# kb

id: brassboard-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brassboard-0.md
category: reference
title: Brassboard
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brassboard
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:07.997653+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: brassboard-20260505-0
summary:
A brassboard or brass board is an experimental or demonstration test model, intended for field testing outside the laboratory environment. A brassboard follows an earlier prototyping stage called a breadboard. A brassboard contains both the functionality and approximate physical configuration of the final operational product. Unlike breadboards, brassboards typically recreate geometric and dimensional constraints of the final system which are critical to its performance, as is the case in radio frequency systems. While representative of the physical layout of the production-grade product, a brassboard will not necessarily incorporate all final details, nor represent the physical size and quality level of the final deliverable product. Exact definition of a brassboard depends on the industry and has changed with time. A 1992 guide book on proposal preparation defined a brassboard or a breadboard as "a laboratory or shop working model that may or may not look like the final product or system, but that will operate in the same way as the final system". The definition of a breadboard was further narrowed to purely electronic systems, while a brassboard was treated as "a similar arrangement for hydraulic, pneumatic or mechanically interconnected components". In modern system-on-a-chip prototyping, brassboard is defined as a second


id: cambridge-science-festival-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_Science_Festival-0.md
category: reference
title: Cambridge Science Festival
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_Science_Festival
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:09.254813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cambridge-science-festival-20260505-0
summary:
The Cambridge Science Festival was a series of events typically held annually in March in Cambridge, England and was the United Kingdom's largest free science festival. In 2019 it was announced that the Cambridge Science Festival and the Cambridge Festival of Ideas would be combined into one festival. The Cambridge Festival took place for the first time in March 2021. The festival attracts more than 30,000 visitors to over 250 events. University researchers and students open their lecture halls and laboratories to the general public, and hold Talks, Exhibitions and Demonstrations, mostly free of charge. Started in 1994 by scientists of the University of Cambridge and backed by local businesses, the festival was inspired by National Science Week and is aimed making science and engineering more accessible, showcasing research performed at Cambridge University, and encouraging young people to pursue careers in engineering and science. == Gallery == == References == == External links == Official website 2016 planner


id: cameroon-academy-of-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameroon_Academy_of_Sciences-0.md
category: reference
title: Cameroon Academy of Sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameroon_Academy_of_Sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:10.425467+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cameroon-academy-of-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
The Cameroon Academy of Sciences (CAS) is a non-governmental organization that supports the progression of science and technology for the economic, social, and cultural development of Cameroon. It was established in 1990 by a group of Cameroonian scholars during a symposium on agriculture and agricultural research in Sub-Saharan Africa in Douala, Cameroon. The academy provides unbiased advice to the government and other stakeholders on issues related to science and technology. == History == The idea of creating a national academy of sciences in Cameroon was first proposed in 1972 by the Council for Higher Education and Scientific Research. In 1982, the council proposed a draft decree for the creation of the academy. However, it was not until 1990 that the academy was formed by a group of Cameroonian scholars during a symposium on agriculture and agricultural research in Sub-Saharan Africa in Douala, Cameroon. The symposium was organized by the International Foundation for Science and the Third World Academy of Sciences. The founding members of the academy, 25 scientists from various disciplines, elected Jean-Pierre Tignol as the first president of the academy. The academy was officially inaugurated on 10 February 1993 in Yaoundé, Cameroon, by then Prime Minister Simon Achidi Achu.


id: cello-scrotum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cello_scrotum-0.md
category: reference
title: Cello scrotum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cello_scrotum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:15.460812+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cello-scrotum-20260505-0
summary:
Cello scrotum is a hoax medical condition originally published as a brief case report in the British Medical Journal in 1974. As its name suggests, it was purportedly an affliction of the scrotum affecting male players of the cello. == History == The original letter was written by Elaine Murphy but signed by her husband John. The journal had printed an earlier report about 'guitar nipple', a condition said to occur when some styles of guitar playing excessively irritate the player's nipple (a form of contact dermatitis similar to jogger's nipple), which Murphy and her husband believed was likely a joke. Murphy now points out that even a cursory study of the cellist's posture would show that the 'cello scrotum' complaint would not occur. The unlikelihood of a cellist's posture contributing to scrotal injury was raised back in 1974, but seems to have been overlooked. Murphy admitted the hoax in 2009 in another letter to the BMJ after an article in the 2008 Christmas edition of the BMJ made reference to the complaint. The truth of the case report had already been questioned in the medical literature in 1991. Others have cited it, although expressing scepticism. The implications of this


id: center-of-excellence-in-regulatory-science-and-innovation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_of_Excellence_in_Regulatory_Science_and_Innovation-0.md
category: reference
title: Center of Excellence in Regulatory Science and Innovation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_of_Excellence_in_Regulatory_Science_and_Innovation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:16.630802+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: center-of-excellence-in-regulatory-science-and-innovation-20260505-0
summary:
A Center of Excellence in Regulatory Science and Innovation (CERSI) is a type of research centre focused on regulatory science to support innovation. They were invented by the Food and Drug Administration in the US in 2016 to support their work, with the creation of four CERSIs. The UK launched equivalent bodies (Centres of Excellence in Regulatory Science and Innovation) in 2025 to work with the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA). == References == == External links == US CERSIs: M-CERSI, University of Maryland Johns Hopkins CERSI UCSF-Stanford CERSI Yale University-Mayo Clinic CERSI Triangle CERSI UK CERSIs: CERSI AI InSilicoUK RADIANT CERSI


id: chemrxiv-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ChemRxiv-0.md
category: reference
title: ChemRxiv
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ChemRxiv
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:17.898205+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chemrxiv-20260505-0
summary:
ChemRxiv (pronounced "chem archive"—the X represents the Greek letter chi [χ]) is an open access preprint archive for chemistry. It is operated by the American Chemical Society, Royal Society of Chemistry and German Chemical Society. The new preprint server was announced already in 2016, but was only opened online in 2017. Initially, editors of ACS journals were skeptical and only 80% of the editors allowed submissions to be uploaded to the preprint server in 2017. In 2019 the Chinese Chemical Society and the Chemical Society of Japan joined as co-owners of the preprint server. The initial reception of ChemRxiv was one of hesitation, with several major journals of the founding organizations initially unsupportive: Angewandte Chemie gave support in March 2018 and JACS only gave support in August 2018. However, ChemRxiv received more than 1,000 submissions in the first eighteen months, growing to 2,314 in 2019. Like other preprint servers, it saw a surge in COVID-19 preprints in 2020. == See also == List of preprint repositories == References == == External links == Official website


id: chief-scientist-of-south-australia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Scientist_of_South_Australia-0.md
category: reference
title: Chief Scientist of South Australia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Scientist_of_South_Australia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:19.085770+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chief-scientist-of-south-australia-20260505-0
summary:
The Chief Scientist of South Australia is an independent advisory role to the Government of South Australia, providing advice to the Premier and Cabinet on matters of science, technology, innovation and research. The Chief Scientist chairs the South Australian Science Council and recommends to the government new members for the Council. == Incumbents == == References ==


id: china-hi-tech-fair-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_Hi-Tech_Fair-0.md
category: reference
title: China Hi-Tech Fair
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_Hi-Tech_Fair
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:20.402618+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: china-hi-tech-fair-20260505-0
summary:
The Shenzhen High-Tech Fair (Chinese: 深圳高交会, 高交会), officially known as the China Hi-Tech Fair (中国国际高新技术成果交易会, CHTF), is one of the most influential technology fairs in Shenzhen, China. It is jointly organized by Chinese National and Shenzhen municipal government departments and research institutions. == Description == Since its inception in 1999, the fair has been held annually in Shenzhen, usually at the Shenzhen Convention and Exhibition Center in mid-November. The fair serves not only as a platform for technological exchange but also as an important venue for connecting innovative startups with capital. The fair covers multiple fields, including but not limited to electronic information, environmental protection, new energy, biotechnology, and advanced manufacturing. Additionally, the CHTF includes forums, technical seminars, product launches, and international cooperation exchanges, attracting numerous domestic and international enterprises, research institutions, and investors. == References ==


id: code-break-procedure-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code-break_procedure-0.md
category: reference
title: Code-break procedure
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code-break_procedure
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:21.649031+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: code-break-procedure-20260505-0
summary:
A code-break procedure is a set of rules which determine when planned unblinding should occur in a blinded experiment. FDA guidelines recommend that sponsors of blinded trials include a code-break procedure in their standard operating procedure. A code-break procedure should only allow a participant to be unblinded before the conclusion of a trial in the event of an emergency. Code-break usually refers to the unmasking of treatment allocation, but can refer to any form of unblinding. Traditionally, each patient's treatment allocation data was stored in a sealed envelopes, which was to be opened to break code. However, this system is prone to abuse. Reports of researchers opening envelopes prematurely or holding the envelopes up to lights to determine their contents has led some researchers to say that the use of sealed envelopes is no longer acceptable. As of 2016, sealed envelopes were still in use in some clinical trials. Modern clinical trials usually store this information in computer files. == See also == Sealedenvelope.com – a provider of code-break services == References ==


id: color-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Color science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:22.773568+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: color-science-20260505-0
summary:
Color science is the scientific study of color including lighting and optics; measurement of light and color; the physiology, psychophysics, and modeling of color vision; and color reproduction. It is the modern extension of traditional color theory. == Organizations == International Commission on Illumination (CIE) Illuminating Engineering Society (IES) Inter-Society Color Council (ISCC) Society for Imaging Science and Technology (IS&T) International Colour Association (AIC) Optica, formerly the Optical Society of America (OSA) The Colour Group Society of Dyers and Colourists (SDC) American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists (AATCC) Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology (ARVO) ACM SIGGRAPH Vision Sciences Society (VSS) Council for Optical Radiation Measurements (CORM) == Journals == The preeminent scholarly journal publishing research papers in color science is Color Research and Application, started in 1975 by founding editor-in-chief Fred Billmeyer, along with Gunter Wyszecki, Michael Pointer and Rolf Kuehni, as a successor to the Journal of Colour (1964–1974). Previously most color science work had been split between journals with broader or partially overlapping focus such as the Journal of the Optical Society of America (JOSA), Photographic Science and Engineering (1957–1984), and the Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists (renamed Coloration Technology in 2001).


id: community-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_of_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Community of Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_of_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:24.053257+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: community-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Community of Science was a collection of online databases, providing research information to both the public and subscribers, and services for the research community. It is owned by ProQuest. == History == Community of Science was founded in 1988 by Johns Hopkins University. The Community of Science databases were originally hosted online at http://cos.gdb.org/, on the webserver of the GDB Human Genome Database. Community of Science was also accessible via U.S. Department of Agriculture CRIS, National Science Foundation, and Department of Health and Human Services. As of 1997 the CEO and president was Huntington Williams, and the organisation was located in Baltimore, Maryland. == Databases == Community of Science Expertise Community of Science Funding Opportunities – categorised according to a standardised list of keywords Canadian editions of these databases also existed. == Services == Community of Science Funding Alert Community of Science Funding News – published biweekly == Access == The following organisations are subscribed: Association of Commonwealth Universities == See also == List of funding opportunity databases == References ==


id: compressorium-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compressorium-0.md
category: reference
title: Compressorium
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compressorium
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:25.372984+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: compressorium-20260505-0
summary:
The compressorium (plural: compressoria) is a scientific apparatus for applying pressure to a sample for examination with a microscope. Widely used by microscopists in the 19th century, they were produced by companies such as Bausch and Lomb. Many versions of compressoria were developed over the years, with one of the first attributed to the famous histologist Jan Evangelista Purkyně, see picture. Compressoria were still used in the twenty-first century for the identification of Trichinella worms in samples. == References ==


id: computational-representational-understanding-of-mind-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational-representational_understanding_of_mind-0.md
category: reference
title: Computational-representational understanding of mind
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational-representational_understanding_of_mind
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:26.576487+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: computational-representational-understanding-of-mind-20260505-0
summary:
Computational representational understanding of mind (CRUM) is a hypothesis in cognitive science which proposes that thinking is performed by computations operating on representations. This hypothesis assumes that the mind has mental representations analogous to data structures and computational procedures analogous to algorithms, such that computer programs using algorithms applied to data structures can model the mind and its processes. CRUM takes into consideration several theoretical approaches of understanding human cognition, including logic, rule, concept, analogy, image, and connectionist-based systems based on artificial neural networks. These serve as the representation aspects of CRUM theory which are then acted upon to simulate certain aspects of human cognition, such as the use of rule-based systems in neuroeconomics. There is much disagreement on this hypothesis, but CRUM has high regard among some researchers. Philosopher Paul Thagard called it "the most theoretically and experimentally successful approach to mind ever developed". == See also == Cognitive science Computational neuroscience == References == == External links == Glossary for Cognitive Science at the University of Waterloo Paul Thagard


id: conical-refiner-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conical_refiner-0.md
category: reference
title: Conical refiner
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conical_refiner
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:31.606761+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conical-refiner-20260505-0
summary:
The conical refiner is a machine used in the refining of pulp in the papermaking process. It may also be referred to as a Jordan refiner, after the American inventor Joseph Jordan who patented the device in 1858. The conical refiner is a chamber with metal bars mounted around the inside of the container. The material to be refined is pumped into the chamber at high-pressure rate in order to create an abrasive effect as the material is forced through the machine, abraided by the metal bars. At the opposite end of the chamber the resulting pulp is pumped out. == References ==


id: core-facility-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Core_facility-0.md
category: reference
title: Core facility
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Core_facility
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:32.826369+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: core-facility-20260505-0
summary:
A core facility (also known as core laboratory or simply "core", like in "flow cytometry core", occasionally technological platform) is a centralized shared research resource that provides scientific community with access to unique and highly specialized instruments, technologies, services, and experts. Cores are frequently built around a specific technology or instrumentation, but not always (for example, biostatistics cores offer services of experts skilled in the use of software packages). A database of US core facilities is maintained by the Association of Biomolecular Resource Facilities. By the late 20th century, the researchers in the life sciences were increasingly dependent on the use of expensive and complex instruments and techniques that cannot be economically replicated inside each laboratory. In many areas (for example, in translational science) access to core laboratories became essential. Once the research institutions recognized the potential cost savings of provisioning state-of-the-art instrumentation and services in a centralized way, multiple shared facilities were established, prompting discussions about the best ways to administer and finance them. The high-value and difficult-to-operate equipment typically used in a core setting in the beginning of the 21st century included NMR spectrometers, mass spectrometers, Raman spectrometers and microscopes, transmission and Auger electron microscopes, X-ray diffraction spectrometers,


id: curie-s-principle-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curie's_principle-0.md
category: reference
title: Curie's principle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curie's_principle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:33.986657+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: curie-s-principle-20260505-0
summary:
Curie's principle, or Curie's symmetry principle, is a maxim about cause and effect formulated by Pierre Curie in 1894: the symmetries of the causes are to be found in the effects. The idea was based on the ideas of Franz Ernst Neumann and Bernhard Minnigerode. Thus, it is sometimes known as the Neumann–Minnigerode–Curie principle. Later physicists have interpreted Curie's principle in the context of thermodynamics. Dynamics close to equilibrium are described by a set of transport coefficients whose symmetries must match the symmetries of the system, according to Curie's principle. == References ==


id: data-clarification-form-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_clarification_form-0.md
category: reference
title: Data clarification form
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_clarification_form
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:35.225704+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: data-clarification-form-20260505-0
summary:
A data clarification form (DCF) or data query form is a questionnaire specifically used in clinical research. The DCF is the primary data clarification tool from the trial sponsor or contract research organization (CRO) towards the investigator to clarify discrepancies and ask the investigator for clarification. The DCF is part of the data validation process in a clinical trial. == See also == == References == == Further reading == Celine Clive (2004), Handbook of SOPs for Good Clinical Practice, CRC, ISBN 0-8493-2181-6 == External links == DCF entry in Clinical Research Dictionary


id: degree-of-frost-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degree_of_frost-0.md
category: reference
title: Degree of frost
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degree_of_frost
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:36.426459+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: degree-of-frost-20260505-0
summary:
A degree of frost is a non-standard unit of measure for air temperature meaning degrees below melting point (also known as "freezing point") of water (0 degrees Celsius or 32 degrees Fahrenheit). "Degree" in this case can refer to degree Celsius or degree Fahrenheit. When based on Celsius, 0 degrees of frost is the same as 0 °C, and any other value is simply the negative of the Celsius temperature. When based on Fahrenheit, 0 degrees of frost is equal to 32 °F. Conversion formulas: T [degrees of frost] = 32 °F − T [°F] T [°F] = 32 °F − T [degrees of frost] The term "degrees of frost" was widely used in accounts of the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration in the early 20th century. The term appears frequently in Ernest Shackleton's books South and Heart of the Antarctic, Apsley Cherry-Garrard's account of his Antarctic adventures in The Worst Journey in the World (wherein he recorded 109.5 degrees [Fahrenheit] of frost, −77.5 °F or −60.8 °C), in Jack London's "To Build A Fire", as well as Admiral Richard E. Byrd's book Alone. == References ==


id: degrees-of-freedom-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degrees_of_freedom-0.md
category: reference
title: Degrees of freedom
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degrees_of_freedom
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:37.551658+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: degrees-of-freedom-20260505-0
summary:
In many scientific fields, the degrees of freedom of a system is the number of parameters of the system that may vary independently. For example, a point in the plane has two degrees of freedom for translation: its two coordinates; a non-infinitesimal object on the plane might have additional degrees of freedoms related to its orientation. In mathematics, this notion is formalized as the dimension of a manifold or an algebraic variety. When degrees of freedom is used instead of dimension, this usually means that the manifold or variety that models the system is only implicitly defined. See: Degrees of freedom (mechanics), number of independent motions that are allowed to the body or, in case of a mechanism made of several bodies, number of possible independent relative motions between the pieces of the mechanism Degrees of freedom (physics and chemistry), a term used in explaining dependence on parameters, or the dimensions of a phase space Degrees of freedom (statistics), the number of values in the final calculation of a statistic that are free to vary Degrees of freedom problem, the problem of controlling motor movement given abundant degrees of freedom == See also == Six degrees of freedom == References


id: dematerialization-products-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dematerialization_(products)-0.md
category: reference
title: Dematerialization (products)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dematerialization_(products)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:38.793920+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dematerialization-products-20260505-0
summary:
The dematerialization of a product literally means less, or better yet, no material is used to deliver the same level of functionality to the user. Sharing, borrowing and the organization of group services that facilitate and cater for communities needs could alleviate the requirement of ownership of many products. In his book In The Bubble: Designing In A Complex World, John Thakara states that "the average consumer power tool is used for ten minutes in its entire life—but it takes hundreds of times its own weight to manufacture such an object". A product service system with shared tools could simply offer access to them when needed. This shift from a reliance on products to services is the process of dematerialization. Digital music distribution systems, car clubs, bike hire schemes and laundry services all can be examples of dematerialization. == References == == External links == Dematerialization pattern from the Liberating Voices pattern language discusses problems and solutions related to dematerialization


id: distinguished-professor-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distinguished_professor-0.md
category: reference
title: Distinguished professor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distinguished_professor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:40.045046+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: distinguished-professor-20260505-0
summary:
Distinguished professor is an academic title given to some top tenured professors in American universities, schools, or departments. Some distinguished professors may have endowed chairs. Often specific to one institution, titles such as "president's professor", "university professor", "distinguished professor", "distinguished research professor", "distinguished teaching professor", "distinguished university professor", or "regents professor" are granted to a small percentage of the top tenured faculty who are regarded as particularly important in their respective fields of research. Some institutions grant more university-specific, formal titles such as M.I.T.'s "Institute Professor", Yale University's "Sterling Professor", or Duke University's "James B. Duke Professor". Some academic and/or scholarly organizations may also bestow the title "distinguished professor" in recognition of achievement over the course of an academic career. For example, the Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture annually recognizes up to five faculty members at architecture schools in the United States and Canada with the ACSA Distinguished Professor Award. == References ==


id: elicitation-technique-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elicitation_technique-0.md
category: reference
title: Elicitation technique
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elicitation_technique
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:41.304520+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: elicitation-technique-20260505-0
summary:
An elicitation technique is any of a number of data collection techniques used in anthropology, cognitive science, counseling, education, knowledge engineering, linguistics, management, philosophy, psychology, or other fields to gather knowledge or information from people. Recent work in behavioral economics has purported that elicitation techniques can be used to control subject misconceptions and mitigate errors from generally accepted experimental design practices. Elicitation, in which knowledge is sought directly from human beings, is usually distinguished from indirect methods such as gathering information from written sources. A person who interacts with human subjects in order to elicit information from them may be called an elicitor, an analyst, experimenter, or knowledge engineer, depending on the field of study. Elicitation techniques include interviews, observation of either naturally occurring behavior (including as part of participant observation) or behavior in a laboratory setting, or the analysis of assigned tasks. == List of elicitation techniques == Interviews Existing System Project Scope Brain Storming Focus Groups Exploratory Prototypes User Task Analysis Observation Surveys Questionnaire Story Board == References == Elisitasi: Proses dan Metode untuk Merancang Sistem Baru yang Efektif


id: ergonomic-glove-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergonomic_glove-0.md
category: reference
title: Ergonomic glove
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergonomic_glove
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:42.532453+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ergonomic-glove-20260505-0
summary:
An ergonomic glove, also known as a computer glove or support glove, is a stiff glove worn to try to prevent or remedy carpal tunnel syndrome by holding the wrist in a certain position while typing. == References ==


id: evidence-gap-map-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_gap_map-0.md
category: reference
title: Evidence gap map
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_gap_map
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:47.716732+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-gap-map-20260505-0
summary:
An evidence gap map (EGM) is a systematic display of the evidence for a domain which highlights the lack of evidence in particular areas. The evidence gaps typically appear as holes in a matrix of cross-referenced results. == References ==


id: experiment-website-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiment_(website)-0.md
category: reference
title: Experiment (website)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiment_(website)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:48.933373+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: experiment-website-20260505-0
summary:
Experiment, formerly called Microryza, is a US website for crowdfunding science-based research projects. Researchers can post their research projects to solicit pledges. Experiment works on the all-or-nothing funding model. The backers are only charged if the research projects reach their funding target during a set time frame. In February 2014, the site changed its name from Microryza to Experiment.com. == History == It was founded in 2012 by Denny Luan and Cindy Wu, former University of Washington students. The former name Microryza is inspired by Mycorrhizae and symbiotic fungi that lives in the roots of plants. Unlike the popular crowdfunding site Kickstarter, backers of Experiment projects do not get tangible rewards for backing. Researchers share the scientific process directly with the backers and become a part of the project.Additionally, all proposals are subject to review and approval by the site's staff, and any work involving human or animal subjects must by supported by an institutional review board. Experiment charges 11-13% in fees (8% for platform fees and 3-5% for payment processing) only if the campaign is successful. If the campaign does not reach the funding goal, no one is charged. As of Aug 7, 2015, more than 5,000 projects were


id: expert-elicitation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expert_elicitation-0.md
category: reference
title: Expert elicitation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expert_elicitation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:50.238114+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expert-elicitation-20260505-0
summary:
In science, engineering, and research, expert elicitation is the synthesis of opinions of authorities of a subject where there is uncertainty due to insufficient data or when such data is unattainable because of physical constraints or lack of resources. Expert elicitation is essentially a scientific consensus methodology. It is often used in the study of rare events. Expert elicitation allows for parametrization, an "educated guess", for the respective topic under study. Expert elicitation generally helps quantify uncertainty. Expert elicitation tends to be multidisciplinary as well as interdisciplinary, with practically universal applicability, and is used in a broad range of fields. Prominent recent expert elicitation applications include climate change, modeling seismic hazard and damage, association of tornado damage to wind speed in developing the Enhanced Fujita scale, risk analysis for nuclear waste storage. In performing expert elicitation certain factors need to be taken into consideration. The topic must be one for which there are people who have predictive expertise. Furthermore, the objective should be to obtain an experts' carefully considered judgment based on a systematic consideration of all relevant evidence. For this reason one should take care to adopt strategies designed to help the expert being interviewed to avoid overlooking relevant


id: extinction-cross-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_cross-0.md
category: reference
title: Extinction cross
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_cross
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:51.553356+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: extinction-cross-20260505-0
summary:
The extinction cross is an optical phenomenon that is seen when trying to extinguish a laser beam or non-planar white light using crossed polarizers. Ideally, crossed (90° rotated) polarizers block all light, because light that is polarized along the polarization axis of the first polarizer is perpendicular to the polarization axis of the second. When the beam is not perfectly collimated, however, a characteristic fringing pattern is produced. == See also == Polarization (waves) == Further reading == Mineralogy notes 6 See "6.3.5. Review of Uniaxial Optical Properties" Nikon MicroscopyU See Figure 1a


id: forced-convection-in-porous-media-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forced_convection_in_porous_media-0.md
category: reference
title: Forced convection in porous media
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forced_convection_in_porous_media
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:52.743751+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: forced-convection-in-porous-media-20260505-0
summary:
Forced convection is type of heat transport in which fluid motion is generated by an external source like a (pump, fan, suction device, etc.). Heat transfer through porus media is very effective and efficiently. Forced convection heat transfer in a confined porous medium has been a subject of intensive studies during the last decades because of its wide applications. The basic problem in heat convection through porous media consists of predicting the heat transfer rate between a deferentially heated, solid impermeable surface and a fluid-saturated porous medium. Beginning with constant wall temperature. In 2D steady state system ∂ u / ∂ x + ∂ v / ∂ y = 0 {\displaystyle \partial u/\partial x+\partial v/\partial y=0} According to Darcy's law u = − ( K / μ ) ∂ P / ∂ x {\displaystyle u=-(K/\mu )\partial P/\partial x} v = − ( K / μ ) ∂ P / ∂ y {\displaystyle v=-(K/\mu )\partial P/\partial y} u ∂ T / ∂ x + v ∂ T / ∂ y = α ∂ 2 ∂ x 2 T {\displaystyle u\partial T/\partial x+v\partial T/\partial y={\boldsymbol {\alpha }}{\partial ^{2} \over \partial x^{2}}T} u = {\displaystyle u=} U ∞ {\displaystyle U_{\infty }} v =


id: free-fall-machine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_fall_machine-0.md
category: reference
title: Free fall machine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_fall_machine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:53.947295+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: free-fall-machine-20260505-0
summary:
A free fall machine (FFM) is a mechanism designed to permit the development of small biological samples, such as cell cultures, with a simulated effect of micro-gravity under free fall conditions. == Description == The free fall machine (FFM) addresses some of the problems of the simple horizontal clinostat or random positioning machines (RPM). In a typical machine samples are allowed to cycle between free fall for about a metre down a column (micro-gravity simulation, near "0 g") and a "bounce" back to the top of the column that is intended to be so fast (c. 20 g for 20 ms) that it is undetected by the biological sample. The sample therefore experiences an average gravity of near 0 g. Long duration of hyper-gravity is often simulated by machines such as the large diameter centrifuge (LDC) at ESA. To simulate partial-gravity (between simulated 0 and Earth's gravity, 1, such as Mars or Moon gravitational strengths) conditions, an RPM can also be used. == See also == Clinostat Gravitropism Large Diameter Centrifuge Random Positioning Machine == References == == External links == ETH Space Biology Free Fall Machine


id: genome-news-network-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome_News_Network-0.md
category: reference
title: Genome News Network
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome_News_Network
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:55.107652+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genome-news-network-20260505-0
summary:
The Genome News Network (abbreviated GNN) is an online magazine that publishes news articles and educational resources about genomics and medicine. It was founded in 1999, with Barbara Culliton as the founding editor-in-chief. It was originally published by Celera Genomics. In 2001, the Institute for Genomic Research became the magazine's new publisher. An article published in the Lancet Oncology that year stated that the magazine "...offers news, original articles, the online reference book, What’s a genome?, and primers on sequencing and assembling the genome – all well written and illustrated". As of 2010, new issues of the magazine were published biweekly. == References == == External links == Official website


id: gikii-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GikII-0.md
category: reference
title: GikII
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GikII
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:56.238713+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gikii-20260505-0
summary:
GikII is a series of European conferences on the intersections between law, technology and popular culture. It is hosted at a different institution every year. The first conference was in 2006 and was held in Edinburgh, and was organised by Lilian Edwards and Andres Guadamuz. The conference has been held in several European universities and institutions, including University College London, University of Oxford, University of Edinburgh, University of Amsterdam, Alexander von Humboldt Institute for Internet and Society, University of Vienna and University of Sussex. Spin-off workshops are regularly held in addition to the main yearly conference in other parts of the world or as tracks in other conferences, such as at TILTing 2019 at Tilburg University and SoGikII 2009 at the University of New South Wales. The conference deals with what the organisers describe as "geek law", studying the intersection of law, regulation, popular culture and technology. The covered topics include artificial intelligence, cryptocurrencies, virtual worlds, games, tattoos, 3D printing, fan fiction, digital privacy, avatar rights, augmented reality, and robots. == Name == The Call for Papers of the first workshop gave the following explanation: Geeks are the people who contribute to this knowledge: fellow travellers on the digital omnibus,


id: gustatory-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustatory_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: Gustatory technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustatory_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:57.467269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gustatory-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Gustatory technology is the engineering discipline dealing with gustatory representation. == Description == Virtual taste refers to a taste experience generated by a digital taste simulator. Electrodes are used to simulate the taste and feel of real food in the mouth. In 2012, Dr. Nimesha Ranasinghe and a team of researchers at the National University of Singapore developed the digital lollipop, an electronic device capable of transmitting four major taste sensations (salty, sour, sweet and bitter) to the tongue. In 2016 the same team created a square with thermoelectric elements to simulate the sensation of sweetness through changes in temperature. If this system is implemented in mugs or drinking glasses, it could make low-sugar drinks taste sweeter helping people reduce sugar intake. A team from the University of Tokyo created a device that simulates the different textures of food through electricity. The device uses electrodes place on the masseter muscle (a jaw muscle used for chewing) and simulates the texture by changing this muscle frequency. For example, a higher frequency gives the food a harder texture. == References ==


id: hamsci-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HamSCI-0.md
category: reference
title: HamSCI
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HamSCI
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:58.627019+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hamsci-20260505-0
summary:
The Amateur Radio Science Citizen Investigation (HamSCI) is an initiative to connect amateur radio operators with scientific researchers, and to use amateur radio as a citizen science tool to collect scientific data, particularly in geospace science. HamSCI holds annual workshops each year. Most HamSCI projects focus on the ionosphere. The central initiative of HamSCI is the Personal Space Weather Station, a project to conduct distributed sensing of space weather by developing modular hardware similar to traditional weather stations. == References ==


id: high-altitude-research-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-altitude_research-0.md
category: reference
title: High-altitude research
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-altitude_research
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:03.817026+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: high-altitude-research-20260505-0
summary:
There are a wide range of potential applications for research at high altitude, including medical, physiological, and cosmic physics research. == High-altitude medical research == The most obvious and direct application of high-altitude research is to understand altitude illnesses such as acute mountain sickness, and the rare but rapidly fatal conditions, high-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) and high-altitude cerebral edema (HACE). Research at high altitude is also an important way to learn about sea level conditions that are caused or complicated by hypoxia such as chronic lung disease and sepsis. Patients with these conditions are very complex and usually suffer from several other diseases at the same time, so it is virtually impossible to work out which of their problems is caused by lack of oxygen. Altitude research gets round this by studying the effects of oxygen deprivation on otherwise healthy people. Travelling to high altitude is often used as a way of studying the way the body responds to a shortage of oxygen. It is difficult and prohibitively expensive to conduct some of this research at sea level. Although the shortage of air contributes to the effects on the human body, research has found that most altitude sicknesses can be


id: incompatibility-thesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incompatibility_thesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Incompatibility thesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incompatibility_thesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:04.978566+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: incompatibility-thesis-20260505-0
summary:
Incompatibility thesis is an argument in research methodology about incompatibility of quantitative research and qualitative research paradigms in the same research. This thesis is based on philosophies of post-structuralism and post-modernism (among others). Arguments from those philosophies support exclusive superiority of one orientation (usually, the qualitative one) are oppose mixing it with quantitative research (as is advocated by the proponents of mixed-method research who support the compatibility thesis). == Information == Incompatibilists maintain that problems arise not so much at the level of practice, but at the level of epistemological paradigms. In particular, they propose that quantitative and qualitative methods are incompatible on an epistemological level; therefore, the two kinds of methods are incompatible. HOWE 1998, argues that a principle implicit in the incompatibilist's argument ‘that abstract paradigms should determine research methods in a one-way fashion—is untenable’. That paradigms must demonstrate their worth in terms of how they inform, and are informed by, research methods that are successfully employed. Given such a two-way relationship between methods and paradigms, paradigms are evaluated in terms of how well they square with the demands of research practice and incompatibilism vanishes. == References == Onwuegbuzie, Anthony J.; Leech, Nancy L. (2005). "Taking the "Q"


id: infrared-science-archive-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_Science_Archive-0.md
category: reference
title: Infrared Science Archive
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_Science_Archive
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:06.233747+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: infrared-science-archive-20260505-0
summary:
The Infrared Science Archive (IRSA) is the primary archive for the infrared and submillimeter astronomical projects of NASA, the space agency of the United States. IRSA curates the science products of over 15 missions, including the Spitzer Space Telescope, the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE), the Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS), and the Two Micron All-Sky Survey (2MASS). It also serves data from infrared and submillimeter European Space Agency missions with NASA participation, including the Infrared Space Observatory (ISO), Planck, and the Herschel Space Observatory. As of 2019, IRSA provides access to more than 1 petabyte of data consisting of roughly 1 trillion astronomical measurements, which span wavelengths from 1 micron to 10 millimeters and include all-sky coverage in 24 bands. Approximately 10% of all refereed astronomical journal articles cite data sets curated by IRSA. IRSA is part of the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center (IPAC) and is located on the campus of the California Institute of Technology. It is one of NASA's Astrophysics Data Centers, along with the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center (HEASARC), the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST), and others. == References == == External links == Infrared Science Archive Infrared Processing and Analysis Center


id: infrastructure-bias-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure_bias-0.md
category: reference
title: Infrastructure bias
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure_bias
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:07.459896+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: infrastructure-bias-20260505-0
summary:
In economics and social policy, infrastructure bias is the influence of the location and availability of pre-existing infrastructure, such as roads and telecommunications facilities, on social and economic development. In science, infrastructure bias is the influence of existing social or scientific infrastructure on scientific observations. In astronomy and particle physics, where the availability of particular kinds of telescopes or particle accelerators acts as a constraint on the types of experiments that can be done, the data that can be retrieved is biased towards that which can be obtained by the equipment. Procedural bias, related to infrastructure bias, is shown by a case of irregular genetic sampling of Bolivian wild potatoes. A 2000 report of previous studies' sampling found that 60% of samples had been taken near towns or roads, where 22% would be the average, had the samples been taken at random (or from equidistant points, or at specifically varying distances from towns, representative of the average terrain density). == References ==


id: instructional-manipulation-check-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_manipulation_check-0.md
category: reference
title: Instructional manipulation check
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_manipulation_check
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:08.715364+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: instructional-manipulation-check-20260505-0
summary:
An instructional manipulation check, often abbreviated IMC, is a special kind of question inserted in a questionnaire among the regular questions, designed to check whether respondents are paying attention to the instructions. Discarding responses by participants who fail to read the instructions increases the signal-to-noise ratio and can thereby increase the statistical power of an experiment. The tool was developed by Oppenheimer et al. Eliminating random responses this way before performing statistical hypothesis testing may be considered a legitimate form of data manipulation, but should be duly mentioned in publications reporting on the outcome of the experiment in question. == Blue-dot task == Among several forms an IMC can take, a popular one is the so-called blue-dot task, suitable for on-line questionnaires. A number of larger blue circles are arranged according to a Likert scale from (say) "very rarely" to "very frequently". Participants who ignore the instructions and merely want to finish the task will just click any one of these circles. The instructions, however, ask the participants to ignore the larger circles and instead click a little blue dot at the bottom of the screen. Oppenheimer et al. report that in a large sample of undergraduate participants, approximately 7%


id: instrument-effect-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrument_effect-0.md
category: reference
title: Instrument effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrument_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:09.812579+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: instrument-effect-20260505-0
summary:
The instrument effect is an issue in experimental methodology meaning that any change during the measurement, or, the instrument, may influence the research validity. For example, in a control group design experiment, if the instruments used to measure the performance of the experiment group and the control group are different, a wrong conclusion about the experiment would be reached, the research result would be invalid. == References ==


id: international-publisher-ltd-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Publisher_Ltd.-0.md
category: reference
title: International Publisher Ltd.
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Publisher_Ltd.
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:11.012870+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-publisher-ltd-20260505-0
summary:
International Publisher Ltd. (or International Publisher LLC) is an academic paper mill company that coordinates the sale of fake authorships on research papers for publication in an academic journal. The company is headquartered in Moscow (Russia) with offices in Ukraine, Kazakhstan, and Iran, and lists its chief editor as Ksenia Badziun. Its website has existed since 2018. Buyers can preselect a number of critera for their desired article. Many papers are created specifically for the purpose of selling co-authorships, and only after a sufficient number of slots are sold, and the company recruits writers to produce at least some of these papers. Others may be otherwise legitimate articles; there is evidence that it also approaches authors published in high-quality journals to sell co-authorship slots. Slots are priced according to the prestige of the journal and the position of the slot in the list of purported collaborators. == Discovery and investigation == The company was exposed by scientific misconduct tracking website Retraction Watch in 2019. In 2022, a report on arXiv was covered by Science Magazine detailing how International Publisher Ltd. had published hundreds of academic papers across diverse academic journals, including from respected publishing companies. Some of these publishers have


id: the-internet-pilot-to-physics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Internet_Pilot_to_Physics-0.md
category: reference
title: The Internet Pilot to Physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Internet_Pilot_to_Physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:12.270752+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-internet-pilot-to-physics-20260505-0
summary:
TIPTOP (fully known as The Internet Pilot to Physics) was a web site operated in collaboration between Kenneth Bodin-Holmlund at Umeå University, Mikko Karttunen at McGill University and Guenther Nowotny at the Technical University of Vienna during 1994–1998, and it was originally derived from Physics Around the World (PAW) that was initiated by Karttunen at McGill University. In a historical perspective, PAW was one of the first web directories, listing various physics related resources. TIPTOP utilized (at the time) new technologies to handle a news system, a job database, a conference database, and an improved web directory for physics. TIPTOP was the first major site to use PHP with mySQL, today a highly popular combination. Already in 1995, TIPTOP also had one of the first embryos of a wiki, called the Living Encyclopedia of Physics, that offered community based-editing, an editorial system and peer review, as well as automatic cross linking. == References == == Further reading == A page entitled "About PhysicsWeb", that mentions TIPTOP A position paper in Journal of Physics C from 1996, by the creators of TIPTOP, that describes the initiative.


id: light-ergonomics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_ergonomics-0.md
category: reference
title: Light ergonomics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_ergonomics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:13.513764+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: light-ergonomics-20260505-0
summary:
Light ergonomics is the relationship between the light source and the individual. Poor light can be divided into the following: Individual or socio-cultural expectations Insufficient light Poor distribution of light Improper contrast Glare Flicker Thermal heating (over or under) Acoustic noise (especially fluorescents) Color spectrum (full-spectrum light, color temperature, etc.) == Effects of poor light == The effects of poor light can include the following: low productivity high human error rates inability to match or select correct colors eyestrain headache a reduction in mental alertness general malaise low employee morale == Types of light sources == == See also == Ergonomics Full-spectrum light Artificial sunlight == References ==


id: lilian-date-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lilian_date-0.md
category: reference
title: Lilian date
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lilian_date
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:14.628810+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lilian-date-20260505-0
summary:
A Lilian date is a day numbering system that counts the number of days elapsed since 15 October 1582, the first day of the Gregorian calendar, which is designated as Lilian date 1. The system was introduced in 1986 by Bruce G. Ohms, an engineer at IBM, to simplify date calculations in computing environments. Named after Aloysius Lilius, the principal author of the Gregorian Calendar reform, the Lilian date represents calendar dates as continuous integers rather than as year–month–day components. It is currently used by date conversion routines that are part of IBM Language Environment (LE) software and in IBM AIX COBOL. Lilius’s reform addressed accumulated drift in the Julian calendar and was promulgated by Pope Gregory XIII. In the first countries to implement the reform, Thursday 4 October 1582 (Julian) was followed by Friday 15 October 1582 (Gregorian). The Lilian epoch aligns with this first Gregorian day. == Definition == The Lilian date represents a calendar day as a single integer: 1 corresponds to 15 October 1582 (Gregorian), 2 to 16 October 1582, and so on, increasing by one each day. IBM documentation describes 14 October 1582 as day 0 for internal calculations, while public interfaces typically accept and


id: malta-2021-stratospheric-balloon-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malta_2021_Stratospheric_Balloon-0.md
category: reference
title: Malta 2021 Stratospheric Balloon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malta_2021_Stratospheric_Balloon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:19.506767+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: malta-2021-stratospheric-balloon-20260505-0
summary:
The Malta 2021 Stratospheric Balloon was a stratospheric upper-atmosphere weather balloon launched on 13 August 2021 from the Esplora Complex in the small, island-nation of Malta. A false-advertising campaign before the launch stated that the balloon would be a "space balloon" despite the fact the stratospheric balloon only climbed to 37 kilometres (23 mi), 63 kilometres (39 mi) short of the Kármán line. The launch succeeded an earlier, failed launch in which the balloon detached from its sensory payload due to an imbalance of forces acting on the balloon. == References ==


id: micro-pulling-down-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micro-pulling-down-0.md
category: reference
title: Micro-pulling-down
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micro-pulling-down
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:20.674976+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: micro-pulling-down-20260505-0
summary:
The micro-pulling-down (μ-PD) method is a crystal growth technique based on continuous transport of the melted substance through micro-channel(s) made in a crucible bottom. Continuous solidification of the melt is progressed on a liquid/solid interface positioned under the crucible. In a steady state, both the melt and the crystal are pulled-down with a constant (but generally different) velocity. Many different types of crystal are grown by this technique, including Y3Al5O12, Si, Si-Ge, LiNbO3, α-Al2O3, Y2O3, Sc2O3, LiF, CaF2, BaF2, etc. == Crystal growth routine == Standard routine procedure used in the growth of most of μ-PD crystals is well developed. The general stages of the growths include: Charging of the crucible with starting materials (mixture of powders) Heating of the crucible until starting materials in the crucible are completely melted Upward displacement of the seed until its contact with the meniscus or crucible Formation of the meniscus and partial melting of the seed top Correction of the shape of the meniscus through appropriate adjustment of crucible temperature and position of the seed crystal Crystal growth through pulling of the seed in downward direction Separation of the as grown crystal from the meniscus Cooling of the system (including the crystal and


id: microbalance-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbalance-0.md
category: reference
title: Microbalance
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbalance
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:21.930978+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: microbalance-20260505-0
summary:
A microbalance is an instrument capable of making precise measurements of weight of objects of relatively small mass: of the order of a million parts of a gram. In comparison, a standard analytical balance is 100 times less sensitive; i.e. it is limited in precision to 0.1 milligrams. Microbalances are generally used in a laboratory as standalone instruments but are also incorporated into other instruments, such as thermogravimetry, sorption/desorption systems, and surface property instruments. It is the precision of the microbalance that distinguishes it from other weighing devices. == Types == A quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) is a very sensitive mass deposition sensor based on the piezoelectric properties of the quartz crystal. This technique uses the changes in resonance frequency of the crystal to measure the mass on the surface because the resonance frequency is highly dependent on any changes of the crystal mass. A quartz crystal microbalance is capable of measuring mass deposition down to 0.1 nanograms. The sensitivity of the microbalance is lessened the closer the fulcrum is to the middle. A tapered element oscillating microbalance (TEOM) is an instrument used for real-time detection of aerosol particles by measuring their mass concentration. It makes use of a small


id: microparticle-performance-rating-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microparticle_performance_rating-0.md
category: reference
title: Microparticle performance rating
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microparticle_performance_rating
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:23.129411+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: microparticle-performance-rating-20260505-0
summary:
The Microparticle Performance Rating (MPR) is an air filter rating system created by the company 3M. It rates the ability of an air filter to filter out micro particles. Because MPR was created by 3M, it only applies to filters produced by the 3M brand. The higher the MPR, the better the filter's ability to capture particles from the air as it passes through the filter. MPR is different from MERV, the Minimum Efficiency Reporting Value. The MERV system measures a filter's ability to capture large particles. The MPR only takes into account the microscopic particles between 0.3 and 1 μm. == References == == External links == MPR vs. MERV, a piece of 3M promotional material giving some minimum capture rates for rating levels.


id: microphotography-literature-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microphotography_(literature)-0.md
category: reference
title: Microphotography (literature)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microphotography_(literature)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:24.272815+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: microphotography-literature-20260505-0
summary:
Microphotography is a writing style that emerged in the early 1990s in science journalism. The style is named after micrographs and is distinctive for its highly detailed, worm's eye or microscopic view of the macroscopic world. One of the flagship works in this style was David Bodanis's commercially prominent The Secret House: 24 hours in the strange & wonderful world in which we spend our nights and days. This book followed daily life in a typical enclosed human habitat in minute detail, featuring detailed physical and biological explanations. == References ==


id: multiple-classification-ripple-down-rules-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple-classification_ripple-down_rules-0.md
category: reference
title: Multiple-classification ripple-down rules
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple-classification_ripple-down_rules
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:25.482401+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: multiple-classification-ripple-down-rules-20260505-0
summary:
Multiple-classification ripple-down rules (MCRDR) is an incremental knowledge acquisition technique which preserves the benefits and essential strategy of ripple-down rules (RDR) in handling the multiple classifications. MCRDR, the extension of RDR, is based on the assumption that the knowledge an expert provides is essentially a justification for a conclusion in a particular context. == Implementations == Below is a list of implementations of MCRDR The alpha version of RDR(MCRDR) Framework was developed by UNSW and UTAS Research Team and funded by ARC (System available at BESTRDR) RDR(MCRDR) document classifier was developed by Dr.Yang Sok Kim and AProf.Byeong Ho Kang (System available at BESTRDR) RDR(MCRDR) smart expert system was developed by UTAS Research Team and funded by Hyundai Steel. Pacific Knowledge Systems (PKS) uses a commercial product called RippleDown Expert that is based on Multiple Classification Ripple Down Rules Medscope Medication Review Mentor uses Multiple Classification Ripple Down Rules to identify adverse drug interactions with a patient's medicines regimen == BEST RDR Warehouse == BEST-RDR (Best Expert System Technique – Ripple Down Rule) website is freely accessible RDR publication and system warehouse that helps you to find programs and publications about RDR. A great amount of publications and programs based on


id: multistability-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multistability-0.md
category: reference
title: Multistability
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multistability
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:26.577003+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: multistability-20260505-0
summary:
In a dynamical system, multistability is the property of having multiple stable equilibrium points in the vector space spanned by the states in the system. By mathematical necessity, there must also be unstable equilibrium points between the stable points. Points that are stable in some dimensions and unstable in others are termed unstable, as is the case with the first three Lagrangian points. == Bistability == Bistability is the special case with two stable equilibrium points. It is the simplest form of multistability, and can occur in systems with only one state variable, as it only takes a one-dimensional space to separate two points. == Initial instability == Near an unstable equilibrium, any system will be sensitive to noise, initial conditions and system parameters, which can cause it to develop in one of multiple divergent directions. In economics and social sciences, path dependence gives rise to divergent directions of development. Some path dependent processes are adequately described by multistability, by being initially sensitive to input, before reaching a stagnant state – for example market share instability, which can develop into a stable monopoly for one of multiple possible vendors. == External links == Definition of multistability from icbm.de


id: natcarb-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NatCarb-0.md
category: reference
title: NatCarb
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NatCarb
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:27.736271+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natcarb-20260505-0
summary:
The NatCarb geoportal provides access to geospatial information and tools concerning carbon sequestration in the United States. == External links == National Energy Technology Laboratory Carbon Sequestration Regional Partnerships == References == Carr, T.R., P.M. Rich, and J.D. Bartley. 2007. The NATCARB geoportal: linking distributed data from the Carbon Sequestration Regional Partnerships. Journal of Map and Geography Libraries (Geoscapes), "Special Issue on Department of Energy (DOE) Geospatial Science Innovations". In Press.


id: nurse-scientist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nurse_scientist-0.md
category: reference
title: Nurse scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nurse_scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:28.918820+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nurse-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
A nurse scientist is a nurse with advanced preparation such as a Ph.D. in nursing or related field including research principles and methodology, who also has expert content knowledge in a specific clinical area. The primary focus of the role is to provide leadership in the development, coordination and management of clinical research studies; provide mentorship for nurses in research; lead evaluation activities that improve outcomes for patients participating in research studies; contribute to the overall health sciences literature. Nurse scientists have been regarded as knowledge brokers. They participate in nursing research. == See also == Biomedical scientist == References ==


id: oil-bath-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_bath-0.md
category: reference
title: Oil bath
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_bath
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:30.100315+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: oil-bath-20260505-0
summary:
An oil bath is a type of heated bath used in a laboratory, most commonly used to heat up chemical reactions. It is a container of oil that is heated by a hot plate or (in rare cases) a Bunsen burner. == Use == These baths are commonly used to heat reaction mixtures more evenly than would be possible with a hot plate alone, as the entire outside of the reaction flask is heated. Generally, silicone oil is used in modern oil baths, although mineral oil, cottonseed oil and even phosphoric acid have been used in the past. == Hazards == Overheating the oil bath can result in a fire hazard, especially if mineral oil is being used. Generally, the maximum safe operating temperature of a mineral oil bath is approximately 160 °C (320 °F), the oil's flash point. Mineral oil cannot be used above 310 °C (590 °F) due to the compound's boiling point. If higher temperatures are needed, a silicone oil or a sand bath may be used instead. Silicone oil baths are effective in the 25 °C (77 °F) - 230 °C (446 °F) range. Sand baths are effective from 25 °C (77 °F) to above 500


id: open-assessment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_assessment-0.md
category: reference
title: Open assessment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_assessment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:35.117763+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-assessment-20260505-0
summary:
Open assessment is a method for making impact assessments where anyone can participate and contribute. Most open assessments have been made in Opasnet, which is a wiki-based web-workspace specifically designed for this purpose. The open assessment method has been developed in the Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare (THL, Finnish: Terveyden ja hyvinvoinnin laitos) in Finland originally for providing guidance in complex environmental health problems. So far, it has been applied on e.g. air pollution and pollutants in fish. Opasnet has won the World Summit Award Finland competition, the eGovernment and Institutions category. == See also == Opasnet Health impact assessment Risk assessment Environmental health == References == == External links == Description of open assessment in Opasnet


id: openwetware-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenWetWare-0.md
category: reference
title: OpenWetWare
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenWetWare
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:36.277616+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: openwetware-20260505-0
summary:
OpenWetWare is a wiki whose mission is "to support open research, education, publication, and discussion in biological sciences and engineering." OpenWetWare was created by graduate students at MIT on April 20, 2005. Initially, it served as a private lab wiki for the labs of Drew Endy and Tom Knight at MIT. The site was opened up to allow any lab to join on June 22, 2005. As of April 6, 2007, the site hosted 100 research laboratories from over 40 institutions, including Boston University, Brown University, Caltech, University of Cambridge, CNRS, Duke University, and many others. The server was shut down on April 15, 2025 due to a lack of funding, but returned on October 27th. In addition to laboratories, a number of scientific communities are based on the site, including synthetic biology, Mimulus, and the BioBricks Foundation. One scientific community is the iGEM community with over 60 different teams represented on June 28, 2013, including the NRP-UEA-Norwich team and the Groningen team. OpenWetWare runs on MediaWiki software on Linux servers. All content is available under free content licenses, specifically the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) and the Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike (CC-BY-SA) license. == External links == OpenWetWare ==


id: output-radio-frequency-spectrum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Output_Radio_Frequency_Spectrum-0.md
category: reference
title: Output Radio Frequency Spectrum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Output_Radio_Frequency_Spectrum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:37.609092+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: output-radio-frequency-spectrum-20260505-0
summary:
ORFS stands for Output RF Spectrum, where 'RF' stands for Radio Frequency. The acronym ORFS is used in the context of mobile communication systems, e.g., GSM. It stands for the relationship between (a) the frequency offset from the carrier and (b) the power, measured in a specific bandwidth and time, produced by the mobile station due to effects in modulation and power ramping and switching. ORFS measurements are defined and required in order to prove conformance by various institutions, e.g., the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) or ETSI. == References ==


id: palaeos-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palaeos-0.md
category: reference
title: Palaeos
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palaeos
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:38.863746+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: palaeos-20260505-0
summary:
Palaeos.com is a web site on biology, paleontology, phylogeny and geology and which covers the history of Earth. The site is well respected and has been used as a reference by professional paleontologists such as Michael J. Benton, the professor of vertebrate palaeontology in the Department of Earth Sciences at the University of Bristol. It is frequently cited in Science Online. Palaeos.com was started by Toby White and Alan Kazlev; the pair were later joined by Chris Taylor, Mikko Haaramo of the Department of Geology at the University of Helsinki, and Chris Clowes. It features professional-level, yet readable articles about: Palaeontology, evolution and systematics Geochronology, earth systems and time scale Diversity of life and ecology The site's developers have started a wiki, Palaeos.org, which uses MediaWiki software to provide conventional voluntary membership. Some pages use images from websites run by David Peters, whose works sometimes considered as highly unreliable. == References == == External links == Palaeos.com Palaeos.org (wiki)


id: paradigm-experimental-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradigm_(experimental)-0.md
category: reference
title: Paradigm (experimental)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradigm_(experimental)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:40.116638+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: paradigm-experimental-20260505-0
summary:
In the behavioural sciences (e.g. psychology, biology, neurosciences), an experimental paradigm is an experimental setup or way of conducting a certain type of experiment (a protocol) that is defined by certain fine-tuned standards, and often has a theoretical background. A paradigm in this technical sense, however, is not a way of thinking as it is in the epistemological meaning (paradigm). In the social sciences empiricist experimentation has independent [and dependent] variables and control conditions...What is the origin of the hypotheses which are studied? Given the basic design, the hypothesis and the particular conditions for the experiment, an experimental paradigm must be made up. The paradigm typically includes factors such as experimental instructions for the subjects, the physical design of the experiment room, and the rules for process of the trial or trials to be carried out. The more paradigms which are attempted, and the more variables within a single paradigm are attempted, with the same results, the more sure one is of the results, that, "the effect is a true one and not merely a product of artifacts engendered by the use of a particular paradigm." The three core factors of paradigm design may be considered: "(a) ...the 'nuts and


id: pen-tilt-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pen_tilt-0.md
category: reference
title: Pen tilt
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pen_tilt
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:41.351949+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pen-tilt-20260505-0
summary:
Pen tilt refers to the angle of a writing instrument during handwriting and drawing, which can vary over time. In a coordinate system which is determined by the writing surface plane { X , Y } {\displaystyle \{X,Y\}} and the vertical pen-tip movement along the { Z } {\displaystyle \{Z\}} axis, all three two-dimensional planes can be discerned, and the angular signals can be delivered by a digitizer. It is part of the ISO/IEC standard 19794-7 for biometric data in signatures. == See also == Graphonomics == References ==


id: phenom-electron-microscope-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenom_(electron_microscope)-0.md
category: reference
title: Phenom (electron microscope)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenom_(electron_microscope)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:42.596701+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: phenom-electron-microscope-20260505-0
summary:
Phenom is a small, table-top sized scanning electron microscope (SEM) originally developed by Philips and FEI and further developed by Phenom-World. == Features == The microscope features a combination of optical and electron-optical images; the optical image enables a "Neverlost" function so operators may navigate to any point on the sample. Sample loading takes place in four seconds (to obtain the CMOS overview image) and 30 seconds into the vacuum space via rapid transfer technology (no conventional load lock). The Phenom system user interface is controlled with a touch screen. It achieves magnifications of up to 100,000 times with a resolution of down to 15 nm. An optional fully integrated X-ray analysis (EDS) system shows the composition of the sample in a few seconds.. == Gallery == == References == == External links == US Patent #7906762 - Compact scanning electron microscope Publication in: Systems Research Forum (SRF) Vol. 1 (2006) of the Stevens Institute of technology


id: piezo-ignition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piezo_ignition-0.md
category: reference
title: Piezo ignition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piezo_ignition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:44.098770+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: piezo-ignition-20260505-0
summary:
Piezo ignition is a type of ignition that is used in portable camping stoves, gas grills and some lighters. Piezo ignition uses the principle of piezoelectricity, which is the electric charge that accumulates in some materials in response to mechanical deformation. It consists of a small, spring-loaded hammer which, when a button is pressed, hits a crystal of PZT. This sudden forceful deformation produces a high voltage and subsequent electrical discharge, which ignites the gas. No external electric connection is required, though wires are sometimes used to place the sparking location away from the crystal itself. Piezo ignition systems can be operated by either a lever, push-button or built into the control knob. An electric spark is usually generated once per turn of the knob or press of the button. Eventually, the crystal will no longer be able to emit an electric discharge. However, this takes a long time — piezoelectric igniters usually stop sparking after several tens of thousands of strikes. The most common material used in piezo ignition systems is lead zirconate titanate (PZT). However, other materials such as quartz and certain types of ceramics can also exhibit piezoelectric properties. These materials generate an electric charge in response


id: pneumatic-trough-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumatic_trough-0.md
category: reference
title: Pneumatic trough
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumatic_trough
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:45.311972+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pneumatic-trough-20260505-0
summary:
A pneumatic trough is a piece of laboratory apparatus used for collecting gases, such as hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. It is mainly made of glass or various fibres and are of various sizes. It was invented by Stephen Hales. == Description == Four items are required for gas collection with a pneumatic trough: The trough itself, which is a large glass dish or a similar container. A gas bottle (or bulb), to hold the gas collected. A way to support the gas bottle or bulb, such as a beehive shelf or a hanger (as with Stephen Hales' design). A liquid in the trough. === Liquid === Pneumatic troughs require a liquid such as water. Scientists also have used mercury in pneumatic troughs, but usually only for the collection of water-soluble gases. Health and safety issues surrounding mercury generally prohibit its use in modern-day pneumatic troughs. == Usage == The bottle is filled with water, inverted, and placed into the pneumatic trough already containing water. The outlet tube from the gas-generating apparatus is inserted into the opening of the bottle so that gas can bubble up through it, displacing the water within. == See also == Eudiometer Pneumatic chemistry Joseph Priestley


id: principle-of-similitude-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_similitude-0.md
category: reference
title: Principle of similitude
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_similitude
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:46.558647+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: principle-of-similitude-20260505-0
summary:
The principle of similitude is a supplement to the scientific method advocated by John Strutt (Lord Rayleigh) (1842–1919) that requires that any suggested scientific law be examined for its relationship to similar laws. The principle of similitude is very often used in scientific studies. For example, the study of blood flow known as hemodynamics. This study sometimes require the modeling of blood vessels in vitro. Here, the principle of similitude plays a huge role in ensuring the conditions of the model reproduces all aspects of behavior as the blood vessel in study. Various techniques are implemented when applying the principle of similitude. A well known technique is dimensional analysis. == References == Lord Rayleigh (1915). "The principle of similitude". Nature. 95 (66): 591. Bibcode:1915Natur..95...66R. doi:10.1038/095066c0.


id: problem-shaping-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_shaping-0.md
category: reference
title: Problem shaping
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_shaping
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:51.817507+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: problem-shaping-20260505-0
summary:
Problem shaping means revising a question so that the solution process can begin or continue. It is part of the larger problem process that includes problem finding and problem solving. Problem shaping (or problem framing) often involves the application of critical thinking. Algorithmic approach to technical problems reformulation was introduced by G. S. Altshuller in ARIZ. == See also == == References ==


id: prodromus-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prodromus-0.md
category: reference
title: Prodromus
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prodromus
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:52.988995+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: prodromus-20260505-0
summary:
A prodromus ('forerunner' or 'precursor') aka prodrome is a term used in the natural sciences to describe a preliminary publication intended as the basis for a later, more comprehensive work. It is also a medical term used for a premonitory symptom, that is, a symptom indicating the onset of a disease. The origin of the word is from the 19th century: via French from New Latin prodromus, from Greek prodromos, meaning forerunner. Nicolas Steno's De solido intra solidum naturaliter contento dissertationis prodromus, one of the early treatises attempting to explain the occurrence of fossils in solid rock. Ludovico Marracci's Arabic edition and Latin translation of the Qur’an was published in 1698. His ‘Introduction’ (Prodromus) had been published seven years earlier. Other notable prodromi include Prodromus Entomology, Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van Diemen, Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis. == See also == White paper == References ==


id: proteomimetic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteomimetic-0.md
category: reference
title: Proteomimetic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteomimetic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:54.236997+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: proteomimetic-20260505-0
summary:
Proteomimetics are molecules that mimic certain protein characteristics such as shape, binding properties or enzymatic activity. While conceptually linked to peptidomimetics which mimic short peptide sequences or secondary structures, proteomimetics recapitulate tertiary structures. This can involve the mimicry of entire protein domains or fragments thereof. Proteomimetic approaches can range from entirely abiotic scaffolds to specific main chain and side chain-modifications. == References ==


id: proteus-phenomenon-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteus_phenomenon-0.md
category: reference
title: Proteus phenomenon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteus_phenomenon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:55.430361+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: proteus-phenomenon-20260505-0
summary:
The Proteus phenomenon is the tendency in science for early replications of a work to contradict the original findings, a consequence of publication bias. It is akin to the winner's curse. The term was coined by John Ioannidis and Thomas A. Trikalinos in 2005 named after the Greek god Proteus who could rapidly change his appearance. A 2013 paper argued that the phenomenon might be "desirable or even optimal" from a scientific standpoint. == See also == Reproducibility Reproducibility Project Metascience == References ==


id: public-lecture-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_lecture-0.md
category: reference
title: Public lecture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_lecture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:56.728569+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: public-lecture-20260505-0
summary:
A public lecture (also known as an open lecture) is one means employed for educating the public. Gresham College, in London, has been providing free public lectures since its founding in 1597 through the will of Sir Thomas Gresham. The Royal Society held its first ever meeting at Gresham College in November 1660, after one of Christopher Wren's lectures, and continued to meet there for the next fifty years. The Royal Institution of Great Britain has a long history of public lectures and demonstrations given by prominent experts in the field. In the 19th century, the popularity of the public lectures given by Sir Humphry Davy at the Royal Institution was so great that the volume of carriage traffic in Albemarle Street caused it to become the first one-way street in London. The Royal Institution's Christmas Lectures for young people are nowadays also shown on television. Alexander von Humboldt delivered a series of public lectures at the University of Berlin in the winter of 1827–1828, that formed the basis for his later work Kosmos. == Public autopsies == Besides public lectures, public autopsies have been important in promoting knowledge of medicine. The autopsy of Dr. Johann Gaspar Spurzheim, advocate of


id: qualimetry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualimetry-0.md
category: reference
title: Qualimetry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualimetry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:57.995916+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qualimetry-20260505-0
summary:
Qualimetry is a scientific discipline which concerns itself with the methods and problems of quantification of the quality of any object: things or processes, whether natural or man-made, products of labour or nature, whether living or inanimate, etc. It is a scientific theory of the quantitative determination of quality developed in the former USSR by G.G.Azgaldov and currently used in development of Russian standards (GOST), etc. == Discussion == "The term qualimetry (from the Latin quale, “of what kind”), which designates a scientific discipline studying the methodology and problems of quantitative assessment of the quality of any kind of object (primarily, products), was first used in 1968. That this initiative was timely and justifiable was borne out by a series of international scholarly conferences fully or partly devoted to issues of qualimetry, e.g., in Moscow, Oslo, Varna, Yerevan, Madrid or Tallinn. The term qualimetry is being gradually admitted into the scientific and engineering vocabularies of many countries. According to Google, tens of thousands of references to publications in 32 languages contain this term. " == References ==


id: reagent-bottle-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reagent_bottle-0.md
category: reference
title: Reagent bottle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reagent_bottle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:59.195121+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: reagent-bottle-20260505-0
summary:
Reagent bottles, also known as media bottles or graduated bottles, are containers made of glass, plastic, borosilicate or related substances, and topped by special caps or stoppers. They are intended to contain chemicals in liquid or powder form for laboratories and stored in cabinets or on shelves. Some reagent bottles are tinted amber (actinic), brown or red to protect light-sensitive chemical compounds from visible light, ultraviolet and infrared radiation which may alter them; other bottles are tinted blue (cobalt glass) or uranium green for decorative purposes - mostly vintage apothecary sets, from centuries in which a doctor or apothecary was a prominent figure. The bottles are called "graduated" when they have marks on the sides indicating the approximate (often with a 10% error) amount of liquid at a given level within the container. A reagent bottle is a type of laboratory glassware. The term "reagent" refers to a substance that is part of a chemical reaction (or an ingredient of which), and "media" is the plural form of "medium" which refers to the liquid or gas which a reaction happens within, or is a processing chemical tool such as (for example) a flux. Several companies produce reagent bottles, including Wheaton,


id: recover-initiative-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RECOVER_Initiative-0.md
category: reference
title: RECOVER Initiative
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RECOVER_Initiative
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:00.353603+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: recover-initiative-20260505-0
summary:
The RECOVER Initiative is a research program run by the United States National Institutes of Health that aims to understand the causes of, discover treatments for and prevent Long COVID. RECOVER's initial studies were observational, but others focused on pathology of treatments have been performed. Plans for a series of treatment studies were announced in July 2023. == Funding == A December 2020 allocation by Congress funded the creation of the program with $1.15 billion USD. In February 2024, the program received a further infusion of $515 million USD, extending the program until 2028. == References ==


id: regionalized-variable-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regionalized_variable_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Regionalized variable theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regionalized_variable_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:01.601690+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: regionalized-variable-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Regionalized variable theory (RVT) is a geostatistical method used for interpolation in space. The concept of the theory is that interpolation from points in space should not be based on a smooth continuous object. It should be, however, based on a stochastic model that takes into consideration the various trends in the original set of points. The theory considers that within any dataset, three types of relationships can be detected: Structural part, which is also called the trend. Correlated variation. Uncorrelated variation, or noise. After defining the above three relationships, RVT then applies the first law of geography, in order to predict the unknown values of points. The major application of this theory is the Kriging method for interpolation. == References == David, MICHEL, ed. (1977-01-01), "Chapter 5 - Theoretical Basis of the Approach: The Theory of Regionalized Variables", Developments in Geomathematics, Geostatistical Ore Reserve Estimation, Elsevier, vol.2, pp. 91–114, retrieved 2022-01-23


id: research-group-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_group-0.md
category: reference
title: Research group
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_group
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:02.770933+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: research-group-20260505-0
summary:
A research group is a group of researchers often from the same faculty, specialized on the same subject, working together on the issue or topic. The success of a research group depends on several factors: clearly defined goals, research emphasis, group climate, participative governance, decentralized organization, communication, resources, recruitment, selection, and leadership. Research groups may be mistaken for study groups, which tend to be more casual and more frequently used by younger students. == References ==


id: research-synthesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_synthesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Research synthesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_synthesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:07.893817+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: research-synthesis-20260505-0
summary:
Research synthesis or evidence synthesis is the process of combining the results of multiple primary research studies aimed at testing the same conceptual hypothesis. It may be applied to either quantitative or qualitative research. Its general goals are to make the findings from multiple different studies more generalizable and applicable. It aims to generate new knowledge by combining and comparing the results of multiple studies on a given topic. One approach is to use a systematic review method. == Techniques == Meta-analysis is the preferred technique of quantitative research synthesis in many fields, such as medical science. It is a statistical technique that combines measures of effect size from a number of studies to calculate an overall measure. This measure of effect has greater precision (less uncertainty) than the individual studies, but it may be biased by differences between the studies in study design, the type of evidence, or other key characteristics. In qualitative research, methods of synthesis include narrative synthesis and meta-ethnography. Narrative synthesis allows researchers to address a wide range of questions in their review, while meta-ethnography aims to preserve the cultural context in which the original findings of the included studies were generated. The narrative synthesis approach


id: retraction-index-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retraction_index-0.md
category: reference
title: Retraction index
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retraction_index
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:09.050292+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: retraction-index-20260505-0
summary:
The retraction index is a measure of how likely an article published in a given academic journal will be retracted. It is calculated by multiplying the number of retracted articles in a journal during a given time period by 1,000, and then dividing the result by the total number of articles published in that journal during the same period. The term was coined in a 2011 editorial by Ferric Fang and Arturo Casadevall, the co-editors-in-chief of the journal Infection and Immunity. In their original editorial, Fang and Casadevall also showed a strong positive correlation between a journal's retraction index and its impact factor. Among the 17 journals they analyzed, the New England Journal of Medicine had the highest retraction index. The New England Journal of Medicine responded to the Feng and Casadevall editorial with a statement criticizing it for only considering papers with abstracts. The statement argued that because most articles published in each issue of the Journal do not have abstracts, the journal's retraction index appeared artificially high. They did not identify a mechanism for why this relationship might exist, but suggested that it might be because researchers are more willing to cut corners to get a paper published


id: rod-koh-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rod_Koh-0.md
category: reference
title: Rod Koh
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rod_Koh
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:11.314622+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rod-koh-20260505-0
summary:
Rod Koh or Rod Kohi (Persian: راد کوہ) is a form of irrigation system in Pakistan. Rod means channel and Koh means mountain in Persian. The Rod Kohi system based on Kulyat Riwajat (Fromulae and Traditions) which governed the irrigation system ever since the Pashtun tribes moved into Damaan. The British officers moved all these to writing during their Land Settlements in the later part of the nineteenth century. The Bolton Irrigation Notes of 1908 are still considered the Bible of Rod Kohi irrigation. Rod Koh is the main torrent bed which usually remains dry, when there is no flood, whereas Zam means the flow of perennial water coming out of springs. The flood and perennial water of the Zam is used for irrigation and drinking purpose. Zam water is classified into two categories: Buga Pani (flood water) and Kala Pani (perennial water). Rod Koh (torrent-spate-irrigation) systems go back at least as early as 330 BC and provided economic basis for some of the early civilisations. Alexander the Great, according to Arrian, sailed down the river Jhelum to its junction with Indus River. His land forces marched in two bodies on either side of the river. They noticed some form


id: rsvp-cycles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RSVP_cycles-0.md
category: reference
title: RSVP cycles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RSVP_cycles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:12.458299+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rsvp-cycles-20260505-0
summary:
RSVP cycles is a system of creative methodology for collaboration. It was developed by Lawrence Halprin and Anna Halprin. Lawrence Halprin presented the system in a 1969 book The RSVP Cycles: Creative Processes in the Human Environment.(Halprin 1970) The name is an initialism referring to its four components: Resources Anything that can be used in the process, including time, physical materials, other people, ideas, limitations etc. Score Instructions for the work. This can be identified along a gradient scale of being an Open or a Closed score. Valuaction A process of dynamically responding to the work based on values. Performance Setting the work in motion. Within each stage there is a micro-cycle, which includes all the other elements (e.g. scoring the resources, resourcing the performance, performing the score etc.). There is no set order in which stages should be completed, and one can jump from any element to any other element as long as there is consensus. == References == === Cross-reference === === Sources used === == Further reading == Halprin, Lawrence (1970). The RSVP Cycles: Creative Processes in the Human Environment. G. Braziller. Kupper, Eugene (June 1971). "Review Symposium : The RSVP Cycles: Creative Processes in the Human


id: scale-analytical-tool-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale_(analytical_tool)-0.md
category: reference
title: Scale (analytical tool)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale_(analytical_tool)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:13.738828+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scale-analytical-tool-20260505-0
summary:
In the study of complex systems and hierarchy theory, the concept of scale refers to the combination of (1) the level of analysis (for example, analyzing the whole or a specific component of the system); and (2) the level of observation (for example, observing a system as an external viewer or as an internal participant). The scale of analysis encompasses both the analytical choice of how to observe a given system or object of study, and the role of the observer in determining the identity of the system. This analytical tool is central to multi-scale analysis (see for example, MuSIASEM, land-use analysis). For example, on at the scale of analysis of a given population of zebras, the number of predators (e.g. lions) determines the number of prey that survives after hunting, while at the scale of analysis of the ecosystem, the availability of prey determines how many predators can survive in a given area. The semantic categories of "prey" and "predator" are not given, but are defined by the observer. == See also == Overview effect Scale (social sciences) == References ==


id: science-and-technology-in-asia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Asia-0.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology in Asia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Asia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:16.009537+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-in-asia-20260505-0
summary:
Science and technology in Asia is varied depending on the country and time. In the past, among Asian civilizations considered particularly notable for their contributions to science and technology were India, China and the West Asian civilizations. Countries such as Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan are recently known for technology, while China and India are also major contributors to science and technology. Other countries are also notable in other scientific fields such as chemical and physical achievements. For the science and technology of various Asian countries and civilizations, see: == East Asia == History of science and technology in China Science and technology of the Han dynasty Science and technology of the Song dynasty Science and technology of the Tang dynasty History of science and technology in the People's Republic of China Science and technology in contemporary China Science and technology in Japan History of science and technology in Japan Science and technology in South Korea History of science and technology in Korea == South Asia == History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent Science and technology in India Science and technology in Bangladesh Science and technology in Pakistan == Middle East == Timeline of science and engineering


id: science-hack-day-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Hack_Day-0.md
category: reference
title: Science Hack Day
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Hack_Day
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:17.327276+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-hack-day-20260505-0
summary:
Science Hack Day is a hack day specifically for "making weird, silly or serious things with science". The first was organized by Jeremy Keith and held at the London offices of The Guardian newspaper over the weekend 19/20 June 2010. The event was attended by around 100 participants who had 24 hours to build new hacks. Many stayed overnight at the venue and over 25 hacks were built, submitted and demo'ed by the end of the weekend. Soon thereafter a second Science Hack Day was organized by Ariel Waldman in San Francisco, and several years since, often filling up with a waitlist. Since that first year, more than 50 Science Hack Day events have taken place around the world, including a recent 2020 March Science Hack Day Dublin. The events are attended by a diverse range of science enthusiasts. == Further reading == 2010-06-21 Science Hack Day at the Guardian (The Guardian) 2013-12-03 200 Geeks, 24 Hours: Science Hack Day in San Francisco (KQED Science) == External links == Science Hack Day official site == See also == Science Foo Camp == References ==


id: scientific-communication-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_communication-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific communication
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_communication
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:18.604699+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-communication-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific communication is a part of information science and the sociology of science which study researchers' use of formal and informal information channels, their communicative roles (e.g., "gatekeepers"), the utilization of the formal publication system and similar issues. == Literature == Björk, B.C. (2005). A lifecycle model of the scientific communication process. LEARNED PUBLISHING, 18(3), 165–176. Fjordback Søndergaard, Trine; Andersen, Jack & Hjørland, Birger (2003). Documents and the communication of scientific and scholarly information. Revising and updating the UNISIST model. Hurd, J. M. (2000). The transformation of scientific communication: A model for 2020. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 51(14), 1279–1283. Kling, R. & McKim, G. (2000). Not just a matter of time: Field differences and the shaping of electronic media in supporting scientific communication. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR INFORMATION SCIENCE, 51(14), 1306–1320. Nelson, C. E. & Pollock, D. K. (Eds.). (1970). Communication Among Scientists and Engineers. Lexington, Massachusetts: Health Lexington Books. Meadows, A. J. (1974). Communication in Science. London: Butterworths. Meadows, A. J. (1998). Communicating Research. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Mogull, S. A. (2017). Scientific and Medical Communication: A Guide for Effective Practice. New York: Routledge. Vickery, B. (2000). Scientific Communication in History. Lanham,


id: scientific-demonstration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_demonstration-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific demonstration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_demonstration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:19.850797+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-demonstration-20260505-0
summary:
A scientific demonstration is a procedure carried out for the purposes of demonstrating scientific principles, rather than for hypothesis testing or knowledge gathering (although they may originally have been carried out for these purposes). Most scientific demonstrations are simple laboratory demonstrations intended to demonstrate physical principles, often in a surprising or entertaining way. They are carried out in schools and universities, and sometimes in public demonstrations in popular science lectures and TV programs aimed at the public. Many scientific demonstrations are chosen for their combination of educational merit and entertainment value, which is often provided by dramatic phenomena such as explosions. Public scientific demonstrations were a common occurrence in the Age of Enlightenment, and have long been a feature of the British Royal Institution Christmas Lectures, which date back to 1825. In the television era, scientific demonstrations have featured in science-related entertainment shows such as MythBusters and Brainiac: Science Abuse. Many scientific demonstrations are potentially dangerous, and should not be attempted without considerable laboratory experience and appropriate safety precautions. Many older well-known scientific demonstrations, once mainstays of science education, are now effectively impossible to demonstrate to an audience without breaking health and safety laws. Some older demonstrations, such as allowing


id: scientific-lacuna-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_lacuna-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific lacuna
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_lacuna
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:21.080093+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-lacuna-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific lacuna describes an area of science that has not been studied but has the potential to be studied scientifically. Often, this may be the case because it falls between different areas of sciences, such that it doesn't fall into a single specific discipline of science. However, it also may be the case that the right situation for study has not yet occurred, or the conditions for study have been too ephemeral. Scientific lacunae often have the potential to be studied in the future when more areas of sciences are explicitly defined or the right conditions do occur, yet this can be made difficult if the area of science is commonly not considered a proper area for scientific study. == References ==


