# kb

id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Expectancy violations theory (EVT) is a theory of communication that analyzes how individuals respond to unanticipated violations of social norms and expectations. The theory was proposed by Judee K. Burgoon in the late 1970s and continued through the 1980s and 1990s as "nonverbal expectancy violations theory", based on Burgoon's research studying proxemics. Burgoon's work initially analyzed individuals' allowances and expectations of personal distance and how responses to personal distance violations were influenced by the level of liking and relationship to the violators. The theory was later changed to its current name when other researchers began to focus on violations of social behavior expectations beyond nonverbal communication. This theory sees communication as an exchange of behaviors, where one individual's behavior can be used to violate the expectations of another. Participants in communication will perceive the exchange either positively or negatively, depending upon an existing personal relationship or how favorably the violation is perceived. Violations of expectancies cause arousal and compel the recipient to initiate a series of cognitive appraisals of the violation. The theory predicts that expectancies influence the outcome of the communication interaction as either positive or negative and predicts that positive violations increase the attraction of the violator and


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-1.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Communicator reward valence === The communicator reward valence is an evaluation one makes about the person who committed a violation of expectancy. Em Griffin summarizes the concept behind communicator reward valence as "the sum of positive and negative attributes brought to the encounter plus the potential to reward or punish in the future". The social exchange theory explains that individuals seek to reward some and seek to avoid punishing others. When one individual interacts with another, Burgoon believes he or she will assess the "positive and negative attributes that person brings to the encounter". If the person has the ability to reward or punish the receiver in the future, then the person has a positive reward valence. Rewards simply refer to the person's ability to provide a want or need. It can be represented by several features, such as communicators with high social class, reputation, knowledge, positive emotional support, physical attractiveness, and so on. The term 'communicator reward valence' is used to describe the results of this assessment. For example, people will feel encouraged during conversation when the listener is nodding, making eye contact, and responding actively. Conversely, if the listener is avoiding eye contact, yawning, and texting, it


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-2.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Propositions === After assessing expectancy, violation valence, and communicator reward valence of a given situation, it becomes possible to make rather specific predictions about whether the individual who perceived the violation will reciprocate or compensate the behavior in question. Guerrero and Burgoon noticed that predictable patterns develop when considering reward valence and violation valence together. Specifically, if the violation valence is perceived as positive and the communicator reward valence is also perceived as positive, the theory predicts individuals will reciprocate the positive behavior. Similarly, if one perceives the violation valence as negative and the communicator reward valence as negative, the theory again predicts that one will reciprocate the negative behavior. Thus, if a disliked coworker is grouchy and unpleasant, people will likely reciprocate and be unpleasant in return. Conversely, if one perceives a negative violation valence but views the communicator reward valence as positive, it is likely that the person will compensate for his or her partner's negative behavior. For example, imagine a supervisor appears sullen and throws a stack of papers in front of an employee. Rather than grunt back, EVT predicts that the employee will compensate for the boss's negativity, perhaps by asking if everything is okay.


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-3.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Intimate distance: (0–18 inches) – This distance is for close, intimate encounters. Normally core family, close friends, lovers, or pets. People will normally share a unique level of comfort with one another. Personal distance: (18 inches – 4 feet) – Reserved for conversations with friends, extended family, associates, and group discussions. The personal distance will give each person more space compared with the intimate distance, but is still close enough to involve touching one another. Social distance: (4–10 feet) – This distance is reserved for newly formed groups, and new acquaintances and colleagues one may have just met. People generally do not engage physically with one another within this section. Public distance: (10 feet to infinity) – Reserved for a public setting with large audiences, strangers, speeches, and theaters. Many different cultures are influenced by proxemics in different ways and respond differently to the same situation. In some cultures, those who have not formed close relationships may greet each other with kisses on the cheek, engaging one another well within the intimate range of proxemics. In other cultures, a custom greeting is a handshake which maintains a physical separation but is well within personal distance. Across the proxemic zones, actions


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-4.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
==== Friendship ==== Expectations with friends formulate over time and are usually brought together by a series of observations of behavior and predictions on how that friend will act in the future. When these expectations are violated, it often can be damaging and dangerous for a close friendship. It can cause an end to the friendship and create a strong negative experience in that person's life. Over time, people might expect friends to act consistently around them until a violation to this expectation takes place. For example, when they begin "breaking promises or even acting in an inauthentic manner to impress others, can have aversive consequences for close relationships" (Cohen 2010). People expect their friends to act in a social manner and adhere to all of our personal rules they set in their minds, such as being nice, kind, considerate, and refraining from any comment that puts another down. This is a part of the personal rules with a personal friendship, though in a different setting with that individual around different people, the rules may be broken. While this might be an offense in one's eyes, it may not be offensive in the others. Each negative experience can deteriorate the


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-5.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Expectancy violations happen frequently in romantic relationships. In relationships there is an unspoken expectation when interacting and that is the significant other will give their full undivided attention when in the presence of their significant other. As the new generation evolves, the face to face contact has changed. With the access use of phones and social media the attention of individuals has shifted to their devices and continues to become worse. Since there is access to many mobile devices, there has been an increase of lack of communication face to face. This has made it difficult for some relationships to grow and has created conflict because the expectation of attention has been shifted. "Individuals expect conversational partners to be moderately involved in an interaction (Burgoon, Newton, Walther, & Baesler, 1989). Within existing relationships, partners rely on one another to show interest and immediacy in interactions (White, 2008). However, the presence of cell phones and the expectation to be constantly available (Ling, 2012) impacts partners' abilities to give full attention to one another" (Miller-Ott, A., & Kelly, L. 2015). Regardless of where the romantic relationship takes place, people are likely to have negative valence about cell phone usage, including texting, viewing


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-6.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
==== Stereotypes, Gender and Sexuality ==== A study on personality traits and gender-based stereotypes in perceived negotiation skills was conducted in 2024. The study found that women tend to perform better in same-sex negotiations than in opposite-sex negotiations, while no significant differences were observed for men-pointing to the detrimental effect of gender in negotiation. Negotiation outcomes were mostly one-sided in favor of high-powered negotiators when stereotypical masculine traits were displayed, whereas stereotypically feminine traits tended to produce win-win outcomes. When negotiators' behaviors counter gender-specific beliefs, negative expectancy violations occur, generating backlash and negatively affecting negotiators' outcomes. When facing an unexpected negotiation partner, the impact of a hiring manager's gender-role violation on job candidates become evident. Job candidate believed that hiring managers were more extreme in characteristics that violated gender-role expectations: agentic female hiring managers were seen as more agentic than their male peers, while communal male hiring managers were perceived as more communal than their female counterparts. Job candidates were also less comfortable with an agentic female hiring manager than with an agentic male hiring manager. Further negotiating with an agentic female hiring manager would result in the least favorable outcomes, whereas those negotiating with a communal hiring manager would


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-7.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Human-Technology Interaction with AI and Chatbots === Researchers found that the communication style of chatbots can influence consumers' satisfaction, trust, and engagement in the context of service failure. This is demonstrated through interactions with social-oriented communication-style chatbots, which elevate the level of consumers' interaction satisfaction and behavioral intention. This study examined how the communication style of chatbots influences consumers' satisfaction, trust, and engagement in the context of service failure. Additionally, when consumers' expectations are violated to a higher level, chatbots using a socially oriented (vs. task-oriented) communication style are more likely to incite higher interaction satisfaction, trust, and patronage intention. Another study about chatbot interactions examined the opposing effects of response time in human-chatbot interaction. It was found that experienced users may find a delayed response time irritating because they are aware that a chatbot can answer instantly. The results also reveal that social presence, or the feeling of being there, mediates the effect of chatbot response time on usage intentions (the willingness of a person to use a particular product, service, or system). It was also found that when perceived social presence is low, skilled users have a higher usage intention than novice users. This means that users


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-8.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Computer-mediated communication and social media === As has previously been addressed, EVT has evolved tremendously over the years, expanding beyond its original induction when it focused on FtF communication and proxemics. The advancement of information and communications technology has provided tools for expressing oneself and conveying messages beyond just typing in text. As already discussed, arousal can divert one's attention or interest from a message to the source of the arousal. Virtual realities created online through computer-mediated communication (CMC), especially those which evoke strong visual presence through media, can increase arousal levels, such as those with high violent or sexual content. Just as people may use television viewing to increase or decrease arousal levels, people may use media in online communication to increase or decrease arousal levels. People may interact with others online by assuming the identities of avatars which may take on completely different, alternate personalities. The differences in perceived intimateness, co-presence, and emotionally-based trust can very significantly between avatar communication and other communication modalities such as text chat, audio, and audio-visual. The media options available to users when communicating with others online present a host of potential expectancy violations unique to CMC. The introduction of social media


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-9.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
""Don't stalk' – and when you do, don't talk about it" Though an understanding exists among Facebook participants that users will use the site to keep track of the behavior of others in a number of ways, excessive monitoring is likely to be perceived as an expectancy violation. "Don't embarrass me with bad pictures" Users may have the ability to control which pictures they post on their own Facebook page, but they do not have the ability to control what others post. Posting and "tagging" unflattering pictures of others may create expectancy violations. "Don't mess up my profile" Several participants expressed annoyance of others who alter their profiles knowing that their alterations could be perceived negatively, though they did not mention changing their passwords or protecting themselves in other ways. "Choose an appropriate forum for messages" Messages can be sent between Facebook participants through 'Facebook messages', which are not public, or 'wall postings', which can be viewed by anyone specified in the user's privacy controls. Posting messages which may be perceived as private, embarrassing, or inappropriate to a wall posting can create expectancy violations. "Don't compete over number of friends" Facebook users maintain a running total of 'friends' on their


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-10.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== In educational contexts === EVT posits that deviations from expected behavior can influence social judgments. In the context of teacher dress, formal attire aligns with expectations of a teacher's role, and such congruence typically results in favorable credibility assessments. The impact of clothing on expectations, where attire considered appropriate to the teaching context bolstered perceptions of a teacher's potential for student academic success. A mixed method study conducted in 2023 followed first generation college students and their social expectations for their transition to college. Overall students reported negative violations when it came to partying, making new friends, and strengthening new bonds. They also experienced positive violations when it came to stress and workload. Students who reported more negative violations also reported an overall more difficult transition period. Students who reported more positive violations reported an easier transition period. === Implications for teacher dress code === The implications of these studies are twofold: they reaffirm the importance of attire as a component of nonverbal communication within educational settings, and they highlight the potential for teacher attire to align with institutional norms and expectations to enhance educational outcomes. While the preference for formality in attire may vary by educational context, the


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-11.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
==== Student disclosures in college classroom ==== In 2013, Frisby and Sidelinger conducted a research about student disclosures in college classroom to examine what kinds of student disclosures would violate peers' expectations and their perceptions about the disclosers. According to the study, those who make inappropriate disclosures violate others' expectations most in a classroom environment. Inappropriate disclosures are described as high frequent, negative, offensive and irrelevant topics. Disclosers of inappropriate information are more likely to be described as incompetent students, and they are less likeable than students who disclose appropriate information that are related to course materials. ==== Students' expectations towards instructors in online classes ==== Taking EVT as a lens, Renee Bourdeaux and Lindsie Schoenack investigate students' reasons for taking online classes, their expectations towards instructors, and the derivation of expectations of instructors' behaviors. Research shows that students expect clarity, respect, and well-designed course accommodating to the online environment. Participants consider effective communication and improving learning as behaviors bringing positive results. However, unprofessional behaviors, such as lack of use of teaching tools decreasing the productivity of classes, lead to negative results. === Business communication crisis === EVT can also apply to everyday business interaction between long-term partners, new partners,


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-12.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
==== Business/Workplace Behaviors ==== In another study conducted in 2025, researchers examined the aftermath of an ethical violation and how family firms suffer more than non-family firms, as well as the reasons behind this. The presence of family firm information leads individuals to perceive the firm as more trustworthy. Although family firms may be seen as more trustworthy, the opposite effect can also be greater. effects as well. An identity threat could lead to a loss of benevolence beliefs and an avoidant reaction. Similarly, a decrease in perceived integrity and benevolence was significantly greater for family firms than for non-family firms. A 2024 study investigated the effects of greenwashing effects on corporate reputation and brand hate through environmental performance and green perceived risk. The findings show that consumer perceptions of greenwashing can damage a brand's image. Additionally, the study found that greenwashing negatively affects on corporate reputation through perceived environmental performance and green perceived risk. Reducing greenwashing practices can improve consumers' perceptions of corporate environmental performance. In 2024, another study explored whether religion mattered to angel investors specifically, the influence of religion on entrepreneurial investor decision-making. The results showed that religion contributes to social trust across multiple levels of analysis.


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-13.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Evaluation of media figures === Expectancy violations are tightly related to the changes of people's evaluation on their relationships with media figures. In 2010, Cohen made comparisons between relationships with friends and media figures in order to find similarities and differences of people's reactions when their expectations are violated in these two relationships. Violations were generally divided in three categories: social violations such as making offensive comments, trust violations such as making up stories about their life experience, and moral violations such as cheating in a marital relationship or drunk driving. Research indicated that in both friendships and relationships with media figures, social and trust violations are more offensive than moral violations. Specifically, people are more intolerable about moral violations from media figures than from their friends. According to the study, the reason for the intolerance is because relationships with media figures are relatively weak that people invest less on the relationships with media figures than on friendships. The type of media figures is also an important factor to determine the changes of closeness with media figures. People have different expectations to various types of media figures. Research discussed that moral violations negatively influence relationships with athletes, damaging their


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-14.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Expectations of adults with autism === Expectancy violations theory has been applied in studies to determine whether people judge adults with autism as violating their expectations since people with autism can exhibit little-to-no eye contact, or facial expression, not recognize certain nonverbal cues, or utilize tones that non-autistic people may perceive as abnormal. In one manuscript replying to another study, Bishop describes communication deficits in autistic individuals as potentially violating one's expectations for social communication, thus being a form of expectation violation since people with autism can struggle with social communication. One study by Lim, Young, and Brewer hypothesized that people can incorrectly perceive autistic adults as having no credibility or being deceptive. They believed that due to expectancy violations theory, people will judge those who violate their expectations unfavorably in a negative light. They recorded videos of autistic and non autistic adults attempting to persuade the interviewer that they did not steal an envelope of money and the participants of the study were to judge whether they believed the individuals in the interview were lying or telling the truth. The results showed that the autistic people were perceived as deceptive and less credible than non autistic people in


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-15.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Predictability and testability === EVT has undergone scrutiny for its attempt to provide a covering law for certain aspects of interpersonal communication. Some critics of EVT believe most interactions between individuals are extremely complex and there are many contingencies to consider within the theory. This makes the prediction of behavioral outcomes of a particular situation virtually impossible to consistently predict. Another critique of the theory is the assumption that expectancy violations are mostly highly consequential acts, negative in nature, and cause uncertainty to increase between communicators. In actuality, research shows expectancy violations vary in frequency, seriousness, and valence. While it is true that many expectancy violations carry a negative valence, numerous are positive and actually reduce uncertainty because they provide additional information within the parameters of the particular relationship, context, and communicators. ==== A First Look at Communication ==== Emory Griffin, the author of A First Look at Communication Theory, analyzed unpredictability in EVT. His test consisted in analyzing his interaction with four students who made various requests from him. The students were given the pseudonyms Andre, Belinda, Charlie and Dawn. They start with the letters A, B, C and D to represent the increasing distance between them and


id: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory-16.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy violations theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy_violations_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:53.972000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-violations-theory-20260505-0
summary:
== Further use and development of the theory == The concept of social norms marketing follows expectancy violation in that it is based upon the notion that messages containing facts that vary from perception of the norm will create a positive expectancy violation. Advertising, strategic communications, and public relations base social norms campaigns on this position. Interaction adaptation theory further explores expectancy violations. Developed by Burgoon to take a more comprehensive look at social interaction, IAT posits that people enter into interactions with requirements, expectations, and desires. These factors influence both the initial behavior as well as the response behavior. When faced with behavior that meets an individual's needs, expectations, or desires, the response behavior will be positive. When faced with behavior that does not meet an individual's needs, expectations, or desires, he or she can respond either positively or negatively depending on the degree of violation and positive or negative valence of the relationship. Expectancies exert significant influence on people's interaction patterns, on their impressions of one another, and on the outcomes of their interactions. People who can assume that they are well regarded by their audience are safer engaging in violations and more likely to profit from doing


id: expectancy-value-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy-value_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy-value theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy-value_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:55.181654+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-value-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Expectancy–value theory has been developed in many different fields including education, health, communications, marketing and economics. Although the model differs in its meaning and implications for each field, the general idea is that there are expectations as well as values or beliefs that affect subsequent behavior. == Education model == === History and model overview === John William Atkinson developed the expectancy–value theory in the 1950s and 1960s in an effort to understand the achievement motivation of individuals. In the 1980s, Jacquelynne Eccles expanded this research into the field of education. According to expectancy–value theory, students' achievement and achievement related choices are most proximally determined by two factors: expectancies for success, and subjective task values. Expectancies refer to how confident an individual is in his or her ability to succeed in a task whereas task values refer to how important, useful, or enjoyable the individual perceives the task. Theoretical and empirical work suggests that expectancies and values interact to predict important outcomes such as engagement, continuing interest, and academic achievement. Other factors, including demographic characteristics, stereotypes, prior experiences, and perceptions of others' beliefs and behaviors affect achievement related outcomes indirectly through these expectancies and values. This model has most widely


id: expectancy-value-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy-value_theory-1.md
category: reference
title: Expectancy-value theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expectancy-value_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:55.181654+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expectancy-value-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== History === Dr. Martin Fishbein is credited with developing the expectancy–value theory (EVT) in the early to mid-1970s. It is sometimes referred to as Fishbein's expectancy–value theory or simply expectancy–value model. The primary work typically cited by scholars referring to EVT is Martin Fishbein and Icek Ajzen's 1975 book called Belief, Attitude, Intention, and Behavior: An Introduction to Theory and Research. The seed work of EVT can be seen in Fishbein's doctoral dissertation, A Theoretical and Empirical Investigation of the Interrelation between Belief about an Object and the Attitude toward that Object (1961, UCLA) and two subsequent articles in 1962 and 1963 in the journal Human Relations. Fishbein's work drew on the writings of researchers such as Ward Edwards, Milton J. Rosenberg, Edward Tolman, and John B. Watson. === Concepts === EVT has three basic components. First, individuals respond to novel information about an item or action by developing a belief about the item or action. If a belief already exists, it can and most likely will be modified by new information. Second, individuals assign a value to each attribute that a belief is based on. Third, an expectation is created or modified based on the result of a


id: language-expectancy-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_expectancy_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Language expectancy theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_expectancy_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:56.372148+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: language-expectancy-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Language expectancy theory (LET) is a theory of persuasion. The theory assumes language is a rules-based system, in which people develop expected norms as to appropriate language usage in given situations. Furthermore, unexpected linguistic usage can affect the receiver's behavior resulting from attitudes towards a persuasive message. == Background == Created by Michael Burgoon, a retired professor of medicine from the University of Arizona, and Gerald R. Miller, the inspiration for LET was sparked by Brooks' work on expectations of language in 1970. Burgoon, Jones and Stewart furthered the discussion with the idea of linguistic strategies and message intensity in an essay published in 1975. The essay linked linguistic strategies, or how a message is framed, to effective persuasive outcomes. The original work for the language expectation theory was published in 1978. Titled "An empirical test of a model of resistance to persuasion", it outlined the theory through 17s. == Expectations == The theory views language expectancies as enduring patterns of anticipated communication behavior which are grounded in a society's psychological and cultural norms. Such societal forces influence language and enable the identification of non-normative use; violations of linguistic, syntactic and semantic expectations will either facilitate or inhibit an audience's


id: language-expectancy-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_expectancy_theory-1.md
category: reference
title: Language expectancy theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_expectancy_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:56.372148+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: language-expectancy-theory-20260505-0
summary:
== The role of intensity == These propositions give rise to the impact of language intensity—defined by John Waite Bowers as a quality of language that "indicates the degree to which the speaker's attitude toward a concept deviates from neutrality"—on persuasive messages. Theorists have concentrated on two key areas: (1) intensity of language when it comes to gender roles and (2) credibility. The perceived credibility of a source can greatly affect a message's persuasiveness. Researchers found that credible sources can enhance their appeal by using intense language; however, less credible speakers are more persuasive with low-intensity appeals. Similarly, females are less persuasive than males when they use intense language because it violates the expected behavior, but are more persuasive when they use low-intensity language. Males, however, are seen as weak when they argue in a less intense manner. Theorists argue further that females and speakers perceived as having low credibility have less freedom in selecting message strategies and that the use of aggressive language negatively violates expectations. == Example == To better explain the theory we look at the expectations and societal norms for a man and a woman on their first date. If the man pushed for further physical


id: the-limits-of-individual-plasticity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Limits_of_Individual_Plasticity-0.md
category: reference
title: The Limits of Individual Plasticity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Limits_of_Individual_Plasticity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:57.512199+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-limits-of-individual-plasticity-20260505-0
summary:
"The Limits of Individual Plasticity" is a short essay written by the science fiction author H. G. Wells (21 September 1866 – 13 August 1946) in 1895. In it, Wells speculates his theories on the plasticity of animals, explaining that the default biological form of an animal may be altered in a way that it would continue to survive even if it, in any way, no longer resembles its inherent form. This could, according to Wells, theoretically be achieved through surgical or chemical modification. Wells was fully aware that surgical modification is only a physical change, and would not alter an animal's genetic blueprint. He made note that should an animal be surgically modified, its offspring would most likely retain its parent creature's original physical form. == Incorporation in novels == Wells presented many of his ideas from "The Limits of Individual Plasticity" in his 1896 science fiction novel, The Island of Doctor Moreau. In the novel, a shipwrecked Englishman named Edward Prendick is rescued from the sea and brought to a secluded island by a man named Montgomery, who reveals the island is owned and operated by an eminent British physiologist named Dr. Moreau. Moreau was shunned from the


id: membrane-theory-of-shells-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membrane_theory_of_shells-0.md
category: reference
title: Membrane theory of shells
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membrane_theory_of_shells
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:58.715178+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: membrane-theory-of-shells-20260505-0
summary:
The membrane theory of shells, or membrane theory for short, describes the mechanical properties of shells when twisting or under bending and assumes that bending moments are small enough to be negligible. The spectacular simplification of membrane theory makes possible the examination of a wide variety of shapes and supports, in particular, tanks and shell roofs. There are heavy penalties paid for this simplification, and such inadequacies are apparent through critical inspection, remaining within the theory, of solutions. However, this theory is more than a first approximation. If a shell is shaped and supported so as to carry the load within a membrane stress system it may be a desirable solution to the design problem, i.e., thin, light and stiff. == See also == Theory of plates and shells Stress resultants in plates and shells == References == == Literature == Ventsel, Eduard; Krauthammer, Theodor (24 August 2001). "Chapter 13. The Membrane Theory Of Shells". Thin Plates and Shells - Theory: Analysis, and Applications. CRC Press. pp. 349–372. doi:10.1201/9780203908723.ch13 (inactive 12 July 2025). ISBN 978-0-8247-0575-6. Retrieved 5 October 2014.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link) Practical industry example for plates and shell analysis - animated video


id: mosquito-malaria-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquito-malaria_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Mosquito-malaria theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquito-malaria_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:59.882762+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mosquito-malaria-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Mosquito-malaria theory (or sometimes mosquito theory) was a scientific theory developed in the latter half of the 19th century that solved the question of how malaria was transmitted. The theory proposed that malaria was transmitted by mosquitoes, in opposition to the centuries-old medical dogma that malaria was due to bad air, or miasma. The first scientific idea was postulated in 1851 by Charles E. Johnson, who argued that miasma had no direct relationship with malaria. Although Johnson's hypothesis was forgotten, the arrival and validation of the germ theory of diseases in the late 19th century began to shed new lights. When Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran discovered that malaria was caused by a protozoan parasite in 1880, the miasma theory began to subside. An important discovery was made by Patrick Manson in 1877 that mosquitos could transmit human filarial parasite. Inferring from such novel discovery, Albert Freeman Africanus King proposed the hypothesis that mosquitoes were the source of malaria. In the early 1890s Manson himself began to formulate the complete hypothesis, which he eventually called the mosquito-malaria theory. According to Manson, malaria was transmitted from human to human by a mosquito. The theory was scientifically proved by Manson's confidant Ronald Ross


id: mosquito-malaria-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquito-malaria_theory-1.md
category: reference
title: Mosquito-malaria theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquito-malaria_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:59.882762+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mosquito-malaria-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Discovery of mosquito as disease vector === In the early 1880s, Laveran's germ theory of malaria was generally accepted by the science community. However pivotal problems still remained, such as what transmit the malarial parasites and how. The scientific clue emerged when a British medical officer Patrick Manson discovered for the first time that parasites were transmitted by mosquitoes. In 1877 while working in Amoy, a coastal town in China, he found that the mosquito Culex fatigans (now Culex quinquefasciatus) was the vector of the filarial roundworm that he called Filaria sanguinis hominis (but now Wuchereria bancrofti). His findings were published in the China Customs Medical Report in 1878, and relayed by Spencer Cobbold to the Linnean Society in London. This was the first direct evidence that mosquitoes could transmit microscopic parasites in humans, further suggesting that the same could be true in case of malaria. == King's theory == Based on the report of Manson's discovery, an American physician Albert Freeman Africanus King developed a proposition that malaria is transmitted by mosquitoes. He revealed his idea in 1881 to his colleagues C.V. Riley and L.O. Howard, who did not share the same opinion. Unfettered he developed the theory


id: mosquito-malaria-theory-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquito-malaria_theory-2.md
category: reference
title: Mosquito-malaria theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquito-malaria_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:06:59.882762+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mosquito-malaria-theory-20260505-0
summary:
In 1894 Patrick Manson devised an ingenious procedure for detecting malarial parasites at different developmental stages from blood samples. This would later prove to be the tool for experimental proof of his theory. Manson demonstrated to and taught Ronald Ross the technique from which Ross became convinced of Laveran's germ theory. Trained and mentored by Manson, Ross returned to India in March 1895 to start his investigation. But to the dismay of Ross it was not an easy task. His first detection of malarial parasite from patients came only after two months of hard work. The disappointed Ross had to be encouraged by Manson calling the study as the "Holy Grail" of malaria research, and that Ross was the "Sir Galahad". After one and half years he made no significant progress. On 20 August 1897 he made a momentous discovery that some mosquitoes had malarial parasites in them. He had fed the blood of a malarial patient (Husein Khan) to different groups of mosquitoes four days before, and found that only one type (which he called "brown type" or more commonly "dappled-winged mosquitoes", not knowing the species, which in fact was Anopheles) acquired the malarial parasites in its stomach. This


id: nonequilibrium-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonequilibrium_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Nonequilibrium theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonequilibrium_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:01.047591+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nonequilibrium-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Nonequilibrium theory refers to the idea that ecosystems are not in a stable state, but instead are fluctuating from disturbances and pressures. Disturbances like disease, predators, climate change, fires, and others lead to shifts in ecosystem characteristics and prevent the return to equilibrium. Once shifted to an altered state, it can be difficult to return to an original state. This theory challenges traditional ideas of stability. Ecosystems are dynamic, ever changing structures that can be influenced by numerous characteristics.This perspective has important implications for conservation, prompting a shift toward strategies that embrace change, resilience, and adaptability rather than trying to preserve a single state. == Disturbance driven dynamics == Ecosystems are frequently influenced by a large variety of different disturbances. These disturbances can be periodic, unpredictable, with very different intensities. Disturbances may arise from natural events or human activities, each having the potential to drastically alter ecosystem structure and function. === Natural disturbance === Wildfire Hurricanes Tornadoes Floods and droughts Extreme temperature fluctuations === Human disturbance === Land use change (urbanization, crop land, deforestation) Pollution Invasive species introduction Overexploitation of resources == Multiple stable states == Depending on external pressures, ecosystems can exist under alternate stable states. Even under equal


id: scientific-socialism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_socialism-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific socialism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_socialism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:07:02.303293+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-socialism-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific socialism in Marxism is the application of historical materialism to the development of socialism, as not just a practical and achievable outcome of historical processes, but the only possible outcome. It contrasts with utopian socialism by basing itself upon material conditions instead of concoctions and ideas, where "the final causes of all social changes and political revolutions are to be sought, not in men's brains, not in men's better insights into eternal truth and justice, but in changes in the modes of production and exchange. They are to be sought, not in the philosophy, but in the economics of each particular epoch." Fredrich Engels, who developed it alongside Karl Marx, described: To accomplish this act of universal emancipation [proletarian revolution and communism] is the historical mission of the modern proletariat. To thoroughly comprehend the historical conditions and thus the very nature of this act, to impart to the now oppressed proletarian class a full knowledge of the conditions and of the meaning of the momentous act it is called upon to accomplish, this is the task of the theoretical expression of the proletarian movement, scientific Socialism. The term's modern meaning is based almost totally on Engels's book Socialism: Utopian


