# kb

id: conservation-and-restoration-of-insect-specimens-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_insect_specimens-1.md
category: reference
title: Conservation and restoration of insect specimens
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_insect_specimens
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:23.772860+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conservation-and-restoration-of-insect-specimens-20260505-0
summary:
==== Safe handling ==== Proper handling for insect specimens prevents the excessive breaking of legs, antennae and other body parts that could then easily be lost. Curved forceps may be used to allow more precision and less chance of the brittle specimen coming in contact with the handler. The handler picks up the specimen by the pin, which is placed with enough space below the specimen for the handler to put in the pinning block and enough space above to grip without touching the specimen. ==== Integrated pest management ==== Integrated pest management (IPM) is a specialized modern pest control used in museums. All IPM systems begin with regular sanitation and monitoring of collections to detect castings from various pests, and checking insect traps laid out to capture and identify which pests are present. Some pests, such as carpet beetles and flour beetles, feed on dried insects. When an infestation is present, treatment may be necessary. Freezing is commonly used to rid insect collections of pests. Alternatively, inert gases may be used for an anoxic fumigation – depriving the pests of oxygen to exterminate, and in extreme cases chemical fumigation proven to be safe for collections and people may be


id: cymdeithas-edward-llwyd-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cymdeithas_Edward_Llwyd-0.md
category: reference
title: Cymdeithas Edward Llwyd
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cymdeithas_Edward_Llwyd
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:24.997260+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cymdeithas-edward-llwyd-20260505-0
summary:
Cymdeithas Edward Llwyd (Welsh for 'Edward Llwyd Society') is a Welsh natural history organisation whose name commemorates the great Welsh natural historian, geographer and linguist Edward Llwyd (1660–1709). The Cymdeithas Edward Llwyd organises regular country walks throughout Wales in sites of interest of the Welsh environment, including SSSIs and post-industrial landscapes. These are Welsh-language walking groups, although learners are just as welcome. They also organise a variety of nature and environmental activities, including lectures, publications and conservation work. They have worked on collecting and documenting the names of natural species. In 2010, the society held a conference on Welsh toponymy, at which it was agreed to form the Welsh Place-Name Society. == References == == External links == Official site


id: field-guide-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_guide-0.md
category: reference
title: Field guide
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_guide
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:26.186649+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: field-guide-20260505-0
summary:
A field guide is a book designed to help the reader identify wildlife (flora or fauna or funga) or other objects of natural occurrence (e.g. rocks and minerals). It is generally designed to be brought into the "field" or local area where such objects exist to help distinguish between similar objects. Field guides are often designed to help users distinguish animals and plants that may be similar in appearance but are not necessarily closely related. It will typically include a description of the objects covered, together with paintings or photographs and an index. More serious and scientific field identification books, including those intended for students, will probably include identification keys to assist with identification, but the publicly accessible field guide is more often a browsable picture guide organized by family, colour, shape, location or other descriptors. == History == Popular interests in identifying things in nature probably were strongest in bird and plant guides. Perhaps the first popular field guide to plants in the United States was the 1893 How to Know the Wildflowers by "Mrs. William Starr Dana" (Frances Theodora Parsons). In 1890, Florence Merriam published Birds Through an Opera-Glass, describing 70 common species. Focused on living birds observed


id: flying-and-gliding-animals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals-0.md
category: reference
title: Flying and gliding animals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:27.546944+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: flying-and-gliding-animals-20260505-0
summary:
A number of animals are capable of aerial locomotion, either by active flight, by passive gliding or, in rare occasions, by kiting/ballooning. Such animals typically have appendages that interact with air to generate lift in order to overcome the weight of their own body and any payload they are carrying (e.g. food/prey, nesting materials). Majority of flying and glide animals are terrestrial, while species from one extant taxon, i.e. the flying fish, are aquatic. The ability to fly or glide has appeared via convergent evolution many times throughout the history of life, and has evolved prominently in at least four terrestrial clades: insects, pterosaurs, birds and bats. Gliding and kiting, which are essentially controlled, prolonged free falls, have evolved on many more occasions, especially among arboreal species. Usually the aerial trait is to aid animals leaping directly across extended distances from one tree canopy to another without having to descend to the ground, which will otherwise expose them to risks from ground predators, although there are other reasons why aerial locomotions have developed. Gliding, in particular, has evolved among forest animals, especially in the rainforests in Asia (most especially Borneo) where the trees are tall (making it costly to descend


id: flying-and-gliding-animals-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals-1.md
category: reference
title: Flying and gliding animals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:27.546944+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: flying-and-gliding-animals-20260505-0
summary:
=== Gliding and parachuting === While gliding occurs independently from powered flight, it has some ecological advantages of its own as it is the simplest form of flight. Gliding is a very energy-efficient way of travelling from tree to tree. Although moving through the canopy running along the branches may be less energetically demanding, the faster transition between trees allows for greater foraging rates in a particular patch. Glide ratios can be dependent on size and current behavior. Higher foraging rates are supported by low glide ratios as smaller foraging patches require less gliding time over shorter distances and greater amounts of food can be acquired in a shorter time period. Low ratios are not as energy efficient as the higher ratios, but an argument made is that many gliding animals eat low energy foods such as leaves and are restricted to gliding because of this, whereas flying animals eat more high energy foods such as fruits, nectar, and insects. Mammals tend to rely on lower glide ratios to increase the amount of time foraging for lower energy food. An equilibrium glide, achieving a constant airspeed and glide angle, is harder to obtain as animal size increases. Larger animals need


id: flying-and-gliding-animals-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals-2.md
category: reference
title: Flying and gliding animals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:27.546944+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: flying-and-gliding-animals-20260505-0
summary:
Powered flight has evolved unambiguously only four times—birds, bats, pterosaurs, and insects (though see above for possible independent acquisitions within bird and bat groups). In contrast to gliding, which has evolved more frequently but typically gives rise to only a handful of species, all three extant groups of powered flyers have a huge number of species, suggesting that flight is a very successful strategy once evolved. Bats, after rodents, have the most species of any mammalian order, about 20% of all mammalian species. Birds have the most species of any class of terrestrial vertebrates. Finally, insects (most of which fly at some point in their life cycle) have more species than all other animal groups combined. The evolution of flight is one of the most striking and demanding in animal evolution, and has attracted the attention of many prominent scientists and generated many theories. Additionally, because flying animals tend to be small and have a low mass (both of which increase the surface-area-to-mass ratio), they tend to fossilize infrequently and poorly compared to the larger, heavier-boned terrestrial species they share habitat with. Fossils of flying animals tend to be confined to exceptional fossil deposits formed under highly specific circumstances, resulting


id: flying-and-gliding-animals-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals-3.md
category: reference
title: Flying and gliding animals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:27.546944+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: flying-and-gliding-animals-20260505-0
summary:
Unlike most air vehicles, in which the objects that generate lift (wings) and thrust (engine or propeller) are separate and the wings remain fixed, flying animals use their wings to generate both lift and thrust by moving them relative to the body. This has made the flight of organisms considerably harder to understand than that of vehicles, as it involves varying speeds, angles, orientations, areas, and flow patterns over the wings. A bird or bat flying through the air at a constant speed moves its wings up and down (usually with some fore-aft movement as well). Because the animal is in motion, there is some airflow relative to its body which, combined with the velocity of its wings, generates a faster airflow moving over the wing. This will generate lift force vector pointing forwards and upwards, and a drag force vector pointing rearwards and upwards. The upwards components of these counteract gravity, keeping the body in the air, while the forward component provides thrust to counteract both the drag from the wing and from the body as a whole. Pterosaur flight likely worked in a similar manner, though no living pterosaurs remain for study. Insect flight is considerably different, due


id: flying-and-gliding-animals-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals-4.md
category: reference
title: Flying and gliding animals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:27.546944+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: flying-and-gliding-animals-20260505-0
summary:
==== Most maneuverable glider ==== Many gliding animals have some ability to turn, but which is the most maneuverable is difficult to assess. Even paradise tree snakes, Chinese gliding frogs, and gliding ants have been observed as having considerable capacity to turn in the air. == Flying animals == === Extant === ==== Insects ==== Pterygota: The first of all animals to evolve flight, they are also the only invertebrates that have evolved flight. As they comprise almost all insects, the species are too numerous to list here. Insect flight is an active research field. ==== Birds ==== Birds (flying, soaring) – Most of the approximately 10,000 living species can fly (flightless birds are the exception). Bird flight is one of the most studied forms of aerial locomotion in animals. See List of soaring birds for birds that can soar as well as fly. ==== Mammals ==== Bats. There are approximately 1,240 bat species, representing about 20% of all classified mammal species. Most bats are nocturnal and many feed on insects while flying at night, using echolocation to home in on their prey. === Extinct === ==== Reptile: Pterosaurs ==== Pterosaurs were the first flying vertebrates, and are generally agreed


id: flying-and-gliding-animals-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals-5.md
category: reference
title: Flying and gliding animals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:27.546944+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: flying-and-gliding-animals-20260505-0
summary:
==== Fish ==== Flying fish. There are over 50 species of flying fish belonging to the family Exocoetidae. They are mostly marine fishes of small to medium size. The largest flying fish can reach lengths of 45 centimetres (18 in) but most species measure less than 30 cm (12 in) in length. They can be divided into two-winged varieties and four-winged varieties. Before the fish leaves the water it increases its speed to around 30 body lengths per second and as it breaks the surface and is freed from the drag of the water it can be traveling at around 60 kilometres per hour (37 mph). The glides are usually up to 30–50 metres (100–160 ft) in length, but some have been observed soaring for hundreds of metres using the updraft on the leading edges of waves. The fish can also make a series of glides, each time dipping the tail into the water to produce forward thrust. The longest recorded series of glides, with the fish only periodically dipping its tail in the water, was for 45 seconds (Video here). It has been suggested that the genus Exocoetus is on an evolutionary borderline between flight and gliding. It flaps


id: flying-and-gliding-animals-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals-6.md
category: reference
title: Flying and gliding animals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:27.546944+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: flying-and-gliding-animals-20260505-0
summary:
Flying squirrels (tribe pteromyini). There are more than 50 living species divided between 16 genera of flying squirrel. Flying squirrels are found in Asia (most species), North America (genus Glaucomys) and Europe (Siberian flying squirrel). They inhabit tropical, temperate, and Subarctic environments, with the Glaucomys preferring boreal and montane coniferous forests, specifically landing on red spruce (Picea rubens) trees as landing sites; they are known to rapidly climb trees, but take some time to locate a good landing spot. They tend to be nocturnal and are highly sensitive to light and noise. When a flying squirrel wishes to cross to a tree that is further away than the distance possible by jumping, it extends the cartilage spur on its elbow or wrist. This opens out the flap of furry skin (the patagium) that stretches from its wrist to its ankle. It glides spread-eagle and with its tail fluffed out like a parachute, and grips the tree with its claws when it lands. Flying squirrels have been reported to glide over 200 metres (660 ft). Anomalures or scaly-tailed flying squirrels (family Anomaluridae). These brightly coloured African rodents are not squirrels but have evolved to a resemble flying squirrels by convergent evolution.


id: flying-and-gliding-animals-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals-7.md
category: reference
title: Flying and gliding animals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:27.546944+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: flying-and-gliding-animals-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == Davenport, J. (1994). "How and why do flying fish fly?". Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries. 40 (2): 184–214. Bibcode:1994RFBF....4..184D. doi:10.1007/BF00044128. S2CID 34720887. Saidel, W.M.; Strain, G.F.; Fornari, S.K. (2004). "Characterization of the aerial escape response of the African butterfly fish, Pantodon buchholzi Peters". Environmental Biology of Fishes. 71 (1): 63–72. Bibcode:2004EnvBF..71...63S. doi:10.1023/b:ebfi.0000043153.38418.cd. S2CID 11856131. Xu, Xing; Zhou, Zhonghe; Wang, Xiaolin; Kuang, Xuewen; Zhang, Fucheng; Du, Xiangke (2003). "Four-winged dinosaurs from China" (PDF). Nature. 421 (6921): 335–340. Bibcode:2003Natur.421..335X. doi:10.1038/nature01342. PMID 12540892. S2CID 1160118. Schiøtz, A.; Vosloe, H. (1959). "The gliding flight of Holaspis guentheri Gray, a west-African lacertid". Copeia. 1959 (3): 259–260. doi:10.2307/1440407. JSTOR 1440407. Arnold, E. N. (2002). "Holaspis, a lizard that glided by accident: mosaics of cooption and adaptation in a tropical forest lacertid (Reptilia, Lacertidae. )". Bulletin of the Natural History Museum, Zoology Series. 68 (2): 155–163. doi:10.1017/s0968047002000171. S2CID 49552361. McGuire, J. A. (2003). "Allometric Prediction of Locomotor Performance: An Example from Southeast Asian Flying Lizards". The American Naturalist. 161 (2): 337–349. Bibcode:2003ANat..161..337M. doi:10.1086/346085. PMID 12675377. S2CID 29494470. Demes, B.; Forchap, E.; Herwig, H. (1991). "They seem to glide. Are there aerodynamic effects in leaping prosimian primates?". Zeitschrift für Morphologie und Anthropologie. 78


id: geologic-time-scale-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale-0.md
category: reference
title: Geologic time scale
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:29.061904+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geologic-time-scale-20260505-0
summary:
The geologic time scale or geological time scale describes how geologic time is divided into standardised intervals. It uses the rock record together with the principles of chronostratigraphy to place rock sequences into their relative age positions, and geochronology techniques, such as radiometric dating, to precisely date the boundaries between them. It is used primarily by Earth scientists (including geologists, paleontologists, geophysicists, geochemists, and paleoclimatologists) to describe the timing and relationships of events in geologic history. The time scale has been developed through the study of rock layers and the observation of their relationships and identifying features such as lithologies, paleomagnetic properties, and fossils. The definition of standardised international units of geological time is the responsibility of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS), a constituent body of the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS), whose primary objective is to precisely define global chronostratigraphic units of the International Chronostratigraphic Chart (ICC) that are used to define divisions of geological time. The chronostratigraphic divisions are in turn used to define geochronologic units. == Principles == The geologic time scale is a way of representing deep time based on events that have occurred throughout Earth's history, a time span of about 4.54 ±


id: geologic-time-scale-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale-1.md
category: reference
title: Geologic time scale
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:29.061904+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geologic-time-scale-20260505-0
summary:
=== Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) === Historically, regional geologic time scales were used due to the litho- and biostratigraphic differences around the world in time equivalent rocks. The ICS has long worked to reconcile conflicting terminology by standardising globally significant and identifiable stratigraphic horizons that can be used to define the lower boundaries of chronostratigraphic units. A Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) defines the lower boundary of a stage as being at a precise point in a specific rock succession in a particular geographic location. These reference points are known informally as "golden" spikes. All the beds above the spike belong to one time interval and all those below it to another. This allows beds of a similar age around the world to be correlated with the strata that contain the golden spike. For example, the iridium anomaly produced by the Chicxulub asteroid impact marks the lower boundary of the Paleogene System and thus the boundary between the Cretaceous and Paleogene. Whilst the GSSP is defined at Oued Djerfane in Tunisia, strata containing the iridium anomaly are found worldwide. The Proterozoic (apart from the Ediacaran), Archean and Hadean are subdivided by absolute ages (Global Standard


id: geologic-time-scale-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale-2.md
category: reference
title: Geologic time scale
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:29.061904+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geologic-time-scale-20260505-0
summary:
=== Early history === The most modern geological time scale was not formulated until 1911 by Arthur Holmes (1890 – 1965), who drew inspiration from James Hutton (1726–1797), a Scottish Geologist who presented the idea of uniformitarianism or the theory that changes to the Earth's crust resulted from continuous and uniform processes. The broader concept of the relation between rocks and time can be traced back to (at least) the philosophers of Ancient Greece from 1200 BC to 600 AD. Xenophanes of Colophon (c. 570–487 BCE) observed rock beds with fossils of seashells located above the sea-level, viewed them as once living organisms, and used this to imply an unstable relationship in which the sea had at times transgressed over the land and at other times had regressed. This view was shared by a few of Xenophanes's scholars and those that followed, including Aristotle (384–322 BC) who (with additional observations) reasoned that the positions of land and sea had changed over long periods of time. The concept of deep time was also recognized by Chinese naturalist Shen Kuo (1031–1095) and Islamic scientist-philosophers, notably the Brothers of Purity, who wrote on the processes of stratification over the passage of time in


id: geologic-time-scale-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale-3.md
category: reference
title: Geologic time scale
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:29.061904+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geologic-time-scale-20260505-0
summary:
Respectively, these are the principles of superposition, original horizontality, lateral continuity, and cross-cutting relationships. From this Steno reasoned that strata were laid down in succession and inferred relative time (in Steno's belief, time from Creation). While Steno's principles were simple and attracted much attention, applying them proved challenging. These basic principles, albeit with improved and more nuanced interpretations, still form the foundational principles of determining the correlation of strata relative to geologic time. Over the course of the 18th-century geologists realised that: Sequences of strata often become eroded, distorted, tilted, or even inverted after deposition Strata laid down at the same time in different areas could have entirely different appearances The strata of any given area represented only part of Earth's long history === Formulation of a modern geologic time scale === The apparent, earliest formal division of the geologic record with respect to time was introduced during the era of Biblical models by Thomas Burnet who applied a two-fold terminology to mountains by identifying "montes primarii" for rock formed at the time of the 'Deluge', and younger "monticulos secundarios" formed later from the debris of the "primarii". Anton Moro (1687–1784) also used primary and secondary divisions for rock units


id: geologic-time-scale-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale-4.md
category: reference
title: Geologic time scale
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:29.061904+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geologic-time-scale-20260505-0
summary:
=== Modern international geological time scale === The establishment of the IUGS in 1961 and acceptance of the Commission on Stratigraphy (applied in 1965) to become a member commission of IUGS led to the founding of the ICS. One of the primary objectives of the ICS is "the establishment, publication and revision of the ICS International Chronostratigraphic Chart which is the standard, reference global Geological Time Scale to include the ratified Commission decisions". Following on from Holmes, several A Geological Time Scale books were published in 1982, 1989, 2004, 2008, 2012, 2016, and 2020. However, since 2013, the ICS has taken responsibility for producing and distributing the ICC citing the commercial nature, independent creation, and lack of oversight by the ICS on the prior published GTS versions (GTS books prior to 2013) although these versions were published in close association with the ICS. Subsequent Geologic Time Scale books (2016 and 2020) are commercial publications with no oversight from the ICS, and do not entirely conform to the chart produced by the ICS. The ICS produced GTS charts are versioned (year/month) beginning at v2013/01. At least one new version is published each year incorporating any changes ratified by the ICS since


id: geologic-time-scale-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale-5.md
category: reference
title: Geologic time scale
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:29.061904+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geologic-time-scale-20260505-0
summary:
==== Van Kranendonk et al. 2012 (GTS2012) ==== The book, Geologic Time Scale 2012, was the last commercial publication of an international chronostratigraphic chart that was closely associated with the ICS and the Subcommission on Precambrian Stratigraphy. It included a proposal to substantially revise the pre-Cryogenian time scale to reflect important events such as the formation of the Solar System and the Great Oxidation Event, among others, while at the same time maintaining most of the previous chronostratigraphic nomenclature for the pertinent time span. As of April 2022 these proposed changes have not been accepted by the ICS. The proposed changes (changes from the current scale [v2023/09]) are italicised: Hadean Eon (4567–4030 Ma) Chaotian Era/Erathem (4567–4404 Ma) – the name alluding both to the mythological Chaos and the chaotic phase of planet formation. Jack Hillsian or Zirconian Era/Erathem (4404–4030 Ma) – both names allude to the Jack Hills Greenstone Belt which provided the oldest mineral grains on Earth, zircons. Archean Eon/Eonothem (4030–2420 Ma) Paleoarchean Era/Erathem (4030–3490 Ma) Acastan Period/System (4030–3810 Ma) – named after the Acasta Gneiss, one of the oldest preserved pieces of continental crust. Isuan Period/System (3810–3490 Ma) – named after the Isua Greenstone Belt. Mesoarchean Era/Erathem (3490–2780


id: geologic-time-scale-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale-6.md
category: reference
title: Geologic time scale
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:29.061904+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geologic-time-scale-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == Aubry, Marie-Pierre; Van Couvering, John A.; Christie-Blick, Nicholas; Landing, Ed; Pratt, Brian R.; Owen, Donald E.; Ferrusquia-Villafranca, Ismael (2009). "Terminology of geological time: Establishment of a community standard". Stratigraphy. 6 (2): 100–105. doi:10.7916/D8DR35JQ. Gradstein, Felix M.; Ogg, James G. (June 2004). "Geologic Time Scale 2004 – why, how, and where next!". Lethaia. 37 (2): 175–181. Bibcode:2004Letha..37..175G. doi:10.1080/00241160410006483. Gradstein, Felix M.; Ogg, James G.; Smith, Alan G., eds. (2005). A Geologic Time Scale 2004. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511536045. ISBN 978-0-521-78673-7. Gradstein, Felix M.; Ogg, James G.; Smith, Alan G.; Bleeker, Wouter; Laurens, Lucas, J. (June 2004). "A new Geologic Time Scale, with special reference to Precambrian and Neogene". Episodes. 27 (2): 83–100. doi:10.18814/epiiugs/2004/v27i2/002. CORE output ID 11773078.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Ialenti, Vincent (28 September 2014). "Embracing 'Deep Time' Thinking". NPR. NPR Cosmos & Culture. Ialenti, Vincent (21 September 2014). "Pondering 'Deep Time' Could Inspire New Ways To View Climate Change". NPR. NPR Cosmos & Culture. Knoll, Andrew H.; Walter, Malcolm R.; Narbonne, Guy M.; Christie-Blick, Nicholas (30 July 2004). "A New Period for the Geologic Time Scale". Science. 305 (5684): 621–622. doi:10.1126/science.1098803. PMID 15286353. Levin, Harold L. (2010). "Time and Geology". The Earth Through Time.


id: humboldtian-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humboldtian_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Humboldtian science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humboldtian_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:31.591065+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: humboldtian-science-20260505-0
summary:
Humboldtian science refers to a movement in science in the 19th century closely connected to the work and writings of German scientist, naturalist, and explorer Alexander von Humboldt. It maintained a certain ethics of precision and observation, which combined scientific field work with the sensitivity and aesthetic ideals of the age of Romanticism. Like Romanticism in science, it was rather popular in the 19th century. The term was coined by Susan Faye Cannon in 1978. The example of Humboldt's life and his writings allowed him to reach out beyond the academic community with his natural history and address a wider audience with popular science aspects. It has supplanted the older Baconian method, related as well to a single person, Francis Bacon. == Brief biography == Humboldt was born in Berlin in 1769 and worked as a Prussian mining official in the 1790s until 1797 when he quit and began collecting scientific knowledge and equipment. His extensive wealth aided his infatuation with the spirit of Romanticism; he amassed an extensive collection of scientific instruments and tools as well as a sizeable library. In 1799 Humboldt, under the protection of King Charles IV of Spain, left for South America and New Spain,


id: humboldtian-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humboldtian_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Humboldtian science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humboldtian_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:31.591065+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: humboldtian-science-20260505-0
summary:
insistence on accuracy for all scientific instruments and observations; a mental sophistication in which theoretical mechanisms and entities of past science were taken lightly; a new set of conceptual tools, including isomaps, graphs, and a theory of errors; the application of accuracy, mental sophistication, and tools not to isolated science in laboratories, but to greatly variable real phenomena. == Humboldt's "terrestrial physicist" == Humboldt was committed to what he called 'terrestrial physics.' Essentially Humboldt's new scientific approach required a new type of scientist: Humboldtian science demanded a transition from the naturalist to the physicist. Humboldt described how his idea of terrestrial physics differs from traditional "descriptive" natural history when he stated, "[traveling naturalists] have neglected to track the great and constant laws of nature manifested in the rapid flux of phenomena…and to trace the reciprocal interaction of the divided physical forces." Humboldt did not consider himself an explorer, but rather a scientific traveler, who accurately measured what explorers had reported inaccurately. According to Humboldt, the goal of the terrestrial physicist was to investigate the confluence and interweaving of all physical forces. An incredibly extensive array of precise instrumentation had to be readily available for Humboldt's terrestrial physicist. The expansive amount


id: humboldtian-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humboldtian_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Humboldtian science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humboldtian_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:31.591065+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: humboldtian-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Transformation of Humboldtian science == Ralph Waldo Emerson once dubbed Humboldt to be "one of those wonders of the world… who appear from time to time, as if to show us the possibilities of the human mind." When Humboldt first began his studies of organisms and the environment he claimed that he wanted to "reorganize the general connections that link organic beings and to study the great harmonies of Nature". He is often considered one of the world's first genuine ecologists. Humboldt succeeded in developing a comprehensive science that joined the separate branches of natural philosophy under a model of natural order founded on the concept of dynamic equilibrium. Humboldt's work reached far beyond his personal expeditions and discoveries. Figures from all across the globe participated on his work. Some such participants included French naval officers, East India Company physicians, Russian provincial administrators, Spanish military commanders, and German diplomats. As was mentioned previously, Charles Darwin carried a copy of Humboldt's Personal Narrative aboard H.M.S. Beagle. Humboldt's projects, particularly those related to natural philosophy, played a significant role in the influx of European money and travelers to Spanish America in increasing numbers in the early 19th century. Sir Edward Sabine,


id: insect-collecting-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_collecting-0.md
category: reference
title: Insect collecting
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_collecting
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:32.821341+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: insect-collecting-20260505-0
summary:
Insect collecting refers to the collection of insects and other arthropods for scientific study or as a hobby. Most insects are small and the majority cannot be identified without the examination of minute morphological characters, so entomologists often make and maintain insect collections. Very large collections are preserved in natural history museums or universities where they are maintained and studied by specialists. Many college courses require students to form small collections. There are also amateur entomologists and collectors who keep collections. Historically, insect collecting has been widespread and was in the Victorian age a very popular educational hobby. Insect collecting has left traces in European cultural history, literature and songs, e.g., Georges Brassens's La chasse aux papillons (The Hunt for Butterflies). The practice is particularly common among Japanese youths. == Capture and kill techniques == Insects may be passively caught using traps such as funnels, pitfall traps, bottle traps, malaise traps, or flight interception traps, some of which are baited with small bits of sweet foods (such as honey). Entomologists collecting nocturnal insects (especially moths) during faunistic survey studies might utilize ultraviolet light traps such as the Robinson trap. Aspirators, sometimes called "pooters", suck up insects too small or delicate


id: insect-collecting-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_collecting-1.md
category: reference
title: Insect collecting
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_collecting
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:32.821341+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: insect-collecting-20260505-0
summary:
Direct pinning. Direct pinning is the insertion of an entomological pin directly through the thorax of a specimen. The insects are pinned vertically through the thorax with a suitably sized pin, but by convention they are not pinned on the midline, but to the right, so as to leave at least one side undamaged. Point. A point is a triangular piece of white card. Specially designed point punches permit the production of large numbers of points of standard sizes as required. To use a point, a pin is inserted through the broad base of the triangle. To mount the specimen, a tiny amount of glue is placed on the tip and applied to the right side of the insect's thorax. If appropriate the tip of the point may be bent at the necessary angle to hold the body of the specimen horizontal when the pin is vertical, with the long axis of the insect at right angles to the point. Minuten pins. Insect pins without heads, 12mm long. They are used for double mounting (staging) very small insects. They also may be used profitably for staging insects of moderate size, where they have the advantage of being less damaging to


id: list-of-natural-history-articles-by-gerard-krefft-in-the-sydney-mail-20260505-0
category: reference
title: List of Natural History articles by Gerard Krefft in The Sydney Mail
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Natural_History_articles_by_Gerard_Krefft_in_The_Sydney_Mail
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:34.064719+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-natural-history-articles-by-gerard-krefft-in-the-sydney-mail-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Natural_History_articles_by_Gerard_Krefft_in_The_Sydney_Mail-0.md

summary:
Johann Ludwig (Louis) Gerard Krefft (1830 – 1881), one of Australia's first and most influential zoologists and palaeontologists, was an artist, draughtsman, scientist, and natural historian who served as the curator of the Australian Museum, in Sydney, New South Wales, for 13 years (1861–1874). The following is a list of Krefft's articles that were regularly published in the "Natural History" Section of The Sydney Mail between 4 March 1871 and 26 June 1875. Although a small number of relevant items written by others appeared in The Sydney Mail's "Natural History" section from time to time — e.g., John William Brazier (2 March 1872), George Bennett (9 August 1873), Georgen Mivart (7 March 1874), "Anonymous" (16 May 1874), etc. — the section's very first article was Krefft's 4 March 1871 contribution, and its very last was Krefft's 26 June 1875 contribution: == See also == Krefft's "Natural History" articles in The Sydney Mail


id: kunstformen-der-natur-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunstformen_der_Natur-0.md
category: reference
title: Kunstformen der Natur
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunstformen_der_Natur
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:38.605024+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kunstformen-der-natur-20260505-0
summary:
Kunstformen der Natur (known in English as Art Forms in Nature) is a book of lithographic and halftone prints by German biologist Ernst Haeckel. == Publication == Originally published in sets of ten between 1899 and 1904 and collectively in two volumes in 1904, it consists of 100 prints of various organisms, many of which were first described by Haeckel himself. Over the course of his career, over 1000 prints were produced based on Haeckel's sketches and watercolors; many of the best of these were chosen for Kunstformen der Natur, translated from sketch to print by lithographer Adolf Giltsch. A second edition of Kunstformen, containing only 30 prints, was produced in 1914. == Themes == According to Haeckel scholar Olaf Breidbach, the work was "not just a book of illustrations but also the summation of his view of the world." The over-riding themes of the Kunstformen plates are symmetry and level of organization. The subjects were selected to embody these to the full, from the scale patterns of boxfishes to the spirals of ammonites to the perfect symmetries of jellies and microorganisms, while images composing each plate are arranged for maximum visual impact. Among the notable prints are numerous radiolarians,


id: list-of-parson-naturalists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_parson-naturalists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of parson-naturalists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_parson-naturalists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:39.762551+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-parson-naturalists-20260505-0
summary:
Parson-naturalists were ministers of religion who also studied natural history. The archetypical parson-naturalist was a priest in the Church of England in charge of a country parish, who saw the study of science as an extension of his religious work. The philosophy entailed the belief that God, as the Creator of all things, wanted man to understand his Creations and thus to study them through scientific techniques. They often collected and preserved natural artefacts such as leaves, flowers, birds' eggs, birds, insects, and small mammals to classify and study. Some wrote books or kept nature diaries. == Parson-naturalists == == See also == List of Christian thinkers in science Science in the Age of Enlightenment == References == == Bibliography == Armstrong, Patrick (2000). The English Parson-naturalist: A Companionship Between Science and Religion. Gracewing Publishing. ISBN 978-0-85244-516-7.


id: marine-counterparts-of-land-creatures-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_counterparts_of_land_creatures-0.md
category: reference
title: Marine counterparts of land creatures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_counterparts_of_land_creatures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:40.956845+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: marine-counterparts-of-land-creatures-20260505-0
summary:
The idea that there are specific marine counterparts to land creatures, inherited from the writers on natural history in Antiquity, was firmly believed in Islam and in Medieval Europe. It is exemplified by the creatures represented in the medieval animal encyclopedias called bestiaries, and in the parallels drawn in the moralising attributes attached to each. "The creation was a mathematical diagram drawn in parallel lines," T. H. White said a propos the bestiary he translated. "Things did not only have a moral they often had physical counterparts in other strata. There was a horse in the land and a sea-horse in the sea. For that matter there was probably a Pegasus in heaven". The idea of perfect analogies in the fauna of land and sea was considered part of the perfect symmetry of the Creator's plan, offered as the "book of nature" to mankind, for which a text could be found in Job: But ask the animals, and they will teach you, or the birds of the air, and they will tell you; or speak to the earth, and it will teach you, or let the fish of the sea inform you. Which of all these does not know that


id: natural-history-of-australia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history_of_Australia-0.md
category: reference
title: Natural history of Australia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history_of_Australia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:42.114564+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-history-of-australia-20260505-0
summary:
The natural history of Australia has been shaped by the geological evolution of the Australian continent from Gondwana and the changes in global climate over geological time. The building of the Australian continent and its association with other land masses, as well as climate changes over geological time, have created the unique flora and fauna present in Australia today. There are many species of flora and fauna that are unique to Australia, and do not exist in any other part of the world. The natural history of Australia begins with rock formation, followed by geological development, life evolution, and continues to change today. == Precambrian == Three areas of the Australian landmass that are made of Archaean rocks are more than 2.5 billion years old, among the oldest known rocks. These igneous and metamorphic rocks are found in the Yilgarn (West) and Pilbara (North) cratons in today's Western Australia and the Gawler (South) craton which makes up the Eyre Peninsula in South Australia. During the Proterozoic, 2,500 to 545 Ma, continent building took place around the existing cratons; the accretions include sedimentary deposition of the banded iron formations and the formation of Australia's major orebodies – sources of gold, copper,


id: natural-history-of-australia-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history_of_Australia-1.md
category: reference
title: Natural history of Australia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history_of_Australia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:42.114564+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-history-of-australia-20260505-0
summary:
During the Carboniferous glaciation, erosion by ice extended into the Early Permian. Crustal extension and subsidence around 295 Ma formed shallow basins in which thick coal deposits were formed. During the Mesozoic, when the Earth became much warmer, 251 to 140 Ma, the Australian landmass was covered with riverine plains. Humid conditions allowed the formation of peatlands, particularly in the east. Dinosaurs, reptiles and primitive mammals were present in Australia. Between 140 and 99 Ma, sea levels rose, and much of the continent was covered. In the same period (between 120 and 105 Ma), there was more volcanism in eastern Australia, leading to uplift creating the Tasman Sea to the southeast and the Coral Sea to the north. The earliest land plants preserved in Australia occur in deposits from the Upper Silurian and the Lower Devonian in marine sediments in Victoria, named the Baragwanathia Assemblage for its most prominent element, the simple vascular plant the lycopod Baragwanathia. The assemblage also included Rhyniophyta, Zosterophyllophyta, and Trimerophyta in addition to other lycopods. All these plants were herbaceous, coastal and required an aqueous environment for reproduction. During the Devonian the first shrub-sized to tree-sized lycopods appeared in Australia and Antarctica; they dominated the


id: nature-center-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_center-0.md
category: reference
title: Nature center
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_center
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:43.393710+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nature-center-20260505-0
summary:
A nature center (or nature centre) is an organization with a visitor center or interpretive center designed to educate people about nature and the environment. Usually in a protected open space, nature centers often have trails through their property. Some are in a state or city park, and some have special gardens or an arboretum. Their properties can be characterized as nature preserves and wildlife sanctuaries. Nature centers generally display small live animals, such as reptiles, rodents, insects, or fish. There are often museum exhibits and displays about natural history, or preserved mounted animals or nature dioramas. Nature centers are staffed by paid or volunteer naturalists and most offer educational programs to the general public, as well as summer camp, after-school and school group programs. These educational programs teach people about nature conservation as well as the scientific method, biology, and ecology. Some nature centers allow free admission but collect voluntary donations in order to help offset expenses. They usually rely on support from volunteers. Environmental education centers differ from nature centers in that their museum exhibits and education programs are available mostly by appointment, although casual visitors may be allowed to walk on their grounds. Some city, state and


id: nature-writing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_writing-0.md
category: reference
title: Nature writing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_writing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:44.729995+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nature-writing-20260505-0
summary:
Nature writing is nonfiction or fiction prose about the natural environment. It often draws heavily from scientific information and facts while also incorporating philosophical reflection upon various aspects of nature. Works are frequently written in the first person and include personal observations. Nature writing encompasses a wide variety of works, ranging from those that place primary emphasis on natural history (such as field guides) to those focusing on philosophical interpretation. It includes poetry, essays of solitude or escape, as well as travel and adventure writing. Modern-day nature writing traces its roots to works of natural history that initially gained popularity in the second half of the 18th century, and continued to do so throughout the 19th century. An important early figure in nature writing was the parson-naturalist Gilbert White (1720–1793), a pioneering English naturalist and ornithologist. He is best known for writing Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne (1789). William Bartram (1739–1823) was another significant American pioneer naturalist who became a respected figure in literary and scientific communities after his first work was published in 1791. == Early history == The tradition of clerical naturalists can be traced back to the monastic writings of the Middle Ages, although under modern-day


id: nature-writing-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_writing-1.md
category: reference
title: Nature writing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_writing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:44.729995+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nature-writing-20260505-0
summary:
== 20th century to date == The second half of the 20th century saw a significant increase in nature writing in fiction and non-fiction in Britain. One of the earliest of these works was John Moore (1907–1967), a best-selling pioneer conservationist. Writing from the 1930s to 1960s, he was described by Sir Compton Mackenzie as the most talented writer about the countryside of his generation. Moore's contemporaries included Henry Williamson (1895–1977), best known for Tarka the Otter, whose imaginative prose won him the Hawthornden Prize in 1928. Other 20th century writers included American authors Edward Abbey (1927–1989), Aldo Leopold (1887–1948) and Indian author M. Krishnan (1912–1996). After World War II, other writers emerged including English teacher and naturalist Margaret Hutchinson (1904–1997), who strongly advocated for raising children as naturalists from an early age. American author Rachel Carson (1907–1964) is known for Silent Spring, published in 1962. Carson heralded a new and pointed style of nature writing that carried stronger warnings of environmental loss as pesticide use in industrial agriculture became an increasing concern after World War II. Relevant contemporary nature writers in Britain include Richard Mabey, Roger Deakin, Mark Cocker, and Oliver Rackham. Rackham's books included Ancient Woodland (1980) and


id: naturhistorieselskabet-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturhistorieselskabet-0.md
category: reference
title: Naturhistorieselskabet
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturhistorieselskabet
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:46.133642+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: naturhistorieselskabet-20260505-0
summary:
Naturhistorieselskabet (lit. 'the Society for Natural History') was a private society that was the only institution to offer education in natural history in Denmark in the late 18th century. The spirit of the Age of Enlightenment and an escalating agricultural crisis, led the king and the Danish elite to call foreign experts on economy, including botany and silviculture, to the country. The autonomous University of Copenhagen, on the other hand, was reluctant to employ foreign experts in little-established disciplines. Naturhistorieselskabet was formed in 1788 in order to ensure education in botany, zoology and mineralogy based on private funds. For example, Martin Vahl lectured in botany. After the appointment in 1795 of a professor in geology and in 1797 one in botany, the society gradually lost its importance. It was soon abolished and its collections donated to the state (much later united with the university collections). == Sources == Wagner, P.H. 2001. Institutionaliseringen af botanik og geologi i Danmark-Norge i det 18. århundrede (colloquium). Institut for Videnskabshistorie.


id: peterson-identification-system-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peterson_Identification_System-0.md
category: reference
title: Peterson Identification System
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peterson_Identification_System
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:47.337124+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: peterson-identification-system-20260505-0
summary:
The Peterson Identification System is a practical method for the field identification of animals, plants and other natural phenomena. It was devised by ornithologist Roger Tory Peterson in 1934 for the first of his series of Field Guides (See Peterson Field Guides.) Peterson devised his system "so that live birds could be identified readily at a distance by their 'field marks' without resorting to the bird-in-hand characters that the early collectors relied on. During the last half century the binocular and the spotting scope have replaced the shotgun." As such, it both reflected and contributed to awareness of the emerging early environmental movement. Another application of this system was made when Roger Tory Peterson was enlisted in the US Army Corps of Engineers from 1943 to 1945. “...plane identification—the aircraft spotting technique—was based on Roger’s bird identification method-the Peterson system.”. == The system == Created for use by amateur naturalists and laymen, rather than specialists, the "Peterson System" is essentially a pictorial key based upon readily noticed visual impressions rather than on the technical features of interest to scientists. The technique involves patternistic drawings with arrows that pinpoint the key field comparisons between similar species. == Influence == Since the


id: plant-collecting-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_collecting-0.md
category: reference
title: Plant collecting
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_collecting
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:48.701818+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: plant-collecting-20260505-0
summary:
Plant collecting is the acquisition of plant specimens for the purposes of research, cultivation, or as a hobby. Plant specimens may be kept alive, but are more commonly dried and pressed to preserve the quality of the specimen. Plant collecting is an ancient practice with records of a Chinese botanist collecting roses over 5000 years ago. Herbaria are collections of preserved plants samples and their associated data for scientific purposes. The largest herbarium in the world exist at the Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, in Paris, France. Plant samples in herbaria typically include a reference sheet with information about the plant and details of collection. This detailed and organized system of filing provides horticulturist and other researchers alike with a way to find information about a certain plant, and a way to add new information to an existing plant sample file. The collection of live plant specimens from the wild, sometimes referred to as plant hunting, is an activity that has occurred for centuries. The earliest recorded evidence of plant hunting was in 1495 BC when botanists were sent to Somalia to collect incense trees for Queen Hatshepsut. The Victorian era saw a surge in plant hunting activity as botanical adventurers


id: plant-collecting-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_collecting-1.md
category: reference
title: Plant collecting
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_collecting
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:48.701818+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: plant-collecting-20260505-0
summary:
=== Preservation without pressing === Some specimens cannot be compressed, degrade when dried, or require other techniques for preservation and storage. Large seeds or fruits may be stored in boxes without compression. Aquatic plants and delicate plants may be stored in a liquid preservative. Cacti may be stored in ethanol. In cases where drying or pressing a plant may destroy or alter a plant feature being studied, 50-75% ethanol can be used to preserve the specimen for up to 4 weeks. This is commonly used when sectioning tissue samples. If a collector wishes to preserve a flower in its natural shape they will use a desiccant. The most commonly used desiccant is silica gel. To do this flowers are placed in a box, and the desiccant is added till the flowers are covered. After 2–7 days the desiccant is removed, revealing the preserved flowers. == Collection of herbarium specimens == Herbarium specimens of plants are collected for a number of different uses. They can assist in accurate identification and provide a species record for a time and place that can be used in distribution maps. They can also provide biological material for researchers, a reference point to document scientific names


id: plant-collecting-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_collecting-2.md
category: reference
title: Plant collecting
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_collecting
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:18:48.701818+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: plant-collecting-20260505-0
summary:
Another Victorian craze known as Orchidelirium similarly led to a drastic decline of several species of orchids. The lady's slipper orchid Cypripedium calceolus was declared extinct in the UK in 1917 and later rediscovered in 1930 as a single wild plant in the Yorkshire Dales, the only remaining site in the UK for these plants. Once found, the plant was guarded 24 hours a day. ==== Summer lady's-tresses orchid ==== In 1956, the UK's last remaining plants of the Spiranthes aestivalis, summer lady's-tresses orchid, were stolen. The orchid is still classified as extinct in the UK. === Modern examples === Many botanical gardens have been the target of plant theft, given the nature of their collections, which often house rare and valuable plants. ==== Kew Royal Botanic Gardens (2014) ==== In 2014, Kew Royal Botanic Gardens saw the theft of one of twenty-four of their Nymphaea thermarum, the world's smallest water lily ever discovered. There are about 100 of these species left, which survive solely in botanical gardens, last seen in the wild in 2008. ==== Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden (2014) ==== In 2014 in two separate incidents, a total of twenty four cycads were taken from the Kirstenbosch National


id: science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:20.804703+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-20260505-0
summary:
Science is a systematic discipline that builds and organises knowledge in the form of testable hypotheses and predictions about the universe. Modern science is typically divided into two – or three – major branches: the natural sciences, which study the physical world, and the social sciences, which study individuals and societies. While referred to as the formal sciences, the study of logic, mathematics, and theoretical computer science are typically regarded as separate because they rely on deductive reasoning instead of the scientific method as their main methodology. Meanwhile, applied sciences are disciplines that use scientific knowledge for practical purposes, such as engineering and medicine. The history of science spans the majority of the historical record, with the earliest identifiable predecessors to modern science dating to the Bronze Age in Egypt and Mesopotamia (c. 3000–1200 BCE). Their contributions to mathematics, astronomy, and medicine entered and shaped the Greek natural philosophy of classical antiquity and later medieval scholarship, whereby formal attempts were made to provide explanations of events in the physical world based on natural causes; while further advances, including the introduction of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, were made during the Golden Age of India and Islamic Golden Age. The recovery and


id: science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-1.md
category: reference
title: Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:20.804703+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-20260505-0
summary:
In classical antiquity, there is no real ancient analogue of a modern scientist. Instead, well-educated, usually upper-class, and almost universally male individuals performed various investigations into nature whenever they could afford the time. Before the invention or discovery of the concept of phusis or nature by the pre-Socratic philosophers, the same words tend to be used to describe the natural "way" in which a plant grows, and the "way" in which, for example, one tribe worships a particular god. For this reason, it is claimed that these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense and the first to clearly distinguish "nature" and "convention". The early Greek philosophers of the Milesian school, which was founded by Thales of Miletus and later continued by his successors Anaximander and Anaximenes, were the first to attempt to explain natural phenomena without relying on the supernatural. The Pythagoreans developed a complex number philosophy and contributed significantly to the development of mathematical science. The theory of atoms was developed by the Greek philosopher Leucippus and his student Democritus. Later, Epicurus would develop a full natural cosmology based on atomism, and would adopt a "canon" (ruler, standard) which established physical criteria or standards of scientific


id: science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-2.md
category: reference
title: Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:20.804703+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-20260505-0
summary:
From a single print shop in Mainz, Germany around 1440, the movable type printing-press had spread to no less than around 270 cities in Central, Western and Eastern Europe and had already produced more than 20 million volumes by the end of the 15th century. Printing made scholarly books more widely accessible, allowing researchers to consult ancient texts freely and to compare their own observations with those of fellow scholars. Printing ended the manuscript culture of the Middle Ages, where facts were few and far between, and replaced it with a printing culture where reliable and documented facts rapidly proliferated and became the secure foundation for scientific knowledge. In the 16th century, Nicolaus Copernicus formulated a heliostatic model of the Solar System, with the Sun positioned near the center of the Universe, motionless, with Earth and the other planets orbiting around it in circular motions, modified by epicycles, and at uniform speeds. The Copernican model challenged the dominant geocentric model of Ptolemy, which had placed Earth at the center of the Universe. 16th-century astronomers believed that Copernicus' elimination of the equant was his chief achievement but his model never displaced Ptolemy's, which only fell out of favor 70 years later


id: science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-3.md
category: reference
title: Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:20.804703+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-20260505-0
summary:
During the 19th century, many distinguishing characteristics of contemporary modern science began to take shape. These included the transformation of the life and physical sciences; the frequent use of precision instruments; the emergence of terms such as "biologist", "physicist", and "scientist"; an increased professionalisation of those studying nature; scientists gaining cultural authority over many dimensions of society; the industrialisation of numerous countries; the thriving of popular science writings; and the emergence of science journals. During the late 19th century, psychology emerged as a separate discipline from philosophy when Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory for psychological research in 1879. During the mid-19th century Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace independently proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection in 1858, which explained how different plants and animals originated and evolved. Their theory was set out in detail in Darwin's book On the Origin of Species, published in 1859. Separately, Gregor Mendel presented his paper, "Experiments on Plant Hybridisation" in 1865, which outlined the principles of biological inheritance, serving as the basis for modern genetics. Early in the 19th century John Dalton suggested the modern atomic theory, based on Democritus's original idea of indivisible particles called atoms. The laws of conservation


id: science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-4.md
category: reference
title: Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:20.804703+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-20260505-0
summary:
Social science is the study of human behaviour and the functioning of societies. It has many disciplines that include, but are not limited to anthropology, economics, history, human geography, political science, psychology, and sociology. In the social sciences, there are many competing theoretical perspectives, many of which are extended through competing research programmes such as the functionalists, conflict theorists, and interactionists in sociology. Due to the limitations of conducting controlled experiments involving large groups of individuals or complex situations, social scientists may adopt other research methods such as the historical method, case studies, and cross-cultural studies. Moreover, if quantitative information is available, social scientists may rely on statistical approaches to better understand social relationships and processes. === Formal === Formal science is an area of study that generates knowledge using formal systems. A formal system is an abstract structure used for inferring theorems from axioms according to a set of rules. It includes mathematics, systems theory, and theoretical computer science. The formal sciences share similarities with the other two branches by relying on objective, careful, and systematic study of an area of knowledge. They are, however, different from the empirical sciences as they rely exclusively on deductive reasoning, without the


id: science-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-5.md
category: reference
title: Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:20.804703+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific research involves using the scientific method, which seeks to objectively explain the events of nature in a reproducible way. Scientists usually take for granted a set of basic assumptions that are needed to justify the scientific method: there is an objective reality shared by all rational observers; this objective reality is governed by natural laws; these laws were discovered by means of systematic observation and experimentation. Mathematics is essential in the formation of hypotheses, theories, and laws, because it is used extensively in quantitative modelling, observing, and collecting measurements. Statistics is used to summarise and analyse data, which allows scientists to assess the reliability of experimental results. In the scientific method an explanatory thought experiment or hypothesis is put forward as an explanation using parsimony principles and is expected to seek consilience – fitting with other accepted facts related to an observation or scientific question. This tentative explanation is used to make falsifiable predictions, which are typically posted before being tested by experimentation. Disproof of a prediction is evidence of progress. Experimentation is especially important in science to help establish causal relationships to avoid the correlation fallacy, though in some sciences such as astronomy or geology, a predicted observation


id: science-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-6.md
category: reference
title: Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:20.804703+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-20260505-0
summary:
There are different schools of thought in the philosophy of science. The most popular position is empiricism, which holds that knowledge is created by a process involving observation; scientific theories generalise observations. Empiricism generally encompasses inductivism, a position that explains how general theories can be made from the finite amount of empirical evidence available. Many versions of empiricism exist, with the predominant ones being Bayesianism and the hypothetico-deductive method. Empiricism has stood in contrast to rationalism, the position originally associated with Descartes, which holds that knowledge is created by the human intellect, not by observation. Critical rationalism is a contrasting 20th-century approach to science, first defined by Austrian-British philosopher Karl Popper. Popper rejected the way that empiricism describes the connection between theory and observation. He claimed that theories are not generated by observation, but that observation is made in the light of theories, and that the only way theory A can be affected by observation is after theory A were to conflict with observation, but theory B were to survive the observation. Popper proposed replacing verifiability with falsifiability as the landmark of scientific theories, replacing induction with falsification as the empirical method. Popper further claimed that there is actually only


id: science-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-7.md
category: reference
title: Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:20.804703+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Awards === Science awards are usually given to individuals or organisations that have made significant contributions to a discipline. They are often given by prestigious institutions; thus, it is considered a great honour for a scientist receiving them. Since the early Renaissance, scientists have often been awarded medals, money, and titles. The Nobel Prize, a widely regarded prestigious award, is awarded annually to those who have achieved scientific advances in the fields of medicine, physics, and chemistry. == Society == === Funding and policies === Funding of science is often through a competitive process in which potential research projects are evaluated and only the most promising receive funding. Such processes, which are run by government, corporations, or foundations, allocate scarce funds. Total research funding in most developed countries is between 1.5% and 3% of GDP. In the OECD, around two-thirds of research and development in scientific and technical fields is carried out by industry, and 20% and 10%, respectively, by universities and government. The government funding proportion in certain fields is higher, and it dominates research in social science and the humanities. In less developed nations, the government provides the bulk of the funds for their basic scientific research.


id: science-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-8.md
category: reference
title: Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:20.804703+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-20260505-0
summary:
Attitudes towards science are often determined by political opinions and goals. Government, business and advocacy groups have been known to use legal and economic pressure to influence scientific researchers. Many factors can act as facets of the politicisation of science such as anti-intellectualism, perceived threats to religious beliefs, and fear for business interests. Politicisation of science is usually accomplished when scientific information is presented in a way that emphasises the uncertainty associated with the scientific evidence. Tactics such as shifting conversation, failing to acknowledge facts, and capitalising on doubt of scientific consensus have been used to gain more attention for views that have been undermined by scientific evidence. Examples of issues that have involved the politicisation of science include the global warming controversy, health effects of pesticides, and health effects of tobacco. === Challenges === The replication crisis is an ongoing systemic crisis that affects parts of science. The results of a fraction of scientific studies have been proven to be unreproducible. The crisis has long-standing roots; the phrase was coined in the early 2010s as part of a growing awareness of the problem. A 2026 replication study found low replication rates in social and behavioural sciences (business, economics, education,


id: outline-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:22.154849+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as a topical overview of science: Science is a systematic discipline that builds and organises knowledge in the form of testable hypotheses and predictions about the universe. Modern science is typically divided into two – or three – major branches: the natural sciences, which study the physical world, and the social sciences, which study individuals and societies. While referred to as the formal sciences, the study of logic, mathematics, and theoretical computer science are typically regarded as separate because they rely on deductive reasoning instead of the scientific method as their main methodology. Meanwhile, applied sciences are disciplines that use scientific knowledge for practical purposes, such as engineering and medicine. == Study and experimentation == Experimentation is the use of controlled conditions to test an idea. A single independent variable is altered while all other conditions are kept the same to test the alteration's effect on a dependent variable. Design of experiments History of experiments Descriptive and normative science are contrasting methods to explain scientific ideas. Descriptive science explains ideas objectively while normative science explains what should be true using value judgments. Empirical research is conducted using observation and experimentation instead of theory. Empirical evidence


id: outline-of-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Outline of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:22.154849+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Alchemy is the historical study of what is now associated with chemistry. It was accepted as a science until the end of the 17th century. Astrology is a method used in ancient and medieval times to study the social sciences through physical phenomena. Cosmogony is the study of Earth's origins through divine creation. Natural history is the historical name for study of subjects that are now associated with biology. Natural philosophy is the historical name for study of subjects that are now associated with physics and astronomy. == Philosophy of science == Philosophy of science encompasses the questions, assumptions, foundations, methods and implications of science. Anti-realism is the opposition to scientific realism. Anti-realists believe that scientific theories cannot be objectively true or that they do not correlate to objectively real phenomena. Antiscience is a criticism and rejection of modern science and the scientific community. Denialism is the rejection of scientific facts that conflict with one's previous beliefs. Empiricism is the belief that truth is obtained from sense experience. Empiricists believe that science is a systematic and detailed application of common everyday thought and inquiry. Constructive empiricism is the belief that scientific theories can be true but successful testing does not


id: outline-of-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Outline of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:22.154849+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Consensus is general agreement among scientists on a conclusion or finding. Demarcation is the division of scientific and non-scientific ideas, and the resulting dispute over how to divide them. Different fields of study may be evaluated on the level of experimental rigor, how much they engage in abstraction, how closely related they are with the humanities, or other qualities. Funding of science can come from governments and donors. Junk science is the presentation of uncertain scientific claims as facts, typically to a legal or political end. List of topics characterized as pseudoscience Meta-analysis is the comparing of several studies on the same topic to draw conclusions. A paradigm is the overall understanding and accepted system of how science functions. Paradigm shifts are historical periods of total change in how science is practiced. The concept was introduced by Thomas Kuhn. Peer review is a process in which an academic provides feedback on scientific writing, often anonymously, before publication. Pseudoscience is unscientific practice or belief that is presented as scientific or uses scientific language to suggest credibility. History of pseudoscience Regulation of science involves the use of policy to limit scientific activity that regulators determine to be dangerous, unethical, or ineffective. Scientific


id: outline-of-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Outline of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:22.154849+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== References == Agassi, Joseph (1981). Science and Society: Studies in the Sociology of Science. D. Reidel. ISBN 978-90-277-1244-8. Armstrong, Jon Scott; Green, Kesten C. (2022). The Scientific Method: A Guide to Finding Useful Knowledge. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-009-09642-3. Bird, Alexander (2005). Philosophy of Science. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-85728-504-8. Browne, Janet; Porter, Roy; Bynum, William F., eds. (1981). Dictionary of the History of Science. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-29316-4. Collocott, Thomas C., ed. (1971). Dictionary of Science and Technology. W. & R. Chambers. ISBN 978-0-550-13202-4. Daintith, John; Martin, Elizabeth (2010) [1984]. Oxford Dictionary of Science (6th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-956146-9. Erickson, Mark (2005). Science, Culture and Society: Understanding Science in the 21st Century. Polity. ISBN 978-0-7456-2974-2. Godfrey-Smith, Peter (2003). Theory and Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-30062-7. Hagstrom, Warren O. (1965). The Scientific Community. Basic Books. LCCN 65-10539. Heilbron, J. L., ed. (2003). The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-511229-0. Morris, Christopher G., ed. (1992). Academic Press Dictionary of Science and Technology. Elsevier Science. ISBN 978-0-12-200400-1. Pigliucci, Massimo; Boudry, Maarten, eds. (2013). Philosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem. The University of Chicago Press. ISBN


id: aic-judd-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIC_Judd_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: AIC Judd Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIC_Judd_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:23.364410+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aic-judd-award-20260505-0
summary:
The AIC - Deane B. Judd Award is an international prize, created in 1973 and instituted for the first time in 1975 by the International Colour Association (AIC). It is given to researchers or research groups in recognition of outstanding contributions to the field of color science. The award is named in honor of Deane B. Judd, an American scientist who made significant contributions to colorimetry, color discrimination, color models, and color vision. The AIC has been carrying out the process of selection of the recipients for this award every two years, since 1975. The selection is an arduous procedure that includes nominations by AIC members and analysis of antecedents of the nominees by a Committee composed of previous recipients of the award and AIC past-presidents. The award is given at AIC Congresses. == Awardees == The researchers who have received this award in the past 50 years are: 1975: Dorothy Nickerson (USA); 1977: William David Wright (UK); 1979: Günter Wyszecki (Germany, USA, Canada); 1981: Manfred Richter (Germany); 1983: David L. MacAdam (USA); 1985: Leo Hurvich & Dorothea Jameson (USA); 1987: Robert William G. Hunt (UK); 1989: Tarow Indow (Japan, USA); 1991: Johannes J. Vos & Pieter L. Walraven (Netherlands);


id: eurotrac-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurotrac-0.md
category: reference
title: Eurotrac
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurotrac
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:24.459733+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eurotrac-20260505-0
summary:
EUROTRAC (European Experiment on Transportation and Transformation of Environmentally Relevant Trace Constituents) was a joint European scientific research programme within the Eureka Framework. EUROTRAC was accepted as a Eureka project at the second Eureka Ministerial Conference held in Hannover (Germany) in November 1985. After a two-year definition phase, the work started in January 1988 and ended in 1995. At the peak of the programme, it included more than 250 research groups from 24 European countries and its budget exceeded 16 million ECU per year (equivalent to approx. 16 million Euro). == Objectives and focus areas == The objectives of Eurotrac were to: Increase the basic knowledge in atmospheric science; Promote the technological development of sensitive, specific, and fast response instruments for environmental research and monitoring; Improve the scientific basis for future political decisions on environmental management in European countries. EUROTRAC studied the impact of human activities on the troposphere over Europe, focusing on: The chemistry and transport of photo-oxidants (especially ozone) in the troposphere The processes leading to the formation of acidity in the atmosphere The uptake and release of atmospheric trace substances by the biosphere. EUROTRAC was an interdisciplinary programme involving field experiments and campaigns, laboratory studies, comprehensive model


id: ideonomy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideonomy-0.md
category: reference
title: Ideonomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideonomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:25.646281+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ideonomy-20260505-0
summary:
Ideonomy is a combinatorial "science of ideas" developed by American independent scholar Patrick M. Gunkel (1947–2017). Specifically, Ideonomy is concerned with the systematic organization of ideas and the discovery of the rules behind how ideas combine, diverge, and transform. Gunkel defined ideonomy as "the science of the laws of ideas and of the application of such laws to the generation of all possible ideas in connection with any subject, idea, or thing." In his 1992 book A History of Knowledge, Charles Van Doren compared ideonomy to a "mining operation" that excavates meanings and thought to discover treasures hidden deep within language. Sources from the 1980s and 1990s demonstrate that ideonomy was useful to academic researchers in fields including biology, toxicology, and nursing/patient care. Beginning in the 2010s, academics in a wide range of fields including machine learning, marketing, computational modeling, and cybersecurity have relied on materials generated for ideonomy to provide methodological support for their research. == Etymology and definition == The word "ideonomy" combines the Greek roots ideo- (from idea, meaning pattern or form) and -nomy (from nomos, meaning law or custom). The suffix -nomy suggests the laws concerning or the totality of knowledge about a given subject, as


id: ideonomy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideonomy-1.md
category: reference
title: Ideonomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideonomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:25.646281+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ideonomy-20260505-0
summary:
Edward Fredkin, former director of MIT's computer science laboratory, who praised Gunkel's "provocative ideas on artificial intelligence." Marvin Minsky, AI scientist and MIT professor, who described ideonomy as "perhaps the most extensive study of ways to generate ideas." Frederick Seitz, president emeritus of Rockefeller University, who noted Gunkel's "encyclopedic scope" Robert C. Clark, Harvard law professor, who called Gunkel "the most intelligent person I ever met" However, skeptics questioned whether ideonomy constituted a genuine science. Fredkin himself noted that Gunkel "pours out about 60 ideas a minute, and 59 of them are bad," though he added that "even with one good idea out of 60, it's still an amazing accomplishment." Douglas Lenat observed that brainstorming with Gunkel was "a bit like being hit over the head by the muse with a sledgehammer" and that "he puts people off." Gunkel himself acknowledged that ideonomy was in its infancy and might seem "absurdly utopian." His planned magnum opus on ideonomy remained incomplete, and was posted on an MIT website thanks to faculty advisor Whitman Richards. Gunkel wrote: "Pioneering in a completely new field, yes in a new science, is almost unreal. It is heartbreaking, it is pitiable, it is almost inhuman. Honestly,


id: peter-lwabi-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Lwabi-0.md
category: reference
title: Peter Lwabi
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Lwabi
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:26.834130+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: peter-lwabi-20260505-0
summary:
Lwabi Peter Solomon is a consultant pediatric cardiologist at Mulago National Referral Hospital in Kampala, Uganda. He concurrently serves as the deputy executive director of Uganda Heart Institute (UHI). He also serves as the Head of the Pediatric Cardiology Division at Makerere University School of Medicine. Peter Lwabi also sits on the Board of Directors of UHI. Lwabi is a Senior Consultant cardiac pediatrician who has trained numerous medical personnel, including nurses, medical students, postgraduate students, and cardiology fellows. He provides mentorship and clinical oversight to research and training initiatives, == Education and background == He holds bachelors of medicine and bachelors of surgery and masters of medicine, paediatrics & child health == Leadership == He worked as the president of the Uganda Heart Association. He also head of the Pediatric Cardiology Division at the Makerere University School of Medicine.A member of the Board of Directors at the Uganda Heart Institute == See also == Roy Mugerwa Aggrey Kiyingi == References == == External links == Website of Uganda Ministry of Health Archived 2024-11-25 at the Wayback Machine A bad heart condition has caused her body to swell


id: physics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics-0.md
category: reference
title: Physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:28.076442+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physics-20260505-0
summary:
Physics is the scientific study of matter, its fundamental constituents, its motion and behavior through space and time, and the related entities of energy and force. It is one of the most fundamental scientific disciplines. A scientist who specializes in the field of physics is called a physicist. Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines. Over much of the past two millennia, physics, chemistry, biology, and certain branches of mathematics were part of natural philosophy, but during the Scientific Revolution in the 17th century, these natural sciences branched into separate research endeavors. Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the fundamental mechanisms studied by other sciences and suggest new avenues of research in these and other academic disciplines, such as mathematics and philosophy. Advances in physics often enable new technologies. For example, advances in the understanding of electromagnetism, solid-state physics, and nuclear physics led directly to the development of technologies that have transformed modern society, such as television, computers, domestic appliances, and nuclear weapons; advances in thermodynamics led to the development of industrialization; and advances in mechanics


id: physics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics-1.md
category: reference
title: Physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:28.076442+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physics-20260505-0
summary:
The Western Roman Empire fell to invaders and internal decay in the fifth century, resulting in a decline in intellectual pursuits in western Europe. By contrast, the Eastern Roman Empire (usually known as the Byzantine Empire) resisted the attacks from invaders and continued to advance various fields of learning, including physics. In the sixth century, John Philoponus challenged the dominant Aristotelian approach to science although much of his work was focused on Christian theology. In the sixth century, Isidore of Miletus created an important compilation of Archimedes' works that are copied in the Archimedes Palimpsest. Islamic scholarship inherited Aristotelian physics from the Greeks and during the Islamic Golden Age developed it further. The most notable innovations under Islamic scholarship were in the field of optics and vision, which came from the works of many scientists like Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi and Avicenna. In his Book of Optics (also known as Kitāb al-Manāẓir) Ibn al-Haytham presented the idea of light rays as an alternative to the ancient Greek idea about visual rays. Like Ptolemy, Ibn al-Haytham applied controlled experiments, verifying the laws of refraction and reflection with the new concept of light rays, but still lacking the concept of


id: physics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics-2.md
category: reference
title: Physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:28.076442+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physics-20260505-0
summary:
Classical physics includes the traditional branches and topics that were recognized and well-developed before the beginning of the 20th century—classical mechanics, thermodynamics, and electromagnetism. Classical mechanics is concerned with bodies acted on by forces and bodies in motion and may be divided into statics (study of the forces on a body or bodies not subject to an acceleration), kinematics (study of motion without regard to its causes), and dynamics (study of motion and the forces that affect it); mechanics may also be divided into solid mechanics and fluid mechanics (known together as continuum mechanics), the latter include such branches as hydrostatics, hydrodynamics and pneumatics. Acoustics is the study of how sound is produced, controlled, transmitted and received. Important modern branches of acoustics include ultrasonics, the study of sound waves of very high frequency beyond the range of human hearing; bioacoustics, the physics of animal calls and hearing; and electroacoustics, the manipulation of audible sound waves using electronics. Optics, the study of light, is concerned not only with visible light but also with infrared and ultraviolet radiation, which exhibit all of the phenomena of visible light except visibility, e.g., reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction, dispersion, and polarization of light. Heat is a


id: physics-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics-3.md
category: reference
title: Physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:28.076442+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Scope and aims === Physics covers a wide range of phenomena, from elementary particles (such as quarks, neutrinos, and electrons) to the largest superclusters of galaxies. Included in these phenomena are the most basic objects composing all other things. Therefore, physics is sometimes called the "fundamental science". Physics aims to describe the various phenomena that occur in nature in terms of simpler phenomena. Thus, physics aims to both connect the things observable to humans to root causes, and then connect these causes together. For example, the ancient Chinese observed that certain rocks (lodestone and magnetite) were attracted to one another by an invisible force. This effect was later called magnetism, which was first rigorously studied in the 17th century. But even before the Chinese discovered magnetism, the ancient Greeks knew of other objects such as amber, that when rubbed with fur would cause a similar invisible attraction between the two. This was also first studied rigorously in the 17th century and came to be called electricity. Thus, physics had come to understand two observations of nature in terms of some root cause (electricity and magnetism). However, further work in the 19th century revealed that these two forces were just


id: physics-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics-4.md
category: reference
title: Physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:28.076442+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physics-20260505-0
summary:
Atomic, molecular, and optical physics (AMO) is the study of matter—matter and light—matter interactions on the scale of single atoms and molecules. The three areas are grouped together because of their interrelationships, the similarity of methods used, and the commonality of their relevant energy scales. All three areas include both classical, semi-classical and quantum treatments; they can treat their subject from a microscopic view (in contrast to a macroscopic view). Atomic physics studies the electron shells of atoms. Current research focuses on activities in quantum control, cooling and trapping of atoms and ions, low-temperature collision dynamics and the effects of electron correlation on structure and dynamics. Atomic physics is influenced by the nucleus (see hyperfine splitting), but intra-nuclear phenomena such as fission and fusion are considered part of nuclear physics. Molecular physics focuses on multi-atomic structures and their internal and external interactions with matter and light. Optical physics is distinct from optics in that it tends to focus not on the control of classical light fields by macroscopic objects but on the fundamental properties of optical fields and their interactions with matter in the microscopic realm. ==== Condensed matter ==== Condensed matter physics is the field of physics that deals


id: physics-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics-5.md
category: reference
title: Physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:28.076442+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physics-20260505-0
summary:
Ontology is a prerequisite for physics, but not for mathematics. It means physics is ultimately concerned with descriptions of the real world, while mathematics is concerned with abstract patterns, even beyond the real world. Thus physics statements are synthetic, while mathematical statements are analytic. Mathematics contains hypotheses, while physics contains theories. Mathematics statements have to be only logically true, while predictions of physics statements must match observed and experimental data. The distinction is clear-cut, but not always obvious. For example, mathematical physics is the application of mathematics in physics. Its methods are mathematical, but its subject is physical. The problems in this field start with a "mathematical model of a physical situation" (system) and a "mathematical description of a physical law" that will be applied to that system. Every mathematical statement used for solving has a hard-to-find physical meaning. The final mathematical solution has an easier-to-find meaning, because it is what the solver is looking for. === Fundamental vs. applied physics === Physics is a branch of fundamental science (also called basic science). Physics is also called "the fundamental science" because all branches of natural science including chemistry, astronomy, geology, and biology are constrained by laws of physics. Similarly, chemistry


id: scienticide-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienticide-0.md
category: reference
title: Scienticide
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienticide
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:29.302484+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scienticide-20260505-0
summary:
Scienticide is a concept used to refer to various multifaceted processes or phenomena that lead to the harassment, reduction, or outright destruction of scientific and technological systems in some countries of the world, as well as the exile or abandonment of researchers from their places of training. These can occur for various reasons, such as wars, political repression, lack of opportunities, climate crises, foreign interventions, economic policies, or ideological persecution. == Etymology == The term metaphorically refers to the "murder of science," as it combines the word *science* with the Latin suffix - *cidium*, which comes from the root *caedĕre* ("to kill"). A comparative use of the term has been proposed alongside "femicide", as part of policies aimed at eliminating the scientific and technological systems of a country. == History == The first references to this concept using the English word "scienticide" date back to the 1990s when it was used to refer to the destruction of the network of educational, scientific, and research institutions created by the Anti-Fascist Council for the National Liberation of Yugoslavia between 1942 and 1945. The educational system established was systematically attacked by the Yugoslav Army in the Homeland, commonly known as *Chetniks*, a nationalist,


id: scientific-lacuna-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_lacuna-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific lacuna
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_lacuna
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:30.486703+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-lacuna-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific lacuna describes an area of science that has not been studied but has the potential to be studied scientifically. Often, this may be the case because it falls between different areas of sciences, such that it doesn't fall into a single specific discipline of science. However, it also may be the case that the right situation for study has not yet occurred, or the conditions for study have been too ephemeral. Scientific lacunae often have the potential to be studied in the future when more areas of sciences are explicitly defined or the right conditions do occur, yet this can be made difficult if the area of science is commonly not considered a proper area for scientific study. == References ==


id: scientism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:31.695544+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientism-20260505-0
summary:
Scientism is the belief that science and the scientific method are the best or only way to render truth about the world and reality. While the term was defined originally to mean "methods and attitudes typical of or attributed to natural scientists", some scholars, as well as political and religious leaders, have also adopted it as a pejorative term with the meaning "an exaggerated trust in the efficacy of the methods of natural science applied to all areas of investigation (as in philosophy, the social sciences, and the humanities)". == Overview == Francis Bacon has been viewed by some scholars as an early proponent of scientism, but this is a modern assertion as Bacon was a devout Anglican, writing in his Essays, "a little philosophy inclineth man's mind to atheism, but depth in philosophy bringeth men's minds about to religion." With respect to the philosophy of science, the term scientism frequently implies a critique of the more extreme expressions of logical positivism and has been used by social scientists such as Friedrich Hayek, philosophers of science such as Karl Popper, and philosophers such as Mary Midgley, the later Hilary Putnam, and Tzvetan Todorov to describe (for example) the dogmatic endorsement


id: scientism-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:31.695544+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientism-20260505-0
summary:
It is used to criticize a totalizing opinion of science as if it were capable of describing all reality and knowledge, or as if it were the only true method to acquire knowledge about reality and the nature of things; It is used, often pejoratively, to denote violations by which the theories and methods of one (scientific) discipline are applied inappropriately to another (scientific or non-scientific) discipline and its domain. An example of this second usage is to term as scientism any attempt to claim science as the only or primary source of human values (a traditional domain of ethics) or as the source of meaning and purpose (a traditional domain of religion and related worldviews). The term scientism was popularized by F. A. Hayek, who defined it in 1942 as the "slavish imitation of the method and language of Science". Mathematician Alexander Grothendieck, in his 1971 essay "The New Universal Church", characterized scientism as a religion-like ideology that advocates scientific reductionism, scientific authoritarianism, political technocracy and technological salvation, while denying the epistemological validity of feelings and experiences such as love, emotion, beauty and fulfillment. He predicted that "in coming years, the chief political dividing line will fall less and


id: scientism-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism-2.md
category: reference
title: Scientism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:31.695544+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientism-20260505-0
summary:
== Relevance to debates about science and religion == Both religious and non-religious scholars have applied the term scientism to individuals associated with New Atheism. Theologian John Haught argued that philosopher Daniel Dennett and other New Atheists subscribe to a belief system of scientific naturalism, which includes the dogma that "only nature, including humans and our creations, is real: that God does not exist; and that science alone can give us complete and reliable knowledge of reality." Haught argued that this belief system is self-refuting since it requires its adherents to assent to beliefs that violate its own stated requirements for knowledge. Christian philosopher Peter Williams argued in 2013 that it is only by conflating science with scientism that New Atheists feel qualified to "pontificate on metaphysical issues". Daniel Dennett responded to religious criticism of his 2006 book Breaking the Spell: Religion as a Natural Phenomenon by saying that accusations of scientism "[are] an all-purpose, wild-card smear ... When someone puts forward a scientific theory that [religious critics] really don't like, they just try to discredit it as 'scientism'. But when it comes to facts, and explanations of facts, science is the only game in town". Non-religious scholars have also


id: scientism-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism-3.md
category: reference
title: Scientism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:31.695544+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientism-20260505-0
summary:
Thomas M. Lessl argued that religious themes persist in what he terms scientism, the public rhetoric of science. There are two methods of describing this idea of scientism: the epistemological method (the assumption that the scientific method trumps other ways of knowing) and the ontological method (that the rational mind represents the world and both operate in knowable ways). According to Lessl, the ontological method is an attempt to "resolve the conflict between rationalism and skepticism". Lessl also argued that without scientism, there would not be a scientific culture. == Rationalization and modernity == In the introduction to his collected works on the sociology of religion, Max Weber asked why "the scientific, the artistic, the political, or the economic development [elsewhere] ... did not enter upon that path of rationalization which is peculiar to the Occident?" According to the German social theorist Jürgen Habermas, "For Weber, the intrinsic (that is, not merely contingent) relationship between modernity and what he called 'Occidental rationalism' was still self-evident." Weber described a process of rationalisation, disenchantment and the "disintegration of religious world views" that resulted in modern secular societies and capitalism. "Modernization" was introduced as a technical term only in the 1950s. It is


id: uganda-medical-association-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uganda_Medical_Association-0.md
category: reference
title: Uganda Medical Association
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uganda_Medical_Association
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:36.348617+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: uganda-medical-association-20260505-0
summary:
The Uganda Medical Association (UMA), is a registered non-governmental, professional organization that brings together all the qualified and duly registered medical doctors in Uganda. == Location == The association maintains its headquarters at Chrisams Designs Building, Kafeeero Road, Old Mulago. Kampala | P.O. Box 2243, Kampala, Uganda, in the central business district of Kampala, the capital and largest city of Uganda. The geographical coordinates of the headquarters of UMA are:Latitude: 0.344796; Longitude: 32.573614). == Objectives == The Association focuses on advocating for doctors' welfare, continuous medical education and training, upholding medical ethics and patient safety, and strengthening public health systems through partnerships with government and NGOs As an association for medical practitioners, this association also focuses on the following. To contribute to universal access to health and health care. To promote professional ethical standards among medical doctors in Uganda. To promote the welfare of medical doctors in Uganda. To mobilize doctors to join and encourage them to actively participate in the Association's activities. To strengthen the financial base of the Association. == Overview == According to the Association's website, UMA has five focus areas: (1) to "contribute to universal access to health and health care" (2) to "promote professional ethical


id: applied-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Applied science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:39.420865+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: applied-science-20260505-0
summary:
Applied science is the application of the scientific method and scientific knowledge to attain practical goals. It includes a broad range of disciplines, such as engineering and medicine. Applied science is often contrasted with basic science, which is focused on advancing scientific theories and laws that explain and predict natural or other phenomena. There are applied natural sciences, as well as applied formal and social sciences. Applied science examples include genetic epidemiology which applies statistics and probability theory, and applied psychology, including criminology. == Applied research == Applied research is the use of empirical methods to collect data for practical purposes. It accesses and uses accumulated theories, knowledge, methods, and techniques for a specific state, business, or client-driven purpose. In contrast to engineering, applied research does not include analyses or optimization of business, economics, and costs. Applied research can be better understood in any area when contrasting it with basic or pure research. Basic geographical research strives to create new theories and methods that aid in explaining the processes that shape the spatial structure of physical or human environments. Instead, applied research utilizes existing geographical theories and methods to comprehend and address particular empirical issues. Applied research usually has specific


id: formal-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Formal science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:40.581119+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: formal-science-20260505-0
summary:
Formal science is a branch of science studying disciplines concerned with abstract structures described by formal systems. Whereas the natural sciences and social sciences seek to characterize physical systems and social systems, respectively, using theoretical and empirical methods, the formal sciences use language tools concerned with characterizing abstract structures described by formal systems and the deductions that can be made from them. The formal sciences aid the natural and social sciences by providing information about the structures used to describe the physical world, and what inferences may be made about them. == Branches == Logic (also a branch of philosophy) Mathematics Statistics Theoretical computer science Artificial intelligence Game theory Systems theory Theoretical linguistics Decision theory Systems science Data science Information theory Computer science Cryptography == Differences from other sciences == One reason why mathematics enjoys special esteem, above all other sciences, is that its laws are absolutely certain and indisputable, while those of other sciences are to some extent debatable and in constant danger of being overthrown by newly discovered facts. Because of their non-empirical nature, formal sciences are construed by outlining a set of axioms and definitions from which other statements (theorems) are deduced. For this reason, in Rudolf


id: natural-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Natural science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:41.697253+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-science-20260505-0
summary:
Natural science or empirical science is a branch of science concerned with the description, understanding, and prediction of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation. Mechanisms such as peer review and reproducibility of findings are used to try to ensure the validity of scientific advances. Natural science can be divided into two main branches: life science and physical science. Life science is alternatively known as biology. Physical science is subdivided into physics, astronomy, Earth science, and chemistry. These branches of natural science may be further divided into more specialized branches, also known as fields. As empirical sciences, natural sciences use tools from the formal sciences, such as mathematics and logic, converting information about nature into measurements that can be explained as clear statements of the "laws of nature". Modern natural science succeeded more classical approaches to natural philosophy. Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler, René Descartes, Francis Bacon, and Isaac Newton debated the benefits of a more mathematical as against a more experimental method in investigating nature. Still, philosophical perspectives, conjectures, and presuppositions, often overlooked, remain necessary in natural science. Systematic data collection, including discovery science, succeeded natural history, which emerged in the 16th century by describing and classifying


id: natural-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Natural science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:41.697253+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-science-20260505-0
summary:
Planetary science, or planetology, is the scientific study of planets, which include terrestrial planets like the Earth, and other types of planets, such as gas giants and ice giants. Planetary science also concerns other celestial bodies, such as dwarf planets, moons, asteroids, and comets. This largely includes the Solar System, but recently has started to expand to exoplanets, particularly terrestrial exoplanets. It explores various objects, spanning from micrometeoroids to gas giants, to establish their composition, movements, genesis, interrelation, and past. Planetary science is an interdisciplinary domain, having originated from astronomy and Earth science, and currently encompassing a multitude of areas, such as planetary geology, cosmochemistry, atmospheric science, physics, oceanography, hydrology, theoretical planetology, glaciology, and exoplanetology. Related fields encompass space physics, which delves into the impact of the Sun on the bodies in the Solar System, and astrobiology. Planetary science comprises interconnected observational and theoretical branches. Observational research entails a combination of space exploration, primarily through robotic spacecraft missions utilizing remote sensing, and comparative experimental work conducted in Earth-based laboratories. The theoretical aspect involves extensive mathematical modelling and computer simulation. Typically, planetary scientists are situated within astronomy and physics or Earth sciences departments in universities or research centers. However, there are


id: natural-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Natural science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:41.697253+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-science-20260505-0
summary:
This discipline is the science of celestial objects and phenomena that originate outside the Earth's atmosphere. It is concerned with the evolution, physics, chemistry, meteorology, geology, and motion of celestial objects, as well as the formation and development of the universe. Astronomy includes examining, studying, and modeling stars, planets, and comets. Most of the information used by astronomers is gathered by remote observation. However, some laboratory reproduction of celestial phenomena has been performed (such as the molecular chemistry of the interstellar medium). There is considerable overlap with physics and in some areas of earth science. There are also interdisciplinary fields such as astrophysics, planetary sciences, and cosmology, along with allied disciplines such as space physics and astrochemistry. While the study of celestial features and phenomena can be traced back to antiquity, the scientific methodology of this field began to develop in the middle of the 17th century. A key factor was Galileo's introduction of the telescope to examine the night sky in more detail. The mathematical treatment of astronomy began with Newton's development of celestial mechanics and the laws of gravitation. However, it was triggered by earlier work of astronomers such as Kepler. By the 19th century, astronomy had developed


id: natural-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Natural science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:41.697253+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-science-20260505-0
summary:
Some scholars trace the origins of natural science as far back as pre-literate human societies, where understanding the natural world was necessary for survival. People observed and built up knowledge about the behaviour of animals and the usefulness of plants as food and medicine, which was passed down from generation to generation. These primitive understandings gave way to more formalized inquiry around 3500 to 3000 BC in the Mesopotamian and Ancient Egyptian cultures, which produced the first known written evidence of natural philosophy, the precursor of natural science. While the writings show an interest in astronomy, mathematics, and other aspects of the physical world, the ultimate aim of inquiry about nature's workings was, in all cases, religious or mythological, not scientific. A tradition of scientific inquiry also emerged in Ancient China, where Taoist alchemists and philosophers experimented with elixirs to extend life and cure ailments. They focused on the yin and yang, or contrasting elements in nature; the yin was associated with femininity and coldness, while yang was associated with masculinity and warmth. The five phases – fire, earth, metal, wood, and water – described a cycle of transformations in nature. The water turned into wood, which turned into the


id: natural-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science-4.md
category: reference
title: Natural science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:41.697253+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-science-20260505-0
summary:
Aristotle's works and other Greek natural philosophy did not reach the West until about the middle of the 12th century, when works were translated from Greek and Arabic into Latin. The development of European civilization later in the Middle Ages brought with it further advances in natural philosophy. European inventions such as the horseshoe, horse collar and crop rotation allowed for rapid population growth, eventually giving way to urbanization and the foundation of schools connected to monasteries and cathedrals in modern-day France and England. Aided by the schools, an approach to Christian theology developed that sought to answer questions about nature and other subjects using logic. This approach, however, was seen by some detractors as heresy. By the 12th century, Western European scholars and philosophers came into contact with a body of knowledge of which they had previously been ignorant: a large corpus of works in Greek and Arabic that were preserved by Islamic scholars. Through translation into Latin, Western Europe was introduced to Aristotle and his natural philosophy. These works were taught at new universities in Paris and Oxford by the early 13th century, although the practice was frowned upon by the Catholic church. A 1210 decree from the


id: natural-science-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science-5.md
category: reference
title: Natural science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:41.697253+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-science-20260505-0
summary:
The titles of Galileo's work Two New Sciences and Johannes Kepler's New Astronomy underscored the atmosphere of change that took hold in the 17th century as Aristotle was dismissed in favour of novel methods of inquiry into the natural world. Bacon was instrumental in popularizing this change; he argued that people should use the arts and sciences to gain dominion over nature. To achieve this, he wrote that "human life [must] be endowed with discoveries and powers." He defined natural philosophy as "the knowledge of Causes and secret motions of things; and enlarging the bounds of Human Empire, to the effecting of all things possible." Bacon proposed that scientific inquiry be supported by the state and fed by the collaborative research of scientists, a vision that was unprecedented in its scope, ambition, and forms at the time. Natural philosophers came to view nature increasingly as a mechanism that could be taken apart and understood, much like a complex clock. Natural philosophers including Isaac Newton, Evangelista Torricelli and Francesco Redi, Edme Mariotte, Jean-Baptiste Denis and Jacques Rohault conducted experiments focusing on the flow of water, measuring atmospheric pressure using a barometer and disproving spontaneous generation. Scientific societies and scientific journals emerged


id: natural-science-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science-6.md
category: reference
title: Natural science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:41.697253+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natural-science-20260505-0
summary:
Aside from the logical and mathematical sciences, there are three great branches of natural science which stand apart by reason of the variety of far reaching deductions drawn from a small number of primary postulates — they are mechanics, electrodynamics, and thermodynamics. Today, natural sciences are more commonly divided into life sciences, such as botany and zoology, and physical sciences, which include physics, chemistry, astronomy, and Earth sciences. == See also == Branches of science Empiricism List of academic disciplines and sub-disciplines Natural history Natural Sciences (Cambridge), for the Tripos at the University of Cambridge == References == === Bibliography === == Further reading == Defining Natural Sciences Ledoux, S. F., 2002: Defining Natural Sciences, Behaviourology Today, 5(1), 34–36. Stokes, Donald E. (1997). Pasteur's Quadrant: Basic Science and Technological Innovation. Revised and translated by Albert V. Carozzi and Marguerite Carozzi. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press. ISBN 978-0-8157-8177-6. The History of Recent Science and Technology Natural Sciences Contains updated information on research in the Natural Sciences including biology, geography and the applied life and earth sciences. Reviews of Books About Natural Science This site contains over 50 previously published reviews of books about natural science, plus selected essays on timely topics


id: social-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Social science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:42.932648+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-science-20260505-0
summary:
Social science (or the social sciences) is one of the branches of science, devoted to the study of societies and the relationships among members within those societies. The term was formerly used to refer to the field of sociology, the original "science of society", established in the 18th century. It now encompasses a wide array of additional academic disciplines, including anthropology, archaeology, economics, geography, history, linguistics, management, communication studies, psychology, sociology, culturology, and political science. The majority of positivist social scientists use methods resembling those used in the natural sciences as tools for understanding societies, and so define science in its stricter modern sense. Speculative social scientists, otherwise known as interpretivist scientists, by contrast, may use social critique or symbolic interpretation rather than constructing empirically falsifiable theories, and thus treat science in its broader sense. In modern academic practice, researchers are often eclectic, using multiple methodologies (combining both quantitative and qualitative research). To gain a deeper understanding of complex human behavior in digital environments, social science disciplines have increasingly integrated interdisciplinary approaches, big data, and computational tools. The term social research has also acquired a degree of autonomy as practitioners from various disciplines share similar goals and methods. == History


id: social-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Social science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:42.932648+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-science-20260505-0
summary:
Social science and humanities have a mutual contempt for one another, the former looking down on the latter as unscientific, the latter regarding the former as philistine. [...] The difference comes down to the fact that social science really wants to be predictive, meaning that man is predictable, while the humanities say that he is not. == Branches == The social science disciplines are branches of knowledge taught and researched at the college or university level. Social science disciplines are defined and recognized by the academic journals in which research is published, and the learned social science societies and academic departments or faculties to which their practitioners belong. Social science fields of study usually have several sub-disciplines or branches, and the distinguishing lines between these are often both arbitrary and ambiguous. The following are widely-considered to be social sciences: === Anthropology === Anthropology is the holistic "science of man", a science of the totality of human existence. The discipline deals with the integration of different aspects of the social sciences, humanities, and human biology. In the twentieth century, academic disciplines have often been institutionally divided into three broad domains. Firstly, the natural sciences seek to derive general laws through reproducible


id: social-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Social science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:42.932648+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-science-20260505-0
summary:
Economics has two broad branches: microeconomics, where the unit of analysis is the individual agent, such as a household or firm, and macroeconomics, where the unit of analysis is an economy as a whole. Another division of the subject distinguishes positive economics, which seeks to predict and explain economic phenomena, from normative economics, which orders choices and actions by some criterion; such orderings necessarily involve subjective value judgments. Since the early part of the 20th century, economics has focused largely on measurable quantities, employing both theoretical models and empirical analysis. Quantitative models, however, can be traced as far back as the physiocratic school. Economic reasoning has been increasingly applied in recent decades to other social situations such as politics, law, psychology, history, religion, marriage and family life, and other social interactions. The expanding domain of economics in the social sciences has been described as economic imperialism. === Education === Education encompasses teaching and learning specific skills, and also something less tangible but more profound: the imparting of knowledge, positive judgement and well-developed wisdom. Education has as one of its fundamental aspects the imparting of culture from generation to generation (see socialization). To educate means 'to draw out', from the Latin


id: social-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Social science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:42.932648+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-science-20260505-0
summary:
Linguistics investigates the cognitive and social aspects of human language. The field is divided into areas that focus on aspects of the linguistic signal, such as syntax (the study of the rules that govern the structure of sentences), semantics (the study of meaning), morphology (the study of the structure of words), phonetics (the study of speech sounds) and phonology (the study of the abstract sound system of a particular language); however, work in areas like evolutionary linguistics (the study of the origins and evolution of language) and psycholinguistics (the study of psychological factors in human language) cut across these divisions. The overwhelming majority of modern research in linguistics takes a predominantly synchronic perspective (focusing on language at a particular point in time), and a great deal of it—partly owing to the influence of Noam Chomsky—aims at formulating theories of the cognitive processing of language. However, language does not exist in a vacuum, or only in the brain, and approaches like contact linguistics, creole studies, discourse analysis, social interactional linguistics, and sociolinguistics explore language in its social context. Sociolinguistics often makes use of traditional quantitative analysis and statistics in investigating the frequency of features, while some disciplines, like contact linguistics, focus


id: social-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-4.md
category: reference
title: Social science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:42.932648+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-science-20260505-0
summary:
Sociology is the systematic study of society, individuals' relationship to their societies, the consequences of difference, and other aspects of human social action. The meaning of the word comes from the suffix -logy, which means "study of", derived from Ancient Greek, and the stem soci-, which is from the Latin word socius, meaning "companion", or society in general. Auguste Comte (1798–1857) coined the term sociology to describe a way to apply natural science principles and techniques to the social world in 1838. Comte endeavoured to unify history, psychology and economics through the descriptive understanding of the social realm. He proposed that social ills could be remedied through sociological positivism, an epistemological approach outlined in The Course in Positive Philosophy [1830–1842] and A General View of Positivism (1844). Though Comte is generally regarded as the "Father of Sociology", the discipline was formally established by another French thinker, Émile Durkheim (1858–1917), who developed positivism as a foundation to practical social research. Durkheim set up the first European department of sociology at the University of Bordeaux in 1895, publishing his Rules of the Sociological Method. In 1896, he established the journal L'Année sociologique. Durkheim's seminal monograph, Suicide (1897), a case study of suicide


id: social-science-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-5.md
category: reference
title: Social science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:42.932648+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-science-20260505-0
summary:
Archaeology, a science that is focused on the study of human cultures by means of the recovery, documentation, analysis, and interpretation of material remains and environmental data, including architecture, artifacts, features, and landscapes. Area studies, interdisciplinary fields of research and scholarship pertaining to particular geographical, national/federal, or cultural regions. Behavioural science, which encompasses disciplines that explore the activities of and interactions among organisms in the natural world. Computational social science, an umbrella field encompassing computational approaches within the social sciences. Demography, the statistical study of human populations. Development studies, a branch of social science that addresses issues of concern to developing countries. Environmental social science, the broad study of interrelations between humans and the natural environment. Environmental studies, which integrates social, humanistic, and natural science perspectives on the relation between humans and the natural environment. Gender studies, which is focused on the study of gender identity, masculinity, femininity, transgender issues, and sexuality. Information science, an interdisciplinary science primarily concerned with the collection, classification, manipulation, storage, retrieval and dissemination of information. International studies, which covers both international relations (the study of foreign affairs and global issues among states within the international system) and international education. Legal management, a social sciences discipline


id: social-science-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-6.md
category: reference
title: Social science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:42.932648+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-science-20260505-0
summary:
Quantitative designs approach social phenomena through quantifiable evidence, and often rely on statistical analysis of many cases (or across intentionally designed treatments in an experiment) to create valid and reliable general claims. Qualitative designs emphasize understanding of social phenomena through direct observation, communication with participants, or analysis of texts, and may stress contextual and subjective accuracy over generality. Social scientists will commonly combine quantitative and qualitative approaches as part of a multi-strategy design. Questionnaires, field-based data collection, archival database information and laboratory-based data collections are some of the measurement techniques used. It is noted the importance of measurement and analysis, focusing on the (difficult to achieve) goal of objective research or statistical hypothesis testing. A mathematical model uses mathematical language to describe a system. The process of developing a mathematical model is termed 'mathematical modelling' (also modeling). A mathematical model is "a representation of the essential aspects of an existing system (or a system to be constructed) that presents knowledge of that system in usable form". Mathematical models can take many forms, including but not limited to dynamical systems, statistical models, differential equations, or game theoretic models. These and other types of models can overlap, with a given model involving


id: social-science-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-7.md
category: reference
title: Social science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:42.932648+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Bibliography == Michie, Jonathan, ed. Reader's Guide to the Social Sciences (2 vol. 2001) 1970 pages annotating the major topics in the late 20th century in all the social sciences. === 20th and 21st centuries sources === Neil J. Smelser and Paul B. Baltes (2001). International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, Amsterdam: Elsevier. Byrne, D.S. (1998). Complexity theory and the social sciences: an introduction. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-16296-8 Kuper, A., and Kuper, J. (1985). The Social Science Encyclopedia. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. (ed., a limited preview of the 1996 version is available) Lave, C.A., and March, J.G. (1993). An introduction to models in the social sciences. Lanham, Md: University Press of America. Perry, John and Erna Perry. Contemporary Society: An Introduction to Social Science (12th Edition, 2008), college textbook Potter, D. (1988). Society and the social sciences: An introduction. London: Routledge [u.a.]. David L. Sills and Robert K. Merton (1968). International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. Seligman, Edwin R.A. and Alvin Johnson (1934). Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. (13 vol.) Ward, L.F. (1924). Dynamic sociology, or applied social science: As based upon statical sociology and the less complex sciences. New York: D. Appleton. Leavitt, F.M., and Brown,


id: branches-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branches_of_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:44.694631+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The branches of science, also referred to as sciences, scientific fields or scientific disciplines, are commonly divided into three major groups: Formal sciences: the study of formal systems, such as those under the branches of logic and mathematics, which use an a priori, as opposed to empirical, methodology. They study abstract structures described by formal systems. Natural sciences: the study of natural phenomena (including cosmological, geological, physical, chemical, and biological factors of the universe). Natural science can be divided into two main branches: physical science and life science. Social sciences: the study of human behavior in its social and cultural aspects. Scientific knowledge must be grounded in observable phenomena and must be capable of being verified by other researchers working under the same conditions. Natural, social, and formal science make up the basic sciences, which form the basis of interdisciplinarity - and applied sciences such as engineering and medicine. Specialized scientific disciplines that exist in multiple categories may include parts of other scientific disciplines but often possess their own terminologies and expertises. == Formal sciences == The formal sciences are the branches of science that are concerned with formal systems, such as logic, mathematics, theoretical computer science, information theory, systems


id: branches-of-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branches_of_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:44.694631+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
TCS covers a wide variety of topics including algorithms, data structures, computational complexity, parallel and distributed computation, probabilistic computation, quantum computation, automata theory, information theory, cryptography, program semantics and verification, machine learning, computational biology, computational economics, computational geometry, and computational number theory and algebra. Work in this field is often distinguished by its emphasis on mathematical technique and rigor. == Natural sciences == Natural science is a branch of science concerned with the description, prediction, and understanding of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation. Mechanisms such as peer review and repeatability of findings are used to try to ensure the validity of scientific advances. Natural science can be divided into two main branches: life science and physical science. Life science is alternatively known as biology, and physical science is subdivided into branches: physics, chemistry, astronomy and Earth science. These branches of natural science may be further divided into more specialized branches (also known as fields). === Physical science === Physical science is an encompassing term for the branches of natural science that study non-living systems, in contrast to the life sciences. However, the term "physical" creates an unintended, somewhat arbitrary distinction, since many branches of physical


id: branches-of-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branches_of_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:44.694631+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Life science, also known as biology, is the natural science that studies life such as microorganisms, plants, and animals including human beings, – including their physical structure, chemical processes, molecular interactions, physiological mechanisms, development, and evolution. Despite the complexity of the science, certain unifying concepts consolidate it into a single, coherent field. Biology recognizes the cell as the basic unit of life, genes as the basic unit of heredity, and evolution as the engine that propels the creation and extinction of species. Living organisms are open systems that survive by transforming energy and decreasing their local entropy to maintain a stable and vital condition defined as homeostasis. ==== Biochemistry ==== Biochemistry, or biological chemistry, is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. It is a sub-discipline of both biology and chemistry, and from a reductionist point of view it is fundamental in biology. Biochemistry is closely related to molecular biology, cell biology, genetics, and physiology. ==== Microbiology ==== Microbiology is the study of microorganisms, those being unicellular (single cell), multicellular (cell colony), or acellular (lacking cells). Microbiology encompasses numerous sub-disciplines including virology, bacteriology, protistology, mycology, immunology and parasitology. ==== Botany ==== Botany, also called plant science(s),


id: scientist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:46.187637+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientist-20260505-0
summary:
A scientist is an expert who conducts scientific research to advance knowledge in science. In classical antiquity, there was no real ancient analog of a modern scientist. Instead, philosophers engaged in the philosophical study of nature called natural philosophy. Though Thales (c. 624–545 BC) was arguably the first scientist for describing how cosmic events may be seen as natural, not necessarily caused by gods, it was not until the 19th century that the term scientist came into regular use: it was coined by the theologian, philosopher, and historian of science Wang Zhenyi and William Whewell to describe Mary Somerville. == History == The roles of "scientists", and their predecessors before the emergence of modern scientific disciplines, have evolved considerably over time. Scientists of different eras (and before them, natural philosophers, mathematicians, natural historians, natural theologians, engineers, and others who contributed to the development of science) have had widely different places in society, and the social norms, ethical values, and epistemic virtues associated with scientists—and expected of them—have changed over time as well. Accordingly, many different historical figures can be identified as early scientists, depending on which characteristics of modern science are taken to be essential. Some historians point to the


id: scientist-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:46.187637+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientist-20260505-0
summary:
=== 19th century === Until the late 19th or early 20th century, scientists were commonly referred to as "natural philosophers" or "men of science". English philosopher and historian of science William Whewell coined the term scientist in 1833. It first appeared in print in his anonymous 1834 review of Mary Somerville's On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences, published in the Quarterly Review. In the review, Whewell discussed what he described as an increasing tendency toward specialization within the sciences. As highly specific terms such as chemist, mathematician, and naturalist became common, the broader term philosopher no longer adequately described those engaged in scientific study. Whewell contrasted this trend with Somerville's aim of demonstrating how distinct branches of science had historically been unified through general principles. Whewell reported that members of the British Association for the Advancement of Science had expressed concern over the absence of a suitable collective term for "students of the knowledge of the material world." Referring indirectly to himself, he noted that "some ingenious gentleman" had proposed the word scientist by analogy with artist, arguing that similar formations such as economist and atheist were already in use. The suggestion, however, was not immediately well received. Whewell


id: scientist-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist-2.md
category: reference
title: Scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:46.187637+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientist-20260505-0
summary:
==== Research interests ==== Scientists include experimentalists who mainly perform experiments to test hypotheses, and theoreticians who mainly develop models to explain existing data and predict new results. There is a continuum between the two activities and the division between them is not clear-cut, with many scientists performing both tasks. Those considering science as a career often look to the frontiers. These include cosmology and biology, especially molecular biology and the human genome project. Other areas of active research include the exploration of matter at the scale of elementary particles as described by high-energy physics, and materials science, which seeks to discover and design new materials. Others choose to study brain function and neurotransmitters, which is considered by many to be the "final frontier". There are many important discoveries to make regarding the nature of the mind and human thought, much of which still remains unknown. === By specialization === ==== Natural science ==== ===== Physical science ===== ===== Life science ===== ==== Social science ==== ==== Formal science ==== ==== Applied ==== ==== Interdisciplinary ==== === By employer === Academic Independent scientist Industrial/applied scientist Citizen scientist Government scientist == Demography == === By country === The number of scientists


id: namara-catherine-misango-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namara_Catherine_Misango-0.md
category: reference
title: Namara Catherine Misango
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namara_Catherine_Misango
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:47.535229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: namara-catherine-misango-20260505-0
summary:
Namara Catherine Misango is a Ugandan medical doctor and researcher who specializes in emergency medicine. == Early life == Misango was born to Ibrahim Misango and Shirley Misango. Her academic life started at Green Hill Academy in the Uganda's central region. She received a scholarship from the Daily Monitor which earned her a free ordinary level education at Mount Saint Mary's College Namagunga from 2011 to 2014. She earned a scholarship from New Vision to continue in the same school, where she opted for the subject combination of physics, chemistry and biology aka PCB. She received a sponsorship to study at Makerere University, where she earned a Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery. She again got another sponsorship to do Master of Medicine in Emergency Medicine at Makerere University where Seed Global Health helped to pay for tuition, and research. Where still at her first degree course at Makerere University, she got an opportunity to study at Magna Graecia University in Italy on sponsorship, where she was able to compare the Italian medical system with that of Uganda. === Career === Misango started work at Aga Khan University Hospital as an intern doctor. == References ==


id: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-0.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:49.104429+00:00
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parent: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
Science and technology studies (STS) or science, technology, and society is an interdisciplinary field that examines the creation, development, and consequences of science and technology in their historical, cultural, and social contexts. == History == Like most interdisciplinary fields of study, STS emerged from the confluence of disciplines and disciplinary subfields, all of which had developed an interest—typically, during the 1960s or 1970s—in viewing science and technology as socially embedded enterprises. The key disciplinary components of STS took shape independently, beginning in the 1960s, and developed in isolation from each other well into the 1980s, although Ludwik Fleck's (1935) monograph Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact anticipated many of STS's key themes. In the 1970s Elting E. Morison founded the STS program at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), which served as a model. By 2011, 111 STS research centers and academic programs were counted worldwide. === Important key points === History of technology, that examines technology in its social and historical context. Starting in the 1960s, some historians questioned technological determinism, a doctrine that can induce public passivity to technologic and scientific "natural" development. At the same time, some historians began to develop similarly contextual approaches to the


id: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-1.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:49.104429+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
Social constructions are human-created ideas, objects, or events created by a series of choices and interactions. These interactions have consequences that change the perception that different groups of people have on these constructs. Some examples of social construction include class, race, money, and citizenship. The following also alludes to the notion that not everything is set, a circumstance or result could potentially be one way or the other. According to the article "What is Social Construction?" by Ian Hacking, "Social construction work is critical of the status quo. Social constructionists about X tend to hold that: X need not have existed, or need not be at all as it is. X, or X as it is at present, is not determined by the nature of things; it is not inevitable Very often they go further, and urge that: X is quite as bad as it is. We would be much better off if X were done away with, or at least radically transformed." In the past, there have been viewpoints that were widely regarded as fact until being called to question due to the introduction of new knowledge. Such viewpoints include the past concept of a correlation between intelligence and


id: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-2.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:49.104429+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
Social technical systems are an interplay between technologies and humans, this is clearly expressed in the sociotechnical systems theory. To expound on this interplay, humans fulfill and define tasks, then humans in companies use IT and IT supports people, and finally, IT processes tasks and new IT generates new tasks. This IT redefines work practices. This is what we call the sociotechnical systems. In socio-technical systems, there are two principles to internalize, that is joint optimization and complementarity. Joint optimization puts an emphasis on developing both systems in parallel and it is only in the interaction of both systems that the success of an organization arises. The principle of complementarity means that both systems have to be optimized. If you focus on one system and have bias over the other it will likely lead to the failure of the organization or jeopardize the success of a system. Although the above socio-technical system theory is focused on an organization, it is undoubtedly imperative to correlate this theory and its principles to society today and in science and technology studies. Understanding technology in the context of national development: critical reflections discusses how governance frameworks, digital infrastructure, and institutional capacity influence the societal


id: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-3.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:49.104429+00:00
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parent: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
==== Examples ==== Ford Pinto – Ford Motor Company sold and produced the Pinto during the 1970s. A flaw in the automobile design of the rear gas tank caused a fiery explosion upon impact. The exploding fuel tank killed and injured hundreds of people. Internal documents of test results proved Ford CEO Lee Iacocca and engineers were aware of the flaw. The company decided to ignore improving its technology because of profit-driven motives, strict internal control, and competition from foreign competitors such as Volkswagen. Ford Motor Company conducted a cost-benefit analysis to determine if altering the Ford Pinto model was feasible. An analysis conducted by Ford employees argued against a new design because of increased cost. Employees were also under tight control by the CEO who rushed the Pinto through production lines to increase profits. Ford finally changed after public scrutiny. Safety organizations later influenced this technology by requiring stricter safety standards for motor vehicles. DDT/toxins – DDT was a common and highly effective insecticide used during the 1940s until its ban in the early 1970s. It was utilized during World War 2 to combat insect-borne human diseases that plagued military members and civilian populations. People and companies soon realized


id: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-4.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:49.104429+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
==== Importance ==== Recently, there has been a movement towards greater transparency in the fields of policy and technology. Jasanoff comes to the conclusion that there is no longer a question of if there needs to be increased public participation in making decisions about science and technology, but now there need to be ways to make a more meaningful conversation between the public and those developing the technology. ==== In practice ==== Bruce Ackerman and James S. Fishkin offered an example of a reform in their paper "Deliberation Day." The deliberation is to enhance public understanding of popular, complex and controversial issues through devices such as Fishkin's deliberative polling, though implementation of these reforms is unlikely in a large government such as that of the United States. However, things similar to this have been implemented in small, local governments like New England towns and villages. New England town hall meetings are a good example of deliberative democracy in a realistic setting. An ideal deliberative democracy balances the voice and influence of all participants. While the main aim is to reach consensus, deliberative democracy should encourage the voices of those with opposing viewpoints, concerns due to uncertainties, and questions about assumptions


id: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-5.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:49.104429+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
Langdon Winner states that groups and social interests likely to be affected by a particular kind of technological change ought to be represented at an early stage in defining exactly what that technology will be. It is the idea that relevant parties have a say in technological developments and are not left in the dark. Spoken about by Massimiano Bucchi This ideal does not require the public to become experts on the topics of science and engineering, it only asks that the opinions and ideas be heard before making drastic decisions, as talked about by Steven L. Goldman. === Legacy thinking === Legacy thinking is defined as an inherited method of thinking imposed from an external source without objection by the individual because it is already widely accepted by society. Legacy thinking can impair the ability to drive technology for the betterment of society by blinding people to innovations that do not fit into their accepted model of how society works. By accepting ideas without questioning them, people often see all solutions that contradict these accepted ideas as impossible or impractical. Legacy thinking tends to advantage the wealthy, who have the means to project their ideas on the public. It


id: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-6.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:49.104429+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
== Academic programs == STS is taught in several countries. According to the STS wiki, STS programs can be found in twenty countries, including 45 programs in the United States, three programs in India, and eleven programs in the UK. STS programs can be found in Canada, Germany, Israel, Malaysia, and Taiwan. Some examples of institutions offering STS programs are Stanford University, University College London, Harvard University, the University of Oxford, Mines ParisTech, Bar-Ilan University, and York University. In Europe the European Inter-University Association on Society, Science and Technology (ESST) offers an MA degree in STS through study programs and student exchanges with over a dozen specializations. == Professional associations == The field has professional associations in regions and countries around the world. === In Europe === In Europe, the European Association for the Study of Science and Technology (EASST) was founded in 1981 to "improve scholarly communication and exchange in the field", "increase the visibility of the subject to policy-makers and to the general public", and "stimulate and support teaching on the subject at all levels". Similarly, the European Inter-University Association on Society, Science and Technology (ESST) researches and studies science and technology in society, in both historical and


id: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies-7.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology studies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:23:49.104429+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-studies-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == Bauchspies, Wenda; Croissant, Jennifer; Restivo, Sal (2005). Science, Technology, and Society: A Sociological Approach. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-23210-0. Bijker, Wiebe; Hughes, Thomas; Pinch, Trevor, eds. (1987). The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-02262-0. Felt, Ulrike; Fouché, Rayvon; Miller, Clark A.; Smith-Doerr, Laruel, eds. (2017). The Handbook of Science and Technology Studies (4th ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-03568-2. Fuller, Steve (1993). Philosophy, Rhetoric, and the End of Knowledge: The Coming of Science and Technology Studies. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press. (2nd edition, with James H. Collier, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2004) Hess, David J. (1997). Science Studies: An Advanced Introduction. New York: NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-3564-0. Jasanoff, Sheila; Markle, Gerald; Petersen, James; Pinch, Trevor, eds. (1994). Handbook of Science and Technology Studies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. ISBN 978-0-8039-4021-5. Kuhn, Thomas (1962). The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Latour, Bruno (1987). Science in action: How to follow scientists and engineers through society. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Restivo, Sal, ed. (2005). Science, Technology, and Society: An Encyclopedia. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-514193-1. Guglielmo Rinzivillo (2020), Raccontare la


