learn about venomous insects through the Bugscope, and take a virtual tour of the Illinois Natural History Survey's insect collection. The event also included fun and interactive elements such as bee ventriloquism, insect-themed crafts, and an art contest featuring insect-themed artwork created by local K-12 students. The film program consisted of a mix of animated and live short films divided into three segments: first, exaggerated comic depictions of insect stings; second, dramatic or humorous reactions to stings, including severe allergic reactions such as anaphylaxis; and third, scientific insights into the world of venomous arthropods, showcasing their various venom delivery methods and potential beneficial uses. A highlight was a live stinging demonstration to provide a first-hand look at the process of venom delivery. The festival highlighted the fascinating diversity of venomous insects, from honeybee stings used for


id: insect-fear-film-festival-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival-3.md
category: reference
title: Insect Fear Film Festival
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:47.468923+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: insect-fear-film-festival-20260505-0
summary:
=== 33rd Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2016) === The 33rd Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (IFFF) took place on Saturday, February 27, at 6 p.m. in Foellinger Auditorium, with the theme "Exploding Arthropods." The event, hosted by the Entomology Graduate Student Association, highlighted real-life explosive insects, such as bombardier beetles, which spray hot chemicals as a defense, and exploding carpenter ants, which sacrifice themselves to protect their colonies. Parasitoid wasps, whose larvae chew their way out of their hosts, also contributed to the theme. These natural "explosions" were mirrored in the festival's films, featuring mutant cockroaches and giant, lava-breathing tarantulas. The evening featured three films: Palm Rot (2015; 7.5 minutes), Bug (1975), and Lavalantula (2015). The event began with Palm Rot (2015; 7.5 minutes), a short animated film introduced by the event special guest and its creator, Ryan Gillis. Following that, Bug (1975) told the story of a scientist who unintentionally created a breed of intelligent, combustible cockroaches. The evening concluded with Lavalantula (2015), in which giant, lava-spewing tarantulas wreaked havoc in Los Angeles after a volcanic eruption. === 32nd Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2015) === The 32nd IFFF was held on February 28, 2015, at 6 p.m.


id: insect-fear-film-festival-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival-4.md
category: reference
title: Insect Fear Film Festival
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:47.468923+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: insect-fear-film-festival-20260505-0
summary:
=== 27th Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2010) === The 27th IFFF, held on February 27, 2010, centered on the theme of prehistoric insects. The event offered an intriguing look into the origins of today's insects, with highlights including fossils like Meganeura, a dragonfly-like creature with a wingspan of nearly 30 inches that lived around 300 million years ago, and trilobites—ancient arthropods that once inhabited the seas. The evening featured animated shorts The Deadly Mantis (1957), where a giant mantis is freed by nuclear testing, and Monster on the Campus (1958), in which a dragonfly's blood contamination turns a scientist into a Neanderthal. The evening also featured screenings of Black Scorpion (1957), in which volcanic activity unleashes giant scorpions in Mexico, followed by Deep Freeze (2001, also known as Ice Crawlers), which depicts the reappearance of grad-student-eating trilobites in the Antarctic. === 26th Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2009) === The 26th IFFF, themed "Centipede Cinema," took place on February 28, 2009. The event focused on myriapods (centipedes and millipedes), which, despite their many legs, are arthropods, not insects. Centipedes, known for their predatory habits, and millipedes, which feed on decaying matter, were featured for their unique characteristics. The festival


id: insect-fear-film-festival-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival-5.md
category: reference
title: Insect Fear Film Festival
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:47.468923+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: insect-fear-film-festival-20260505-0
summary:
=== 21st Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (2004) === The 21st IFFF, held on February 28, 2004, focused on "genetically engineered insects." This year's theme traced the evolution of insect horror films, from radiation fears in the 1950s to insect mutations in the 1970s. With the rise of gene manipulation in the early 1980s, genetically modified insects became a new horror movie trope, reflecting public fears about the potential risks of emerging technologies. The short films included Bus of the Undead (2001)from Aqua Teen Hunger Force and Insect Inside (1998) from The Powerpuff Girls. This year showcased three featured films: The Tuxedo (2002), in which Jackie Chan stars in a story where genetically engineered water striders grow to enormous size and threaten freshwater supplies. The film inaccurately suggests water striders have queens, which they do not. Mimic (1997), suggested by movie critic Roger Ebert, follows an entomologist who creates genetically modified "Judas Breed" cockroaches to combat a deadly disease, only for the bugs to evolve into human-like creatures that prey on people in New York City's subways. Despite the absurd use of litmus paper to identify the "Judas breed" of cockroaches, the film effectively highlights the dangers of genetic experimentation


id: insect-fear-film-festival-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival-6.md
category: reference
title: Insect Fear Film Festival
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_Fear_Film_Festival
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:47.468923+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: insect-fear-film-festival-20260505-0
summary:
=== 15th Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (1998) === The 15th Insect Fear Film Festival (IFFF), held in February 1998, focused on "Roaches Redux." Dr. Berenbaum, the organizer, remarked on the irony that, in 1997, Americans spent approximately $250 million on cockroach poisons, only to spend nearly the same amount watching movies about them. Short films of this year included animated Raid commercials from the 1960s, Warner Brothers' Bingo Crosbyana, episodes of Santa Bugito, and the trailer for Twilight of the Cockroaches. Feature-length highlights included War of the Coprophages (1996), an X-Files episode where Agent Mulder teams up with entomologist Dr. Bambi Berenbaum to battle possible alien cockroaches; Joe’s Apartment (1996), a comedy about a young man befriending singing, dancing cockroaches in New York, with special effects by UIUC alumnus Chris Trimble; and Men in Black (1997), featuring a cockroach-like alien. === 14th Annual Insect Fear Film Festival (1997) === The 15th IFFF, held in February 1997, embraced an "all ants, all the time!" theme and marked the first year the festival was held in Foellinger Auditorium. AN(T)imated shorts of this year included Dance of the Ants, Gay Anties, Ant Pasted, Ants in the Plants, One Less Ant, and Porky’s


id: international-network-of-engineers-and-scientists-for-global-responsibility-20260505-0
category: reference
title: International Network of Engineers and Scientists for Global Responsibility
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:48.680137+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-network-of-engineers-and-scientists-for-global-responsibility-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Network_of_Engineers_and_Scientists_for_Global_Responsibility-0.md

summary:
The International Network of Engineers and Scientists for global responsibility (INES) is an independent non-profit-organization concerned about the impact of science and technology on society. INES efforts focus on disarmament and international peace, ethics in science, responsibilities of scientists and the responsible use of science and technology, just and sustainable development. INES was founded in 1991 in Berlin at the international congress Challenges - Science and Peace in a Rapidly Changing Environment and has become a network of over 200 organisations and individual members. == Challenges for Scientists and Engineers == Rapid changes in our environment and our societies are forcing us to become more conscious of our role in the world. Science and technology are employed in a worldwide competition for military and economic power. The impacts of this competition have global implications. We have entered a phase in which global developments are in conflict with basic requirements for human survival. Large stocks of weapons of mass destruction, the overexploitation of limited common resources, and a heavily unbalanced world economy provide fundamental challenges to human civilisation and may even threaten its existence. Engineers and scientists play a key role, both in developing new knowledge that might threaten international security

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Network_of_Engineers_and_Scientists_for_Global_Responsibility


id: international-science-festival-in-gothenburg-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Science_Festival_in_Gothenburg-0.md
category: reference
title: International Science Festival in Gothenburg
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Science_Festival_in_Gothenburg
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:49.829764+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-science-festival-in-gothenburg-20260505-0
summary:
The International Science Festival in Gothenburg (Swedish: Vetenskapsfestivalen) is an annual festival in Gothenburg with science activities. == About the festival == The International Science Festival in Gothenburg took place for the first time in April 1997 and is since then an annual recurrent event. The purpose is to communicate science to the public and schools in an easy accessible and in a thought provoking manner. Another objective is to create a positive attitude to research and science which is intended to encourage higher education. About 100 000 visitors come each year. This makes it the largest popular science event in Sweden and one of the largest popular science events in Europe. University of Gothenburg and Chalmers University of Technology contributes with the knowledge. The International Science Festival in Gothenburg is a member of the European Science Events Association, EUSCEA. == Theme == Each year a special theme that the festival focuses on is chosen: (translated) 2001: Food and eatables 2002: Travel and science expeditions, Life and Medicine 2003: Love and energy 2004: The meaning of life and sustainable development 2005: Design, physics, Finland 2006: Athletics & health 2007: Passion, pistil and personality 2008: Let's play 2009: Civilization in all


id: italian-union-of-scientists-for-disarmament-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Union_of_Scientists_for_Disarmament-0.md
category: reference
title: Italian Union of Scientists for Disarmament
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Union_of_Scientists_for_Disarmament
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:51.051160+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: italian-union-of-scientists-for-disarmament-20260505-0
summary:
The Italian Union of Scientists for Disarmament (Italian: Unione Scienziati per il Disarmo) is an association established in 1982 with the purpose of providing information and analysis of arms control and disarmament. Members of the association believe that this task is part of the social responsibility of scientists. The issues it addresses include nuclear arms control and disarmament, nuclear proliferation, consequences of nuclear explosions, control of fissile material, developments of military technology, conventional disarmament, chemical and biological disarmament, and general problems of conflict and conflict resolution. Members share their views with Italian policy-makers and opinion-makers. It organizes conferences and meetings, including the biennial Castiglioncello conference, courses and seminars at Italian universities, and courses for high-school teachers. It promotes the establishment of inter-departmental centers of research affiliated to Italian Universities, and has actively collaborated for many years with the CIRP-UniBa (Centro Interdipartimentale di Ricerche sulla Pace, University of Bari). It collaborates with international organizations of scientists and other Italian institutions, such as Archivio Disarmo (Roma) and Forum per i Problemi della Pace e della Guerra (Firenze). Members of USPID participate in Pugwash and ISODARCO meetings. In 1995 it began a standing collaboration with Landau Network-Centro Volta, in Como. This institution organizes,


id: the-lattice-project-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lattice_Project-0.md
category: reference
title: The Lattice Project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lattice_Project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:52.459383+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-lattice-project-20260505-0
summary:
The Lattice Project was a volunteer computing project that combined computing resources, Grid middleware, specialized scientific application software and web services into a comprehensive Grid computing system for scientific analysis. It ran the Genetic Algorithm for Rapid Likelihood Inference (GARLI) software to determine the relationships between different genetic samples. A major aspect of the project makes use of the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) platform. The Lattice Project maintained a separate BOINC web site, but the site is dead as of this writing, causing this project to shut down because BOINC depends on this website to get setup information to set this project up on its clients. == References == == External links == The Lattice Project website archive


id: leiden-classical-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leiden_Classical-0.md
category: reference
title: Leiden Classical
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leiden_Classical
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:53.605084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: leiden-classical-20260505-0
summary:
Leiden Classical was a volunteer computing project run by the Theoretical Chemistry Department of the Leiden Institute of Chemistry at Leiden University. Leiden Classical used the BOINC system, and enabled scientists or science students to submit their own test simulations of various molecules and atoms in a classical mechanics environment. ClassicalDynamics is a program (and with it a library) completely written in C++. The library is covered by the LGPL license and the main program is covered by the GPL. The project shut down on June 5, 2018. == Joining the project == Participation was possible via the BOINC manager. Using this software one was once able to create an account in the project. Then someone can make a model of a dynamic system and simulation participating run. There are several models possible, to interactions between molecules or planets. == User Submitted Calculations == To create a personal calculation, a user's model had to have six defined variables: Colors of the molecules Box in which the model is run Number of particles in the simulation Interaction between the particles Gravity Coulomb force Lennard-Jones interaction Morse interaction Rydberg interaction Harmonic spirit Harmonic bending Recurrent torsion interactions Distance conditions Confirmation parameter(s) ==


id: leo-szilard-lectureship-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Szilard_Lectureship_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: Leo Szilard Lectureship Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Szilard_Lectureship_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:58.603863+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: leo-szilard-lectureship-award-20260505-0
summary:
The Leo Szilard Lectureship Award (originally called the Leo Szilard Award) is given annually by the American Physical Society (APS) for "outstanding accomplishments by physicists in promoting the use of physics for the benefit of society". It is given internationally in commemoration of physicist Leo Szilard. "In the year's of Szilard's life and activity it became clearer than ever before how great the responsibility of scientists is to the society. And, to a large extent, it is due to Szilard that this awareness began to spread in the scientific community." - Andrei Sakharov It is often awarded to physicists early in their careers who are active in areas such as environmental issues, arms control, or science policy. As of 2015 the recipient is given $3,000 plus $2,000 travel expenses and is expected to lecture at an APS meeting and at educational or research laboratories, to promote awareness of their activities. == Recipients == The award is given yearly and was first presented in 1974. 1974 David R. Inglis 1975 Bernard T. Feld 1976 Richard Garwin 1977 not awarded 1978 Matthew Meselson 1979 Sherwood Rowland 1980 Sidney Drell 1981 Henry Way Kendall, Hans Bethe 1982 Wolfgang K. H. Panofsky 1983 Andrei


id: lhc-home-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LHC@home-0.md
category: reference
title: LHC@home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LHC@home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:24:59.785328+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lhc-home-20260505-0
summary:
LHC@home is a volunteer computing project researching particle physics that uses the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) platform. The project's computing power is utilized by physicists at CERN in support of the Large Hadron Collider and other experimental particle accelerators. The project is run with the help of over 1,260 active volunteer users contributing more than 3,000 computers processing at a combined 52 teraFLOPS as of September 2024. The project is cross-platform, and runs on a variety of computer hardware configurations. == Applications == The LHC@home project currently runs four applications—Atlas, CMS, SixTrack, and Test4Theory—which deal with different aspects of research conducted in LHC such as calculating particle beam stability and simulating proton collisions. Atlas, CMS, and Test4Theory use VirtualBox, an x86 virtualization software package. === Atlas === Atlas uses volunteer computing power to run simulations of the ATLAS experiment. It can be run in VirtualBox or natively on Linux. === Beauty === Beauty (LHCb) compared the decay of bottom quarks (b) and bottom antiquarks (b), which also known as beauty quarks. The participation of volunteers in the application was suspended indefinitely on 19 November 2018. === CMS === The CMS application (formerly a standalone project called CMS@Home)


id: lincoln-s-birthday-committee-for-democracy-and-intellectual-freedom-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lincoln's_Birthday_Committee_for_Democracy_and_Intellectual_Freedom-0.md
category: reference
title: Lincoln's Birthday Committee for Democracy and Intellectual Freedom
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lincoln's_Birthday_Committee_for_Democracy_and_Intellectual_Freedom
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:01.014505+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lincoln-s-birthday-committee-for-democracy-and-intellectual-freedom-20260505-0
summary:
The Lincoln's Birthday Committee for Democracy and Intellectual Freedom (LBCDIF) was an antifascist organization of scientists founded by Franz Boas in 1938 to discredit the theories of race being forwarded by the Nazis in Germany. In the 1930s Franz Boas was one of the first scientists to become aware of the immense prestige and influence of scientists in that era. Even at his advanced age Boas wanted to find a way to use the influence of scientists to promote human welfare. At Columbia University he collaborated with Ruth Benedict, Leslie Dunn, Robert Lynd, Walter Rautenstrauch, Harold Urey and other members of the University Federation for Democracy and Intellectual Freedom to find a unifying political position that would bring scientists of all disciplines together on a common front. He decided antifascism was such a position, and based on his collaborations wrote the Manifesto on Freedom in Science. In 1938 the Manifesto was released with 1,284 signatures of prominent scientists, including Roger Adams, Robert Oppenheimer and Albert Einstein (see: Einstein Letter to LBCDIF). Boas used the excitement generated by the Manifesto to launch the LBCDIF. Twenty-six meetings were organized to uphold the principles of the Manifesto, and the success of these meetings


id: list-of-astronomy-outreach-resources-in-europe-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Astronomy_Outreach_Resources_in_Europe-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Astronomy Outreach Resources in Europe
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Astronomy_Outreach_Resources_in_Europe
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:02.248425+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-astronomy-outreach-resources-in-europe-20260505-0
summary:
This is a List of Astronomy Outreach Resources in Europe originally started as an initiative within the framework of the Astronet EU FP7 project. == Scientific Institutions, Observatories, and National Scientific Societies == === Scientific institutions and Observatories === List of astronomical observatories (not only outreach) IAU Office for Astronomy Outreach European Southern Observatory (ESO) ESO Science Outreach Network (ESON) European Space Agency (ESA) CERN outreach Archived 2009-08-03 at the Wayback Machine Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias (IAC, Spain) Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía (IAA-CSIC, Spain) Spanish National Observatory Centre of AstroBiology (CAB-CSIC, Spain) University of La Rioja (Spain) Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies (Ireland) Queen Mary Astronomical Observatory (UK) University of Oxford Dept of Physics (UK) Nottingham Trend University Observatory (UK) University of Glasgow A&A group (UK) Observatoire de Paris Observatoire de Bordeaux Institut de Radioastronomie Millimétrique (IRAM) GLObal Robotic-telescopes Intelligent Array (GLORIA Project) EU-HOU network of demonstration radio telescopes Italian National Institute for Astrophysics (INAF) Educational resources of INAF (work in progress) Osservatorio Astronomico di Cagliari (Italy) Onsala Space Observatory (Sweden) === National Astronomical Societies === List of astronomical societies AstroWeb Sociedad Española de Astronomía (SEA) Royal Astronomical Society (UK) Swedish Astronomical Society (Sweden) == Science Museums and


id: malaria-control-project-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria_Control_Project-0.md
category: reference
title: Malaria Control Project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria_Control_Project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:03.446149+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: malaria-control-project-20260505-0
summary:
malariacontrol.net was a volunteer computing project to simulate the transmission dynamics and health effects of malaria. It was part of the Africa@home project. The project was terminated on 21 June 2016. == History == The malariacontrol.net domain name was first registered on 19 May 2005 under Swiss Tropical Institute. This project was under Africa@home where the latter was conceived and developed by European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN). malariacontrol.net was the first to use volunteer computing to model diseases. The model simulates malaria infection in 50,000 to 100,000 people. Each work unit lasted for an hour in average personal computers and the results were returned to University of Geneva for evaluation by researchers. malariacontrol.net ran all the simulations by using stochastic simulation model. Since 4 November 2010, using the financial support from Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Malariacontrol.net developed an open-source software named "Open Malaria" which can be used to simulate outcomes in various types of malaria transmission settings. On 21 June 2016, malariacontrol.net announced that the project has been terminated due to financial constraints in upgrading their servers for further volunteer computing operations. == Impact == Over 10 years, malariacontrol.net has produced 30 peer-reviewed articles. In 2008, among the


id: march-of-progress-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_of_Progress-0.md
category: reference
title: March of Progress
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_of_Progress
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:04.775139+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: march-of-progress-20260505-0
summary:
The March of Progress, originally titled The Road to Homo Sapiens, is an illustration that presents 25 million years of human evolution. It was created for the Early Man volume of the Life Nature Library, published in 1965, and drawn by the artist Rudolph Zallinger. It has been widely parodied and imitated to create images of progress of other kinds. == Illustration == === Context === The illustration is part of a section of text and images commissioned by Time-Life Books for the Early Man volume (1965) of the Life Nature Library, by F. Clark Howell. The illustration is a foldout entitled "The Road to Homo Sapiens". It shows a sequence of figures, drawn by natural history painter and muralist Rudolph Zallinger (1919–1995). The 15 human evolutionary forebears are lined up as if they were marching in a parade from left to right. The first two sentences of the caption read "What were the stages of man's long march from apelike ancestors to sapiens? Beginning at right and progressing across four more pages are milestones of primate and human evolution as scientists know them today, pieced together from the fragmentary fossil evidence." === Sequence of species === The 15 primate


id: march-of-progress-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_of_Progress-1.md
category: reference
title: March of Progress
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_of_Progress
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:04.775139+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: march-of-progress-20260505-0
summary:
== Parodies and adaptations == The March of Progress has often been imitated, parodied, or adapted for commercial or political purposes. The cover of the 1972 Doors album Full Circle references the March of Progress, as does the 1985 Supertramp album Brother Where You Bound, while the poster for the 1992 comedy film Encino Man shows an ape evolving into a skateboarder. The December 2005 issue of The Economist depicts hominids progressing up a flight of stairs to transform into a woman in a black dress holding a glass of champagne to illustrate "The Story of Man". == Predecessors == Thomas Henry Huxley's frontispiece to his 1863 book Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature was intended simply to compare the skeletons of apes and humans, but its unintentional left-to-right progressionist sequence has according to the historian Jennifer Tucker "become an iconic and instantly recognizable visual shorthand for evolution". An illustration, with the caption "Evolution", showing two sequences of four images, each illustrating a gradual transformation of an animal into a human, appeared in the 1889 edition of Mark Twain's A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court. == References == == External links == Media related to March of Progress


id: material-world-radio-programme-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Material_World_(radio_programme)-0.md
category: reference
title: Material World (radio programme)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Material_World_(radio_programme)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:06.026030+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: material-world-radio-programme-20260505-0
summary:
Material World was a weekly science magazine programme broadcast on Thursday afternoons on BBC Radio 4. Its regular presenter was Quentin Cooper, with contributions from scientists who were researching areas discussed in each programme. == History == The programme began in April 1998 as The Material World, presented by Trevor Phillips. Phillips was a chemistry graduate of Imperial College, and also one of the few regular black broadcasters on Radio 4. In September 2000, Phillips was told that his close links with the Labour Party conflicted with BBC impartiality rules and meant he could no longer present BBC programmes. He was replaced with Quentin Cooper, who presented the programme until its end in 2013. From 5 April 2010 the programme was repeated on Monday evenings at 21.00, the former slot of Costing the Earth. For a short time, when programmes on 5 Live began webstreaming with video, Material World was also webcast. On 14 June 2013 it was announced that the show was to be cancelled and replaced by a new show, Inside Science. The last programme presented by Quentin Cooper was broadcast on 20 June 2013 with the final episode airing a week later on 27 June 2013, presented


id: milkyway-home-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MilkyWay@home-0.md
category: reference
title: MilkyWay@home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MilkyWay@home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:07.293579+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: milkyway-home-20260505-0
summary:
MilkyWay@home is a volunteer computing project in the astrophysics category, running on the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) platform. Using spare computing power from over 38,000 computers run by over 27,000 active volunteers as of November 2011, the MilkyWay@home project aims to generate accurate three-dimensional dynamic models of stellar streams in the immediate vicinity of the Milky Way. With SETI@home and Einstein@home, it is the third computing project of this type that has the investigation of phenomena in interstellar space as its primary purpose. Its secondary objective is to develop and optimize algorithms for volunteer computing. == Purpose and design == MilkyWay@home is a collaboration between the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute's departments of Computer Science and Physics, Applied Physics and Astronomy and is supported by the U.S. National Science Foundation. It is operated by a team that includes astrophysicist Heidi Jo Newberg and computer scientists Malik Magdon-Ismail, Bolesław Szymański and Carlos A. Varela. By mid-2009 the project's main astrophysical interest is in the Sagittarius Stream, an immense stellar stream emanating from the Sagittarius Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxy that wraps around the Milky Way. Mapping such interstellar streams and their dynamics with high accuracy may provide crucial clues for understanding the


id: milkyway-home-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MilkyWay@home-1.md
category: reference
title: MilkyWay@home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MilkyWay@home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:07.293579+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: milkyway-home-20260505-0
summary:
Mendelsohn, Eric J.; Newberg, Heidi Jo; Shelton, Siddhartha; Widrow, Lawrence M.; Thompson, Jeffery M.; Grillmair, Carl J. (1 February 2022). "Estimate of the Mass and Radial Profile of the Orphan–Chenab Stream's Dwarf-galaxy Progenitor Using MilkyWay@home". The Astrophysical Journal. 926 (2): 106. arXiv:2201.03637. Bibcode:2022ApJ...926..106M. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac498a. S2CID 245853837. Donlon, T.; Newberg, H.; Weiss, J.; Guffey, A.; Thompson, J. (2021-06-01). "A Trifurcated Sagittarius Stream in the South". AAS/Division of Dynamical Astronomy Meeting. 53 (5): 403.03. Bibcode:2021DDA....5240303D. Mendelsohn, E. J.; Newberg, H. J.; Shelton, S.; Widrow, L.; Thompson, J.; Grillmair, C. (2021-06-01). "Estimate of the Mass and Radial Profile of the Orphan Stream's Dwarf Galaxy Progenitor Using MilkyWay@home". AAS/Division of Dynamical Astronomy Meeting. 53 (5): 403.01. Bibcode:2021DDA....5240301M. Mendelsohn, E. J.; Newberg, H. J.; Donlon, T.; Thompson, J. M. (2020-08-01). "N-Body Simulations with MilkyWay@home". AAS/Division of Dynamical Astronomy Meeting. 52 (4): 200.01. Bibcode:2020DDA....5120001M. Donlon, Thomas; Newberg, Heidi Jo; Sanderson, Robyn; Widrow, Lawrence M. (2020-10-01). "The Milky Way's Shell Structure Reveals the Time of a Radial Collision". The Astrophysical Journal. 902 (2): 119. arXiv:2006.08764. Bibcode:2020ApJ...902..119D. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abb5f6. S2CID 219708644. Shelton, Siddhartha; Newberg, Heidi Jo; Weiss, Jake; Bauer, Jacob S.; Arsenault, Matthew; Widrow, Larry; Rayment, Clayton; Desell, Travis; Judd, Roland; Magdon-Ismail, Malik; Mendelsohn, Eric; Newby, Matthew; Rice, Colin;


id: milkyway-home-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MilkyWay@home-2.md
category: reference
title: MilkyWay@home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MilkyWay@home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:07.293579+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: milkyway-home-20260505-0
summary:
Desell, Travis; Szymanski, Boleslaw; Varela, Carlos (2008). "An asynchronous hybrid genetic-simplex search for modeling the Milky Way galaxy using volunteer computing". Proceedings of the 10th annual conference on Genetic and evolutionary computation. pp. 921–928. doi:10.1145/1389095.1389273. ISBN 9781605581309. S2CID 10952453. Cole, Nathan; Newberg, Heidi Jo; Magdon-Ismail, Malik; Desell, Travis; Dawsey, Kristopher; Hayashi, Warren; Liu, Xinyang Fred; Purnell, Jonathan; Szymanski, Boleslaw; Varela, Carlos; Willett, Benjamin; Wisniewski, James (20 August 2008). "Maximum Likelihood Fitting of Tidal Streams with Application to the Sagittarius Dwarf Tidal Tails". The Astrophysical Journal. 683 (2): 750–766. arXiv:0805.2121. Bibcode:2008ApJ...683..750C. doi:10.1086/589681. S2CID 1660060. Desell, Travis; Szymanski, Boleslaw; Varela, Carlos (2008). "Asynchronous genetic search for scientific modeling on large-scale heterogeneous environments". 2008 IEEE International Symposium on Parallel and Distributed Processing. pp. 1–12. doi:10.1109/IPDPS.2008.4536169. ISBN 978-1-4244-1693-6. S2CID 1107218. Szymanski, Boleslaw K.; Desell, Travis; Varela, Carlos (2008). "The Effects of Heterogeneity on Asynchronous Panmictic Genetic Search". Parallel Processing and Applied Mathematics. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 4967. pp. 457–468. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.78.2043. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-68111-3_48. ISBN 978-3-540-68105-2. Desell, Travis; Cole, Nathan; Magdon-Ismail, Malik; Newberg, Heidi; Szymanski, Boleslaw; Varela, Carlos (2007). "Distributed and Generic Maximum Likelihood Evaluation". Third IEEE International Conference on e-Science and Grid Computing (E-Science 2007). pp. 337–344. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.65.4065. doi:10.1109/E-SCIENCE.2007.30. ISBN 978-0-7695-3064-2. S2CID


id: mindmodeling-home-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MindModeling@Home-0.md
category: reference
title: MindModeling@Home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MindModeling@Home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:08.583549+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mindmodeling-home-20260505-0
summary:
MindModeling@Home is an inactive non-profit, volunteer computing research project for the advancement of cognitive science. MindModeling@Home is hosted by Wright State University and the University of Dayton in Dayton, Ohio. In BOINC, it is in the area of Cognitive Science and category called Cognitive science and artificial intelligence. It can only operate on a 64-bit operating system, preferably on a computer with multiple cores, running a Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, or Linux operating system. This project is not compatible with mobile devices, unlike other projects on BOINC. == Research focus == N-2 Repetition: understanding how people have a harder time returning to a task from another one Observing how people read through their eye movement for the purpose of helping people reduce eye strain and processing what they read better and faster. Modeling decision-making: resolving around decisions made from visual processing (focus and filtering) Integrated Learning Models (ILM) to create algorithms based on how people learn and make decisions How the brain performs tasks sequentially and simultaneously by measuring its blood flow == Problems == Its status is inactive. However, it is "not down or closed," as its servers are still running. The projects are long; prolonged amounts of


id: neo-colonial-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-colonial_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Neo-colonial science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-colonial_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:09.797369+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neo-colonial-science-20260505-0
summary:
Neo-colonial research or neo-colonial science, frequently described as helicopter research, parachute science or research, parasitic research, or safari study, is when researchers from wealthier countries go to a developing country, collect information, travel back to their country, analyze the data and samples, and publish the results with little or no involvement of local researchers. A 2003 study by the Hungarian Academy of Sciences found that 70% of articles in a random sample of publications about least-developed countries did not include a local research co-author. Frequently, during this kind of research, the local colleagues might be used to provide logistics support as fixers but are not engaged for their expertise or given credit for their participation in the research. Scientific publications resulting from parachute science frequently only contribute to the career of the scientists from rich countries, thus limiting the development of local science capacity (such as funded research centers) and the careers of local scientists. This form of "colonial" science has reverberations of 19th century scientific practices of treating non-Western participants as "others" in order to advance colonialism—and critics call for the end of these extractivist practices in order to decolonize knowledge. This kind of research approach reduces the quality


id: neo-colonial-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-colonial_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Neo-colonial science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-colonial_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:09.797369+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neo-colonial-science-20260505-0
summary:
An analysis of research money from 1990 to 2020 for climate change, found that 78% of research money for research on Climate change in Africa, was spent in European and North American institutions and more was spent for former British colonies than other countries. This in turn both prevents local researchers from doing groundbreaking work, because they don't have the funding for experimental activities and reduces investment in local researchers ideas and in topics important to the Global South, such as climate change adaptation. === Soil science === Soil scientists have qualified helicopter research as a perpetuation of "colonial" science. Typically researchers from rich countries would come to establish soil profile pits or collect soil and peat samples, which is often more easily done in poor countries given the availability of cheap labour and goodwill of villagers to dig a pit on their land against small payment. The profile will be described and samples taken with the help of local people, possibly also university staff. In case of helicopter research, the outcomes are then published such as discovery in tropical peatlands, sometimes in high-level journals without the involvement of local colleagues. "Overall, helicopter research tends to produce academic papers that


id: oproject-home-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OProject@Home-0.md
category: reference
title: OProject@Home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OProject@Home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:14.865038+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: oproject-home-20260505-0
summary:
OProject@Home was a volunteer computing project running on the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) and was based on a dedicated library OLib. The project was directed by Lukasz Swierczewski, an IT student at the College of Computer Science and Business Administration in Łomża, Computer Science and Automation Institute. As of 2016 it seems to have been abandoned. == Subprojects == Shor's Algorithm Shor's Algorithm DP GSCE-SV ALX Weird Engine Shor's Algorithm and Shor's Algorithm DP were the main subprojects of OProject@Home. The objective was to test quantum algorithms (e.g. Shor's algorithm) of quantum computing. GSCE-SV verifies the correctness of Goldbach's conjecture, while ALX is a Non-CPU-intensive (nci) subproject capable of running on ARM-based CPUs running Android or Linux. It is used to research and develop artificial intelligence and computer networks. The project supports the PlayStation 3. The Weird Engine subproject calculates the weird numbers (sequence A006037 in the OEIS). Numbers are available in the project database. According to the OEIS it is the largest publicly available database of such numbers. These ongoing work on the application analyzing status of water on Earth. OProject@Home uses data from NASA and NOAA satellites. Analyzed data are taken from devices AVHRR and


id: orbit-home-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbit@home-0.md
category: reference
title: Orbit@home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbit@home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:16.089739+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: orbit-home-20260505-0
summary:
orbit@home was a BOINC-based volunteer computing project of the Planetary Science Institute. It uses the "Orbit Reconstruction, Simulation and Analysis" framework to optimize the search strategies that are used to find near-Earth objects. On March 4, 2008, orbit@home completed the installation of its new server and officially opened to new members. On April 11, orbit@home launched a Windows version of their client. On February 16, 2013, the project was halted due to lack of grant funding. However, on July 23, 2013, the Orbit@home project was selected for funding by NASA's Near Earth Object Observation program. It was announced that orbit@home is to resume operations sometime in 2014 or 2015. As of July 13, 2018, orbit@home is offline according to its website, and the upgrade announcement has been removed. == See also == List of volunteer computing projects == References == == External links == Official website


id: people-s-science-movement-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People's_science_movement-0.md
category: reference
title: People's science movement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People's_science_movement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:17.316483+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: people-s-science-movement-20260505-0
summary:
The people's science movement (PSM) aims to popularise science and scientific outlook among common people. Kerala Sasthra Sahithya Parishad, Bharat Gyan Vigyan Samiti, Assam Science Society, Bigyan Prachar Samiti (Orissa), We the Sapiens and the All India Peoples Science Network are some popular people's science movements in India. == People's science movements in India == Bangiya Bijnan Parishad (1948) Kerala Sasthra Sahithya Parishad (1962) Pondicherry Science Forum (1985) Bharat Gyan Vigyan Samiti Tamil Nadu Science Forum (1980) Jan Vignana Vedika Delhi Science Forum (1978) Assam Science Society (1956) Tripura Science Forum Bigyan Prachar Samiti, Odisha Bharat Gyan Vigyan Samiti Uttar Pradesh Bharat Gyan Vigyan Samiti Haryana Bharat Gyan Vigyan Samiti Utharkhand We, the Sapiens All India Peoples Science Network (1988) == References == "Secularism and People's Science Movement in India" and "Towards a People's Science Movement" from Economic and Political Weekly "People's Science Movement" from Science, technology, imperialism, and war "The People's Science Movements" from Knowing Nature "Science for social change"


id: physics-outreach-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach-0.md
category: reference
title: Physics outreach
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:18.526421+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physics-outreach-20260505-0
summary:
Physics outreach encompasses facets of science outreach and physics education, and a variety of activities by schools, research institutes, universities, clubs and institutions such as science museums aimed at broadening the audience for and awareness and understanding of physics, including through trust-building with non-expert audiences. While the general public may sometimes be the focus of such activities, physics outreach often centers on developing and providing resources and making presentations to students, educators in other disciplines, and in some cases researchers within different areas of physics. == History == Ongoing efforts to expand the understanding of physics to a wider audience have been undertaken by individuals and institutions since the early 19th century. Historic works, such as the Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, and Two New Sciences by Galileo Galilei, sought to present revolutionary knowledge in astronomy, frames of reference, and kinematics in a manner that a general audience could understand with great effect. In the mid-1800s, English physicist and chemist, Michael Faraday gave a series of nineteen lectures aimed towards young adults with the hopes of conveying scientific phenomena. His intentions were to raise awareness, inspire them and generate revenue of the Royal Institution. This series became known


id: physics-outreach-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach-1.md
category: reference
title: Physics outreach
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:18.526421+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physics-outreach-20260505-0
summary:
=== France === Cité des Sciences et de l'Industrie (Paris) is the largest French science museum, and contains permanent exhibits and hands-on experiments. Palais de la Découverte (Paris) contains permanent exhibits and interactive experiments with commentaries by lecturers. It includes a Zeiss planetarium with 15-metre dome. It was created in 1937 by the French Nobel Prize physicist Jean Baptiste Perrin. Musée des Arts et Métiers (Paris) focuses on the preservation of scientific instruments and inventions. Other science museums that are part of the Cultural Center of Science, Technology and Industry (CCSTI) exist all across France : Espace des Sciences (Rennes), La Casemate (Grenoble), the Cité de l'espace (Toulouse). === Germany === Deutsches Museum (Munich) is the world's largest science museum. One of the most popular events is the high voltage demonstration of a Faraday cage as part of their series on electric power. === Islamic Republic of Iran === Iran Science and Technology Museum (Tehran) is the largest science museum in Iran. This museum, by holding varied scientific and educational programs, provides the required situation for creation and propagation of scientific thought in the society. One of these programs is the "Physics Show". === Netherlands === NEMO (Amsterdam) is the


id: physics-outreach-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach-2.md
category: reference
title: Physics outreach
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:18.526421+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physics-outreach-20260505-0
summary:
=== Internet === MinutePhysics is a series of educational videos created by Henry Reich and disseminated through its YouTube channel. It displays a series of pedagogical short videos about various physics phenomena and theories. Physics World publication, run by the Institute of Physics, started explaining scientific concepts through its YouTube channel. Palais de la Découverte in Paris hosts online videos that display various interviews about science, including physics. Unisciel, a French online university, hosts educational videos through its YouTube channel. Veritasium is a series of educational videos created by Derek Muller and disseminated through its YouTube channel. It displays a series of pedagogical short videos about science, including physics. Saint Mary's Physics Demonstrations is an online repository for physics classroom demonstrations. It shows teachers the experiments they can do in class while also hosting videos of said experiments. Periodic Videos is a portal of educational videos explaining the characteristics of each element and supporting topics such as nuclear reactions. The project is sponsored by the University of Nottingham and hosted by Prof. Sir Martyn Poliakoff. == Prominent individuals == === Austria === Fritjof Capra is an Austrian-born American physicist, who attended the University of Vienna, where he earned his Ph.D.


id: physics-outreach-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach-3.md
category: reference
title: Physics outreach
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_outreach
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:18.526421+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physics-outreach-20260505-0
summary:
== Funding sources == American Physical Society awards grants up to $10,000 to help APS members develop new physics outreach activities. Institute for Complex Adaptive Matter (ICAM) provides grants and fellowships for physics outreach. Wellcome Trust, while mostly focused on biological sciences, the Wellcome Trust also touches on physics and encourages physics outreach. They aim to improve biology, chemistry, and physics A levels in the UK. Institute of Physics (IoP) The IoP aims to provide positive and compelling experiences of physics for public audiences through engaging and entertaining activities and events. The public engagement grant scheme is designed to give financial support of up to £1500 to individuals and organisations running physics-based events and activities in the UK and Ireland. == Awards == Kalinga Prize for the Popularization of Science is an award given by UNESCO for exceptional skill in presenting scientific ideas to lay people Klopsteg Memorial Award is presented by the American Association of Physics Teachers and given in memory of the physicist Paul E. Klopsteg Kelvin Prize is awarded by the Institute of Physics to acknowledge outstanding contributions to the public understanding of physics. The Michael Faraday Prize for communicating science to a UK audience is awarded


id: poem-home-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POEM@Home-0.md
category: reference
title: POEM@Home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POEM@Home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:19.840258+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: poem-home-20260505-0
summary:
POEM@Home was a volunteer computing project hosted by the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology and running on the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) software platform. It modeled protein folding using Anfinsen's dogma. POEM@Home was started in 2007 and, due to advances using GPUs that rendered the BOINC program redundant, concluded in October 2016. The POEM@home applications were proprietary. == Scientific objectives == The project studied how protein structure determined protein function, predict a protein's structure from its amino acid sequence, investigated how proteins interact with each other, and understand how malfunctioning proteins can cause functional disorders. The resulting knowledge could then be used in the development of medical treatments. == See also == List of volunteer computing projects == References == == External links == POEM@Home website Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC)


id: policy-advocacy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Policy_advocacy-0.md
category: reference
title: Policy advocacy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Policy_advocacy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:21.048992+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: policy-advocacy-20260505-0
summary:
Policy advocacy is defined as active, covert, or inadvertent support of a particular policy or class of policies. Advocacy can include a variety of activities including, lobbying, litigation, public education, and capacity building (the forming relationships with parties of interest). Advocating for policy can take place from a local level to a state or federal government. For example, a local advocacy group in Brunswick, Georgia, Defenders of Wildlife, advocated for the passage of the H.R. 5552 Migratory Bird Protection Act during 2020 when rollbacks to the bill were introduced from the Trump Administration. At the state level, advocacy for policy can be a joint effort between advocacy groups. In the United States, advocacy groups around the nation planned joint efforts to get the Uniform Partition of Heirs Property Act (UPHPA) signed into law in each of their respective states and in 2018, the bill was signed into law by Texas Governor Greg Abbott making it the tenth state to enforce this law. == Scientists as policy advocates == One controversial area of advocacy is when scientists shift out of the role of scientist and into the role of policy advocate. Scientists, engineers, and other technical experts sometimes also act as


id: polish-transhumanist-association-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Transhumanist_Association-0.md
category: reference
title: Polish Transhumanist Association
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Transhumanist_Association
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:22.328419+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: polish-transhumanist-association-20260505-0
summary:
Polish Transhumanist Association (Polskie Stowarzyszenie Transhumanistyczne, PSTH) is a Warsaw-based nonprofit organization established in 2017 that promotes research and public discussion on human enhancement and the ethical, social, and technological implications of emerging technologies. Its activities include organizing interdisciplinary conferences, lectures, and workshops in collaboration with academic and cultural institutions across Poland. == History == PSTH was founded in 2017 by a group of scientists, entrepreneurs, medical professionals, programmers, and technology enthusiasts. From its inception, the association has aimed to foster critical reflection on the future of humanity by convening experts from diverse fields to debate topics such as biohacking, artificial intelligence, and cybernetic augmentation. == Activities == Academic conferences: Academic conferences: Since 2017, PSTH has organized the annual national scientific conference “Transhumanizm: Idee, Strategie, Wątpliwości.” The first edition took place on December 9, 2017, at the Institute of Philosophy, University of Warsaw, featuring 15 speakers across six thematic panels. The fourth edition was held in 2022 at the State Ethnographic Museum in Warsaw. In June 2019, PSTH also co-organized the conference “Ludzkie i nie-ludzkie oblicza transhumanizmu” (Human and Non-Human Faces of Transhumanism) at the Maria Curie-Skłodowska University in Lublin, alongside the Faculty of Philosophy and Sociology and the UMCS


id: positive-computing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_computing-0.md
category: reference
title: Positive computing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_computing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:24.802153+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: positive-computing-20260505-0
summary:
Positive computing is a technological design perspective that embraces psychological well-being and ethical practice, aiming at building a digital environment to support happier and healthier users. Positive computing develops approaches that incorporates psychology, education, neuroscience, and HCI with technological development, bridging technology with mental health. == Background == The design of a tool impacts the people who use it. Small design implications of technologies can have their effects amplified when used by many people. Technology researchers typically focus primarily on technical aspects, paying less attention to the ethical impact and ethical considerations of their products. However, researchers from other fields such as psychology and philosophy studied these matters extensively and provided a wealth of methodologies to assess users' well-being, with thousands of quality-of-life assessment methods and validating studies. Positive computing draws many ideas from positive psychology, a domain of psychology that focuses on societal well-being and improving quality of life. === Well-being in technology and technology research === The recognition of the impact of technology and inventions on people's lives has moved technology professionals to rethink the technology tools we use and seek a realignment of companies' goals to the social good. Exemplary of this disposition is the famous Google's


id: predictor-home-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predictor@home-0.md
category: reference
title: Predictor@home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predictor@home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:26.106129+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: predictor-home-20260505-0
summary:
Predictor@home was a volunteer computing project that used BOINC software to predict protein structure from protein sequence in the context of the 6th biannual CASP, or Critical Assessment of Techniques for Protein Structure Prediction. A major goal of the project was the testing and evaluating of new algorithms to predict both known and unknown protein structures. Predictor@home was complementary to Folding@home. Whereas the latter aims to study the dynamics of protein folding, Predictor@home aimed to specify what the final tertiary structure will be. Also, the two projects differ significantly in the infrastructure they use. The project used BOINC software, whereas Folding@home maintains its own software completely outside of BOINC. However, for a time, Predictor@home competed with other BOINC protein structure prediction projects, such as Rosetta@home. Each uses different methods of rapidly and reliably predicting the final tertiary structure. Predictor@home is currently inactive. == History == Predictor@home holds the distinction of being the first independent BOINC project to be launched. The project was set up and run by Michela Taufer at The Scripps Research Institute. On September 6, 2006, Predictor@home was temporarily taken off line, with no new work units being sent out. In May, 2008, the project reverted to Alpha


id: primegrid-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PrimeGrid-0.md
category: reference
title: PrimeGrid
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PrimeGrid
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:27.443629+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: primegrid-20260505-0
summary:
PrimeGrid is a volunteer computing project that searches for very large (up to world-record size) prime numbers whilst also aiming to solve long-standing mathematical conjectures. It uses the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) platform. PrimeGrid offers a number of subprojects for prime-number sieving and discovery. Some of these are available through the BOINC client, others through the PRPNet client. Some of the work is manual, i.e. it requires manually starting work units and uploading results. Different subprojects may run on different operating systems, and may have executables for CPUs, GPUs, or both; while running the Lucas–Lehmer–Riesel test, CPUs with Advanced Vector Extensions and Fused Multiply-Add instruction sets will yield the fastest results for non-GPU accelerated workloads. PrimeGrid awards badges to users in recognition of achieving certain defined levels of credit for work done. The badges have no intrinsic value but are valued by many as a sign of achievement. The issuing of badges should also benefit PrimeGrid by evening out the participation in the less popular sub projects. The easiest of the badges can often be obtained in less than a day by a single computer, whereas the most challenging badges will require far more time and computing


id: primegrid-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PrimeGrid-1.md
category: reference
title: PrimeGrid
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PrimeGrid
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:27.443629+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: primegrid-20260505-0
summary:
=== Riesel Problem === As of 13 December 2022, PrimeGrid has eliminated 18 values of k from the Riesel problem and is continuing the search to eliminate the 43 remaining numbers. 3 values of k are found by independent searchers. === Twin prime search === Primegrid worked with the Twin Prime Search to search for a record-sized twin prime at approximately 58,700 digits. The new world's largest known twin prime 2003663613 × 2195000 ± 1 was eventually discovered on January 15, 2007 (sieved by Twin Prime Search and tested by PrimeGrid). The search continued for another record twin prime at just above 100,000 digits. It was completed in August 2009 when PrimeGrid found 65516468355 × 2333333 ± 1. Continued testing for twin primes in conjunction with the search for a Sophie Germain prime yielded a new record twin prime in September 2016 upon finding the number 2996863034895 × 21290000 ± 1 composed of 388,342 digits. === Woodall prime search === As of 22 April 2018, the project has discovered the four largest Woodall primes known to date. The largest of these is 17016602 × 217016602 − 1 and was found on 21 March 2018. The search continues for an even


id: project-ceti-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_CETI-0.md
category: reference
title: Project CETI
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_CETI
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:32.420970+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: project-ceti-20260505-0
summary:
Project CETI is an international initiative to understand the acoustic communication of sperm whales using advances in artificial intelligence. The project has an interdisciplinary scientific board including marine biologists, artificial intelligence researchers, roboticists, theoretical computer scientists, and linguists. Its name, Cetacean Translation Initiative, is a reference to the SETI Institute. The project has a base on the island of Dominica where recordings are being collected. The organization has been selected as a TED Audacious Project. CETI researchers have identified 156 distinct codas and their basic components, a "sperm whale phonetic alphabet" much like phonemes. == See also == Whale sound Human–animal communication Animal cognition Animal communication Interspecies communication Communication with extraterrestrial intelligence == References ==


id: proteins-home-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteins@home-0.md
category: reference
title: Proteins@home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteins@home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:33.669272+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: proteins-home-20260505-0
summary:
proteins@home was a volunteer computing project that used the BOINC architecture. The project was run by the Department of Biology at École Polytechnique. The project began on December 28, 2006, and ended in June 2008. == Purpose == proteins@home was a large-scale non-profit protein structure prediction project utilizing volunteer computing to perform intensive computations in a small amount of time. From their website: The amino acid sequence of a protein determines its three-dimensional structure, or 'fold'. Conversely, the three-dimensional structure is compatible with a large, but limited set of amino acid sequences. Enumerating the allowed sequences for a given fold is known as the 'inverse protein folding problem'. We are working to solve this problem for a large number of known protein folds (a representative subset: about 1500 folds). The most expensive step is to build a database of energy functions that describe all these structures. For each structure, we consider all possible sequences of amino acids. Surprisingly, this is computationally tractable, because our energy functions are sums over pairs of interactions. Once this is done, we can explore the space of amino acid sequences in a fast and efficient way, and retain the most favorable sequences. This large-scale mapping


id: public-awareness-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Public awareness of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:34.929290+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: public-awareness-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Public awareness of science (PAS) is a comprehensive concept encompassing all aspects of the awareness, attitudes, behaviors, opinions, and activities that comprise the relations between the general public or lay society as a whole and scientific knowledge and organization. This concept is also known as public understanding of science (PUS), or more recently, public engagement with science and technology (PEST). This approach is a recent development in the field of science communication research, which aims to explore the intricate relationships and interconnections between science, technology, and innovation on the one hand, and the general public on the other. Initially, research in this domain concentrated on enhancing the public's understanding of scientific subjects, adhering to the principles of the information deficit model of science communication. However, this model has since been largely disregarded by researchers in the field of science communication. Instead, there is an increasing emphasis on understanding how the public chooses to use scientific knowledge and on the development of interfaces to mediate between expert and lay understandings of an issue. Newer frameworks of communicating science include the dialogue and the participation models. The dialogue model aims to create spaces for conversations between scientists and non-scientists to occur while


id: public-awareness-of-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Public awareness of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:34.929290+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: public-awareness-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Civic science model === Some scholars have identified a new era of "post-normal science" (PNS) in which many scientific discoveries carry high stakes if risks are estimated incorrectly within a broader social context that has a high degree of uncertainty. This PNS era requires a new approach to public engagement efforts and requires a reevaluation of the underlying assumptions of "public engagement", especially with emerging science and technology issues, like CRISPR gene editing, that have the potential to become "wicked problems". These "wicked" issues often require regulatory and policy decisions that have no single correct solution and often involve numerous interest groups – none of whom are clearly positioned to decide and resolve the problem. Policy and regulatory decisions around these scientific issues are inherently political and must balance trade-offs between the scientific research, perceptions of risk, societal needs, and ethical values. While scientists can provide factual answers to research questions and mathematical estimates of risk, many considerations surrounding these wicked science and technology issues have no factual answer. The unidirectional deficit model of simply educating the public on theses issues is insufficient to address these complex questions, and some scholars have proposed scientists adopt a culture of civic


id: public-awareness-of-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Public awareness of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_awareness_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:34.929290+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: public-awareness-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Project example == Government and private-led campaigns and events, such as Dana Foundation's "Brain Awareness Week", are becoming a strong focus of programmes which try to promote public awareness of science. The UK PAWS Foundation dramatically went as far as establishing a Drama Fund with the BBC in 1994. The purpose was to encourage and support the creation of new drama for television, drawing on the world of science and technology. The Vega Science Trust was set up in 1994 to promote science through the media of television and the internet with the aim of giving scientists a platform from which to communicate to the general public. The Simonyi Professorship for the Public Understanding of Science chair at The University of Oxford was established in 1995 for the ethologist Richard Dawkins by an endowment from Charles Simonyi. Mathematician Marcus du Sautoy has held the chair since Dawkins' retirement in 2008. Similar professorships have since been created at other British universities. Professorships in the field have been held by well-known academics including Richard Fortey and Kathy Sykes at the University of Bristol, Brian Cox at Manchester University, Tanya Byron at Edge Hill University, Jim Al-Khalili at the University of Surrey,


id: public-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Public science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:36.202839+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: public-science-20260505-0
summary:
Public science is research that is conducted amongst, or includes, the public. Two traditions of public science have emerged, one based on participatory action research and another based on science outreach. == Participatory action research == The participatory action research approach seeks to develop a critical framework for making systematic inquiry and analysis a public enterprise. It is committed to valuing knowledges that have been historically marginalized and delegitimized (i.e., youth, prisoner, immigrant, farmer) alongside traditionally recognized knowledges (i.e., scholarly). Through the formation of research collectives, it aims to share the various knowledges and resources held by its individual members so members can participate as equally as possible. The choice of appropriate research questions, design, methods and analysis as well as useful research products are decided collectively. Institutions for this form of public science include the Public Science Project. Examples of public science projects in the participatory action research tradition include the Morris Justice Project. == Science outreach == The science outreach approach has some similarities to citizen science but typically describes projects that are conducted outdoors or in another type of public or accessible space such as a public park, metro stop, library, university campus, etc. Similar to public


id: qmc-home-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QMC@Home-0.md
category: reference
title: QMC@Home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QMC@Home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:37.509276+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qmc-home-20260505-0
summary:
QMC@Home was a volunteer computing project for the BOINC client aimed at further developing and testing Quantum Monte Carlo (QMC) for use in quantum chemistry. It is hosted by the University of Münster with participation by the Cavendish Laboratory. QMC@Home allows volunteers from around the world to donate idle computer cycles to help calculate molecular geometry using Diffusion Monte Carlo. The project is developing a new application using density functional theory. The project began its Beta testing on 23 May 2006. As of February 2010, QMC@Home has about 7,500 active participants from 102 countries, contributing about 5 teraFLOPS of computation power. == Workunits == In order to get results from home computers the work is split into "workunits". The time it takes to complete a workunit depends on the size of the calculated system and the speed of the user's computer. The target time is between 4 and 48 hours on a 2.4 GHz system. This is a list of molecules recently tested: 1a Ammonia; 1 Ammonia dimer; 2a Water; 2 Water dimer; 3a Formic acid; 3 Formic acid dimer; 4a Formamide; 4 Formamide dimer; 5a Uracil; 5 Uracil dimer; 6a 2-pyridoxine; 6b 2-aminopyridine; 6 2-pyridoxine/2-aminopyridine; 7a Adenine; 7b Thymine;


id: quake-catcher-network-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quake-Catcher_Network-0.md
category: reference
title: Quake-Catcher Network
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quake-Catcher_Network
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:38.883933+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: quake-catcher-network-20260505-0
summary:
The Quake-Catcher Network was an initiative run by the University of Southern California that aimed to use computer-based accelerometers to detect earthquakes. It used the BOINC volunteer computing platform (a form of distributed computing, similar to SETI@home). It supported mobile devices (smartphones and some tablets/laptops) that have a built-in accelerometer. It also supported three external USB devices - the codemercs.com JoyWarrior 24F8, the ONavi sensor, and the MotionNode Accel. In 2011, project scientist Elizabeth Cochran was awarded a Presidential Early Career Award from US President Barack Obama in large part due to her founding of the Quake-Catcher Network project. The Quake Catcher Network project started at Stanford University in 2008, then moved to Caltech, and joined the Southern California Earthquake Center (SCEC) and the Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology (IRIS) in 2016. The Quake-Catcher Network was discontinued on June 1st 2023 == References == == External links == Interactive world map, showing recent earthquakes (day/week/month) Archived 2018-01-07 at the Wayback Machine – result of QCN


id: list-of-research-funders-by-preprint-licensing-policy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_research_funders_by_preprint_licensing_policy-0.md
category: reference
title: List of research funders by preprint licensing policy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_research_funders_by_preprint_licensing_policy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:40.167202+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-research-funders-by-preprint-licensing-policy-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of funders of research by their open licensing policies for preprints. With the exception of some government employees and contractors, the majority of authors keep the copyright to their work. Many funders require their grantees to disseminate the work using licenses with specific reuse rights. Other details of funder open access policies can be found at the Registry of Open Access Repositories and the Open Policy Finder from JISC (formerly SHERPA). == Policies by funder == == Exceptions for government employees and contractors == In some countries, work performed by government employees or contractors is owned by the government and subject to their licensing stipulations. For example, in the US, work performed by government employees, such as employees of the NIH is deemed Public Domain in the US, and the US government holds copyright elsewhere. Government licensing policies may override funder requirements. == See also == List of academic publishers by preprint policy == References ==


id: rosetta-home-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home-0.md
category: reference
title: Rosetta@home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:41.390646+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rosetta-home-20260505-0
summary:
Rosetta@home is a volunteer computing project researching protein structure prediction on the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) platform, run by the Baker lab. Rosetta@home aims to predict protein–protein docking and design new proteins with the help of about fifty-five thousand active volunteered computers processing at over 487,946 gigaFLOPS on average as of September 19, 2020. Foldit, a Rosetta@home videogame, aims to reach these goals with a crowdsourcing approach. Though much of the project is oriented toward basic research to improve the accuracy and robustness of proteomics methods, Rosetta@home also does applied research on malaria, Alzheimer's disease, and other pathologies. Like all BOINC projects, Rosetta@home uses idle computer processing resources from volunteers' computers to perform calculations on individual workunits. Completed results are sent to a central project server where they are validated and assimilated into project databases. The project is cross-platform, and runs on a wide variety of hardware configurations. Users can view the progress of their individual protein structure prediction on the Rosetta@home screensaver. In addition to disease-related research, the Rosetta@home network serves as a testing framework for new methods in structural bioinformatics. Such methods are then used in other Rosetta-based applications, like RosettaDock or the Human Proteome


id: rosetta-home-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home-1.md
category: reference
title: Rosetta@home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:41.390646+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rosetta-home-20260505-0
summary:
A primary feature of the Rosetta@home graphical user interface (GUI) is a screensaver which shows a current workunit's progress during the simulated protein folding process. In the upper-left of the current screensaver, the target protein is shown adopting different shapes (conformations) in its search for the lowest energy structure. Depicted immediately to the right is the structure of the most recently accepted. On the upper right the lowest energy conformation of the current decoy is shown; below that is the true, or native, structure of the protein if it has already been determined. Three graphs are included in the screensaver. Near the middle, a graph for the accepted model's thermodynamic free energy is displayed, which fluctuates as the accepted model changes. A graph of the accepted model's root-mean-square deviation (RMSD), which measures how structurally similar the accepted model is to the native model, is shown far right. On the right of the accepted energy graph and below the RMSD graph, the results from these two functions are used to produce an energy vs. RMSD plot as the model is progressively refined. Like all BOINC projects, Rosetta@home runs in the background of the user's computer, using idle computer power, either at


id: rosetta-home-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home-2.md
category: reference
title: Rosetta@home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:41.390646+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rosetta-home-20260505-0
summary:
== Disease-related research == In addition to basic research in predicting protein structure, docking and design, Rosetta@home is also used in immediate disease-related research. Numerous minor research projects are described in David Baker's Rosetta@home journal. As of February 2014, information on recent publications and a short description of the work are being updated on the forum. The forum thread is no longer used since 2016, and news on the research can be found on the general news section of the project. === Alzheimer's disease === A component of the Rosetta software suite, RosettaDesign, was used to accurately predict which regions of amyloidogenic proteins were most likely to make amyloid-like fibrils. By taking hexapeptides (six amino acid-long fragments) of a protein of interest and selecting the lowest energy match to a structure similar to that of a known fibril forming hexapeptide, RosettaDesign was able to identify peptides twice as likely to form fibrils as are random proteins. Rosetta@home was used in the same study to predict structures for amyloid beta, a fibril-forming protein that has been postulated to cause Alzheimer's disease. Preliminary but as yet unpublished results have been produced on Rosetta-designed proteins that may prevent fibrils from forming, although it


id: rosetta-home-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home-3.md
category: reference
title: Rosetta@home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:41.390646+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rosetta-home-20260505-0
summary:
== Rosetta software == Rosetta is the software responsible for performing structure prediction in Rosetta@home. Besides a BOINC cluster, Rosetta can run on a single local computer, or on a local supercomputer. Similar to other bioinformatic programs, there are online public servers offering to run Rosetta from a web interface. The software is freely licensed to the academic community and available to pharmaceutical companies for a fee. Originally introduced by the Baker laboratory at the University of Washington in 1998 as an ab initio approach to structure prediction, Rosetta has since branched into several development streams and distinct services, providing features such as macromolecular docking and protein design. Many of the graduate students and other researchers involved in Rosetta's initial development have since moved to other universities and research institutions, and subsequently enhanced different parts of the Rosetta project. The Rosetta platform derives its name from the Rosetta Stone, as it attempts to decipher the structural "meaning" of proteins' amino acid sequences. Development of the Rosetta code is done by Rosetta Commons. Rosetta participates in CASP and CAPRI. Rosetta was rewritten in C++ to allow easier development than that allowed by its original version, which was written in Fortran. This


id: rosetta-home-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home-4.md
category: reference
title: Rosetta@home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:41.390646+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rosetta-home-20260505-0
summary:
=== Robetta === The Robetta (Rosetta Beta) server is an automated protein structure prediction service offered by the Baker laboratory for non-commercial ab initio and comparative modeling. It has participated as an automated prediction server in the biannual CASP experiments since CASP5 in 2002, performing among the best in the automated server prediction category. Robetta has since competed in CASP6 and 7, where it did better than average among both automated server and human predictor groups. It also participates in the CAMEO3D continuous evaluation. Robetta tasks run on Baker lab servers, Janelia Research Campus machines, and Rosetta@home participant computers. In modeling protein structure as of CASP6, Robetta first searches for structural homologs using BLAST, PSI-BLAST, and 3D-Jury, then parses the target sequence into its individual domains, or independently folding units of proteins, by matching the sequence to structural families in the Pfam database. Domains with structural homologs then follow a "template-based model" (i.e., homology modeling) protocol. Here, the Baker laboratory's in-house alignment program, K*sync, produces a group of sequence homologs, and each of these is modeled by the Rosetta de novo method to produce a decoy (possible structure). The final structure prediction is selected by taking the lowest energy model


id: rosetta-home-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home-5.md
category: reference
title: Rosetta@home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta@home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:41.390646+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rosetta-home-20260505-0
summary:
== Volunteer contributions == Rosetta@home depends on computing power donated by individual project members for its research. As of March 28, 2020, about 53,000 users from 150 countries were active members of Rosetta@home, together contributing idle processor time from about 54,800 computers for a combined average performance of over 1.7 PetaFLOPS. Users are granted BOINC credits as a measure of their contribution. The credit granted for each workunit is the number of decoys produced for that workunit multiplied by the average claimed credit for the decoys submitted by all computer hosts for that workunit. This custom system was designed to address significant differences between credit granted to users with the standard BOINC client and an optimized BOINC client, and credit differences between users running Rosetta@home on Windows and Linux operating systems. The amount of credit granted per second of CPU work is lower for Rosetta@home than most other BOINC projects. Rosetta@home is thirteenth out of over 40 BOINC projects in terms of total credit. Rosetta@home users who predict protein structures submitted for the CASP experiment are acknowledged in scientific publications regarding their results. Users who predict the lowest energy structure for a given workunit are featured on the Rosetta@home homepage


id: science-by-press-conference-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_by_press_conference-0.md
category: reference
title: Science by press conference
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_by_press_conference
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:42.668788+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-by-press-conference-20260505-0
summary:
Science by press conference or science by press release is the practice by which scientists put an unusual focus on publicizing results of research in the news media via press conferences or press releases. The term is usually used disparagingly, to suggest that the seekers of publicity are promoting claims of questionable scientific merit, using the media for attention as they are unlikely to win the approval of the scientific community. Premature publicity violates a cultural value of most of the scientific community, which is that findings should be subjected to independent review with a "thorough examination by the scientific community" before they are widely publicized. The standard practice is to publish a paper in a peer-reviewed scientific journal. This idea has many merits, including that the scientific community has a responsibility to conduct itself in a deliberative, non-attention seeking way; and that its members should be oriented more towards the pursuit of insight than fame. Science by press conference in its most egregious forms can be undertaken on behalf of an individual researcher seeking fame, a corporation seeking to sway public opinion or investor perception, or a political or ideological movement. == Etymology == The phrase was coined by


id: science-by-press-conference-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_by_press_conference-1.md
category: reference
title: Science by press conference
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_by_press_conference
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:42.668788+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-by-press-conference-20260505-0
summary:
== Responsibility == While the phrase tends to criticize scientists involved in creating the publicity, it has also been used to assert that the media bear responsibility in many instances. Even well-intentioned scientists can sometimes unintentionally create truth-distorting media firestorms because of journalists' difficulty in remaining critical and balanced, the media's interest in controversy, and the general tendency of science reporting to focus on apparent "groundbreaking findings" rather than on the larger context of a research field. Further, when results are released with great fanfare and limited peer review, basic journalism skills require skepticism and further investigation, the frequent lack of which can be seen as a problem with the media as much as with scientists who seek to exploit their power. Common examples of science by press conference are media reports that a certain product or activity affects health or safety. For instance, the media frequently report findings that a certain food causes or prevents a disease. These reports sometimes contradict earlier reports. In some cases, it is later learned that a group interested in influencing opinion had a hand in publicizing a specific report. The phrase also condemns different behavior in different fields. For instance, scientists working in


id: science-in-action-radio-programme-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_Action_(radio_programme)-0.md
category: reference
title: Science in Action (radio programme)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_Action_(radio_programme)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:43.943544+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-in-action-radio-programme-20260505-0
summary:
Science in Action was a long-running weekly radio programme produced by the BBC World Service and hosted by British journalists Roland Pease, Marnie Chesterton, and scientist and broadcaster Professor Adam Hart. It was broadcast on Thursdays at 18.32 GMT and repeated twice the following day, at 01.32 and 08.32. A programme with the title Science in Action is believed to have begun life in 1964, when it replaced an earlier series, dating from the 1950s, called Science and Industry. From September 1965 a short-lived series called Science in Action ran on the Home Service; it was broadcast at 19.30 on Thursdays, later 21.30. In December 1965 it was moved to 14.30 on Fridays. The present weekly World Service series, also called Science in Action, began on Saturday 7 July 1979. The last broadcast was on 30 October 2025, as part of a cut of £6 million from the World Service and loss of 130 jobs. The programme was replaced with BBC Radio 4's programme, Inside Science, which took over the former slots of Science in Action. == See also == Inside Science, radio programme on BBC Radio Four == References == == External links == Science in Action at BBC


id: science-in-newly-industrialized-countries-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_newly_industrialized_countries-0.md
category: reference
title: Science in newly industrialized countries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_newly_industrialized_countries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:48.936410+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-in-newly-industrialized-countries-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific research is concentrated in the developed world, with only a marginal contribution from the rest of the world. Many newly industrialized countries have been trying to establish scientific institutions, but with limited success. There is an insufficient dedicated, inspired and motivated labor pool for science and insufficient investment in science education. == The limited success of Newly Industrialized Countries == The reason that there have been so few scientists, who have made their mark globally, from most NIC's (Newly Industrialized Countries) is partly historical and partly social A true scientist is nurtured from the school upwards to scientific establishments. Only if there are inspired and dedicated school science teachers in abundance, there will be a sufficient number of inspired students who would like to take science as a career option and who may one day become a successful scientist. == The common thread == A common thread can indeed be discerned in the state of science in many NICs. Thus although, most of the science establishments in the major NICs can be said to be doing fairly well, none of them have been as successful as the developed countries. After the Second World War, a small technical elite arose


id: science-in-newly-industrialized-countries-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_newly_industrialized_countries-1.md
category: reference
title: Science in newly industrialized countries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_newly_industrialized_countries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:48.936410+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-in-newly-industrialized-countries-20260505-0
summary:
China was a world leader in science and technology until the early years of the Ming dynasty. Chinese discoveries and Chinese innovations such as papermaking, printing, the compass, and gunpowder (the Four Great Inventions) contributed to the economic development in East Asia, the Middle East and Europe. A question that has been intriguing many historians studying China is the fact that China did not develop a scientific revolution and Chinese technology fell behind that of Europe. Many hypotheses have been proposed ranging from the cultural to the political and economic. has argued that China indeed had a scientific revolution in the 17th century and that we are still far from understanding the scientific revolutions of the West and China in all their political, economic and social ramifications. Some like John K. Fairbank are of the opinion that the Chinese political system was hostile to scientific progress. Needham argued, and most scholars agreed, that cultural factors prevented these Chinese achievements from developing into what could be called "science". It was the religious and philosophical framework of the Chinese intellectuals which made them unable to believe in the ideas of laws of nature. More recent historians have questioned political and cultural explanations


id: science-in-newly-industrialized-countries-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_newly_industrialized_countries-2.md
category: reference
title: Science in newly industrialized countries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_newly_industrialized_countries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:48.936410+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-in-newly-industrialized-countries-20260505-0
summary:
The earliest applications of science in India took place in the context of medicine, metallurgy, construction technology (such as ship building, manufacture of cement and paints) and in textile production and dyeing. But in the process of understanding chemical processes, led to some theories about physical processes and the forces of nature that are today studied as specific topics within the fields of chemistry and physics. Many mathematical concepts today were contributed by Indian mathematicians like Aryabhata. There was really no place for scientists in the Indian caste system. Thus while there were/are castes for the learned brahmins, the warriors kshatriyas, the traders vaishyas and the menial workers shudras, maybe even the bureaucrats (the kayasths) there was/is hardly any formal place in the social hierarchy for a people who discover new knowledge or invent new devices based on the recently discovered knowledge, even though scientific temper has always been in India, in the form of logic, reasoning and method of acquiring knowledge. Its therefore no wonder that some Indians quickly learned to value science, especially those belonging to the privileged Brahmin caste during the British colonial rule that lasted over two centuries. Some Indians did succeed to achieve notable success


id: science-media-centre-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Media_Centre-0.md
category: reference
title: Science Media Centre
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Media_Centre
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:50.164225+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-media-centre-20260505-0
summary:
The Science Media Centre is a charitable company, first formed in 2002, two years after the United Kingdom House of Lords select committee on Science and Technology's third report on "Science and Society" in 2000. This report stated that while science was generally reported accurately in the mass media, there was a need for the promotion of more expert information at times when science is under attack in the headlines, mentioning the public reaction to GM crops, in particular. The Science Media Centre's purpose is to connect journalists with reliable and up-to-date sources of scientific information. It has also been criticised for bias and undeclared conflicts of interest. == Functions == In order to promote more informed science in the media, the centre's main function is as a service to journalists, providing background briefings on current scientific issues and facilitating interviews with scientists. Comments are also sourced from scientists about breaking news stories, to provide an independent expert commentary on the news, so that press releases have some peer review. Independence means from the breaking news story, and scientists commenting are asked to declare any competing interests they have with their comment. Its director is Fiona Fox who is a


id: science-media-centre-of-canada-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Media_Centre_of_Canada-0.md
category: reference
title: Science Media Centre of Canada
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Media_Centre_of_Canada
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:51.570458+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-media-centre-of-canada-20260505-0
summary:
The Science Media Centre of Canada (SMCC) is a non-profit organization that was formally opened on September 27, 2010. It has virtual offices. The purpose of the Centre is to serve journalists with accurate information on scientific matters. The Centre has a Research Advisory Panel of 20 Canadian scientists who will make their expertise available in a simple and understandable manner. In order to secure objectivity, the Centre has an Editorial Advisory Committee of eight journalists. The Centre is bilingual. == Goal == The ultimate goal of SMCC is an "increased public engagement with science issues through media coverage of science that is more informed, more accurate and more incisive." == Other SMCs == Science Media Centres exist in other countries; UK, Australia, New Zealand, Germany and Japan. The Science Media Centre of Canada is independent with respect to the other centres. == External links == Science Media Centre of Canada


id: the-science-network-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Science_Network-0.md
category: reference
title: The Science Network
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Science_Network
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:52.798741+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-science-network-20260505-0
summary:
The Science Network (TSN) was a non-profit virtual forum dedicated to science and its impact on society. It was initially conceived in 2003 by Roger Bingham and Terry Sejnowski as a cable science TV network modeled on C-SPAN. TSN later became a global digital platform hosting videos of lectures from scientific meetings and long form one-on-one conversations with prominent scientists and communicators of science, including Neil deGrasse Tyson, V.S. Ramachandran, Helen S. Mayberg, and Barbara Landau. TSN has also sponsored and co-sponsored scientific forums, such as Stem cells: science, ethics and politics at the crossroads, held at the Salk Institute in 2004 and the Beyond Belief conference series. == Beyond Belief conference series == TSN's signature series Beyond Belief was conceived to bring together a community of scientists, philosophers, scholars from the humanities, and social commentators. Speakers at these meetings have included Steven Weinberg, Richard Dawkins, Sam Harris, Harry Kroto, Neil deGrasse Tyson, and Stuart Kauffman. So far, the following three Beyond Belief conferences were organized: === 2006: Science, Religion, Reason and Survival === Beyond Belief: Science, Religion, Reason and Survival, the first of The Science Network's annual Beyond Belief symposia, held from November 5 to November 7, 2006, was


id: science-on-tap-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_on_Tap-0.md
category: reference
title: Science on Tap
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_on_Tap
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:53.990303+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-on-tap-20260505-0
summary:
Science on Tap is the social-cultural initiative of Yivsam Azgad, head of the Media Department and art curator of the Weizmann Institute of Science in Rehovot, Israel. The project began in 2010, under the title "Beer, Science, and Fun", as a gesture to the city of Rehovot on its 120th anniversary. In this framework, some 35 scientists and graduate students went to bars and pubs in Rehovot to talk with the patrons about open questions in science and the newest advances on the forefront of global science. On the same night, research students went to the city center and led a “science comics” session for children in which they created their own science comics, inspired by the Nano Comics series put out by the Weizmann Institute of Science and edited by Yivsam Azgad. This initiative was highly successful and was covered by the media in Israel and the world. The scientists, artists, and politicians posed a challenge to the organizers: To reproduce this success in Tel Aviv. In response to the challenge, Azgad decided, with the support of the Weizmann Institute of Science president, Prof. Daniel Zajfman, to organize the event in Tel Aviv under a new name: Science on


id: science-outreach-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_outreach-0.md
category: reference
title: Science outreach
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_outreach
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:25:55.241201+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-outreach-20260505-0
summary:
Science outreach, also called education and public outreach (EPO or E/PO) or simply public outreach, is an umbrella term for a variety of activities by research institutes, universities, and institutions such as science museums, aimed at promoting public awareness (and understanding) of science, including trust-building, and making informal contributions to science education. == Scope and history == While there have always been individual scientists interested in educating the public, science outreach has recently become more organized. For example, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) now requires all of its projects to organize suitable outreach activities. Also working to inform the public are organizations such as Communicating Astronomy to the Public and the Washington Declaration on Communicating Astronomy to the Public that organize conferences for the public on science issues and make efforts to put outreach on a more general institutional footing. Recently, an increasing number of projects have hired designated outreach scientists (part-time or full-time) that handle public relations for their project. There are also specialized outreach providers such as the Education branch of the Space Science Institute in Boulder, Colorado and the Education and Public Outreach Group at Sonoma State University which offer to organize a project's outreach


id: science-party-australia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Party_(Australia)-0.md
category: reference
title: Science Party (Australia)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Party_(Australia)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:01.536285+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-party-australia-20260505-0
summary:
The Science Party, formerly known as Future Party, is an Australian political party that was established on 2 July 2013. The founding leader, James Jansson, was studying for his doctorate at the Kirby Institute during the party's formation, with a focus on advancing Australian society through technical and long-term solutions. On 22 March 2016, the name was changed to The Science Party after registering with the Australian Electoral Commission. The Science Party has run candidates for the 2013, 2016 and 2019 federal elections, as well as several by-elections in between. The party was de-registered on 12 January 2022 by the Australian Electoral Commission for failing to meet the increased registration requirement of 1,500 members. It later merged with other parties to become the Fusion Party. == Political philosophy == The Science Party believes that technological development is a positive force in human affairs and values the cultural, economic and technological benefits of modernism. It believes in freedom of expression and has a positive view of the power of free markets and the benefits of high density cities. The party seeks to promote high quality science research and education. === Policies === Science Party policies include the following: Opposition to unnecessary


id: science-theatre-michigan-state-university-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Theatre_(Michigan_State_University)-0.md
category: reference
title: Science Theatre (Michigan State University)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Theatre_(Michigan_State_University)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:02.865375+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-theatre-michigan-state-university-20260505-0
summary:
Science Theatre is an undergraduate student-run science outreach organization at Michigan State University's East Lansing campus, performing science theatre. Science Theatre visits schools and events throughout Michigan performing interactive science demonstrations for K-12 students on-stage or up-close. Science Theatre performers are undergraduate and graduate student volunteers and all performances are made free of charge. The group's performances consist of arrangements from its catalog of more than seventy demonstrations in biology, chemistry, and physics. Additionally, Science Theatre performs comprehensive shows in Astronomy, Environmental science, Pressure, the Periodic Table, Quantum Mechanics, and FRIB-related science. Science Theatre was founded in April 1991 under a grant from the National Science Foundation and received the 1993 AAAS Award for Public Understanding of Science and Technology. Science Theatre is a four-time winner of the Outreach Award from the Michigan State University Department of Physics and Astronomy. == References == MSU Science Theatre Official Webpage 1993 AAAS Award for Public Understanding of Science and Technology 2 February 2009 State News coverage 10 March 2009 Fox TV coverage 11 March 2009 Daily Press (Michigan) coverage 10 June 2009 Capital Gains Coverage


id: science-week-ireland-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Week_Ireland-0.md
category: reference
title: Science Week Ireland
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Week_Ireland
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:04.093409+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-week-ireland-20260505-0
summary:
Science Week Ireland is an annual week-long event in Ireland each November, celebrating science in our everyday lives. Science Week is an initiative of Science Foundation Ireland (SFI) It is the largest science festival in the country, engaging tens of thousands of members of the general public in workshops, science shows, talks, laboratory demonstrations, science walks and other science-related events. Science Week is a collaboration of events involving industry, colleges, schools, libraries, teachers, researchers and students throughout Ireland. Science Week supports Science Foundation Ireland’s mission to catalyse, inspire and guide the best in science, technology, engineering and maths (STEM) education and public engagement. The ultimate aim of this effort is that Ireland will have the most engaged and scientifically informed public by 2020 as outlined in Science Foundation Ireland’s strategy Agenda 2020. This also aligns to the national science innovation strategy, Innovation 2020. == History == Over the years, Science Week Ireland has grown from a small pilot initiative to a large promotional and event engine to its current identity as a recognised vehicle for regional activity supported by a national promotional campaign. In 1995, a National Science week was organised by the Royal Dublin Society and a number of


id: science-week-ireland-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Week_Ireland-1.md
category: reference
title: Science Week Ireland
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Week_Ireland
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:04.093409+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-week-ireland-20260505-0
summary:
=== 2015 === 2015 marked the 20th anniversary of Science Week, which took place from 8–15 November. The theme was ‘Science Week 2.0 Design Your Future’. It celebrated how science empowers ‘you’ to ‘Design Your Future’. Numerous events were held in every county, and regional festivals took place in Mayo, Sligo, Galway, Waterford, Cork, Limerick and the midlands. === 2016 === Science Week 2016 took place from 13–20 November. The theme was ‘Science Rising’ which looks at how science is key to our success – it is part of our past, an important part of our present and there is endless potential still to be realised. Science Week 2016 reached more people, all over Ireland, across a wider demographic than had been achieved before. Science Week 2016 saw 10 Regional Festivals across the country. === 2017 === Science Week 2017 ran nationwide from 12–19 November 2017. The theme was ‘Believe in Science’. More than 1180 events took place across Ireland. 12 regional science festivals took place in Cavan/Monaghan, Cork, Carlow, Festival of Farming and Food (Teagasc), Galway, Kerry, Limerick, Mayo, the Midlands, Sligo, Southeast and Tipperary. A number of Science Foundation Ireland-funded Science Week events took place throughout the week,


id: scientific-celebrity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_celebrity-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific celebrity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_celebrity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:05.448670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-celebrity-20260505-0
summary:
A scientific celebrity, also known as a celebrity scientist or public scientist, is a scientist who has gained significant public attention, usually through the media. For the general public, scientific celebrities serve to represent science or a field of science. In some instances this can be self-serving in nature or can be at the behest of governmental or corporate interests or to promote the science involved. With new scientific discoveries scientists come to be publicly known for their contributions. Although this type of recognition has become more common in recent times (coincidental with the rise of celebrity culture), the phenomenon is centuries old. Media attention to science became more pervasive beginning in the late 1960s and early 1970s as the variety of media outlets increased and they gave greater attention to scientific progress. Scientific celebrities have had a significant role in the popularization of science. == Historical examples == In the late 17th century and early 18th century, Isaac Newton became widely known in the United Kingdom and much of the western world after he published his theories of motion. Others, including Voltaire, promoted Newton's reputation; although Newton did not actively promote himself. Charles Darwin pursued popularity among the general


id: scientific-celebrity-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_celebrity-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientific celebrity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_celebrity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:05.448670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-celebrity-20260505-0
summary:
== Role of the media == The means of media reporting on science and the amount of science reporting have evolved significantly since science reporting first began, just as it has with journalism on most subjects. Early on, scientists gained the publicity necessary for celebrity status through traditional print media, including newspapers, magazines, pamphlets and mailings. The lecture circuit was another means, especially for self-promotion. By the middle of the 20th century, broadcast media such as television and radio and eventually cable television became important outlets. The rise of digital media enabled scientist to directly address the general public. Many other people have become known to the public as a result of media promotion. Heads of state, heads of governmental units and religious leaders have long received this type of media attention in representing interests other than their own. Scientific celebrity is similar, and C. Everett Koop is an example of a scientific celebrity who gain celebrity status through his work for a governmental agency, as Surgeon General of the United States. A further form of scientific outreach in the digital age is TED Talks. Science is one of the basic themes of Ted Talks, and examples of scientific celebrities


id: scientific-integrity-in-policymaking-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_Integrity_in_Policymaking-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific Integrity in Policymaking
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_Integrity_in_Policymaking
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:10.645612+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-integrity-in-policymaking-20260505-0
summary:
"Scientific Integrity in Policymaking: An Investigation into the Bush Administration's Misuse of Science" is the title of a report published by the Union of Concerned Scientists in February, 2004. The report was the culmination of an investigation of the Bush administration's objectivity in science, and ultimately a criticism thereof. == "Suppression and distortion of research findings" == A central thesis of the report, according to the Executive Summary (on page 2 of the text), was that the Bush administration had behaved in ways considered to be consistent with the following three situations. Epidemic altering and concealing of scientific information by senior officials in various federal agencies Active censorship of scientific information that the administration considered threatening to its own philosophies Restriction of the ability of government-supported scientists to freely communicate scientific ideas related to "sensitive" issues == "An unprecedented pattern of behavior" == In "Part III", the text of the report posits that the aforementioned activities are unprecedented in the history of the United States. The report lists the following persons and organization who had supposedly acted or made statements to support this claim. This list is sorted first by category, then by the order in which the persons or


id: seasonal-attribution-project-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seasonal_Attribution_Project-0.md
category: reference
title: Seasonal Attribution Project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seasonal_Attribution_Project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:12.008633+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: seasonal-attribution-project-20260505-0
summary:
The Seasonal Attribution Project is a climate'prediction.net sub-project, with support from the WWF. It runs a high resolution model in order to try to determine the extent to which extreme weather events are attributable to human-induced global warming. The project did cease giving out more work, however there has been a project extension to try a fourth sea surface temperature pattern. Current work will still be accepted and used for collaborations and possibly revisions of papers during the review process. A further extension will start soon. == The experiments == United Kingdom floods of Autumn 2000 – Current project. Mountain snowpack decline in western North America Developed in collaboration with the Climate Impacts Group at the University of Washington. Heatwave occurrence in South Africa and India The latter two will use the same models. Information has been uploaded but analysis of information generated has not yet started. == See also == Effects of global warming == References == == External links == Seasonal Attribution Website Archived 2011-02-20 at the Wayback Machine


id: sense-about-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense_about_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Sense about Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense_about_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:13.247082+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sense-about-science-20260505-0
summary:
Sense about Science is a United Kingdom charitable organization that promotes the public understanding of science. Sense about Science was founded in 2002 by Lord Taverne, Bridget Ogilvie and others to promote respect for scientific evidence and good science. It was established as a charitable trust in 2003, with 14 trustees, an advisory council and a small office staff. Tracey Brown has been the director since 2002. The organisation works with scientists and journalists to put scientific evidence in public discussions about science, and to correct unscientific misinformation. They encourage and assist scientists to engage in public debates about their area of expertise, to respond to scientifically inaccurate claims in the media, to help people contact scientists with appropriate expertise, and to prepare briefings about the scientific background to issues of public concern. == Projects == Sense about Science publishes guides to different areas of science in partnership with experts. These include: Responsible Handover Framework, Data Science: A Guide for Society, Making Sense of Nuclear, Making Sense of Uncertainty, Making Sense of Allergies, Making Sense of Drug Safety Science, Making Sense of Testing, Making Sense of Crime, Making Sense of Statistics, Making Sense of Screening and Making Sense of GM.


id: seti-home-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home-0.md
category: reference
title: SETI@home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:14.533285+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: seti-home-20260505-0
summary:
SETI@home ("SETI at home") is a project of the Berkeley SETI Research Center to analyze radio signals with the aim of searching for signs of extraterrestrial intelligence. Until March 2020, it was run as an Internet-based public volunteer computing project that employed the BOINC software platform. It is hosted by the Space Sciences Laboratory at the University of California, Berkeley, and is one of many activities undertaken as part of the worldwide SETI effort. SETI@home software was released to the public on May 17, 1999, making it the third large-scale use of volunteer computing over the Internet for research purposes, after Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search (GIMPS) was launched in 1996 and distributed.net in 1997. Along with MilkyWay@home and Einstein@home, it has the investigation of phenomena in interstellar space as its primary purpose. In March 2020, the project stopped sending out new work to SETI@home users, bringing the crowdsourced computing aspect of the project to a stop. At the time, the team intended to shift focus onto the analysis and interpretation of the 20 years' worth of accumulated data. However, the team left open the possibility of eventually resuming volunteer computing using data from other radio telescopes, such as MeerKAT


id: seti-home-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home-1.md
category: reference
title: SETI@home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:14.533285+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: seti-home-20260505-0
summary:
== Technology == Anybody with an at least intermittently Internet-connected computer was able to participate in SETI@home by running a free program that downloaded and analyzed radio telescope data. Observational data were recorded on 2-terabyte SATA hard disk drives fed from the Arecibo Telescope in Puerto Rico, each holding about 2.5 days of observations, which were then sent to Berkeley. Arecibo does not have a broadband Internet connection, so data must go by postal mail to Berkeley. Once there, it is divided in both time and frequency domains work units of 107 seconds of data, or approximately 0.35 megabytes (350 kilobytes or 350,000 bytes), which overlap in time but not in frequency. These work units are then sent from the SETI@home server over the Internet to personal computers around the world to analyze. Data was merged into a database using SETI@home computers in Berkeley. Interference was rejected, and various pattern-detection algorithms were applied to search for the most interesting signals. The project used CUDA for GPU processing starting in 2015. In 2016 SETI@home began processing data from the Breakthrough Listen project. === Software === The SETI@home volunteer computing software ran either as a screensaver or continuously while a user worked,


id: seti-home-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home-2.md
category: reference
title: SETI@home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:14.533285+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: seti-home-20260505-0
summary:
== Competitive aspect == SETI@home users quickly started to compete with one another to process the maximum number of work units. Teams were formed to combine the efforts of individual users. The competition continued and grew larger with the introduction of BOINC. As with any competition, attempts have been made to "cheat" the system and claim credit for work that has not been performed. To combat cheats, the SETI@home system sends every work unit to multiple computers, a value known as "initial replication" (currently 2). Credit is only granted for each returned work unit once a minimum number of results have been returned and the results agree, a value known as "minimum quorum" (currently 2). If, due to computation errors or cheating by submitting false data, not enough results agree, more identical work units are sent out until the minimum quorum can be reached. The final credit granted to all machines which returned the correct result is the same and is the lowest of the values claimed by each machine. Some users have installed and run SETI@home on computers at their workplaces; an act known as "Borging", after the assimilation-driven Borg of Star Trek. In some cases, SETI@home users have


id: seti-home-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home-3.md
category: reference
title: SETI@home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:14.533285+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: seti-home-20260505-0
summary:
SETI@home is a test bed for further development not only of BOINC but of other hardware and software (database) technology. Under SETI@home processing loads, these experimental technologies can be more challenging than expected, as SETI databases do not have typical accounting and business data or relational structures. The non-traditional database uses often do incur greater processing overheads and risk of database corruption and outright database failure. Hardware, software and database failures can (and do) cause dips in project participation. The project has had to shut down several times to change over to new databases capable of handling more massive datasets. Hardware failure has proven to be a substantial source of project shutdowns, as hardware failure is often coupled with database corruption. == See also == == References == == Further reading == Carrigan, Richard A. Jr. (2003). "The Ultimate Hacker: SETI Signals May Need to Be Decontaminated". Bioastronomy 2002: Life Among the Stars. 213. Astronomical Society of the Pacific: 519. Bibcode:2004IAUS..213..519C. Sample, Ian (November 25, 2005). "Scientists be on guard..." The Guardian. London. Retrieved November 25, 2005. Scoles, Sarah (May 23, 2017). "A Brief History of SETI@Home". The Atlantic. == External links == Official website SETI@home screensaver video on YouTube


id: seti-home-beta-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home_beta-0.md
category: reference
title: SETI@home beta
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home_beta
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:15.884255+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: seti-home-beta-20260505-0
summary:
SETI@home beta, is a hibernating volunteer computing project using the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) platform, as a test environment for future SETI@home projects: AstroPulse is a volunteer computing project searching for primordial black holes, pulsars, and ETI. AstroPulse clients have been tested by this project for nearly 6 years. It is already running on SETI@home, testing new GPU/CPU optimized apps and performing other tasks. SETI Southern Hemisphere Search, which is another SETI@home project that was due to join BOINC. It was expected that this project would use a slightly modified version of the SETI enhanced client, as the Parkes Observatory has a feedhorn with more beams than the Arecibo Observatory. == Applications Testing == 11 Dec 2008, CUDA applications test 3 Jun 2013, SETI@home v7 test 01 Dec 2015 SETI@home v8 test == External links == Official website SETI@home beta screensaver video on YouTube == References ==


id: similarity-matrix-of-proteins-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Similarity_Matrix_of_Proteins-0.md
category: reference
title: Similarity Matrix of Proteins
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Similarity_Matrix_of_Proteins
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:17.287966+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: similarity-matrix-of-proteins-20260505-0
summary:
Similarity Matrix of Proteins (SIMAP) is a database of protein similarities created using volunteer computing. It is freely accessible for scientific purposes. SIMAP uses the FASTA algorithm to precalculate protein similarity, while another application uses hidden Markov models to search for protein domains. SIMAP is a joint project of the Technical University of Munich, the Helmholtz Zentrum München, and the University of Vienna. == Project == The project usually got new work units at the beginning of each month. More recently, (2010), inclusion of environmental sequences into the database has required longer periods of activity, several months of continuous work for example. Typically, these updates occurred twice each year. In the fourth quarter of 2010, the project relocated to the University of Vienna due to the failing electrical infrastructure at the Technical University of Munich. Part of this exercise involved the creation of a project specific URL requiring existing volunteers and users to detach/reattach to the project. On May 30, 2014, it was announced by project administrators that after a 10-year history, SIMAP would be leaving BOINC by the end of 2014. SIMAP research, however, will go forward with the use of local hardware consisting of "ordinary multi-core CPUs (some


id: simonyi-professor-for-the-public-understanding-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simonyi_Professor_for_the_Public_Understanding_of_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Simonyi Professor for the Public Understanding of Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simonyi_Professor_for_the_Public_Understanding_of_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:18.553001+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: simonyi-professor-for-the-public-understanding-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The Simonyi Professorship for the Public Understanding of Science is a chair at the University of Oxford. The chair was established in 1995 for the ethologist Richard Dawkins by an endowment from Charles Simonyi. The aim of the Professorship is 'to communicate science to the public without, in doing so, losing those elements of scholarship which constitute the essence of true understanding'. It is a position that had been endowed by Charles Simonyi with the express intention that the holder "be expected to make important contributions to the public understanding of some scientific field", and that its first holder should be Richard Dawkins. == History == Richard Dawkins explained the history of the creation of the chair in a chapter of his memoirs, Brief Candle in the Dark: My Life in Science. In 2008, Dawkins retired and the Oxford mathematician Marcus du Sautoy was elected to the chair. == List of Simonyi Professors == 1995–2008: Richard Dawkins, biological science Since 2008: Marcus du Sautoy, mathematical science == List of Simonyi Lectures == Richard Dawkins established an annual "Charles Simonyi Lecture" at the University of Oxford. He invited the following speakers: Marcus du Sautoy, second Simonyi Professor, invited: == Notes and


id: slinca-home-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SLinCA@Home-0.md
category: reference
title: SLinCA@Home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SLinCA@Home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:19.892105+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: slinca-home-20260505-0
summary:
SLinCA@Home (Scaling Laws in Cluster Aggregation) was a research project that uses Internet-connected computers to do research in fields such as physics and materials science. == Introduction == SLinCA@Home was based at the G. V. Kurdyumov Institute for Metal Physics (IMP) of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine (NASU) in Kyiv, Ukraine's capital city. It ran on the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) software platform, the SZTAKI Desktop Grid platform, and the Distributed Computing API (DC-API) by SZTAKI. SLinCA@Home hosts several scientific applications dedicated to research into scale-invariant dependencies in experimental data in physics and materials science. Statistics at the BOINCstats site (as of 16 March 2011), show over 2,000 volunteers in 39 countries have participated in the project; it is the second most popular BOINC project in Ukraine (after the Magnetism@Home project, which is now inactive). About 700 active users contribute about 0.5–1.5 teraFLOPS of computational power, which would rank SLinCA@Home among the top 20 on the TOP500 list of supercomputers in June 2005. == History == The SLinCA@Home project was previously launched in January 2009 as part of the EGEE project in the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7) for the funding of research and


id: slow-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Slow science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:21.178143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: slow-science-20260505-0
summary:
Slow science is part of the broader slow movement. It is based on the belief that science should be a slow, steady, methodical process, and that scientists should not be expected to provide "quick fixes" to society's problems. Slow science supports curiosity-driven scientific research and opposes performance targets. Slow science is a continually developing school of thought in the scientific community. Followers of slow science practices are generally opposed to the current model of research which is seen as constrained by the need for continued funding. The slow science perspective attributes the overinflation of scientific publishing, and rise in fraudulent publishing with the requirement for researchers and institutions to create a justification for continued funding. The term slow science was first popularised in “Another Science is Possible: A Manifesto for Slow Science” by researcher Isabelle Stengers in 2018. The idea of “publish or perish”, which too links limitations in the quality of research to financial constraints, has been around since the early 20th century. The slow science philosophy has been described as both a way to approach scientific research, and a science led movement which acts as a critique of science's function in neoliberal society. Slow science has developed its


id: slow-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Slow science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:21.178143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: slow-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Research funding reform === Slow Science proposes a change to the current structure of research funding, especially directed towards the increase in funding sourced from corporate donorship in academic institutions, as well as the rise in private independent research institutes. The slow science movement has called for all government funded research to be for the benefit of broader society, and has also called for an overall system of funding reform. Slow science groups, such as Slow Science Belgium, have called for increased government funding to be a necessity, and for key performance indicator linked targets for results to be removed from grant conditions. Key contributor to the slow science Uta Frith has expressed the idea that as government funding increases, so will risk taking in research, and therefore lead to the potential of greater scientific innovation. === Apolitical driven research === Apolitical research, from a slow science perspective, opposes research which aims to show alternatives to scientific precedent for political benefits. As well as this, the slow science movement extends this to what is described as an inherently political shift in the privatisation of knowledge, that is, scientific research which has moved from publications to private research and development


id: social-effects-of-evolutionary-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_effects_of_evolutionary_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Social effects of evolutionary theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_effects_of_evolutionary_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:22.590814+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-effects-of-evolutionary-theory-20260505-0
summary:
The social effects of evolutionary thought have been considerable. As the scientific explanation of life's diversity has developed, it has often displaced alternative, sometimes very widely held, explanations. Because the theory of evolution includes an explanation of humanity's origins, it has had a profound impact on human societies. Some have vigorously denied acceptance of the scientific explanation due to its perceived religious implications (e.g. its implied rejection of the special creation of humans presumably described in the Bible). This has led to a vigorous conflict between creation and evolution in public education, primarily in the United States. == Evolution and ethics == The theory of evolution by natural selection has also been adopted as a foundation for various ethical and social systems, such as social Darwinism, an idea that preceded the publication of The Origin of Species, popular in the 19th century, which holds that "the survival of the fittest" (a phrase coined in 1851 by Herbert Spencer, 8 years before Darwin published his theory of evolution) explains and justifies differences in wealth and success among societies and people. A similar interpretation was one created by Darwin's cousin, Francis Galton, known as eugenics, which claimed that human civilization was subverting


id: social-effects-of-evolutionary-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_effects_of_evolutionary_theory-1.md
category: reference
title: Social effects of evolutionary theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_effects_of_evolutionary_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:22.590814+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-effects-of-evolutionary-theory-20260505-0
summary:
The Roman Catholic Church, beginning in 1950 with Pope Pius XII's encyclical Humani Generis, took up a neutral position with regard to evolution. "The Church does not forbid that...research and discussions, on the part of men experienced in both fields, take place with regard to the doctrine of evolution, in as far as it inquires into the origin of the human body as coming from pre-existent and living matter." In an October 22, 1996, address to the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, Pope John Paul II updated the Church's position, recognizing that Evolution is "more than a hypothesis" - "In his encyclical Humani Generis, my predecessor Pius XII has already affirmed that there is no conflict between evolution and the doctrine of the faith regarding man and his vocation... Today, more than a half-century after the appearance of that encyclical, some new findings lead us toward the recognition of evolution as more than an hypothesis. In fact it is remarkable that this theory has had progressively greater influence on the spirit of researchers, following a series of discoveries in different scholarly disciplines." === Islamic views on evolution === === Jewish views on evolution === == Evolutionary theory and the political left


id: spinhenge-home-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinhenge@Home-0.md
category: reference
title: Spinhenge@Home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinhenge@Home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:27.760224+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: spinhenge-home-20260505-0
summary:
Spinhenge@home was a volunteer computing project on the BOINC platform, which performs extensive numerical simulations concerning the physical characteristics of magnetic molecules. It is a project of the Bielefeld University of Applied Sciences, Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, in cooperation with the University of Osnabrück and Ames Laboratory. The project began beta testing on September 1, 2006, and used the Metropolis Monte Carlo algorithm to calculate and simulate spin dynamics in nanoscale molecular magnets. On September 28, 2011, a hiatus was announced while the project team reviewed results and upgraded hardware. As of July 10, 2022 the hiatus continues and it is likely that the project has been closed down permanently. == See also == Spintronics BOINC List of volunteer computing projects == References == == External links == Project Website Spinhenge@home screensaver video on YouTube More Information about Spinhenge@Home Project Statistics at BOINCStats


id: el-sue-o-de-arqu-medes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Sueño_de_Arquímedes-0.md
category: reference
title: El Sueño de Arquímedes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Sueño_de_Arquímedes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:29.067246+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: el-sue-o-de-arqu-medes-20260505-0
summary:
El Sueño de Arquímedes was a Spanish science podcast and radio program which was broadcast by Radio Nacional de España (RNE) from September 2006 until June, 2007. The program was created by Ángel Rodríguez Lozano. A total of 35 programs are still available for download. In addition to El Sueño de Arquímedes, Ángel Rodríguez Lozano also hosted Vanguardia de la Ciencia, which was broadcast weekly without interruption from April 1995 until June 2007. The name of the program means "the dream of Archimedes", and alludes to Archimedes' statement that given a lever and a fixed point, he could move the world. To Ángel Rodríguez Lozano, the dream was moving the world by popularizing and sharing knowledge. == Format == Before the startup of El Sueño de Arquímedes, Ángel Rodríguez Lozano had been hosting Vanguardia de la Ciencia for more than a decade. When RNE asked if he would host a second popular science program, Ángel Rodríguez Lozano realised that the scheduled timing, Sundays between 3 and 4 p.m, meant that it would be sandwiched between sports broadcasts. Therefore, he would have to capture the attention of listeners who were not looking for this type of program. The intention was therefore


id: theskynet-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TheSkyNet-0.md
category: reference
title: TheSkyNet
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TheSkyNet
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:30.235971+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: theskynet-20260505-0
summary:
theSkyNet was a research project that used volunteer Internet-connected computers to carry out research in astronomy. It was an initiative of the International Centre for Radio Astronomy Research (ICRAR), a joint venture of Curtin University and the University of Western Australia. theSkyNet had two projects, Sourcefinder and POGS. Both projects have been completed. theSkyNet Sourcefinder aimed to test and refine automatic radio sourcefinding algorithms in preparation for radio galaxy surveys using the Australian Square Kilometre Array Pathfinder and the Square Kilometre Array. theSkyNet POGS used Spectral Energy Distribution fitting to calculate characteristics of many galaxies using images taken by the Pan-STARRS PS1 optical telescope in Hawaii. == History == theSkyNet Sourcefinder project was introduced publicly on 13 September 2011, operating on a Java-based user platform, processing data using new distributed computing software called Nereus. One year later, theSkyNet celebrated its first birthday and at the same time theSkyNet POGS project became the first public Australian based project to participate in the well established volunteer computing platform BOINC. The acronym POGS is a reference to a game played with discs that originated on Maui, Hawaii, in the 1920s, and the fact that the Pan-STARRS PS1 telescope, is situated on Mount Haleakala,


id: university-technology-transfer-offices-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_technology_transfer_offices-0.md
category: reference
title: University technology transfer offices
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_technology_transfer_offices
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:31.561922+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: university-technology-transfer-offices-20260505-0
summary:
University technology transfer offices (TTOs), or technology licensing offices (TLOs), are responsible for technology transfer and other aspects of the commercialization of research that takes place in a university. TTOs engage in a variety of commercial activities that are meant to facilitate the process of bringing research developments to market, often acting as a channel between academia and industry. Most major research universities have established TTOs in the past decades in an effort to increase the impact of university research and provide opportunities for financial gain. While TTOs are commonplace, many studies have questioned their financial benefit to the university. == History == The history of technology transfer is intimately linked with the history of the science policy of the United States. The foundation for modern American science policy laid way out in Vannevar Bush's letter in response to President Roosevelt's query about whether the US should maintain the high level of research funding it had been pouring into the Office of Scientific Research and Development, which had coordinated large private-public partnership research projects as part of the war effort, including the Manhattan Project. Bush's answer was Science - the Endless Frontier. In that letter, Bush advocated that the US


id: university-technology-transfer-offices-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_technology_transfer_offices-1.md
category: reference
title: University technology transfer offices
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_technology_transfer_offices
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:31.561922+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: university-technology-transfer-offices-20260505-0
summary:
== Structure and organization == The structure and organization of TTOs can affect its overall performance and can vary among universities. Since TTOs deal with both academic research and industry, they consist of a diverse set of individuals, including scientists, lawyers, analysts, licensing experts, and business managers. By having individuals (particularly different scientists, engineers, and analysts) with varying sets of expertise in research, TTOs attempt to more effectively assess, protect, and profit from the research developments taking place in multiple disciplines throughout the university. TTOs can by classified into three different types: internal: existing as an integrated part of the university and controlled by university administration external: existing as an independent company that does not operate under the control of university administration mixed: having components of both internal and external TTOs As of 2012 the "internal" type was most common in the US. TTOs of different universities can also collaborate between them to grow, thus originating new organizational structures. Such structures are: Network structure: the existing organizational forms of each TTO are maintained and the single organizations operate together in a virtual manner creating a subset of links between the existing TTOs involved in the consortium Strong Hub structure: a


id: va-public-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VA_(Public_&_Science)-0.md
category: reference
title: VA (Public & Science)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VA_(Public_&_Science)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:33.027037+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: va-public-science-20260505-0
summary:
VA (Public & Science) (Swedish: "Vetenskap & Allmänhet") is a Sweden-based non-profit association focusing on citizen science, responsible research and innovation, and science communication to the Swedish and European public. Its projects include: web games, books, and festivals for public engagement; studies and surveys to measure public scientific knowledge and engagement; and national and international research policy advocacy. == Projects == VA is currently a partner in three EU-funded Horizon 2020 projects SciShops: ORION, Open Responsible research and Innovation to further Outstanding Knowledge, is aimed at fostering RRI and open science in research performing and research funding organisations. SciShops will expand the ecosystem of Science Shops in Europe and BLOOM is aimed at raising public awareness and interest in the bioeconomy through dialogue and co-creation activities. == Membership == VA's members consist of some 100 organizations, authorities, universities, companies and associations. In addition, it has a number of individual members. The organization is funded through membership fees, project grants and a grant from the Swedish Ministry of Education and Research. VA is a member of EUSEA (European Science Events Association), ECSA (European Citizen Science Association) and the Living Knowledge network. == Board of Representatives == VA's board consists of representatives


id: world-community-grid-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-0.md
category: reference
title: World Community Grid
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:35.746920+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-community-grid-20260505-0
summary:
World Community Grid (WCG) is an effort to create the world's largest volunteer computing platform to perform scientific research that benefits humanity. Launched on November 16, 2004, with proprietary Grid MP client from United Devices and adding support for Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) in 2005, World Community Grid eventually discontinued the Grid MP client and consolidated on the BOINC platform in 2008. In September 2021, it was announced that IBM transferred ownership to the Krembil Research Institute of University Health Network in Toronto, Ontario. World Community Grid uses unused processing power of consumer devices (PCs, Laptops, Android Smartphones, etc.) to analyse data created by the research groups that participate in the grid. WCG projects have analysed data related to the human genome, the human microbiome, HIV, dengue, muscular dystrophy, cancer, influenza, Ebola, Zika virus, virtual screening, rice crop yields, clean energy, water purification and COVID-19, among other research areas. There are currently four active projects and 28 completed projects. Several of these projects have published peer-reviewed papers based on the analysis of the data generated by WCG. These include an OpenZika project paper on the discovery of a compound (FAM 3) that inhibits the NS3 Helicase protein


id: world-community-grid-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-1.md
category: reference
title: World Community Grid
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:35.746920+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-community-grid-20260505-0
summary:
== Statistics and competition == The contributions of each user are recorded and user contribution statistics are publicly available. Due to the fact that the processing time of each workunit varies from computer to computer, depending on the difficulty of the workunit, the speed of the computer, and the amount of idle resources available, contributions are usually measured in terms of points. Points are awarded for each workunit depending on the effort required to process it. Upon completing a workunit, the BOINC client will request the number of points it thinks it deserves based on software benchmarks (see BOINC Credit System#Cobblestones). Since multiple computers process the same workunit to ensure accuracy, the World Community Grid servers can look at the points claimed by each of those computers. The WCG servers disregard statistical outliers, average the remaining values and award the resulting number of points to each computer. Within the grid, users may join teams that have been created by organizations, groups, or individuals. Teams allow for a heightened sense of community identity and can also inspire competition. As teams compete against each other, more work is done for the grid overall. == Outreach == World Community Grid recognizes companies and


id: world-community-grid-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-2.md
category: reference
title: World Community Grid
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:35.746920+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-community-grid-20260505-0
summary:
In February 2014, the Help Fight Childhood Cancer project scientists announced the discovery of 7 compounds that destroy neuroblastoma cancer cells without any apparent side effects. This discovery, made with the support of the WCG volunteers, is a positive step towards a new treatment. The project has announced that it is seeking a collaboration with a pharmaceutical company in order to develop the compounds into treatments. Given the success of the project, the scientists have stated that they are already planning a follow-up project which will focus on other pediatric cancers, possibly in collaboration with a newly formed Pan-Asian oncology group, of which they are a founding member. As of July 2012, the Human Proteome Folding Project has published several papers using data from WCG. These include a paper on validation methods and a new database of protein structure and function predictions; a paper on the identification of proteins that regulate human processes; a paper on the analysis of the genomes from five plant families and their proteomes, for which WCG was used in the creation of over 29,000 protein structures; a paper on the proteome of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The GO Fight Against Malaria project reported the discovery of several


id: world-community-grid-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-3.md
category: reference
title: World Community Grid
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:35.746920+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-community-grid-20260505-0
summary:
=== OpenPandemics - COVID-19 === On April 1, 2020, IBM announced OpenPandemics - COVID-19. The project aims to identify possible treatments for the Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) which is responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic. WCG will partner with Scripps Research, with whom it has partnered in the past, notably in FightAIDS@Home projects. The project runs on CPUs and GPUs and will also serve to create a "fast-response, open source tool that will help all scientists quickly search for treatments for future pandemics." The project launched on May 14, 2020. === Mapping Cancer Markers === Mapping Cancer Markers (launched November 8, 2013). The project aims to identify the markers associated with various types of cancer, and is analyzing millions of data points collected from thousands of healthy and cancerous patient tissue samples. These include tissues with lung, ovarian, prostate, pancreatic and breast cancers. By comparing these different data points, researchers aim to identify patterns of markers for different cancers and correlate them with different outcomes, including responsiveness to various treatment options. The project is focusing on 4 types of cancer, with the first focus being on lung cancer, and will move on to ovarian cancer, prostate cancer and


id: world-community-grid-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-4.md
category: reference
title: World Community Grid
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:35.746920+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-community-grid-20260505-0
summary:
=== AfricanClimate@Home === The mission of AfricanClimate@Home was to develop more accurate climate models of specific regions in Africa. It was intended to serve as a basis for understanding how the climate will change in the future so that measures designed to alleviate the adverse effects of climate change could be implemented. World Community Grid's tremendous computing power was used to understand and reduce the uncertainty with which climate processes were simulated over Africa. Phase 1 of African Climate@Home launched on September 3, 2007, and ended in July 2008. === Help Conquer Cancer === Help Conquer Cancer project (launched November 1, 2007) is sponsored by the Ontario Cancer Institute (OCI), Princess Margaret Hospital and University Health Network of Toronto, Canada. The project involves X-ray crystallography. The mission of Help Conquer Cancer is to improve the results of protein X-ray crystallography, which helps researchers not only annotate unknown parts of the human proteome, but importantly improves their understanding of cancer initiation, progression and treatment. The HCC project was the first WCG project benefiting from graphics processing units (GPU)s which helped finish it a lot earlier than initially projected due to the massive power of GPUs. In the April 2013 status report


id: world-community-grid-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-5.md
category: reference
title: World Community Grid
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:35.746920+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-community-grid-20260505-0
summary:
World Community Grid and researchers supported by Decrypthon, a partnership between AFM (French Muscular Dystrophy Association), CNRS (French National Center for Scientific Research), Universite Pierre et Marie Curie, and IBM were investigating protein–protein interactions for more than 2,200 proteins whose structures are known, with particular focus on those proteins that play a role in neuromuscular diseases. Phase 2 was launched on May 12, 2009, and completed on September 26, 2012. The database of information produced will help researchers design molecules to inhibit or enhance binding of particular macromolecules, hopefully leading to better treatments for muscular dystrophy and other neuromuscular diseases. Phase 2 of the Help Cure Muscular Dystrophy project began once the results from the first phase had been analyzed. Phase 2 ran on the BOINC platform. === Discovering Dengue Drugs – Together – Phase 2 === Discovering Dengue Drugs – Together – Phase 2 (launched February 17, 2010) is sponsored by The University of Texas Medical Branch (UTMB) in Galveston, Texas, United States and the University of Chicago in Illinois, USA. The mission is to identify promising drug candidates to combat the Dengue, Hepatitis C, West Nile, Yellow Fever, and other related viruses. The extensive computing power of World


id: world-community-grid-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-6.md
category: reference
title: World Community Grid
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:26:35.746920+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-community-grid-20260505-0
summary:
FightAIDS@Home (launched November 19, 2005) was World Community Grid's second project and its first to target a single disease. Each individual computer processes one potential drug molecule and tests how well it would dock with HIV protease, acting as a protease inhibitor. Scripps Research Institute published its first peer-reviewed scientific paper about the results of FightAIDS@Home on April 21, 2007. This paper explains that the results up to that point will primarily be used to improve the efficiency of future FightAIDS@Home calculations. === FightAIDS@Home Phase 2 === FightAIDS@Home Phase 2 (launched September 30, 2015) is looking more closely at the results of Phase 1. The project has two goals in the early experiments; the simulation architecture is functioning correctly and giving reliable results, and using BEDAM and AutoDock together provides better results than using just BEDAM or AutoDock. === Microbiome Immunity Project === Microbiome Immunity Project (launched August 2017) is a study of proteins in bacteria located in and on the human body; the human microbiome, which comprises around 3 million separate bacterial genes. By studying bacterial genes, researchers can determine their individual shapes, which in turn dictate the function of the bacteria. Collaborative institutions includes the University of California


