# kb

id: philosophi-naturalis-principia-mathematica-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-1.md
category: reference
title: Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:46:10.722464+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophi-naturalis-principia-mathematica-20260505-0
summary:
=== Book 2, part 2 of De motu corporum === Part of the contents originally planned for the first book was divided out into a second book, which largely concerns motion through resisting mediums. Just as Newton examined consequences of different conceivable laws of attraction in Book 1, here he examines different conceivable laws of resistance; thus Section 1 discusses resistance in direct proportion to velocity, and Section 2 goes on to examine the implications of resistance in proportion to the square of velocity. Through Book II, Newton was an important pioneer of fluid mechanics, and a later analysis showed that of its 53 propositions almost all are correct, with only two or three open to question. Book 2 discusses (in Section 5) hydrostatics and the properties of compressible fluids; he also derives Boyle's law (incorrectly; for an ideal gas is not like an elastic fluid). The effects of air resistance on pendulums are studied in Section 6, along with Newton's account of experiments that he carried out, to try to find out some characteristics of air resistance in reality by observing the motions of pendulums under different conditions. Newton compares the resistance offered by a medium against motions of


id: philosophi-naturalis-principia-mathematica-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-2.md
category: reference
title: Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:46:10.722464+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophi-naturalis-principia-mathematica-20260505-0
summary:
Only I must observe, that the vulgar conceive those quantities under no other notions but from the relation they bear to perceptible objects. And it will be convenient to distinguish them into absolute and relative, true and apparent, mathematical and common. ... instead of absolute places and motions, we use relative ones; and that without any inconvenience in common affairs; but in philosophical discussions, we ought to step back from our senses, and consider things themselves, distinct from what are only perceptible measures of them. To some modern readers it can appear that some dynamical quantities recognised today were used in the Principia but not named. The mathematical aspects of the first two books were so clearly consistent that they were easily accepted; for example, John Locke asked Christiaan Huygens whether he could trust the mathematical proofs and was assured about their correctness. However, the concept of an attractive force acting at a distance received a cooler response. In his notes, Newton wrote that the inverse square law arose naturally due to the structure of matter. However, he retracted this sentence in the published version, where he stated that the motion of planets is consistent with an inverse square law,


id: philosophi-naturalis-principia-mathematica-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-3.md
category: reference
title: Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:46:10.722464+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophi-naturalis-principia-mathematica-20260505-0
summary:
The General Scholium is a concluding essay added to the second edition, 1713 (and amended in the third edition, 1726). It is not to be confused with the General Scholium at the end of Book 2, Section 6, which discusses his pendulum experiments and resistance due to air, water, and other fluids. Here Newton used the expression hypotheses non fingo, "I formulate no hypotheses", in response to criticisms of the first edition of the Principia. ("Fingo" is sometimes nowadays translated "feign" rather than the traditional "frame," although "feign" does not properly translate "fingo"). Newton's gravitational attraction, an invisible force able to act over vast distances, had led to criticism that he had introduced "occult agencies" into science. Newton firmly rejected such criticisms and wrote that it was enough that the phenomena implied gravitational attraction, as they did; but the phenomena did not so far indicate the cause of this gravity, and it was both unnecessary and improper to frame hypotheses of things not implied by the phenomena: such hypotheses "have no place in experimental philosophy", in contrast to the proper way in which "particular propositions are inferr'd from the phenomena and afterwards rendered general by induction". Newton also underlined his


id: philosophi-naturalis-principia-mathematica-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-4.md
category: reference
title: Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:46:10.722464+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophi-naturalis-principia-mathematica-20260505-0
summary:
=== Halley and Newton's initial stimulus === In January 1684, Edmond Halley, Christopher Wren and Robert Hooke had a conversation in which Hooke claimed to not only have derived the inverse-square law but also all the laws of planetary motion. Wren was unconvinced, Hooke did not produce the claimed derivation although the others gave him time to do it, and Halley, who could derive the inverse-square law for the restricted circular case (by substituting Kepler's relation into Huygens' formula for the centrifugal force) but failed to derive the relation generally, resolved to ask Newton. Halley's visits to Newton in 1684 thus resulted from Halley's debates about planetary motion with Wren and Hooke, and they seem to have provided Newton with the incentive and spur to develop and write what became Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. Halley was at that time a Fellow and Council member of the Royal Society in London (positions that in 1686 he resigned to become the Society's paid Clerk). Halley's visit to Newton in Cambridge in 1684 probably occurred in August. When Halley asked Newton's opinion on the problem of planetary motions discussed earlier that year between Halley, Hooke and Wren, Newton surprised Halley by saying that


id: philosophi-naturalis-principia-mathematica-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-5.md
category: reference
title: Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:46:10.722464+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophi-naturalis-principia-mathematica-20260505-0
summary:
It is not known just why Newton changed his mind so radically about the final form of what had been a readable narrative in De motu corporum, Liber Secundus of 1685, but he largely started afresh in a new, tighter, and less accessible mathematical style, eventually to produce Book 3 of the Principia as we know it. Newton frankly admitted that this change of style was deliberate when he wrote that he had (first) composed this book "in a popular method, that it might be read by many", but to "prevent the disputes" by readers who could not "lay aside the[ir] prejudices", he had "reduced" it "into the form of propositions (in the mathematical way) which should be read by those only, who had first made themselves masters of the principles established in the preceding books". The final Book 3 also contained in addition some further important quantitative results arrived at by Newton in the meantime, especially about the theory of the motions of comets, and some of the perturbations of the motions of the Moon. The result was numbered Book 3 of the Principia rather than Book 2 because in the meantime, drafts of Liber primus had expanded and


id: philosophi-naturalis-principia-mathematica-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-6.md
category: reference
title: Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:46:10.722464+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophi-naturalis-principia-mathematica-20260505-0
summary:
=== Newton's role === Newton had studied these books, or, in some cases, secondary sources based on them, and taken notes entitled Quaestiones quaedam philosophicae (Questions about philosophy) during his days as an undergraduate. During this period (1664–1666) he created the basis of calculus and performed the first experiments in the optics of colour. At this time, his proof that white light was a combination of primary colours (found via prismatics) replaced the prevailing theory of colours and received an overwhelmingly favourable response and occasioned bitter disputes with Robert Hooke and others, which forced him to sharpen his ideas to the point where he already composed sections of his later book Opticks by the 1670s in response. Work on calculus is shown in various papers and letters, including two to Leibniz. He became a fellow of the Royal Society and the second Lucasian Professor of Mathematics (succeeding Isaac Barrow) at Trinity College, Cambridge. === Newton's early work on motion === In the 1660s Newton studied the motion of colliding bodies and deduced that the centre of mass of two colliding bodies remains in uniform motion. Surviving manuscripts of the 1660s also show Newton's interest in planetary motion and that by


id: philosophi-naturalis-principia-mathematica-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-7.md
category: reference
title: Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:46:10.722464+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophi-naturalis-principia-mathematica-20260505-0
summary:
=== Controversy with Hooke === Hooke published his ideas about gravitation in the 1660s and again in 1674. He argued for an attracting principle of gravitation in Micrographia of 1665, in a 1666 Royal Society lecture On gravity, and again in 1674, when he published his ideas about the System of the World in somewhat developed form, as an addition to An Attempt to Prove the Motion of the Earth from Observations. Hooke clearly postulated mutual attractions between the Sun and planets, in a way that increased with nearness to the attracting body, along with a principle of linear inertia. Hooke's statements up to 1674 made no mention, however, that an inverse square law applies or might apply to these attractions. Hooke's gravitation was also not yet universal, though it approached universality more closely than previous hypotheses. Hooke also did not provide accompanying evidence or mathematical demonstration. On these two aspects, Hooke stated in 1674: "Now what these several degrees [of gravitational attraction] are I have not yet experimentally verified" (indicating that he did not yet know what law the gravitation might follow); and as to his whole proposal: "This I only hint at present", "having my self many other


id: philosophi-naturalis-principia-mathematica-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-8.md
category: reference
title: Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:46:10.722464+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophi-naturalis-principia-mathematica-20260505-0
summary:
== Location of early edition copies == It has been estimated that as many as 750 copies of the first edition were printed by the Royal Society, and "it is quite remarkable that so many copies of this small first edition are still in existence ... but it may be because the original Latin text was more revered than read". A survey published in 1953 located 189 surviving copies with nearly 200 further copies located by the most recent survey published in 2020, suggesting that the initial print run was larger than previously thought. However, more recent book historical and bibliographical research has examined those prior claims, and concludes that Macomber's earlier estimation of 500 copies is likely correct. Cambridge University Library has Newton's own copy of the first edition, with handwritten notes for the second edition. The Earl Gregg Swem Library at the College of William & Mary has a first edition copy of the Principia. Throughout are Latin annotations written by Thomas S. Savage. These handwritten notes are currently being researched at the college. The Frederick E. Brasch Collection of Newton and Newtoniana in Stanford University also has a first edition of the Principia. A first edition forms


id: philosophi-naturalis-principia-mathematica-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-9.md
category: reference
title: Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:46:10.722464+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophi-naturalis-principia-mathematica-20260505-0
summary:
=== Third edition, 1726 === After his serious illness in 1722 and after the appearance of a reprint of the second edition in Amsterdam in 1723, the 80-year-old Newton began to revise once again the Principia in the autumn of 1723. The third edition was published 25 March 1726, under the stewardship of Henry Pemberton, M.D., a man of the greatest skill in these matters...; Pemberton later said that this recognition was worth more to him than the two hundred guinea award from Newton. In 1739–1742, two French priests, Pères Thomas LeSeur and François Jacquier (of the Minim order, but sometimes erroneously identified as Jesuits), produced with the assistance of J.-L. Calandrini an extensively annotated version of the Principia in the 3rd edition of 1726. Sometimes this is referred to as the Jesuit edition: it was much used, and reprinted more than once in Scotland during the 19th century. Émilie du Châtelet also made a translation of Newton's Principia into French. Unlike LeSeur and Jacquier's edition, hers was a complete translation of Newton's three books and their prefaces. She also included a Commentary section where she fused the three books into a much clearer and easier to understand summary. She


id: philosophi-naturalis-principia-mathematica-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-10.md
category: reference
title: Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:46:10.722464+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophi-naturalis-principia-mathematica-20260505-0
summary:
In 1977, the spacecraft Voyager 1 and 2 left earth for the interstellar space carrying a picture of a page from Newton's Principia Mathematica, as part of the Golden Record, a collection of messages from humanity to extraterrestrials. In 2014, British astronaut Tim Peake named his upcoming mission to the International Space Station Principia after the book, in "honour of Britain's greatest scientist". Tim Peake's Principia launched on 15 December 2015 aboard Soyuz TMA-19M. == See also == Atomism Elements of the Philosophy of Newton Isaac Newton's occult studies == References == == Further reading == == External links == === Latin versions === First edition (1687) Trinity College Library, Cambridge High resolution digitised version of Newton's own copy of the first edition, with annotations. Cambridge University, Cambridge Digital Library High resolution digitised version of Newton's own copy of the first edition, interleaved with blank pages for his annotations and corrections. 1687: Newton's Principia, first edition (1687, in Latin). High-resolution presentation of the Gunnerus Library copy. 1687: Newton's Principia, first edition (1687, in Latin). Project Gutenberg. ETH-Bibliothek Zürich. From the library of Gabriel Cramer. Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica From the Rare Book and Special Collection Division at the Library of


id: photometria-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photometria-0.md
category: reference
title: Photometria
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photometria
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:46:11.905861+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: photometria-20260505-0
summary:
Photometria is a book on the measurement of light by Johann Heinrich Lambert published in 1760. It established a complete system of photometric quantities and principles; using them to measure the optical properties of materials, quantify aspects of vision, and calculate illumination. == Content of Photometria == Written in Latin, the title of the book is a word Lambert devised from Ancient Greek: φῶς, φωτος (transliterated phôs, photos) = light, and μετρια (transliterated metria) = measure. Lambert’s word has found its way into European languages as photometry, photometrie, and fotometria. Photometria was the first work to accurately identify most fundamental photometric concepts, assemble them into a coherent system of photometric quantities, define these quantities with a precision sufficient for mathematical statements, and build from them a system of photometric principles. These concepts, quantities, and principles are still in use today. Lambert began with two simple axioms: light travels in a straight line in a uniform medium and rays that cross do not interact. Like Kepler before him, he recognized that "laws" of photometry are simply consequences and follow directly from these two assumptions. In this way Photometria demonstrated (rather than assumed) that Illuminance varies inversely as the square of the


id: photometria-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photometria-1.md
category: reference
title: Photometria
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photometria
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:46:11.905861+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: photometria-20260505-0
summary:
== Nature of Photometria == Lambert's book is fundamentally experimental. The forty experiments described in Photometria were conducted by Lambert between 1755 and 1760, after he decided to write a treatise on light measurement. His interest in acquiring experimental data spanned several fields: optics, thermometry, pyrometry, hydrometry, and magnetics. This interest in experimental data and its analysis, so evident in Photometria, is also present in other articles and books Lambert produced. For his optics work, extremely limited equipment sufficed: a few panes of glass, convex and concave lenses, mirrors, prisms, paper and cardboard, pigments, candles, and the means to measure distances and angles. Lambert's book is also mathematical. Though he knew that the physical nature of light was unknown (it would be 150 years before the wave-particle duality was established) he was certain that light's interaction with materials and its effect on vision could be quantified. Mathematics was for Lambert not only indispensable for this quantification but also the indisputable sign of rigor. He used linear algebra and calculus extensively with matter-of-fact confidence that was uncommon in optical works of the time. On this basis, Photometria is certainly uncharacteristic of mid-18th century works. == Writing and publishing of Photometria ==


id: point-processes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point_Processes-0.md
category: reference
title: Point Processes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point_Processes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:46:13.101692+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: point-processes-20260505-0
summary:
Point Processes is a book on the mathematics of point processes, randomly located sets of points on the real line or in other geometric spaces. It was written by David Cox and Valerie Isham, and published in 1980 by Chapman & Hall in their Monographs on Applied Probability and Statistics book series. The Basic Library List Committee of the Mathematical Association of America has suggested its inclusion in undergraduate mathematics libraries. == Topics == Although Point Processes covers some of the general theory of point processes, that is not its main focus, and it avoids any discussion of statistical inference involving these processes. Instead, its aim is to present the properties and descriptions of several specific processes arising in applications of this theory, which had not been previously collected in texts in this area. Three of its six chapters concern more general material, while the final three are more specific. The first chapter includes introductory material on standard processes: Poisson point processes, renewal processes, self-exciting processes, and doubly stochastic processes. The second chapter provides some general theory including stationarity, orderliness (meaning that the probability of multiple arrivals in short intervals is sublinear in the interval length), Palm distributions, Fourier analysis,


id: polyhedra-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyhedra_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Polyhedra (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyhedra_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:46:14.235573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: polyhedra-book-20260505-0
summary:
Polyhedra is a book on polyhedra, by Peter R. Cromwell. It was published by in 1997 by the Cambridge University Press, with an unrevised paperback edition in 1999. == Topics == The book covers both the mathematics of polyhedra and its historical development, limiting itself only to three-dimensional geometry. The notion of what it means to be a polyhedron has varied over the history of the subject, as have other related definitions, an issue that the book handles largely by keeping definitions informal and flexible, and by pointing out problematic examples for these intuitive definitions. Many digressions help make the material readable, and the book includes many illustrations, including historical reproductions, line diagrams, and photographs of models of polyhedra. Polyhedra has ten chapters, the first four of which are primarily historical, with the remaining six more technical. The first chapter outlines the history of polyhedra from the ancient world up to Hilbert's third problem on the possibility of cutting polyhedra into pieces and reassembling them into different polyhedra. The second chapter considers the symmetries of polyhedra, the Platonic solids and Archimedean solids, and the honeycombs formed by space-filling polyhedra. Chapter 3 covers the history of geometry in medieval Islam and


id: polyominoes-puzzles-patterns-problems-and-packings-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyominoes:_Puzzles,_Patterns,_Problems,_and_Packings-0.md
category: reference
title: Polyominoes: Puzzles, Patterns, Problems, and Packings
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyominoes:_Puzzles,_Patterns,_Problems,_and_Packings
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:46:27.385356+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: polyominoes-puzzles-patterns-problems-and-packings-20260505-0
summary:
Polyominoes: Puzzles, Patterns, Problems, and Packings is a mathematics book on polyominoes, the shapes formed by connecting some number of unit squares edge-to-edge. It was written by Solomon Golomb, and is "universally regarded as a classic in recreational mathematics". The Basic Library List Committee of the Mathematical Association of America has strongly recommended its inclusion in undergraduate mathematics libraries. == Publication history == The book collects together material previously published by Golomb in various articles and columns, especially in Recreational Mathematics Magazine. It was originally published by Scribner's in 1965, titled simply Polyominoes, and including a plastic set of the twelve pentominoes. The book's title word "polyominoes" was invented for the subject by Golomb in 1954 as a back-formation from "domino". A translation into Russian by I. Yaglom, Полимино, was published by Mir in 1975; it includes also translations of two papers on polyominoes by Golomb and by David A. Klarner. A second English-language edition of the book was published by the Princeton University Press in 1994. It added to the corrected text of the original addition two more chapters on recent developments, an expanded bibliography, and two appendices, one giving an enumeration of polyominoes and a second reprinting a


id: prime-obsession-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Obsession-0.md
category: reference
title: Prime Obsession
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Obsession
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:46:28.637361+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: prime-obsession-20260505-0
summary:
Prime Obsession: Bernhard Riemann and the Greatest Unsolved Problem in Mathematics (2003) is a historical book on mathematics by John Derbyshire, detailing the history of the Riemann hypothesis, named for Bernhard Riemann, and some of its applications. The book was awarded the Mathematical Association of America's inaugural Euler Book Prize in 2007. == Overview == The book is written such that even-numbered chapters present historical elements related to the development of the conjecture, and odd-numbered chapters deal with the mathematical and technical aspects. Despite the title, the book provides biographical information on many iconic mathematicians including Euler, Gauss, and Lagrange. In chapter 1, "Card Trick", Derbyshire introduces the idea of an infinite series and the ideas of convergence and divergence of these series. He imagines that there is a deck of cards stacked neatly together, and that one pulls off the top card so that it overhangs from the deck. Explaining that it can overhang only as far as the center of gravity allows, the card is pulled so that exactly half of it is overhanging. Then, without moving the top card, he slides the second card so that it is overhanging too at equilibrium. As he does this more


id: the-princeton-companion-to-mathematics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Princeton_Companion_to_Mathematics-0.md
category: reference
title: The Princeton Companion to Mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Princeton_Companion_to_Mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:46:29.787993+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-princeton-companion-to-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
The Princeton Companion to Mathematics is a book providing an extensive overview of mathematics that was published in 2008 by Princeton University Press. Edited by Timothy Gowers with associate editors June Barrow-Green and Imre Leader, it has been noted for the high caliber of its contributors. The book was the 2011 winner of the Euler Book Prize of the Mathematical Association of America, given annually to "an outstanding book about mathematics". == Topics and organization == The book concentrates primarily on modern pure mathematics rather than applied mathematics, although it does also cover both applications of mathematics and the mathematics that relates to those applications; it provides a broad overview of the significant ideas and developments in research mathematics. It is organized into eight parts: An introduction to mathematics, outlining the major areas of study, key definitions, and the goals and purposes of mathematical research. An overview of the history of mathematics, in seven chapters including the development of important concepts such as number, geometry, mathematical proof, and the axiomatic approach to the foundations of mathematics. A chronology of significant events in mathematical history is also provided later in the book. Three core sections, totalling approximately 600 pages. The first


id: the-principles-of-mathematics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Principles_of_Mathematics-0.md
category: reference
title: The Principles of Mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Principles_of_Mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:46:30.914036+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-principles-of-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
The Principles of Mathematics (PoM) is a 1903 book by Bertrand Russell, in which the author presented his famous paradox and argued his thesis that mathematics and logic are identical. The book presents a view of the foundations of mathematics and Meinongianism and has become a classic reference. It reported on developments by Giuseppe Peano, Mario Pieri, Richard Dedekind, Georg Cantor, and others. In 1905 Louis Couturat published a partial French translation that expanded the book's readership. In 1937 Russell prepared a new introduction saying, "Such interest as the book now possesses is historical, and consists in the fact that it represents a certain stage in the development of its subject." Further editions were published in 1938, 1951, 1996, and 2009. == Contents == The Principles of Mathematics consists of 59 chapters divided into seven parts: indefinables in mathematics, number, quantity, order, infinity and continuity, space, matter and motion. In chapter one, "Definition of Pure Mathematics", Russell asserts that: The fact that all Mathematics is Symbolic Logic is one of the greatest discoveries of our age; and when this fact has been established, the remainder of the principles of mathematics consists in the analysis of Symbolic Logic itself. Russell deconstructs


id: the-principles-of-mathematics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Principles_of_Mathematics-1.md
category: reference
title: The Principles of Mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Principles_of_Mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:46:30.914036+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-principles-of-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
The Principles of Mathematics, which I finished on 23 May 1902, turned out to be a crude and rather immature draft of the subsequent work [Principia Mathematica], from which, however, it differed in containing controversy with other philosophies of mathematics. Such self-deprecation from the author after half a century of philosophical growth is understandable. On the other hand, Jules Vuillemin wrote in 1968: The Principles inaugurated contemporary philosophy. Other works have won and lost the title. Such is not the case with this one. It is serious, and its wealth perseveres. Furthermore, in relation to it, in a deliberate fashion or not, it locates itself again today in the eyes of all those that believe that contemporary science has modified our representation of the universe and through this representation, our relation to ourselves and to others. Moreover, in the same reflection, Russell also recounts the singular place the composition of the book had in his intellectual life. He recalls: I finished this first draft of The Principles of Mathematics on the last day of the nineteenth century—i.e. December 31, 1900. The months since the previous July had been an intellectual honeymoon such as I have never experienced before or since.


id: proofs-and-refutations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proofs_and_Refutations-0.md
category: reference
title: Proofs and Refutations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proofs_and_Refutations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:46:32.102198+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: proofs-and-refutations-20260505-0
summary:
Proofs and Refutations: The Logic of Mathematical Discovery is a 1976 book by philosopher Imre Lakatos expounding his view of the progress of mathematics. The book is written as a series of Socratic dialogues involving a group of students who discuss proposed proofs of Euler's polyhedral formula. A central theme is that definitions are not carved in stone, but often have to be patched up in the light of later insights, in particular failed proofs. This gives mathematics a somewhat experimental flavour. At the end of the Introduction, Lakatos explains that his purpose is to challenge formalism in mathematics, and to show that informal mathematics grows by a logic of "proofs and refutations". == Background == The 1976 book Proofs and Refutations is based on the first three chapters of his 1961 four-chapter doctoral thesis Essays in the Logic of Mathematical Discovery. But its first chapter is Lakatos's own revision of its chapter 1 that was first published as Proofs and Refutations in four parts in 1963–4 in the British Journal for the Philosophy of Science. == Synopsis == Many important logical ideas are explained in the book. For example, the difference between a counterexample to a lemma (a so-called


id: proofs-from-the-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proofs_from_THE_BOOK-0.md
category: reference
title: Proofs from THE BOOK
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proofs_from_THE_BOOK
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:46:33.272504+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: proofs-from-the-book-20260505-0
summary:
Proofs from THE BOOK is a book of mathematical proofs by Martin Aigner and Günter M. Ziegler, first published in 1998. The book is inspired by and named after an expression used by the mathematician Paul Erdős, who often referred to "The Book" in which God kept the best proof of each mathematical theorem. During a lecture in 1985, Erdős said, "You don't have to believe in God, but you should believe in The Book." The greatest praise Erdős gave to mathematical work was to proclaim it "straight from the Book". Aigner and Zeigler proposed to Erdős a real book that would be "a first (and very modest) approximation to 'The Book'". Erdős had many suggestions for proofs that should be included, and would have been a co-author except that he died in 1996. Proofs from THE BOOK is instead dedicated to his memory. Including its original publication, Proofs from THE BOOK has had six editions in English, and has been translated into Persian, French, German, Hungarian, Italian, Japanese, Chinese, Polish, Portuguese, Korean, Turkish, Russian, Spanish and Greek. The American Mathematical Society awarded the 2018 Leroy P. Steele Prize for Mathematical Exposition to Aigner and Ziegler for this book. ==


id: pythagorean-triangles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagorean_Triangles-0.md
category: reference
title: Pythagorean Triangles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagorean_Triangles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:46:35.563939+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pythagorean-triangles-20260505-0
summary:
Pythagorean Triangles is a book on right triangles, the Pythagorean theorem, and Pythagorean triples. It was originally written in the Polish language by Wacław Sierpiński (titled Trójkąty pitagorejskie), and published in Warsaw in 1954. Indian mathematician Ambikeshwar Sharma translated it into English, with some added material from Sierpiński, and published it in the Scripta Mathematica Studies series of Yeshiva University (volume 9 of the series) in 1962. Dover Books republished the translation in a paperback edition in 2003. There is also a Russian translation of the 1954 edition. == Topics == As a brief summary of the book's contents, reviewer Brian Hopkins quotes The Pirates of Penzance: "With many cheerful facts about the square of the hypotenuse." The book is divided into 15 chapters (or 16, if one counts the added material as a separate chapter). The first three of these define the primitive Pythagorean triples (the ones in which the two sides and hypotenuse have no common factor), derive the standard formula for generating all primitive Pythagorean triples, compute the inradius of Pythagorean triangles, and construct all triangles with sides of length at most 100. Chapter 4 considers special classes of Pythagorean triangles, including those with sides in arithmetic


id: quasicrystals-and-geometry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasicrystals_and_Geometry-0.md
category: reference
title: Quasicrystals and Geometry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasicrystals_and_Geometry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:46:36.726659+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: quasicrystals-and-geometry-20260505-0
summary:
Quasicrystals and Geometry is a book on quasicrystals and aperiodic tiling by Marjorie Senechal, published in 1995 by Cambridge University Press (ISBN 0-521-37259-3). One of the main themes of the book is to understand how the mathematical properties of aperiodic tilings such as the Penrose tiling, and in particular the existence of arbitrarily large patches of five-way rotational symmetry throughout these tilings, correspond to the properties of quasicrystals including the five-way symmetry of their Bragg peaks. Neither kind of symmetry is possible for a traditional periodic tiling or periodic crystal structure, and the interplay between these topics led from the 1960s into the 1990s to new developments and new fundamental definitions in both mathematics and crystallography. == Topics == The book is divided into two parts. The first part covers the history of crystallography, the use of X-ray diffraction to study crystal structures through the Bragg peaks formed on their diffraction patterns, and the discovery in the early 1980s of quasicrystals, materials that form Bragg peaks in patterns with five-way symmetry, impossible for a repeating crystal structure. It models the arrangement of atoms in a substance by a Delone set, a set of points in the plane or in Euclidean


id: rabdology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabdology-0.md
category: reference
title: Rabdology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabdology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:46:37.868793+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rabdology-20260505-0
summary:
In 1617 a treatise in Latin titled Rabdologiæ and written by John Napier was published in Edinburgh. Printed three years after his treatise on the discovery of logarithms and in the same year as his death, it describes three devices to aid arithmetic calculations. The devices themselves don't use logarithms, rather they are tools to reduce multiplication and division of natural numbers to simple addition and subtraction operations. The first device, which by then was already popularly used and known as Napier's bones, was a set of rods inscribed with the multiplication table. Napier coined the word rabdology (from Greek ῥάβδος [rhabdos], rod and λόγoς [logos] calculation or reckoning) to describe this technique. The rods were used to multiply, divide and even find the square roots and cube roots of numbers. The second device was a promptuary (Latin promptuarium meaning storehouse) and consisted of a large set of strips that could multiply multidigit numbers more easily than the bones. In combination with a table of reciprocals, it could also divide numbers. The third device used a checkerboard like grid and counters moving on the board to perform binary arithmetic. Napier termed this technique location arithmetic from the way in which


id: regular-figures-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regular_Figures-0.md
category: reference
title: Regular Figures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regular_Figures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:46:38.980218+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: regular-figures-20260505-0
summary:
Regular Figures is a book on polyhedra and symmetric patterns, by Hungarian geometer László Fejes Tóth. It was published in 1964 by Pergamon in London and Macmillan in New York. == Topics == Regular Figures is divided into two parts, "Systematology of the Regular Figures" and "Genetics of the Regular Figures", each in five chapters. Although the first part represents older and standard material, much of the second part is based on a large collection of research works by Fejes Tóth, published over the course of approximately 25 years, and on his previous exposition of this material in a 1953 German-language text. The first part of the book covers many of the same topics as a previously published book, Regular Polytopes (1947), by H. S. M. Coxeter, but with a greater emphasis on group theory and the classification of symmetry groups. Its first three chapters describe the symmetries that two-dimensional geometric objects can have: the 17 wallpaper groups of the Euclidean plane in the first chapter, with the first English-language presentation of the proof of their classification by Evgraf Fedorov, the regular spherical tilings in chapter two, and the uniform tilings of the hyperbolic plane in chapter three. Also mentioned


id: regular-polytopes-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regular_Polytopes_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Regular Polytopes (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regular_Polytopes_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:46:40.134422+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: regular-polytopes-book-20260505-0
summary:
Regular Polytopes is a geometry book on regular polytopes written by Harold Scott MacDonald Coxeter. It was originally published by Methuen in 1947 and by Pitman Publishing in 1948, with a second edition published by Macmillan in 1963 and a third edition by Dover Publications in 1973. The Basic Library List Committee of the Mathematical Association of America has recommended that it be included in undergraduate mathematics libraries. == Overview == The main topics of the book are the Platonic solids (regular convex polyhedra), related polyhedra, and their higher-dimensional generalizations. It has 14 chapters, along with multiple appendices, providing a more complete treatment of the subject than any earlier work, and incorporating material from 18 of Coxeter's own previous papers. It includes many figures (both photographs of models by Paul Donchian and drawings), tables of numerical values, and historical remarks on the subject. The first chapter discusses regular polygons, regular polyhedra, basic concepts of graph theory, and the Euler characteristic. Using the Euler characteristic, Coxeter derives a Diophantine equation whose integer solutions describe and classify the regular polyhedra. The second chapter uses combinations of regular polyhedra and their duals to generate related polyhedra, including the semiregular polyhedra, and discusses zonohedra


id: reverse-mathematics-proofs-from-the-inside-out-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_Mathematics:_Proofs_from_the_Inside_Out-0.md
category: reference
title: Reverse Mathematics: Proofs from the Inside Out
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_Mathematics:_Proofs_from_the_Inside_Out
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:46:41.365740+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: reverse-mathematics-proofs-from-the-inside-out-20260505-0
summary:
Reverse Mathematics: Proofs from the Inside Out is a book by John Stillwell on reverse mathematics, the process of examining proofs in mathematics to determine which axioms are required by the proof. It was published in 2018 by the Princeton University Press. == Topics == The book begins with a historical overview of the long struggles with the parallel postulate in Euclidean geometry, and of the foundational crisis of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Then, after reviewing background material in real analysis and computability theory, the book concentrates on the reverse mathematics of theorems in real analysis, including the Bolzano–Weierstrass theorem, the Heine–Borel theorem, the intermediate value theorem and extreme value theorem, the Heine–Cantor theorem on uniform continuity, the Hahn–Banach theorem, and the Riemann mapping theorem. These theorems are analyzed with respect to three of the "big five" subsystems of second-order arithmetic, namely arithmetical comprehension, recursive comprehension, and the weak Kőnig's lemma. == Audience == The book is aimed at a "general mathematical audience" including undergraduate mathematics students with an introductory-level background in real analysis. It is intended both to excite mathematicians, physicists, and computer scientists about the foundational issues in their fields, and to provide an accessible


id: revolutions-in-mathematics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutions_in_Mathematics-0.md
category: reference
title: Revolutions in Mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutions_in_Mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:46:42.514232+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: revolutions-in-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
Revolutions in Mathematics is a 1992 collection of essays in the history and philosophy of mathematics. == Contents == Michael J. Crowe, Ten "laws" concerning patterns of change in the history of mathematics (1975) (15–20); Herbert Mehrtens, T. S. Kuhn's theories and mathematics: a discussion paper on the "new historiography" of mathematics (1976) (21–41); Herbert Mehrtens, Appendix (1992): revolutions reconsidered (42–48); Joseph Dauben, Conceptual revolutions and the history of mathematics: two studies in the growth of knowledge (1984) (49–71); Joseph Dauben, Appendix (1992): revolutions revisited (72–82); Paolo Mancosu, Descartes's Géométrie and revolutions in mathematics (83–116); Emily Grosholz, Was Leibniz a mathematical revolutionary? (117–133); Giulio Giorello, The "fine structure" of mathematical revolutions: metaphysics, legitimacy, and rigour. The case of the calculus from Newton to Berkeley and Maclaurin (134–168); Yu Xin Zheng, Non-Euclidean geometry and revolutions in mathematics (169–182); Luciano Boi, The "revolution" in the geometrical vision of space in the nineteenth century, and the hermeneutical epistemology of mathematics (183–208); Caroline Dunmore, Meta-level revolutions in mathematics (209–225); Jeremy Gray, The nineteenth-century revolution in mathematical ontology (226–248); Herbert Breger, A restoration that failed: Paul Finsler's theory of sets (249–264); Donald A. Gillies, The Fregean revolution in logic (265–305); Michael Crowe, Afterword (1992): a


id: sacred-mathematics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacred_Mathematics-0.md
category: reference
title: Sacred Mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacred_Mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:46:44.766570+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sacred-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
Sacred Mathematics: Japanese Temple Geometry is a book on Sangaku, geometry problems presented on wooden tablets as temple offerings in the Edo period of Japan. It was written by Fukagawa Hidetoshi and Tony Rothman, and published in 2008 by the Princeton University Press. It won the PROSE Award of the Association of American Publishers in 2008 as the best book in mathematics for that year. == Topics == The book begins with an introduction to Japanese culture and how this culture led to the production of Sangaku tablets, depicting geometry problems, their presentation as votive offerings at temples, and their display at the temples. It also includes a chapter on the Chinese origins of Japanese mathematics, and a chapter on biographies of Japanese mathematicians from the time. The Sangaku tablets illustrate theorems in Euclidean geometry, typically involving circles or ellipses, often with a brief textual explanation. They are presented as puzzles for the viewer to prove, and in many cases the proofs require advanced mathematics. In some cases, booklets providing a solution were included separately, but in many cases the original solution has been lost or was never provided. The book's main content is the depiction, explanation, and solution of


id: sequences-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequences_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Sequences (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequences_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:46:45.913883+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sequences-book-20260505-0
summary:
Sequences is a mathematical monograph on integer sequences. It was written by Heini Halberstam and Klaus Roth, published in 1966 by the Clarendon Press, and republished in 1983 with minor corrections by Springer-Verlag. Although planned to be part of a two-volume set, the second volume was never published. == Topics == The book has five chapters, each largely self-contained and loosely organized around different techniques used to solve problems in this area, with an appendix on the background material in number theory needed for reading the book. Rather than being concerned with specific sequences such as the prime numbers or square numbers, its topic is the mathematical theory of sequences in general. The first chapter considers the natural density of sequences, and related concepts such as the Schnirelmann density. It proves theorems on the density of sumsets of sequences, including Mann's theorem that the Schnirelmann density of a sumset is at least the sum of the Schnirelmann densities and Kneser's theorem on the structure of sequences whose lower asymptotic density is subadditive. It studies essential components, sequences that when added to another sequence of Schnirelmann density between zero and one, increase their density, proves that additive bases are essential components,


id: shuli-jingyun-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuli_jingyun-0.md
category: reference
title: Shuli jingyun
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuli_jingyun
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:46:47.061966+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: shuli-jingyun-20260505-0
summary:
The Shuli jingyun (數理精蘊), known in English as the Collected Essential Principles of Mathematics, is a 53-volume mathematical encyclopedia, part of the Siku Quanshu collection, on musical tuning, calculation, and the calendar. It includes three treatises on astronomy, mathematics, and music, compiled under imperial order during the Kangxi reign. The book was completed in 1723. == Production and distribution == The encyclopedia was commissioned by the Kangxi Emperor in 1713 and involved over one hundred scholars studying under the Emperor and Jesuit experts. The compilation of this book was supervised by Prince Yūnlu, with He Guozong (d. 1767) and Mei Gucheng (1681-1746) as main compilers. The book began its creation in 1713 and was finished by 1723. In 1724, the first copy was published by the imperial printing shop. The encyclopedia was intended to be used as an imperial textbook in China. Upon its publication, it has been imported to different countries such as Korea in 1729. The Shuli jingyun is included in the Siku Quanshu collection, commissioned by the Qianlong Emperor. This collection, compiled between 1773 and 1782, includes 3,461 titles and is divided into four treasuries. == Contents == The Shuli jingyun has two parts and an appendix


id: significant-figures-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Significant_Figures_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Significant Figures (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Significant_Figures_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:46:48.244917+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: significant-figures-book-20260505-0
summary:
Significant Figures: The Lives and Work of Great Mathematicians is a 2017 nonfiction book by British mathematician Ian Stewart , published by Basic Books. In the work, Stewart discusses the lives and contributions of 25 figures who are prominent in the history of mathematics. The 25 mathematicians selected are: Archimedes, Liu Hui, Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī, Madhava of Sangamagrama, Gerolamo Cardano, Pierre de Fermat, Isaac Newton, Euler, Fourier, Gauss, Lobachevsky, Galois, Ada Lovelace, Boole, Riemann, Cantor, Sofia Kovalevskaia, Poincaré, Hilbert, Emmy Noether, Ramanujan, Gödel, Turing, Mandelbrot, and Thurston. == Reception == In Kirkus Reviews, it was written that "even a popularizer as skilled and prolific as Stewart cannot expect general readers to fully digest his highly distilled explanations of what these significant figures did to resolve ever more complex conundrums as math advanced." However, the reviewer praised Stewart's sketches of the lives and times of the innovators. The book was described as "a text for teachers, precocious students, and intellectually curious readers unafraid to tread unfamiliar territory". == See also == In Pursuit of the Unknown: 17 Equations That Changed the World == References ==


id: solving-the-riddle-of-phyllotaxis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solving_the_Riddle_of_Phyllotaxis-0.md
category: reference
title: Solving the Riddle of Phyllotaxis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solving_the_Riddle_of_Phyllotaxis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:46:49.465367+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: solving-the-riddle-of-phyllotaxis-20260505-0
summary:
Solving the Riddle of Phyllotaxis: Why the Fibonacci Numbers and the Golden Ratio Occur in Plants is a book on the mathematics of plant structure, and in particular on phyllotaxis, the arrangement of leaves on plant stems. It was written by Irving Adler, and published in 2012 by World Scientific. The Basic Library List Committee of the Mathematical Association of America has suggested its inclusion in undergraduate mathematics libraries. == Background == Irving Adler (1913–2012) was known as a peace protester, schoolteacher, and children's science book author before, in 1961, earning a doctorate in abstract algebra. Even later in his life, Adler began working on phyllotaxis, the mathematical structure of leaves on plant stems. This book, which collects several of his papers on the subject previously published in journals and edited volumes, is the last of his 85 books to be published before his death. == Topics == Different plants arrange their leaves differently, for instance on alternating sides of the plant stem, or rotated from each other by other fractions of a full rotation between consecutive leaves. In these patterns, rotations by 1/2 of an angle, 1/3 of an angle, 3/8 of an angle, or 5/8 of an angle


id: sphere-packings-lattices-and-groups-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphere_Packings,_Lattices_and_Groups-0.md
category: reference
title: Sphere Packings, Lattices and Groups
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphere_Packings,_Lattices_and_Groups
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:46:50.644463+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sphere-packings-lattices-and-groups-20260505-0
summary:
Sphere Packings, Lattices and Groups is a book about geometry and group theory by John Conway and Neil Sloane, with contributions by other mathematicians, first published in 1988. H. S. M. Coxeter noted, "Much of the book is inspired by the Leech lattice." The book covers many results that, as Richard K. Guy phrased it, "appear little short of miraculous", such as how the Leech lattice, a set of points in 24-dimensional space, is related via special relativity to stacking cannonballs. The interrelated topics featured in the book include Golay codes, Mathieu groups and Monstrous Moonshine. Many of the chapters are updates of papers that had been published in journals previously. Portions of the text were coauthored by Eiichi Bannai, Richard Borcherds, John Leech, Simon Norton, Andrew M. Odlyzko, Richard A. Parker, Larissa Queen and B. B. Venkov. Francis Fung called it "monumental", and Nick Lord described it as "epochal". Gian-Carlo Rota wrote: This is the best survey of the best work in the best fields of combinatorics written by the best people. It will make the best reading by the best students interested in the best mathematics that is now going on. == Editions == The book is volume


id: the-strange-logic-of-random-graphs-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Strange_Logic_of_Random_Graphs-0.md
category: reference
title: The Strange Logic of Random Graphs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Strange_Logic_of_Random_Graphs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:46:51.781673+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-strange-logic-of-random-graphs-20260505-0
summary:
The Strange Logic of Random Graphs is a book on zero-one laws for random graphs. It was written by Joel Spencer and published in 2001 by Springer-Verlag as volume 22 of their book series Algorithms and Combinatorics. == Topics == The random graphs of the book are generated from the Erdős–Rényi–Gilbert model G ( n , p ) {\displaystyle G(n,p)} in which n {\displaystyle n} vertices are given and a random choice is made whether to connect each pair of vertices by an edge, independently for each pair, with probability p {\displaystyle p} of making a connection. A zero-one law is a theorem stating that, for certain properties of graphs, and for certain choices of p {\displaystyle p} , the probability of generating a graph with the property tends to zero or one in the limit as n {\displaystyle n} goes to infinity. A fundamental result in this area, proved independently by Glebskiĭ et al. and by Ronald Fagin, is that there is a zero-one law for G ( n , 1 / 2 ) {\displaystyle G(n,1/2)} for every property that can be described in the first-order logic of graphs. Moreover, the limiting probability is one if and only if


id: sumario-compendioso-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumario_Compendioso-0.md
category: reference
title: Sumario Compendioso
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumario_Compendioso
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:46:52.962788+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sumario-compendioso-20260505-0
summary:
The Sumario Compendioso was the first mathematics book published in the New World. The book was published in Mexico City in 1556 by a clergyman Juan Diez. == Availability == The book has been digitized and is available on the Internet. Before the Digital Age the only four known surviving copies were preserved at the Huntington Library, San Marino, California, the British Library, London, Duke University Library, and the University of Salamanca in Spain. == Excerpts == In his book The Math Book, Clifford A. Pickover provided the following information about Sumario Compendioso: The Sumario Compendioso, published in Mexico City in 1556, is the first work on mathematics printed in the Americas. The publication of Sumario Compendioso in the New World preceded by many decades the emigration of the Puritans to North America and the settlement in Jamestown, Virginia. The author, Brother Juan Diez, was a companion of Hernando Cortes, the Spanish conquistador, during Cortes's conquests of the Aztec Empire. == References == == External links == Open Library HathiTrust JSTOR Archive.org


id: symmetry-aspects-of-m-c-escher-s-periodic-drawings-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetry_aspects_of_M._C._Escher's_periodic_drawings-0.md
category: reference
title: Symmetry aspects of M. C. Escher's periodic drawings
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetry_aspects_of_M._C._Escher's_periodic_drawings
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:46:55.237869+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: symmetry-aspects-of-m-c-escher-s-periodic-drawings-20260505-0
summary:
Symmetry aspects of M. C. Escher's periodic drawings is a book by crystallographer Caroline H. MacGillavry published for the International Union of Crystallography (IUCr) by Oosthoek in 1965. The book analyzes the symmetry of M. C. Escher's colored periodic drawings using the international crystallographic notation. In 1959, MacGillavry met Escher. His work, the regular tiling of the plane, showed obvious links with the symmetry principles of crystallography. After seeking approval from the organisers (Joseph and Gabrielle Donnay), MacGillavry asked Escher to exhibit his lithographic works at the IUCr Congress in Cambridge, U.K. in 1960. The exhibition was a success, and as a consequence the IUCr commissioned MacGillavry to write the book under its auspices. == Structure and topics == The book has three chapters. In the first chapter, entitled Patterns with Classical Symmetry, the author introduces the concepts of motif, symmetry operations, lattice and unit cell, and uses these to analyze the symmetry of 13 of Escher's tiling designs. In the second chapter, Patterns with Black-white Symmetry, the antisymmetry operation (indicated by a prime ') is introduced. The chapter analyzes 22 of Escher's design in terms of black-white symmetry and assigns each a symbol in the international notation describing its


id: symmetry-in-science-and-art-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetry_in_Science_and_Art-0.md
category: reference
title: Symmetry in Science and Art
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetry_in_Science_and_Art
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:46:56.409275+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: symmetry-in-science-and-art-20260505-0
summary:
Symmetry in Science and Art is a book by A.V. Shubnikov and V.A. Koptsik published by Plenum Press in 1974. The book is a translation of Simmetrija v nauke i iskusstve (Russian: Симметрия в науке и искусстве) published by Nauka in 1972. The book was notable because it gave English-language speakers access to Russian work in the fields of dichromatic and polychromatic symmetry. == Structure and topics == The book is divided into two parts. The first part is an updated version of A.V. Shubnikov's 1940 book Symmetry: laws of symmetry and their application in science, technology and applied arts (Russian: Симметрия : законы симметрии и их применение в науке, технике и прикладном искусстве). The following types of classical (one-color) and dichromatic (two-color) symmetries are covered in the first part of the book: one-sided rosettes, figures with a singular point, one-sided bands, two-sided bands, rods, network patterns, layers and space groups. The second part consists of three new chapters written by V.A. Koptsik covering the following subjects: group theory, crystallographic groups, antisymmetry, colored symmetry, symmetry in science and art, and conservation laws. == Audience == The book is written for crystallographers, mathematicians and physicists who are interested in the application


id: synopsis-of-pure-mathematics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synopsis_of_Pure_Mathematics-0.md
category: reference
title: Synopsis of Pure Mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synopsis_of_Pure_Mathematics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:46:57.582639+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: synopsis-of-pure-mathematics-20260505-0
summary:
Synopsis of Pure Mathematics is a book by G. S. Carr, written in 1886. The book attempted to summarize the state of most of the basic mathematics known at the time. The book is noteworthy because it was a major source of information for the legendary and self-taught mathematician Srinivasa Ramanujan who managed to obtain a library loaned copy from a friend in 1903. Ramanujan reportedly studied the contents of the book in detail. The book is generally acknowledged as a key element in awakening the genius of Ramanujan. Carr acknowledged the main sources of his book in its preface: ... In the Algebra, Theory of Equations, and Trigonometry sections, I am largely indebted to Todhunter's well-known treatises ... In the section entitled Elementary Geometry, I have added to simpler propositions a selection of theorems from Townsend's Modern Geometry and Salmon's Conic Sections. In Geometric Conics, the line of demonstration followed agrees, in the main, with that adopted in Drew's treatise on the subject. ... The account of the C. G. S. system given in the preliminary section, has been compiled from a valuable contribution on the subject by Professor Everett, of Belfast, published by the Physical Society of London.


id: theory-of-lie-groups-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Lie_groups-0.md
category: reference
title: Theory of Lie groups
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Lie_groups
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:46:59.850097+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: theory-of-lie-groups-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics, Theory of Lie groups is a series of books on Lie groups by Claude Chevalley (1946, 1951, 1955). The first in the series was one of the earliest books on Lie groups to treat them from the global point of view, and for many years was the standard text on Lie groups. The second and third volumes, on algebraic groups and Lie algebras, were written in French, and later reprinted bound together as one volume. Apparently further volumes were planned but not published, though his lectures (Chevalley 2005) on the classification of semisimple algebraic groups could be considered as a continuation of the series. == References == Chevalley, Claude (1946), Theory of Lie Groups. I, Princeton Mathematical Series, vol. 8, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-04990-8, MR 0015396 {{citation}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) Chevalley, Claude (1951), Théorie des groupes de Lie. Tome II. Groupes algébriques, Actualités Sci. Ind., vol. 1152, Hermann & Cie., Paris, MR 0051242 Chevalley, Claude (1955), Théorie des groupes de Lie. Tome III. Théorèmes généraux sur les algèbres de Lie, Actualités Sci. Ind., vol. 1226, Hermann & Cie, Paris, MR 0068552 Chevalley, Claude (1968), Théorie des groupes de Lie : Groupes algébriques, théorèmes généraux sur


id: tilings-and-patterns-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tilings_and_patterns-0.md
category: reference
title: Tilings and patterns
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tilings_and_patterns
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:01.029296+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tilings-and-patterns-20260505-0
summary:
Tilings and patterns is a book by mathematicians Branko Grünbaum and Geoffrey Colin Shephard published in 1987 by W.H. Freeman. The book was 10 years in development, and upon publication it was widely reviewed and highly acclaimed. == Structure and topics == The book is concerned with tilings—a partition of the plane into regions (the tiles)—and patterns—repetitions of a motif in the plane in a regular manner. The book is divided into two parts. The first seven chapters define concepts and terminology, establish the general theory of tilings, survey tilings by regular polygons, review the theory of patterns, and discuss tilings in which all the tiles, or all the edges, or all the vertices, play the same role. The last five chapters survey a variety of advanced topics in tiling theory: colored patterns and tilings, polygonal tilings, aperiodic tilings, Wang tiles, and tilings with unusual kinds of tiles. Each chapter open with an introduction to the topic, this is followed by the detailed material of the chapter, much previously unpublished, which is always profusely illustrated, and normally includes examples and proofs. Chapters close with exercises, and a section of notes and references which detail the historical development of the topic.


id: a-topological-picturebook-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Topological_Picturebook-0.md
category: reference
title: A Topological Picturebook
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Topological_Picturebook
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:02.165515+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: a-topological-picturebook-20260505-0
summary:
A Topological Picturebook is a book on mathematical visualization in low-dimensional topology by George K. Francis. It was originally published by Springer in 1987, and reprinted in paperback in 2007. The Basic Library List Committee of the Mathematical Association of America has recommended its inclusion in undergraduate mathematics libraries. == Topics == Although the book includes some computer-generated images, most of it is centered on hand drawing techniques. After an introductory chapter on topological surfaces, the cusps in the outlines of surfaces formed when viewing them from certain angles, and the self-intersections of immersed surfaces, the next two chapters are centered on drawing techniques: chapter two concerns ink, paper, cross-hatching, and shading techniques for indicating the curvature of surfaces, while chapter three provides some basic techniques of graphical perspective. The remaining five chapters of the book provide case studies of different visualization problems in mathematics, called by the book "picture stories". The mathematical topics visualized in these chapters include the Penrose triangle and related optical illusions; the Roman surface and Boy's surface, two different immersions of the projective plane, and deformations between them; sphere eversion and the Morin surface; group theory, the mapping class groups of surfaces, and the braid


id: the-tower-of-hanoi-myths-and-maths-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tower_of_Hanoi_–_Myths_and_Maths-0.md
category: reference
title: The Tower of Hanoi – Myths and Maths
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tower_of_Hanoi_–_Myths_and_Maths
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:03.324829+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-tower-of-hanoi-myths-and-maths-20260505-0
summary:
The Tower of Hanoi – Myths and Maths is a book in recreational mathematics, on the tower of Hanoi, baguenaudier, and related puzzles. It was written by Andreas M. Hinz, Sandi Klavžar, Uroš Milutinović, and Ciril Petr, and published in 2013 by Birkhäuser, with an expanded second edition in 2018. The Basic Library List Committee of the Mathematical Association of America has suggested its inclusion in undergraduate mathematics libraries. == Topics == Although this book is in recreational mathematics, it takes its subject seriously, and brings in material from automata theory, computational complexity, the design and analysis of algorithms, graph theory, and group theory, topology, fractal geometry, chemical graph theory, and even psychology (where related puzzles have applications in psychological testing). The 1st edition of the book had 10 chapters, and the 2nd edition has 11. In both cases they begin with chapter zero, on the background and history of the Tower of Hanoi puzzle, covering its real-world invention by Édouard Lucas and in the mythical backstory he invented for it. Chapter one considers the Baguenaudier puzzle (or, as it is often called, the Chinese rings), related to the tower of Hanoi both in the structure of its state space


id: trait-de-m-canique-c-leste-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traité_de_mécanique_céleste-0.md
category: reference
title: Traité de mécanique céleste
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traité_de_mécanique_céleste
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:04.499255+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: trait-de-m-canique-c-leste-20260505-0
summary:
Traité de mécanique céleste (transl. "Treatise of celestial mechanics") is a five-volume treatise on celestial mechanics written by Pierre-Simon Laplace and published from 1798 to 1825 with a second edition in 1829. In 1842, the government of Louis Philippe gave a grant of 40,000 francs for a 7-volume national edition of the Oeuvres de Laplace (1843–1847); the Traité de mécanique céleste with its four supplements occupies the first 5 volumes. Newton laid the foundations of Celestial Mechanics, at the close of the seventeenth century, by the discovery of the principle of universal gravitation. Even in his own hands, this discovery led to important consequences, but it has required a century and a half, and a regular succession of intellects the most powerful, to fill up the outline sketched by him. Of these, Laplace himself was the last, and, perhaps after Newton, the greatest; and the task commenced in the Principia of the former, is completed in the Mécanique Céleste of the latter. In this last named work, the illustrious author has proposed to himself his object, to unite all the theories scattered throughout the various channels of publication, employed by his predecessors, to reduce them to one common method, and


id: trait-de-m-canique-c-leste-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traité_de_mécanique_céleste-1.md
category: reference
title: Traité de mécanique céleste
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traité_de_mécanique_céleste
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:04.499255+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: trait-de-m-canique-c-leste-20260505-0
summary:
The first four volumes of Dr. Bowditch's Translation and Commentary were published successively, in 1828, 1832, 1834, and 1839, at the sacrifice of one quarter of his whole property. The expense was largely increased by the voluminous commentary. This was really of the nature of an original work, and was rendered necessary by the frequent gaps which Laplace had left in his own publication. Mr. N. I. Bowditch says, in his biography of his father, that Dr. Bowditch was accustomed to remark, "Whenever I meet in Laplace with the words, Thus it plainly appears, I am sure that hours, and perhaps days, of hard study will alone enable me to discover how it plainly appears." Bowditch's translation of the first four volumes of Laplace's Traité de mécanique céleste was completed by 1818 but he would not publish it for many years. Almost certainly the cost of publication caused the delay, but Bowditch did not just put the work on one side after 1818 but continued to improve it over the succeeding years. Bowditch was helped by Benjamin Peirce in this project and his commentaries doubled the length of the book. His purpose was more than just an English translation. He


id: treatise-on-analysis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Analysis-0.md
category: reference
title: Treatise on Analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:05.664536+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: treatise-on-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
Treatise on Analysis is a translation by Ian G. Macdonald of the nine-volume work Éléments d'analyse on mathematical analysis by Jean Dieudonné, and is an expansion of his textbook Foundations of Modern Analysis. It is a successor to the various Cours d'Analyse by Augustin-Louis Cauchy, Camille Jordan, and Édouard Goursat. == Contents and publication history == === Volume I === The first volume was originally a stand-alone graduate textbook with a different title. It was first written in English and later translated into French, unlike the other volumes which were first written in French. It has been republished several times and is much more common than the later volumes of the series. The contents include Chapter I: Sets Chapter II Real numbers Chapter III Metric spaces Chapter IV The real line Chapter V Normed spaces Chapter VI Hilbert spaces Chapter VII Spaces of continuous functions Chapter VIII Differential calculus (This uses the Cauchy integral rather than the more common Riemann integral of functions.) Chapter IX Analytic functions (of a complex variable) Chapter X Existence theorems (for ordinary differential equations) Chapter XI Elementary spectral theory Dieudonné, J. (1960), Foundations of modern analysis, Pure and Applied Mathematics, vol. X, New York-London: Academic


id: a-treatise-on-the-circle-and-the-sphere-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Treatise_on_the_Circle_and_the_Sphere-0.md
category: reference
title: A Treatise on the Circle and the Sphere
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Treatise_on_the_Circle_and_the_Sphere
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:06.833342+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: a-treatise-on-the-circle-and-the-sphere-20260505-0
summary:
A Treatise on the Circle and the Sphere is a mathematics book on circles, spheres, and inversive geometry. It was written by Julian Coolidge and published by the Clarendon Press in 1916. The Chelsea Publishing Company published a corrected reprint in 1971. After the American Mathematical Society acquired Chelsea Publishing it was reprinted again in 1997. == Topics == As is now standard in inversive geometry, the book extends the Euclidean plane to its one-point compactification, and considers Euclidean lines to be a degenerate case of circles, passing through the point at infinity. It identifies every circle with the inversion through it, and studies circle inversions as a group, the group of Möbius transformations of the extended plane. Another key tool used by the book are the "tetracyclic coordinates" of a circle, quadruples of complex numbers a , b , c , d {\displaystyle a,b,c,d} describing the circle in the complex plane as the solutions to the equation a z z ¯ + b z + c z ¯ + d = 0 {\displaystyle az{\bar {z}}+bz+c{\bar {z}}+d=0} . It applies similar methods in three dimensions to identify spheres (and planes as degenerate spheres) with the inversions through them, and to


id: treks-into-intuitive-geometry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treks_into_Intuitive_Geometry-0.md
category: reference
title: Treks into Intuitive Geometry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treks_into_Intuitive_Geometry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:07.944460+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: treks-into-intuitive-geometry-20260505-0
summary:
Treks into Intuitive Geometry: The World of Polygons and Polyhedra is a book on geometry, written as a discussion between a teacher and a student in the style of a Socratic dialogue. It was written by Japanese mathematician Jin Akiyama and science writer Kiyoko Matsunaga, and published by Springer-Verlag in 2015 (ISBN 978-4-431-55841-5), with an expanded second edition in 2024 (ISBN 978-981-99-8607-1). == Topics == The term "intuitive geometry" of the title was used by László Fejes Tóth to refer to results in geometry that are accessible to the general public, and the book concerns topics of this type. The book has 16 self-contained chapters, each beginning with an illustrative puzzle or real-world application. It includes material on tessellations, polyhedra, and honeycombs, unfoldings of polyhedra and tessellations of unfoldings, cross sections of polyhedra, measuring boxes, gift wrapping, packing problems, wallpaper groups, pentagonal tilings, the Conway criterion for prototiles and Escher-like tilings of the plane by animal-shaped figures, aperiodic tilings including the Penrose tiling, the art gallery theorem, the Euler characteristic, dissection problems and the Dehn invariant, and the Steiner tree problem. The book is heavily illustrated. And although the results of the book are demonstrated in an accessible way, the


id: treviso-arithmetic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treviso_Arithmetic-0.md
category: reference
title: Treviso Arithmetic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treviso_Arithmetic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:09.079015+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: treviso-arithmetic-20260505-0
summary:
The Treviso Arithmetic, or Arte dell'Abbaco, is an anonymous textbook in commercial arithmetic written in vernacular Venetian and published in Treviso, Italy, in 1478. The author explains the motivation for writing this textbook: I have often been asked by certain youths in whom I have much interest, and who look forward to mercantile pursuits, to put into writing the fundamental principles of arithmetic, commonly called abacus. The Treviso Arithmetic is the earliest known printed mathematics book in the West, and one of the first printed European textbooks dealing with a science. == The Arithmetic as an early printed book == There appears to have been only one edition of the work. David Eugene Smith translated parts of the Treviso Arithmetic for educational purposes in 1907. Frank J. Swetz translated the complete work using Smith's notes in 1987 in his Capitalism & Arithmetic: The New Math of the 15th Century. Swetz used a copy of the Treviso housed in the Manuscript Library at Columbia University. The volume found its way to this collection via a curious route. Maffeo Pinelli (1785), an Italian bibliophile, is the first known owner. After his death his library was purchased by a London book-dealer and sold


id: trigonometric-series-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigonometric_Series-0.md
category: reference
title: Trigonometric Series
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigonometric_Series
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:10.228449+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: trigonometric-series-20260505-0
summary:
Antoni Zygmund wrote a classic two-volume set of books entitled Trigonometric Series, which discusses many different aspects of trigonometric series. The first edition was a single volume, published in 1935 (under the slightly different title Trigonometrical Series). The second edition of 1959 was greatly expanded, taking up two volumes, though it was later reprinted as a single volume paperback. The third edition of 2002 is similar to the second edition, with the addition of a preface by Robert A. Fefferman on more recent developments, in particular Carleson's theorem about almost everywhere pointwise convergence for square-integrable functions. == Publication history == Zygmund, Antoni (1935). Trigonometrical series. Monogr. Mat. Vol. 5. Warszawa, Lwow: Subwencji Fundusz Kultury Narodowej. Zbl 0011.01703. At icm.edu.pl: original archived Zygmund, Antoni (1952). Trigonometrical series. New York: Chelsea Publishing Co. MR 0076084. Zygmund, Antoni (1955). Trigonometrical series. New York: Dover Publications. MR 0072976. Zygmund, Antoni (1959). Trigonometric series (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. MR 0107776. Volume I, Volume II. Zygmund, Antoni (1968). Trigonometric series. Second edition, reprinted with corrections and some additions. Vol. I and II (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. MR 0236587. Zygmund, Antoni (1977). Trigonometric series. Vol. I and II. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-07477-3. MR 0617944.


id: two-new-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences-0.md
category: reference
title: Two New Sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:11.405455+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: two-new-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
The Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences (Italian: Discorsi e dimostrazioni matematiche intorno a due nuove scienze pronounced [diˈskorsi e ddimostratˈtsjoːni mateˈmaːtike inˈtorno a dˈduːe ˈnwɔːve ʃˈʃɛntse]) published in 1638 was Galileo Galilei's final book and a scientific testament covering much of his work in physics over the preceding thirty years. It was written partly in Italian and partly in Latin. After his Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, the Roman Inquisition had banned the publication of any of Galileo's works, including any he might write in the future. After the failure of his initial attempts to publish Two New Sciences in France, Germany, and Poland, it was published by Lodewijk Elzevir who was working in Leiden, South Holland, where the writ of the Inquisition was of less consequence (see House of Elzevir). Fra Fulgenzio Micanzio, the official theologian of the Republic of Venice, had initially offered to help Galileo publish the new work there, but he pointed out that publishing the Two New Sciences in Venice might cause Galileo unnecessary trouble; thus, the book was eventually published in Holland. Galileo did not seem to suffer any harm from the Inquisition for publishing this book since


id: two-new-sciences-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences-1.md
category: reference
title: Two New Sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:11.405455+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: two-new-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
=== Day one: Resistance of bodies to separation === [50] Preliminary discussions. Sagredo (taken to be the younger Galileo) cannot understand why with machines one cannot argue from the small to the large: "I do not see that the properties of circles, triangles and...solid figures should change with their size". Salviati (speaking for Galileo) says the common opinion is wrong. Scale matters: a horse falling from a height of 3 or 4 cubits will break its bones whereas a cat falling from twice the height won't, nor will a grasshopper falling from a tower. [56] The first example is a hemp rope which is constructed from small fibres which bind together in the same way as a rope round a windlass to produce something much stronger. Then the vacuum that prevents two highly polished plates from separating even though they slide easily gives rise to an experiment to test whether water can be expanded or whether a vacuum is caused. In fact, Sagredo had observed that a suction pump could not lift more than 18 cubits of water and Salviati observes that the weight of this is the amount of resistance to a void. The discussion turns to the strength


id: two-new-sciences-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences-2.md
category: reference
title: Two New Sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:11.405455+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: two-new-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
=== Day three: Naturally accelerated motion === [191] He first defines uniform (steady) motion and shows the relationship between speed, time and distance. He then defines uniformly accelerated motion where the speed increases by the same amount in increments of time. Falling bodies start very slowly and he sets out to show that their velocity increases in simple proportionality to time, not to distance which he shows is impossible. [208] He shows that the distance travelled in naturally accelerated motion is proportional to the square of the time. He describes an experiment in which a steel ball was rolled down a groove in a piece of wooden moulding 12 cubits long (about 5.5m) with one end raised by one or two cubits. This was repeated, measuring times by accurately weighing the amount of water that came out of a thin pipe in a jet from the bottom of a large jug of water. By this means he was able to verify the uniformly accelerated motion. He then shows that whatever the inclination of the plane, the square of the time taken to fall a given vertical height is proportional to the inclined distance. [221] He next considers descent along the


id: two-new-sciences-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences-3.md
category: reference
title: Two New Sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:11.405455+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: two-new-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
=== The motion of objects === Galileo expresses clearly for the first time the constant acceleration of a falling body which he was able to measure accurately by slowing it down using an inclined plane. In Two New Sciences, Galileo (Salviati speaks for him) used a wood molding, "12 cubits long, half a cubit wide and three finger-breadths thick" as a ramp with a straight, smooth, polished groove to study rolling balls ("a hard, smooth and very round bronze ball"). He lined the groove with "parchment, also smooth and polished as possible". He inclined the ramp at various angles, effectively slowing down the acceleration enough so that he could measure the elapsed time. He would let the ball roll a known distance down the ramp, and use a water clock to measure the time taken to move the known distance. This clock was a large vessel of water placed in an elevated position; to the bottom of this vessel was soldered a pipe of small diameter giving a thin jet of water, which we collected in a small glass during the time of each descent, whether for the whole length of the channel or for a part of its length.


id: two-new-sciences-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences-4.md
category: reference
title: Two New Sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:11.405455+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: two-new-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
Yet at the outset we said there are many more numbers than squares, since the larger portion of them are not squares. Not only so, but the proportionate number of squares diminishes as we pass to larger numbers. (In modern language, there is a bijection between the set of positive integers N and the set of squares S, and S is a proper subset of N of density zero.) He resolves the contradiction by denying the possibility of comparing infinite numbers (and of comparing infinite and finite numbers): We can only infer that the totality of all numbers is infinite, that the number of squares is infinite, and that the number of their roots is infinite; neither is the number of squares less than the totality of all numbers, nor the latter greater than the former; and finally the attributes "equal", greater", and "less", are not applicable to infinite, but only to finite, quantities. This conclusion, that ascribing sizes to infinite sets should be ruled impossible, owing to the contradictory results obtained from these two ostensibly natural ways of attempting to do so, is a resolution to the problem that is consistent with, but less powerful than, the methods used


id: two-new-sciences-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences-5.md
category: reference
title: Two New Sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:11.405455+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: two-new-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
== References == Drake, Stillman, translator (1974). Two New Sciences, University of Wisconsin Press, 1974. ISBN 0-299-06404-2. A new translation including sections on centers of gravity and the force of percussion. Drake, Stillman (1978). Galileo At Work. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-16226-3. Henry Crew and Alfonso de Salvio, translators, [1914] (1954). Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences, Dover Publications Inc., New York, NY. ISBN 978-0-486-60099-4. The classic source in English, originally published by McMillan (1914). Jones, Howard, "Gassendi's Defense of Galileo: The Politics of Discretion", Medieval Renaissance Texts and Studies 58, 1988. Titles of the first editions taken from Leonard C. Bruno 1989, The Landmarks of Science: from the Collections of the Library of Congress. ISBN 0-8160-2137-6 Q125.B87 Galileo Galilei, Discorsi e dimostrazioni matematiche intorno a due nuove scienze attinenti la meccanica e i movimenti locali (pag.664, of Claudio Pierini) publication Cierre, Simeoni Arti Grafiche, Verona, 2011, ISBN 9788895351049. Wallace, Willian, A. Galileo and Reasoning Ex Suppositione: The Methodology of the Two New Sciences. PSA: Proceedings of the Biennial Meeting of the Philosophy of Science Association, Vol. 1974, (1974), pp. 79–104 Salvia, Stafano (2014). "'Galileo's Machine': Late Notes on Free Fall, Projectile Motion, and the Force of Percussion (ca.


id: two-sided-matching-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-Sided_Matching-0.md
category: reference
title: Two-Sided Matching
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-Sided_Matching
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:12.555607+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: two-sided-matching-20260505-0
summary:
Two-Sided Matching: A Study in Game-Theoretic Modeling and Analysis is a book on matching markets in economics and game theory, particularly concentrating on the stable marriage problem. It was written by Alvin E. Roth and Marilda Sotomayor, with a preface by Robert Aumann, and published in 1990 by the Cambridge University Press as volume 18 in their series of Econometric Society monographs. For this work, Roth and Sotomayor won the 1990 Frederick W. Lanchester Prize of the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences. == Topics == The book's introduction discusses the National Resident Matching Program and its use of stable marriage to assign medical students to hospital positions, and collects the problems in economics that the theory of matching markets is positioned to solve. Following this, it has three main sections. The first of these sections discusses the stable matching problem in its simplest form, in which two equal-sized groups of agents are to be matched one-to-one. It discusses the stability of solutions (the property that no pair of agents both prefer being matched to each other to their assigned matches), the lattice of stable matchings, the Gale–Shapley algorithm for finding stable solutions, and two key properties of


id: urania-propitia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urania_Propitia-0.md
category: reference
title: Urania Propitia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urania_Propitia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:13.709479+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: urania-propitia-20260505-0
summary:
Urania Propitia (lit. 'kind/beneficent Urania') is a book of astronomical tables written by the Silesian astronomer Maria Cunitz and published in 1650. As Maria Cunitz was the daughter of both a physician and mathematician, it was her ability to grasp complex mathematics quickly and transcribe her findings as a polyglot that allowed her to do what few women had done before her. The work served as a simplification of the Rudolphine Tables (1627) by Johannes Kepler, with Cunitz attempting to both increase the accuracy and to simplify the calculations from the original work. While she corrected a number of Kepler's computational errors, her equations also include inaccuracies. Cunitz's work is credited with making astrological tables accessible outside of the era's universities. Cunitz's cosmology combined elements from the cosmologies of both Kepler and Tycho Brahe. Like Brahe, she thought that the Sun and the Moon orbit around the planet Earth, while the rest of the planets in the Solar System orbit around the Sun. In her work, the physics within the cosmos involve ellipticals and aphelions. == Introduction == Urania Propitia was a simplification of the Rudolphine Tables written by Johannes Kepler in 1627. Kepler's dedication to Emperor Ferdinand II which


id: vectors-in-three-dimensional-space-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vectors_in_Three-dimensional_Space-0.md
category: reference
title: Vectors in Three-dimensional Space
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vectors_in_Three-dimensional_Space
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:14.876227+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vectors-in-three-dimensional-space-20260505-0
summary:
Vectors in Three-dimensional Space (1978) is a book concerned with physical quantities defined in "ordinary" 3-space. It was written by J. S. R. Chisholm, an English mathematical physicist, and published by Cambridge University Press. According to the author, such physical quantities are studied in Newtonian mechanics, fluid mechanics, theories of elasticity and plasticity, non-relativistic quantum mechanics, and many parts of solid state physics. The author further states that "the vector concept developed in two different ways: in a wide variety of physical applications, vector notation and techniques became, by the middle of this century, almost universal; on the other hand, pure mathematicians reduced vector algebra to an axiomatic system, and introduced wide generalisations of the concept of a three-dimensional 'vector space'." Chisholm explains that since these two developments proceeded largely independently, there is a need to show how one can be applied to the other. == Summary == Vectors in Three-Dimensional Space has six chapters, each divided into five or more subsections. The first on linear spaces and displacements including these sections: Introduction, Scalar multiplication of vectors, Addition and subtraction of vectors, Displacements in Euclidean space, Geometrical applications. The second on Scalar products and components including these sections: Scalar products,


id: vorlesungen-ber-zahlentheorie-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vorlesungen_über_Zahlentheorie-0.md
category: reference
title: Vorlesungen über Zahlentheorie
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vorlesungen_über_Zahlentheorie
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:16.045939+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vorlesungen-ber-zahlentheorie-20260505-0
summary:
Vorlesungen über Zahlentheorie (German pronunciation: [ˈfoːɐ̯ˌleːzʊŋən ˈyːbɐ ˈtsaːlənteoˌʁiː]; German for Lectures on Number Theory) is the name of several different textbooks of number theory. The best known was written by Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet and Richard Dedekind, and published in 1863. Others were written by Leopold Kronecker, Edmund Landau, and Helmut Hasse. They all cover elementary number theory, Dirichlet's theorem, quadratic fields and forms, and sometimes more advanced topics. == Dirichlet and Dedekind's book == Based on Dirichlet's number theory course at the University of Göttingen, the Vorlesungen were edited by Dedekind and published after Lejeune Dirichlet's death. Dedekind added several appendices to the Vorlesungen, in which he collected further results of Lejeune Dirichlet's and also developed his own original mathematical ideas. === Scope === The Vorlesungen cover topics in elementary number theory, algebraic number theory and analytic number theory, including modular arithmetic, quadratic congruences, quadratic reciprocity and binary quadratic forms. === Contents === The contents of Professor John Stillwell's 1999 translation of the Vorlesungen are as follows Chapter 1. On the divisibility of numbers Chapter 2. On the congruence of numbers Chapter 3. On quadratic residues Chapter 4. On quadratic forms Chapter 5. Determination of the class number of


id: where-mathematics-comes-from-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Where_Mathematics_Comes_From-0.md
category: reference
title: Where Mathematics Comes From
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Where_Mathematics_Comes_From
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:17.193195+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: where-mathematics-comes-from-20260505-0
summary:
Where Mathematics Comes From: How the Embodied Mind Brings Mathematics into Being (hereinafter WMCF) is a book by George Lakoff, a cognitive linguist, and Rafael E. Núñez, a psychologist. Published in 2000, WMCF seeks to found a cognitive science of mathematics, a theory of embodied mathematics based on conceptual metaphor. == WMCF definition of mathematics == Mathematics makes up that part of the human conceptual system that is special in the following way: It is precise, consistent, stable across time and human communities, symbolizable, calculable, generalizable, universally available, consistent within each of its subject matters, and effective as a general tool for description, explanation, and prediction in a vast number of everyday activities, [ranging from] sports, to building, business, technology, and science. - WMCF, pp. 50, 377 Nikolay Lobachevsky said "There is no branch of mathematics, however abstract, which may not some day be applied to phenomena of the real world." A common type of conceptual blending process would seem to apply to the entire mathematical procession. == Human cognition and mathematics == Lakoff and Núñez's avowed purpose is to begin laying the foundations for a truly scientific understanding of mathematics, one grounded in processes common to all human cognition.


id: where-mathematics-comes-from-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Where_Mathematics_Comes_From-1.md
category: reference
title: Where Mathematics Comes From
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Where_Mathematics_Comes_From
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:17.193195+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: where-mathematics-comes-from-20260505-0
summary:
== Example of metaphorical ambiguity == WMCF (p. 151) includes the following example of what the authors term "metaphorical ambiguity." Take the set A = { { ∅ } , { ∅ , { ∅ } } } . {\displaystyle A=\{\{\emptyset \},\{\emptyset ,\{\emptyset \}\}\}.} Then recall two bits of standard terminology from elementary set theory: The recursive construction of the ordinal natural numbers, whereby 0 is ∅ {\displaystyle \emptyset } , and n + 1 {\displaystyle n+1} is n ∪ { n } . {\displaystyle n\cup \{n\}.} The ordered pair (a,b), defined as { { a } , { a , b } } . {\displaystyle \{\{a\},\{a,b\}\}.} By (1), A is the set {1,2}. But (1) and (2) together say that A is also the ordered pair (0,1). Both statements cannot be correct; the ordered pair (0,1) and the unordered pair {1,2} are fully distinct concepts. Lakoff and Johnson (1999) term this situation "metaphorically ambiguous." This simple example calls into question any Platonistic foundations for mathematics. While (1) and (2) above are admittedly canonical, especially within the consensus set theory known as the Zermelo–Fraenkel axiomatization, WMCF does not let on that they are but one of several definitions that have


id: where-mathematics-comes-from-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Where_Mathematics_Comes_From-2.md
category: reference
title: Where Mathematics Comes From
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Where_Mathematics_Comes_From
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:17.193195+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: where-mathematics-comes-from-20260505-0
summary:
But their analysis leaves at least a couple of questions insufficiently answered. For one thing, the authors ignore the fact that brains not only observe nature, but also are part of nature. Perhaps the math that brains invent takes the form it does because math had a hand in forming the brains in the first place (through the operation of natural laws in constraining the evolution of life). Furthermore, it's one thing to fit equations to aspects of reality that are already known. It's something else for that math to tell of phenomena never previously suspected. When Paul Dirac's equations describing electrons produced more than one solution, he surmised that nature must possess other particles, now known as antimatter. But scientists did not discover such particles until after Dirac's math told him they must exist. If math is a human invention, nature seems to know what was going to be invented. Lakoff and Núñez tend to dismiss the negative opinions mathematicians have expressed about WMCF, because their critics do not appreciate the insights of cognitive science. Lakoff and Núñez maintain that their argument can only be understood using the discoveries of recent decades about the way human brains process language


id: the-whetstone-of-witte-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Whetstone_of_Witte-0.md
category: reference
title: The Whetstone of Witte
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Whetstone_of_Witte
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:18.369323+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-whetstone-of-witte-20260505-0
summary:
The Whetstone of Witte is the shortened title of Robert Recorde's mathematics book published in 1557, the full title being The whetstone of witte, whiche is the seconde parte of Arithmetike: containyng thextraction of Rootes: The Coßike practise, with the rule of Equation: and the woorkes of Surde Nombers. The book covers topics including whole numbers, the extraction of roots and irrational numbers. The work is notable for containing the first recorded use of the equals sign and also for being the first book in English to use the plus and minus signs. Recordian notation for exponentiation, however, differed from the later Cartesian notation p q = p × p × p ⋯ × p {\displaystyle p^{q}=p\times p\times p\cdots \times p} . Recorde expressed indices and surds larger than 3 in a systematic form based on the prime factorization of the exponent: a factor of two he termed a zenzic, and a factor of three, a cubic. Recorde termed the larger prime numbers appearing in this factorization sursolids, distinguishing between them by use of ordinal numbers: that is, he defined 5 as the first sursolid, written as ʃz and 7 as the second sursolid, written as Bʃz. He also devised


id: word-processing-in-groups-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_Processing_in_Groups-0.md
category: reference
title: Word Processing in Groups
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_Processing_in_Groups
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:19.528199+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: word-processing-in-groups-20260505-0
summary:
Word Processing in Groups is a monograph in mathematics on the theory of automatic groups, a type of abstract algebra whose operations are defined by the behavior of finite automata. The book's authors are David B. A. Epstein, James W. Cannon, Derek F. Holt, Silvio V. F. Levy, Mike Paterson, and William Thurston. Widely circulated in preprint form, it formed the foundation of the study of automatic groups even before its 1992 publication by Jones and Bartlett Publishers (ISBN 0-86720-244-0). == Topics == The book is divided into two parts, one on the basic theory of these structures and another on recent research, connections to geometry and topology, and other related topics. The first part has eight chapters. They cover automata theory and regular languages, and the closure properties of regular languages under logical combinations; the definition of automatic groups and biautomatic groups; examples from topology and "combable" structure in the Cayley graphs of automatic groups; abelian groups and the automaticity of Euclidean groups; the theory of determining whether a group is automatic, and its practical implementation by Epstein, Holt, and Sarah Rees; extensions to asynchronous automata; and nilpotent groups. The second part has four chapters, on braid groups, isoperimetric


id: zahlbericht-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zahlbericht-0.md
category: reference
title: Zahlbericht
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zahlbericht
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:20.658964+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: zahlbericht-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematics, the Zahlbericht (number report) was a report on algebraic number theory by Hilbert (1897, 1998, (English translation)). == History == In 1893 the German Mathematical Society invited Hilbert and Minkowski to write reports on the theory of numbers. They agreed that Minkowski would cover the more elementary parts of number theory while Hilbert would cover algebraic number theory. Minkowski eventually abandoned his report, while Hilbert's report was published in 1897. It was reprinted in volume 1 of his collected works, and republished in an English translation in 1998. Corry (1996) and Schappacher (2005) and the English introduction to (Hilbert 1998) give detailed discussions of the history and influence of Hilbert's Zahlbericht. Some earlier reports on number theory include the report by H. J. S. Smith in 6 parts between 1859 and 1865, reprinted in Smith (1965), and the report by Brill & Noether (1894). Hasse (1926, 1927, 1930) wrote an update of Hilbert's Zahlbericht that covered class field theory (republished in 1 volume as (Hasse 1970)). == Contents == Part 1 covers the theory of general number fields, including ideals, discriminants, differents, units, and ideal classes. Part 2 covers Galois number fields, including in particular Hilbert's theorem 90.


id: aequanimitas-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aequanimitas-0.md
category: reference
title: Aequanimitas
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aequanimitas
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:22.189252+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aequanimitas-20260505-0
summary:
Aequanimitas was one of Sir William Osler's most famous essays, delivered to new doctors in 1889 as his farewell address at the Pennsylvania School of Medicine, prior to his transfer to Johns Hopkins. It was published in the same year and in 1904 appeared in his collection of essays titled Aequanimitas with Other Addresses to Medical Students, Nurses and Practitioners of Medicine. A second edition was produced in 1906, and a third in 1932. In the essay, Osler advocates two qualities "imperturbability" and "equanimity", which he defined as "coolness and presence of mind under all circumstances". Between 1932 and 1953, Eli Lilly & Company distributed more than 150,000 copies of the third edition to medical graduates. Through the years Osler's ideal of "Aequanimitas" has been analysed by various academics. Daniel Sokol, medical ethics and law expert, reasons in the British Medical Journal in 2007, that whatever interpretation is made of Aequanimitas, it "tackles head-on a timeless question: what makes a good doctor?". == Publication == === The essay === Aequanimitas was an essay by Sir William Osler, delivered to new doctors on 1 May 1889 as his farewell address at the Pennsylvania School of Medicine. It was published in the


id: ahfs-drug-information-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AHFS_Drug_Information_Book-0.md
category: reference
title: AHFS Drug Information Book
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AHFS_Drug_Information_Book
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:23.323678+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ahfs-drug-information-book-20260505-0
summary:
The AHFS DI is one of several compendiums approved by the Social Security Act (Section 1861(t)(2)(B)(ii)(I)) as a source of off-label anti-cancer drug use. It was originally published in 1959 as the American Hospital Formulary Service (AHFS) by the American Society of Health-System Pharmacists. It is also the only one left of the originally authorized compendiums. == References == == Further reading == "Gain a solid understanding of compendia and its impact on patient access". Formulary Journal. 2012-07-01. Retrieved 2018-03-30. == External links == Official website


id: al-hawi-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Hawi-0.md
category: reference
title: Al-Hawi
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Hawi
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:24.437406+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: al-hawi-20260505-0
summary:
Kitab al-Hawi or Al-Hawi or Kitāb al-Ḥāwī fī al-ṭibb translated as The Comprehensive Book on Medicine is an extensive medical encyclopedia authored by the Persian polymath Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (865–925), commonly known in the West as Rhazes in the 10th century. This monumental work is a compendium of Greek, Syrian, and early Arabic medical knowledge, as well as some Indian medical practices. It was first translated into Latin in 1279 under the title Continens by Faraj ben Salim, a physician of Sicilian-Jewish origin employed by Charles of Anjou. The oldest partial remaining copy of this work belongs to the National Library of Medicine in Bethesda, Maryland dated 1094 CE. == Historical context and composition == The Kitab al-Hawi was composed around the year 900 and spans 22 volumes. It was later published by the Dairat'l-Macarif-il-Osmania (Osmania Oriental Publications Bureau) in Hyderabad, India. == Contents and significance == The book covers a wide range of medical topics, including theoretical and practical medicine. Al-Razi's approach was notably comprehensive, as he not only included medical knowledge from Greek and Syrian sources but also incorporated insights from Indian medical traditions. Al-Razi frequently recommended various treatments, including those that might be considered


id: articella-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Articella-0.md
category: reference
title: Articella
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Articella
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:26.761166+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: articella-20260505-0
summary:
The Articella ('little art') or Ars medicinae ('art of medicine') is a Latin collection of medical treatises bound together in one volume that was used mainly as a textbook and reference manual between the 13th and the 16th centuries. In medieval times, several versions of this anthology circulated in manuscript form among medical students. Between 1476 and 1534, printed editions of the Articella were also published in several European cities. The earliest surviving manuscript of the collection was copied just after 1100. The original five texts, in their standard order, are the Isagoge Ioannitii ad Tegni Galieni by Hunayn ibn Ishaq; the Hippocratic Aphorisms and Prognostics; the De urinis of Theophilus Protospatharius; and the De pulsibus of Philaretus. The collection is usually supposed to have grown around Hunayn's Isagoge, an abridged introduction to Galen's classical Greek treatise Ars medica (Techne iatrike) translated from Arabic into Latin by Constantine the African in the 11th century. It circulated independently of the Articella. In the late 12th century, Galen's Ars was added to the Articella as a sixth text under the title Tegni. It was later moved into second place. In the mid-13th century, the emergence of formal medical education in several European


id: an-atlas-of-illustrations-of-clinical-medicine-surgery-and-pathology-20260505-0
category: reference
title: An Atlas of Illustrations of Clinical Medicine, Surgery and Pathology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Atlas_of_Illustrations_of_Clinical_Medicine,_Surgery_and_Pathology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:27.931520+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: an-atlas-of-illustrations-of-clinical-medicine-surgery-and-pathology-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Atlas_of_Illustrations_of_Clinical_Medicine,_Surgery_and_Pathology-0.md

summary:
An Atlas of Illustrations of Clinical Medicine, Surgery and Pathology is a medical book of images first published in 1901 by John Bale, Sons & Danielsson. It contains the widely cited photograph taken by Allan Warner of two 13-year-old boys from the same class, who after coming into contact with smallpox, the vaccinated boy remained well and the boy who did not receive the vaccine developed the disease. == References ==


id: autism-explaining-the-enigma-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism:_Explaining_the_Enigma-0.md
category: reference
title: Autism: Explaining the Enigma
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism:_Explaining_the_Enigma
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:29.049708+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: autism-explaining-the-enigma-20260505-0
summary:
Autism: Explaining the Enigma is a non-fiction book by developmental psychologist Uta Frith, first published by Basil Blackwell in 1989, that surveys research on autism through a cognitive and neuropsychological lens. A substantially updated second edition was published in 2003. == Overview == In the book, Frith synthesises research on autism and discusses cognitive accounts that were influential in late-20th-century autism research, including difficulties in understanding other people's mental states (often discussed in relation to theory of mind) and atypical integration of information (commonly discussed under the term weak central coherence). The second edition adds discussion of subsequent developments and includes expanded coverage of neuropsychological and neuroscience research that emerged after the first edition. == See also == Cognitive psychology == References == == External links == List of the editions on Google Books Leekam, Susan R. (May 1991). "Book Review: Autism: Explaining the Enigma". The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. 43 (2): 301–302. doi:10.1080/14640749108400972. S2CID 149418391. Frith, Uta (October 2014). "Autism - are we any closer to explaining the enigma?". The Psychologist. Vol. 27. British Psychological Society. pp. 744–745.


id: autism-s-false-prophets-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism's_False_Prophets-0.md
category: reference
title: Autism's False Prophets
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism's_False_Prophets
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:30.278207+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: autism-s-false-prophets-20260505-0
summary:
Autism's False Prophets: Bad Science, Risky Medicine, and the Search for a Cure is a 2008 book by Paul Offit, a vaccine expert and chief of infectious diseases at Children's Hospital of Philadelphia. The book focuses on the controversy surrounding the now-discredited link between vaccines and autism. The scientific consensus is that no convincing scientific evidence supports these claims, and a 2011 pharmacotherapy journal article described the vaccine-autism connection as "the most damaging medical hoax of the last 100 years". == Summary == Offit describes the origins and development of claims regarding the MMR vaccine and the vaccine preservative thiomersal, as well as subsequent scientific evidence which has disproved a link with autism. The book discusses possible explanations for the persistence of these claims in the face of scientific evidence to the contrary, as well as the proliferation of potentially risky and unproven treatments for autism. The author takes a critical view of several advocates of a vaccine–autism link, including Andrew Wakefield, David Kirby, Mark Geier, and Boyd Haley, raising scientific and, in some cases, ethical and legal concerns. The book also explores divisions within the autism community on the topic of vaccines, as some parents consider the ongoing narrow


id: bad-pharma-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bad_Pharma-0.md
category: reference
title: Bad Pharma
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bad_Pharma
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:31.497683+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bad-pharma-20260505-0
summary:
Bad Pharma: How Drug Companies Mislead Doctors and Harm Patients is a book by the British physician and academic Ben Goldacre about the pharmaceutical industry, its relationship with the medical profession, and the extent to which it controls academic research into its own products. It was published in the UK in September 2012 by the Fourth Estate imprint of HarperCollins, and in the United States in February 2013 by Faber and Faber. Goldacre argues in the book that "the whole edifice of medicine is broken", because the evidence on which it is based is systematically distorted by the pharmaceutical industry. He writes that the industry finances most of the clinical trials into its own products and much of doctors' continuing education, that clinical trials are often conducted on small groups of unrepresentative subjects and negative data is routinely withheld, and that apparently independent academic papers may be planned and even ghostwritten by pharmaceutical companies or their contractors, without disclosure. Describing the situation as a "murderous disaster", he makes suggestions for action by patients' groups, physicians, academics and the industry itself. Responding to the book's publication, the Association of the British Pharmaceutical Industry issued a statement in 2012 arguing that the


id: bad-pharma-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bad_Pharma-1.md
category: reference
title: Bad Pharma
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bad_Pharma
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:31.497683+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bad-pharma-20260505-0
summary:
=== Chapter 2: "Where Do New Drugs Come From?" === In the second chapter, the book describes the process as new drugs move from animal testing through phase 1 (first-in-man study), phase 2, and phase 3 clinical trials. Phase 1 participants are referred to as volunteers, but in the US are paid $200–$400 per day, and because studies can last several weeks and subjects may volunteer several times a year, earning potential becomes the main reason for participation. Participants are usually taken from the poorest groups in society, and outsourcing increasingly means that trials may be conducted in countries with low wages by contract research organizations (CROs). The rate of growth for clinical trials in India is 20 percent a year, in Argentina 27 percent, and in China 47 percent, while trials in the UK have fallen by 10 percent a year and in the US by six percent. The shift to outsourcing raises issues about data integrity, regulatory oversight, language difficulties, the meaning of informed consent among a much poorer population, the standards of clinical care, the extent to which corruption may be regarded as routine in certain countries, and the ethical problem of raising a population's expectations for


id: bad-pharma-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bad_Pharma-2.md
category: reference
title: Bad Pharma
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bad_Pharma
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:31.497683+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bad-pharma-20260505-0
summary:
=== Chapter 6: "Marketing" === In the final chapter, Goldacre looks at how doctors are persuaded to prescribe "me-too drugs," brand-name drugs that are no more effective than significantly cheaper off-patent ones. He cites as examples the statins atorvastatin (Lipitor, made by Pfizer) and simvastatin (Zocor), which he writes seem to be equally effective, or at least there is no evidence to suggest otherwise. Simvastatin came off patent several years ago, yet there are still three million prescriptions a year in the UK for atorvastatin, costing the National Health Service (NHS) an annual £165 million extra. He addresses the issue of medicalization of certain conditions (or, as he argues, of personhood), whereby pharmaceutical companies "widen the boundaries of diagnosis" before offering solutions. Female sexual dysfunction was highlighted in 1999 by a study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association, which alleged that 43 percent of women were suffering from it. After the article appeared, the New York Times wrote that two of its three authors had worked as consultants for Pfizer, which at the time was preparing to launch UK-414,495, known as female Viagra. The journal's editor said that the failure to disclose the relationship with Pfizer was


id: bad-pharma-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bad_Pharma-3.md
category: reference
title: Bad Pharma
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bad_Pharma
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:31.497683+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bad-pharma-20260505-0
summary:
== Reception == The book was generally well received. The Economist described it as "slightly technical, eminently readable, consistently shocking, occasionally hectoring and unapologetically polemical". Helen Lewis in the New Statesman called it an important book, while Luisa Dillner, writing in the Guardian, described it as a "thorough piece of investigative medical journalism". Andrew Jack wrote in the Financial Times that Goldacre is "at his best in methodically dissecting poor clinical trials. ... He is less strong in explaining the complex background reality, such as the general constraints and individual slips of regulators and pharma companies' employees." Jack also argued that the book failed to reflect how many lives have been improved by the current system, for example with new treatments for HIV, rheumatoid arthritis and cancer. Max Pemberton, a psychiatrist, wrote in the Daily Telegraph that "this is a book to make you enraged ... because it's about how big business puts profits over patient welfare, allows people to die because they don't want to disclose damning research evidence, and the tricks they play to make sure doctors do not have all the evidence when it comes to appraising whether a drug really works or not." The Association of


id: big-pharma-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Pharma_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Big Pharma (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Pharma_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:32.673802+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: big-pharma-book-20260505-0
summary:
Big Pharma: How the World's Biggest Drug Companies Control Illness is a 2006 book by British journalist Jacky Law. The book examines the history of the pharmaceutical industry. Before the book, Law was the associate editor of Scrip Magazine. == Reception == Ike Iheanacho writes about the book that "The author is clearly no great fan of the industry. But, refreshingly, she avoids the sort of lazy polemic that casts major pharmaceutical companies as an evil empire that continually foists its products on unwilling and unsuspecting healthcare professionals and patients." == See also == Bad Pharma (2012) by Ben Goldacre Side Effects (2008) by Alison Bass Lists about the pharmaceutical industry == References == == External links == Excerpt from the book


id: a-colour-atlas-of-urology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Colour_Atlas_of_Urology-0.md
category: reference
title: A Colour Atlas of Urology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Colour_Atlas_of_Urology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:33.835758+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: a-colour-atlas-of-urology-20260505-0
summary:
A Colour Atlas of Urology is a medical textbook of urology images first published by Wolfe Medical Publications in 1983. It is co-authored by Reginald Wyndham Lloyd-Davies, James G. Gow and D. R. Davies. 1,188 Images include those of pathological specimens, photographs at endoscopy of the bladder and diagrams that explain urological diagnostic procedures. 70 images relate to lesions of the penis and scrotum. A second edition was published in 1994. A review in the Postgraduate Medical Journal noted that the X-ray of lung metastases was back to front. Another review considered it a complete work covering everything a urologist could possibly see in their profession. The British Journal of Venereal Diseases noted that the book was aimed at urologists but suggested that genitourinary physicians might be interested in it. All three reviews reported that the book was expensive. == Publication == A Colour Atlas of Urology is co-authored by Reginald Wyndham Lloyd-Davies, James G. Gow and D. R. Davies, and was first published by Wolfe Medical Publications in 1983 at a cost of £48. A second edition, with co-author Helen Parkhouse, was published in 1994. == Content == 1,188 images include those of pathological specimens, photographs at endoscopy of


id: current-reviews-in-obstetrics-and-gynaecology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current_Reviews_in_Obstetrics_and_Gynaecology-0.md
category: reference
title: Current Reviews in Obstetrics and Gynaecology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current_Reviews_in_Obstetrics_and_Gynaecology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:34.991149+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: current-reviews-in-obstetrics-and-gynaecology-20260505-0
summary:
Current Reviews in Obstetrics and Gynaecology, also spelled Current Reviews in Obstetrics and Gynecology, is a book series on obstetrics and gynecology which was edited by Tom Lind, Albert Singer, and Joseph A. Jordan and was published by Churchill Livingstone in the 1980s. Its International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) is 0264-5610. == Volumes == Volume 1: Obstetric Analgesia and Anaesthesia (Selwyn Crawford, 1982) Volume 2: Early Diagnosis of Fetal Defects (Brock, 1982) Volume 3: Early Teenage Pregnancy (Russell, 1982) Volume 4: Ovarian Malignancies: The Clinical Care of Adults and Adolescents (Piver & Scully, 1983) Volume 5: Cancer of the Cervix: Diagnosis and Treatment (Shingleton & Orr, 1983) Volume 6: Aspects of Care in Labour (Beazley & Lobb, 1983) Volume 7: Drug Prescribing in Pregnancy (Krauer, Krauer, & Hytten, 1984) Volume 8: Spontaneous Abortion (Huisjes, 1984) Volume 9: Female Puberty and Its Abnormalities (Dewhurst, 1984) Volume 10: Coagulation Problems During Pregnancy (Letsky, 1985) Volume 11: Infertility in the Male (Jequier, 1986) Volume 12: Endometriosis (O'Connor, 1987) Volume 13: Diabetic Pregnancy (Brudenell & Doddridge, 1989) == References == == External links == Current Reviews in Obstetrics & Gynaecology (0264-5610) - ISSN Portal Current Reviews in Obstetrics and Gynaecology - WorldCat Search


id: the-deadly-dinner-party-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Deadly_Dinner_Party-0.md
category: reference
title: The Deadly Dinner Party
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Deadly_Dinner_Party
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:37.245785+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-deadly-dinner-party-20260505-0
summary:
The Deadly Dinner Party and Other Medical Detective Stories (2009, ISBN 978-0-300-12558-0) is a nonfiction book by Jonathan A. Edlow, MD about medical mysteries. The book contains fifteen real-life stories of everyday people caught up in medical crises that take deduction and detective work to solve, and to determine a correct diagnosis. The book has been compared to the "medical mystery" books of Berton Roueché. The book is published by Yale University Press. == Reception == In a review for New Scientist, Druin Burch wrote that the "collection of bite-sized essays about obscure infections, poisons and diseases […] make an enjoyable and interesting book. The stories don’t flow, but they do add up to more than a list of anecdotes […]." In The New York Review of Books, Jerome Groopman described how Edlow wrote in "clear and fluid prose" about unusual diagnoses and the ultimate need for a "discerning doctor". == See also == Diagnosis Medical ethics How Doctors Think Fatal Care: Survive in the U.S. Health System == References == == External links == Review of book in The New York Review of Books (November 5, 2009) Review in New Scientist (October 11, 2009)


id: the-desideratum-or-electricity-made-plain-and-useful-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Desideratum-0.md
category: reference
title: The Desideratum; or, Electricity Made Plain and Useful
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Desideratum;_or,_Electricity_Made_Plain_and_Useful
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:38.416207+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-desideratum-or-electricity-made-plain-and-useful-20260505-0
summary:
The Desideratum; or, Electricity Made Plain and Useful - By a Lover of Mankind, and of Common Sense is a 1760 book by John Wesley advocating the use of electric shock therapy. Wesley collected the accounts of other researchers with "electrifying machines", and to them added observations from his own experiments in public clinics. == Legacy == The 72-page book has led Wesley to be mentioned alongside his contemporaries Richard Lovett and Jean Paul Marat as a pioneer advocate of the medical uses of electroconvulsive therapy, despite the fact that Wesley's tests and results are not considered scientific by modern standards. == References == == External links == Digital copy of an 1871 reprint at Archive.org


id: diagnosis-mercury-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnosis_Mercury-0.md
category: reference
title: Diagnosis Mercury
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnosis_Mercury
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:39.612590+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: diagnosis-mercury-20260505-0
summary:
Diagnosis Mercury: Money, Politics and Poison is a 2008 book by Jane Hightower. The book explains that mercury is a poison and that the majority of mercury in the environment comes from coal-fired power plants. But the book is mainly concerned with human exposure from the eating of large predatory fish such as swordfish, shark, king mackerel, large tuna, etc. The book also discusses industrial mercury poisonings, such as those in Minamata, Japan, in the 1950s and Ontario, Canada, in the 1970s. == See also == Mercury in fish Minamata Convention on Mercury == References == == External links == Diagnosis: Mercury Mercury poisoning symptoms and fish recommendations Mercury poisoning time line Mercury guidelines Author Bio at California Pacific Medical Center Mercury Facts


id: die-homosexualit-t-des-mannes-und-des-weibes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_Homosexualität_des_Mannes_und_des_Weibes-0.md
category: reference
title: Die Homosexualität des Mannes und des Weibes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_Homosexualität_des_Mannes_und_des_Weibes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:40.768630+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: die-homosexualit-t-des-mannes-und-des-weibes-20260505-0
summary:
Die Homosexualität des Mannes und des Weibes is a classic 1914 book on homosexuality in men and women that was written by German sexologist Magnus Hirschfeld. A second edition was published in 1920. Hirschfeld was himself gay and an occasional crossdresser, known by other Berlin crossdressers as "Aunt Magnesia". The book was part of the series Handbuch der Gesamten Sexualwissenschaft in Einzeldarstellungen and was the third volume of this series. Die Homosexualität des Mannes und des Weibes was not translated until 2000, under the title The Homosexuality of Men and Women by Michael Lombardi-Nash. It has been said that the book was the most significant and authoritative text on homosexuality of its time. The book has often been overlooked in the English-speaking academia. == See also == Die Transvestiten: Eine Untersuchung über den Erotischen Verkleidungstrieb (Hirschfeld, 1910) == References ==


id: die-transvestiten-eine-untersuchung-ber-den-erotischen-verkleidungstrieb-20260505-0
category: reference
title: Die Transvestiten: Eine Untersuchung über den Erotischen Verkleidungstrieb
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:41.916181+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: die-transvestiten-eine-untersuchung-ber-den-erotischen-verkleidungstrieb-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_Transvestiten:_Eine_Untersuchung_über_den_Erotischen_Verkleidungstrieb-0.md

summary:
Die Transvestiten: Eine Untersuchung über den Erotischen Verkleidungstrieb is a classic 1910 book on crossdressing and transvestism that was written by German sexologist Magnus Hirschfeld. An illustrated companion second volume to the book was published by Hirschfeld and Max Tilke in 1912. In addition, a second edition of Die Transvestiten was published by Hirschfeld in 1925. Subsequent to its publication, the book was translated into English with the title Transvestites: The Erotic Drive to Cross-Dress by Michael Lombardi-Nash in 1991. == Background == Hirschfeld was himself gay and an occasional crossdresser, known by other Berlin crossdressers as "Aunt Magnesia". It has been said that Die Transvestiten was the most significant and authoritative text on transvestism of its time. While the book is about crossdressing, it also clearly includes some people with cross-gender feelings who would likely be referred to as transgender today. The book has often been overlooked in the English-speaking academia. == Contents == Die Transvestiten includes first-person narratives of crossdressing, Hirschfeld's commentaries on these cases, and theorizing based on the observations. Of the narratives, there were 17 in total, with 16 of them natal male and one of them natal female. In the book, Hirschfeld wished to distinguish

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_Transvestiten:_Eine_Untersuchung_über_den_Erotischen_Verkleidungstrieb


id: the-doctor-in-war-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Doctor_in_War-0.md
category: reference
title: The Doctor in War
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Doctor_in_War
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:43.085159+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-doctor-in-war-20260505-0
summary:
The Doctor in War is a book published in November 1918 by Woods Hutchinson, an American physician who travelled throughout Europe from 15 January to 24 December 1917 visiting hospitals, ambulance trains, and other locations to offer his services to the war effort during World War I. == Background == As Hutchinson believed that "the doctor and the sanitarian would play an important part" in the World War, he offered to help the British Army medical staff but was told in order to serve he would have to swear allegiance and in turn lose his American citizenship. With the help of Secretary of War Newton Diehl Baker and Colonel Roosevelt he was able to travel to Europe and see everything that had "any value or interest from a medical and public health point of view." == Summary == Hutchinson emphasizes the importance that doctors played in the war. One of the major things they have contributed is the decrease in deaths due to disease. In the American Civil War the ratio was five deaths to disease for every one in battle, however during 'The Great War' the ratio was changed to ten deaths in battle for every one to disease.


id: donguibogam-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donguibogam-0.md
category: reference
title: Donguibogam
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donguibogam
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:44.248506+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: donguibogam-20260505-0
summary:
The Dongui Bogam (Korean: 동의보감; translated as "Principles and Practice of Eastern Medicine") is a Korean book compiled by the royal physician, Heo Jun and was first published in 1613 during the Joseon period of Korea. The book is regarded as important in traditional Korean medicine, and is one of the classics of Oriental medicine today. In July 2009, it was added to UNESCO’s Memory of the World International Register. The original edition of Dongui Bogam is currently preserved by the Korean National Library. The original was written in Hanja and only part of it was transcribed in Korean for wide reading use, as only officials understood in Hanmun. It was translated to English in 2013. == Name == The title literally translates as "A Precious Mirror of Eastern Medicine". The phrase "Precious Mirror" (보감 寶鑑) is a metaphorical idiom meaning 'something which can be modeled after'. Meanwhile, the phrase "Eastern Medicine" (동의 東醫) is not the antonym to 'Western Medicine'; "Dongguk" (동국 東國), meaning "Eastern Country," was one of the names of Korea, which means the country to the east of China. Therefore, the title can be rendered as "An Exemplary Explanation of Korean Medicine" and is listed in


id: endemic-goiter-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemic_Goiter-0.md
category: reference
title: Endemic Goiter
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemic_Goiter
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:45.385720+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: endemic-goiter-20260505-0
summary:
Endemic Goiter: The Adaptation of Man to Iodine Deficiency is a monograph about a study of endemic goiters conducted in Mendoza Province, Argentina by the Massachusetts General Hospital and the University of Cuyo. Written by John B. Stanbury, Gordon L. Brownell, Douglas S. Riggs, Hector Perinetti, Juan Itoiz and Enrique B. Del Castillo, it was published in 1954 by Harvard University Press as part of their Harvard University Monographs in Medicine and Public Health series. The study itself was conducted just before the addition of iodine was made mandatory in Mendoza, and it suggested that a thyroid deprived of iodine absorbed iodide in blood more quickly than their iodine-satiated counterparts. Contemporaneous reviews in The Quarterly Review of Biology, Archives of Internal Medicine, Science, and the American Journal of Clinical Pathology all praised the book for what they felt was clear, well-articulated research on the part of the authors. The reviews also felt that the work had provided a great deal of knowledge on thyroids, and several recommended it to wider audience, or just endocrinologists. The Journal of the American Medical Association differed in its assessment, feeling that the book was "too complex and theoretical" for general practitioners, though recommended it


id: ending-aging-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ending_Aging-0.md
category: reference
title: Ending Aging
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ending_Aging
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:46.562153+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ending-aging-20260505-0
summary:
Ending Aging: The Rejuvenation Breakthroughs that Could Reverse Human Aging in Our Lifetime is a 2007 book written by biogerontologist Aubrey de Grey, with his research assistant Michael Rae. Ending Aging describes de Grey's proposal for eliminating aging as a cause of debilitation and death in humans, and restoring the body to an indefinitely youthful state, a project that he calls the "strategies for engineered negligible senescence" ("SENS"). De Grey argues that defeating aging is feasible, possibly within a few decades, and he outlines steps that can be taken to hasten the development of regenerative medicine treatments for each side of aging. == Editions == St. Martin's Press, 1st edition (hardcover, 389 pages), released September 4, 2007: ISBN 0-312-36706-6 St. Martin's Griffin, 1st reprint edition with new afterword (paperback, 448 pages), released October 14, 2008: ISBN 0-312-36707-4 == Translations == German: Niemals alt!: So lässt sich das Altern umkehren. Fortschritte der Verjüngungsforschung, transcript Verlag, Bielefeld 2010 Spanish: El Fin del Envejecimiento. Los avances que podrían revertir el envejecimiento humano durante nuestra vida, Lola Books, Berlín 2013 Italian: La fine dell'invecchiamento: Come la scienza potrà esaudire il sogno dell'eterna giovinezza, D Editore, Roma 2016 Portuguese: O fim do envelhecimento: Os avanços


id: epidemiology-in-country-practice-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiology_in_Country_Practice-0.md
category: reference
title: Epidemiology in Country Practice
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiology_in_Country_Practice
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:47.739445+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: epidemiology-in-country-practice-20260505-0
summary:
Epidemiology in Country Practice is a book by William Pickles (1885–1969), a rural general practitioner (GP) physician in Wensleydale, North Yorkshire, England, first published in 1939. The book reports on how careful observations can lead to correlations between transmission of infective disease between families, farms and villages. It contains the detailed observational studies of a 1928 epidemic of catarrhal jaundice and a 1929 epidemic of Bornholm disease which were published in the British Medical Journal (BMJ) in 1930 and 1933 respectively. == Background == William Pickles first realised the possibilities for epidemiological studies for a GP after he read James Mackenzie's The Principles of Diagnosis and Treatment in Heart Affections in the 1920s. With the assistance of his wife Gertie, who kept the charts, Pickles recorded his observations on a 1928 epidemic of catarrhal jaundice and a 1929 epidemic of Bornholm Disease in his district. His findings were published in the British Medical Journal in 1930 and 1933 respectively and in 1935 he presented them at the Royal Society of Medicine. The work was praised by Major Greenwood who wrote that Pickles's work would mark a "new era in epidemiology". His observations led to new understandings of the transmission of


id: epidemiology-in-relation-to-air-travel-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiology_in_Relation_to_Air_Travel-0.md
category: reference
title: Epidemiology in Relation to Air Travel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiology_in_Relation_to_Air_Travel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:48.910523+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: epidemiology-in-relation-to-air-travel-20260505-0
summary:
Epidemiology in Relation to Air Travel is a book by Arthur Massey, the medical officer of health of Coventry, published by H. K. Lewis & Co. in 1933. By comparing the travel times of journeys by ship to those of travelling by air, he demonstrated how the quarantinable diseases plague, cholera, yellow fever and smallpox, could arrive in the UK in the early 1930s. Massey noted that travelling by aeroplane, from countries where major infectious diseases were common, to countries where those diseases were rare or non-existent, risked spreading those diseases during the incubation period. It was noted by Air Commodore H. E. Whittingham and in The Indian Medical Gazette to be one of the earliest works of its kind. == Publication == Epidemiology in Relation to Air Travel was written by the Coventry-based medical officer of health Arthur Massey, and published by H. K. Lewis and Co. Ltd. in 1933, when the topic was relatively new, and in the year after the International Sanitary Convention for Aerial Navigation was drawn up. It has 59 pages and five maps. == Synopsis == The book deals briefly with the danger of spreading infectious disease via aircraft as flight times in the


id: etiology-concept-and-prophylaxis-of-childbed-fever-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etiology,_Concept_and_Prophylaxis_of_Childbed_Fever-0.md
category: reference
title: Etiology, Concept and Prophylaxis of Childbed Fever
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etiology,_Concept_and_Prophylaxis_of_Childbed_Fever
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:50.066960+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: etiology-concept-and-prophylaxis-of-childbed-fever-20260505-0
summary:
Etiology, Concept and Prophylaxis of Childbed Fever (German: Die Ätiologie, der Begriff und die Prophylaxis des Kindbettfiebers) is a pioneering medical book written by Ignaz Semmelweis and published in 1861, which explains how hygiene in hospitals can drastically reduce unnecessary deaths. The book and concept saved millions of mothers from a preventable streptococcal infection. The book is 524 pages long and includes studies in hospitals conducted in Vienna in 1847. It is claimed to be one of the most comprehensive medical studies ever published. It was translated into English in 1983 by Dr. K. Codell Carter. Semmelweis's findings challenged conventional ideas about the incidence of puerperal fever (also known as postpartum infections or childbed fever), finding that it could be drastically reduced by requiring hand disinfection in obstetrical clinics. He also cites bed hygiene by washing linens after each patient. Puerperal fever was a deadly infection, common in mid-19th-century hospitals. Semmelweis proposed the practice of washing hands with chlorinated lime solutions in 1847 while working in Vienna General Hospital's First Obstetrical Clinic, where doctors' wards had three times the mortality of midwives' wards. Semmelweis had his life ruined at the time of publication because his ideas, though now proved and


id: fantastic-voyage-live-long-enough-to-live-forever-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantastic_Voyage:_Live_Long_Enough_to_Live_Forever-0.md
category: reference
title: Fantastic Voyage: Live Long Enough to Live Forever
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantastic_Voyage:_Live_Long_Enough_to_Live_Forever
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:51.226341+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fantastic-voyage-live-long-enough-to-live-forever-20260505-0
summary:
Fantastic Voyage: Live Long Enough to Live Forever (Rodale Books, ISBN 1-57954-954-3) is a book authored by Ray Kurzweil and Terry Grossman published in 2004. The basic premise of the book is that if middle aged people can live long enough, until approximately 120 years, they will be able to live forever—as humanity overcomes all diseases and old age itself. This might also be considered a break-even scenario where developments made during a year increase life expectancy by more than one year. Biogerontologist Aubrey de Grey called this the "Longevity escape velocity" in a 2005 TED talk. The book focuses primarily on health topics such as heart disease, cancer, and type 2 diabetes. It promotes lifestyle changes such as a low glycemic index diet, calorie restriction, exercise, drinking green tea and alkalinized water, and other changes to daily living. They also promote aggressive supplementation to make up for nutrient deficiencies they believe are common in Western society. In contrast to his previous book The 10% Solution for a Healthy Life, in which he recommended a diet with 10% of calories from fat, in this book, Kurzweil recommends consuming less than one third of calories from carbohydrates (and less than one


id: feminine-forever-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminine_Forever-0.md
category: reference
title: Feminine Forever
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminine_Forever
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:52.361242+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: feminine-forever-20260505-0
summary:
Feminine Forever is a 1966 book written by American gynecologist Robert A. Wilson. The book characterized menopause and associated symptoms as a serious disease state and strongly advocated the use of estrogen-based menopausal hormone therapy to alleviate it, maintain femininity and well-being, and improve quality of life and health. Wilson's claims were criticized as not being based on adequate research and evidence. Nonetheless, Wilson's book was marketed directly to women and was a best-seller, with it having been implicated in causing a rapid and large rise in prescriptions of menopausal hormone therapy. Subsequently, trials such as the Women's Health Initiative (WHI) contradicted Wilson's claims and showed that menopausal hormone therapy could have significant medical risks, such as venous thromboembolism and breast cancer, and that its benefits were not as great as once believed. Decades after the book's publication, it was revealed that the manufacturer of the estrogen drug Premarin had secretly paid Wilson to promote its use by menopausal women. == References ==


id: fixing-sex-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixing_Sex-0.md
category: reference
title: Fixing Sex
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixing_Sex
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:53.573873+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fixing-sex-20260505-0
summary:
Fixing Sex: Intersex, Medical Authority, and Lived Experience, a book by Stanford anthropologist and bioethicist Katrina Karkazis, was published in 2008. Described as "thoughtful", "meticulous", and an "authoritative treatise on intersex", the book examines the perspectives of intersex people, their families, and clinicians to offer compassionate look at the treatment of people born with atypical sex characteristics. == Synopsis == In a scholarly work, Karkazis draws heavily on interviews with intersex adults, parents, and physicians to explore how intersex is understood and treated. In part 1, she reviews the history of treatment for intersex traits, highlighting the work of John Money and the introduction of the, then new, terms "gender", "gender role" and "gender identity". She explores the events following publication of Milton Diamond's study of the David Reimer or "John/Joan" case, and the ways in which public opinion impacted on medical treatment. In part 2, Karkazis presents an analysis of current medical approaches to intersex, and the risks involved, in the wake of a 2006 "consensus statement on the management of intersex disorders". She also reviews the methods utilised to assign a sex of rearing to intersex infants, such as genitals and penis size, chromosomes, fertility, "sexing of the


id: flexner-report-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexner_Report-0.md
category: reference
title: Flexner Report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexner_Report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:54.714737+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: flexner-report-20260505-0
summary:
The Flexner Report is a book-length landmark report of medical education in the United States and Canada, written by Abraham Flexner and published in 1910 under the aegis of the Carnegie Foundation. Flexner not only described the state of medical education in North America, but he also gave detailed descriptions of the medical schools that were operating at the time. He provided both criticisms and recommendations for improvements of medical education in the United States. While it had many positive effects on American medical education, the Flexner report has been accused of introducing policies that encouraged systemic racism and sexism. The Report, also called Carnegie Foundation Bulletin Number Four, called on American medical schools to enact higher admission and graduation standards, and to adhere strictly to the protocols of mainstream science principles in their teaching and research. The report talked about the need for revamping and centralizing medical institutions. Many American medical schools fell short of the standard advocated in the Flexner Report and, subsequent to its publication, nearly half of such schools merged or were closed outright. Colleges for the education of the various forms of alternative medicine, such as electrotherapy, were closed. Homeopathy, traditional osteopathy, eclectic medicine, and


id: flexner-report-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexner_Report-1.md
category: reference
title: Flexner Report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexner_Report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:54.714737+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: flexner-report-20260505-0
summary:
== Recommended changes == To help with the transition and change the minds of other doctors and scientists, John D. Rockefeller gave many millions to colleges, hospitals and founded a philanthropic group called "General Education Board" (GEB). In the nineteenth century, it was relatively easy to not only receive a medical education, but also to start a medical school. When Flexner researched his report, many American medical schools were small "proprietary" trade schools owned by one or more doctors, unaffiliated with a college or university, and run to make a profit. A degree was typically awarded after only two years of study with laboratory work and dissection optional. Many of the instructors were local doctors teaching part-time. There were very few full-time professors, dedicated to medical education. Medical schools did not receive funding, and their only money came from the students' tuitions. Regulation of the medical profession by state governments was minimal or nonexistent. American doctors varied enormously in their scientific understanding of human physiology, and the word "quack" was in common use. Flexner carefully examined the situation. Using the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine as the ideal medical school, he issued the following recommendations: Reduce both the number of


id: flexner-report-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexner_Report-2.md
category: reference
title: Flexner Report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexner_Report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:54.714737+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: flexner-report-20260505-0
summary:
=== Strengthening state regulation of medical licensure === Chapter 11 of the Flexner Report, "The State Boards," offers a scathing critique of the medical regulatory landscape at the time, particularly focusing on the inefficacy and inconsistency of state medical boards. Flexner identifies the critical role these boards were intended to play in upholding medical education standards, both legally and ethically, but argues that they had largely failed in this responsibility."In 1906, the worst of the Chicago schools a school with no entrance requirement, no laboratory teaching, no hospital connections made before state boards the best record attained by any Chicago school in that year. This school, essentially the same now as then, has only recently been declared "not in good standing" with the state board of Illinois. Everywhere in Canada and the United States wretched institutions refute criticism by pointing to their successful state board records."Flexner's broader reform plan, which aimed to elevate medical education in the United States, was fundamentally dependent on state medical boards functioning as effective gatekeepers to the profession. He insisted that state boards must rigorously ensure that only those who completed proper, standardized training could enter medical practice. From a legal standpoint, state boards were


id: flexner-report-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexner_Report-3.md
category: reference
title: Flexner Report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexner_Report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:54.714737+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: flexner-report-20260505-0
summary:
"The practice of the Negro doctor will be limited to his own race, which in its turn will be cared for better by good Negro physicians than by poor white ones. But the physical well-being of the Negro is not only of moment to the Negro himself. Ten million of them live in close contact with sixty million whites. Not only does the Negro himself suffer from hookworm and tuberculosis; he communicates them to his white neighbors, precisely as the ignorant and unfortunate white contaminates him. Self-protection not less than humanity offers weighty counsel in this matter; self- interest seconds philanthropy. The Negro must be educated not only for his sake, but for ours. He is, as far as the human eye can see, a permanent factor in the nation." Flexner's findings also restricted opportunities for African-American physicians in the medical sphere. Even the Howard and Meharry schools struggled to stay open following the Flexner Report, having to meet the institutional requirements of white medical schools, reflecting a divide in access to health care between white and African-Americans. Following the Flexner Report, African-American students sued universities, challenging the precedent set by Plessy v. Ferguson. However, those students were met by


id: full-catastrophe-living-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_Catastrophe_Living-0.md
category: reference
title: Full Catastrophe Living
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_Catastrophe_Living
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:55.897257+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: full-catastrophe-living-20260505-0
summary:
Full Catastrophe Living: Using the Wisdom of Your Body and Mind to Face Stress, Pain, and Illness is a book by Jon Kabat-Zinn, first published in 1990, revised in 2013, which describes the mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) program developed at the University of Massachusetts Medical Center's Stress Reduction Clinic. In addition to describing the content and background of MBSR, Kabat-Zinn describes scientific research showing the medical benefits of mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs), and lays out an approach to mind-body medicine emphasizing the depth of the interconnections between physical and mental health. The book has been called "one of the great classics of mind/body medicine", and has been seen as a landmark in the development of the secular mindfulness movement in the United States and internationally. == Background == Full Catastrophe Living grew out of the work of the University of Massachusetts Medical Center's Stress Reduction Clinic, founded in 1979 by Jon Kabat-Zinn. The purpose of the Clinic was to "serve as a referral service for physicians and other health providers, to which they could send medical patients with a wide range of diagnoses and conditions who were not responding completely to more traditional treatments, or who were 'falling through the cracks'


id: full-catastrophe-living-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_Catastrophe_Living-1.md
category: reference
title: Full Catastrophe Living
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_Catastrophe_Living
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:55.897257+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: full-catastrophe-living-20260505-0
summary:
=== Introduction === In the introduction to the revised edition of 2013, Kabat-Zinn defines mindfulness, reflects on the massive growth of MBSR and other mindfulness-based practices since the publication of the first edition in 1990, and lays out the findings of relevant scientific studies. He defines mindfulness operationally as "the awareness that arises by paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and non-judgmentally", while noting that "when we speak of mindfulness, it is important to keep in mind that we equally mean heartfulness ... It is a more-than-conceptual knowing. It is more akin to wisdom, and to the freedom a wisdom perspective provides." He emphasizes that mindfulness involves accessing within ourselves capacities that we in fact already possess, "finding, recognizing, and making use of that in us which is already okay, already beautiful, already whole by virtue of our being human—and drawing upon it to live our lives as if it really mattered how we stand in relationship to what arises, whatever it is." While stressing that "mindfulness has its own internal logic and poetry", he suggests that scientific research showing its beneficial effects for health and well-being may provide extra incentive to follow the MBSR curriculum. He highlights,


id: full-catastrophe-living-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_Catastrophe_Living-2.md
category: reference
title: Full Catastrophe Living
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_Catastrophe_Living
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:55.897257+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: full-catastrophe-living-20260505-0
summary:
Health can be undermined by a lifetime of ingrained behavior patterns that compound and exacerbate the pressures of living we continually face. Ultimately, our habitual and automatic reactions to the stressors we encounter, particularly when we get in the habit of reacting maladaptively, determine in large measure how much stress we experience. Automatic reactions triggered out of unawareness—especially when the circumstances are not life-threatening but we take them that way all the same—can compound and exacerbate stress, making what might have remained basically simple problems into worse ones over time. They can prevent us from seeing clearly, from solving problems creatively, and from expressing our emotions effectively when we need to communicate with other people or even understand what is going on within ourselves. ... A lifetime of unconscious and unexamined habitual reactivity to challenges and perceived threats is likely to increase our risk of eventual breakdown and illness significantly. Habitual maladaptive reactions to stressors can include physical tensions, workaholism, addiction to various chemicals, drugs, or foods, and depressive rumination. Kabat-Zinn describes how mindfulness practice can help people to overcome such maladaptive reactions by bringing them into awareness, "allowing you to engage in and influence the flow of events and


id: galileo-s-middle-finger-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo's_Middle_Finger-0.md
category: reference
title: Galileo's Middle Finger
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo's_Middle_Finger
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:57.079400+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: galileo-s-middle-finger-20260505-0
summary:
Galileo's Middle Finger is a 2015 book about the ethics of medical research by Alice Dreger, an American bioethicist and author. Dreger explores the relationship between science and social justice by discussing a number of scientific controversies. These include the debates surrounding intersex genital surgery, autogynephilia, and anthropologist Napoleon Chagnon's work. == Synopsis == The first part of Galileo's Middle Finger recounts Dreger's activism against surgical "correction" of intersex individuals' genitalia. Some surgeons called this "total urogenital mobilization" which is "...ripping out everything that didn't seem right to the doctor and rebuilding a girl's genitals from scratch using Frankenstein stitches..." Based on her interactions with the intersex community as well as her own research, she advocated that genital surgery for intersex children be postponed until the individual is old enough to make an informed decision, in the absence of any evidence that the benefits of such surgery outweighed its already reported risks. The second section provides her analysis of the controversy surrounding The Man Who Would Be Queen (2003), by sex researcher and psychologist J. Michael Bailey. In that book, Bailey summarized research on Blanchard's transsexualism typology in a way that Dreger says is scientifically accurate, well-intended, and sympathetic, but


id: the-green-book-immunisation-guide-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Green_Book_(immunisation_guide)-0.md
category: reference
title: The Green Book (immunisation guide)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Green_Book_(immunisation_guide)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:58.214179+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-green-book-immunisation-guide-20260505-0
summary:
Immunisation against infectious disease, popularly known as The Green Book, provides information on vaccines for vaccine-preventable diseases. It acts as a guide to the UK's vaccination schedule for health professionals and health departments that give vaccines in the United Kingdom. The first two editions were published in 1992 and 1996. A third edition in 2006, was the last to appear in print. Updates have since been added by its clinical editors through advice and recommendations from the Joint Committee on Vaccination and Immunisation (JCVI) and appear only online as individual chapters via the immunisation section of the GOV.UK website. As of 2021 it includes updates on COVID-19. == Purpose == Immunisation against infectious disease is popularly known as The Green Book, to provide information on the UK's vaccination schedule and vaccines for vaccine preventable infectious diseases. It is a guide for health professionals and health departments that give vaccines in the UK. Updates are added by its clinical editors through advice and recommendations from the Joint Committee on Vaccination and Immunisation (JCVI), as accepted by the Secretaries of State. Larger updates may also need consultations with UK health departments and public health bodies, MHRA, vaccine manufacturers, NHS England, National Travel


id: homeopathy-and-its-kindred-delusions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy_and_Its_Kindred_Delusions-0.md
category: reference
title: Homeopathy and Its Kindred Delusions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeopathy_and_Its_Kindred_Delusions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:47:59.420677+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: homeopathy-and-its-kindred-delusions-20260505-0
summary:
Homœopathy and Its Kindred Delusions is a work by Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr., based upon two lectures he gave in 1842, Medical Delusions and Homœopathy. The work criticizes homeopathy, which he considered to be akin to "astrology, palmistry and other methods of getting a living out of the weakness and credulity of mankind and womankind". It is considered to be a classic text, one of Holmes' most important works, as well as one of the earliest criticisms of homeopathy. == Synopsis == Homeopathy and Its Kindred Delusions is composed of two parts. In the first, Holmes explains how the placebo effect can produce false positives, and describes numerous forms of popular but ineffective quackery (including the royal touch, the tractors of Elisha Perkins, and the powder of sympathy), to demonstrate that positive anecdotal evidence is not necessarily indicative of an effective medical therapy. He also describes how Perkins claimed the healing powers of the tractors were due to their being made of a special alloy, but how they declined in popularity after it was discovered that the tractors had the same effect no matter what they were made of. In the second, he criticizes the basis of homeopathy itself, such


id: how-doctors-think-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_Doctors_Think-0.md
category: reference
title: How Doctors Think
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_Doctors_Think
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:48:00.599302+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: how-doctors-think-20260505-0
summary:
How Doctors Think is a book released in March 2007 by Jerome Groopman, the Dina and Raphael Recanati Chair of Medicine at Harvard Medical School, chief of experimental medicine at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center in Boston, and staff writer for The New Yorker magazine. The book opens with a discussion of a woman in her thirties who suffered daily stomach cramps and serious weight loss, and who visited some 30 doctors over a period of 15 years. Several misdiagnoses were made before she was finally found to have celiac disease. Groopman explains that no one can expect a physician to be infallible, as medicine is an uncertain science, and every doctor sometimes makes mistakes in diagnosis and treatment. But the frequency and seriousness of those mistakes can be reduced by "understanding how a doctor thinks and how he or she can think better". The book includes Groopman's own experiences both as an oncologist and as a patient, as well as interviews by Groopman of prominent physicians in the medical community. Notably, he describes his difficulties with a number of orthopedic surgeons as he sought treatment for a debilitating ligament laxity he developed in his right hand, which over several


id: how-doctors-think-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_Doctors_Think-1.md
category: reference
title: How Doctors Think
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_Doctors_Think
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:48:00.599302+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: how-doctors-think-20260505-0
summary:
The narrowest subspecialist, the reasoning goes, should also be able to provide this [broad] range of medical services. This naive idea arises, as do so many other wrong beliefs about primary care, because of the concept that doctors take care of diseases. Diseases, the idea goes on, form a hierarchy from simple to difficult. Specialists take care of difficult diseases, so, of course, they will naturally do a good job on simple diseases. Wrong. Doctors take care of people, some of whom have diseases and all of whom have some problem. People used to doing complicated things usually do complicated things in simple situations--for example, ordering tests or x-rays when waiting a few days might suffice--thus overtreating people with simple illnesses and overlooking the clues about other problems that might have brought the patient to the doctor. == The fallacy of logic == In a later chapter Groopman reports a frank discussion with Dr. James E. Lock, chief of cardiology at Boston Children's Hospital. During their conversation, Groopman asks the world-renowned cardiologist about the times in his career when he made mistakes in patient treatment. To the query, Lock gives the cryptic response, "All my mistakes have the same things


id: the-human-embryo-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Human_Embryo-0.md
category: reference
title: The Human Embryo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Human_Embryo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:48:01.741856+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-human-embryo-20260505-0
summary:
The Human Embryo: Aristotle and the Arabic and European Traditions is a book looking at the philosophy and religious viewpoints of human reproduction over the ages by the Reverend Canon G. R. Dunstan and published by University of Exeter Press in 1990. It specialises in the study of the human embryo both historically and from different cultural viewpoints. The largest section is devoted to the understanding of the embryo in the Middle Ages, with seven articles alone reinterpreting Dante's passages on the animation of the embryo. == References ==


id: in-training-stories-from-tomorrow-s-physicians-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In-Training:_Stories_from_Tomorrow's_Physicians-0.md
category: reference
title: In-Training: Stories from Tomorrow's Physicians
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In-Training:_Stories_from_Tomorrow's_Physicians
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:48:02.942655+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: in-training-stories-from-tomorrow-s-physicians-20260505-0
summary:
in-Training: Stories from Tomorrow’s Physicians is a print collection of 102 manuscripts originally published on in-Training, the online magazine for medical students, since its founding in July 2012. The collection was written, curated, and edited entirely by medical students. The book is “a compendium of peer-edited narratives written by medical students on humanism, our real-life patients, and the challenges of being a physician-in-training.” The book was published by Pager Publications, Inc., a 501c3 nonprofit literary corporation founded by Ajay Major and Aleena Paul, the founders of in-Training. == Authors == The 80 authors of the manuscripts in the collection are medical students across the United States and Canada, all of whom were writers for in-Training. The book was curated and edited by Ajay Major and Aleena Paul, the founders of in-Training. == Contents == The 102 manuscripts in the collection were selected from over 800 articles originally published on in-Training since its founding in July 2012. Each manuscript is accompanied by reflective discussion questions written by the medical student editors of in-Training. The book was designed as a resource guide for medical students and educators interested in the medical humanities, so the collection includes first-person accounts of experiences in dissection


id: kaitai-shinsho-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaitai_Shinsho-0.md
category: reference
title: Kaitai Shinsho
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaitai_Shinsho
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:48:04.089453+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kaitai-shinsho-20260505-0
summary:
Kaitai Shinsho (解体新書; Kyūjitai: 解體新書, roughly meaning "New Text on Anatomy") is a medical text translated into Japanese during the Edo period. It was written by Sugita Genpaku, and was published by Suharaya Ichibee (須原屋市兵衛) in 1774, the third year of An'ei. The body comprises four volumes, the illustrations, one. The contents are written kanbun-style. It is based on a translation of the Dutch Ontleedkundige Tafelen, often known in Japan as Tafel Anatomie (ターヘル・アナトミア, Tāheru Anatomia), of Johann Adam Kulmus’ Latin Tabulae Anatomicae, published before 1722 (exact year is unknown) in Gdańsk, Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. As a full-blown translation from a Western language, it was the first of its kind in Japan. == Background == On 4 March 1771, the eighth year of Meiwa, the students of Rangaku medicine Sugita Genpaku, Maeno Ryōtaku, Nakagawa Jun'an, et al., by studying performing autopsies on criminals executed at the Kozukappara execution grounds (now, there is a possibility that Katsuragawa Hoshū was at this facility as well, but from the description in Rangaku Koto Hajime (蘭学事始), it seems more likely that he was not). Both Sugita and Maeno had the book Ontleedkundige Tafelen, imported from Holland. Sugita, marveling at the accuracy of the work while


id: kaitai-shinsho-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaitai_Shinsho-1.md
category: reference
title: Kaitai Shinsho
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaitai_Shinsho
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:48:04.089453+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kaitai-shinsho-20260505-0
summary:
Kaitai Shinsho is generally said to be a translation of Ontleedkundige Tafelen. However, other than the work itself, Bartholini's, Blankaart's, Schamberger’s, Koyter’s, Veslingius', Palfijn's, and others' works were also consulted; the cover is based on Valuerda's. Of course, Asian sources and opinions also had an influence. The book is not a mere translation; the translation was done mostly by Maeno Ryōtaku and then transponed into classical Chinese by Sugita. There are notes in various places left by Sugita, as leftovers from the work. All those lengthy footnotes that cover more than 50% of Kulmus' book were left out. The contents are split into four volumes: Volume I General remarks; forms and names; parts of the body; skeletal structure: general remarks about joints; skeletal structure: detailed exposition about joints. Volume II The head; the mouth; the brain and nerves; the eyes; the ears; the nose; the tongue. Volume III The chest and the diaphragm; the lungs; the heart; arteries; veins; the portal vein; the abdomen; the bowels and stomach; the mesentery and lacteals; the pancreas. Volume IV The spleen; the liver and gall bladder; the kidneys and the bladder; the genitalia; pregnancy; the muscles. The illustrations only comprise one volume. ==


id: a-letter-to-a-friend-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Letter_to_a_Friend-0.md
category: reference
title: A Letter to a Friend
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Letter_to_a_Friend
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:48:05.233170+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: a-letter-to-a-friend-20260505-0
summary:
A Letter to a Friend (written 1656; published posthumously in 1690), by Sir Thomas Browne, the 17th century English philosopher and physician, is a medical treatise of case-histories and witty speculations upon the human condition. == Publication == The Letter was first published as a folio pamphlet in 1690, after having been left out of the 1686 posthumous collection of Browne's complete works. Few copies of this pamphlet are extant; several of those which have survived did so because they were bound as an addition to his complete works. It was then included in his 1712 Poshumous Works printed by Edmund Curll, and a 1716 collection titled Christian Morals edited by John Jeffrey. == Morgellons == Browne's pamphlet is the source of a term Mary Leitao coined in 2001 to describe her son's skin condition. She chose the name "Morgellons disease" based on a skin condition described by Browne in Letter to a Friend, thus: Hairs which have most amused me have not been in the Face or Head, but on the Back, and not in Men but Children, as I long ago observed in that endemial Distemper33 of little Children in Languedock, called the Morgellons, wherein they critically break


id: libellus-de-medicinalibus-indorum-herbis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libellus_de_Medicinalibus_Indorum_Herbis-0.md
category: reference
title: Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libellus_de_Medicinalibus_Indorum_Herbis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:48:06.360253+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: libellus-de-medicinalibus-indorum-herbis-20260505-0
summary:
The Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis (Latin for "Little Book of the Medicinal Herbs of the Indians") is an Aztec herbal manuscript, describing the medicinal properties of 250 plants used by the Aztecs. It was translated into Latin by Juan Badiano, from a Nahuatl original composed in the Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco in 1552 by Martín de la Cruz that is no longer existant. The Libellus is also known as the Badianus Manuscript, after the translator; the Codex de la Cruz-Badiano, after both the original author and translator; and the Codex Barberini, after Cardinal Francesco Barberini, who had possession of the manuscript in the early 17th century. The Badianus Manuscript of 1552 is the first illustrated and descriptive scientific text of Nahua medicine and botany produced in the Americas. It is a significant text in the history of botany and the history of medicine. == History == In 1552 Jacobo de Grado, the friar in charge of the Convent of Tlatelolco and the College of Santa Cruz, had the herbal created and translated for Don Francisco de Mendoza, son of Don Antonio de Mendoza, the viceroy of New Spain. Mendoza sent the Latin manuscript to Spain, where it


id: medical-visions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_Visions-0.md
category: reference
title: Medical Visions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_Visions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:48:07.505430+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-visions-20260505-0
summary:
Medical Visions: Producing the Patient through Film, Television, and Imaging Technologies is a non-fiction book by Kirsten Ostherr. It was published in 2013 by Oxford University Press. == General references == Guy, Mary (2015-07-28). "Medical Visions: Producing the Patient Through Film, Television, and Imaging Technologies". Medical Law Review fwv033. doi:10.1093/medlaw/fwv033. ISSN 0967-0742. Jordanova, Ludmilla (2014). "Medical Visions: Producing the Patient through Film, Television, and Imaging Technologies by Kirsten Ostherr (review)". Literature and Medicine. 32 (1): 224–227. ISSN 1080-6571. Willis, Martin (July 2016). "Book Review: Medical Visions: Producing the Patient Through Film, Television, and Imaging Technologies". Critical Studies in Television: The International Journal of Television Studies. 11 (2): 257–260. doi:10.1177/1749602016642932. ISSN 1749-6020.


