# kb

id: knowledge-is-power-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_is_power-0.md
category: reference
title: Knowledge is power
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_is_power
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:01.253718+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: knowledge-is-power-20260505-0
summary:
The phrase "scientia potentia est" (or "scientia est potentia" or also "scientia potestas est") is a Latin aphorism meaning "knowledge is power", commonly attributed to Sir Francis Bacon. The expression "ipsa scientia potestas est" ('knowledge itself is power') occurs in Bacon's Meditationes Sacrae (1597). The exact phrase "scientia potentia est" (knowledge is power) was written for the first time in the 1668 version of Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes, who was a secretary to Bacon as a young man. The related phrase "sapientia est potentia" is often translated as "wisdom is power". == History == === Origins and parallels === A proverb in practically the same wording is found in Hebrew, in the Biblical Book of Proverbs (24:5): גֶּבֶר-חָכָם בַּעוֹז; וְאִישׁ-דַּעַת, מְאַמֶּץ-כֹּחַ. This was translated in the Latin Vulgata as "vir sapiens fortis est et vir doctus robustus et validus" and in the King James Version as "A wise man is strong, a man of knowledge increaseth strength". The Persian poet Ferdowsi (940–1019/1025) wrote توانا بود هر که دانا بود (tavânâ bûd har ke dânâ bûd) "Mighty is the one who has knowledge." === Thomas Hobbes === The first known reference of the exact phrase appeared in the Latin edition of


id: knowledge-is-power-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_is_power-1.md
category: reference
title: Knowledge is power
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_is_power
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:01.253718+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: knowledge-is-power-20260505-0
summary:
=== Wissen ist Macht in Germany === After the 1871 unification of Germany, "Wissen ist Macht, geographisches Wissen ist Weltmacht" (Knowledge is power, geographical knowledge is world power) was often used in German geopolitics and the public discussion to support efforts for a German colonial empire after 1880. Julius Perthes, for example, used the motto for his publishing house. However, this installation of geographical research followed popular requests and was not imposed by the government. In particular, Count Bismarck was not much interested in German colonial adventures; his envoy Gustav Nachtigal started with the first protectorates, but was more interested in ethnological aspects. After World War I, German geopolitics tried to contribute to efforts to regain world power. Scholars like Karl Haushofer, a former general, and his son Albrecht Haushofer (both in close contact with Rudolf Hess) got worldwide attention with their concept of geopolitics. Associations of German geographers and schoolteachers welcomed the Machtergreifung and hoped to get further influence in the new regime. Germany's postwar geopolitics was much more cautious; concepts of political geography and projection of power had not been widespread scholarly topics in Germany until 1989. Geographical knowledge is however still of importance in Germany. Germans tend


id: noli-turbare-circulos-meos-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noli_turbare_circulos_meos!-0.md
category: reference
title: Noli turbare circulos meos!
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noli_turbare_circulos_meos!
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:04.783858+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: noli-turbare-circulos-meos-20260505-0
summary:
"Nōlī turbāre circulōs meōs!" is a Latin phrase, meaning "Do not disturb my circles!" It is said to have been uttered by Archimedes—in reference to a geometric figure he had outlined on the sand—as he was about to be killed by a Roman soldier during the Siege of Syracuse. == Origin == According to Valerius Maximus, the phrase was uttered by the ancient Greek mathematician and astronomer Archimedes. When the Romans conquered the city of Syracuse after the siege of 214–212 BC, the Roman general Marcus Claudius Marcellus gave the order to retrieve Archimedes. Some soldiers entered the house of Archimedes and one of the soldiers asked Archimedes who he was. But, according to Valerius Maximus (Facta et dicta memorabilia, Book VIII.7), Archimedes just answered "Noli, obsecro, istum disturbare" ("Do not, I entreat you, disturb that (sand)"), because he was so engrossed in the circles drawn on the sand in front of him. After that, one of the soldiers killed Archimedes, despite the order of Marcus Claudius Marcellus. == Authenticity == Plutarch does not mention the quote in his Parallel Lives. Valerius Maximus (Facta et dicta memorabilia, Book VIII.7) attests the Latin form "noli ... istum disturbare" ("I ask you


id: one-small-step-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_small_step-0.md
category: reference
title: One small step
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_small_step
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:08.419555+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: one-small-step-20260505-0
summary:
On July 21, 1969, when Neil Armstrong became the first person to set foot on the Moon, he said "That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind". Recordings of Armstrong's Apollo 11 transmission do not provide evidence for the indefinite article "a" before "man", leading to some controversy about whether he said the word or not. After years of Armstrong and NASA insisting that the static obscured it, Armstrong conceded that he must have dropped the "a" after carefully listening to the recording. Several scientific analyses have been conducted with some suggesting that he did say the "a" and others suggesting that he did not. As a result, the "a" is often included in brackets in the quote. == Background == The Lunar Module Eagle landed on the Moon as part of Apollo 11 in 1969. After Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin were ready to go outside, Eagle was depressurized, the hatch was opened, and Armstrong made his way down the ladder. At the bottom of the ladder, while standing on a Lunar Module landing pad, Armstrong said, "I'm going to step off the LM now." He turned and set his left boot on the lunar surface


id: standing-on-the-shoulders-of-giants-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants-0.md
category: reference
title: Standing on the shoulders of giants
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:10.755565+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: standing-on-the-shoulders-of-giants-20260505-0
summary:
The phrase "standing on the shoulders of giants" is a metaphor which means "using the understanding gained by major thinkers who have gone before in order to make intellectual progress". It is a metaphor of a person who wants to reach higher, standing on the shoulders of giants (Latin: nani gigantum humeris insidentes) and expresses the meaning of "discovering truth by building on previous discoveries". This concept has been dated to the 12th century and, according to John of Salisbury, is attributed to Bernard of Chartres. Its most familiar and popular expression occurs in a 1675 letter by Isaac Newton: "if I have seen further [than others], it is by standing on the shoulders of giants." == Early references == === Middle Ages === The earliest documented attestation of this aphorism appears in 1123 in William of Conches's Glosses on Priscian's Institutiones grammaticae. Where Priscian says quanto juniores, tanto perspicaciores (young men simply can see more sharply), William comments: The ancients had only the books which they themselves wrote, but we have all their books and moreover all those which have been written from the beginning until our time.… Hence we are like a dwarf perched on the shoulders of


id: standing-on-the-shoulders-of-giants-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants-1.md
category: reference
title: Standing on the shoulders of giants
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:10.755565+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: standing-on-the-shoulders-of-giants-20260505-0
summary:
Diego de Estella took up the quotation in his 1578 commentary on Gospel of Luke and by the 17th century it had become commonplace. Robert Burton, in the second edition of The Anatomy of Melancholy (1624), quotes Stella thus: I say with Didacus Stella, a dwarf standing on the shoulders of a giant may see farther than a giant himself. Later editors of Burton misattributed the quotation to Lucan; in their hands Burton's attribution Didacus Stella, in luc 10, tom. ii "Didacus on the Gospel of Luke, chapter 10; volume 2" became a reference to Lucan's Pharsalia 2.10. No reference or allusion to the quotation is found there. In 1634, Marin Mersenne quoted the expression in his Questions harmoniques: ... comme l'on dit, il est bien facile, & mesme necessaire de voir plus loin que nos devanciers, lors que nous sommes montez sur leur espaules ...Blaise Pascal, in the "Preface to the Treatise on the Vacuum" expresses the same idea, without talking about shoulders, but rather about the knowledge handed down to us by the ancients as steps that allow us to climb higher and see farther than they could:C'est de cette façon que l'on peut aujourd'hui prendre d'autres sentiments


id: tyranny-of-numbers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyranny_of_numbers-0.md
category: reference
title: Tyranny of numbers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyranny_of_numbers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:33.598080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tyranny-of-numbers-20260505-0
summary:
The tyranny of numbers was a problem faced in the 1960s by computer engineers. Engineers were unable to increase the performance of their designs due to the huge number of components involved. In theory, every component needed to be wired to every other component (or at least many other components) and were typically strung and soldered by hand. In order to improve performance, more components would be needed, and it seemed that future designs would consist almost entirely of wiring. == History == The first known recorded use of the term in this context was made by the Vice President of Bell Labs in an article celebrating the 10th anniversary of the invention of the transistor, for the "Proceedings of the IRE" (Institute of Radio Engineers), June 1958 [1]. Referring to the problems many designers were having, he wrote: For some time now, electronic man has known how 'in principle' to extend greatly his visual, tactile, and mental abilities through the digital transmission and processing of all kinds of information. However, all these functions suffer from what has been called 'the tyranny of numbers.' Such systems, because of their complex digital nature, require hundreds, thousands, and sometimes tens of thousands


id: international-scientific-vocabulary-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_scientific_vocabulary-0.md
category: reference
title: International scientific vocabulary
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_scientific_vocabulary
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:35.496652+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-scientific-vocabulary-20260505-0
summary:
International scientific vocabulary (ISV) is the set of scientific and specialized words that are in current use in several modern languages. Although the language of origin of ISV may or may not be certain, they are used translingually, whether in naturalized, loanword, or calque forms. The name "international scientific vocabulary" was first used by Philip Gove in Webster's Third New International Dictionary (1961). As noted by David Crystal, science is an especially productive field for new coinages. It is also especially predisposed to immediate translingual sharing of words owing to its very nature: scientists working in many countries and languages, reading each other's latest articles in scientific journals (via foreign language skills, translation help, or both), and eager to apply any reported advances to their own context. == Instances == According to Webster's Third, "some ISV words (like haploid) have been created by taking a word with a rather general and simple meaning from one of the languages of antiquity, usually Latin and Greek, and conferring upon it a very specific and complicated meaning for the purposes of modern scientific discourse." An ISV word is typically a classical compound or a derivative which "gets only its raw materials, so to


id: scientific-terminology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_terminology-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific terminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_terminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:36.701353+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific terminology refers to the specialized vocabulary used by scientists and engineers in their professional fields. It encompasses words and expressions created to name newly discovered or invented concepts, materials, methods, and phenomena. In the early modern period, scientific terminology was predominantly Latin, resulting in naming practices that have persisted into the present. In science, "naming a particle [or concept] is not just convenient; it marks a leap forward in our understanding of the world". Thus, new technical terms, neologisms, often arise whenever science advances. For example, the term nanotechnology was coined in 1974 to describe precise engineering at the atomic scale. More generally, neologisms have long been driven by technology and science: "technological advances are among the main drivers of word creation… In many cases, neologisms come about as names for new objects". Likewise, language scholars observe that "science is an especially productive field for new coinages," and scientific terms often spread immediately across languages through research publications. Over time, many such technical terms (e.g. laser, radar, DNA) enter common usage, though at first, they denote concepts known mainly within the field. == New concepts == Scientists frequently introduce new names for novel concepts or discoveries. Every time a


id: scientific-terminology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_terminology-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientific terminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_terminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:36.701353+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
== Classical and non-vernacular terms and expressions == In modern science and its applied fields such as technology and medicine, a knowledge of classical languages is not as rigid a prerequisite as it used to be. However, traces of their influence remain. Firstly, languages such as Greek, Latin and Arabic – either directly or via more recently derived languages such as French – have provided not only most of the technical terms used in Western science, but also a de facto vocabulary of roots, prefixes and suffixes for the construction of new terms as required. Echoes of the consequences sound in remarks such as "Television? The word is half Latin and half Greek. No good can come of it." (referring to it being a hybrid word). A special class of terminology that overwhelmingly is derived from classical sources, is biological classification, in which binomial nomenclature still is most often based on classical origins. The derivations are arbitrary however and can be mixed variously with modernisms, late Latin, and even fictional roots, errors and whims. However, in spite of the chaotic nature of the field, it still is helpful to the biologist to have a good vocabulary of classical roots. Branches


id: scientific-terminology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_terminology-2.md
category: reference
title: Scientific terminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_terminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:36.701353+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
A good example is the word laser, an acronym for "Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation", and therefore all its letters should be capitalized. However, because of frequent use, this acronym became a neologism, i.e., it has integrated into English and most other languages. Consequently, laser is commonly written in small letters. It has even produced secondary acronyms such as LASIK (Laser-ASsisted in Situ Keratomileusis). A related acronym and neologism maser (Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) is much less known. Nevertheless, it is commonly written in small letters. On the contrary, acronym SPASER (Surface Plasmon Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) is capitalized. Many scientific acronyms or abbreviations reflect the artistic sense of their creators, e.g., AMANDA – Antarctic Muon And Neutrino Detector Array, a neutrino telescope BLAST – Balloon-borne Large Aperture Submillimeter Telescope COMICS – COoled Mid-Infrared Camera and Spectrometer FROG - Frequency-resolved optical gating MARVEL – Multi-object Apache Point Observatory Radial Velocity Exoplanet Large-area Survey, a NASA-funded project to search for exoplanets METATOY – METAmaTerial fOr raYs – a material that changes the direction of transmitted light rays PLANET – Probing Lensing Anomalies NETwork, a program to search for microlensing events SCREAM – Single Crystal


id: homogeneity-and-heterogeneity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity-0.md
category: reference
title: Homogeneity and heterogeneity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:38.201372+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: homogeneity-and-heterogeneity-20260505-0
summary:
Homogeneity and heterogeneity are concepts relating to the uniformity of a substance, process or image. A homogeneous feature is uniform in composition or character (i.e., color, shape, size, weight, height, distribution, texture, language, income, disease, temperature, radioactivity, architectural design, etc.); one that is heterogeneous is distinctly nonuniform in at least one of these qualities. == Etymology and spelling == The words homogeneous and heterogeneous come from Medieval Latin homogeneus and heterogeneus, from Ancient Greek ὁμογενής (homogenēs) and ἑτερογενής (heterogenēs), from ὁμός (homos, "same") and ἕτερος (heteros, "other, another, different") respectively, followed by γένος (genos, "kind"); -ous is an adjectival suffix. Alternate spellings omitting the last -e- (and the associated pronunciations) are common, but mistaken: homogenous is strictly a biological/pathological term which has largely been replaced by homologous. But use of homogenous to mean homogeneous has seen a rise since 2000, enough for it to now be considered an "established variant". Similarly, heterogenous is a spelling traditionally reserved to biology and pathology, referring to the property of an object in the body having its origin outside the body. == Scaling == The concepts are the same to every level of complexity. From atoms to galaxies, plants, animals, humans, and other living


id: organic-model-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_(model)-0.md
category: reference
title: Organic (model)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_(model)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:40.657010+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: organic-model-20260505-0
summary:
Organic describes forms, methods and patterns found in living systems such as the organisation of cells, to populations, communities, and ecosystems. Typically organic models stress the interdependence of the component parts, as well as their differentiation. Other properties of organic models include: the growth, life or development cycle the ability to adapt, learn, and evolve emergent behaviour or emergent properties steady change or growth, as opposed to instant change regulatory feedback composed of heterogeneous (diverse) parts Organic models are used especially in the design of artificial systems, and the description of social systems and constructs. == Uses == In the social sciences, the organic model has been drawn upon for ideas such as mechanical and organic solidarity and organic unity. Carl Ritter advanced the idea of Lebensraum using the metaphor of an organic, growing state. In computer science, organic networks grow in an ad hoc manner, while organic computing is autonomous and able to self-organise and heal. Bionics (biomimicry) is the engineering of technology through the use of systems found in biology. Organic architecture stresses interrelatedness as it combines the site, buildings, furnishings, and surroundings into a unified whole, each adapted to the others. Examples include the use of passive


id: phlegmatizer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phlegmatizer-0.md
category: reference
title: Phlegmatizer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phlegmatizer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:41.899071+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: phlegmatizer-20260505-0
summary:
A phlegmatizer is a compound that minimizes the explosive tendency of another compound or material. The term is derived from the word phlegmatic, meaning 'not easily excited'. Many chemical compounds that are potentially explosive have useful non-explosive applications. One large family of phlegmatizers are phthalate esters, which are used as solvents to minimize the explosive tendency of organic peroxides, such as dibenzoyl peroxide and MEKP, which are widely used initiators for polymerizations. == See also == Phlegmatized explosive == References ==


id: photochemical-action-plots-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photochemical_action_plots-0.md
category: reference
title: Photochemical action plots
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photochemical_action_plots
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:43.267480+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: photochemical-action-plots-20260505-0
summary:
Photochemical action plots are a scientific tool used to understand the effects of different wavelengths of light on photochemical reactions. The methodology involves exposing a reaction solution to the same number of photons at varying monochromatic wavelengths, monitoring the conversion or reaction yield of starting materials and/or reaction products. Such global high-resolution analysis of wavelength-dependent chemical reactivity has revealed that maxima in absorbance and reactivity often do not align. Photochemical action plots are historically connected to (biological) action spectra. == Historical development == The study of biological responses to specific wavelengths dates back to the late 19th century. Research primarily focused on assessing photodamage from solar radiation using broad-band lamps and narrow filters. These studies quantified effects such as cell viability, production of erythema, vitamin D3 degradation, DNA changes, and skin cancer appearance. The first biological action spectrum was recorded by Engelmann, who used a prism to produce different colors of light and then illuminated cladophora in a bacteria suspension. He discovered the effects of different light wavelengths on photosynthesis, marking the first recorded action spectrum of photosynthesis. Critical evaluations of active wavelength regions in these studies helped identify contributing chromophores to processes such as photosynthesis. These chromophores are key


id: list-of-science-magazines-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_magazines-0.md
category: reference
title: List of science magazines
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_magazines
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:44.972295+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-science-magazines-20260505-0
summary:
A science magazine is a periodical publication with news, opinions, and reports about science, generally written for a non-expert audience. In contrast, a periodical publication, usually including primary research and/or reviews, that is written by scientific experts is called a "scientific journal". Science magazines are read by non-scientists and scientists who want accessible information on fields outside their specialization. Articles in science magazines are sometimes republished or summarized by the general press. == Examples of general science magazines == === Africa === === Asia === ==== Bangladesh ==== Byapon – Youth Science Magazine in Bengali Bigganchinta[1] BigganBarta (বিজ্ঞানবার্তা) – Free PDF Science Magazine in Bengali Bangachi (ব্যাঙাচি) – Free Science Magazine in Bengali published by Banger Chhater Biggan Biggan Ananda (বিজ্ঞান আনন্দ) - Published by Bangladesh Science Fiction Society (BSFS) Zero to Infinity (জিরো টু ইনফিনিটি) ==== India ==== Resonance, published by Indian Academy of Sciences Current Science Dream 2047, published by Vigyan Prasar Jnan o Bijnan, published by Bangiya Bijnan Parishad Sandarbh Science Reporter Safari ==== Japan ==== Newton press Nikkei Science ==== Kazakhstan ==== OYLA ==== Pakistan ==== Global Science ==== South Korea ==== Donga Science ==== Turkey ==== Bilim ve Teknik === Europe === EuroScientist ==== Austria


id: science-and-technology-in-the-discovery-of-america-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Technology_in_the_Discovery_of_America-0.md
category: reference
title: Science and Technology in the Discovery of America
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Technology_in_the_Discovery_of_America
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:46.111693+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-in-the-discovery-of-america-20260505-0
summary:
Science and Technology in the Discovery of America (Spanish: La ciencia y la técnica en el descubrimiento de América), is a work by the historian and mathematician Julio Rey Pastor, published in Spanish in 1945, in Buenos Aires, by the Espasa-Calpe publishing. A second, "improved and corrected" edition was published in 1945. A third and fourth edition were published in 1951 and 1970, respectively. == Description == In this book, Rey Pastor analyzes the role of science and technology in the discovery of America, with special attention to the contributions of disciplines such as geography, cartography, nautical science and cosmography, which were decisive for the realization of transoceanic expeditions, such as that of Christopher Columbus, whom Rey Pastor considers a man of science, taking into account what was understood in his time by "man of science". The work reviews the scientific situation prior to the discovery and the evolution of latitude measurement and geographical representation techniques, highlighting how these innovations allowed the navigation challenges of the time to be faced. He insists on the enormous disproportion between the magnificent results of the discoverers and the poverty of the means at their disposal. The book highlights the leading role of Spanish


id: sonnet-to-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonnet_to_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Sonnet to Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonnet_to_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:47.355600+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sonnet-to-science-20260505-0
summary:
"Sonnet to Science" (originally "Sonnet — To Science") is an 1829 poem by Edgar Allan Poe, published in Al Aaraaf, Tamerlane, and Minor Poems. == Summary == Poe asks why science preys on the poet. Science is peering, destructive and interested only in cold realities. It will not allow the poet to soar in fantasy or even to sit peacefully dreaming beneath a tree. == Publication history == In mid-November 1829, Poe agreed with the Baltimore firm Hatch and Dunning to publish his second volume of poetry, entitled Al Aaraaf, Tamerlane, and Minor Poems. This volume was the first instance in which Poe published his verse under his own name as opposed to his first publication, Tamerlane and Other Poems, which was only attributed to “a Bostonian”. A later published version of this poem includes the following note, “Private reasons—some of which have reference to the sin of plagiarism, and other to the date of Tennyson’s first poems—have induced me, after some hesitation, to re-publish these, the crude compositions of my earliest boyhood. They are printed verbatim—without alteration from the original edition—the date of which is too remote to be judiciously acknowledged.” == References == == External links == An


id: unesco-science-report-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_Science_Report-0.md
category: reference
title: UNESCO Science Report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_Science_Report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:52.718844+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: unesco-science-report-20260505-0
summary:
The UNESCO Science Report is a global monitoring report published regularly by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Every five years, this report maps the latest trends and developments in national and regional policy landscapes, against the backdrop of shifting socio-economic, geopolitical and environmental realities. Each edition is typically released on 10 November, which is World Science Day for Peace and Development. The most recent edition was released on 11 June 2021. == History == In 1987, the General Conference of UNESCO approved the launch of the Organization's first world reports, the World Communication Report, which first appeared two years later. In 1989, the General Conference approved the launch of the World Education Report, which appeared in 1991, 1993, 1995, 1998 and 2000. The launch of these two reports created a momentum to generalize the world reports to all of UNESCO's fields of competence. The World Science Report (as the UNESCO Science Report was originally known) was the next title to appear, in 1993. The first World Information Report followed in 1997 then the World Social Science Report in 1999, as well as two World Culture Reports in 1998 and 2000. Two existing reports were merged to produce


id: unesco-science-report-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_Science_Report-1.md
category: reference
title: UNESCO Science Report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_Science_Report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:52.718844+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: unesco-science-report-20260505-0
summary:
== Geographical coverage == Each edition has added geographic detail. The 2021 edition of the UNESCO Science Report provided data for 193 countries, with contributions from more than 70 authors from 52 countries. Published in June 2021, the seventh report in the series arrived at a crucial juncture, as countries were one-third of the way to the 2030 deadline for achieving their Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The report revealed that countries of all income levels shared a common agenda at this time for transitioning to digital and 'green' economies. Themes covered in 2021 included our relationship with advanced technologies and the resources and energy they require, the Fourth Industrial Revolution, the effect of Brexit on science and technology and the status of women in science and Industry 4.0. For the first time, an analysis of scientific output broke down the broad field of cross-cutting strategic technologies into its sub-fields, such as artificial intelligence and robotics, energy and nanotechnology. The report found that the COVID-19 pandemic had energized knowledge production systems. This dynamic built on the trend towards greater international scientific collaboration, which bodes well for tackling this and other global challenges such as climate change and biodiversity loss. However, sustainability


id: outline-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:54.489612+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as a topical overview of science: Science is a systematic discipline that builds and organises knowledge in the form of testable hypotheses and predictions about the universe. Modern science is typically divided into two – or three – major branches: the natural sciences, which study the physical world, and the social sciences, which study individuals and societies. While referred to as the formal sciences, the study of logic, mathematics, and theoretical computer science are typically regarded as separate because they rely on deductive reasoning instead of the scientific method as their main methodology. Meanwhile, applied sciences are disciplines that use scientific knowledge for practical purposes, such as engineering and medicine. == Study and experimentation == Experimentation is the use of controlled conditions to test an idea. A single independent variable is altered while all other conditions are kept the same to test the alteration's effect on a dependent variable. Design of experiments History of experiments Descriptive and normative science are contrasting methods to explain scientific ideas. Descriptive science explains ideas objectively while normative science explains what should be true using value judgments. Empirical research is conducted using observation and experimentation instead of theory. Empirical evidence


id: outline-of-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Outline of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:54.489612+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Alchemy is the historical study of what is now associated with chemistry. It was accepted as a science until the end of the 17th century. Astrology is a method used in ancient and medieval times to study the social sciences through physical phenomena. Cosmogony is the study of Earth's origins through divine creation. Natural history is the historical name for study of subjects that are now associated with biology. Natural philosophy is the historical name for study of subjects that are now associated with physics and astronomy. == Philosophy of science == Philosophy of science encompasses the questions, assumptions, foundations, methods and implications of science. Anti-realism is the opposition to scientific realism. Anti-realists believe that scientific theories cannot be objectively true or that they do not correlate to objectively real phenomena. Antiscience is a criticism and rejection of modern science and the scientific community. Denialism is the rejection of scientific facts that conflict with one's previous beliefs. Empiricism is the belief that truth is obtained from sense experience. Empiricists believe that science is a systematic and detailed application of common everyday thought and inquiry. Constructive empiricism is the belief that scientific theories can be true but successful testing does not


id: outline-of-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Outline of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:54.489612+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Consensus is general agreement among scientists on a conclusion or finding. Demarcation is the division of scientific and non-scientific ideas, and the resulting dispute over how to divide them. Different fields of study may be evaluated on the level of experimental rigor, how much they engage in abstraction, how closely related they are with the humanities, or other qualities. Funding of science can come from governments and donors. Junk science is the presentation of uncertain scientific claims as facts, typically to a legal or political end. List of topics characterized as pseudoscience Meta-analysis is the comparing of several studies on the same topic to draw conclusions. A paradigm is the overall understanding and accepted system of how science functions. Paradigm shifts are historical periods of total change in how science is practiced. The concept was introduced by Thomas Kuhn. Peer review is a process in which an academic provides feedback on scientific writing, often anonymously, before publication. Pseudoscience is unscientific practice or belief that is presented as scientific or uses scientific language to suggest credibility. History of pseudoscience Regulation of science involves the use of policy to limit scientific activity that regulators determine to be dangerous, unethical, or ineffective. Scientific


id: outline-of-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Outline of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:54.489612+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== References == Agassi, Joseph (1981). Science and Society: Studies in the Sociology of Science. D. Reidel. ISBN 978-90-277-1244-8. Armstrong, Jon Scott; Green, Kesten C. (2022). The Scientific Method: A Guide to Finding Useful Knowledge. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-009-09642-3. Bird, Alexander (2005). Philosophy of Science. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-85728-504-8. Browne, Janet; Porter, Roy; Bynum, William F., eds. (1981). Dictionary of the History of Science. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-29316-4. Collocott, Thomas C., ed. (1971). Dictionary of Science and Technology. W. & R. Chambers. ISBN 978-0-550-13202-4. Daintith, John; Martin, Elizabeth (2010) [1984]. Oxford Dictionary of Science (6th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-956146-9. Erickson, Mark (2005). Science, Culture and Society: Understanding Science in the 21st Century. Polity. ISBN 978-0-7456-2974-2. Godfrey-Smith, Peter (2003). Theory and Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-30062-7. Hagstrom, Warren O. (1965). The Scientific Community. Basic Books. LCCN 65-10539. Heilbron, J. L., ed. (2003). The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-511229-0. Morris, Christopher G., ed. (1992). Academic Press Dictionary of Science and Technology. Elsevier Science. ISBN 978-0-12-200400-1. Pigliucci, Massimo; Boudry, Maarten, eds. (2013). Philosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem. The University of Chicago Press. ISBN


id: list-of-adiabatic-concepts-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_adiabatic_concepts-0.md
category: reference
title: List of adiabatic concepts
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_adiabatic_concepts
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:55.628982+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-adiabatic-concepts-20260505-0
summary:
Adiabatic (from Gr. ἀ negative + διάβασις passage; transference) refers to any process that occurs without heat transfer. This concept is used in many areas of physics and engineering. Notable examples are listed below. == Automobiles == Engine braking, a feature of some diesel engines, uses adiabatic expansion to diminish the vehicle's forward momentum. == Meteorology == Adiabatic lapse rate, the change in air temperature with changing height, resulting from pressure change. == Quantum chemistry == Adiabatic invariant Born–Oppenheimer approximation == Thermodynamics == Adiabatic process Adiabatic ionization Adiabatic index Adiabatic accessibility == Quantum mechanics == Adiabatic theorem Adiabatic quantum motor == Electronics == Adiabatic circuit Adiabatic logic == References ==


id: list-of-laser-applications-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications-0.md
category: reference
title: List of laser applications
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:56.948990+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-laser-applications-20260505-0
summary:
Many scientific, military, medical and commercial laser applications have been developed since the invention of the laser in 1958. The coherency, high monochromaticity, and ability to reach extremely high powers are all properties which allow for these specialized applications. == Scientific == In science, lasers are used in many ways, including: A wide variety of interferometric techniques Raman spectroscopy Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy Atmospheric remote sensing Investigating nonlinear optics phenomena Holographic techniques employing lasers also contribute to a number of measurement techniques. Laser based lidar (LIght raDAR) technology applications in geology, seismology, remote sensing and atmospheric physics. Three-dimensional structural modifications and writing inside technological materials. Lasers have been used aboard spacecraft such as in the Cassini-Huygens mission. In astronomy, lasers have been used to create artificial laser guide stars, used as reference objects for adaptive optics telescopes. Lasers may also be indirectly used in spectroscopy as a micro-sampling system, a technique termed Laser ablation (LA), which is typically applied to ICP-MS apparatus resulting in the powerful LA-ICP-MS. The principles of laser spectroscopy are discussed by Demtröder. === Spectroscopy === Most types of laser are an inherently pure source of light; they emit near-monochromatic light with a very well defined range


id: list-of-laser-applications-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications-1.md
category: reference
title: List of laser applications
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:56.948990+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-laser-applications-20260505-0
summary:
Powerful lasers producing ultra-short (in the tens of femtoseconds) and ultra-intense (up to 1023 W/cm2) laser pulses offer much greater acceleration gradients than that of conventional accelerators. This fact is exploited in several plasma acceleration techniques used for accelerating both electrons and charged ions to high energies. === Microscopy === Confocal laser scanning microscopy and Two-photon excitation microscopy make use of lasers to obtain blur-free images of thick specimens at various depths. Laser capture microdissection use lasers to procure specific cell populations from a tissue section under microscopic visualization. Additional laser microscopy techniques include harmonic microscopy, four-wave mixing microscopy and interferometric microscopy. == Military == === Directly as an energy weapon === A laser weapon is directed-energy weapon based on lasers. === Defensive countermeasures === Defensive countermeasure applications can range from compact, low power infrared countermeasures to high power, airborne laser systems. IR countermeasure systems use lasers to confuse the seeker heads on infrared homing missiles. === Disorientation === Some weapons simply use a laser to disorient a person. One such weapon is the Thales Green Laser Optical Warner. === Guidance === Laser guidance is a technique of guiding a missile or other projectile or vehicle to a target by


id: list-of-laser-applications-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications-2.md
category: reference
title: List of laser applications
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:56.948990+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-laser-applications-20260505-0
summary:
Industrial laser applications can be divided into two categories depending on the power of the laser: material processing and micro-material processing. In material processing, lasers with average optical power above 1 kilowatt are used mainly for industrial materials processing applications. Beyond this power threshold there are thermal issues related to the optics that separate these lasers from their lower-power counterparts. Laser systems in the 50-300W range are used primarily for pumping, plastic welding and soldering applications. Lasers above 300W are used in brazing, thin metal welding, and sheet metal cutting applications. The required brightness (as measured in by the beam parameter product) is higher for cutting applications than for brazing and thin metal welding. High power applications, such as hardening, cladding, and deep penetrating welding, require multiple kW of optical power, and are used in a broad range of industrial processes. Micro material processing is a category that includes all laser material processing applications under 1 kilowatt. The use of lasers in Micro Materials Processing has found broad application in the development and manufacturing of screens for smartphones, tablet computers, and LED TVs. A detailed list of industrial and commercial laser applications includes: Laser cutting Laser welding Laser drilling Laser


id: list-of-applications-of-stainless-steel-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel-0.md
category: reference
title: List of applications of stainless steel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:58.174785+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-applications-of-stainless-steel-20260505-0
summary:
Stainless steel is used in a multitude of fields including architecture, art, chemical engineering, food and beverage manufacture, vehicles, medicine, energy and firearms. == Architecture == The use of stainless steel in buildings can be both practical and aesthetic. In vogue during the Art Deco period, the most famous use of stainless steel can be seen in the upper portion of the Chrysler Building. Thanks to its durability, many of these buildings have retained their original appearance. Stainless steel is used in the construction of modern buildings, such as the exterior of the Petronas Twin Towers and the Jin Mao Building. The Parliament House of Australia in Canberra has a stainless steel flagpole weighing over 220 metric tons (240 short tons). The largest stainless steel building in North America is the aeration building in the Edmonton Composting Facility. La Geode in Paris has a dome composed of 6433 polished stainless steel triangles that form the sphere that reflects the sky. The development of high-strength stainless steel grades, such as "lean duplex" grades, has led to increasing use in structural applications. Thanks to its low reflectivity, stainless steel is used as a roofing material for airports, which prevents pilots from being


id: list-of-applications-of-stainless-steel-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel-1.md
category: reference
title: List of applications of stainless steel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:58.174785+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-applications-of-stainless-steel-20260505-0
summary:
== Food and beverage == Austenitic (300 series) stainless steel, particularly Types 304 and 316, is the material of choice for the food and beverage industry, though martensitic and ferritic (400 series) steels are also used. Stainless steels are advantageous because they do not affect the taste of the product, are easily cleaned and sterilized to prevent bacterial contamination of the food, and are durable. Within the food and beverage industry, stainless steel is extensively used in cookware, commercial food processing, commercial kitchens, brewing beer, winemaking, and meat processing. Stainless steel's superiority over plastic in preserving flavor is reportedly why McDonald's traditionally procures soft drink syrup for its soda fountains from The Coca-Cola Company in stainless steel tanks, rather than the bag-in-box technology preferred by most fast food restaurant chains. Acidic foods with high salt additions, such as tomato sauce, and highly salted condiments, such as soy sauce, may require higher-alloyed stainless steels such as 6% Mo superaustenitics to prevent pitting corrosion by chloride. == Vehicles == === Automobiles === The Allegheny Ludlum Corporation worked with Ford on various concept cars with stainless steel bodies from the 1930s through the 1970s to demonstrate the material's potential. The 1957 and 1958


id: list-of-applications-of-stainless-steel-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel-2.md
category: reference
title: List of applications of stainless steel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:58.174785+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-applications-of-stainless-steel-20260505-0
summary:
Surgical tools and medical equipment are usually made of stainless steel, because of its durability and ability to be sterilized in an autoclave. In addition, surgical implants such as bone reinforcements and replacements (e.g. hip sockets and cranial plates) are made with special alloys formulated to resist corrosion, mechanical wear, and biological reactions in vivo. Stainless steel is used in a variety of applications in dentistry. It is common to use stainless steel in many instruments that need to be sterilized, such as needles, endodontic files in root canal therapy, metal posts in root canal-treated teeth, temporary crowns and crowns for deciduous teeth, and arch wires and brackets in orthodontics. Surgical stainless steel alloys (e.g., 316 low-carbon steel) were also used in some early dental implants. == Energy == Stainless steels are extensively used in all types of power stations, from nuclear to solar. Stainless steels are ideally suited as mechanical supports for power generation units when the permeation of gases or liquids are required, such as filters in cooling water or hot gas clean up or as structural supports in electrolytic power generation. Stainless steel is used in electrolysers (proton exchange membranes and solid oxide electrolysers being the most


id: list-of-asteroid-discovering-observatories-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_asteroid-discovering_observatories-0.md
category: reference
title: List of asteroid-discovering observatories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_asteroid-discovering_observatories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:27:59.427938+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-asteroid-discovering-observatories-20260505-0
summary:
The list of asteroid-discovering observatories contains a section for each observatory which has discovered one or more asteroids, along with a list of those asteroids. For each numbered asteroid, the Minor Planet Center lists one or more discoverers who have been given credit for the discovery. Sometimes these are individuals (by modern rules there can be no more than three co-discoverers), and sometimes the credit is given to an organization (for instance, Purple Mountain Observatory). == Observatories == === Andrushivka Astronomical Observatory === The Andrushivka Astronomical Observatory is a private observatory near Andrushivka in Zhytomyr oblast, Ukraine. The observatory has IAU observatory code A50. It has discovered the following asteroids: === Bohyunsan Optical Astronomy Observatory === The Korean Bohyunsan Optical Astronomy Observatory (BOAO), located at Mount Bohyeon near the city of Yeongcheon, is a member of the East-Asian Planet Search Network, an international collaboration between Korea, China and Japan. Each facility, BOAO (Korea), Xinglong Station (NAOC) (China), and Okayama Astrophysical Observatory (Japan), has a 2 m class telescope, a high dispersion echelle spectrograph, and an iodine absorption cell for precise RV measurements, looking for extrasolar planets. It has discovered the following asteroids: === Cerro El Roble Astronomical Station === Between


id: atmospheric-optics-ray-tracing-codes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_optics_ray-tracing_codes-0.md
category: reference
title: Atmospheric optics ray-tracing codes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_optics_ray-tracing_codes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:00.633352+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: atmospheric-optics-ray-tracing-codes-20260505-0
summary:
Atmospheric optics ray tracing codes - this article list codes for light scattering using ray-tracing technique to study atmospheric optics phenomena such as rainbows and halos. Such particles can be large raindrops or hexagonal ice crystals. Such codes are one of many approaches to calculations of light scattering by particles. == Geometric optics (ray tracing) == Ray tracing techniques can be applied to study light scattering by spherical and non-spherical particles under the condition that the size of a particle is much larger than the wavelength of light. The light can be considered as collection of separate rays with width of rays much larger than the wavelength but smaller than a particle. Rays hitting the particle undergoes reflection, refraction and diffraction. These rays exit in various directions with different amplitudes and phases. Such ray tracing techniques are used to describe optical phenomena such as rainbow of halo on hexagonal ice crystals for large particles. Review of several mathematical techniques is provided in series of publications. The 46° halo was first explained as being caused by refractions through ice crystals in 1679 by the French physicist Edmé Mariotte (1620–1684) in terms of light refraction Jacobowitz in 1971 was the first to


id: atmospheric-radiative-transfer-codes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_radiative_transfer_codes-0.md
category: reference
title: Atmospheric radiative transfer codes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_radiative_transfer_codes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:01.956359+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: atmospheric-radiative-transfer-codes-20260505-0
summary:
An atmospheric radiative transfer model, code, or simulator calculates radiative transfer of electromagnetic radiation through a planetary atmosphere. == Methods == At the core of a radiative transfer model lies the radiative transfer equation that is numerically solved using a solver such as a discrete ordinate method or a Monte Carlo method. The radiative transfer equation is a monochromatic equation to calculate radiance in a single layer of the Earth's atmosphere. To calculate the radiance for a spectral region with a finite width (e.g., to estimate the Earth's energy budget or simulate an instrument response), one has to integrate this over a band of frequencies (or wavelengths). The most exact way to do this is to loop through the frequencies of interest, and for each frequency, calculate the radiance at this frequency. For this, one needs to calculate the contribution of each spectral line for all molecules in the atmospheric layer; this is called a line-by-line calculation. For an instrument response, this is then convolved with the spectral response of the instrument. A faster but more approximate method is a band transmission. Here, the transmission in a region in a band is characterised by a set of pre-calculated coefficients (depending


id: azeotrope-tables-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azeotrope_tables-0.md
category: reference
title: Azeotrope tables
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azeotrope_tables
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:04.389530+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: azeotrope-tables-20260505-0
summary:
This page contains tables of azeotrope data for various binary and ternary mixtures of solvents. The data include the composition of a mixture by weight (in binary azeotropes, when only one fraction is given, it is the fraction of the second component), the boiling point (b.p.) of a component, the boiling point of a mixture, and the specific gravity of the mixture. Boiling points are reported at a pressure of 760 mm Hg unless otherwise stated. Where the mixture separates into layers, values are shown for upper (U) and lower (L) layers. The data were obtained from Lange's 10th edition and CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 44th edition unless otherwise noted (see color code table). A list of 15825 binary and ternary mixtures was collated and published by the American Chemical Society. An azeotrope databank is also available online through the University of Edinburgh. == Binary azeotropes == == Ternary azeotropes == Tables of various ternary azeotropes (that is azeotropes consisting of three components). Fraction percentages are given by weight. ‡Saddle azeotrope ‡Saddle azeotrope == References ==


id: list-of-balzan-prize-recipients-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Balzan Prize recipients
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:09.436892+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-balzan-prize-recipients-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of recipients of the Balzan Prize, one of the world's most prestigious academic awards. The International Balzan Prize Foundation awards four annual monetary prizes to people or organizations who have made outstanding achievements in the humanities, natural sciences, culture, and peace on an international level. The Prizes are awarded in four subject areas: "two in literature, the moral sciences and the arts" and "two in the physical, mathematical and natural sciences and medicine." The special Prize for Humanity, Peace and Fraternity is presented at intervals of every three years or longer. == 1960s–1970s == 1961 Nobel Foundation (Sweden) --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples 1962 Andrey Kolmogorov (Soviet Union) --- Mathematics Karl von Frisch (Austria) --- Biology Paul Hindemith (Germany) --- Music Samuel Eliot Morison (United States) --- History Pope John XXIII (Vatican) --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples 1978 Mother Teresa of Calcutta (India) --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples 1979 Ernest Labrousse (France) and Giuseppe Tucci (Italy) --- History Jean Piaget (Switzerland) --- Social and political sciences Torbjörn Caspersson (Sweden) --- Biology == 1980s == 1980 Enrico Bombieri (Italy) --- Mathematics Hassan Fathy (Egypt) --- Architecture and town planning Jorge Luis


id: list-of-balzan-prize-recipients-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients-1.md
category: reference
title: List of Balzan Prize recipients
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:09.436892+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-balzan-prize-recipients-20260505-0
summary:
== 2000s == 2000 Ilkka Hanski (Finland) --- Ecological sciences Martin Litchfield West (United Kingdom) --- Classical antiquity Michael Stolleis (Germany) --- Legal history since 1500 Michel G.E. Mayor (Switzerland) --- Instrumentation and techniques in astronomy and astrophysics Abdul Sattar Edhi (Pakistan) --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples 2001 Claude Lorius (France) --- Climatology James Sloss Ackerman (United States) --- History of architecture (including town planning and landscape design) Jean-Pierre Changeux (France) --- Cognitive neurosciences Marc Fumaroli (France) --- Literary history and criticism (post 1500) 2002 Anthony Grafton (United States) --- History of the humanities Dominique Schnapper (France) --- Sociology Walter J. Gehring (Switzerland) --- Developmental biology Xavier Le Pichon (France) --- Geology 2003 Eric Hobsbawm (United Kingdom) --- European history since 1900 Reinhard Genzel (Germany) --- Infrared astronomy Serge Moscovici (France) --- Social psychology Wen-Hsiung Li (Taiwan / United States) --- Genetics and evolution 2004 Andrew Colin Renfrew (United Kingdom) --- Prehistoric Archaeology Michael Marmot (United Kingdom) --- Epidemiology Nikki R. Keddie (United States) --- The Islamic world from the end of the 19th to the end of the 20th century Pierre Deligne (Belgium) --- Mathematics Community of Sant'Egidio --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples 2005 Lothar


id: list-of-balzan-prize-recipients-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients-2.md
category: reference
title: List of Balzan Prize recipients
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:09.436892+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-balzan-prize-recipients-20260505-0
summary:
== 2020s == 2020 Susan Trumbore (US / Germany) --- Earth System Dynamics Jean-Marie Tarascon (France) --- Environmental Challenges: Materials Science for Renewable Energy Joan Martinez Alier (Spain) --- Environmental Challenges: Responses from the Social Sciences and the Humanities Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade (Brazil) --- Human Rights 2021 Saul Friedländer (France / US) --- Holocaust and Genocide Studies Jeffrey I. Gordon (US) --- Microbiome in Health and Disease Alessandra Buonanno (Italy / US) and Thibault Damour (France) --- Gravitation: physical and astrophysical aspects Giorgio Buccellati and Marilyn Kelly-Buccellati (Italy / USA) --- Art and Archaeology of the Ancient Far East 2022 Robert Langer (US) --- Biomaterials for Nanomedicine and Tissue Engineering Martha Nussbaum (US) --- Moral Philosophy Dorthe Dahl-Jensen (Denmark) and Hans Oerlemans (Netherlands) --- Glaciation and Ice-Sheet Dynamics Philip Bohlman (US) --- Ethnomusicology 2023 David Damrosch (US) --- World Literature Jean-Jacques Hublin (France) --- Evolution of Humankind: Paleoanthropology Eske Willerslev (Denmark) --- Evolution of Humankind: Ancient DNA and Human Evolution Heino Falcke (Germany) --- High resolution images: from planetary to cosmic objects 2024 John Braithwaite (Australia) --- Restorative Justice Lorraine Daston (US / Germany) --- History of Modern and Contemporary Science Michael N. Hall (US / Switzerland) --- Biological


id: outline-of-biochemistry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_biochemistry-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of biochemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_biochemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:10.642506+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-biochemistry-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to biochemistry: Biochemistry, or biological chemistry (distinct from chemical biology), is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. A sub-discipline of both chemistry and biology, biochemistry may be divided into three fields: structural biology, enzymology, and metabolism. Over the last decades of the 20th century, biochemistry has become successful at explaining living processes through these three disciplines. Almost all areas of the life sciences are being uncovered and developed through biochemical methodology and research. Biochemistry focuses on understanding the chemical basis that allows biological molecules to give rise to the processes that occur within living cells and between cells, in turn relating greatly to the understanding of tissues and organs as well as organism structure and function. Biochemistry is closely related to molecular biology, the study of the molecular mechanisms of biological phenomena. == Applications of biochemistry == Testing Ames test – salmonella bacteria is exposed to a chemical under question (a food additive, for example), and changes in the way the bacteria grows are measured. This test is useful for screening chemicals to see if they mutate the structure of DNA and by


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:12.104269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The following index is provided as an overview of and topical guide to science: Links to articles and redirects to sections of articles which provide information on each topic are listed with a short description of the topic. When there is more than one article with information on a topic, the most relevant is usually listed, and it may be cross-linked to further information from the linked page or section. Science (from Latin scientia, meaning "knowledge") is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. The branches of science, also referred to as scientific fields, scientific disciplines, or just sciences, can be arbitrarily divided into three major groups: The natural sciences (biology, chemistry, physics, astronomy, and Earth sciences), which study nature in the broadest sense; The social sciences (e.g. psychology, sociology, economics, history) which study people and societies; and The formal sciences (e.g. mathematics, logic, theoretical computer science), which study abstract concepts. Disciplines that use science, such as engineering and medicine, are described as applied sciences. == A == Abiology – Life arising from non-living matterPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of inanimate, inorganic, or lifeless


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:12.104269+00:00
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parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== B == Bacteriology – Subdiscipline of microbiology that studies bacteria Ballistics – Science of the motion of projectiles Balneology – Method of treating diseases by bathingPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – science of the therapeutic use of baths. Barodynamics – science of the support and mechanics of heavy structures Barology – study of gravitational force. Bathymetry – Study of underwater depth of lake or ocean floors Batology – Study of brambles Batrachology – Branch of herpetology that studies amphibians Behavioural genetics – Study of genetic-environment interactions influencing behaviour Behavioral neuroscience – Study of biological and neural mechanisma in behaviour Bibliology – Organized listing of books and the systematic description of them as objects Bibliotics – study of documents to determine authenticity. Bioecology – Study of interrelations of plants and animals with their environment Biogeochemistry – Study of chemical cycles of the earth related to biological activity Biology – Scientific study of life Biochemistry – Study of chemical processes of living organisms Biomechanics – Study of the mechanics of biological systems Biometrics – Metrics related to human characteristics Bionomics – Term with different meanings in ecology or economics – study of organisms interacting in their environments. Biophysics –


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:12.104269+00:00
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parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== D == Dactyliology – study of finger rings. Dactylography – Scientific study of fingerprints Dactylology – Form of communication using one or both handsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of sign language. Data science – Field of study to extract knowledge from data – study of analyzing, processing, interpreting and extracting data. Demography – Study of human populations and their structures Demology – study of human populations and behaviour. Dendrochronology – Method of dating based on the analysis of patterns of tree rings Dendrology – Science and study of woody plants Dermatoglyphics – Scientific study of finger- and toeprints Dermatology – Field of medicine dealing with the hair, nails, skin, and its diseases Desmology – Study of ligaments Dialectology – Scientific study of linguistic dialect Dietetics – Study of diet and nutrition in relation to health and disease Dioptrics – Science of light and lenses Diplomatics – Academic study of the protocols of documents – science of deciphering ancient writings and texts. Dosiology – study of dosage of drugs. Dynamics – Study of forces and their effect on motion Dysgenics – Decrease in genetic traits deemed desirable and study thereof. == E == Eccrinology – Sweat


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:12.104269+00:00
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parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== G == Garbology – Study of modern refuse Gastroenterology – Branch of medicine focused on the digestive system and its disorders Gastronomy – Study of the relationship between food and culture Gemmology – Science dealing with natural and artificial gemstone materialsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of gems and jewels Gender studies – Interdisciplinary field of study – study of gender Genealogy – Study of individual descent and bloodline – study of descent of families Genesiology – study of reproduction and heredity Genetics – Science of genes, heredity and variation Geochemistry – Science that applies chemistry to analyze geological systems – study of chemistry of the Earth's crust Geochronology – Science of determining the age of rocks, sediments and fossils – study of measuring geological time Geography – Study of Earth's spatial information – study of surface of the earth and its inhabitants Geology – Scientific study of Earth's physical composition – study of the rocks of a planet Geometry – Branch of mathematics – study the sizes, shapes, positions, angles and dimensions of things. Geomorphogeny – study of the characteristics, origins, and development of land forms Geomorphology – Scientific study of landforms – study of


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-4.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:12.104269+00:00
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parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
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== I == Iamatology – Obsolete synonym for the study of therapies. Iatrology – treatise or text on medical topics; study of medicine Ichnography – Architectural drawing showing interior layout of a buildingPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – art of drawing ground plans; a ground plan Ichnology – Study of trace fossils Ichthyology – Scientific study of fish Iconography – Branch of art history – study of drawing symbols Iconology – Method of interpretation in cultural history – study of icons; symbols Ideogeny – study of origins of ideas Ideology – Set of beliefs or values – science of ideas; system of ideas used to justify behaviour Idiomology – study of idiom, jargon or dialect Idiopsychology – study of the psychology of one's own mind Immunochemistry – Study of the chemistry of the immune system Immunogenetics – Branch of medical genetics – study of genetic characteristics of immunity Immunology – Branch of medicine studying the immune system Immunopathology – Branch of medicine that deals with immune responses associated with disease Information science – Academic field concerned with collection and analysis of information Information technology (IT) – Computer-based technology Insectology – Scientific study ofi insects, or relationships between insects


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-5.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:12.104269+00:00
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parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
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== M == Macroeconomics – Study of an economy as a whole – branch of economics dealing with the performance, structure, behavior, and decision-making of the whole economy Magnetics – Class of physical phenomenaPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of magnetism Magnetohydrodynamics – Model of electrically conducting fluids – study of electrically conducting fluids Magnetostatics – Branch of physics about magnetism in systems with steady electric currents – study of magnetic fields in systems where the currents are steady Malacology – Study of molluscs Malariology – Study of the mosquito borne disease, malaria Mammalogy – Study of mammals Marine biology – Scientific study of ocean life – study of the ocean's ecosystem Mastology – Study of mammals – study of mammals Mathematics – Field of study – study of magnitude, number, and forms Mazology – mammalogy; study of mammals Mechanics – Science concerned with physical bodies subjected to forces or displacements Meconology – study of or treatise concerning opium Media studies – Field of study that deals with media Medicine – Diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of illness Melissopalynology – Study of pollen contained in honey Melittology – Scientific study of bees Melology – Scholarly study of musicPages


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-6.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:12.104269+00:00
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parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== O == Obstetrics – Medical specialty concerning pregnancy and childbirth Oceanography – Scientific study of the ocean Oceanology – Scientific study of the ocean Odontology – Scientific study of teeth Odonatology – Study of dragonflies and damselflies Oenology – Study of wine and winemaking Oikology – science of housekeeping Olfactology – study of the sense of smell Ombrology – study of rain Oncology – Branch of medicine dealing with, or specializing in, cancer Oneirology – Scientific study of dreams Onomasiology – Branch of linguistics concerned with how to express a given concept – study of nomenclature Onomastics – Study of proper names Ontology – Philosophical study of being – science of pure being; the nature of things Oology – Branch of ornithology studying bird eggs, nests and breeding behavior Ophiology, also known as ophidiology – Branch of herpetology that studies snakes Ophthalmology – Field of medicine treating eye disorders Optics – Branch of physics that studies light Optology – study of sight Optometry – Field of medicine treating eye disorders – science of examining the eyes Orbital mechanics – Field of classical mechanics concerned with the motion of spacecraft Orchidology – Scientific study of orchids Ornithology – Scientific study


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-7.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:12.104269+00:00
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parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== P == Paedology – Study of children's behavior and development Paidonosology – study of children's diseases; pediatrics Palaeoanthropology – Study of ancient humans Palaeobiology – Study of organic evolution using fossils Palaeoclimatology – Study of changes in ancient climate Palaeoichthyology – study of ancient fish Palaeolimnology – Scientific study of ancient lakes and streams Palaeontology – Study of life before the Holocene epoch Palaeopedology – Discipline studying soils of the past eras Paleobotany – Study of organic evolution of plants based on fossils Paleo-osteology – study of ancient bones Paleoseismology – Study of earthquakes that happened in the past Palynology – Study of pollen and other acid-resistant microoscopic organic material Papyrology – Scientific study of ancient manuscripts Paradoxology – Logically self-contradictory statementPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of paradoxes Parapsychology – Study of paranormal and psychic phenomena Parasitology – Study of parasites, their hosts, and the relationship between them Paroemiology – study of proverbs Parthenology – study of virgins Particle physics – Study of subatomic particles and forces Pathology – Study of disease Pedagogics – Theory and practice of educationPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Pedology – Study of soils in their natural environment Pelology


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-8.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:12.104269+00:00
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parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
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== R == Radiobiology – Study of effects of radiation on living tissues – study of the scientific principles, mechanisms, and effects of the interaction of ionizing radiation with living matter Radiochemistry – Chemistry of radioactive materials – study of ordinary chemical reactions under radioactive circumstances Radiology – Medical specialty for imaging procedures Rheology – Study of the flow of matter, primarily in a fluid state Rheumatology – Medical speciality of inflammatory diseases Rhinology – Study of the nose and sinuses Rhochrematics – science of inventory management and the movement of products Robotics – Design, construction, use, and application of robots Rodentology – Study of rodents Runology – Study of Runic alphabets == S == Sarcology – study of fleshy parts of the body Scatology – Study of faeces – study of excrement or obscene literature Schematonics – art of using gesture to express tones Sciagraphy – Study of perspective shadow projection – art of shading Scientific modelling – Scientific activity that produces models – study of application of models to understand a particular problem Scientific programming – Language for controlling a computer – study of programming Scripophily – Study and collection of stock and bond certificates Sedimentology – Study


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-9.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:12.104269+00:00
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parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== T == Taxidermy – Stuffing and mounting dead animals for display – art of curing and stuffing animals Taxonomy – Science of classifying organisms Tectonics – Process of evolution of Earth's crust Teleology – Thinking in terms of destiny or purpose – study of final causes; analysis in terms of purpose Telmatology – Branch of physical geography concerned with the study of wetlands Tempestology – The study of cyclones, hurricanes and similar extreme weather events Teratology – Study of developmental anomalies Terrestrial ecology – Study of terrestrial ecosystems and the biotic and abiotic things that occupy them. Teuthology – Study of cephalopods Textology – Identification of textual variants – study of the production of texts Thalassography – science of the seas and gulfs Thanatology – Scientific study of death and its aspects Thaumatology – The study of miracles – study of miracles Theology – Study of the nature of deities and religious beliefs - study of religion Theoretical computer science – Subfield of computer science and mathematics Theriogenology – Veterinary specialty concerning reproduction Thermodynamics – Physics of heat, work, and temperature Thermokinematics – study of motion of heat Thermology – study of heat Therology – Study of mammals Thremmatology


id: list-of-cities-by-scientific-output-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cities_by_scientific_output-0.md
category: reference
title: List of cities by scientific output
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cities_by_scientific_output
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:13.426430+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cities-by-scientific-output-20260505-0
summary:
The following article lists the cities and metropolitan areas with the greatest scientific output, according to the Nature Index. The Nature Index attempts to objectively measure the scientific output of institutions, cities and countries by the amount of scientific articles and papers published in leading journals. Differences in quality are taken into account. Only articles published in 82 selected quality journals are counted. All these journals are in the English language. They were selected by a committee. If authors from several institutions from different cities are involved in a scientific article, it is divided accordingly, assuming that all researchers were equally involved in the article. In 2019, Beijing was the city in the world with the largest scientific output, accounting for 2.8% of the world's total. New York City was second in the world, with about 2% of the world's total. Overall, China has the most cities in the top 100 list with 28, followed by the United States with 27. == List == Listed below are the top 100 cities and metropolitan areas with the highest share of articles published in scientific journals in 2024, according to the Nature Index 2025 Science Cities: == Leading cities in different fields


id: list-of-citizen-science-projects-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_citizen_science_projects-0.md
category: reference
title: List of citizen science projects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_citizen_science_projects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:14.711151+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-citizen-science-projects-20260505-0
summary:
Citizen science projects are activities sponsored by a wide variety of organizations so non-scientists can meaningfully contribute to scientific research. == Precis == Activities vary widely from transcribing old ship logbooks to digitize the data as part of the Old Weather project to observing and counting birds at home or in the field for eBird. Participation can be as simple as playing a computer game for a project called Eyewire that may help scientists learn more about retinal neurons. It can also be more in depth, such as when citizens collect water quality data over time to assess the health of local waters, or help discover and name new species of insects. An emerging branch of Citizen Science are Community Mapping projects that utilize smartphone and tablet technology. For example, TurtleSAT is a community mapping project that is mapping freshwater turtle deaths throughout Australia. This list of citizen science projects involves projects that engage all age groups. There are projects specifically aimed at the younger age demographic like iTechExplorers which was created by a 14 year old in the UK to assess the effects of bedtime technology on the body's circadian rhythm and can be completed in a classroom setting.


id: codes-for-electromagnetic-scattering-by-cylinders-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codes_for_electromagnetic_scattering_by_cylinders-0.md
category: reference
title: Codes for electromagnetic scattering by cylinders
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codes_for_electromagnetic_scattering_by_cylinders
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:16.015297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: codes-for-electromagnetic-scattering-by-cylinders-20260505-0
summary:
Codes for electromagnetic scattering by cylinders – this article list codes for electromagnetic scattering by a cylinder. Majority of existing codes for calculation of electromagnetic scattering by a single cylinder are based on Mie theory, which is an analytical solution of Maxwell's equations in terms of infinite series. == Classification == The compilation contains information about the electromagnetic scattering by cylindrical particles, relevant links, and applications. === Codes for electromagnetic scattering by a single homogeneous cylinder === == Relevant scattering codes == Discrete dipole approximation codes Codes for electromagnetic scattering by spheres == See also == Computational electromagnetics List of atmospheric radiative transfer codes == References == == External links == SCATTERLIB: Collection of light scattering codes


id: codes-for-electromagnetic-scattering-by-spheres-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codes_for_electromagnetic_scattering_by_spheres-0.md
category: reference
title: Codes for electromagnetic scattering by spheres
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codes_for_electromagnetic_scattering_by_spheres
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:17.289566+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: codes-for-electromagnetic-scattering-by-spheres-20260505-0
summary:
Codes for electromagnetic scattering by spheres - this article list codes for electromagnetic scattering by a homogeneous sphere, layered sphere, and cluster of spheres. == Solution techniques == Majority of existing codes for calculation of electromagnetic scattering by a single sphere is based on Mie theory which is an analytical solution of Maxwell's equations in terms of infinite series. Other approximations to scattering by a single sphere include: Debye series, ray tracing (geometrical optics), ray tracing including the effects of interference between rays, Airy theory, Rayleigh scattering, diffraction approximation. There are many phenomena related to light scattering by spherical particles such as resonances, surface waves, plasmons, near-field scattering. Even though Mie theory offers convenient and fast way of solving light scattering problem by homogeneous spherical particles, there are other techniques, such as discrete dipole approximation, FDTD, T-matrix, which can also be used for such tasks. == Classification == The compilation contains information about the electromagnetic scattering by spherical particles, relevant links, and applications. === Codes for electromagnetic scattering by a single homogeneous sphere === === Codes for electromagnetic scattering by a layered sphere === Algorithmic literature includes several contributions === Codes for electromagnetic scattering by cluster of spheres === ==


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-0.md

summary:
Each entry on this list of common misconceptions is worded as a correction; the misconceptions themselves are implied rather than stated. These entries are concise summaries; the main subject articles can be consulted for more detail. == Astronomy and spaceflight == There is no scientific evidence that the motion of stars, planets, and other celestial bodies influences the fates of humans, and astrology has repeatedly been shown to have no explanatory power in predicting future events. Astronauts in orbit have the sensation of being weightless because they are in free fall around the Earth, not because they are so far away from the Earth that its gravitational pull is negligible. For example, on the International Space Station the Earth's gravity is nearly 90% as strong as at the surface. Objects orbiting in space would not remain in orbit if not for the gravitational force, and gravitational fields extend even into the depths of intergalactic space. The dark side of the Moon receives about the same amount of light from the Sun as the near side. The far side is called "dark" not because it never receives light but because it had never been seen until humans sent spacecraft around the

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-1
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-1.md

summary:
=== Mammals === Bats are not blind. While about 70% of bat species, mainly in the microbat family, use echolocation to navigate, all bat species have eyes and are capable of sight. In addition, almost all bats in the megabat or fruit bat family cannot echolocate and have excellent night vision. Bulls are not enraged by the color red, used in capes by professional bullfighters. Cattle are dichromats, so red does not stand out as a bright color. It is not the color of the cape, but the perceived threat by the bullfighter that incites it to charge, along with the spearing of the bull and mental agitation and abuse it endures beforehand. Camels do not store water in their humps, but rather fatty tissue which can be used as a reserve source of calories. While they can go long periods without water, the water is stored in the animal's bloodstream, not their humps. Domestic cats' behavioral and personality traits cannot be predicted from their coat color. Rather, these traits depend on a complex interplay between genetic and environmental factors. Not all cats are attracted and intoxicated by catnip, which affects only about two thirds of them. Alternatives exist, such

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-2
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-2.md

summary:
The bold, powerful cry commonly associated with the bald eagle in popular culture is actually that of a red-tailed hawk. Bald eagle vocalizations are much softer and chirpier, and bear far more resemblance to the calls of gulls. Despite the saying "dumb as a dodo", the dodo's intelligence was above average for an avian, as it was a member of the family Columbidae (pigeons). The perceived stupidity of the dodo, a medium-sized flightless bird that was native to Mauritius, is due to naivety and passivity from living in isolation without significant predators. Many believe that the dodo was hunted to extinction by European settlers due to its high culinary value. However, the dodo's meat was stated to be inedible by historical accounts, as one of its early names given by the Dutch was Walghvoghel (repulsive bird). The dodo's decline was caused more by predation of their eggs from invasive species as opposed to direct predation from humans. A duck's quack actually does echo, although the echo may be difficult to hear for humans under some circumstances. Despite this, a British panel show compiling interesting facts was named Duck Quacks Don't Echo. Ostriches do not stick their heads in the sand

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-3
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-3.md

summary:
It is not true that aerodynamic theory predicts that bumblebees should not be able to fly; the physics of insect flight is quite well understood. The misconception appears to come from a calculation based on a fixed-wing aircraft mentioned in a 1934 book, and was further popularized in the 2007 film Bee Movie. While certainly critical to the pollination of many plant species, European honey bees are not essential to human food production, despite claims that without their pollination, humanity would starve or die out "within four years". In fact, the most essential staple food crops on the planet, like wheat, maize, rice, soybeans and sorghum, are wind-pollinated or self-pollinating, and only slightly over 10% of the total human diet of plant crops is dependent upon insect pollination. Bees do not always die if they use their sting. This happens for only a very small minority of species, which includes the honey bee, when they sting mammals, as they have thick skin. They are able to survive when they sting other insects. Cockroaches would not be the only organisms capable of surviving in an environment contaminated with nuclear fallout. While cockroaches have a much higher radiation resistance than vertebrates, they


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-4
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-4.md

summary:
The word theory in "the theory of evolution" does not imply scientific doubt regarding its validity; the concepts of theory and hypothesis have specific meanings in a scientific context. While theory in colloquial usage may denote a hunch or conjecture, a scientific theory is a set of principles that explains an observable phenomenon in natural terms. Scientific facts and theories are not mutually exclusive, and evolution is a theory in the same sense as germ theory or the theory of gravitation. The theory of evolution does not attempt to explain the origin of life or the origin and development of the universe. The theory of evolution deals primarily with changes in successive generations over time after life has already originated. The scientific model concerned with the origin of the first organisms from organic or inorganic molecules is known as abiogenesis, and the prevailing theory for explaining the early development of the universe is the Big Bang model. Evolution is not a progression from inferior to superior organisms, and it also does not necessarily result in an increase in complexity. Evolution through natural selection only causes successive generations of a population of organisms to become more fit for their environment than


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-5
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-5.md

summary:
== Chemistry and materials science == Himalayan salt does not have lower levels of sodium than conventional table salt. Glass does not flow at room temperature as a high-viscosity liquid. Although glass shares some molecular properties with liquids, it is a solid at room temperature and begins to flow only at hundreds of degrees above room temperature. Old glass which is thicker at the bottom than at the top comes from the production process, not from slow flow; no such distortion is observed in other glass objects of similar or even greater age. Diamonds are not formed from highly compressed coal. Almost all commercially mined diamonds were formed in the conditions of extreme heat and pressure about 150 kilometers (93 mi) below the earth's surface. Coal is formed from prehistoric plants buried much closer to the surface, and is unlikely to migrate below 3.2 kilometers (2.0 mi) through geological processes. Most diamonds that have been dated are older than the first land plants, and are therefore older than coal. Neither "tin" foil nor "tin" cans still use tin as a primary material. Aluminum foil has replaced tin foil in almost all uses since the 20th century; tin cans now primarily


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-6
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-6.md

summary:
Contemporary global warming is driven by human activities, despite claims that it is not occurring, lacks strong scientific consensus, or that warming is mostly caused by non-human factors. No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with the decades-old, near-complete scientific consensus on climate change. Global warming is primarily a result of the increase in atmospheric greenhouse-gas concentrations (like CO2 and methane) via the burning of fossil fuels as well as other human activities such as deforestation, with secondary climate change feedback mechanisms (such as the melting of the polar ice increasing the Earth's absorption of sunlight) assisting to perpetuate the change. Global warming is not caused by the hole in the ozone layer. Ozone depletion is a separate problem caused by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which have been released into the atmosphere. CFCs are strong greenhouse gases; however, the hole in the ozone layer is shrinking and in 2019 was the smallest it had been since 1982, while global warming continues. Cooling towers in power stations and other facilities do not emit smoke, harmful fumes, or radiation; they emit water vapor and do not contribute to climate change. Nuclear power is one of the safest sources of energy, resulting in


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-7
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-7.md

summary:
The total number of people living in extreme absolute poverty globally decreased by two-thirds from 1990 to 2025 (measured using the international poverty line), with other poverty measurements showing similar trends. However, most people surveyed in several countries incorrectly think it has increased or stayed the same. Although the human population of Earth is increasing, the rate of human population growth is decreasing and the world population is expected to peak and then begin falling during the 21st century. Improvements in agricultural productivity and technology are expected to be able to meet anticipated increased demand for resources, making a global human overpopulation scenario unlikely. For any given production set, there is not a set amount of labor input (a "lump of labor") to produce that output. This fallacy is commonly seen in Luddite and later, related movements as an argument either that automation causes permanent, structural unemployment, or that labor-limiting regulation can decrease unemployment. In fact, changes in capital allocation, efficiency, and economies of learning can change the amount of labor input for a given set of production. Income is not a direct factor in determining credit score in the United States. Rather, credit score is affected by the amount


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-8
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-8.md

summary:
It is not just heavy metals which can be toxic; other metals (for example beryllium and lithium) can be toxic too. Sleeping in a closed room with an electric fan running does not result in "fan death", as is widely believed in South Korea among older people. As of 2019, this belief was in decline. Nocturia (waking up at night to urinate) is equally prevalent in women and men, although it is more common among both men and women over 50. Waking up a sleepwalker does not harm them. Sleepwalkers may be confused or disoriented for a short time after awakening, but the health risks associated with sleepwalking are from injury or insomnia, not from being awakened. Seizures cannot cause a person to swallow their own tongue, and it is dangerous to attempt to place a foreign object into a convulsing person's mouth. Instead it is recommended to gently lay a convulsing person on their side to minimize the risk of asphyxiation. Drowning is often inconspicuous to onlookers. In most cases, the instinctive drowning response prevents the victim from waving or yelling (known as "aquatic distress"), which are therefore not dependable signs of trouble; indeed, most drowning victims undergoing the


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-9
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-9.md

summary:
It is not true that more people have died from the COVID-19 vaccine than from COVID-19 itself. Severe adverse reactions from the vaccine are rare, and an "exceedingly small" number of deaths have been caused by the vaccine. Meanwhile, the death toll from the disease itself is in the millions. Tuberculosis is not purely a disease of the lungs that has symptoms of coughing. It may instead infect a wide range of other organs in the body. Cancer cannot be treated by restricting food intake and so supposedly "starving" tumors. Rather, the health of people with cancer is best served by maintaining a healthy diet. The common cold and the common flu are caused by viruses, not exposure to cold temperatures. However, low temperatures may somewhat weaken the immune system, and someone already infected with a cold or influenza virus but showing no symptoms can become symptomatic after they are exposed to low temperatures. Viruses are more likely to spread during the winter for a variety of reasons such as dry air, less air circulation in homes, people spending more time indoors, and lower vitamin D levels in humans. Antibiotics will not cure a cold; they treat bacterial diseases and


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-10
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-10.md

summary:
=== Nutrition, food, and drink === Diet has little influence on the body's detoxification, and there is no evidence that detoxification diets rid the body of toxins. Toxins are metabolized and removed from the bloodstream by the liver and kidneys, and they are primarily removed from the body in urine and bile (excreted with the feces). Drinking milk or consuming other dairy products does not increase mucus production. As a result, they do not need to be avoided by those with the flu or cold congestion. However, milk and saliva in one's mouth mix to create a thick liquid that can briefly coat the mouth and throat. The sensation that lingers may be mistaken for increased phlegm. Drinking eight glasses (2–3 liters) of water a day is not needed to maintain health. The amount of water needed varies by person, weight, diet, activity level, clothing, and the ambient temperature and humidity. Water requirements can be met from liquids such as juices, tea, milk, soups, etc., and from foods including fruits and vegetables. Drinking coffee and other caffeinated beverages does not cause dehydration for regular drinkers, although it can for occasional drinkers. Eating disorders do not exclusively affect women; women are


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-11
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-11.md

summary:
=== Sexuality and reproduction === Older adults are not necessarily sexually inactive nor have they lost interest in sex; although the frequency of sexual activity tends to decline with age. One survey in England of people aged 60–69 recorded 86% of men and 60% of women as sexually active. It is not possible to get pregnant from semen released in a commercial swimming pool without penetration. The sperm cells would be quickly killed by the chlorinated water and would not survive long enough to reach the vagina. An examination of the hymen is not an accurate or reliable indicator that a woman or girl has had penetrative sex, because the tearing of the hymen may have been the result of some other event, and some women are born without one. Virginity tests, such as the "two-finger" test, are unscientific. Hand size and foot size do not correlate with human penis size, but finger length ratio may. While pregnancies from sex between first cousins do carry a slightly elevated risk of birth defects, this risk is often exaggerated. The risk is 5–6% (similar to that of a woman in her early 40s giving birth), compared with a baseline risk of 3–4%.


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-12
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-12.md

summary:
== Inventions == James Watt did not invent the steam engine, nor were his ideas on steam engine power inspired by a kettle lid pressured open by steam. Watt improved upon the already commercially successful Newcomen atmospheric engine (invented in 1712 by Thomas Newcomen) in the 1760s and 1770s, making certain improvements critical to its future usage; his new steam engine later gained huge fame as a result. Although the guillotine was named after the French physician Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, he neither invented nor was executed with this device. He died peacefully in his own bed in 1814. Rather, it was Guillotin's speech favoring beheadings over other forms of execution that led to the device being referred to as "La machine Guillotine" and later simply guillotine. Thomas Crapper did not invent the flush toilet. A forerunner of the modern toilet was invented by the Elizabethan courtier Sir John Harington in the 16th century, and in 1775 the Scottish mechanic Alexander Cumming developed and patented a design for a toilet with an S-trap and flushing mechanism. Crapper, however, did much to increase the popularity of the flush toilet and introduced several innovations in the late 19th century, holding nine patents, including one


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-13
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-13.md

summary:
The lift force is not generated by the air taking the same time to travel above and below an aircraft's wing. This misconception, sometimes called the equal transit-time fallacy, is widespread among textbooks and non-technical reference books, and even appears in pilot training materials. In fact, the air moving over the top of an aerofoil generating lift is always moving much faster than the equal transit theory would imply, as described in the incorrect and correct explanations of lift force. Blowing over a curved piece of paper does not demonstrate Bernoulli's principle. Although a common classroom experiment is often explained this way, Bernoulli's principle applies only within a flow field, and the air above and below the paper are in different flow fields. The paper rises because the air follows the curve of the paper and a curved streamline will develop pressure differences perpendicular to the airflow. The Coriolis effect does not cause water to consistently drain from basins in a clockwise/counter-clockwise direction depending on the hemisphere. The common myth often refers to the draining action of flush toilets and bathtubs. In fact, rotation is determined by whatever minor rotation is initially present at the time the water starts to


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-14
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-14.md

summary:
=== Mental disorders === Vaccines do not cause autism. There have been no successful attempts to reproduce fraudulent research by British ex-doctor Andrew Wakefield, where the misconception likely originates. Wakefield's research was ultimately shown to have been manipulated. Dyslexia is not defined or diagnosed as mirror writing or reading letters or words backwards. Mirror writing and reading letters or words backwards are behaviors seen in many children (dyslexic or not) as they learn to read and write. Dyslexia is a neurodevelopmental disorder of people who have at least average intelligence and who have difficulty in reading and writing that is not otherwise explained by low intelligence. Self-harm is not generally an attention-seeking behavior. People who engage in self-harm are typically very self-conscious of their wounds and scars and feel guilty about their behavior, leading them to go to great lengths to conceal it from others. They may offer alternative explanations for their injuries, or conceal their scars with clothing. There is no evidence that a chemical imbalance or neurotransmitter deficiency is the sole factor in depression and other mental disorders, but rather a combination of biological, psychological, and social factors. Schizophrenia does not involve split or multiple personalities. It is


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-15
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:18.528573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-15.md

summary:
== Toxicology == Smokeless tobacco is not a "safe" alternative to conventional tobacco; smokeless tobacco products contain nicotine and are therefore highly addictive. They also can cause various harmful effects such as dental disease, oral cancer, oesophagus cancer, and pancreas cancer, coronary heart disease, as well as negative reproductive effects including stillbirth, premature birth and low birth weight. Swallowing gasoline does not generally require special emergency treatment, as long as it goes into the stomach and not the lungs. This does not mean gasoline is safe to drink; it is very dangerous when consumed. Inducing vomiting can make it worse. A chloroform-soaked rag cannot instantly incapacitate a person. It takes at least five minutes of inhaling an item soaked in chloroform to render a person unconscious. Most criminal cases involving chloroform also involve another drug being co-administered, such as alcohol or diazepam, or the victim being found to have been complicit in its administration. The misconception that chloroform can be used as an incapacitating agent has been popularized by crime fiction authors. Although bananas contain naturally occurring radioactive isotopes, particularly potassium-40 (40K), which emit ionizing radiation when undergoing radioactive decay, the levels of such radiation are far too low to


id: index-of-computing-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_computing_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of computing articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_computing_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:19.880704+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-computing-articles-20260505-0
summary:
Originally, the word computing was synonymous with counting and calculating, and the science and technology of mathematical calculations. Today, "computing" means using computers and other computing machines. It includes their operation and usage, the electrical processes carried out within the computing hardware itself, and the theoretical concepts governing them (computer science). See also: List of programmers, List of computing people, List of computer scientists, List of basic computer science topics, List of terms relating to algorithms and data structures. Topics on computing include: == 0–9 == 1.TR.6 – 100BaseVG – 100VG-AnyLAN – 10BASE-2 – 10BASE-5 – 10BASE-T – 120 reset – 1-bit computing – 16-bit computing – 16550 UART – 1NF – 1TBS – 20-GATE – 20-GATE – 2B1D – 2B1Q – 2D – 2NF – 3-tier (computing) – 32-bit application – 32-bit computing – 320xx microprocessor – 386BSD – 3Com Corporation – 3DO – 3D computer graphics – 3GL – 3NF – 3Station – 4.2BSD – 4-bit computing – 404 error – 431A – 473L system – 486SX – 4GL – 4NF – 51-FORTH – 56 kbit/s line – 5ESS switch – 5NF – 5th Glove – 6.001 – 64-bit computing – 680x0 – 6x86 – 8-bit clean –


id: index-of-computing-articles-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_computing_articles-1.md
category: reference
title: Index of computing articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_computing_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:19.880704+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-computing-articles-20260505-0
summary:
== I == IA-32 – IA-64 – IBM PC – Interactive computation – IBM – iBook – iCab – iCal – Icon – iDVD – IEEE 802.2 – IEEE 802.3 – IEEE floating-point standard – iMac – Image processing – iMovie – Indentation style Inform – Instruction register – Intel 8008 – Intel 80186 – Intel 80188 – Intel 80386 – Intel 80486SX – Intel 80486 – Intel 8048 – Intel 8051 – Intel 8080 – Intel 8086 – Intel 80x86 – Intel – INTERCAL – International Electrotechnical Commission – Internet Explorer – Internet – iPhoto – iPod – iResQ – Irreversible circuit – iSync – iTunes == J == J (programming language) – Java Platform, Enterprise Edition – Java Platform, Micro Edition – Java Platform, Standard Edition – Java API – Java – Java virtual machine (JVM) – JavaScript (standardized as ECMAScript) – JPEG == K == K&R – KDE – Kilobyte – KL-ONE – Kleene star – Klez – Kotlin == L == LALR parser – Lambda calculus – Lasso – LaTeX – Leet – Legal aspects of computing – Lex – LibreOffice – Limbo – Linked list – Linux – Lisp – List of IBM products –


id: list-of-scientific-constants-named-after-people-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_constants_named_after_people-0.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific constants named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_constants_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:21.261962+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-constants-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of physical and mathematical constants named after people. Eponymous constants and their influence on scientific citations have been discussed in the literature. Apéry's constant – Roger Apéry Archimedes' constant (π, pi) – Archimedes Avogadro constant – Amedeo Avogadro Balmer's constant – Johann Jakob Balmer Belphegor's prime – Belphegor (demon) Bohr magneton – Niels Bohr Bohr radius – Niels Bohr Boltzmann constant – Ludwig Boltzmann Brun's constant – Viggo Brun Cabibbo angle – Nicola Cabibbo Chaitin's constant – Gregory Chaitin Champernowne constant – D. G. Champernowne Chandrasekhar limit – Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar Copeland–Erdős constant – Paul Erdős and Peter Borwein Eddington number – Arthur Stanley Eddington Dunbar's number – Robin Dunbar Embree–Trefethen constant Erdős–Borwein constant Euler–Mascheroni constant ( γ {\displaystyle \gamma } ) – Leonhard Euler and Lorenzo Mascheroni Euler's number ( e {\displaystyle e} ) – Leonhard Euler Faraday constant – Michael Faraday Feigenbaum constants – Mitchell Feigenbaum Fermi coupling constant – Enrico Fermi Gauss's constant – Carl Friedrich Gauss Graham's number – Ronald Graham Hartree energy – Douglas Hartree Hubble constant – Edwin Hubble Josephson constant – Brian David Josephson Kaprekar's constant – D. R. Kaprekar Kerr constant – John Kerr Khinchin's constant – Aleksandr Khinchin


id: list-of-crew-members-aboard-the-first-voyage-of-james-cook-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_crew_members_aboard_the_first_voyage_of_James_Cook-0.md
category: reference
title: List of crew members aboard the first voyage of James Cook
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_crew_members_aboard_the_first_voyage_of_James_Cook
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:26.428048+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-crew-members-aboard-the-first-voyage-of-james-cook-20260505-0
summary:
The first voyage of James Cook was a discovery expedition to the south Pacific Ocean, with aims of observing the 1769 transit of Venus across the Sun and seeking evidence of the alleged southern territories, named by that time as Terra Australis Incognita. The ship chosen for the voyage was HMS Endeavour. The makeup of the crew during the voyage varied due the high mortality, for which contributed mainly malaria and dysentery, that the crew had contracted in Batavia. There was also one occurrence of successful desertion of Patrick Saunders, who after being disrated, escaped the ship. == Personnel == The following is a complete list of initial crew that departed from Plymouth on 26 August 1768 according to ship's journal. == See also == 1769 transit of Venus observed from Tahiti Personnel of Franklin's lost expedition == Notes and references == === Notes === === References === === Works cited === Rigby, Nigel; van der Merwe, Pieter (2002). Captain Cook in the Pacific. National Maritime Museum (UK). ISBN 0-948065-43-5.


id: list-of-cycles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cycles-0.md
category: reference
title: List of cycles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cycles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:27.664163+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cycles-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of recurring cycles. See also Index of wave articles, Time, and Pattern. == Planetary cycles == === Astronomical cycles === Astronomy – Axial precession – CNO cycle – Eclipse cycle – Eclipse – Full moon cycle – Galactic year – Great Year – Lunar phase – Mesoamerican calendars – Metonic cycle – Milankovitch cycles – Mira – Moon – Nutation – Orbit – Orbital period – Saros cycle – Sothic cycle – Secularity – Sidereal year – Sunspot – Tide – Tropical year – Year === Climate and weather cycles === Animal migration – Avalanche – Carbon cycle – Climate change – Climate change and agriculture – Climate model – Climate oscillation – Clock of the Long Now – Ecology – El Niño/La Niña – Environmental geography – Global cooling – Global warming – Historical temperature record – Hydrogen cycle – Ice age – Transhumance – Milankovitch cycles – Monsoon – Pleistocene – Season – Sulfur cycle – Sunspot – Tide – Timeline of meteorology – 1500-year climate cycle === Geological cycles === Age of the Earth – Aluminum cycle – Arsenic cycle – Boron cycle – Bromine cycle – Cadmium cycle – Calcium cycle –


id: list-of-developers-of-optical-scientific-equipment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_developers_of_optical_scientific_equipment-0.md
category: reference
title: List of developers of optical scientific equipment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_developers_of_optical_scientific_equipment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:29.012236+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-developers-of-optical-scientific-equipment-20260505-0
summary:
A developer of optical scientific equipment is an individual who makes and adjusts optical aids for scientific purposes, including telescope optics and microscope lenses. == Telescope developers == James Gilbert Baker Denis Albert Bardou John A. Brashear Laurent Cassegrain Henri Chrétien Alvan Clark John Dollond Charles Wesley Elmer and Richard Scott Perkin Galileo Galilei James Gregory John Hadley Chester Moore Hall Robert Hooke Johannes Kepler Frederick James Hargreaves Christiaan Huygens Hans Lippershey Raymond Augustin Mailhat Dmitri Dmitrievich Maksutov James Henry Marriott Jacob Metius Isaac Newton Georg Simon Plössl Russell W. Porter Jesse Ramsden George Willis Ritchey Christoph Scheiner Bernhard Schmidt James Short See also Timeline of telescope technology and List of astronomical instrument makers == Microscope developers == Ernst Karl Abbe Denis Albert Bardou Christopher Cock Siegfried Czapski Cornelius Drebbel Galileo Galilei Robert Hooke Christiaan Huygens Carl Kellner Anton van Leeuwenhoek Moritz von Rohr See also Timeline of microscope technology == References ==


id: list-of-diagnoses-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience-0.md
category: reference
title: List of diagnoses characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:30.212297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-diagnoses-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Many proposed diseases and diagnoses are rejected by mainstream medical consensus and are associated with pseudoscience due to a lack of scientific evidence for their existence, proposed mechanism or action, or manifestation that cannot be explained by something else. == Definition == Pseudoscientific diseases are not defined using objective criteria. Such diseases cannot achieve, and perhaps do not seek, medical recognition. Pseudoscience rejects empirical methodology. Other conditions may be rejected or contested by orthodox medicine, but are not necessarily associated with pseudoscience. Diagnostic criteria for some of these conditions may be vague, over-inclusive, or otherwise ill-defined. Although the evidence for the disease may be contested or lacking, the justification for these diagnoses is nevertheless empirical and therefore amenable to scientific investigation, at least in theory. In some cases, patients are exhibiting genuine signs and symptoms but the explanation or diagnosis for their distress is disputed or inaccurate. Examples of conditions that are not necessarily pseudoscientific include: Conditions determined to be somatic in nature, including mass psychogenic illnesses. Medicalized conditions that are not pathogenic in nature, such as aging, childbirth, pregnancy, sexual addiction, baldness, jet lag, and halitosis. Conditions that are not widely recognized, about which there is an ongoing debate


id: list-of-diagnoses-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience-1.md
category: reference
title: List of diagnoses characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:30.212297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-diagnoses-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
== Medical == Adrenal fatigue or hypoadrenia is a diagnosis described as a state in which the adrenal glands are exhausted and unable to produce adequate quantities of hormones, primarily the glucocorticoid cortisol, due to chronic stress or infections. Adrenal fatigue should not be confused with a number of actual forms of adrenal dysfunction such as adrenal insufficiency or Addison's disease. The term "adrenal fatigue", which was invented in 1998 by James Wilson, a chiropractor, may be applied to a collection of mostly nonspecific symptoms. There is no scientific evidence supporting the concept of adrenal fatigue and it is not recognized as a diagnosis by any scientific or medical community. A systematic review found no evidence for the term adrenal fatigue, confirming the consensus among endocrinological societies that it is a myth. Autistic enterocolitis is a nonexistent medical condition proposed in 1998 by now-discredited British gastroenterologist Andrew Wakefield, who suggested a link between a number of common clinical symptoms and signs which he contended were distinctive to autism. The existence of such an enterocolitis has been dismissed by experts as having "not been established". Wakefield's fraudulent report, which was retracted in 2010, suppressed negative findings and used inadequate controls. Multiple


id: list-of-diagnoses-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience-2.md
category: reference
title: List of diagnoses characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:30.212297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-diagnoses-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
== Psychological == Autogynephilia is a proposed paraphilic disorder in which a man has erotic interest in the idea of himself in the form of a woman. Autogynephilia is not recognized by any major medical organization and has been criticised as a form of medical transphobia. Drapetomania was a supposed mental illness that, in 1851, American physician Samuel A. Cartwright hypothesized as the cause of enslaved Africans fleeing captivity. This hypothesis centered around the belief that slavery was such an improvement upon the lives of slaves that only those suffering from some form of mental illness would wish to escape. As treatment Cartwright recommended "whipping the devil out of them" both as a punishment and as a preventative measure. Female hysteria was once a common medical diagnosis for women, which was described as exhibiting a wide array of symptoms, including anxiety, shortness of breath, fainting, nervousness, sexual desire, insomnia, fluid retention, heaviness in the abdomen, irritability, loss of appetite for food or sex, (paradoxically) sexually forward behaviour, and a "tendency to cause trouble for others". It is no longer recognized by medical authorities as a medical disorder. Parental alienation syndrome, also routinely referred to as parental alienation is a proposed


id: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-0.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of scientific discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:31.534973+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-0
summary:
The timeline below shows the date of publication of possible major scientific breakthroughs, theories and discoveries, along with the discoverer. This article discounts mere speculation as discovery, although imperfect reasoned arguments, arguments based on elegance/simplicity, and numerically/experimentally verified conjectures qualify (as otherwise no scientific discovery before the late 19th century would count). The timeline begins at the Bronze Age, as it is difficult to give even estimates for the timing of events prior to this, such as of the discovery of counting, natural numbers and arithmetic. To avoid overlap with timeline of historic inventions, the timeline does not list examples of documentation for manufactured substances and devices unless they reveal a more fundamental leap in the theoretical ideas in a field. == Bronze Age == Many early innovations of the Bronze Age were prompted by the increase in trade, and this also applies to the scientific advances of this period. For context, the major civilizations of this period are Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Indus Valley, with Greece rising in importance towards the end of the third millennium BC. The Indus Valley script remains undeciphered and there are very little surviving fragments of its writing, thus any inference about scientific discoveries


id: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-1.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of scientific discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:31.534973+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-0
summary:
500 BC: Hippasus, a Pythagorean, discovers irrational numbers. 500 BC: Anaxagoras identifies moonlight as reflected sunlight. 5th century BC: The Greeks start experimenting with straightedge-and-compass constructions. 5th century BC: The earliest documented mention of a spherical Earth comes from the Greeks in the 5th century BC. It is known that the Indians modeled the Earth as spherical by 300 BC 460 BC: Empedocles describes thermal expansion. Late 5th century BC: Antiphon discovers the method of exhaustion, foreshadowing the concept of a limit. 4th century BC: Greek philosophers study the properties of logical negation. 4th century BC: The first true formal system is constructed by Pāṇini in his Sanskrit grammar. 4th century BC: Eudoxus of Cnidus states the Archimedean property. 4th century BC: Thaetetus shows that square roots are either integer or irrational. 4th century BC: Thaetetus enumerates the Platonic solids, an early work in graph theory. 4th century BC: Menaechmus discovers conic sections. 4th century BC: Menaechmus develops co-ordinate geometry. 4th century BC: Mozi in China gives a description of the camera obscura phenomenon. 4th century BC: Around the time of Aristotle, a more empirically founded system of anatomy is established, based on animal dissection. In particular, Praxagoras makes the


id: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-2.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of scientific discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:31.534973+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-0
summary:
1st to 4th century: A precursor to long division, known as "galley division" is developed at some point. Its discovery is generally believed to have originated in India around the 4th century AD, although Singaporean mathematician Lam Lay Yong claims that the method is found in the Chinese text The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, from the 1st century AD. 60 AD: Heron's formula is discovered by Hero of Alexandria. 2nd century: Ptolemy formalises the epicycles of Apollonius. 2nd century: Ptolemy publishes his Optics, discussing colour, reflection, and refraction of light, and including the first known table of refractive angles. 2nd century: Galen studies the anatomy of pigs. 100: Menelaus of Alexandria describes spherical triangles, a precursor to non-Euclidean geometry. 150: The Almagest of Ptolemy contains evidence of the Hellenistic zero. Unlike the earlier Babylonian zero, the Hellenistic zero could be used alone, or at the end of a number. However, it was usually used in the fractional part of a numeral, and was not regarded as a true arithmetical number itself. 150: Ptolemy's Almagest contains practical formulae to calculate latitudes and day lengths. 3rd century: Diophantus discusses linear diophantine equations. 3rd century: Diophantus uses a primitive form of


id: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-3.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of scientific discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:31.534973+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-0
summary:
6th century: Varahamira in the Gupta empire is the first to describe comets as astronomical phenomena, and as periodic in nature. 525: John Philoponus in Byzantine Egypt describes the notion of inertia, and states that the motion of a falling object does not depend on its weight. His radical rejection of Aristotlean orthodoxy lead him to be ignored in his time 628: Brahmagupta states the arithmetic rules for addition, subtraction, and multiplication with zero, as well as the multiplication of negative numbers, extending the basic rules for the latter found in the earlier The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art. 628: Brahmagupta writes down Brahmagupta's identity, an important lemma in the theory of Pell's equation. 628: Brahmagupta produces an infinite (but not exhaustive) number of solutions to Pell's equation. 628: Brahmagupta provides an explicit solution to the quadratic equation. 628: Brahmagupta discovers Brahmagupta's formula, a generalization of Heron's formula to cyclic quadrilaterals. 628: Brahmagupta discovers second-order interpolation, in the form of Brahmagupta's interpolation formula. 628: Brahmagupta invents a symbolic mathematical notation, which is then adopted by mathematicians through India and the Near East, and eventually Europe. 629: Bhāskara I produces the first approximation of a transcendental function with a rational


id: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-4.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of scientific discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:31.534973+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-0
summary:
16th century: Gerolamo Cardano solves the general cubic equation (by reducing them to the case with zero quadratic term). 16th century: Lodovico Ferrari solves the general quartic equation (by reducing it to the case with zero quartic term). 16th century: François Viète discovers Vieta's formulas. 16th century: François Viète discovers Viète's formula for π.1500: Scipione del Ferro solves the special cubic equation x 3 = p x + q {\displaystyle x^{3}=px+q} . Late 16th century: Tycho Brahe proves that comets are astronomical (and not atmospheric) phenomena. 1517: Nicolaus Copernicus develops the quantity theory of money and states the earliest known form of Gresham's law: ("Bad money drowns out good"). 1543: Nicolaus Copernicus develops a heliocentric model, rejecting Aristotle's Earth-centric view, would be the first quantitative heliocentric model in history. 1543: Vesalius: pioneering research into human anatomy. 1545: Gerolamo Cardano discovers complex numbers. 1556: Niccolò Tartaglia introduces parenthesis. 1557: Robert Recorde introduces the equal sign. 1564: Gerolamo Cardano is the first to produce a systematic treatment of probability. 1572: Rafael Bombelli provides rules for complex arithmetic. 1591: François Viète's New algebra shows the modern notational algebraic manipulation. == 17th century == 1600: William Gilbert: Earth's magnetic field. 1608: Earliest record of


id: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-5.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of scientific discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:31.534973+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-0
summary:
== 1850–1899 == 1856: Robert Forester Mushet develops a process for the decarbonisation, and re-carbonisation of iron, through the addition of a calculated quantity of spiegeleisen, to produce cheap, consistently high quality steel. 1858: Rudolf Virchow: cells can only arise from pre-existing cells. 1859: Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace: Theory of evolution by natural selection. 1861: Louis Pasteur: Germ theory. 1861: John Tyndall: Experiments in Radiant Energy that reinforced the Greenhouse effect. 1864: James Clerk Maxwell: Theory of electromagnetism. 1865: Gregor Mendel: Mendel's laws of inheritance, basis for genetics. 1865: Rudolf Clausius: Definition of entropy. 1868: Robert Forester Mushet discovers that alloying steel with tungsten produces a harder, more durable alloy. 1869: Dmitri Mendeleev: Periodic table. 1871: Lord Rayleigh: Diffuse sky radiation (Rayleigh scattering) explains why sky appears blue. 1873: Johannes Diderik van der Waals: was one of the first to postulate an intermolecular force: the van der Waals force. 1873: Frederick Guthrie discovers thermionic emission. 1873: Willoughby Smith discovers photoconductivity. 1875: William Crookes invented the Crookes tube and studied cathode rays. 1876: Josiah Willard Gibbs founded chemical thermodynamics, the phase rule. 1877: Ludwig Boltzmann: Statistical definition of entropy. 1880s: John Hopkinson develops three-phase electrical supplies, mathematically proves how multiple


id: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-6.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of scientific discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:31.534973+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-0
summary:
== 1950–1999 == 1951: George Otto Gey propagates first cancer cell line, HeLa 1952: Jonas Salk: developed and tested first polio vaccine 1952: Stanley Miller: demonstrated that the building blocks of life could arise from primeval soup in the conditions present during early Earth (Miller-Urey experiment) 1952: Frederick Sanger: demonstrated that proteins are sequences of amino acids 1953: James Watson, Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin: helical structure of DNA, basis for molecular biology 1957: Chien Shiung Wu: demonstrated that parity, and thus charge conjugation and time-reversals, are violated for weak interactions 1962: Riccardo Giacconi and his team discover the first cosmic x-ray source, Scorpius X-1 1963: Lawrence Morley, Fred Vine, and Drummond Matthews: Paleomagnetic stripes in ocean crust as evidence of plate tectonics (Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis). 1964: Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig: postulates quarks, leading to the Standard Model 1964: Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson: detection of CMBR providing experimental evidence for the Big Bang 1965: Leonard Hayflick: normal cells divide only a certain number of times: the Hayflick limit 1967: Jocelyn Bell Burnell and Antony Hewish discover first pulsar 1967: Vela nuclear test detection satellites discover the first gamma-ray burst 1970: James H. Ellis proposed the possibility


id: list-of-discoveries-influenced-by-chance-circumstances-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_discoveries_influenced_by_chance_circumstances-0.md
category: reference
title: List of discoveries influenced by chance circumstances
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_discoveries_influenced_by_chance_circumstances
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:32.782892+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-discoveries-influenced-by-chance-circumstances-20260505-0
summary:
Below are discoveries in science that involve chance circumstances in a particularly salient way. This page should not list all chance involved in all discoveries (i.e. it should focus on discoveries reported for their notable circumstances). == Overview == Royston Roberts says that various discoveries required a degree of genius, but also some lucky element for that genius to act on. Richard Gaughan writes that accidental discoveries result from the convergence of preparation, opportunity, and desire. Major everyday discoveries that were helped by luck in some way include products like vulcanized rubber, teflon, nylon, penicillin, cyanoacrylate (Super Glue), the implantable pacemaker, the microwave oven, Scotchgard, Saran wrap, Silly Putty, Slinky, safety glass, propeller, snowmaking, stainless steel, Perkin's mauve, and popsicles. Most artificial sweeteners have been discovered when accidentally tasted, including aspartame and saccharin. Ideas include the theory of the Big Bang, tissue culture, radio astronomy, and the discovery of DNA. Such archeological discoveries as the Rosetta Stone, the Dead Sea Scrolls and the ruins of Pompeii also emerged partly out of serendipity. Many relevant and well known scientific theories were developed by chance at some degree along history. According to a legend, Archimedes realized his principle on hydrostatics when he


id: earth-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Earth science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:34.030565+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: earth-science-20260505-0
summary:
Earth science or geoscience includes all fields of natural science related to planet Earth. This is a branch of science dealing with the physical, chemical, and biological complex constitutions and synergistic linkages of Earth's four spheres: the biosphere, hydrosphere/cryosphere, atmosphere, and geosphere (or lithosphere). Earth science can be considered to be a branch of planetary science but with a much older history. == Geology == Geology is broadly the study of Earth's structure, substance, and processes. Geology is largely the study of the lithosphere, or Earth's surface, including the Earth's crust and rocks. It includes the physical characteristics and processes that occur in the lithosphere as well as how they are affected by geothermal energy. It incorporates aspects of chemistry, physics, and biology as elements of geology interact. Historical geology is the application of geology to interpret Earth history and how it has changed over time. Geochemistry studies the chemical components and processes of the Earth. Geophysics studies the physical properties of the Earth. Paleontology studies fossilized biological material in the lithosphere. Planetary geology studies geoscience as it pertains to extraterrestrial bodies. Geomorphology studies the origin of landscapes. Structural geology studies the deformation of rocks to produce mountains and lowlands.


id: earth-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Earth science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:34.030565+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: earth-science-20260505-0
summary:
Ecology is the study of the biosphere. This includes the study of nature and of how living things interact with the Earth and one another and the consequences of that. It considers how living things use resources such as oxygen, water, and nutrients from the Earth to sustain themselves. It also considers how humans and other living creatures cause changes to nature. == Physical geography == Physical geography is the study of Earth's systems and how they interact with one another as part of a single self-contained system. It incorporates astronomy, mathematical geography, meteorology, climatology, geology, geomorphology, biology, biogeography, pedology, and soils geography. Physical geography is distinct from human geography, which studies the human populations on Earth, though it does include human effects on the environment. == Methodology == Methodologies vary depending on the nature of the subjects being studied. Studies typically fall into one of three categories: observational, experimental, or theoretical. Earth scientists often conduct sophisticated computer analysis or visit an interesting location to study earth phenomena (e.g., Antarctica or hot spot island chains). A foundational idea in Earth science is the notion of uniformitarianism, which states that "ancient geologic features are interpreted by understanding active processes that are


id: outline-of-earth-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of Earth science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:35.173700+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-earth-science-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Earth science: Earth science – all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. It is also known as geoscience, the geosciences or the Earthquake sciences, and is arguably a special case in planetary science, the Earth being the only known life-bearing planet. Earth science is a branch of the physical sciences which is a part of the natural sciences. It in turn has many branches. == Earth's spheres == Ecosphere – there are many subsystems that make up the natural environment (the planetary ecosystem or "ecosphere") of the Earth. Many of the subsystems are characterized as "spheres", coinciding with the shape of the planet. The four spheres (for which most of the other spheres are a subtype of) are the atmosphere, the biosphere, the hydrosphere and the geosphere. Earth's ecosphere lies it self within the heliosphere (the Sun's astrosphere). Listed roughly from outermost to innermost the named spheres of the Earth are: Magnetosphere – The region around an astronomical object in which charged particles are affected by its magnetic field Atmosphere, the gases that surround the Earth (its air) By altitude Exosphere – The outermost


id: outline-of-earth-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Outline of Earth science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:35.173700+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-earth-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Geology === Geology – The study of the composition, structure, physical properties, and history of Earth's components, and the processes by which they are shaped. Economic geology – Science concerned with earth materials of economic value Engineering geology – The application of the geology to engineering practice. Environmental geology – Science of the practical application of geology in environmental problems. Quaternary geology – The branch of geology that studies developments more recent than 2.6 million years ago Planetary geology – The geology of astronomical objects apparently in orbit around stellar objects Petroleum geology – The study of the origin, occurrence, movement, accumulation, and exploration of hydrocarbon fuels Historical geology – The study of the geological history of Earth Hydrogeology – The study of the distribution and movement of groundwater Structural geology – The science of the description and interpretation of deformation in the Earth's crust independent of extent Geochemistry – Science that applies chemistry to analyse geological systems Geochronology – Science of determining the age of rocks, sediments and fossils Geodesy – The science of the geometric shape, orientation in space, and gravitational field of the Earth Geomagnetics – Study of the Earth's magnetic field Geomicrobiology – Science of


id: outline-of-earth-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Outline of Earth science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:35.173700+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-earth-science-20260505-0
summary:
History of atmospheric sciences – history of the umbrella study of the atmosphere, its processes, the effects other systems have on the atmosphere, and the effects of the atmosphere on these other systems. History of atmospheric chemistry History of biogeography – history of the study of the distribution of species (biology), organisms, and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time. History of cartography – history of the study and practice of making maps or globes. History of climatology – history of the study of climate, scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time History of coastal geography – history of the study of the dynamic interface between the ocean and the land, incorporating both the physical geography (i.e. coastal geomorphology, geology, and oceanography) and the human geography (sociology and history) of the coast. History of environmental science – history of an integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental systems. History of ecology – history of the scientific study of the distribution and abundance of living organisms and how they are affected by interactions between the organisms and their environment. History of Freshwater biology – history of the scientific biological study of freshwater ecosystems


id: list-of-effects-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-0.md
category: reference
title: List of effects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:36.370706+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-effects-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of names for observable phenomena that contain the word “effect”, amplified by reference(s) to their respective fields of study. == A == Abscopal effect (cancer treatments) (immune system) (medical treatments) (radiation therapy) Accelerator effect (economics) Accordion effect (physics) (waves) Acousto-optic effect (nonlinear optics) (waves) Additive genetic effects (genetics) Aharonov–Bohm effect (quantum mechanics) Al Jazeera effect (Al Jazeera) (media issues) Alienation effect (acting techniques) (Bertolt Brecht theories and techniques) (film theory) (metafictional techniques) (theatre) Allais effect (fringe physics) Allee effect (biology) Ambiguity effect (cognitive biases) Anrep effect (cardiology) (medicine) Antenna effect (digital electronics) (electronic design automation) Anti-greenhouse effect (atmospheric dynamics) (atmospheric science) (astronomy) (planetary atmospheres) Askaryan effect (particle physics) Asymmetric blade effect (aerodynamics) Audience effect (psychology) (social psychology) Auger effect (atomic physics) (foundational quantum physics) Aureole effect (atmospheric optical phenomena) (scientific terminology) Autler–Townes effect (atomic, molecular, and optical physics) (atomic physics) (quantum optics) Autokinetic effect (vision) Avalanche effect (cryptography) Averch–Johnson effect (economics) == B == Baader-Meinhof effect / Baader-Meinhof phenomenon (psychology) Balassa–Samuelson effect (economics) Baldwin effect (evolutionary biology) (selection) Balloon-carried light effect (balloons) (culture) (entertainment) Bambi effect (hunting) (psychology stubs) Bandwagon effect (cognitive biases) (crowd psychology) (economics effects) (metaphors) (propaganda techniques) Bank effect (marine propulsion) (nautical terms)


id: list-of-effects-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-1.md
category: reference
title: List of effects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:36.370706+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-effects-20260505-0
summary:
== F == Fahraeus–Lindquist effect (blood) (fluid dynamics) (molecular and cellular biology) False consensus effect (cognitive biases) (futurology) (group processes) (psychological theories) (sustainability) Faraday effect (magnetism) (optics) Ferroelectric effect (condensed matter physics) (electrical phenomena) Fink effect (anesthesia) (diffusion) Floating body effect (electronics) (semiconductors) Floodgate effect (social phenomena) (sociology) Floor effect (statistics) Florence Nightingale effect (Florence Nightingale) (love) (psychology) Flutie effect (student sport) Flux pinning (Physics) Flynn effect (futurology) (intelligence) (psychological theories) (psychometrics) (race and intelligence controversy) Focusing effect (cognitive biases) Forbush effect (cosmic rays) (solar phenomena) Forer effect (cognitive biases) (history of astrology) (psychological theories) Founder effect (ecology) (population genetics) Fractional quantum Hall effect (physics) Franssen effect (acoustics) (sound perception) Franz–Keldysh effect (condensed matter) (electronic engineering) (electronics) (optics) (optoelectronics) Free surface effect (fluid mechanics) Front projection effect (film production) Fujiwhara effect (tropical cyclone meteorology) (vortices) Full screen effect (computer graphics) (demo effects) == G == Garshelis effect (electric and magnetic fields in matter) (magnetism) (physics) Gauche effect (stereochemistry) Gell-Mann amnesia effect (journalism) Generation effect (cognitive biases) (memory biases) (psychological theories) Geodetic effect (general relativity) Gerschenkron effect (economic development) (economic systems) (economics and finance) (econometrics) (index numbers) (national accounts)r Giant magnetoresistive effect (condensed matter physics) (electric and magnetic fields in matter)


id: list-of-effects-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-2.md
category: reference
title: List of effects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:36.370706+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-effects-20260505-0
summary:
== M == Magali effect Magneto-optic effect (electric and magnetic fields in matter) (optical phenomena) Magneto-optic Kerr effect (condensed matter physics) (electric and magnetic fields in matter) (optical phenomena) magnetocaloric effect (physical phenomena) (electric and magnetic fields in matter) (thermodynamics) Magnus effect (fluid dynamics) Malmquist effect (astronomy) Malter effect (physics) Mandela effect (psychology) (paranormal) Marangoni effect (fluid dynamics) (fluid mechanics) (physical phenomena) Marchywka effect (electrochemistry) (ultraviolet sensor production) Mark Twain effect (economics and finance) (stock market) Martha Mitchell effect (psychological theories) (psychosis) Massenerhebung effect (trees) Maternal age effect (developmental biology) Maternal effect (developmental biology) Matthew effect (education) (education) Matilda effect (Research) Matthew effect (sociology) (adages) (social phenomena) (sociology of scientific knowledge) McClintock effect (menstruation) McCollough effect (optical illusions) McGurk effect (auditory illusions) (perception) (psychological theories) Meissner effect (levitation) (magnetism) (superconductivity) Meitner–Hupfeld effect (particle physics) Mellanby effect (health) (alcohol intoxication) Memory effect (electric batteries) Mesomeric effect (chemical bonding) Microwave auditory effect (cognitive neuroscience) (espionage) (hearing) (human psychology) (less-lethal weapons) (mind control) (sound) Mid-domain effect (macroecology) (biogeography) (biodiversity) Mikheyev–Smirnov–Wolfenstein effect (particle physics) Milky seas effect (aquatic biology) (biological oceanography) (bioluminescence) Miller effect (electrical engineering) (electronics terms) Miniature effect (film and video technology) (film techniques) (scale modeling) (scientific modeling) (special effects) (visual effects)


id: list-of-effects-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-3.md
category: reference
title: List of effects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:36.370706+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-effects-20260505-0
summary:
== S == Sabattier effect (solarization) (photographic processes) (science of photography) Sachs–Wolfe effect (astronomy) (physical cosmology) Sagnac effect (optics) (relativity) Sailing Ship Effect (business) (economics) Samba effect (Brazil) (economy of Brazil) (history of Brazil) Sandbox effect (Internet technology) (search engine optimization) Scharnhorst effect (quantum field theory) Schottky effect (diodes) Schwinger effect (particle physics) (hypothetical processes) (quantum electrodynamics) Screen-door effect (display technology) (technology) Second gas effect (anesthesia) Second-system effect (software development) Seeliger effect (astronomy) (observational astronomy) Serial position effect (cognitive biases) (psychological theories) (psychologicy) Shaft effect (motorcycle) Shapiro effect (effects of gravitation) Shielding effect (atomic, molecular, and optical physics) (atomic physics) (chemistry) (quantum chemistry) Shower-curtain effect (fluid dynamics) Shubnikov–de Haas effect (science) Side effect (computer science) (computer programming) Side effect (disambiguation) Signor–Lipps effect (extinction) (fossils) (paleontology) Silk screen effect (technology) Silo effect (management) (systems theory) Simon effect (psychology) Simpson's paradox aka Yule–Simpson effect (probability) (statistics) Skin effect (electronics) Slashdot effect (denial-of-service attacks)(Internet terminology) (Slashdot) Sleeper effect (social psychology) Smith–Purcell effect (physics) (quantum optics) Snackwell effect (consumer behaviour) (psychology) Snob effect (consumer theory) (economics and finance) Snowball effect (language) (metaphors) Somogyi effect (diabetes) Sound effect (film techniques) (sound effects) (sound production) (special effects) Soap opera effect (film techniques) (television terminology) (filming) (film


id: list-of-forms-of-electricity-named-after-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_forms_of_electricity_named_after_scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of forms of electricity named after scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_forms_of_electricity_named_after_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:28:37.609879+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-forms-of-electricity-named-after-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of forms of electricity named after scientists. The terms in this list are mostly archaic usages but are found in many 19th and early 20th-century publications. == Adjectives == faradic Of electricity that is alternating, especially when obtained from an induction coil. Named after Michael Faraday who built the first electromagnetic generator. galvanic Of electricity that is not alternating. Named after Luigi Galvani. voltaic Of electricity derived from an electrochemical cell or battery. Named after Alessandro Volta who built the first battery, the voltaic pile. In most contexts it can be considered a synonym of galvanic. == Nouns (applications) == Faradization Electrotherapy treatment of a person with faradic electricity. Coined by Duchenne de Boulogne and named after Michael Faraday. Franklinization Electrotherapy by charging a person to high voltage with static electricity. Named after Benjamin Franklin. d'Arsonvalization Electrotherapy treatment of a person with high frequency electricity. Named after Jacques-Arsène d'Arsonval. == Nouns (forms) == Faradism Faradic electricity Franklinism High voltage static electricity as used in Franklinization Galvanism Originally, voltaic electricity, but can also be used to distinguish Galvani's animal electricity from Volta's chemical/metal contact electricity == References == == Bibliography == Borck, Cornelius, Brainwaves: A Cultural History


