# kb

id: social-darwinism-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Darwinism-6.md
category: reference
title: Social Darwinism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Darwinism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:31.343708+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-darwinism-20260505-0
summary:
=== Secondary sources === Bannister, Robert C. (1989), Social Darwinism: Science and Myth in Anglo-American Social Thought, ISBN 9780877225669. Bannister, Robert C. (1987), Sociology and Scientism: The American Quest for Objectivity, 1880–1940, ISBN 9780807817339. Bernardini, J.-M. (1997), Le darwinisme social en France (1859–1918). Fascination et rejet d'une idéologie, CNRS Edition, ISBN 9782271054838. Boller, Paul F., Jr. (1969), American Thought in Transition: The Impact of Evolutionary Naturalism, 1865–1900, OCLC 12715, archived from the original on 4 June 2011{{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link). Bowler, Peter J. (2003), Evolution: The History of an Idea (3rd ed.), University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520236936. Crook, Paul (1994), Darwinism, War and History : The Debate over the Biology of War from the 'Origin of Species' to the First World War, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9780521444651. Crook, Paul (1997), Social Darwinism in European and American Thought, 1860–1945, doi:10.1017/CBO9780511558481, ISBN 9780511558481, archived from the original on 4 June 2011. Crook, Paul (2007), Darwin's Coat-Tails: Essays on Social Darwinism, Peter Lang, ISBN 9780820481388. Degler, Carl N. (1992), In Search of Human Nature: The Decline and Revival of Darwinism in American Social Thought, Oxford University Press, ISBN 9780195063806. Desmond, Adrian; Moore, James (1991), Darwin, London: Michael Joseph,


id: socionics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socionics-0.md
category: reference
title: Socionics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socionics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:32.583410+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: socionics-20260505-0
summary:
In psychology and sociology, socionics is a pseudoscientific theory of information processing and personality types. It incorporates Carl Jung's work on Psychological Types with Antoni Kępiński's theory of information metabolism. In contrast to the generally accepted views in personality psychology on age-related variability of the human psyche, socionics distinguishes 16 psychophysiological types (sociotypes) which it claims go unchanged throughout a person's life. The existence of personality types is extremely controversial in modern personality psychology. Socionics was developed in the 1970s and 1980s, primarily by the Lithuanian researcher Aušra Augustinavičiūtė. The name "socionics" is derived from the word "society", because Augustinavičiūtė believed that each sociotype has a distinct purpose in society. The central idea of socionics is that information is intuitively divisible into eight categories, called information elements, which a person's psyche processes using eight psychological functions. Each sociotype has a different correspondence between functions and information elements, which it posits results in different ways of handling information and distinct thinking patterns. One prevalent idea in socionics is the theory of intertype relations, which is based on the interaction of these functions between types. Independent authors point to the insufficient empirical validity of socionics both in its basis and in its


id: socionics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socionics-1.md
category: reference
title: Socionics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socionics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:32.583410+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: socionics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Socionics as an academic discipline === Through the work of the International Institute of Socionics and other schools of socionics, there are four scientific peer-reviewed journals (on the practical application of the methods of socionics in management, consulting, psychology, pedagogy, education, psychotherapy, and humanities) and an annual International conference on socionics. The Institute gives "popularization and proliferation of socionic knowledge" as one of its goals. Svetlana V. Ivanova claims that socionics is taught in more than 150 universities in Russia, Ukraine and other CIS and European Union countries. Areas of research include educational socionics, sociological socionics, aviation socionics, library socionics, technical socionics, linguistic socionics, penitentiary socionics, and socionics in other subject areas. Socionics is used in education, not only as a tool for teachers to manage the learning process, but also as a basis for the development and improvement of education and training. Bogdanova claim that a teacher holding socionic knowledge and technologies can consciously collaborate with others and improve professional efficiency. Targeted use of intertype relations helps intensify the didactic process, increase the motivation of students. Socionics is also used to assess the individual psychological and personal qualities to forecast the success of employee career. Izmailova and Kiseleva


id: socionics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socionics-2.md
category: reference
title: Socionics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socionics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:32.583410+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: socionics-20260505-0
summary:
== The 16 types == Augustinavičiūtė usually used names like sensory-logical introvert (SLI) to refer to the types. In SLI the leading function is introverted sensation and the creative function is extraverted logic. She also introduced the practice of referring to types by the name of a famous person of the type (although types of these persons are not universally agreed upon, with the old name Napoleon for the SEE being replaced by Caesar after being deemed an inaccurate type assignment). For example, she called the SLI Gabin and the SEI Dumas. Also sometimes names such as Craftsman or Mediator are used to express the social role of the type—a convention introduced by socionist Viktor Gulenko in 1995. Given the formal similarities present between Socionics and the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) abbreviations frequently used in English, some prefer to distinguish socionic type names from Myers–Briggs' names by writing the last letter (J or P) in lower case (for example, ENTp, ESFj)—a practice introduced by Sergei Ganin. This is because the relationship between socionics and Myers–Briggs and Keirseyan types is controversial. Dmitri Lytov and Marianna Lytova state that "main spheres of application of socionics are almost the same as for the


id: somatic-psychology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatic_psychology-0.md
category: reference
title: Somatic psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatic_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:33.819990+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: somatic-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
Somatic psychology or, more precisely, somatic clinical psychotherapy is a form of psychotherapy that focuses on somatic experience, including therapeutic and holistic approaches to the body. It seeks to explore and heal mental and physical injury and trauma through body awareness and movement. Wilhelm Reich was first to try to develop a clear psychodynamic approach that included the body. Several types of body-oriented psychotherapies trace their origins back to Reich, though there have been many subsequent developments and other influences on body psychotherapy, and somatic psychology is of particular interest in trauma work. Trauma describes a long-lasting distressing experience that can be subconsciously stored and bear upon bodily health. Somatic psychology seeks to describe, explain and understand the nature of embodied consciousness and bridge the philosophical mind-body problem. == Origins == The word soma comes from σῶμα, the Ancient Greek word for body; psyche (ψυχή) evolved from a word for breath to mean life or spirit; and -logy (-λογία) means “study of”. Studying the relationship between the body and the psyche, meaning mind, soul or spirit, is an ancient practice. In the West, systematic study and debate about the body-mind relationship intensified with the Renaissance and the Scientific Revolution within


id: somatic-psychology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatic_psychology-1.md
category: reference
title: Somatic psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatic_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:33.819990+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: somatic-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
== Efficiency/positivism == The effectiveness of somatic psychology and experiencing is still unclear. There are studies that show beneficial data points of somatic experiencing on PTSD-associated symptoms and depression. Somatic experiencing also showed positive impacts on affective and somatic symptoms, and general well-being outside of PTSD-treatment. Different limitations are encountered within studies that show positive results, such as small samples and not following rigorous methodological criteria. Insufficient research has been done to evaluate and compare the differential impacts of various modalities, despite the results of those modalities being relatively similar. The data is encouraging, but more objective studies are required to completely comprehend the efficacy of somatic psychology and experiencing, and improving the method-specific factors. == East Asian examples of somatic psychology == == Criticism == Few studies have shown the beneficial effects of implementing somatic psychology into PTSD treatment, but the conclusion on the effectiveness of somatic therapy has yet to be established. Assessing the efficacy of that method, requires a broader examination of scientific research on body-oriented psychotherapy. Another problem regarding the subject is an increased potential for re-traumatization of a patient. While somatic experiencing can be healing, it is also accessing trauma stored deeply in the body.


id: somatotype-and-constitutional-psychology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatotype_and_constitutional_psychology-0.md
category: reference
title: Somatotype and constitutional psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatotype_and_constitutional_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:34.991640+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: somatotype-and-constitutional-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
Somatotype is a theory proposed in the 1940s by the American psychologist William Herbert Sheldon to categorize the human physique according to the relative contribution of three fundamental elements which he termed somatotypes, classified by him as ectomorphic, mesomorphic, and endomorphic. He created these terms borrowing from the three germ layers of embryonic development: The endoderm (which develops into the digestive tract), the mesoderm (which becomes muscle, heart, and blood vessels) and the ectoderm (which forms the skin and nervous system). Later variations of these categories, developed by his original research assistant Barbara Heath, and later by Lindsay Carter and Rob Rempel, are used by academics today. Constitutional psychology is a theory developed by Sheldon in the 1940s, which attempted to associate his somatotype classifications with human temperament types. The foundation of these ideas originated with Francis Galton and eugenics. Sheldon and Earnest Hooton were seen as leaders of a school of thought, popular in anthropology at the time, which held that the size and shape of a person's body indicated intelligence, moral worth and future achievement. In his 1954 book, Atlas of Men, Sheldon categorized all possible body types according to a scale ranging from 1 to 7 for


id: specified-complexity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specified_complexity-0.md
category: reference
title: Specified complexity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specified_complexity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:37.337579+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: specified-complexity-20260505-0
summary:
Specified complexity is a creationist intelligent design argument introduced by William Dembski. According to Dembski, the concept can formalize a property that singles out patterns that are both specified and complex, where in Dembski's terminology, a specified pattern is one that admits short descriptions, whereas a complex pattern is one that is unlikely to occur by chance. An example cited by Dembski is a poker hand, where for example the repeated appearance of a royal flush will raise suspicion of cheating. Proponents of intelligent design use specified complexity as one of their two main arguments, along with irreducible complexity. Dembski argues that it is impossible for specified complexity to exist in patterns displayed by configurations formed by unguided processes. Therefore, Dembski argues, the fact that specified complex patterns can be found in living things indicates some kind of guidance in their formation, which is indicative of intelligence. Dembski further argues that one can show by applying no-free-lunch theorems the inability of evolutionary algorithms to select or generate configurations of high specified complexity. Dembski states that specified complexity is a reliable marker of design by an intelligent agent—a central tenet to intelligent design, which Dembski argues for in opposition to modern


id: specified-complexity-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specified_complexity-1.md
category: reference
title: Specified complexity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specified_complexity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:37.337579+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: specified-complexity-20260505-0
summary:
=== Dembski's definition === Whereas Orgel used the term for biological features which are considered in science to have arisen through a process of evolution, Dembski says that it describes features which cannot form through "undirected" evolution—and concludes that it allows one to infer intelligent design. While Orgel employed the concept in a qualitative way, Dembski's use is intended to be quantitative. Dembski's use of the concept dates to his 1998 monograph The Design Inference. Specified complexity is fundamental to his approach to intelligent design, and each of his subsequent books has also dealt significantly with the concept. He has stated that, in his opinion, "if there is a way to detect design, specified complexity is it". Dembski asserts that specified complexity is present in a configuration when it can be described by a pattern that displays a large amount of independently specified information and is also complex, which he defines as having a low probability of occurrence. He provides the following examples to demonstrate the concept: "A single letter of the alphabet is specified without being complex. A long sentence of random letters is complex without being specified. A Shakespearean sonnet is both complex and specified." In his earlier


id: specified-complexity-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specified_complexity-2.md
category: reference
title: Specified complexity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specified_complexity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:37.337579+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: specified-complexity-20260505-0
summary:
where P(T) is the probability of observing the pattern T, R is the number of "replicational resources" available "to witnessing agents". R corresponds roughly to repeated attempts to create and discern a pattern. Dembski then asserts that R can be bounded by 10120. This number is supposedly justified by a result of Seth Lloyd in which he determines that the number of elementary logic operations that can have been performed in the universe over its entire history cannot exceed 10120 operations on 1090 bits. Dembski's main claim is that the following test can be used to infer design for a configuration: There is a target pattern T that applies to the configuration and whose specified complexity exceeds 1. This condition can be restated as the inequality 10 120 × φ ( T ) × P ⁡ ( T ) < 1 2 . {\displaystyle 10^{120}\times \varphi (T)\times \operatorname {P} (T)<{\frac {1}{2}}.} === Dembski's explanation of specified complexity === Dembski's expression σ is unrelated to any known concept in information theory, though he claims he can justify its relevance as follows: An intelligent agent S witnesses an event E and assigns it to some reference class of events Ω and within


id: specified-complexity-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specified_complexity-3.md
category: reference
title: Specified complexity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specified_complexity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:37.337579+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: specified-complexity-20260505-0
summary:
The soundness of Dembski's concept of specified complexity and the validity of arguments based on this concept are widely disputed. A frequent criticism (see Elsberry and Shallit) is that Dembski has used the terms "complexity", "information" and "improbability" interchangeably. These numbers measure properties of things of different types: Complexity measures how hard it is to describe an object (such as a bitstring), information is how much the uncertainty about the state of an object is reduced by knowing the state of another object or system, and improbability measures how unlikely an event is given a probability distribution. On page 150 of No Free Lunch Dembski claims he can demonstrate his thesis mathematically: "In this section I will present an in-principle mathematical argument for why natural causes are incapable of generating complex specified information." When Tellgren investigated Dembski's "Law of Conservation of Information" using a more formal approach, he concluded it is mathematically unsubstantiated. Dembski responded in part that he is not "in the business of offering a strict mathematical proof for the inability of material mechanisms to generate specified complexity". Jeffrey Shallit states that Demski's mathematical argument has multiple problems, for example; a crucial calculation on page 297 of No


id: stainless-steel-soap-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stainless_steel_soap-0.md
category: reference
title: Stainless steel soap
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stainless_steel_soap
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:38.527818+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stainless-steel-soap-20260505-0
summary:
Stainless steel soap is a piece of stainless steel, in the form of a soap bar or other hand-held shape. Its purpose is to neutralize or reduce strong odors such as those from handling garlic, onion, durian, guava, salami, or fish. No published scientific studies are known to have been conducted on the efficacy of these soaps, about which serious doubts have been raised. == Proposed mechanism == === The chemistry of garlic === The characteristic taste and odor of garlic is due to an oily, slightly yellow organosulfur compound S-Allyl prop-2-ene-1-sulfinothioate, commonly called allicin. Fresh garlic has little odor until it is chopped or crushed. Allicin is produced from alliin (a derivative of the amino acid cysteine) by the enzyme alliinase. Allicin is unstable and breaks down to form other sulfur compounds such as diallyl sulfides. These compounds contribute to the smell of fresh garlic. When on the hands these sulfur compounds can further degrade into other sulfur compounds, including sulfuric acid, in the presence of water. === The chemistry of stainless steel === Steel is an alloy made up of iron mixed with carbon. Stainless steel is composed of steel mixed with at least 10.5% chromium, and often


id: stargate-project-u-s-army-unit-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stargate_Project_(U.S._Army_unit)-0.md
category: reference
title: Stargate Project (U.S. Army unit)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stargate_Project_(U.S._Army_unit)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:39.702710+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stargate-project-u-s-army-unit-20260505-0
summary:
Stargate Project was a secret United States Army unit established in 1977 at Fort Meade, Maryland, by the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) and Stanford Research Institute (SRI), a California contractor, to investigate the potential for psychic phenomena in military and domestic intelligence applications. The project, and its precursors and sister projects, originally went by various code names — including "Gondola Wish", "Grill Flame" and "Center Lane" under INSCOM, "Sun Streak" and "Star Gate" under the DIA, "Star Gate" and "SCANATE" under the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), and "Project CF" — until 1991, when they were consolidated and collectively renamed the "Stargate Project". The Stargate Project's work primarily involved remote viewing, the purported ability to psychically "see" events, sites, or information from a great distance. The project was overseen until 1987 by Lt. Frederick Holmes "Skip" Atwater (born 1947), an aide and "psychic headhunter" to Maj. Gen. Albert Stubblebine, and later president of the Monroe Institute. The unit was small-scale, comprising about 15 to 20 individuals, and was run out of "an old, leaky wooden barracks". The Stargate Project was terminated and declassified in 1995 after a commissioned review by the CIA concluded that it was never useful in any intelligence


id: stargate-project-u-s-army-unit-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stargate_Project_(U.S._Army_unit)-1.md
category: reference
title: Stargate Project (U.S. Army unit)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stargate_Project_(U.S._Army_unit)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:39.702710+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stargate-project-u-s-army-unit-20260505-0
summary:
=== Closure (1995) === In 1995, the defense appropriations bill directed that the program be transferred from DIA to CIA oversight. The CIA commissioned a report by the American Institutes for Research (AIR) that found that remote viewing had not been proved to work by a psychic mechanism, and said it had not been used operationally. The CIA subsequently cancelled and declassified the program. In 1995 the project was transferred to the CIA and a retrospective evaluation of the results was done. The appointed panel consisted primarily of Jessica Utts, Meena Shah and Ray Hyman. Utts and Hyman were appointed because, in addition to their extensive scientific credentials, they represented both sides of the paranormal controversy, although the AIR considered both of them 'fair and open-minded scientists'. Hyman had produced an unflattering report on Uri Geller and SRI for the government two decades earlier, but the psychologist David Marks found Utts' appointment to the review panel "puzzling" given that she had published papers with Edwin May, one of the main researchers on the Stargate Project, considering this joint research likely to make her "less than [im]partial". A report by Utts claimed the results were evidence of psychic functioning; however, Hyman


id: stargate-project-u-s-army-unit-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stargate_Project_(U.S._Army_unit)-2.md
category: reference
title: Stargate Project (U.S. Army unit)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stargate_Project_(U.S._Army_unit)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:39.702710+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stargate-project-u-s-army-unit-20260505-0
summary:
== Methodology == According to Joseph McMoneagle, the Stargate Project created a set of protocols designed to make the research of clairvoyance and out-of-body experiences more scientific, and to minimize as much as possible session noise and inaccuracy. He wrote that the term "remote viewing" emerged as shorthand to describe this more structured approach to clairvoyance. McMoneagle said Project Stargate would only receive a mission after all other intelligence attempts, methods, or approaches had already been exhausted. McMoneagle claims that at peak manpower there were over 22 active military and civilian remote viewers providing data, and people leaving the project were not replaced so that when the project closed in 1995 this number had dwindled down to three, one of which was using tarot cards. According to McMoneagle, "The Army never had a truly open attitude toward psychic functioning", hence, the use of the term "giggle factor". and the saying, "I wouldn't want to be found dead next to a psychic". == Civilian personnel == === Hal Puthoff === In the 1970s, CIA and DIA granted funds to Harold E. Puthoff to investigate paranormal abilities, collaborating with Russell Targ in a study of the purported psychic abilities of Uri Geller,


id: stargate-project-u-s-army-unit-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stargate_Project_(U.S._Army_unit)-3.md
category: reference
title: Stargate Project (U.S. Army unit)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stargate_Project_(U.S._Army_unit)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:39.702710+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stargate-project-u-s-army-unit-20260505-0
summary:
McMoneagle claims he had a remarkable memory of very early childhood events. He grew up surrounded by alcoholism, abuse and poverty. As a child, he had visions at night when scared, and began to hone his psychic abilities in his teens for his own protection when he hitchhiked. He enlisted in the Army to get away from home. McMoneagle became an experimental remote viewer while serving in U.S. Army Intelligence. === Ed Dames === Ed Dames' role was intended to be as session monitor and analyst as an aid to Fred Atwater rather than a remote viewer, Dames received no formal remote viewing training. After his assignment to the remote viewing unit at the end of January 1986, he was used to "run" remote viewers (as monitor) and provide training and practice sessions to viewer personnel. He soon established a reputation for pushing CRV to extremes, with target sessions on Atlantis, Mars, UFOs, and aliens. He has been a frequent guest on the Coast to Coast AM radio shows. == Archives of the Impossible == The Archives of the Impossible (AOTI) of Rice University at Houston, Texas is a special collection founded in 2014 by Jeffrey J. Kripal, a professor


id: statement-analysis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statement_analysis-0.md
category: reference
title: Statement analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statement_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:40.874512+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: statement-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
Statement analysis, also called scientific content analysis (SCAN), is a pseudoscientific technique for analyzing the words people use to try to determine if what they said is accurate. Proponents claim this technique can be used to detect concealed information, missing information, embedded confessions and whether the information that person has provided is true or false. Multiple empirical studies have found SCAN techniques to be unreliable at correctly separating true and false statements. SCAN is generally not accepted by courts and has been described as a form of pseudoscience. == About == Related to statement analysis is a different technique for analyzing the words people use called "statement validity assessment" (SVA). The SVA is a tool that was originally designed to determine the credibility of child witnesses testimonies in trials for sexual offences. The "criteria-based content analysis" (CBCA) is a core component of the SVA and is a tool used to distinguish true statements from false statements as CBCA scores are expected to be higher for truth tellers than liars. A qualitative review of the CBCA analyzed 37 studies, strong support for the tool was established as truth tellers obtained significantly higher CBCA scores compared to the liars. More recently, a


id: strauss-howe-generational-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strauss–Howe_generational_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Strauss–Howe generational theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strauss–Howe_generational_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:42.254783+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: strauss-howe-generational-theory-20260505-0
summary:
The Strauss–Howe generational theory, devised by William Strauss and Neil Howe, describes a theorized recurring generation cycle in American and Western history in which historical events are associated with recurring generational personas called archetypes. Each generational persona unleashes a new era (called a "turning") lasting around 21 years, in which a new social, political, and economic climate ("mood") exists. They are part of a larger cyclical "saeculum", a long human life, which usually spans around 85 years, although some saecula have lasted longer. The theory states that a crisis recurs in American history after every saeculum, which is followed by a recovery ("high"). During this recovery, institutions and communitarian values are strong. Ultimately, succeeding generational archetypes attack and weaken institutions in the name of autonomy and individualism, which eventually creates a tumultuous political environment that ripens conditions for another crisis. Academic response to the theory has been mixed, with some applauding Strauss and Howe for their "bold and imaginative thesis", while others have criticized the theory as being overly deterministic, unfalsifiable, and unsupported by rigorous evidence. The theory has been influential in the fields of generational studies, marketing, and business management literature. However, the theory has also been described by


id: strauss-howe-generational-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strauss–Howe_generational_theory-1.md
category: reference
title: Strauss–Howe generational theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strauss–Howe_generational_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:42.254783+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: strauss-howe-generational-theory-20260505-0
summary:
They attempted to find the reason why the Boomers and the G.I.s had developed such different ways of looking at the world, and what it was about these generations' experiences growing up that prompted their different outlooks. They also wanted to find patterns in previous generations, and their research discussed historical analogs to the current generations. They ultimately described a recurring pattern in the Anglo-American history of four generational types, each with a distinct collective persona, and a corresponding cycle of four different types of eras, each with a distinct "mood". Strauss and Howe laid the groundwork for their theory in their book Generations: The History of America's Future, 1584 to 2069 (1991), which discusses the history of the United States as a series of generational biographies going back to 1584. Strauss and Howe followed in 1993 with their second book 13th Gen: Abort, Retry, Ignore, Fail?, which was published while Gen Xers were teenagers and young adults. The book examines the generation born between 1961 and 1981, "Gen-Xers" (which they called "13ers", describing them as the thirteenth generation since the US became a nation). The book asserts that 13ers' location in history as under-protected children during the Sexual Revolution


id: strauss-howe-generational-theory-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strauss–Howe_generational_theory-2.md
category: reference
title: Strauss–Howe generational theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strauss–Howe_generational_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:42.254783+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: strauss-howe-generational-theory-20260505-0
summary:
== Defining a generation == Strauss and Howe describe the history of the U.S. as a succession of Anglo-American generational biographies from 1433 to the present, and theorized a recurring generational cycle in American history. The authors posit a pattern of four repeating phases, generational types, and a recurring cycle of spiritual awakenings and secular crises, from the founding colonials of America through the present day. Strauss and Howe define a social generation as the aggregate of all people born over a span of roughly 21 years or about the length of one phase of life: childhood, young adulthood, midlife, and old age. Generations are identified (from the first birthyear to last) by looking for cohort groups of this length that share three criteria. First, members of a generation share what the authors call an age location in history: they encounter key historical events and social trends while occupying the same phase of life. In this view, members of a generation are shaped in lasting ways by the eras they encounter as children and young adults and they share certain common beliefs and behaviors. Aware of the experiences and traits that they share with their peers, members of a generation


id: strauss-howe-generational-theory-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strauss–Howe_generational_theory-3.md
category: reference
title: Strauss–Howe generational theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strauss–Howe_generational_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:42.254783+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: strauss-howe-generational-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Cycle === The authors describe each turning as lasting circa 21 years. Four turnings make up a full cycle of circa 85 years, which the authors term a saeculum, after the Latin word meaning both "a long human life" and "a natural century". Generational change drives the cycle of turnings and determines its periodicity. As each generation ages into the next life phase (and a new social role) society's mood and behavior fundamentally change, giving rise to a new turning. Historical events shape generations in childhood and young adulthood; then, as parents and leaders in midlife and old age, generations in turn shape history. Each of the four turnings has a distinct "mood" that recurs every saeculum. Strauss and Howe describe these turnings as the "seasons of history". At one extreme is the Awakening, which is analogous to summer, and at the other extreme is the Crisis, which is analogous to winter. The High and the Unraveling are similar to spring and autumn, respectively. Strauss and Howe have discussed 26 theorized turnings over 7 saecula in Anglo-American history, from the year 1433 to today. The core of Strauss and Howe's ideas is a basic alternation between two different types


id: strauss-howe-generational-theory-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strauss–Howe_generational_theory-4.md
category: reference
title: Strauss–Howe generational theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strauss–Howe_generational_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:42.254783+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: strauss-howe-generational-theory-20260505-0
summary:
==== Arthurian Generation ==== The arthurian generation was born between 1433 and 1460 and is of the hero archetype. Members of the generation grew up during England's retreat from the Hundred Years' War in France, during an era of rising civil unrest. ==== Humanist Generation ==== The humanist generation was born between 1461 and 1482 and is of the artist/adaptive archetype. This generation grew up at the height of the Middle Ages, just prior to the Reformation and Renaissance. The educated middle classes are influenced by Renaissance Humanist teaching and presented with a clear career path through the church or State bureaucracy. Humanist influences took hold across Europe, and in many ways prepared the intellectual landscape for the coming reformation. Their youth coincided with the development of the European Printing press allowing greater dissemination of knowledge. According to Strauss and Howe, they became Greek language tutors, international scholars, poets, prelates, and literate merchants and yeomen. They described their education produced by the humanist generation as being focused on the qualitative and the subjective, rather than the quantitative and the objective. Some of the notable people who influenced this generation include Thomas More, Erasmus, Thomas Linacre, John Colet, Cardinal Wolsey, Michelangelo,


id: strauss-howe-generational-theory-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strauss–Howe_generational_theory-5.md
category: reference
title: Strauss–Howe generational theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strauss–Howe_generational_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:42.254783+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: strauss-howe-generational-theory-20260505-0
summary:
==== Republican Generation ==== The republican generation (hero archetype) was born between 1742 and 1766. This generation is known for participating in several global revolutionary movements during the Age of Revolution. This generation witnessed political turmoil in response to the widespread expansion of European imperialism and the vast social inequalities exacerbated by ruthless competition between rival empires in Europe, the Americas and Asia. They came of age during a time when the viability of mercantilism and imperialism was being questioned both in Europe and the Americas. Relying on Enlightenment philosophy, they unleashed violent episodes of revolution, vilified Monarchy, and promoted Republicanism. In colonial America, they participated in the American Revolutionary War, secured America's independence from British rule, and established the American government. Many founding fathers and leading figures in the early years of the independent United States belong to this generation, including U.S. presidents Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and James Monroe, as well as the leading figures of the French Revolution such as Maximilien Robespierre, Georges Danton, and Camille Desmoulins. ==== Compromise Generation ==== The compromise generation was born between 1767 and 1791 and was of the artist archetype. They "rocked in the cradle of the Revolution" as they watched


id: strauss-howe-generational-theory-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strauss–Howe_generational_theory-6.md
category: reference
title: Strauss–Howe generational theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strauss–Howe_generational_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:42.254783+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: strauss-howe-generational-theory-20260505-0
summary:
== Timing of generations and turnings == Strauss and Howe argue that the basic length of both generations and turnings—approximately 21 years—derives from longstanding socially and biologically determined phases of life. This is the reason it has remained relatively constant over centuries. Some have argued that rapid increases in technology in recent decades are shortening the length of a generation. According to Strauss and Howe, this is not the case. As long as the transition to adulthood occurs around age 21, the transition to midlife around age 43, and the transition to old age around age 65, they say the basic length of both generations and turnings will remain the same. In their book, The Fourth Turning, Strauss and Howe say that the precise boundaries of generations and turnings are erratic. Strauss and Howe compare the saecular rhythm to the four seasons, which they say similarly occur in the same order, but with slightly varying timing. They claimed that the same is true for a Fourth Turning in any given saeculum. == Critical reception == The Strauss and Howe interpretation of history through a generational lens has received mixed reviews and described as a form of pseudoscience. Some reviewers have


id: strauss-howe-generational-theory-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strauss–Howe_generational_theory-7.md
category: reference
title: Strauss–Howe generational theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strauss–Howe_generational_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:42.254783+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: strauss-howe-generational-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Generations: The History of America's Future, 1584 to 2069 === After the publication of their first book Generations, Morton Keller, a professor of history at Brandeis University, said that the authors "had done their homework". He said that their theory could be seen as pop sociology and that it would "come in for a lot more criticism as history. But it's almost always true that the broader you cast your net, the more holes it's going to have. And I admire [the authors'] boldness." Sociologist David Riesman and political scientist Richard Neustadt offered strong, if qualified, praise. Riesman found in the work an "impressive grasp of a great many theoretical and historical bits and pieces" and Neustadt said Strauss and Howe "are asking damned important questions, and I honor them." The Times Literary Supplement called it "fascinating", but also "about as vague and plausible as astrological predictions". Publishers Weekly called it "as woolly as a newspaper horoscope". In 1991, Jonathan Alter wrote in Newsweek that Generations was a "provocative, erudite and engaging analysis of the rhythms of American life". However, he believed it was also "an elaborate historical horoscope that will never withstand scholarly scrutiny." He continued, "these sequential


id: strauss-howe-generational-theory-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strauss–Howe_generational_theory-8.md
category: reference
title: Strauss–Howe generational theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strauss–Howe_generational_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:42.254783+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: strauss-howe-generational-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== The Fourth Turning === In his review for the Boston Globe, historian David Kaiser called The Fourth Turning "a provocative and immensely entertaining outline of American history, Strauss and Howe have taken a gamble". "If the United States calmly makes it to 2015, their work will end up in the ashcan of history, but if they are right, they will take their place among the great American prophets." Kaiser has since argued that the crises which Strauss and Howe predicted seem to have occurred, citing events such as 9/11, the 2008 financial crisis, and the recent political gridlock. Kaiser has incorporated Strauss and Howe's theory in two historical works of his own, American Tragedy: Kennedy, Johnson, and the Origins of the Vietnam War (2000), and No End Save Victory: How FDR Led the Nation into War (2014). Michael Lind, a historian and co-founder of the New America Foundation, wrote that The Fourth Turning (1997) was vague and verged into the realm of "pseudoscience"; "most of the authors' predictions about the American future turn out to be as vague as those of fortune cookies". Lind said that the theory is essential "non-falsifiable" and "mystifying." For The New York Times in


id: strauss-howe-generational-theory-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strauss–Howe_generational_theory-9.md
category: reference
title: Strauss–Howe generational theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strauss–Howe_generational_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:42.254783+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: strauss-howe-generational-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== General === In 2006, Frank Giancola wrote an article in Human Resource Planning that stated "the emphasis on generational differences is not generally borne out by empirical research, despite its popularity". In 2016 an article was published that explains the differences in generations, observed with the employer's position, through the development of working conditions, initiated by the employer. This development is due to the competition of firms on the job market for receiving more highly skilled workers. New working conditions as a product on the market have a classic product life-cycle and when they become widespread standard expectations of employees change accordingly. One criticism of Strauss and Howe's theory and generational studies is that conclusions are overly broad and do not reflect the reality of every person in each generation regardless of their race, color, national origin, religion, sex, age, disability, or genetic information. For example, in 2009 Eric Hoover cited the case of Millennials, noting that "... commentators have tended to label white, affluent teenagers who accomplish great things as they grow up in the suburbs, who confront anxiety when applying to super-selective colleges, and who multitask with ease as their helicopter parents hover reassuringly above them as


id: suggestopedia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suggestopedia-0.md
category: reference
title: Suggestopedia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suggestopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:43.489493+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: suggestopedia-20260505-0
summary:
Suggestopedia, a portmanteau of "suggestion" and "pedagogy" is a teaching method used to learn foreign languages developed by the Bulgarian psychiatrist Georgi Lozanov. It is also known as desuggestopedia. First developed in the 1970s, suggestopedia utilised positive suggestions in teaching language. In 1978, Lozanov presented the method to a commission in Paris at UNESCO. Two years later in 1980, UNESCO issued their final report with various mixed views on the theory. On the one hand, it affirmed suggestopedia as a language learning technique for second-language speakers, but the report also included various criticisms of the theory. == Practice == Suggestopedia asserts that the physical surroundings and atmosphere of classroom are vital factors in making sure that "students feel comfortable and confident". It also promotes various techniques, including art and music, in teaching languages. The pedagogy of suggestopedia consists of three phases: deciphering, concert session, and elaboration. Deciphering: In the deciphering phase, a teacher introduces to their students some written or spoken content. In most materials the foreign-language text is on the left half of the page with a translation on the right half. Concert session: The concert session phase consists of active and passive sessions. In the active session, the


id: sun-language-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_Language_Theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Sun Language Theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_Language_Theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:44.652220+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sun-language-theory-20260505-0
summary:
The Sun Language Theory (Turkish: Güneş Dil Teorisi) was a Turkish pseudolinguistic, pseudoscientific quasi-hypothesis developed in Turkey in the 1930s that proposed that all human languages are descendants of one proto-Turkic primal language. The theory's promotion of Turks as a progenitor race led to it finding favour among Turkish ultranationalists, who used it to justify their nationalist ideology. It claims that primal language had close phonemic resemblances to Turkish and, because of this, all other languages can be traced back to Turkic roots. According to the theory, this primal language originated among Central Asian worshippers who created it as a means to salute the omnipotence of the sun and its life-giving qualities, hence the name. == Origins == Influences on the theory included: the ideas of the French historian Hilaire de Barenton, expressed in "L'Origine des Langues, des Religions et des Peuples" ("The Origin of Languages, Religions and Peoples"), that all languages originated from hieroglyphs and cuneiform used by Sumerians. Turkish linguists claimed a Turkish origin for the Sumerians, and therefore the origin of language was Turkish. a paper of the Austrian linguist Hermann F. Kvergić of Vienna entitled "La psychologie de quelques éléments des langues Turques" ("The Psychology of


id: superconscious-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superconscious-0.md
category: reference
title: Superconscious
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superconscious
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:45.814674+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: superconscious-20260505-0
summary:
The superconscious (also super-conscious or super conscious) is a proposed aspect of mind to accompany the conscious and subconscious and/or unconscious. According to its proponents, the superconscious is able to acquire knowledge through non-physical or psychic mechanisms and pass that knowledge to the conscious mind. It therefore is purported to transcend ordinary consciousness. The term is also used to describe transcendental states of consciousness achieved through meditation and related practices, thus accessing the superconscious mind directly. According to this model, knowledge acquired by the superconscious need not be from the present or nearby. It may be from the past or future, from a physically remote present, or of beings undetectable by the physical senses. Superconsciousness is therefore believed by its supporters to provide an explanation for psychic phenomena such as precognition, remote vision and seances. Mainstream science does not recognise such psychic phenomena as genuine, and therefore regards theories to account for them as pseudoscience. == History == An early exponent of the superconscious was William Walker Atkinson, an American occultist and prolific author of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The idea was expanded on by British novelist, playwright, World War I-era activist and spiritualist Edith Lyttelton. More


id: superstition-in-pakistan-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_Pakistan-0.md
category: reference
title: Superstition in Pakistan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstition_in_Pakistan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:48.219387+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: superstition-in-pakistan-20260505-0
summary:
Superstition in Pakistan (Urdu: پاکستانی توهم پرستی) is widespread and many adverse events are attributed to the supernatural effect. Superstition is a belief in supernatural causality: that one event leads to the cause of another without any physical process linking the two events, such as astrology, omens, witchcraft, etc., that contradicts natural science. In Pakistan, the Magical thinking pervades as many acts and events are attributed to supernatural and ritual, such as prayer, sacrifice, or the observance of a taboo are followed. Many believe that magic is effective psychologically as it has placebo effect to psychosomatic diseases. Scholars of Islam view superstition as shirk, denying the unity of God and against Sharia. Within Islam, shirk is an unforgivable crime; God may forgive any sins if one dies in that state except for committing shirk. Sleeping on your right side and reciting the Ayat-ul-Kursi (Urdu: آيت الكرسی ) of the Quran can protect person from the evil. In Pakistan, mental illness and psychological problems are considered by some to be an encounter with Shaitan (Satan) (Urdu: شيطان), evil jinns (Urdu: جن) or demons who have taken over one's body and mind. It is also assumed that it is caused by the


id: surrounded-by-idiots-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrounded_by_Idiots-0.md
category: reference
title: Surrounded by Idiots
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrounded_by_Idiots
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:49.367168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: surrounded-by-idiots-20260505-0
summary:
Surrounded by Idiots (Swedish: Omgiven av idioter) is a 2014 self-help book by Swedish author Thomas Erikson. It became an international bestseller, being translated into 55 languages and selling 1.5 million copies worldwide. The book categorizes people into four personality types using the DISC assessment and is meant to help readers understand and adapt to different behavioral styles in personal and professional interactions. == Synopsis == Surrounded by Idiots explores human behavior through a framework of four personality types, each represented by a color: Red, Yellow, Green, and Blue. These categories claim to help readers understand themselves and others, providing insights into communication styles and interpersonal dynamics. Erikson illustrates how recognizing these types can enhance relationships, both personally and professionally. The Red personality embodies dominance and assertiveness. Reds are natural leaders who crave control and make quick decisions. While they can be inspiring and decisive, they often come off as aggressive or confrontational to other personality types. Understanding the Red type is crucial for managing conflict and fostering a collaborative environment. Yellows are the life of the party, characterized by their enthusiasm and sociability. They are creative and energetic, often inspiring others with their charisma. However, their scattered focus can


id: ingo-swann-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingo_Swann-0.md
category: reference
title: Ingo Swann
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingo_Swann
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:50.545854+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ingo-swann-20260505-0
summary:
Ingo Douglass Swann (September 14, 1933 – January 31, 2013) was an American psychic, artist, and author, whose claims of clairvoyance were investigated as a part of the Central Intelligence Agency’s Stargate Project. Swann is credited as the creator of the term “Remote Viewing," a term which refers to the use of extrasensory perception to perceive distant persons, places, or events. == Early life == Swann was born in Telluride, Colorado, on September 14th, 1933. Swann claimed to have out-of-body experiences beginning at three years of age, during a tonsil removal operation, after which he began to see colorful 'auras' around certain objects. These experiences continued throughout childhood, and eventually prompted Swann to volunteer as a participant in parapsychology research at the age of 37. == Remote viewing == Swann was a prominent celebrity Scientologist during the 1970s having attained the level of Operating Thetan through Scientology auditing. It is purported that the attainment of the level may extend one’s psychic abilities including controlled out-of-body experiences, called "exteriorization" in Scientology. During this time, Swann demonstrated his exteriorization skills at the Stanford Research Institute in experiments that would come to be known secularly as remote viewing. These experiments caught the attention


id: ingo-swann-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingo_Swann-1.md
category: reference
title: Ingo Swann
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingo_Swann
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:50.545854+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ingo-swann-20260505-0
summary:
== Magnetometer psychokinesis tests == When Swann arrived at SRI, Harold Puthoff decided he would first be tested for PK. On June 6, 1972, the two men visited Dr. Arthur Heberd and his quark detector, a magnetometer, at the Varian Physics Building. The well-shielded magnetometer had a small magnetic probe in a vault five feet beneath the floor. The oscillation ran silently for about an hour, tracing a stable pattern on the chart recorder. Puthoff asked Swann if he could affect the magnetometer's magnetic field. Swann said he focused his attention on the interior of the magnetometer and was getting nothing. Then, there are different versions of the following events. Puthoff states that after about a five-second delay, Heberd says it was a ten- to fifteen-minute delay, the frequency of the trace recorder oscillation doubled for about 30 seconds, reportedly a common occurrence due to variations in the shared helium line to the laboratory. Heberd continued, and when the curve burped, Swann asked, "Is that what I am supposed to do?" Swann said he responded, "Is that an effect?" According to Heberd, Swann crossed the room, taking his attention away from the chart recorder. Swann said he took his mind


id: ingo-swann-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingo_Swann-2.md
category: reference
title: Ingo Swann
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingo_Swann
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:50.545854+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ingo-swann-20260505-0
summary:
[6:06:20] Very high in the atmosphere there are crystals ... they glitter. Maybe the stripes are like bands of crystals, maybe like rings of Saturn, though not far out like that. Very close within the atmosphere. [Unintelligible sentence.] I bet you they'll reflect radio probes. Is that possible if you had a cloud of crystals that were assaulted by different radio waves? [6:08:00] Now I'll go down through. It feels really good there [laughs]. I said that before, didn't I? Inside those cloud layers, those crystal layers, they look beautiful from the outside. From the inside they look like rolling gas clouds – eerie yellow light, rainbows. [6:10:20] I get the impression, though I don't see, that it's liquid. [6:10:55] Then I came through the cloud cover. The surface – it looks like sand dunes. They're made of very large grade crystals, so they slide. Tremendous winds, sort of like maybe the prevailing winds of Earth, but very close to the surface of Jupiter. From that view, the horizon looks orangish or rose-colored, but overhead it's kind of greenish-yellow. [6:12:35] If I look to the right there is an enormous mountain range. [6:14:45] I feel that there's liquid somewhere. Those


id: swiss-policy-research-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_Policy_Research-0.md
category: reference
title: Swiss Policy Research
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_Policy_Research
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:51.761395+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: swiss-policy-research-20260505-0
summary:
Swiss Policy Research (SPR; before mid-May 2020, Swiss Propaganda Research) is a website that has been criticized for spreading conspiracy theories, including claims that QAnon was a psyop of the FBI and theories relating to the COVID-19 pandemic. German public broadcaster Tagesschau calls SPR a propaganda tool. Due to the persistent use of the German letter ß, which is not commonly used in Switzerland, it has been suspected that the creator is not from Switzerland, contrary to what the website title suggests. == Criticism == === Authority based criticism === In 2017 a University of Zurich report on media in Switzerland analyzed "six of the most-discussed 'alternative media'", including SPR, that "resort to conspiracy theories." Daniel Vogler concluded that SPR appears to be a "a pseudoscientific media research project." Andrea Haefely wrote a critique of the website in the magazine Beobachter in May 2020, noting: "The website Swiss Propaganda Research assumes that the Swiss media does what SPR itself does: feed the readers with questionable information." She also suggested that the persistent use of the letter ß on the site suggests that the content creator is likely to be from outside Switzerland, as this particular letter form is not in


id: sympathetic-alphabet-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sympathetic_alphabet-0.md
category: reference
title: Sympathetic alphabet
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sympathetic_alphabet
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:52.915006+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sympathetic-alphabet-20260505-0
summary:
A sympathetic alphabet was a supposed form of communication used in the 17th century by Rosicrusians and Magnetisers. Two parties would remove a section of skin from their arms or hands and mutually transplant it while still fresh. It was believed that the transplanted piece of flesh kept a close sympathy with the original limb so that its owner was still aware of any injury done to it. On the transplanted flesh was tattooed an alphabet whereby, by pricking the letters with a magnetic needle, the users believed they could communicate instantaneously across great distances. A similar myth from the same time period claimed that needles alone could be used to communicate over long distances. After touching two needles against a "special species of lodestone," they would become "sympathetic" to each other, and from then on always point in the same direction regardless of distance. These needles would then be installed inside a dial, with the alphabet listed around the rim. By pointing one of the needles in the direction of a particular letter the other needle would follow suit, allowing for distant correspondence. The early Cooke and Wheatstone electric telegraph also worked by deflecting magnetic needles, but without the


id: synergetic-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synergetic_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Synergetic theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synergetic_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:54.124686+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: synergetic-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Synergetic theory, also known as "synergy" and referred to by some as a pseudoscientific theory, was developed by René-Louis Vallée and first disseminated in 1971 with the publication of his book L'énergie électromagnétique matérielle et gravitationally (Material and Gravitational Electromagnetic Energy). The magazine Science et Vie published several articles on the subject, and in 1975, it reported on an experiment that allegedly generated more energy than was input into the system. This sparked a long-standing controversy over the discovery of "free energy." The following year, La Recherche examined Vallée's book and, under his guidance, commissioned physicists to conduct a rigorous test to verify or refute the initial claims. The results were negative: no excess energy was observed. A critical examination of the theory in question reveals a multitude of inconsistencies. It becomes evident that the author's work is based on his personal beliefs, formulating a set of disconnected equations. Vallée opposed modern physics, viewing the theoretical advancements of the 20th century as overly intricate and incompatible with reality. Vallée was affiliated with the Alexandre Dufour Physics Circle and supported by free-energy enthusiasts until the early 2000s, which enabled him to achieve a certain degree of media presence before synergetics faded


id: synergetic-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synergetic_theory-1.md
category: reference
title: Synergetic theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synergetic_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:54.124686+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: synergetic-theory-20260505-0
summary:
René-Louis Vallée offered a critique of the complexity of special relativity but drew extensively upon its conceptual framework. He put forth a concept of "synergy", or total energy, which he expressed through the formula S=mc2. This formula is identical to Albert Einstein's, but it incorporates not only the system's energy but also the diffuse energy of the medium surrounding it. However, his other theoretical propositions diverged from the prevailing consensus. For Vallée, space was Euclidean, time was universal, and the speed of light was not constant. He also proposed that gravitation is a force of electromagnetic origin, which contrasts with Einstein's advancements in the field, which deepened understanding but lacked definitive explanations. === Laws === Synergetics puts forth two hypotheses regarding the conversion between energy and matter. The first is the "law of materialization", which posits that energy can be transformed into matter. The second is the "upper limit value of the electric field", which suggests that matter can be transformed into energy when a field reaches a value of 39 × 1015 V/m. These laws are, in fact, hypotheses. Vallée characterizes the law of materialization as "a fundamental law of nature that was missing from the known laws of


id: synergetic-theory-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synergetic_theory-2.md
category: reference
title: Synergetic theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synergetic_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:54.124686+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: synergetic-theory-20260505-0
summary:
== Legacy == Synergetic theory, which was promoted by free-energy advocates from the 1970s to the early 2000s, enjoyed a brief period of popularity between its coverage in Science et Vie and its definitive refutation in La Recherche. It has since become an example of "alter-science", according to Alexandre Moatti, and a scientific imposture, per Michel de Pracontal. Moatti drew a parallel between Vallée and Maurice Allais, who developed an interest in physics at a relatively advanced age and published his inaugural theory on the subject at the age of 86. Allais is renowned for challenging the prevailing theories of Newton and Einstein. He shares similarities with Vallée in this regard. Nevertheless, the term "synergetics" is more frequently linked with Nikola Tesla and his notion of free energy. In the early 20th century, renowned engineer Nikola Tesla sought to transmit electricity wirelessly and harness cosmic radiation energy. Despite the discovery of X-rays in 1895, Tesla rejected the concept of energy contained within matter. In 1931, he claimed to have constructed a "cosmic energy receiver" and used it to power a vehicle. Like Vallée, Tesla rejected overly theoretical science, dismissed the theory of relativity as false, and announced a "unified theory


id: shivkar-bapuji-talpade-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shivkar_Bapuji_Talpade-0.md
category: reference
title: Shivkar Bapuji Talpade
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shivkar_Bapuji_Talpade
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:55.285345+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: shivkar-bapuji-talpade-20260505-0
summary:
Shivkar Bāpuji Talpade () was an Indian instructor with an interest in Sanskrit and aviation. He lived in Mumbai, and is claimed to have constructed and flown an unmanned, heavier-than-air aircraft in 1895. Contemporary accounts of a successful flight do not exist, and no reliable historical records document its existence. Pseudo-historical narratives about Talpade proliferated in India in the early 2000s among adherents of the Hindu-nationalist right-wing. These included the false claim that Talpade had "invented the modern aircraft". == Talpade's aircraft == Talpade is claimed to have constructed an unmanned, heavier-than-air aircraft, named Marutsakhā ("friend of the air"), and flown it above Bombay's Chowpatty Beach in 1895. Contemporary accounts of a successful flight do not exist, and no reliable historical records document its existence. Talpade's aircraft was reputed to have flown to a height of 1,500 feet (460 m). Pratap Velkar, a local architect who has researched Talpade's life and written a book about him, denies this, stating that it rose to a small height before crashing. The aircraft has been described as a cylinder of bamboo, with claims it used mercury or urine as a fuel. Some of Talpade's drawings were said to have been sent to Hindustan


id: tapas-acupressure-technique-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tapas_Acupressure_Technique-0.md
category: reference
title: Tapas Acupressure Technique
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tapas_Acupressure_Technique
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:56.469706+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tapas-acupressure-technique-20260505-0
summary:
Tapas Acupressure Technique (or TAT) is an alternative medicine therapy that claims to clear negative emotions and past traumas. Though the full technique was invented in 1993 by Tapas Fleming, TAT incorporates elements of and builds on other acupressure techniques. TAT is classified as energy therapies as TAT claims to employ Qi (chi). This is the “energy” that has historically been believed to flow through the body in Asian medicine. There is no scientific proof that qi exists. However this claim of qi flow is not to be confused with putative energy for which no scientific basis has been found and no biophysical means of action determined. TAT shows many characteristics consistent with pseudoscience. == History == Invented in 1993 by Tapas Fleming, the underlying idea claims that unresolved emotional trauma leads to a blockage of the natural flow of putative energy. Practitioners of TAT claim that self application of light pressure to four areas of the head (inner corner of both eyes, one-half-inch above the space between the eyebrows, and the back of head) while placing attention on a series of verbal steps releases this blockage and allows for healing. TAT was originally intended to be an allergy elimination


id: john-taylor-oculist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Taylor_(oculist)-0.md
category: reference
title: John Taylor (oculist)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Taylor_(oculist)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:57.646686+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: john-taylor-oculist-20260505-0
summary:
John Taylor (c. 1703 – 1770 or 1772) was an early British eye surgeon, self-promoter and medical charlatan of 18th-century Europe. He was responsible for the surgical mistreatment of George Frideric Handel, Johann Sebastian Bach, and perhaps hundreds of others. Both Handel and Bach died shortly after the botched surgery performed by Taylor. == Career == Taylor was born in Norwich, possibly in 1703. He was the son of a surgeon named John Taylor, who died in 1709. He studied in London under the pioneering British surgeon William Cheselden at St Thomas' Hospital, and by 1727 had produced a book, An Account of the Mechanism of the Eye, dedicated to Cheselden. While his practice grew, operating on celebrities of the time such as Edward Gibbon, making the acquaintance of Viennese courtier and patron of composers Gottfried van Swieten, and being appointed royal eye surgeon to King George II, his flair for self-promotion grew with it, then beyond it. Taylor later claimed that during his visit to Marseille in 1734 he stimulated Jacques Daviel (the initiator of cataract extraction as opposed to couching) to pursue ophthalmic practice seems to be supported by contemporaneous evidence. Taylor dubbed himself "Chevalier", though the source


id: technical-analysis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_analysis-0.md
category: reference
title: Technical analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:58.819339+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technical-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
In finance, technical analysis is an analysis methodology for analysing and forecasting the direction of prices through the study of past market data, primarily price and volume. As a type of active management, it stands in contradiction to much of modern portfolio theory. The efficacy of technical analysis is disputed by the efficient-market hypothesis, which states that stock market prices are essentially unpredictable, and research on whether technical analysis offers any benefit has produced mixed results. It is distinguished from fundamental analysis, which considers a company's financial statements, health, and the overall state of the market and economy. == History == The principles of technical analysis are derived from hundreds of years of financial market data. Some aspects of technical analysis began to appear in Amsterdam-based merchant Joseph de la Vega's accounts of the Dutch financial markets in the 17th century. In Asia, technical analysis is said to be a method developed by Homma Munehisa during the early 18th century which evolved into the use of candlestick techniques, and is today a technical analysis charting tool. Journalist Charles Dow (1851–1902) compiled and closely analyzed American stock market data, and published some of his conclusions in editorials for The Wall Street


id: technical-analysis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_analysis-1.md
category: reference
title: Technical analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:58.819339+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technical-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
=== Market action discounts everything === Based on the premise that all relevant information is already reflected by prices, technical analysts believe it is important to understand what investors think of that information, known and perceived. === Prices move in trends === Technical analysts believe that prices trend directionally, i.e., up, down, or sideways (flat) or some combination. The basic definition of a price trend was originally put forward by Dow theory. An example of a security that had an apparent trend is AOL from November 2001 through August 2002. A technical analyst or trend follower recognizing this trend would look for opportunities to sell this security. AOL consistently moves downward in price. Each time the stock rose, sellers would enter the market and sell the stock; hence the "zig-zag" movement in the price. The series of "lower highs" and "lower lows" is a tell tale sign of a stock in a down trend. In other words, each time the stock moved lower, it fell below its previous relative low price. Each time the stock moved higher, it could not reach the level of its previous relative high price. Note that the sequence of lower lows and lower highs did


id: technical-analysis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_analysis-2.md
category: reference
title: Technical analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:58.819339+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technical-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
=== Neural networks === Since the early 1990s when the first practically usable types emerged, artificial neural networks (ANNs) have rapidly grown in popularity. They are artificial intelligence adaptive software systems that have been inspired by how biological neural networks work. They are used because they can learn to detect complex patterns in data. In mathematical terms, they are universal function approximators, meaning that given the right data and configured correctly, they can capture and model any input-output relationships. This not only removes the need for human interpretation of charts or the series of rules for generating entry/exit signals, but also provides a bridge to fundamental analysis, as the variables used in fundamental analysis can be used as input. As ANNs are essentially non-linear statistical models, their accuracy and prediction capabilities can be both mathematically and empirically tested. In various studies, authors have claimed that neural networks used for generating trading signals given various technical and fundamental inputs have significantly outperformed buy-hold strategies as well as traditional linear technical analysis methods when combined with rule-based expert systems. While the advanced mathematical nature of such adaptive systems has kept neural networks for financial analysis mostly within academic research circles, in recent


id: technical-analysis-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_analysis-3.md
category: reference
title: Technical analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:58.819339+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technical-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
Technical analysis, also known as "charting", has been a part of financial practice for many decades, but this discipline has not received the same level of academic scrutiny and acceptance as more traditional approaches such as fundamental analysis. One of the main obstacles is the highly subjective nature of technical analysis – the presence of geometric shapes in historical price charts is often in the eyes of the beholder. In this paper, we propose a systematic and automatic approach to technical pattern recognition using nonparametric kernel regression, and apply this method to a large number of U.S. stocks from 1962 to 1996 to evaluate the effectiveness of technical analysis. By comparing the unconditional empirical distribution of daily stock returns to the conditional distribution – conditioned on specific technical indicators such as head-and-shoulders or double-bottoms – we find that over the 31-year sample period, several technical indicators do provide incremental information and may have some practical value. In that same paper Lo wrote that "several academic studies suggest that ... technical analysis may well be an effective means for extracting useful information from market prices." Some techniques such as Drummond Geometry attempt to overcome the past data bias by projecting support


id: technical-analysis-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_analysis-4.md
category: reference
title: Technical analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:58.819339+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technical-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
==== Random walk hypothesis ==== The random walk hypothesis may be derived from the weak-form efficient markets hypothesis, which is based on the assumption that market participants take full account of any information contained in past price movements (but not necessarily other public information). In his book A Random Walk Down Wall Street, Princeton economist Burton Malkiel said that technical forecasting tools such as pattern analysis must ultimately be self-defeating: "The problem is that once such a regularity is known to market participants, people will act in such a way that prevents it from happening in the future." Malkiel has stated that while momentum may explain some stock price movements, there is not enough momentum to make excess profits. Malkiel has compared technical analysis to "astrology". In the late 1980s, professors Andrew Lo and Craig McKinlay published a paper which cast doubt on the random walk hypothesis. In a 1999 response to Malkiel, Lo and McKinlay collected empirical papers that questioned the hypothesis' applicability that suggested a non-random and possibly predictive component to stock price movement, though they were careful to point out that rejecting random walk does not necessarily invalidate EMH, which is an entirely separate concept from RWH.


id: technical-analysis-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_analysis-5.md
category: reference
title: Technical analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:58.819339+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technical-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
== Scientific technical analysis == Caginalp and Balenovich in 1994 used their asset-flow differential equations model to show that the major patterns of technical analysis could be generated with some basic assumptions. Some of the patterns such as a triangle continuation or reversal pattern can be generated with the assumption of two distinct groups of investors with different assessments of valuation. The major assumptions of the models are the finiteness of assets and the use of trend as well as valuation in decision making. Many of the patterns follow as mathematically logical consequences of these assumptions. One of the problems with conventional technical analysis has been the difficulty of specifying the patterns in a manner that permits objective testing. Japanese candlestick patterns involve patterns of a few days that are within an uptrend or downtrend. Caginalp and Laurent were the first to perform a successful large scale test of patterns. A mathematically precise set of criteria were tested by first using a definition of a short-term trend by smoothing the data and allowing for one deviation in the smoothed trend. They then considered eight major three-day candlestick reversal patterns in a non-parametric manner and defined the patterns as a set


id: technical-analysis-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_analysis-6.md
category: reference
title: Technical analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:58.819339+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technical-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
Until the mid-1960s, tape reading was a popular form of technical analysis. It consisted of reading market information such as price, volume, order size, and so on from a paper strip which ran through a machine called a stock ticker. Market data was sent to brokerage houses and to the homes and offices of the most active speculators. This system fell into disuse with the advent of electronic information panels in the late 60's, and later computers, which allow for the easy preparation of charts. Jesse Livermore, one of the most successful stock market operators of all time, was primarily concerned with ticker tape reading since a young age. He followed his own (mechanical) trading system (he called it the 'market key'), which did not need charts, but was relying solely on price data. He described his market key in detail in his 1940s book 'How to Trade in Stocks'. Livermore's system was determining market phases (trend, correction etc.) via past price data. He also made use of volume data (which he estimated from how stocks behaved and via 'market testing', a process of testing market liquidity via sending in small market orders), as described in his 1940s book. ==


id: technical-analysis-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_analysis-7.md
category: reference
title: Technical analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:25:58.819339+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technical-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
Average directional index – a widely used indicator of trend strength. Commodity channel index – identifies cyclical trends. MACD – moving average convergence/divergence. Momentum – the rate of price change. Relative strength index (RSI) – oscillator showing price strength. Relative Vigor Index (RVI) – oscillator measures the conviction of a recent price action and the likelihood that it will continue. Stochastic oscillator – close position within recent trading range. Trix – an oscillator showing the slope of a triple-smoothed exponential moving average. Vortex Indicator – an indicator used to identify the existence, continuation, initiation or termination of trends. === Volume-based indicators === Accumulation/distribution index – based on the close within the day's range. Money flow index – the amount of stock traded on days the price went up. On-balance volume – the momentum of buying and selling stocks. === Trading with Mixing Indicators === MACD & Average directional index MACD & Super Trend MACD & Moving average MACD & RSI MACD & Moving Averages == See also == == References == == Bibliography == == Further reading == Azzopardi, Paul V. Behavioural Technical Analysis: An introduction to behavioural finance and its role in technical analysis. Harriman House, 2010. ISBN 978-1905641413


id: telekinesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekinesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Telekinesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekinesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:00.125597+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: telekinesis-20260505-0
summary:
Telekinesis (from Ancient Greek τηλε- (tēle-) 'far off' and -κίνησις (-kínēsis) 'motion') (alternatively called psychokinesis) is a purported psychic ability allowing an individual to influence a physical system without physical interaction. Simply put, it is the moving or manipulating of objects with the mind, without directly touching them. Experiments to prove the existence of telekinesis have historically been criticized for lack of proper controls and repeatability. There is no reliable evidence that telekinesis is a real phenomenon, and the topic is generally regarded as pseudoscience. == Reception == === Evaluation === There is a broad scientific consensus that telekinetic research has not produced a reliable demonstration of the phenomenon. A panel commissioned in 1988 by the United States National Research Council to study paranormal claims concluded that:despite a 130-year record of scientific research on such matters, our committee could find no scientific justification for the existence of phenomena such as extrasensory perception, mental telepathy or "mind over matter" exercises ... Evaluation of a large body of the best available evidence simply does not support the contention that these phenomena exist.In 1984, the National Academy of Sciences, at the request of the US Army Research Institute, formed a scientific panel to


id: telekinesis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekinesis-1.md
category: reference
title: Telekinesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekinesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:00.125597+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: telekinesis-20260505-0
summary:
Philosopher and physicist Mario Bunge has written that:[telekinesis] violates the principle that mind cannot act directly on matter. (If it did, no experimenter could trust his readings of measuring instruments.) It also violates the principles of conservation of energy and momentum. The claim that quantum mechanics allows for the possibility of mental power influencing randomizers—an alleged case of micro-[telekinesis]—is ludicrous since that theory respects the said conservation principles, and it deals exclusively with physical things.Physicist John Taylor, who has investigated parapsychological claims, has written that an unknown fifth force causing telekinesis would have to transmit a great deal of energy. The energy would have to overcome the electromagnetic forces binding the atoms together, because the atoms would need to respond more strongly to the fifth force than to electric forces. Such an additional force between atoms should therefore exist all the time and not during only alleged paranormal occurrences. Taylor wrote there is no scientific trace of such a force in physics, down to many orders of magnitude; thus, if a scientific viewpoint is to be preserved, the idea of any fifth force must be discarded. Taylor concluded that there is no possible physical mechanism for telekinesis, and it is


id: telekinesis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekinesis-2.md
category: reference
title: Telekinesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekinesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:00.125597+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: telekinesis-20260505-0
summary:
Some of the worst examples of confirmation bias are in research on parapsychology ... Arguably, there is a whole field here with no powerful confirming data at all. But people want to believe, and so they find ways to believe. Psychologist Daniel Wegner has argued that an introspection illusion contributes to belief in telekinesis. He observes that in everyday experience, intention (such as wanting to turn on a light) is followed by action (such as flicking a light switch) in a reliable way, but the underlying neural mechanisms are outside awareness. Hence, though subjects may feel that they directly introspect their own free will, the experience of control is actually inferred from relations between the thought and the action. This theory of apparent mental causation acknowledges the influence of David Hume's view of the mind. This process for detecting when one is responsible for an action is not totally reliable, and when it goes wrong there can be an illusion of control. This can happen when an external event follows, and is congruent with, a thought in someone's mind, without an actual causal link. As evidence, Wegner cites a series of experiments on magical thinking in which subjects were induced


id: telekinesis-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekinesis-3.md
category: reference
title: Telekinesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekinesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:00.125597+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: telekinesis-20260505-0
summary:
There have been claimants of telekinetic ability throughout history. Angelique Cottin (ca. 1846) known as the "Electric Girl" of France was an alleged generator of telekinetic activity. Cottin and her family claimed that she produced electric emanations that allowed her to move pieces of furniture and scissors across a room. Frank Podmore wrote there were many observations which were "suggestive of fraud" such as the contact of the girl's garments to produce any of the alleged phenomena and the observations from several witnesses that noticed there was a double movement on the part of Cottin, a movement in the direction of the object thrown and afterwards away from it, but the movements so rapid they were not usually detected. Spiritualist mediums have also claimed telekinetic abilities. Eusapia Palladino, an Italian medium, could allegedly cause objects to move during séances. However, she was caught levitating a table with her foot by magician Joseph Rinn, and using tricks to move objects by psychologist Hugo Münsterberg. Other alleged telekinetic mediums exposed as frauds include Anna Rasmussen and Maria Silbert. Polish medium Stanisława Tomczyk, active in the early 20th century, claimed to be able to perform acts of telekinetic levitation by way of an


id: telekinesis-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekinesis-4.md
category: reference
title: Telekinesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekinesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:00.125597+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: telekinesis-20260505-0
summary:
Psychics have also claimed the telekinetic ability to bend metal. Uri Geller was famous for his spoon bending demonstrations, allegedly by telekinesis. He has been caught many times using sleight of hand. According to science writer Terence Hines, all of Geller's effects have been recreated using conjuring tricks. The French psychic Jean-Pierre Girard has claimed he can bend metal bars by telekinesis. He was tested in the 1970s but failed to produce any paranormal effects in scientifically controlled conditions. He was tested on January 19, 1977, during a two-hour experiment in a Paris laboratory, directed by physicist Yves Farge. A magician was also present. Girard failed to make any objects move paranormally. He failed two tests in Grenoble in June 1977 with magician James Randi. He was also tested on September 24, 1977, at a laboratory at the Nuclear Research Centre, and failed to bend any bars or change the metals' structure. Other experiments into spoon-bending were also negative, and witnesses described his feats as fraudulent. Girard later admitted he sometimes cheated to avoid disappointing the public, but insisted he had genuine psychic power. Magicians and scientists have written that he produced all his alleged telekinetic feats through fraudulent means.


id: telepathy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telepathy-0.md
category: reference
title: Telepathy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telepathy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:01.372359+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: telepathy-20260505-0
summary:
Telepathy (from Ancient Greek τῆλε (têle) 'distant' and πάθος/-πάθεια (páthos/-pátheia) 'feeling, perception, passion, affliction, experience') is the purported vicarious transmission of information from one person's mind to another's without using any known human sensory channels or physical interaction. The term was first coined in 1882 by the classical scholar Frederic W. H. Myers, a founder of the Society for Psychical Research (SPR), and has remained more popular than the earlier expression thought-transference. Telepathy experiments have historically been criticized for a lack of proper controls and repeatability. There is no good evidence that telepathy exists, and the topic is generally considered by the scientific community to be pseudoscience. Telepathy is a common theme in science fiction. == Origins of the concept == According to historians such as Roger Luckhurst and Janet Oppenheim the origin of the concept of telepathy in Western civilization can be traced to the late 19th century and the formation of the Society for Psychical Research. As the physical sciences made significant advances, scientific concepts were applied to mental phenomena (e.g., animal magnetism), with the hope that this would help to understand paranormal phenomena. The modern concept of telepathy emerged in this context. Psychical researcher Eric Dingwall criticized


id: telepathy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telepathy-1.md
category: reference
title: Telepathy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telepathy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:01.372359+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: telepathy-20260505-0
summary:
In the first place, an intuitive wife, who knows her husband intimately, may be able to guess with a fair degree of accuracy what he is likely to draw—particularly if the picture is related to some freshly recalled event the two experienced in common. At first, simple pictures like chairs and tables would likely predominate, but as these are exhausted, the field of choice narrows and pictures are more likely to be suggested by recent experiences. It is also possible that Sinclair may have given conversational hints during some of the tests—hints which in his strong will to believe, he would promptly forget about. Also, one must not rule out the possibility that in many tests, made across the width of a room, Mrs. Sinclair may have seen the wiggling of the top of a pencil, or arm movements, which would convey to her unconscious a rough notion of the drawing. The Turner-Ownbey long distance telepathy experiment was discovered to contain flaws. May Frances Turner positioned herself in the Duke Parapsychology Laboratory whilst Sara Ownbey claimed to receive transmissions 250 miles away. For the experiment Turner would think of a symbol and write it down whilst Ownbey would write her


id: telepathy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telepathy-2.md
category: reference
title: Telepathy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telepathy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:01.372359+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: telepathy-20260505-0
summary:
== In parapsychology == Within parapsychology, telepathy, often along with precognition and clairvoyance, is described as an aspect of extrasensory perception (ESP) or "anomalous cognition" that parapsychologists believe is transferred through a hypothetical psychic mechanism they call "psi". Parapsychologists have reported experiments they use to test for telepathic abilities. Among the most well known are the use of Zener cards and the Ganzfeld experiment. === Types === Several forms of telepathy have been suggested: Latent telepathy, formerly known as "deferred telepathy", describes a transfer of information with an observable time-lag between transmission and reception. Retrocognitive, precognitive, and intuitive telepathy describes the transfer of information about the past, future or present state of an individual's mind to another individual. Emotive telepathy, also known as remote influence or emotional transfer, describes the transfer of kinesthetic sensations through altered states. Superconscious telepathy describes use of the supposed superconscious to access the collective wisdom of the human species for knowledge. === Zener cards === Zener cards are marked with five distinctive symbols. When using them, one individual is designated the "sender" and another the "receiver". The sender selects a random card and visualizes the symbol on it, while the receiver attempts to determine that


id: telepathy-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telepathy-3.md
category: reference
title: Telepathy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telepathy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:01.372359+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: telepathy-20260505-0
summary:
The most suspicious pattern was that the hit rate for a given target increased with the frequency of occurrence of that target in the experiment. The hit rate for the targets that occurred only once was right at the chance expectation of 25%. For targets that appeared twice the hit rate crept up to 28%. For those that occurred three times it was 38%, and for those targets that occurred six or more times, the hit rate was 52%. Each time a videotape is played its quality can degrade. It is plausible then, that when a frequently used clip is the target for a given session, it may be physically distinguishable from the other three decoy clips that are presented to the subject for judging. Surprisingly, the parapsychological community has not taken this finding seriously. They still include the autoganzfeld series in their meta-analyses and treat it as convincing evidence for the reality of psi. Hyman wrote the autoganzfeld experiments were flawed because they did not preclude the possibility of sensory leakage. In 2010, Lance Storm, Patrizio Tressoldi, and Lorenzo Di Risio analyzed 29 ganzfeld studies from 1997 to 2008. Of the 1,498 trials, 483 produced hits, corresponding to a


id: telepathy-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telepathy-4.md
category: reference
title: Telepathy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telepathy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:01.372359+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: telepathy-20260505-0
summary:
== Scientific reception == A variety of tests have been performed to demonstrate telepathy, but there is no scientific evidence that the power exists. A panel commissioned by the United States National Research Council to study paranormal claims concluded that "despite a 130-year record of scientific research on such matters, our committee could find no scientific justification for the existence of phenomena such as extrasensory perception, mental telepathy or 'mind over matter' exercises... Evaluation of a large body of the best available evidence simply does not support the contention that these phenomena exist." The scientific community considers parapsychology a pseudoscience. There is no known mechanism for telepathy. Philosopher and physicist Mario Bunge has written that telepathy would contradict laws of science and the claim that "signals can be transmitted across space without fading with distance is inconsistent with physics". Physicist John Taylor has written that the experiments that have been claimed by parapsychologists to support evidence for the existence of telepathy are based on the use of shaky statistical analysis and poor design, and attempts to duplicate such experiments by the scientific community have failed. Taylor also wrote the arguments used by parapsychologists for the feasibility of such phenomena are


id: telesthesia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telesthesia-0.md
category: reference
title: Telesthesia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telesthesia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:02.546409+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: telesthesia-20260505-0
summary:
Telesthesia (also spelled telaesthesia) is a term used in two primary contexts. In parapsychology, it refers to purported non-sensory perception of distant events or stimuli. In media studies, it has also been used metaphorically to describe technologically mediated experiences of remote perception, particularly through telecommunications and digital media. == Etymology == The word derives from the Ancient Greek têle (τῆλε), meaning "at a distance", and aisthēsis (αἴσθησις), meaning "perception" or "sensation". == Definitions == Reputable dictionaries define telesthesia as: "Sensation or perception received at a distance without the normal operation of the recognized sense organs." – Dictionary.com "An impression supposedly received at a distance without the normal operation of the organs of sense." – Merriam-Webster Medical Dictionary "The ability to know that something has happened or is in a place without using hearing, seeing, touch, taste, or smell." – Cambridge Dictionary == Use in Parapsychology == In parapsychology, telesthesia is considered a subtype of extrasensory perception (ESP), and is often used synonymously with or alongside clairvoyance and remote viewing. Historical accounts in spiritualist and psychical research literature describe people reportedly sensing the condition or experiences of distant others. These claims remain anecdotal and lack empirical validation. == Scientific Evaluation ==


id: ten-percent-of-the-brain-myth-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ten-percent-of-the-brain_myth-0.md
category: reference
title: Ten-percent-of-the-brain myth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ten-percent-of-the-brain_myth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:03.716505+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ten-percent-of-the-brain-myth-20260505-0
summary:
The ten-percent-of-the-brain myth or ninety-percent-of-the-brain myth states that humans generally use only one-tenth (or some other small fraction) of their brains. It has been misattributed to many famous scientists and historical figures, notably Albert Einstein. By extrapolation, it is suggested that a person may 'harness' or 'unlock' this unused potential and increase their intelligence. Changes in grey and white matter following new experiences and learning have been shown, but it has not yet been proven what the changes are. The popular notion that large parts of the brain remain unused, and could subsequently be "activated", rests in folklore and not science. Though specific mechanisms regarding brain function remain to be fully described—e.g. memory, consciousness—the physiology of brain mapping suggests that all areas of the brain have a function and that they are used nearly all the time. == Origin == A likely origin for the "10% myth" is the reserve energy theories of Harvard psychologists William James and Boris Sidis. In the 1890s, they tested the theory in the accelerated raising of the child prodigy William Sidis. Thereafter, James told lecture audiences that people only meet a fraction of their full mental potential, which is a plausible claim. The concept


id: ten-percent-of-the-brain-myth-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ten-percent-of-the-brain_myth-1.md
category: reference
title: Ten-percent-of-the-brain myth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ten-percent-of-the-brain_myth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:03.716505+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ten-percent-of-the-brain-myth-20260505-0
summary:
Studies of brain damage: If 10% of the brain is normally used, then damage to other areas should not impair performance. Instead, there is almost no area of the brain that can be damaged without loss of abilities. Even slight damage to small areas of the brain can have profound effects. Brain scans have shown that no matter what one is doing, all brain areas are always active. Some areas are more active at any one time than others, but barring brain damage, there is no part of the brain that is absolutely not functioning. Technologies such as positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) allow the activity of the living brain to be monitored. They reveal that even during sleep, all parts of the brain show some level of activity. Only in the case of serious damage does a brain have "silent" areas. The brain is enormously costly to the rest of the body, in terms of oxygen and nutrient consumption. It can require up to 20 percent of the body's energy—more than any other organ—despite making up only 2 percent of the human body weight. If most of it were unnecessary, there would be a


id: theistic-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theistic_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Theistic science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theistic_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:04.925296+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: theistic-science-20260505-0
summary:
Theistic science, also referred to as theistic realism, is the proposal that the central scientific method of requiring testability, known as methodological naturalism, should be replaced by a philosophy of science that allows occasional supernatural explanations which are inherently untestable. Proponents propose supernatural explanations for topics raised by their theology, in particular evolution. Supporters of theistic realism or theistic science include intelligent design creationism proponents J. P. Moreland, Stephen C. Meyer and Phillip E. Johnson. Instead of the relationship between religion and science being a dialogue, theistic science seeks to allow exceptions to the basic methods of science, and present miraculous interventions as a scientific explanation when a natural explanation has not been found. As Notre Dame theologian Alvin Plantinga acknowledges, this is a "science stopper", and these concepts lack any mainstream credence. == Johnson == In 1987 the United States Supreme Court ruled in Edwards v. Aguillard that a Louisiana law requiring that creation science be taught in public school science classes, along with evolution, was unconstitutional because the law was specifically intended to advance a particular religion. Academic UC Berkeley law professor Phillip E. Johnson, a prominent supporter of the law, became convinced that creationists had lost the


id: theistic-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theistic_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Theistic science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theistic_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:04.925296+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: theistic-science-20260505-0
summary:
'Unnatural Science', 'Creation Science,' 'Theistic Science' — call it what you will: what we need when we want to know how to think about the origin and development of contemporary life is what is most plausible from a Christian point of view. What we need is a scientific account of life that isn't restricted by that methodological naturalism. He suggests that generally God uses secondary causes, but miracles may be needed when theistic scientists are unable to find a materialistic explanation. In 1997 he wrote "Why couldn't a scientist think as follows? God has created the world, and of course He created everything in it directly or indirectly. After a great deal of study, we can't see how he created some phenomenon P (life, for example) indirectly; thus probably he has created it directly." Plantinga also refers to this concept as Augustinian science, and states that "in doing Augustinian science, you start by assuming the deliverances of the faith, employing them along with anything else you know in dealing with a given scientific problem or project." Plantinga argues for the acceptance of differing worldview-partisan sciences in place of a single common science. Plantinga employs a conflict thesis in assessing the


id: therapeutic-touch-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therapeutic_touch-0.md
category: reference
title: Therapeutic touch
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therapeutic_touch
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:06.136926+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: therapeutic-touch-20260505-0
summary:
Therapeutic touch (TT), or non-contact therapeutic touch (NCTT), is a pseudoscientific energy therapy which practitioners claim promotes healing and reduces pain and anxiety. "Therapeutic Touch" is a registered trademark in Canada for the "[s]tructured and standardized healing practice performed by practitioners trained to be sensitive to the receiver's energy field that surrounds the body;...no touching is required." Practitioners of therapeutic touch state that by placing their hands on, or near, a patient, they are able to detect and manipulate what they say is the patient's energy field. One highly cited study, designed by the then-nine-year-old Emily Rosa and published in the Journal of the American Medical Association in 1998, found that practitioners of therapeutic touch could not detect the presence or absence of a hand placed a few inches above theirs when their vision was obstructed. Simon Singh and Edzard Ernst concluded in their 2008 book Trick or Treatment that "the energy field was probably nothing more than a figment in the imaginations of the healers". The American Cancer Society noted, "Available scientific evidence does not support any claims that TT can cure cancer or other diseases." A 2004 Cochrane review found no good evidence that it helped with wound


id: therapeutic-touch-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therapeutic_touch-1.md
category: reference
title: Therapeutic touch
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therapeutic_touch
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:06.136926+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: therapeutic-touch-20260505-0
summary:
== Skeptical view of therapeutic touch == When examining the existing literature on therapeutic touch, it has been observed that these studies tend only to cite research that favours the desired findings. There have been studies focused on therapeutic touch that have failed to include any research that has contradictory findings. However, studies such as these need to report all results found from other studies, even if they may contradict the present study's hypothesis. It is also important to use the appropriate controls in such studies. There have been studies such as that by Grad, Cadoret, and Paul that have appeared at first glance to show the effectiveness of therapeutic touch, yet once replicated using the appropriate controls, they were shown to have nonsignificant results, therefore rendering the original results inconclusive. Researcher bias has been noted in studies examining therapeutic touch, such as that by Turner, in which he included such statements as, "If we can successfully complete this study, this will be the first real scientific evidence there is for therapeutic touch". It is important for researchers not to bias the results to achieve their desired outcome, as bias can lead to a misrepresentation of the true effectiveness of


id: thought-field-therapy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought_Field_Therapy-0.md
category: reference
title: Thought Field Therapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought_Field_Therapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:07.355322+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: thought-field-therapy-20260505-0
summary:
Thought Field Therapy (TFT) is a fringe psychological treatment developed by American psychologist Roger Callahan. Its proponents say that it can heal a variety of mental and physical ailments through specialized "tapping" with the fingers at meridian points on the upper body and hands. The theory behind TFT is a mixture of concepts "derived from a variety of sources. Foremost among these is the ancient Chinese philosophy of chi, which is thought to be the 'life force' that flows throughout the body". Callahan also bases his theory upon applied kinesiology and physics. There is no scientific evidence that TFT is effective, and the American Psychological Association has stated that it "lacks a scientific basis" and consists of pseudoscience. == Theory and treatment == Callahan terms his treatment "Thought Field Therapy" because he theorizes that when a person thinks about an experience or thought associated with an emotional problem, they are tuning into a "thought field." He describes this field as "the most fundamental concept in the TFT system," stating that it "creates an imaginary, though quite real scaffold, upon which we may erect our explanatory notions". Perturbations are said to be precisely encoded information contained in the thought field; each


id: thought-field-therapy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought_Field_Therapy-1.md
category: reference
title: Thought Field Therapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought_Field_Therapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:07.355322+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: thought-field-therapy-20260505-0
summary:
== Assessments and critiques == There is concern by clinical psychologists of the adoption of TFT as an unvalidated and pseudoscientific therapy by government bodies and the public at large. In 2000, an article was published in the Skeptical Inquirer which argued that there is no plausible mechanism to explain how TFT could work, and described it as a baseless pseudoscience. A 2006 Delphi poll of psychologists on discredited therapies, published in an APA journal, indicated that on average, participants rated TFT as "probably discredited". The sample included both practicing clinical psychologists and academic psychologists. Devilly states that there is no evidence for the claimed efficacy of power therapies including TFT, Emotional Freedom Techniques, and others such as Neuro-Linguistic Programming, and they all exhibit the characteristics of pseudoscience. Lilienfeld, Lynn & Lohr also use TFT as an example of a therapy that contains some of the hallmark indicators of a pseudoscience. Specifically, they note its evasion of the peer review system and absence of boundary conditions. Previous studies performed on TFT have received criticism in the medical literature. For example, an exploratory study done by Charles Figley, a psychologist who endeavored to find more effective treatments for post-traumatic stress disorder


id: time-cube-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_Cube-0.md
category: reference
title: Time Cube
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_Cube
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:08.534485+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: time-cube-20260505-0
summary:
Time Cube was a pseudoscientific personal web page set up in 1997 by Otis Eugene "Gene" Ray. It was a self-published outlet for Ray's "theory of everything", also called "Time Cube", which posits that each day actually consists of four days occurring simultaneously. Ray described himself as the "wisest man on earth" and a "godlike being with superior intelligence who has absolute evidence and proof" for his views. Ray asserted that the academic world had not taken Time Cube seriously and that all modern sciences are participating in a worldwide conspiracy to omit his theory. Ray died in March 2015, and the Time Cube website registration expired in August 2015. == Website == The Time Cube website did not have a navigation structure such as a menu or a central home page; instead, it was one long continuous page. A large amount of self-invented jargon is used throughout, often never defined. In one paragraph, Ray claimed that his wisdom "so antiquates known knowledge that a psychiatrist examining [his] behavior" diagnosed him with schizophrenia. Adi Robertson of The Verge commented that Ray's theory of time is "an incredibly confusing one peppered with racism and homophobia". The link, www.timecube.com, is now a


id: time-traveler-ufo-hypothesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time-traveler_UFO_hypothesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Time-traveler UFO hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time-traveler_UFO_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:09.758979+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: time-traveler-ufo-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
The time-traveler hypothesis, also known as chrononaut UFO, future humans, extratempestrial model and Terminator theory is the proposal that unidentified flying objects are humans traveling from the future using advanced technology. Some notable people have given recent public exposure to the hypothesis, such as retired NASA aerospace engineer Larry Lemke, Wisconsin congressman Mike Gallagher, and American filmmaker Steven Spielberg. The time-traveler hypothesis is considered extremely implausible by mainstream scholars and is generally regarded as unorthodox even among UFO theorists who argue that UFOs are extraterrestrial spacecraft or interdimensional phenomena. == Antecedents == === Origins of time travel speculation === The notion of time travel from the future to the past is thought to have been introduced for the first time in literature by French botanist and geologist Pierre Boitard in his popular 1861 book Paris avant les hommes (Paris before Men), featuring a man sent back to prehistoric Earth where he interacts with an ape-like ancestor. A few years later, in 1887, Camille Flammarion published Lumen, a novel featuring an alien soul traveling through different worlds and historical periods. Although traveling back in time is almost-universally considered physically impossible, theoretical research has explored whether it might be possible. It has


id: time-traveler-ufo-hypothesis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time-traveler_UFO_hypothesis-1.md
category: reference
title: Time-traveler UFO hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time-traveler_UFO_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:09.758979+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: time-traveler-ufo-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
It is unclear exactly when the hypothesis in its complete form was first proposed. Early versions surfaced between the 1970s' pseudoscientific literature and 1990s internet culture, at times associated with the idioms "chrononaut UFOs", "time traveling humans" or simply "future humans". Examples include contributions by Jacques Vallée in his book The Invisible College, Radford University anthropology professor and former Forbes contributor David S. Anderson, Jenny Randles' 2001 book Time Storms, James Herbert Brennan's 1997 book Time-travel: a new perspective, which also draws parallels between the time travelers and elements of the pseudoarchaeological notion of ancient astronauts and Ooparts, and many others. In their 1998 book The Day After Roswell, US Army officer Philip J. Corso and American novelist William J. Birnes reported that German physicist and engineer Dr Hermann Oberth believed the craft recovered at Roswell could have been a time machine. On April 27, 2012 History aired the "Time Travelers" episode from season 4 of the series Ancient Aliens produced by Prometheus Entertainment, available on Netflix since 2022. In the same year, the "Time Benders" episode from season 18 of the same series aired on History, exploring other aspects of the concept and featuring more speakers, including American professor


id: time-traveler-ufo-hypothesis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time-traveler_UFO_hypothesis-2.md
category: reference
title: Time-traveler UFO hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time-traveler_UFO_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:09.758979+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: time-traveler-ufo-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
=== In popular culture === The 1966 Sherwood Schwartz TV series It's About Time portrays 20th-century astronauts being sent back to the Stone Age after traveling around the earth faster than the speed of light. The astronauts have to contend with the suspicions and superstitions of local cave-dwellers, who regard their advanced technology as sorcery. The astronauts eventually repair their space capsule and return to 1967 with the prehistoric family they befriended. Similar plots were involved in Lost in Space's episode Visit to a Hostile Planet (1967), Star Trek episodes Tomorrow Is Yesterday (1969) and Little Green Men (1995) from the Deep Space Nine series, as well as Futurama's Roswell That Ends Well (2001). In Gregory Benford’s 1980 novel Timescape, scientist Saul Shriffer, a colleague of Frank Drake at the SETI Project Ozma, believes that a cryptic signal is of extraterrestrial origin, when it fact it had been sent thirty-four years into the past by humans in the future. In his 1984 science fiction/fantasy novel Birds of Prey, American author David Drake describes six sterile and mutually telepathic sisters who time travel back in time to save humanity from an intelligent but monstrous alien species similar to social insects. The


id: time-traveler-ufo-hypothesis-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time-traveler_UFO_hypothesis-3.md
category: reference
title: Time-traveler UFO hypothesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time-traveler_UFO_hypothesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:09.758979+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: time-traveler-ufo-hypothesis-20260505-0
summary:
=== Terminology and connection to other theories === Although in his books and publications Dr Masters uses the neologism "extratempestrial" to describe his model and the alleged beings piloting the UFOs, the overall idea has been dubbed "the time-traveler hypothesis" by executive director of nonprofit Mutual UFO Network (MUFON), Jan Harzan. The time-traveler hypothesis and the interdimensional hypothesis overlap by a certain degree. People in the ufology community, such as former MUFON director for the state of Pennsylvania John Ventre in an interview with KDKA News Radio, as well as American parapsychologist and engineer Harold E. Puthoff, refer to the two interchangeably. Dr Masters has stated that he considers his extratempestrial model a subcategory of the interdimensional hypothesis. Indeed, from a more scientific standpoint – albeit controversially – within the framework of the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics, temporal paradoxes could be avoided if the time traveler would move from one dimension, or parallel universe, or timeline, to another. Similarly to how the extraterrestrial hypothesis represents a potential solution to Fermi's paradox, the time-traveler hypothesis provides an alternative explanation for the absence of future time travelers. In an interview with Nova on PBS, astrophysicist and skeptic Carl Sagan stated that


id: tin-foil-hat-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tin_foil_hat-0.md
category: reference
title: Tin foil hat
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tin_foil_hat
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:11.001324+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tin-foil-hat-20260505-0
summary:
A tin foil hat is a hat made from one or more sheets of tin foil or aluminium foil, or a piece of conventional headgear lined with foil, often worn in the belief or hope that it shields the brain from threats such as electromagnetic fields, mind control, and mind reading. The notion of wearing homemade headgear for such protection has become a popular stereotype and byword for paranoia, persecutory delusions, and belief in pseudoscience and conspiracy theories. "Tin foil" is a common misnomer for aluminium foil in English-speaking countries; packaging metal foil was formerly made out of tin before it was replaced with aluminium. == Origin == Some people – "Tin Foil Hatters" – have a belief that such hats prevent mind control by governments, spies, mobsters, corporations, extraterrestrial, or paranormal beings that employ ESP or the microwave auditory effect. People in many countries who believe they are "targeted individuals", subject to government, corporate, or criminal spying or harassment, have developed websites, conference calls, and support meetings to discuss their concerns, including the idea of protective headgear. Vice Magazine wrote that the tin foil hat in popular culture "can be traced back in a very weird and prescient short


id: titanic-conspiracy-theories-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titanic_conspiracy_theories-0.md
category: reference
title: Titanic conspiracy theories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titanic_conspiracy_theories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:12.182628+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: titanic-conspiracy-theories-20260505-0
summary:
On April 14, 1912, the Titanic collided with an iceberg, damaging the hull's plates below the waterline on the starboard side, causing the front compartments to flood. The ship then sank two hours and forty minutes later, with approximately 1,496 fatalities as a result of drowning or hypothermia. Since then, many conspiracy theories have been suggested regarding the disaster. These theories have been refuted by subject-matter experts. == Olympic exchange hypothesis == One of the controversial and elaborate theories surrounding the sinking of the Titanic was advanced by Robin Gardiner in his book Titanic: The Ship That Never Sank? (1998). Gardiner draws on several events and coincidences that occurred in the months, days, and hours leading up to the sinking of the Titanic, and concludes that the ship that sank was in fact Titanic's sister ship Olympic, disguised as Titanic, as an insurance scam by its owners, the International Mercantile Marine Group, controlled by American financier J. P. Morgan, who had acquired the White Star Line in 1902. Researchers Bruce Beveridge and Steve Hall took issue with many of Gardiner's claims in their book Olympic and Titanic: The Truth Behind the Conspiracy (2004). Author Mark Chirnside has also raised serious


id: alfred-tomatis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Tomatis-0.md
category: reference
title: Alfred Tomatis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Tomatis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:13.348746+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alfred-tomatis-20260505-0
summary:
Alfred Tomatis (1 January 1920 – 25 December 2001) was a French otolaryngologist and inventor. He received his Doctorate in Medicine from the Paris School of Medicine. His alternative medicine theories of hearing and listening are known as the Tomatis method or Audio-Psycho-Phonology (APP). Tomatis' approach, a type of auditory integration training, is known as the Tomatis Method. It is promoted as being of benefit to people with autism, but there is no good evidence to support these claims and the Method has been classified as a pseudoscience. == Tomatis' life and work == Alfred Tomatis grew up in a musical family in France. His father was an opera singer, and he spent much of his childhood traveling with him and watching his opera performances from the wings. At an early age, however, he and his parents decided he was not fit for the stage. So he went into medicine and eventually became an Ear, Nose and Throat physician. Soon after he began his practice, his father began referring him opera colleagues with vocal problems. Tomatis soon discovered traditional treatments inadequate but also that there was very little research on the voice itself. He formulated the theory that many vocal


id: tondemo-bon-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tondemo-bon-0.md
category: reference
title: Tondemo-bon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tondemo-bon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:14.516596+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tondemo-bon-20260505-0
summary:
Tondemo (トンデモ, Tondemo) means "outrageous" or "preposterous" + bon (本, hon) "book" in Japanese. Recently the word has gained another meaning thanks to the activity of Togakkai (the Academy of Tondemo books) which annually award Nihon Tondemo-bon Taisho (Japan Tondemo Book Award), which is similar to the Golden Raspberry Award or the Ig Nobel Prize. Tondemo-bon is defined by the academy as "something amusing from a perspective that differs from what the author intends". The award covers not just conspiracy theory or pseudoscience but also includes historical revisionism as well as atheists or scientific sceptics who make rather biased attacks toward the former. The members of Togakkai included religious figures as well as scientists and other academics. In Japan, this genre has superseded similar activities of scientific sceptics. == Togakai tondemobon taisho winners == Here is a list of winners of the Nihon Tondemo-bon Taisho (Japan Tondemo Book Award): Ninja, Its Origin and Technique(「忍者のラビリンス」) by Amano Jin, an ostensibly scholarly exploration of the history of ninja techniques, including the secret magical hand gestures Winner in 2001 was,Amazing Science Fiction Weapons(「奇想天外SF兵器) by Kei yoshio, a notoriously poorly researched book detailing the weapons and plots of science fiction series Winner in 2000


id: torsion-field-pseudoscience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torsion_field_(pseudoscience)-0.md
category: reference
title: Torsion field (pseudoscience)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torsion_field_(pseudoscience)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:15.697826+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: torsion-field-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
A torsion field (also called axion field, spin field, spinor field, and microlepton field) is a reoccurring feature of many pseudoscientific proposals. It posits that the quantum spin of particles can be used to cause emanations to carry information through vacuum orders of magnitude faster than the speed of light. == History == The first torsion field proposals were proposed in the late Soviet Union by a group of physicists in the 1980s who loosely based their ideas on Einstein–Cartan theory and some variant solutions of Maxwell's equations that do not have a solid grounding in scientific fact. The group, led by Anatoly Akimov and Gennady Shipov, began the research as the state-sponsored Center for Nontraditional Technologies. They disbanded in 1991 when their research was exposed by physicist Eugene Alexandrov as a fraud and an embezzlement of government funding. Akimov and Shipov received financing for torsion field research from the Russian Ministry of Science from 1992 to 1995 and from the Russian Ministry of Defense from 1996 to 1997, and secretly continued their research, with a private enterprise called The International Institute for Theoretical and Applied Physics (later called UVITOR). Presently championed exclusively outside of reputable scientific research due to


id: traditional-chinese-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine-0.md
category: reference
title: Traditional Chinese medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:18.063455+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: traditional-chinese-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is an alternative medical practice drawn from traditional medicine in China. A large share of its claims are pseudoscientific, with the majority of treatments having no robust evidence of effectiveness or logical mechanism of action. Some TCM ingredients are known to be toxic and cause disease, including cancer. Medicine in traditional China encompassed a range of sometimes competing health and healing practices, folk beliefs, literati theory, Taoist and Confucian philosophy, herbal remedies, food, diet, exercise, medical specializations, and schools of thought. TCM as it exists today has been described as a largely 20th century invention. In the early twentieth century, Chinese cultural and political modernizers worked to eliminate traditional practices as backward and unscientific. Traditional practitioners then selected elements of philosophy and practice and organized them into what they called "Chinese medicine". In the 1950s, the Chinese government sought to revive traditional medicine (including legalizing previously banned practices) and sponsored the integration of Chinese and Western medicine. In the Cultural Revolution of the 1960s, the government promoted TCM as inexpensive and popular. The creation of TCM was largely spearheaded by Mao Zedong, despite the fact that, according to The Private Life of Chairman Mao, he did


id: traditional-chinese-medicine-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine-1.md
category: reference
title: Traditional Chinese medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:18.063455+00:00
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=== Shang dynasty === Traces of therapeutic activities in China date from the Shang dynasty (14th–11th centuries BCE). Though the Shang did not have a concept of "medicine" as distinct from other health practices, their oracular inscriptions on bones and tortoise shells refer to illnesses that affected the Shang royal family: eye disorders, toothaches, bloated abdomen, and such. Shang elites usually attributed them to curses sent by their ancestors. There is currently no evidence that the Shang nobility used herbal remedies. Stone and bone needles found in ancient tombs led Joseph Needham to speculate that acupuncture might have been carried out in the Shang dynasty. This being said, most historians now make a distinction between medical lancing (or bloodletting) and acupuncture in the narrower sense of using metal needles to attempt to treat illnesses by stimulating points along circulation channels ("meridians") in accordance with beliefs related to the circulation of "Qi". The earliest evidence for acupuncture in this sense dates to the second or first century BCE. === Han dynasty === The Yellow Emperor's Inner Canon (Huangdi Neijing), the oldest received work of Chinese medical theory, was compiled during the Han dynasty around the first century BCE on the basis


id: traditional-chinese-medicine-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine-2.md
category: reference
title: Traditional Chinese medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine
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=== Chinese communities under colonial rule === Chinese communities living in colonial port cities were influenced by the diverse cultures they encountered, which also led to evolving understandings of medical practices where Chinese forms of medicine were combined with Western medical knowledge. For example, the Tung Wah Hospital was established in Hong Kong in 1869 based on the widespread rejection of Western medicine for pre-existing medical practices, although Western medicine would still be practiced in the hospital alongside Chinese medicinal practices. The Tung Wah Hospital was likely connected to another Chinese medical institution, the Kwong Wai Shiu Hospital of Singapore, which had previous community links to Tung Wah, was established for similar reasons, and also provided both Western and Chinese medical care. By 1935, English-language newspapers in Colonial Singapore already used the term "Traditional Chinese Medicine" to label Chinese ethnic medical practices. In the Chinese Communist Party-controlled areas prior to the founding of the People's Republic of China, there was a lack of access to Western-style medical resources. To improve health care, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) promoted the integration of traditional Chinese medicine with Western medical science. In the Yan'an Soviet, mass campaigns sought to "scientize Chinese medicine" and


id: traditional-chinese-medicine-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine-3.md
category: reference
title: Traditional Chinese medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine
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=== Historiography of Chinese medicine === The study of traditional medicine in China is an academic field within the history of science, with its own scholarly associations, journals, graduate programs, and debates with each other. These scholars distinguish traditional medicine in historical China from the more recent traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), which took elements from traditional texts and practices to construct a systematic body. Paul Unschuld, for instance, sees a "departure of TCM from its historical origins." What is called "Traditional Chinese Medicine" and practiced today in China and the West is not thousands of years old, but recently constructed using selected traditional terms, some of which have been taken out of context, some badly misunderstood. He has criticized Chinese and Western popular books for selective use of evidence, choosing only those works or parts of historical works that seem to lead to modern medicine, ignoring those elements that do not now seem to be effective. Historians have noted two key aspects of Chinese medical history: understanding conceptual differences when translating the term 身, and observing the history from the perspective of cosmology rather than biology. In Chinese classical texts, the term 身 is the closest historical translation to the


id: traditional-chinese-medicine-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine-4.md
category: reference
title: Traditional Chinese medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine
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parent: traditional-chinese-medicine-20260505-0
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== Philosophical background == Traditional Chinese medicine includes a broad range of practices sharing common concepts that developed in China for more than 2,000 years, including various forms of herbal medicine, acupuncture, massage (tui na), exercise (qigong), and dietary therapy. It is primarily used as a complementary alternative medicine approach. Traditional practices are widely used in China and, in an adapted form, also in the West. Its philosophy is based on School of Yin Yang, which incorporates Five Phases theory and Yin–Yang theory, and elements of which were absorbed by Daoism. Philosophical texts influenced medical thought and practice, mostly by being grounded in the same theories of qi, yin-yang and wuxing and microcosm-macrocosm analogies. === Yin and yang === Yin and yang are ancient Chinese deductive reasoning concepts used within Chinese medical diagnosis which can be traced back to the Shang dynasty (1600–1100 BCE). They represent two abstract and complementary aspects that every phenomenon in the universe can be divided into. Primordial analogies for these aspects are the sun-facing (yang) and the shady (yin) side of a hill. Two other commonly used representational allegories of yin and yang are water and fire. In the yin–yang theory, detailed attributions are made


id: traditional-chinese-medicine-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine-5.md
category: reference
title: Traditional Chinese medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine
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Actuation (推动; 推動; tuīdòng) – of all physical processes in the body, especially the circulation of all body fluids such as blood in their vessels. This includes actuation of the functions of the zang-fu organs and meridians. Warming (温煦; 溫煦; wēnxù) – the body, especially the limbs. Defense (防御; fángyù) – against Exogenous Pathogenic Factors Containment (固摄; 固攝; gùshè) – of body fluids, i.e., keeping blood, sweat, urine, semen, etc. from leakage or excessive emission. Inter-transformationel (气化; 氣化; qìhuà) – of food, drink, and breath into qi, xue (blood), and jinye ("fluids"), and/or transformation of all of the latter into each other. A lack of qi will be characterized especially by pale complexion, lassitude of spirit, lack of strength, spontaneous sweating, laziness to speak, non-digestion of food, shortness of breath (especially on exertion), and a pale and enlarged tongue. Qi is believed to be partially generated from food and drink, and partially from air (by breathing). Another considerable part of it is inherited from the parents and will be consumed in the course of life. TCM uses special terms for qi running inside of the blood vessels and for qi that is distributed in the skin, muscles, and tissues between


id: traditional-chinese-medicine-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine-6.md
category: reference
title: Traditional Chinese medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine
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== Gender in traditional medicine == Fuke (妇科; 婦科; Fùkē) is the traditional Chinese term for women's medicine (it means gynecology and obstetrics in modern medicine). However, there are few or no ancient works on it except for Fu Qingzhu's Fu Qingzhu Nu Ke (Fu Qingzhu's Gynecology 傅青主女科), with "Nu Ke" literally meaning "Women studies", much like the etymology of gynecology. In traditional China, as in many other cultures, the health and medicine of female bodies was less understood than that of male bodies. Women's bodies were often secondary to male bodies, since women were thought of as the weaker, sicklier sex. In clinical encounters, women and men were treated differently. Diagnosing women was not as simple as diagnosing men. First, when a woman fell ill, an appropriate adult man was to call the doctor and remain present during the examination, for the woman could not be left alone with the male doctor. The physician would discuss the female's problems and diagnosis only through the male. However, in certain cases, when a woman dealt with complications of pregnancy or birth, older women assumed the role of the formal authority. Men in these situations would not have much power to interfere.


id: traditional-chinese-medicine-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine-7.md
category: reference
title: Traditional Chinese medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine
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parent: traditional-chinese-medicine-20260505-0
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=== Yin yang and gender === Yin and yang were critical to the understanding of women's bodies, but understood only in conjunction with male bodies. Yin and yang ruled the body, the body being a microcosm of the universe and the earth. In addition, gender in the body was understood as homologous, the two genders operating in synchronization. Gender was presumed to influence the movement of energy and a well-trained physician would be expected to read the pulse and be able to identify two dozen or more energy flows. Yin and yang concepts were applied to the feminine and masculine aspects of all bodies, implying that the differences between men and women begin at the level of this energy flow. According to Bequeathed Writings of Master Chu the male's yang pulse movement follows an ascending path in "compliance [with cosmic direction] so that the cycle of circulation in the body and the Vital Gate are felt...The female's yin pulse movement follows a defending path against the direction of cosmic influences, so that the nadir and the Gate of Life are felt at the inch position of the left hand". In sum, classical medicine marked yin and yang as high and


id: traditional-chinese-medicine-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine-8.md
category: reference
title: Traditional Chinese medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:18.063455+00:00
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=== Infertility === Infertility, not very well understood, posed serious social and cultural repercussions. The seventh-century scholar Sun Simiao is often quoted: "those who have prescriptions for women's distinctiveness take their differences of pregnancy, childbirth and [internal] bursting injuries as their basis." Even in contemporary fuke placing emphasis on reproductive functions, rather than the entire health of the woman, suggests that the main function of fuke is to produce children. Once again, the kidney visceral system governs the "source Qi", which governs the reproductive systems in both sexes. This source Qi was thought to "be slowly depleted through sexual activity, menstruation and childbirth." It was also understood that the depletion of source Qi could result from the movement of an external pathology that moved through the outer visceral systems before causing more permanent damage to the home of source Qi, the kidney system. In addition, the view that only very serious ailments ended in the damage of this system means that those who had trouble with their reproductive systems or fertility were seriously ill. According to traditional Chinese medical texts, infertility can be summarized into different syndrome types. These were spleen and kidney depletion (yang depletion), liver and kidney depletion


id: traditional-chinese-medicine-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine-9.md
category: reference
title: Traditional Chinese medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:18.063455+00:00
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Wind (风; fēng): rapid onset of symptoms, wandering location of symptoms, itching, nasal congestion, "floating" pulse; tremor, paralysis, convulsion. Cold (寒; hán): cold sensations, aversion to cold, relief of symptoms by warmth, watery/clear excreta, severe pain, abdominal pain, contracture/hypertonicity of muscles, (slimy) white tongue fur, "deep"/"hidden" or "string-like" pulse, or slow pulse. Fire/Heat (火; huǒ): aversion to heat, high fever, thirst, concentrated urine, red face, red tongue, yellow tongue fur, rapid pulse. (Fire and heat are basically seen to be the same) Dampness (湿; shī): sensation of heaviness, sensation of fullness, symptoms of Spleen dysfunction, greasy tongue fur, "slippery" pulse. Dryness (燥; zào): dry cough, dry mouth, dry throat, dry lips, nosebleeds, dry skin, dry stools. Summerheat (暑; shǔ): either heat or mixed damp-heat symptoms. Six-Excesses-patterns can consist of only one or a combination of Excesses (e.g., wind-cold, wind-damp-heat). They can also transform from one into another. ==== Typical examples of patterns ==== For each of the functional entities (qi, xuĕ, zàng-fǔ, meridians etc.), typical disharmony patterns are recognized; for example: qi vacuity and qi stagnation in the case of qi; blood vacuity, blood stasis, and blood heat in the case of xuĕ; Spleen qi vacuity, Spleen yang vacuity, Spleen


id: traditional-chinese-medicine-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine-10.md
category: reference
title: Traditional Chinese medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine
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external causes: these include the Six Excesses and "Pestilential Qi". internal causes: the "Seven Affects" (七情; qī qíng, sometimes also translated as "Seven Emotions") – joy, anger, brooding, sorrow, fear, fright and grief. These are believed to be able to cause damage to the functions of the zàng-fú, especially of the Liver. non-external-non-internal causes: dietary irregularities (especially: too much raw, cold, spicy, fatty or sweet food; voracious eating; too much alcohol), fatigue, sexual intemperance, trauma, and parasites (虫; chóng). == Diagnostics == In TCM, there are five major diagnostic methods: inspection, auscultation, olfaction, inquiry, and palpation. These are grouped into what is known as the "Four pillars" of diagnosis, which are Inspection, Auscultation/ Olfaction, Inquiry, and Palpation (望，聞，問，切). Inspection focuses on the face and particularly on the tongue, including analysis of the tongue size, shape, tension, color and coating, and the absence or presence of teeth marks around the edge. Auscultation refers to listening for particular sounds (such as wheezing). Olfaction refers to attending to body odor. Inquiry focuses on the "seven inquiries", which involve asking the person about the regularity, severity, or other characteristics of: chills, fever, perspiration, appetite, thirst, taste, defecation, urination, pain, sleep, menses, leukorrhea. Palpation which


id: traditional-chinese-medicine-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine-11.md
category: reference
title: Traditional Chinese medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine
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==== Animal substances ==== Some animal parts used include cow gallstones, hornet nests, leeches, and scorpion. Other examples of animal parts include horn of the antelope or buffalo, deer antlers, testicles and penis bone of the dog, and snake bile. Some TCM textbooks still recommend preparations containing animal tissues, but there has been little research to justify the claimed clinical efficacy of many TCM animal products. Some compounds can include the parts of endangered species, including tiger bones and rhinoceros horn which is used for many ailments (though not as an aphrodisiac as is commonly misunderstood in the West). The black market in rhinoceros horns (driven not just by TCM but also unrelated status-seeking) has reduced the world's rhino population by more than 90 percent over the past 40 years. Concerns have also arisen over the use of pangolin scales, turtle plastron, seahorses, and the gill plates of mobula and manta rays. Poachers hunt restricted or endangered species to supply the black market with TCM products. There is no scientific evidence of efficacy for tiger medicines. Concern over China considering to legalize the trade in tiger parts prompted the 171-nation Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) to endorse


id: traditional-chinese-medicine-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine-12.md
category: reference
title: Traditional Chinese medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:18.063455+00:00
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The classification according to the Four Natures (四气; sì qì): hot, warm, cool, or cold (or, neutral in terms of temperature) and hot and warm herbs are used to treat cold diseases, while cool and cold herbs are used to treat heat diseases. The classification according to the Five Flavors, (五味; wǔ wèi, sometimes also translated as Five Tastes): acrid, sweet, bitter, sour, and salty. Substances may also have more than one flavor, or none (i.e., a "bland" flavor). Each of the Five Flavors corresponds to one of zàng organs, which in turn corresponds to one of the Five Phases. A flavor implies certain properties and therapeutic actions of a substance; e.g., saltiness drains downward and softens hard masses, while sweetness is supplementing, harmonizing, and moistening. The classification according to the meridian – more precisely, the zàng-fu organ including its associated meridian – which can be expected to be primarily affected by a given compound. The categorization according to the specific function mainly include: exterior-releasing or exterior-resolving, heat-clearing, downward-draining, or precipitating wind-damp-dispelling, dampness-transforming, promoting the movement of water and percolating dampness or dampness-percolating, interior-warming, qi-regulating or qi-rectifying, dispersing food accumulation or food-dispersing, worm-expelling, stopping bleeding or blood-stanching, quickening the Blood


id: traditional-chinese-medicine-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine-13.md
category: reference
title: Traditional Chinese medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine
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With an eye to the enormous Chinese market, pharmaceutical companies have explored creating new drugs from traditional remedies. The journal Nature commented that "claims made on behalf of an uncharted body of knowledge should be treated with the customary scepticism that is the bedrock of both science and medicine." There was success in the 1970s, however, with the development of the antimalarial drug artemisinin, which is a chemical compound isolated the herb Artemisia annua that has been used traditionally as a treatment for fever. Artemisia annua has been used by Chinese herbalists in traditional Chinese medicines for 2,000 years. In 1596, Li Shizhen recommended tea made from qinghao specifically to treat malaria symptoms in his Compendium of Materia Medica. Researcher Tu Youyou discovered that a low-temperature extraction process could isolate an effective antimalarial substance from the plant. Tu says she was influenced by a traditional Chinese herbal medicine source, The Handbook of Prescriptions for Emergency Treatments, written in 340 by Ge Hong, which states that this herb should be steeped in cold water. The extracted substance, once subject to detoxification and purification processes, is a usable antimalarial drug – a 2012 review found that artemisinin-based remedies were the most effective


id: traditional-chinese-medicine-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine-14.md
category: reference
title: Traditional Chinese medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:18.063455+00:00
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Acupuncture is the insertion of needles into superficial structures of the body (skin, subcutaneous tissue, muscles) – usually at acupuncture points (acupoints) – and their subsequent manipulation; this aims at influencing the flow of qi. According to TCM it relieves pain and treats (and prevents) various diseases. The US FDA classifies single-use acupuncture needles as Class II medical devices, under CFR 21. Acupuncture is often accompanied by moxibustion – the Chinese characters for acupuncture (针灸; 針灸; zhēnjiǔ) literally meaning "acupuncture-moxibustion" – which involves burning mugwort on or near the skin at an acupuncture point. According to the American Cancer Society, "available scientific evidence does not support claims that moxibustion is effective in preventing or treating cancer or any other disease". In electroacupuncture, an electric current is applied to the needles once they are inserted, to further stimulate the respective acupuncture points. A recent historian of Chinese medicine remarked that it is "nicely ironic that the specialty of acupuncture – arguably the most questionable part of their medical heritage for most Chinese at the start of the twentieth century – has become the most marketable aspect of Chinese medicine." She found that acupuncture as we know it today has hardly been


id: traditional-chinese-medicine-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine-15.md
category: reference
title: Traditional Chinese medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:18.063455+00:00
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Diē-dǎ (跌打) or Dit Da, is a traditional Chinese bone-setting technique, usually practiced by martial artists who know aspects of Chinese medicine that apply to the treatment of trauma and injuries such as bone fractures, sprains, and bruises. Some of these specialists may also use or recommend other disciplines of Chinese medical therapies if serious injury is involved. Such practice of bone-setting (正骨; 整骨) is not common in the West. === Chinese food therapy === The concepts yin and yang are associated with different classes of foods, and tradition considers it important to consume them in a balanced fashion. However, there is no scientific evidence supporting such claims, nor their implied notions. === Shanghai pedicure === == Regulations == Many governments have enacted laws to regulate TCM practice. === Australia === From 1 July 2012 Chinese medicine practitioners must be registered under the national registration and accreditation scheme with the Chinese Medicine Board of Australia and meet the Board's Registration Standards, to practice in Australia. === Canada === TCM is regulated in five provinces in Canada: Alberta, British Columbia, Ontario, Quebec, and Newfoundland & Labrador. === China (mainland) === The National Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine was created in 1949,


id: traditional-chinese-medicine-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine-16.md
category: reference
title: Traditional Chinese medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:18.063455+00:00
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parent: traditional-chinese-medicine-20260505-0
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There are no specific regulations in the Netherlands on TCM; TCM is neither prohibited nor recognised by the government of the Netherlands. Chinese herbs as well as Chinese herbal products that are used in TCM are classified as foods and food supplements, and these Chinese herbs can be imported into the Netherlands as well as marketed as such without any type registration or notification to the government. Despite its status, some private health insurance companies reimburse a certain amount of annual costs for acupuncture treatments, this depends on one's insurance policy, as not all insurance policies cover it, and if the acupuncture practitioner is or is not a member of one of the professional organisations that are recognised by private health insurance companies. The recognized professional organizations include the Nederlandse Vereniging voor Acupunctuur (NVA), Nederlandse Artsen Acupunctuur Vereniging (NAAV), ZHONG, (Nederlandse Vereniging voor Traditionele Chinese Geneeskunde), Nederlandse Beroepsvereniging Chinese Geneeswijzen Yi (NBCG Yi), and Wetenschappelijke Artsen Vereniging voor Acupunctuur in Nederland (WAVAN). === New Zealand === Although there are no regulatory standards for the practice of TCM in New Zealand, in the year 1990, acupuncture was included in the Governmental Accident Compensation Corporation (ACC) Act. This inclusion granted qualified and


id: traditional-siberian-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Siberian_medicine-0.md
category: reference
title: Traditional Siberian medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Siberian_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:19.332823+00:00
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parent: traditional-siberian-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Traditional Siberian medicine revolves around many different methods of treatment for different conditions and ailments. Early forms of Siberian medicine included herbal and topical treatments that would be ingested in the forms of tea or pastes applied directly to the skin. Indigenous Siberian civilizations utilized the plants available in the land for healing purposes. These practices were often prescribed by Siberian shamans who were at the center of healing practices in most civilizations. Shamans also played an important role for healing Siberians through spiritual intervention by performing different rituals. These remedies and rituals were passed down generation to generation and evolved throughout the ages. Modern medical practices have since moved on from most of these methods since the creation of formalized medical care like hospitals in the region. In the modern day, Siberians and many Russians still drink these herbal teas out of tradition. == Foundations of traditional Siberian medicine == Much of the history of traditional Siberian medicine comes from indigenous people who have passed down remedies to younger generations. Siberian medicine has also been blended into traditional Russian medicine. The main pillars involve the use of herbal remedies such as making pastes, teas, and juices in order to


id: traditional-siberian-medicine-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Siberian_medicine-1.md
category: reference
title: Traditional Siberian medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Siberian_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:19.332823+00:00
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parent: traditional-siberian-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Siberian ginseng was another plant utilized in traditional Siberian medicine. This plant is found closer to the border with China and is well documented for also being utilized in traditional Chinese medicine. Russian scientists did not categorize this plant as a ginseng until the late 20th century while studying the plant life that grew around the border with China near rivers. This plant is harvested with its roots being dried to be made into tea. Siberian ginseng was noted in traditional medicine for its ability to improve stamina as well as reduce fatigue after physical exertion. == The role of the shaman == One of the essential parts of traditional Siberian medicine is the role of the shaman. The shaman played a central role in daily life in Siberia before the 21st century. All the way up until the 20th century when the Soviet Union began to dictate much of what went on in terms of religion and trade in the region, shamanism dominated the vast lands of Siberia. Shamans were characterized by their ability to intervene in people's lives. This came in the forms of spirituality along with health and wellness. Shamans were believed to be able to change


id: traditional-siberian-medicine-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Siberian_medicine-2.md
category: reference
title: Traditional Siberian medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Siberian_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:19.332823+00:00
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parent: traditional-siberian-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
One of the most notable lands in Siberia is Yakutia. This region of Siberia is recognized for having severe weather conditions with temperatures regularly dipping far below 0 degrees Fahrenheit. In the modern day, a vast majority of Yakut people do not have access to clean drinking water via pipe systems: the weather causes the pipes to freeze. This has led to many people being forced to harvest ice to melt to use for cooking, cleaning and bathing. Navigating the harsh climate of the region is difficult: many people wear thick fur pelts and jackets covering every inch of their bodies to avoid frostbite. Resilience to the cold is a vital part of Yakutian society. One tradition in the region involves cutting holes in the frozen lakes and briefly staying in the ice water. This tradition dates back centuries and is noted in Yakut culture for strengthening their bodies against the cold and illness. The ice bath can also be followed up with a session in the banya to warm the body. Young children are also not excluded from this practice. The tradition has survived the test of time and is implemented in the modern day. Kindergartens have been recognized


id: transgender-health-care-misinformation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transgender_health_care_misinformation-0.md
category: reference
title: Transgender health care misinformation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transgender_health_care_misinformation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:20.683859+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transgender-health-care-misinformation-20260505-0
summary:
False and misleading claims about gender diversity, gender dysphoria, and gender-affirming care have been used to justify legislative restrictions on transgender people's right to healthcare. The claims have primarily relied on manufactured uncertainty generated by various conservative religious organizations, pseudoscientific or discredited researchers, anti-trans activists and others. Common false claims include that most people who transition regret it; that most pre-pubertal transgender children cease desiring transition after puberty; that gender dysphoria is socially contagious, can have a rapid onset, or is caused by mental illness; that medical organizations are pushing youth to transition; and that transgender youth require conversion therapies such as gender exploratory therapy. Elected officials in Central and South America have called for legislative bans on transgender healthcare based on false claims. Misinformation has been platformed and amplified by mainstream media outlets. Medical organizations such as the Endocrine Society and American Psychological Association, among others, have released statements opposing such bans and the misinformation behind them. == Origins == Transgender healthcare misinformation primarily relies on manufactured uncertainty from a network of conservative legal and advocacy organizations. These organizations have relied on techniques similar to those used in climate change denialism, generating exaggerated uncertainty around reproductive health care, conversion


id: transgender-health-care-misinformation-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transgender_health_care_misinformation-1.md
category: reference
title: Transgender health care misinformation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transgender_health_care_misinformation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:20.683859+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transgender-health-care-misinformation-20260505-0
summary:
It has been claimed that most (usually ~80%) of children with gender dysphoria or a trans identity will not identify as transgender past adolescence. The claim has been referred to as the "desistance myth". This claim is not supported by the evidence and is based on studies on "desistance" from the 1960s–80s and 2000s. These older studies often did not clearly define desistance, and when they did, their definitions were often inconsistent with each other. Many of the earlier studies treated "gender deviant" behavior as pathological and were explicitly attempting to "cure" it. All the studies, even later studies, often had serious methodological flaws such as low sample sizes and outdated diagnostic frameworks that conflated gender non-conformity with transgender identity. Most youth sampled in these studies never identified as transgender nor desired to transition, but were counted as desisting. The claim has often been used to support the criminalization of gender-affirming care. The term desistance was first used for trans children by Kenneth Zucker in 2003, who borrowed the term from its usage in oppositional defiance disorder; there, it is regarded as a positive outcome, a history that reflects the pathologization of transgender identities. The claim was primarily popularized in


id: transgender-health-care-misinformation-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transgender_health_care_misinformation-2.md
category: reference
title: Transgender health care misinformation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transgender_health_care_misinformation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:20.683859+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transgender-health-care-misinformation-20260505-0
summary:
In the 1980s and 1990s, Ray Blanchard developed a theory and typology of transfeminine people, classifying them as either "homosexual transsexuals" – straight transgender women who are alleged to be homosexual men who transitioned to seduce straight men – or "autogynephilic transsexuals", who medically transition due to an alleged sexual fantasy or fetish of being a woman. It was popularized in 2003 by J. Michael Bailey in his book The Man Who Would Be Queen and heavily promoted by the far-right Human Biodiversity Institute of which Blanchard is a member. There is little to no evidence for the theory, and it has been criticized on numerous grounds. Blanchard did not empirically derive the subtypes; instead, he grouped trans women based on sexual orientation, disregarded their lived experiences, ignored that cisgender women also report autogynephilia, sexually objectified trans women, and assumed causality – that transgender women have gender dysphoria and desire to transition due to their fantasies – rather than their fantasies being due to their identity. Studies have criticized the conceptual flaws and empirical errors in the theory. Transfeminist Julia Serano has summarized the debate: "If proponents of autogynephilia insist that every exception to the model is due to misreporting,


id: transgender-health-care-misinformation-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transgender_health_care_misinformation-3.md
category: reference
title: Transgender health care misinformation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transgender_health_care_misinformation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:20.683859+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transgender-health-care-misinformation-20260505-0
summary:
==== Norway ==== Misinformation that Norway had banned gender-affirming care has proliferated on social media. In 2023, the Norwegian Healthcare Investigation Board, an independent non-governmental organization, issued a non-binding report finding the evidence for the use of puberty blockers and cross-sex hormone therapy in youth insufficient and recommended changing to a cautious approach. The board is not responsible for setting healthcare policy; the Directorate of Health, the governmental body responsible for healthcare policy in Norway, is considering but has not implemented the recommendations. ==== Sweden ==== Misinformation that Sweden had banned gender-affirming care for minors has proliferated on social media. Some Republican politicians in the United States have used this misinformation to justify their outright bans on the treatments, often citing the restriction that requires "special circumstances" to approve genital surgery in people under 23. In reality, genital surgery is rarely performed upon minors and only provided for the most severe and extraordinary cases of gender dysphoria. The restriction on genital surgery has been in place since the passage of a 1975 anti-eugenics law and does not ban transgender care. The child and adolescent gender dysphoria KID-clinic at Sweden's Karolinska University Hospital in Stockholm announced that from May 2021 it


id: transgender-health-care-misinformation-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transgender_health_care_misinformation-4.md
category: reference
title: Transgender health care misinformation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transgender_health_care_misinformation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:20.683859+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transgender-health-care-misinformation-20260505-0
summary:
==== Latin America ==== Mexican federal deputy Teresa Castell of the conservative National Action Party had repeatedly claimed that gender dysphoria resulted from mental illness or perversion and required psychological treatment. One party deputy pushed an initiative to ban transgender healthcare for minors and criminalize pressure from "an adult for the determination of sexual identity ... contrary to their biological identity" arguing that minors are incapable of knowing their gender identity. In late September 2024, Colombian far-right groups and organizers who successfully lobbied against a national ban on conversion therapy spread a hoax that their Superintendent of Health had promoted genital surgeries for three-year-olds. Despite fact-checking from independent reporters, the President (Gustavo Petro) and the Superintendent of Health (Luis Carlos Leal), the hoax has continued to be popular. In November 2024, many Brazilian politicians and political candidates relied on anti-trans rhetoric and misinformation during their elections, including claims that transgender children do not exist or are being co-opted into being trans by advocacy organizations. ==== United Kingdom ==== In 2021, NHS England commissioned the Cass Review, an independent review of gender identity services for children and young people. The review's final report (published April 2024) recommended tighter restrictions on gender-affirming


id: transgender-health-care-misinformation-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transgender_health_care_misinformation-5.md
category: reference
title: Transgender health care misinformation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transgender_health_care_misinformation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:20.683859+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transgender-health-care-misinformation-20260505-0
summary:
== Responses from medical organizations == In June 2023, The Endocrine Society released a press release stating "widespread misinformation about medical care for transgender and gender-diverse teens" had resulted in 18 US states banning such care, including for adults. They stated: "These policies do not reflect the research landscape. More than 2,000 scientific studies have examined aspects of gender-affirming care since 1975, including more than 260 studies cited in the Endocrine Society's Clinical Practice Guideline [on transgender medicine]." The American Academy of Pediatrics, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, the American Urological Association, the American Society for Reproductive Medicine, the American College of Physicians, the American Association of Clinical Endocrinology, GLMA: Health Professionals Advancing LGBTQ+ Equality, the American Medical Association (AMA), and the AMA's Medical Student Section cosponsored an Endocrine Society resolution "opposing any criminal and legal penalties against patients seeking gender-affirming care, family members or guardians who support them in seeking medical care, and health care facilities and clinicians who provide gender-affirming care". The AMA passed the resolution. In February 2024, the American Psychological Association released a policy statement urging the stopping of the spread of disinformation with more abundant and easily accessible scientific research, describing it as


id: turbo-cancer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbo_cancer-0.md
category: reference
title: Turbo cancer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbo_cancer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:21.855229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: turbo-cancer-20260505-0
summary:
Turbo cancer is an anti-vaccination conspiracy theory alleging that people vaccinated against COVID-19, especially with mRNA vaccines, are suffering from a high incidence of fast-developing cancers. Although the idea has been spread by a number of vaccine opponents, including several health professionals, turbo cancer is not supported by cancer research, and there is no evidence that COVID-19 vaccination causes or worsens cancer. == Claims == Opponents of COVID-19 vaccines such as Florida surgeon general Joseph Ladapo have claimed that trace amounts of contaminant DNA present alongside the vaccine's mRNA could integrate in the patient's genome, activating oncogenes responsible for cancer. In response, Céline Gounder pointed out that trace DNA exists in virtually every product originating from cell cultures, and that DNA vaccines are not known to cause cancer despite containing much higher amounts of DNA. According to the US National Cancer Institute, "[t]here is no evidence that COVID-19 vaccines cause cancer, lead to recurrence, or lead to disease progression. Furthermore, COVID-19 vaccines do not change your DNA". == Examples of claims == A paper by antivaccine activists Stephanie Seneff, Peter McCullough and others claimed suppression of type 1 interferon could result in immune suppression that could promote cancer proliferation. The


id: unani-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unani_medicine-0.md
category: reference
title: Unani medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unani_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:23.076423+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: unani-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Unani medicine or Unani Tibb (Urdu: طب یونانی tibb-i-yūnānī) is a Greco-Arabic traditional medicine system practiced in areas of South Asia and Central Asia. Unani medicine uses the humoral theory of diagnosis, which predates the discovery of microbes and modern medicine. Unani medicine is pseudoscientific. The term Yūnānī means 'Greek', referring to the fact that the Greco-Arabic system of medicine was based on the teachings of the Greek physicians Hippocrates and Galen. The Hellenistic origin of Unani medicine is still visible in its being based on the classical four humours: phlegm (balgham), blood (dam), yellow bile (ṣafrā) and black bile (saudā), but it has also been influenced by Indian and Chinese traditional systems. == Etymology == The term Unani dates back to the ancient Greek place-name Ἰωνία (Iōnía), a coastal region on the eastern Aegean. The Ionians were the major ethnic group of the region, and their name became the primary Arabic and Persian reference for Greece as a civilization, known as Yūnānistan. == History == === Ancient Greece (1200 BC – 600 AD) === Unani medicine established its foundations in ancient Greece. Hippocrates (c. 460–380 BCE) constructed the four-humor framework (blood (dam), phlegm (balg), yellow bile (safra), and black


id: unani-medicine-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unani_medicine-1.md
category: reference
title: Unani medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unani_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:23.076423+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: unani-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
India hosts fifty-seven Unani medical colleges as of 2022, with the registered Unani medical practitioner base reaching an estimated 52,000 individuals as of 2024. The common undergraduate degree awarded on completion on an Unani medicine program is titled Bachelor of Unani Medicine and Surgery (B.U.M.S.), although the name of this degree may vary slightly across institutions. Postgraduate education in Unani medicine remains less widespread than undergraduate offerings, with a few colleges currently offering MD (Unani medicine) or PhD programs. Postgraduate studies in Unani medicine can range in disciplines, a few being: Mu'ālajāt (Medicine/Therapeutics), 'Ilm al-Adwiya (Pharmacology or Pharmacognosy), 'Ilm al-Saidla (Unani Pharmacy), among others. The Central Council of Indian Medicine (CCIM), a statutory body established in 1971 under the Department of Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homoeopathy (AYUSH), monitors higher education in areas of Indian medicine including Ayurveda, Unani, and other traditional medical systems. Another subdivision of AYUSH, the Central Council for Research in Unani Medicine (CCRUM), aids and co-ordinates scientific research in the Unani system of medicine through a network of 22 nationwide research institutes and units. To fight biopiracy and unethical patents, the Government of India set up the Traditional Knowledge Digital Library in 2001 as


id: list-of-unproven-and-disproven-cancer-treatments-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unproven_and_disproven_cancer_treatments-0.md
category: reference
title: List of unproven and disproven cancer treatments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unproven_and_disproven_cancer_treatments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:24.252849+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unproven-and-disproven-cancer-treatments-20260505-0
summary:
This is a non-exhaustive list of alternative treatments that have been promoted to treat or prevent cancer in humans but which lack scientific and medical evidence of effectiveness. In many cases, there is scientific evidence that the alleged treatments are not effective, and in some cases, may even be harmful. Unlike accepted cancer treatments, treatments lacking in evidence of efficacy are generally ignored or avoided by the medical community and are often pseudoscientific. Many alternative cancer treatments are considered disproven because they have been investigated with clinical trials and have been shown to be ineffective. == Alternative health systems == Aromatherapy – the use of fragrant substances, such as essential oils, in the belief that smelling them will positively affect health. There is some evidence that aromatherapy improves general well-being, but it has also been promoted for its ability to fight diseases, including cancer. The American Cancer Society states "available scientific evidence does not support claims that aromatherapy is effective in preventing or treating cancer". Ayurvedic medicine – a 2,200-year-old system of traditional medicine which originated on the Indian subcontinent. According to Cancer Research UK, "There is no scientific evidence to prove that Ayurvedic medicine can treat or cure cancer."


id: list-of-unproven-and-disproven-cancer-treatments-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unproven_and_disproven_cancer_treatments-1.md
category: reference
title: List of unproven and disproven cancer treatments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unproven_and_disproven_cancer_treatments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:24.252849+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unproven-and-disproven-cancer-treatments-20260505-0
summary:
== Diet-based == Alkaline diet – a restrictive diet of non-acid foods, such as that proposed by Edgar Cayce (1877–1945), based on the claim this will affect the pH of the body generally, so reducing the risk of heart disease and cancer. According to the Canadian Cancer Society, "there is no evidence to support any of these claims." Breuss diet – a diet based on vegetable juice and tea devised by Rudolf Breuss (1899–1990), who claimed it could cure cancer. Physicians have said that, in common with other "cancer diets", there is no evidence of effectiveness and some risk of harm. Budwig protocol (or Budwig diet) – an "anti-cancer" diet developed in the 1950s by Johanna Budwig (1908–2003). The diet is rich in flaxseed oil mixed with cottage cheese, and emphasizes meals high in fruit, vegetables and fiber; it avoids sugar, animal fats, salad oil, meats, butter and especially margarine. Cancer Research UK say, "there is no reliable evidence to show that the Budwig diet [...] helps people with cancer". Fasting and intermittent fasting – not eating or drinking for a period – a practice which has been claimed by some alternative medicine practitioners to help fight cancer, perhaps by


id: list-of-unproven-and-disproven-cancer-treatments-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unproven_and_disproven_cancer_treatments-2.md
category: reference
title: List of unproven and disproven cancer treatments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unproven_and_disproven_cancer_treatments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:24.252849+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unproven-and-disproven-cancer-treatments-20260505-0
summary:
Bioresonance therapy – diagnosis and therapy delivered by attaching an electrical device to the patient, on the basis that cancer cells emit certain electromagnetic oscillations. The Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center says that such claims are not supported by any evidence and note that the U.S. Food and Drug Administration has prosecuted many sellers of such devices. Electrohomeopathy (or Mattei cancer cure) – a treatment devised by Count Cesare Mattei (1809–1896), who proposed that different "colors" of electricity could be used to treat cancer. Popular in the late nineteenth century, electrohomeopathy has been described as "utter idiocy". Electro Physiological Feedback Xrroid – an electronic device promoted as being capable of diagnosing and treating cancer and a host of other ailments. However, according to Quackwatch: "The Quantum Xrroid device is claimed to balance 'bio-energetic' forces that the scientific community does not recognize as real. It mainly reflects skin resistance (how easily low-voltage electric currents from the device pass through the skin), which is not related to the body's health." Light therapy – the use of light to treat medical conditions. According to the American Cancer Society, alternative approaches—such as chromotherapy or the use of light boxes—have not been shown to be


id: list-of-unproven-and-disproven-cancer-treatments-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unproven_and_disproven_cancer_treatments-3.md
category: reference
title: List of unproven and disproven cancer treatments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unproven_and_disproven_cancer_treatments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:24.252849+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unproven-and-disproven-cancer-treatments-20260505-0
summary:
Clark's "Cure for All Cancers" – an alternative medicine regime promoted by Hulda Regehr Clark (1928–2009), who (before her death from cancer) claimed it could cure all human diseases, including all cancers. The regime was based on the belief that disease was caused by "parasites", and included herbal remedies, chelation therapy and the use of electronic devices. Quackwatch describes her notions as "absurd". Contreras therapy – treatment offered at the Oasis of Hope Hospital in Tijuana, Mexico which includes a number of ineffective treatments including the use of amygdalin and metabolic therapy. The Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center lists "Contreras Therapy" alongside others which "show no evidence of efficacy". Gerson therapy – a predominantly diet regime, generally based on limiting salt, protein and other foods; ingesting large quantities of fruit and vegetables through juicing; augmenting the intake of potassium and iodine; and the use of coffee enemas. According to Cancer Research UK, "available scientific evidence does not support any claims that Gerson therapy can treat cancer [...] Gerson therapy can be very harmful to your health." Gonzalez protocol – a treatment regime devised by Nicholas Gonzalez (1947–2015) based on Gerson therapy. The treatment is a type of metabolic therapy that


id: list-of-unproven-and-disproven-cancer-treatments-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unproven_and_disproven_cancer_treatments-4.md
category: reference
title: List of unproven and disproven cancer treatments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unproven_and_disproven_cancer_treatments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:24.252849+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unproven-and-disproven-cancer-treatments-20260505-0
summary:
Cannabidiol – a phytocannabinoid extracted from the cannabis plant. Many claims are made for the therapeutic benefit of cannabidiol that are not backed by sound evidence. Some claims—for example that cannabidiol be used to treat cancer—fall into the realm of pseudoscience. Cannabis – Used as a recreational and medicinal drug. Chemicals derived from cannabis have been extensively researched for potential anti-cancer effect and while there has been much laboratory work, claims that cannabis has been proven to cure cancer are—according to Cancer Research UK—"highly misleading". The U.S. National Cancer Institute notes "Cannabis is not approved by the FDA for the treatment of any cancer-related symptom or side effect of cancer therapy." Cansema (also called black salve) – a type of paste or poultice often promoted as a cancer cure, especially for skin cancer. According to the American Cancer Society, there is no evidence that this escharotic is effective in treating cancer, and it can be harmful, causing burns and disfigurement. Capsicum – the name given to a group of plants in the nightshade family, well known for producing hot chilli peppers such as the cayenne pepper and the jalapeño. A number of capsicum-based products, including teas and capsules, are promoted


id: list-of-unproven-and-disproven-cancer-treatments-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unproven_and_disproven_cancer_treatments-5.md
category: reference
title: List of unproven and disproven cancer treatments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unproven_and_disproven_cancer_treatments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:24.252849+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unproven-and-disproven-cancer-treatments-20260505-0
summary:
Grapes – fruit, popularized for supposed anti-cancer effect by Johanna Brandt (1876–1964) who championed a "grape diet", and promoted more recently in the form of grape seed extract (GSE). According to the American Cancer Society, "there is very little reliable scientific evidence available at this time that drinking red wine, eating grapes, or following the grape diet can prevent or treat cancer in people". Inonotus obliquus – commonly known as chaga mushroom. Chaga has been used as a folk remedy in Russia and Siberia since the 16th century. According to the Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, "no clinical trials have been conducted to assess chaga's safety and efficacy for disease prevention or for the treatment of cancer, cardiovascular disease, or diabetes". They caution that the mushroom extract can interact with other drugs. Juice Plus – a branded line of dietary supplements containing concentrated fruit and vegetable juice extract. In October 2009, Barrie R. Cassileth, chair and chief of integrative medicine at Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, cautioned that while Juice Plus is being "aggressively promoted to cancer patients based on claims of antioxidant effects", the supplement should not be taken by patients because it can interfere with chemotherapy, nor should


id: list-of-unproven-and-disproven-cancer-treatments-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unproven_and_disproven_cancer_treatments-6.md
category: reference
title: List of unproven and disproven cancer treatments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unproven_and_disproven_cancer_treatments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:24.252849+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unproven-and-disproven-cancer-treatments-20260505-0
summary:
Mistletoe – a plant used in anthroposophical medicine, proposed as a cancer cure (in the form of mistletoe extract, called Iscador or Helixor) by Rudolf Steiner (1861–1925), who believed it needed to be harvested when planetary alignment most influenced its potency. According to the American Cancer Society, "available evidence from well-designed clinical trials does not support claims that mistletoe can improve length or quality of life". Modified citrus pectin – a substance chemically extracted from citrus fruits and marketed in dietary supplement form as a treatment for prostate cancer and melanoma. According to Cancer Research UK, it has "not been shown to have any activity in fighting cancer in people". Moxibustion – the practice, used in conjunction with acupuncture or acupressure, of burning dried-up mugwort near the patient. The American Cancer Society comments, "available scientific evidence does not support claims that moxibustion is effective in preventing or treating cancer or any other disease". Mushrooms – promoted on the internet as useful for cancer treatment. According to Cancer Research UK, "there is currently no evidence that any type of mushroom or mushroom extract can prevent or cure cancer". Nerium oleander (or oleander) – one of the most poisonous of commonly grown


id: list-of-unproven-and-disproven-cancer-treatments-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unproven_and_disproven_cancer_treatments-7.md
category: reference
title: List of unproven and disproven cancer treatments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unproven_and_disproven_cancer_treatments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:24.252849+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unproven-and-disproven-cancer-treatments-20260505-0
summary:
Venus flytrap – a carnivorous plant, the extract of which has been promoted as a treatment for a variety of human ailments including skin cancer. According to the American Cancer Society, "available scientific evidence does not support claims that extract from the Venus flytrap plant is effective in treating skin cancer or any other type of cancer". Walnuts – large, hard edible seeds of any tree of the genus Juglans. Black walnut has been promoted as a cancer cure on the basis it kills a "parasite" responsible for the disease. There exist walnut hull tinctures made with kerosene or other oil products; one such product which was intended to be used as a cancer treatment, named Todicamp and produced by Todicamp SRL, was recognized as harmful. According to the American Cancer Society, "available scientific evidence does not support claims that hulls from black walnuts remove parasites from the intestinal tract or that they are effective in treating cancer or any other disease". Wheatgrass – a food made from grains of wheat. According to the American Cancer Society, although some wheatgrass champions claim it can "shrink" cancer tumors, "available scientific evidence does not support the idea that wheatgrass or the wheatgrass


id: list-of-unproven-and-disproven-cancer-treatments-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unproven_and_disproven_cancer_treatments-8.md
category: reference
title: List of unproven and disproven cancer treatments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unproven_and_disproven_cancer_treatments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:24.252849+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unproven-and-disproven-cancer-treatments-20260505-0
summary:
Cancer guided imagery – the practice of attempting to treat cancer in oneself by imagining it away. According to the American Cancer Society, "available scientific evidence does not support claims that imagery can influence the development or progress of cancer". Faith healing – the attempt to cure disease by spiritual means, often by prayer or participation in religious ritual. According to the American Cancer Society, "available scientific evidence does not support claims that faith healing can actually cure physical ailments". Hypnosis – the induction of a deeply relaxed and yet alert mental state. Some practitioners have claimed hypnosis might help boost the immune system. However, according to the American Cancer Society, "available scientific evidence does not support the idea that hypnosis can influence the development or progression of cancer.". Meditation (also Transcendental Meditation and Mindfulness) – mind-body practices in which patients attempt to master their own mental processes. According to the American Cancer Society while meditation "may help to improve the quality of life for people with cancer", "available scientific evidence does not suggest that meditation is effective in treating cancer or any other disease." Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) – a series of behavioral techniques based on various supposed relationships between


id: list-of-unproven-and-disproven-cancer-treatments-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unproven_and_disproven_cancer_treatments-9.md
category: reference
title: List of unproven and disproven cancer treatments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unproven_and_disproven_cancer_treatments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:24.252849+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unproven-and-disproven-cancer-treatments-20260505-0
summary:
Colloidal silver – liquid containing a suspension of silver particles, marketed as a treatment for cancer and other ailments. Quackwatch states that colloidal silver dietary supplements have not been found safe or effective for the treatment of any condition. Ingestion of ionic silver can cause a rare condition called argyria in which silver is reduced to elemental form inside tissues, causing an irreversible blue/gray complexion. Coral calcium – a dietary supplement supposedly made from crushed coral and promoted with claims it could treat a number of diseases including cancer. A consumer advisory issued by the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine stated "Consumers should be aware that claims that coral calcium can treat or cure cancer, multiple sclerosis, lupus, heart disease, or high blood pressure are not supported by existing scientific evidence". DHEA (Dehydroepiandrosterone) – a steroid hormone that has been promoted in supplement form for its claimed cancer prevention properties; there is no scientific evidence to support these claims. Di Bella Therapy – a cocktail of vitamins, drugs and hormones devised by Luigi di Bella (1912–2003) and promoted as a cancer treatment. According to the American Cancer Society: "Available scientific evidence does not support claims that Di Bella


id: list-of-unproven-and-disproven-cancer-treatments-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unproven_and_disproven_cancer_treatments-10.md
category: reference
title: List of unproven and disproven cancer treatments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unproven_and_disproven_cancer_treatments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:24.252849+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unproven-and-disproven-cancer-treatments-20260505-0
summary:
Hyperbaric oxygen therapy – the use of a pressurized oxygen environment as therapy. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy has a number of accepted uses—for example hyperbaric chambers are used for treating decompression sickness. The therapy has also been promoted as a cure-all for a wide range of conditions, including cancer, for which there is no evidence of effectiveness. Insulin potentiation therapy – the practice of injecting insulin, usually alongside a low dose of conventional chemotherapy drugs, in the belief that this improves the overall effect of the treatment. Although it may cause a temporary reduction in tumor size for some patients, there is no evidence that it improves survival time or any other main outcomes. Krebiozen (also known as Carcalon, creatine, substance X, or drug X) – a mineral oil-based liquid sold as an alternative cancer treatment. According to the American Cancer Society: "Available scientific evidence does not support claims that Krebiozen is effective in treating cancer or any other disease. According to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), creatine has been linked to several dangerous side effects." Lipoic acid – an antioxidant available as a dietary supplement and claimed by proponents to be capable of slowing cancer progression. According to


id: list-of-unproven-and-disproven-cancer-treatments-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unproven_and_disproven_cancer_treatments-11.md
category: reference
title: List of unproven and disproven cancer treatments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unproven_and_disproven_cancer_treatments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:24.252849+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unproven-and-disproven-cancer-treatments-20260505-0
summary:
Shark cartilage – a dietary supplement made from ground shark skeleton, and promoted as a cancer treatment perhaps because of the mistaken notion that sharks do not get cancer. The Mayo Clinic conducted research and were "unable to demonstrate any suggestion of efficacy for this shark cartilage product in patients with advanced cancer". Sodium bicarbonate (or baking soda) – the chemical compound with the formula NaHCO3, sometimes promoted as cure for cancer by alternative medical practitioners such as Tullio Simoncini. According to the American Cancer Society: "evidence also does not support the idea that sodium bicarbonate works as a treatment for any form of cancer. There is substantial evidence, however, that these claims are false." Edzard Ernst has called the promotion of sodium bicarbonate as a cancer cure "one of the more sickening alternative cancer scams I have seen for a long time". Urine therapy – the practice of attempting to treat cancer—or other illnesses—by drinking, injecting or taking an enema of one's own urine, or by making and taking some derivative substance from it. According to the American Cancer Society, "available scientific evidence does not support claims that urine or urea given in any form is helpful for cancer


id: urine-therapy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urine_therapy-0.md
category: reference
title: Urine therapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urine_therapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:25.482032+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: urine-therapy-20260505-0
summary:
Urine therapy or urotherapy, (also urinotherapy, Shivambu, uropathy, or auto-urine therapy) in alternative medicine, and amaroli in medieval hatha yoga, is the application of human urine for medicinal or cosmetic purposes, including drinking of one's own urine and massaging one's skin, or gums, with one's own urine. No scientific evidence exists to support any beneficial health claims of urine therapy. == History == Though urine has been believed useful for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes in several traditional systems, and mentioned in some medical texts, auto-urine therapy as a system of alternative medicine was popularized by British naturopath John W. Armstrong in the early 20th century. Armstrong was inspired by his family's practice of using urine to treat minor stings and toothaches, by a metaphorical misreading of the Hebrew Biblical Proverb 5:15 "Drink waters out of thine own cistern, and running waters out of thine own well", and his own experience with ill-health that he treated with a 45-day fast "on nothing but urine and tap water". Starting in 1918, Armstrong prescribed urine therapy regimens that he devised for thousands of patients, and in 1944 he published The Water of Life: A Treatise on Urine Therapy, which became a founding document


id: vaccines-and-sids-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccines_and_SIDS-0.md
category: reference
title: Vaccines and SIDS
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccines_and_SIDS
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:26.659613+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vaccines-and-sids-20260505-0
summary:
A speculated link between vaccines and SIDS (Sudden Infant Death Syndrome) has been refuted, but remains a common anti-vaccine claim. The claim, attributed to Robert Mendelsohn in 1991 and promoted by anti-vaccination activists such as Viera Scheibner in the early 1990s, is that vaccines, especially the DTP vaccine that protects against diphtheria, tetanus and pertussis, sometimes causes sudden infant death syndrome. The World Health Organization has classified this as a "common misconception". Some also claim that a vaccine court case, Boatmon v. Secretary of Health and Human Services, 13-611 (Fed. Cl. 2017), proves this link. While compensation was awarded to Boatmon, this did not prove any link, and the award was in any case vacated in July 2018 as the Special master had applied too low a standard of proof. Multiple studies and meta-analyses have shown that vaccinated children are less likely to die of SIDS. == References ==


id: vaim-nika-sh-stra-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaimānika_Shāstra-0.md
category: reference
title: Vaimānika Shāstra
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaimānika_Shāstra
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:27.842973+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vaim-nika-sh-stra-20260505-0
summary:
The Vaimānika Shāstra (वैमानिक शास्त्र, lit. "shastra on the topic of Vimanas" or "science of aeronautics", sometimes also rendered Vimanika, Vymanika or Vyamanika) is a 20th-century text in Sanskrit. It makes the claim that the vimānas mentioned in ancient Sanskrit epics were advanced aerodynamic flying vehicles. The existence of the text was revealed in 1952 by G. R. Josyer, who asserted that it was written by Pandit Subbaraya Shastry (1866–1940), who dictated it during the years 1918–1923. A Hindi translation was published in 1959, while the Sanskrit text with an English translation was published in 1973. It contains 3000 shlokas in 8 chapters which Shastry claimed were psychically delivered to him by the ancient Hindu sage Bharadvaja. The text has gained favour among proponents of ancient astronauts. A study by aeronautical and mechanical engineering researchers at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, in 1974 concluded that the aircraft described in the text were "poor concoctions" and that the author showed a complete lack of understanding of aeronautics. Regarding the "Rukma Vimana", the study noted, "If the craft is taken to mean what the drawing and the text say, it can be stated that the craft is a decided impossibility". ==


id: vaim-nika-sh-stra-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaimānika_Shāstra-1.md
category: reference
title: Vaimānika Shāstra
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaimānika_Shāstra
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:27.842973+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vaim-nika-sh-stra-20260505-0
summary:
The Vaimānika Śāstra was first committed to writing between 1918 and 1923, and nobody is claiming that it came from some mysterious antique manuscript. The fact is, there are no manuscripts of this text before 1918, and nobody is claiming that there are. So on one level, this is not a hoax. You just have to buy into the assumption that 'channelling' works. ... there is no exposition of the theory of aviation (let alone antigravity). In plain terms, the Vaimānika Śāstra never directly explains how Vimanas get up in the air. The text is top-heavy with long lists of often bizarre ingredients used to construct various subsystems. ... There is nothing here which Jules Verne couldn't have dreamed up, no mention of exotic elements or advanced construction techniques. The 1923 technical illustrations based on the text ... are absurdly unaerodynamic. They look like brutalist wedding cakes, with minarets, huge ornithopter wings and dinky propellers. In other words, they look like typical early 20th-century fantasy flying machines with an Indian twist. A 1974 study by researchers at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, found that the heavier-than-air aircraft that the Vaimānika Śāstra described were aeronautically unfeasible. The authors remarked that


id: vartan-ter-oganezov-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vartan_Ter-Oganezov-0.md
category: reference
title: Vartan Ter-Oganezov
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vartan_Ter-Oganezov
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:29.487301+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vartan-ter-oganezov-20260505-0
summary:
Vartan Ter-Oganezov (10 October 1890-1963) was a Soviet pseudoscientist. He is best known for his ideologically motivated pseudoastronomy and denial of the theory of general relativity and the Big Bang theory on the grounds that they contradicted the Soviet state ideology of dialectical materialism, and for his involvement in the persecution of Soviet astrophysicists and cosmologists during the Great Purge. Ter-Oganezov's ideological fringe theories and leading role in the arrest and execution of Soviet astrophysicists have led him to be dubbed "the Lysenko of Soviet astronomy". == Early life and career == Vartan Ter-Oganezov was born on 10 October 1890 as V. T. Ter-Oganezian in Tiflis to an Armenian noble family. He became part of the faculty at St. Petersburg University and became a member of the Russian Astronomical Society in 1914. He performed very poorly in university and only barely graduated. He began teaching at the Moscow Geological-Prospecting Institute in 1918 and helped organise the reform of Kazan University in 1919. == Pseudoscientific views == Throughout his career, Ter-Oganezov was involved in politically motivated advocacy of alternate theories to the theory that the universe was expanding, on the grounds that this theory contradicted the official Soviet ideology of Marxist-Leninist


id: vastu-shastra-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vastu_shastra-0.md
category: reference
title: Vastu shastra
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vastu_shastra
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:30.617905+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vastu-shastra-20260505-0
summary:
Originating in ancient India, Vastu Shastra (Sanskrit: वास्तु शास्त्र, vāstu śāstra – literally "science of architecture") is a traditional Hindu(Sanātana) system of architecture based on ancient texts that describe principles of design, layout, measurements, ground preparation, space arrangement, and spatial geometry. The designs aim to integrate architecture with nature, the relative functions of various parts of the structure, and ancient beliefs utilising geometric patterns (yantra), symmetry, and directional alignments. Vastu Shastra follows a design approach that is more inclined towards aligning spaces with natural forces like sunlight, wind, geo magnetic field and gravity. The architecture design system fosters harmony amongst individuals and their surroundings. Vastu Shastra are the textual part of Vastu Vidya – the broader knowledge about architecture and design theories from ancient India. Vastu Vidya is a collection of ideas and concepts, with or without the support of layout diagrams, that are not rigid. Rather, these ideas and concepts are models for the organisation of space and form within a building or collection of buildings, based on their functions in relation to each other, their usage and the overall fabric of the Vastu. Ancient Vastu Shastra principles include those for the design of Mandir (Hindu temples) and the


id: vastu-shastra-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vastu_shastra-1.md
category: reference
title: Vastu shastra
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vastu_shastra
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:30.617905+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vastu-shastra-20260505-0
summary:
There exist many Vāstu-Śastras on the art of building houses, temples, towns and cities. Among early known example is the Arthashastra dated to 2nd century BCE and 3rd century CE, with chapters dedicated to domestic architecture, forts and town planning. By 6th century AD, Sanskrit texts for constructing palatial temples were in circulation in India. Vāstu-Śastras include chapters on home construction, town planning, and how efficient villages, towns and kingdoms integrated temples, water bodies and gardens within them to achieve harmony with nature. While it is unclear, states Barnett, as to whether these temple and town planning texts were theoretical studies and if or when they were properly implemented in practice, these texts suggest that town planning and Hindu temples were conceived as ideals of art and integral part of Hindu social and spiritual life. Six of the most studied, complete and referred to Indian texts on Vastu Vidya that have survived into the modern age, states Tillotson, are – the Mayamata, the Manasara, the Samarangana Sutradhara, the Rajavallabha, the Vishvakarmaprakasha and the Aparajitaprccha. Numerous other important texts contain sections or chapters on aspects of architecture and design. The Silpa Prakasa of Odisha, authored by Ramachandra Bhattaraka Kaulachara sometime in


id: vastu-shastra-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vastu_shastra-2.md
category: reference
title: Vastu shastra
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vastu_shastra
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:30.617905+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vastu-shastra-20260505-0
summary:
Vāstu Śastra represents a body of ancient concepts and knowledge to many modern architects, a guideline but not a rigid code. The square-grid mandala is viewed as a model of organisation, not as a ground plan. The ancient Vāstu Śastra texts describe functional relations and adaptable alternate layouts for various rooms or buildings and utilities, but do not mandate a set compulsory architecture. Sachdev and Tillotson state that the mandala is a guideline, and employing the mandala concept of Vāstu Śastra does not mean every room or building has to be square. The basic theme is around core elements of central space, peripheral zones, direction with respect to sunlight, and relative functions of the spaces. The pink city Jaipur in Rajasthan was master planned by architect Vidyadhar Bhattacharya (1693–1751) who was approached by Rajput king Jai Singh and was built by 1727 CE, in part around Vastu Shilpa Sastra principles. Similarly, modern-era projects such as the architect Charles Correa's designed Gandhi Smarak Sangrahalaya in Ahmedabad, Vidhan Bhavan in Bhopal, and Jawahar Kala Kendra in Jaipur adapt and apply concepts from the Vastu Shastra Vidya. In the design of Chandigarh city, Le Corbusier incorporated modern architecture theories with those of Vastu


id: vega-machine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vega_machine-0.md
category: reference
title: Vega machine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vega_machine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:33.005046+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vega-machine-20260505-0
summary:
Vega machines are a type of electroacupuncture device used in pseudoscientific Vega testing, which proponents claim can diagnose allergies and other illnesses. The forerunner to the Vega test was electroacupuncture according to Voll developed by Reinholdt Voll in the 1950s. Helmut Schimmel modified the technique in the 1970s and presented it under the name Vega test. Several medical associations have advised against their use, including the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence, the Australian College of Allergy, the Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology and Allergy, the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology and the Allergy Society of South Africa. In 1990, a medical practitioner was censured by the Medical Practitioners Disciplinary Committee in New Zealand for using a Vega machine. Another practitioner was censured by the Discipline Committee of the College of Physicians and Surgeons of Ontario in 1999 for having "failed to meet the standard of practice" in his use of the Vega machine in diagnosis. Reviews of the available evidence in the medical literature indicate that electrodermal testing, such as that performed with a Vega machine, is ineffective at diagnosing allergies and recommend that it not be used. == References == == External links == Vegatest


id: very-minimum-shift-keying-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Very_minimum_shift_keying-0.md
category: reference
title: Very minimum shift keying
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Very_minimum_shift_keying
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:34.169591+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: very-minimum-shift-keying-20260505-0
summary:
Very minimum shift keying, or VMSK, modulation, is one of several ultra-narrow-band modulation (UNBM) methods indeterminately claimed to send high-speed digital data through very low bandwidth (or narrowband) channels. VMSK is a type of phase-shift keying, not related to minimum shift keying. == Claims versus analysis == VMSK was introduced in 1998 as a cellular telephone modulating method. Hardware was sent to and tested by Vodafone, Sprint and AT&T. The method was reported on favorably by William C.Y. Lee, V.P. of Vodafone Airtouch, in "Lee's Essentials of Wireless Communications", McGraw Hill 2001. There have been individuals who have made an analysis based on positive group delay filters that claim the method does not work; however, VMSK, like all ultra-narrow band modulation methods uses negative- or zero-delay filters. Walker claims that with VMSK, "Efficiencies up to 15 bits/s/Hz are now being achieved in usable hardware with C/N ratios better than that obtainable using FM, BPSK or QPSK." Analysis by third parties (Karn and Tomazic) have concluded that "no ultra narrow band modulation (UNBM) method, which includes very minimum shift keying (VMSK) and VPSK, can have substantially greater efficiency than conventional methods." On a spectrum analyzer, a VMSK signal looks narrow. However,


id: veterinary-acupuncture-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veterinary_acupuncture-0.md
category: reference
title: Veterinary acupuncture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veterinary_acupuncture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:35.333220+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: veterinary-acupuncture-20260505-0
summary:
Veterinary acupuncture is a form of traditional Chinese medicine and a pseudoscientific practice of performing acupuncture on animals. The best studies of the effects of animal acupuncture have produced consistently negative results. == History == Traditional Chinese veterinary medicine (TCVM) has been practiced on animals for thousands of years. For nearly 3,000 years, from the Zhou dynasty and the reign of Emperor Mu around 930 BCE. Up until the Yuan dynasty of the 14th century, Chinese medicine was used sparingly on large animals. Much of the focus was on the treatment of horses since they were so essential to the military. In more modern times it has been used increasingly on pet animals. Acupuncture is one of the five branches of TCVM. In historical Asian culture, people known as "horse priests" commonly used acupuncture. The flow of information from the East to the West regarding animal treatment, including acupuncture, is thought to have started from Mesopotamia around 300 BC. Acupuncture remained a major interest in veterinary medicine for centuries. Its use for dogs was first described in the Tang dynasty. In the 20th century, animal acupuncture was first introduced in the United States in 1971 by two acupuncturists of the


id: vision-therapy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vision_therapy-0.md
category: reference
title: Vision therapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vision_therapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:36.516685+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vision-therapy-20260505-0
summary:
Vision therapy (VT), or behavioral optometry, is an umbrella term for alternative medicine treatments using eye exercises, based around the pseudoscientific claim that vision problems are the true underlying cause of learning difficulties, particularly in children. Vision therapy has not been shown to be effective using scientific studies, except for helping with convergence insufficiency. Most claims—for example that the therapy can address neurological, educational, and spatial difficulties—lack supporting evidence. Neither the American Academy of Pediatrics nor the American Academy of Ophthalmology support the use of vision therapy. == Definition and conceptual basis == Behavioral vision therapy is based on the proposition that many learning disabilities in children are based on vision problems, and that these can be cured by performing eye exercises. Behavioral vision therapy lacks sound evidence, has been characterized as a pseudoscience and its practice as quackery. Vision therapy is a broad concept that encompasses a wide range of treatment types. These include those aimed at convergence insufficiency – where it is often termed "vergence therapy", "orthoptics/vision therapy" or "orthoptic therapy" – and at a variety of neurological, educational and spatial difficulties. == Efficacy == There is no good evidence that behavioral vision therapy is of any benefit


id: vision-therapy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vision_therapy-1.md
category: reference
title: Vision therapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vision_therapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:36.516685+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vision-therapy-20260505-0
summary:
Vision therapy for accommodation/vergence disorders – eye exercises and training to try and alleviate these disorders. There is evidence that convergence disorders may be helped by eye exercises, but no good evidence exists that exercises help with accommodation disorders. The underachieving child – therapies claimed to help children with dyslexia, dyspraxia and attention deficit disorder – a "vulnerable" target market. There is no evidence that behavioral optometry is of any benefit in relation to these conditions. Prisms for near binocular disorders and for producing postural change – the use of "yoked" prisms to redirect a person's gaze and bring about a range of claimed benefits including postural improvements and increased wellbeing. There is a lack of evidence for the effect this approach may have. Near point stress and low-plus – the use of special lenses to adjust near-field vision, even for people who would not normally need glasses. This is claimed to bring about postural benefits and relieve visual stress. Some research has been carried out in this area and its effectiveness remains "unproven". Use of low-plus lenses at near to slow the progression of myopia. Therapy to reduce myopia. Behavioural approaches to the treatment of strabismus and amblyopia. Training


id: vision-therapy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vision_therapy-2.md
category: reference
title: Vision therapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vision_therapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:36.516685+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vision-therapy-20260505-0
summary:
===== Conceptual basis and effectiveness ===== Behavioral optometry is largely based on concepts that lack plausibility or which contradict mainstream neurology, and most of the research done has been of poor quality. As with chiropractic, there seems to be a spectrum of scientific legitimacy among practitioners: at one extreme there is some weak evidence in support of the idea that myopia may be affected by eye training; at the other extreme are concepts such as "syntonic phototherapy" which proposes that differently colored lights can be used to treat a variety of medical conditions. A review in 2000 concluded that there were insufficient controlled studies of the approach. In 2008 Barrett concluded that "the continued absence of rigorous scientific evidence to support behavioural management approaches, and the paucity of controlled trials, in particular, represents a major challenge to the credibility of the theory and practice of behavioural optometry." Behavioral optometry has been proposed as being of benefit for children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and autism – this proposal is based on the idea that since people with these conditions often have abnormal eye movement, correcting this may address the underlying condition. Evidence supporting this approach is, however, weak; the American


id: voice-stress-analysis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_stress_analysis-0.md
category: reference
title: Voice stress analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_stress_analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:40.263287+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: voice-stress-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
Voice stress analysis (VSA) and computer voice stress analysis (CVSA) are collectively a pseudoscientific technology that aims to infer deception from stress measured in the voice. The CVSA records the human voice using a microphone, and the technology is based on the tenet that the non-verbal, low-frequency content of the voice conveys information about the physiological and psychological state of the speaker. Typically utilized in investigative settings, the technology aims to differentiate between stressed and non-stressed outputs in response to stimuli (e.g., questions posed), with high stress seen as an indication of deception. == Scientific findings == The use of voice stress analysis (VSA) for the detection of deception is controversial. Discussions about the application of VSA have focused on whether this technology can indeed reliably detect stress, and, if so, whether deception can be inferred from this stress. Critics have argued that—even if stress could reliably be measured from the voice—this would be highly similar to measuring stress with the polygraph, for example, and that all critiques centered on polygraph testing apply to VSA as well. A 2002 review of the state of the art conducted for the United States Department of Justice found several technical challenges to the


id: war-against-the-weak-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_Against_the_Weak-0.md
category: reference
title: War Against the Weak
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_Against_the_Weak
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:41.435497+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: war-against-the-weak-20260505-0
summary:
War Against the Weak: Eugenics and America's Campaign to Create a Master Race is a 2003 book by historian and journalist Edwin Black. Overall, War Against the Weak shows how the eugenics movement was supported and promoted by a wide range of individuals, organizations, and corporations in the United States, and how this led to the forced sterilization and persecution of millions of people. According to professor Jack Fischel, "It is apparent from Black’s research that American eugenicists contributed to Nazi racial hygiene policy." == Synopsis == A non-fiction book that explores the eugenics movement in the United States and how it led to the forced sterilization and genocide of millions of people, primarily those deemed "unfit" by the movement's proponents. The book traces the history of eugenics from its origins in the late 19th century, through its rise in popularity in the early 20th century, and its eventual decline after World War II. Black examines the role of prominent eugenicists such as Charles Davenport, Harry Laughlin, Madison Grant, Henry Fairfield Osborn, Alexander Graham Bell, E.S. Gosney, Clarence Gamble, Irving Fisher, Margaret Sanger, Willet Hays and Alexis Carrel and how their beliefs were embraced by the government, academia, and the


id: water-2006-film-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_(2006_film)-0.md
category: reference
title: Water (2006 film)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_(2006_film)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:42.612757+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: water-2006-film-20260505-0
summary:
Water (Russian: Вода), also released as The Great Mystery of Water (Russian: Великая тайна воды) is a 2006 pseudoscientific documentary television film directed by Anastaysia Popova about the memory of water. The film was part of television channel Rossiya 1's project The Great Mystery of Water. In the film, scientists and pseudoscientists from various countries (including Kurt Wüthrich, Masaru Emoto, Rustum Roy, and Konstantin Korotkov) present their work on the theme of water. Additionally, clergy from major religions (including Metropolit of Smolensk Kirill, Shamil Alyautdinov, and Pinchas Polonsky) discuss the importance of water in their faith. The film also presents experiences of water, including the emotions of humans interacting with the water (using kirlian photography). In November 2006 the film won three television awards at TEFI, including for the best documentary film. Water faced sharp criticism from the Russian scientific community, which condemned the movie as pseudoscience. Wüthrich distanced himself from the film, saying that although he was interviewed, his statements were taken out of context. He was not informed that the interview was to be used for a film. He later wrote: "It is much more problematic that the film, by presenting a Nobel Prize winner, suggests to the


id: water-ionizer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_ionizer-0.md
category: reference
title: Water ionizer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_ionizer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:43.859413+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: water-ionizer-20260505-0
summary:
A water ionizer (also known as an alkaline ionizer) is a home appliance which claims to raise the pH of drinking water by using electrolysis to separate the incoming water stream into acidic and alkaline components. The treated water is called alkaline water. Proponents claim that consumption of alkaline water results in a variety of health benefits, making it similar to the alternative health practice of alkaline diets. Such claims violate principles of chemistry and physiology. There is no convincing medical evidence supporting broad health benefits of alkaline water, and current evidence remains insufficient to substantiate most health claims associated with it. Some preliminary studies have investigated specific potential effects of alkaline water, but these findings are limited and have not established broad therapeutic benefits. leaving such claims in the pseudoscientific realm. The machines originally became popular in Japan and other East Asian nations before becoming available in the US and Europe. == Health claims == Water ionizers are marketed on the basis of health claims which are focused on their ability to make water more alkaline. A wide variety of benefits have been claimed, including the ability to slow aging, prevent disease, give the body more energy, and offset


id: water-memory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_memory-0.md
category: reference
title: Water memory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_memory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:45.055509+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: water-memory-20260505-0
summary:
Water memory is the purported ability of water to retain a memory of substances previously dissolved in it even after an arbitrary number of serial dilutions. It has been claimed to be a mechanism by which homeopathic remedies work, even when they are diluted to the point that no molecule of the original substance remains, but there is no theory for it. Water memory is pseudoscientific in nature; it contradicts the scientific understanding of physical chemistry and is generally not accepted by the scientific community. In 1988, Jacques Benveniste and colleagues published a study supporting a water memory effect amid controversy in Nature, accompanied by an editorial by Nature's editor John Maddox urging readers to "suspend judgement" until the results could be replicated. In the years after publication, multiple supervised experiments were made by Benveniste's team, the United States Department of Defense, BBC's Horizon programme, and other researchers, but no one has ever reproduced Benveniste's results under controlled conditions. == Benveniste's study == Jacques Benveniste was a French immunologist who sought to demonstrate the plausibility of homeopathic remedies "independently of homeopathic interests" in a major scientific journal. To that end, Benveniste and his team at Institut National de la Santé


id: water-memory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_memory-1.md
category: reference
title: Water memory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_memory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:45.055509+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: water-memory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Aftermath === In a response letter published in the same July issue of Nature, Benveniste lashed out at Maddox and complained about the "ordeal" that he had endured at the hands of the Nature team, comparing it to "Salem witchhunts or McCarthy-like prosecutions". Both in the Nature response and during a later episode of Quirks and Quarks, Benveniste especially complained about Stewart, who he claimed acted as if they were all frauds and treated them with disdain, complaining about his "typical know-it-all attitude". In his Nature letter, Benveniste also implied that Randi was attempting to hoodwink the experimental run by doing magic tricks, "distracting the technician in charge of its supervision!" He was more apologetic on Quirks and Quarks, re-phrasing his mention of Randi to imply that he had kept the team amused with his tricks and that his presence was generally welcomed. He also pointed out that although it was true two of his team members were being paid by a homeopathic company, the same company had paid Maddox's team's hotel bill. Maddox was unapologetic, stating "I'm sorry we didn't find something more interesting." On the same Quirks and Quarks show, he dismissed Benveniste's complaints, stating that, because


id: water-memory-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_memory-2.md
category: reference
title: Water memory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_memory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:45.055509+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: water-memory-20260505-0
summary:
Time magazine reported in 1999 that, in response to skepticism from physicist Robert Park, Josephson had challenged the American Physical Society (APS) to oversee a replication by Benveniste. This challenge was to be "a randomized double-blind test", of his claimed ability to transfer the characteristics of homeopathically altered solutions over the Internet:[Benveniste's] latest theory, and the cause of the current flap, is that the "memory" of water in a homeopathic solution has an electromagnetic "signature." This signature, he says, can be captured by a copper coil, digitized and transmitted by wire—or, for extra flourish, over the Internet—to a container of ordinary water, converting it to a homeopathic solution.The APS accepted the challenge and offered to cover the costs of the test. When he heard of this, Randi offered to throw in the long-standing $1 million prize for any positive demonstration of the paranormal, to which Benveniste replied: "Fine to us." In his DigiBio NewsLetter. Randi later noted that Benveniste and Josephson did not follow up on their challenge, mocking their silence on the topic as if they were missing persons. An independent test of the 2000 remote-transmission experiment was carried out in the US by a team funded by the


id: web-bot-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_Bot-0.md
category: reference
title: Web Bot
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_Bot
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:46.239690+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: web-bot-20260505-0
summary:
Web Bot is an internet bot computer program whose developers claim is able to predict future events by tracking keywords entered on the internet. It was developed in 1997, originally to predict trends of companies' shares publicly listed. The creator of the Web Bot Project, Clif High, along with his associate George Ure, keep the technology and algorithms largely secret and sell the predictions via the website. == Methodology == Internet bots monitor news articles, blogs, forums, and other forms of Internet chatter. Words in the lexicon are assigned numeric values for emotional quantifiers such as duration, impact, immediacy, intensity, and others. The lexicon is dynamic, and changes according to shifts in emotional tension, and how humans communicate those changes using the Internet. As of 2008, there were about 300,000 keywords in the lexicon, along with emotional context, which are fed into a computer-generated modelspace. The operators of Web Bot interpret the bot's results and make a report called the "ALTA report" available on their website to paying subscribers. ALTA stands for "asymmetric language trend analysis". Many believe the predictions are pseudoscientific and too vague to be meaningful. Despite this, the creators have made many claims after the fact that


id: weighted-vests-for-children-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weighted_vests_for_children-0.md
category: reference
title: Weighted vests for children
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weighted_vests_for_children
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:47.374425+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: weighted-vests-for-children-20260505-0
summary:
Weighted vests for children and similar therapeutic weighted clothing are sometimes used to try to treat symptoms of certain developmental disorders such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder or autism in children. There is however no evidence that they are useful for this purpose. The vests are weighted down with sand or other heavy materials. Terms used for such items of clothing include sand vests, compression vests or squeeze jackets. == Effectiveness == A review of the use of weighted clothing indicates that they are not useful with respect to hyperactivity, clumsiness, or repetitive behavior. A 2015 review of treatments for autism found only a single study of five people that showed any benefit and six trials that showed no benefit resulting in the overall conclusion of no benefit. The use of weighted vests for autism is characterized as pseudoscience. == Application == The use of weighted vests for children originated in the United States as a form of therapy for children with autism. By 2017, the use of weighted vests had become common in public schools in Hamburg, Germany. Teachers there reported that students wore the vests voluntarily for up to 30 minutes at a time, and that the vests


id: welteislehre-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welteislehre-0.md
category: reference
title: Welteislehre
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welteislehre
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:48.550816+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: welteislehre-20260505-0
summary:
Welteislehre (WEL; "World Ice Theory" or "World Ice Doctrine"), also known as Glazial-Kosmogonie (Glacial Cosmogony), is a discredited cosmological concept proposed by Hanns Hörbiger, an Austrian engineer and inventor. According to his ideas, ice was the basic substance of all cosmic processes, and ice moons, ice planets, and the "global ether" (also made of ice) had determined the entire development of the universe. Hörbiger did not arrive at his ideas through research, but said that he had received it in a "vision" in 1894. He published a book about the theory in 1912 and heavily promoted it in subsequent years, through lectures, magazines and associations. == History == By his own account, Hörbiger was observing the Moon when he was struck by the notion that the brightness and roughness of its surface were due to ice. Shortly after, he dreamt that he was floating in space watching the swinging of a pendulum which grew longer and longer until it broke. "I knew that Newton had been wrong and that the sun's gravitational pull ceases to exist at three times the distance of Neptune", he concluded. He worked out his concepts in collaboration with amateur astronomer and schoolteacher Philipp Fauth whom


id: welteislehre-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welteislehre-1.md
category: reference
title: Welteislehre
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welteislehre
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:48.550816+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: welteislehre-20260505-0
summary:
== Premise == According to the idea, the Solar System had its origin in a gigantic star into which a smaller, dead, waterlogged star fell. This impact caused a huge explosion that flung fragments of the smaller star out into interstellar space where the water condensed and froze into giant blocks of ice. A ring of such blocks formed, that we now call the Milky Way, as well as a number of solar systems among which was our own, but with many more planets than currently exist. Interplanetary space is filled with traces of hydrogen gas, which cause the planets to slowly spiral inwards, along with ice blocks. The outer planets are large mainly because they have swallowed a large number of ice blocks, but the inner planets have not swallowed nearly as many. One can see ice blocks on the move in the form of meteors, and when one collides with Earth, it produces hailstorms over an area of many square kilometers, while when one falls into the Sun, it produces a sunspot and gets vaporized, making "fine ice", that covers the innermost planets. It was also claimed that Earth had had several satellites before it acquired the Moon;


id: weltmer-institute-of-suggestive-therapeutics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weltmer_Institute_of_Suggestive_Therapeutics-0.md
category: reference
title: Weltmer Institute of Suggestive Therapeutics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weltmer_Institute_of_Suggestive_Therapeutics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:49.691497+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: weltmer-institute-of-suggestive-therapeutics-20260505-0
summary:
The Weltmer Institute was an American business with trained staff that practiced weltmerism, a kind of electromagnetic healing using laying-on-of-hands combined with the power of suggestion and hypnosis. It was devoted to "mind cures" of illnesses and ailments not susceptible to other treatment. Also known as the Weltmer Institute of Suggestive Therapeutics, it was founded in Nevada, Missouri by Sidney Abram Weltmer on February 19, 1897. He had developed his ideas as a young man while purportedly curing himself of tuberculosis, then a disease without a cure. The institute operated until 1933, being dissolved by Weltmer's son shortly after the senior man's death in 1930. The Institute attracted so many patients and attendees of classes that the railroad added trains to serve the town. It also generated great mail volume because of treatment by mail and orders for books and pamphlets, to the extent that the town's post office was upgraded to first class and a new, larger post office built. The Institute positively affected the town's economy, also attracting psychotherapists, clairvoyants and other practitioners to a community that became known as a wellness center. Weltmer's healing method was strongly criticized by doctors in the early 1900s as ineffective voodoo


id: western-astrology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_astrology-0.md
category: reference
title: Western astrology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_astrology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:50.860459+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-astrology-20260505-0
summary:
Western astrology is the system of astrology most popular in Western countries. It is historically based on Ptolemy's Tetrabiblos (2nd century CE), which in turn was a continuation of Hellenistic and ultimately Babylonian traditions. Western astrology is largely horoscopic, that is, it is a form of divination based on the construction of a horoscope for an exact moment, such as a person's birth as well as the location (since time zones may or may not affect a person's birth chart), in which various cosmic bodies are said to have an influence. Astrology in western popular culture is often reduced to sun sign astrology, which considers only the individual's date of birth (i.e. the "position of the Sun" at that date). Astrology is a pseudoscience and has consistently failed experimental and theoretical verification. Astrology was widely considered a respectable academic and scientific field before the Enlightenment, but modern research has found no consistent empirical basis to it. == Core principles == A central principle of astrology is integration within the cosmos. The individual, Earth, and its environment are viewed as a single organism, all parts of which are correlated with each other. Cycles of change that are observed in the heavens


id: western-astrology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_astrology-1.md
category: reference
title: Western astrology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_astrology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:50.860459+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-astrology-20260505-0
summary:
In modern Western astrology the planets represent basic drives or impulses in the human psyche. These planets differ from the definition of a planet in astronomy in that the Sun, Moon, and recently, Pluto are all considered to be planets for the purposes of astrology. Each planet is also said to be the ruler of one or two zodiac signs. The three outer planets (Uranus, Neptune, Pluto) have each been assigned rulership of a zodiac sign by astrologers. Traditionally rulership of the signs was, according to Ptolemy, based on seasonal derivations and astronomical measurement, whereby the luminaries being the brightest planets were given rulership of the brightest months of the year and Saturn the coldest furthest classical planet was given to the coldest months of the year, with the other planets ruling the remaining signs as per astronomical measurement. It is noteworthy that the modern rulerships do not follow the same logic. === Classical planets === The astrological 'planets' are the seven heavenly bodies known to the ancients. The Sun and Moon, also known as 'the lights', are included as they were thought to act like the astronomical planets. Astrologers call inner planets Mercury, Venus and Mars, the 'personal planets',


id: western-astrology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_astrology-2.md
category: reference
title: Western astrology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_astrology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:50.860459+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-astrology-20260505-0
summary:
The position of the planets in the astrological signs of the zodiac, The position of the planets in the houses of the horoscope, The position of the primary angles of the horoscope, namely the horizon line (called the ascendant/descendant axis), and the prime vertical line (called the zenith/midheaven and nadir/imum coeli axis), The angles formed by the planets relative to each other and the primary angles, called aspects The position of deduced astronomical entities, such as the Lunar nodes. Some astrologers also use the position of various mathematical points, such as the Arabic parts. Various techniques are used, with different degrees of complexity, to provide what astrologers claim are forecasts or predictive statements about the future, as well as to analyse past and current events. These include transits, progressions, and primary directions. Different branches of astrology, such as horary and electional astrology, have their own specific sets of techniques. === The primary angles === There are four primary angles in the horoscope (though the cusps of the houses are often included as important angles by some astrologers). Asc - The ascendant or rising sign is the eastern point where the ecliptic and horizon intersect. During the course of a day,


id: western-astrology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_astrology-3.md
category: reference
title: Western astrology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_astrology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:50.860459+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: western-astrology-20260505-0
summary:
- Conjunction 0° (orb ±10°). The conjunction is a major point in the chart, giving strong emphasis to the planets involved. The planets will act together to outside stimulus and act on each other. - Opposition 180° (orb ±10°). The opposition is indicative of tension, conflict and confrontation, due to the polarity between the two elements involved. Stress arises when one is used over the other, causing an imbalance; but the opposition can work well if the two parts of the aspect are made to complement each other in a synthesis. - Trine 120°(orb ±7.5°). The trine indicates harmony, and ease of expression, with the two elements reinforcing each other. The trine is a source of artistic and creative talent, but can be a 'line of least resistance' to a person of weak character. - Square 90°(orb ±7.5°). The square indicates frustration, inhibitions, disruption and inner conflict, but can become a source of energy and activation to a person determined to overcome limitations. - Sextile 60°(orb ±5°). The sextile is similar to the trine, but of less significance. It indicates ease of communication between the two elements involved, with compatibility and harmony between them. - Quincunx 150°(orb ±2.5°). The quincunx


id: wilson-s-temperature-syndrome-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilson's_temperature_syndrome-0.md
category: reference
title: Wilson's temperature syndrome
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilson's_temperature_syndrome
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:52.046233+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wilson-s-temperature-syndrome-20260505-0
summary:
Wilson's temperature syndrome, also called Wilson's syndrome, Wilson's thyroid syndrome or WTS, is a term used in alternative medicine to improperly attribute various common and non-specific symptoms to abnormally low body temperature and impaired conversion of thyroxine (T4) to triiodothyronine (T3), despite normal thyroid function tests. E. Denis Wilson, a physician who invented the concept and named it after himself, treated these symptoms with sustained-release triiodothyronine (SR-T3) until one of his patients died and he was banned from prescribing this treatment any longer. Wilson's syndrome is not an actual medical condition, and medical expert groups have warned against it as a potentially dangerous misunderstanding of physiology. The American Thyroid Association (ATA) released an official statement asserting that Wilson's syndrome is at odds with established knowledge of thyroid function and describing the diagnostic criteria for Wilson's syndrome as "imprecise" and "non-specific". After one of Wilson's patients died from his treatment in 1988, Florida State Medical Board members described Wilson's temperature syndrome as a "phony syndrome" and as a scam that fleeced patients and healthcare insurers during disciplinary action against Wilson, whose medical license was suspended for six months. == Origin and claims == The term Wilson’s syndrome was coined in 1990


id: wind-turbine-syndrome-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_turbine_syndrome-0.md
category: reference
title: Wind turbine syndrome
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_turbine_syndrome
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:53.293476+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wind-turbine-syndrome-20260505-0
summary:
Wind turbine syndrome and wind farm syndrome are terms for the alleged medical condition related to the proximity of wind turbines. Proponents claim that these effects include congenital abnormality, cancer, vertigo, nausea, autism, ADHD, death, tinnitus, stress, fatigue, memory loss, migraines and sleep deprivation, for which there is no scientific backing. The distribution of recorded events, however, correlates with media coverage of wind farm syndrome itself, and not with the presence or absence of wind farms. Neither term is recognised by any international disease classification system, nor do they appear in any title or abstract in the United States National Library of Medicine's PubMed database. Wind turbine syndrome has been characterized as pseudoscience. One Australian fossil fuel industry funded anti-wind farm astroturfing group, the Waubra Foundation, has been identified amongst those involved in promoting the idea of wind turbine syndrome. An investigation led to the foundation being stripped of its status as a health promotion charity. == Safety reviews == Since 2003, 25 reviews have been published of the scientific literature on wind turbines and health. These studies have consistently found no reason to believe that wind turbines are harmful to health. == Noise and annoyance == There is a


id: world-trade-center-controlled-demolition-conspiracy-theories-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Trade_Center_controlled_demolition_conspiracy_theories-0.md
category: reference
title: World Trade Center controlled demolition conspiracy theories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Trade_Center_controlled_demolition_conspiracy_theories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:54.587355+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-trade-center-controlled-demolition-conspiracy-theories-20260505-0
summary:
Some conspiracy theories contend that the collapse of the World Trade Center was caused not solely by the airliner crash damage that occurred as part of the September 11 attacks and the resulting fire damage but also by explosives installed in the buildings in advance. Controlled demolition theories make up a major component of 9/11 conspiracy theories. Early advocates such as physicist Steven E. Jones, architect Richard Gage, software engineer Jim Hoffman, and theologian David Ray Griffin proposed that the aircraft impacts and resulting fires themselves alone could not have weakened the buildings sufficiently to initiate the catastrophic collapse and that the buildings would have neither collapsed completely nor at the speeds they did without additional energy involved to weaken their structures. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and the magazine Popular Mechanics examined and rejected these theories. Specialists in structural mechanics and structural engineering accept the model of a fire-induced, gravity-driven collapse of the World Trade Center buildings, an explanation that does not involve the use of explosives. NIST "found no corroborating evidence for alternative hypotheses suggesting that the WTC towers were brought down by controlled demolition using explosives planted prior to Sept. 11, 2001." Professors Zdeněk


id: world-trade-center-controlled-demolition-conspiracy-theories-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Trade_Center_controlled_demolition_conspiracy_theories-1.md
category: reference
title: World Trade Center controlled demolition conspiracy theories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Trade_Center_controlled_demolition_conspiracy_theories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:54.587355+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-trade-center-controlled-demolition-conspiracy-theories-20260505-0
summary:
== History == The controlled demolition conspiracy theories were first suggested in September 2001. Eric Hufschmid's book, Painful Questions: An Analysis of the September 11th Attack, in which the controlled demolition theory is explicitly advocated, was published in September 2002. David Ray Griffin and Steven E. Jones are the best known advocates of the theory. Griffin's book The New Pearl Harbor, published in 2004, has become a reference work for the 9/11 Truth movement. In the same year, Griffin published the book The 9/11 Commission Report: Omissions and Distortions, in which he argues that flaws in the commission's report amounts to a cover-up by government officials and says that the Bush administration was complicit in the 9/11 attacks. Steven E. Jones has been another voice of the proponents of demolition theories. In 2006, he published the paper "Why Indeed Did the WTC Buildings Completely Collapse?". On September 7, 2006, Brigham Young University placed Jones on paid leave citing the "increasingly speculative and accusatory nature" of his statements, pending an official review of his actions. Six weeks later, Jones retired from the university. The structural engineering faculty at the university issued a statement which said that they "do not support the


id: world-trade-center-controlled-demolition-conspiracy-theories-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Trade_Center_controlled_demolition_conspiracy_theories-2.md
category: reference
title: World Trade Center controlled demolition conspiracy theories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Trade_Center_controlled_demolition_conspiracy_theories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:54.587355+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-trade-center-controlled-demolition-conspiracy-theories-20260505-0
summary:
=== Main towers === On September 11, the North Tower (1 WTC) was hit by American Airlines Flight 11 and the South Tower (2 WTC) was hit by United Airlines Flight 175, both Boeing 767 aircraft. The South Tower collapsed 56 minutes after the impact, and the North Tower collapsed 102 minutes after. An investigation by NIST concluded that the collapse was caused by a combination of damage to support columns and fire insulation from the aircraft impacts and the weakening of columns and floors by jet fuel ignited fires. NIST also found "no corroborating evidence for alternative hypotheses suggesting that the WTC towers were brought down by controlled demolition using explosives planted prior to September 11, 2001". Jones, among others, points to many descriptions by individuals working on the WTC rubble pile suggesting the presence of molten steel in the pile and a stream of molten metal that poured out of the South Tower before it collapsed as evidence of temperatures beyond those produced by the fire. Jones has argued that the molten metal may have been elemental iron, a product of a thermite reaction. Jones and other researchers analyzed samples of dust from the World Trade Center buildings


id: world-trade-center-controlled-demolition-conspiracy-theories-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Trade_Center_controlled_demolition_conspiracy_theories-3.md
category: reference
title: World Trade Center controlled demolition conspiracy theories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Trade_Center_controlled_demolition_conspiracy_theories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:54.587355+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-trade-center-controlled-demolition-conspiracy-theories-20260505-0
summary:
Proponents of World Trade Center controlled demolition theories allege that 7 World Trade Center—a 47-story skyscraper that stood across Vesey Street north of the main part of the World Trade Center site—was intentionally destroyed with explosives. Unlike the Twin Towers, 7 World Trade Center was not hit by a plane, although it was hit by debris from the Twin Towers and was damaged by fires which burned for seven hours, until it collapsed completely at about 5:20 p.m. on the evening of September 11 (a new building has been erected on the site of the old and opened in May 2006). Several videos of the collapse event exist in the public domain, thus enabling comparative analysis from different angles of perspective. Proponents typically say the collapse of 7 World Trade Center was not mentioned in the 9/11 Commission Report and that the federal body charged with investigating the event, NIST, required seven years to conduct its investigation and issue a report. In November 2010, Fox News reporter Geraldo Rivera hosted members of a television ad campaign called "BuildingWhat?", a series of commercials in which 9/11 family members ask questions about 7 World Trade Center and call for an investigation into


id: world-trade-center-controlled-demolition-conspiracy-theories-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Trade_Center_controlled_demolition_conspiracy_theories-4.md
category: reference
title: World Trade Center controlled demolition conspiracy theories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Trade_Center_controlled_demolition_conspiracy_theories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:54.587355+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-trade-center-controlled-demolition-conspiracy-theories-20260505-0
summary:
==== NIST report ==== In 2002, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) began a general investigation into the collapse of the World Trade Center but soon made a decision to focus first on the collapse of the Twin Towers. A draft version of its final report on the collapse of 7 WTC was released in August 2008. The agency has attributed the slowness of this investigation to the complexity of the computer model it used, which simulated the collapse from the moment it begins all the way to the ground; and NIST says the time taken on the investigation into 7 WTC is comparable to the time taken to investigate an aircraft crash. The agency also says another 80 boxes of documents related to 7 WTC were found and had to be analyzed. These delays fueled suspicion among those already questioning the validity of the September 11 attacks that the agency was struggling to come up with a plausible conclusion. NIST released its final report on the collapse of 7 World Trade Center on November 20, 2008. Investigators used videos, photographs and building design documents to come to their conclusions. The investigation could not include physical evidence as


id: world-trade-center-controlled-demolition-conspiracy-theories-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Trade_Center_controlled_demolition_conspiracy_theories-5.md
category: reference
title: World Trade Center controlled demolition conspiracy theories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Trade_Center_controlled_demolition_conspiracy_theories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:54.587355+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-trade-center-controlled-demolition-conspiracy-theories-20260505-0
summary:
== Criticism == The American Society of Civil Engineers Structural Engineering Institute issued a statement calling for further discussion of NIST's recommendations, and Britain's Institution of Structural Engineers published a statement in May 2002 welcoming the FEMA report, noting that the report expressed similar views to those held by its group of professionals. Following the publication of Jones' paper "Why Indeed Did the WTC Buildings Completely Collapse?" Brigham Young University responded to Jones' "increasingly speculative and accusatory" statements by placing him on paid leave, and thereby stripping him of two classes, in September 2006, pending a review of his statements and research. Six weeks later, Jones retired from the university. The structural engineering faculty at the university issued a statement which said that they "do not support the hypotheses of Professor Jones". On September 22, 2005, Jones gave a seminar on his hypotheses to a group of his colleagues from the Department of Physics and Astronomy at BYU. According to Jones, all but one of his colleagues agreed after the seminar that an investigation was in order and the lone dissenter came to agreement with Jones' suggestions the next day. Northwestern University Professor of Civil Engineering Zdeněk Bažant, who was


id: xango-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XanGo-0.md
category: reference
title: XanGo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XanGo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:55.753879+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: xango-20260505-0
summary:
Xango, LLC, (sometimes referred to as XANGO and XanGo) was an American multi-level marketing company founded in 2002. It was acquired by Zija International in May 2017. The company marketed and distributed Xango juice, a blended juice product consisting of mangosteen and other juices, and skin care, personal care, energy supplement and nutritional supplement products. The company was warned in 2006 by the FDA for illegally marketing more than 20 human health benefits for Xango juice. == Company overview == === Executives 2008-12 === Gary Hollister, founder, chairman emeritus, former chief executive, former chairman of the Board Aaron Garrity, founder, chairman of the board, CEO, former president Joe Morton, founder, board of directors Gordon Morton, founder, board of directors Kent Wood, founder, board of directors === Revenues 2003-12 === Xango was a privately held company and as such did not publicly disclose its financial statements. Company press releases in 2005-2006 stated that sales totaled $40 million in 2003 and $150 million in 2004, and that 2005 sales were more than twice those of 2004. In October 2007 the company said that cumulative sales since its inception five years earlier were over $1 billion and by November 2008 had exceeded $1.5


id: xango-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XanGo-1.md
category: reference
title: XanGo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XanGo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:55.753879+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: xango-20260505-0
summary:
=== U.S. FDA warning === On September 20, 2006, the United States Food and Drug Administration issued a warning letter to Xango LLC International in response to the company's promotion of Xango juice as an aid to treat and/or cure various diseases. The agency's letter warned that Xango juice had not been properly tested for safety and efficacy, and as a proposed new drug, it could not be legally sold in the U.S. without prior approval of the FDA. Xango was warned that it could face enforcement action including seizure and/or injunction of products or suspension of business. Under FDA drug labeling rules, Xango, as manufacturer, is responsible for satisfying scientific criteria to make health claims on its product labels and all marketing materials. As of September 2008, the case remained open. === Effectiveness === In February 2006, the U.C. Berkeley Wellness Newsletter, sponsored by the University of California at Berkeley, said that "Mangosteen marketers make farfetched and unsubstantiated claims for their products." The newsletter notes that "there are no clinical trials, and what happens in a test tube or animal may not occur in a human. Any reported benefits in humans have been anecdotal. No one even knows if


id: xenoglossy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenoglossy-0.md
category: reference
title: Xenoglossy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenoglossy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:56.957040+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: xenoglossy-20260505-0
summary:
Xenoglossy (), also written xenoglossia () and sometimes also known as xenolalia, is the supposedly paranormal phenomenon in which a person is allegedly able to speak, write or understand a foreign language that they could not have acquired by natural means. The term derives from the Ancient Greek xenos (ξένος), "foreigner" and glōssa (γλῶσσα), "tongue" or "language". The term xenoglossy was first used by French parapsychologist Charles Richet in 1905. Accounts of xenoglossy are found in the New Testament, and contemporary claims have been made by parapsychologists and reincarnation researchers such as Ian Stevenson. Doubts have been expressed that xenoglossy is an actual phenomenon, and there is no scientifically admissible evidence supporting any of the alleged instances of xenoglossy. Two types of xenoglossy are distinguished. Recitative xenoglossy is the use of an unacquired language incomprehensibly, while responsive xenoglossy refers to the ability to intelligibly employ the unlearned language as if already acquired. == Christianity == This phenomenon is mentioned in Acts of the Apostles chapter 2 at Pentecost, when the first disciples of Jesus Christ, gathered together, numbering one hundred and twenty, and of the tongues of fire landed on each of them, formalizing the coming of the Spirit in


id: xenoglossy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenoglossy-1.md
category: reference
title: Xenoglossy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenoglossy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:56.957040+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: xenoglossy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Alfred Hulme === In the early 20th century, Alfred Hulme, a self-proclaimed Egyptologist, investigated a young girl named Ivy Carter Beaumont (also known as "Rosemary") from Blackpool, England, who claimed to be under the influence of the personality of a Babylonian princess. Hulme was convinced she spoke in an ancient Egyptian dialect. However, according to linguist Karen Stollznow, "Several scholars examined the data independently and concluded that Hulme's analyses were grossly inaccurate. Hulme had confused Middle Egyptian and Late Egyptian" and likely "falsified many results." === Eberhardt Gmelin === In 1791 Eberhardt Gmelin, a German physician often credited with discovering dissociative identity disorder, published a report entitled Materialien für die Anthropologie, in which he described a case of a 20-year-old German woman from the town of Stuttgart who would "exchange" her personality for that of a French aristocrat. During these "French" states, as Gmelin termed them, she was able to speak French perfectly, despite never having visited a francophone country or been taught the language, and speak her own native tongue, German, with a French accent. However, this cannot be accepted as an example of xenoglossy, as the woman had probably picked up bits of the language from aristocratic


id: young-blood-transfusion-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_blood_transfusion-0.md
category: reference
title: Young blood transfusion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_blood_transfusion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:58.177801+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: young-blood-transfusion-20260505-0
summary:
Young blood transfusion refers to transfusing blood specifically from a young person into an older one with the intention of creating a health benefit. The efficacy and safety of young blood transfusions for anti-aging purposes remain a subject of debate in the scientific community, with limited clinical evidence in humans. There are also concerns of harm. While some preclinical studies on animals suggest potential benefits, there is a lack of robust clinical evidence to support its use in humans. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration, in 2019, cautioned "consumers against receiving young donor plasma infusions" stating that they are an "unproven treatment". == Research == Experiments beginning in the 1950s in the Cornell University lab of Clive McCay on pairs of old and young rodents placed into parabiosis provided some evidence, albeit limited and "largely anecdotal", that the circulation of blood from young mice increased both the longevity and the tissue function of old mice. After decades in which relatively little work on parabiosis in aging was done, the work was revived by researchers at Stanford University and the University of California at Berkeley. Parabiosis experiments are difficult to generalize, as the circulatory systems of the mice are fully joined


id: young-earth-creationism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Earth_creationism-0.md
category: reference
title: Young Earth creationism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Earth_creationism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:59.346577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: young-earth-creationism-20260505-0
summary:
Young Earth creationism (YEC) is a form of creationism. One of its central tenets is that Earth and lifeforms were created by supernatural acts of the Abrahamic God between about 10,000 and 6,000 years ago, directly contradicting established scientific data that puts the age of Earth around 4.54 billion years. Events such as Noah's Flood are described as explaining much of the geological and fossil record. In its most widespread version, YEC is based on a religious belief in the inerrancy of certain literal interpretations of the Book of Genesis. Its primary adherents are Christians and Jews who believe God created the Earth in six literal days, as stated in Genesis 1. The largest young Earth creationist organisations are Answers in Genesis, Institute for Creation Research, and Creation Ministries International. This is in contrast with old Earth creationism (OEC), which holds that literal interpretations of Genesis are compatible with the scientifically determined ages of the Earth, the universe, and theistic evolution, which posits that scientific principles of evolution, the Big Bang, abiogenesis, solar nebular theory, age of the universe, and age of Earth are compatible with a metaphorical interpretation of the Genesis creation account. Since the mid-20th century, young Earth


id: young-earth-creationism-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Earth_creationism-1.md
category: reference
title: Young Earth creationism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Earth_creationism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:59.346577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: young-earth-creationism-20260505-0
summary:
the past history of our globe must be explained by what can be seen to be happening now … No powers are to be employed that are not natural to the globe, no action to be admitted except those of which we know the principle. Hutton's main line of argument was that the tremendous displacements and changes he was seeing did not happen in a short period of time by means of catastrophe, but that incremental processes of uplift and erosion happening on Earth had caused them. These processes were very gradual, hence Earth had to be ancient, in order to allow time for the changes to occur. While his ideas of Plutonism were hotly contested, scientific inquiries on competing ideas of catastrophism pushed back the age of the Earth into the millions of years – still much younger than commonly accepted by modern scientists, but much older than the young Earth of less than 10,000 years in which Biblical literalists believed. Hutton's ideas, called uniformitarianism or gradualism, were popularized by Sir Charles Lyell in the early 19th century. The energetic advocacy and rhetoric of Lyell led to the public and scientific communities, largely accepting an ancient Earth. By this


id: young-earth-creationism-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Earth_creationism-2.md
category: reference
title: Young Earth creationism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Earth_creationism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:59.346577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: young-earth-creationism-20260505-0
summary:
=== Impact === A 2006 joint statement of InterAcademy Panel on International Issues (IAP) by 68 national and international science academies enumerated many of the scientific facts that young Earth creationism contradicts, in particular that the universe, the Earth, and life are billions of years old, that each has undergone continual change over those billions of years, and that life on Earth has evolved from a common primordial origin into the diverse forms observed in the fossil record and present today. Evolutionary theory remains the only explanation that fully accounts for all the observations, measurements, data, and evidence discovered in the fields of biology, ecology, anatomy, physiology, zoology, paleontology, molecular biology, genetics, anthropology, and others. Hence, young Earth creationism is dismissed by the academic and scientific communities. A 1987 estimate found that only "700 scientists ... (out of a total of 480,000 US earth and life scientists) ... give credence to creation-science". An expert in the evolution-creationism controversy, professor and author Brian Alters, states that "99.9% of scientists accept evolution". A 1991 Gallup poll found that about 5 per cent of American scientists (including those with training outside biology) identified themselves as creationists. For their part, young Earth creationists claim


id: young-earth-creationism-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Earth_creationism-3.md
category: reference
title: Young Earth creationism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Earth_creationism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:59.346577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: young-earth-creationism-20260505-0
summary:
Young Earth creationists regard the Bible as a historically accurate, factually inerrant record of natural history. As Henry Morris, a leading young Earth creationist, explained it, "Christians who flirt with less-than-literal readings of biblical texts are also flirting with theological disaster." According to Morris, Christians must "either ... believe God's Word all the way, or not at all." Young Earth creationists consider the account of creation given in Genesis to be a factual record of the origin of the Earth and life, and that Bible-believing Christians must therefore regard Genesis 1–11 as historically accurate. ==== Interpretations of Genesis ==== Young Earth creationists interpret the text of Genesis as strictly literal. They reject allegorical readings of Genesis and further argue that if there was not a literal Fall of Man, Noah's Ark, or Tower of Babel, core Christian doctrines like the birth and resurrection of Jesus Christ would be undermined. Genealogies in Genesis record the line of descent from Adam through Noah to Abraham. Young Earth creationists interpret these genealogies literally, including the old ages of the men. For example, Methuselah lived 969 years according to the genealogy. Differences of opinion exist regarding whether the genealogies should be taken as complete


id: young-earth-creationism-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Earth_creationism-4.md
category: reference
title: Young Earth creationism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Earth_creationism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:59.346577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: young-earth-creationism-20260505-0
summary:
Young Earth creationists reject geologic evidence which shows that the stratigraphic sequence of fossils proves the Earth is billions of years old. In his Illogical Geology, expanded in 1913 as The Fundamentals of Geology, George McCready Price argued that the occasionally out-of-order sequence of fossils that are shown to be due to thrust faults made it impossible to prove any one fossil was older than any other. His "law" that fossils could be found in any order implied that strata could not be dated sequentially. He instead proposed that essentially all fossils were buried during the flood, and thus inaugurated "flood geology". In numerous books and articles he promoted this concept, focusing his attack on the sequence of the geologic time scale as "the devil's counterfeit of the six days of Creation as recorded in the first chapter of Genesis." Today, many young Earth creationists still contend that the fossil record can be explained by the global flood. In The Genesis Flood (1961) Henry M. Morris reiterated Price's arguments, and wrote that, because there had been no death before the Fall of Man, he felt "compelled to date all the rock strata which contain fossils of once-living creatures as subsequent


id: young-earth-creationism-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Earth_creationism-5.md
category: reference
title: Young Earth creationism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Earth_creationism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:59.346577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: young-earth-creationism-20260505-0
summary:
=== Geocentrism === There exists an even more radical Geocentric creationist view within Young Earth Creationism, which in addition to proposing that the Earth is around 6000 years old, argues that the geocentric view of cosmology, particularly the Tychonic model should be accepted, which seriously contradicts scientifically established data on the movement of the Earth. This view was proposed by some early Creationist literature, and as early as 1985 some in the Creation Research Society supported Geocentrism. Geocentrism has been associated with creationists such as Gerardus Bouw, Robert Sungenis and Walter Van der Kamp who founded the Tychonic society. It is primarily followed by a small segment of Protestant and Catholic fundamentalists alongside a few Orthodox Jews, but is fringe within even Creationism itself. Both mainstream creationists and geocentrists agree that while the Bible is the only completely reliable source of information for knowledge on the natural world, they strongly differ on their understanding of scripture. While some creationists such as Kent Hovind initially had a neutral opinion of geocentrism, the majority of the creationist movement strongly rejected geocentrism, including major organizations such as Answers in Genesis, Institute for Creation Research and Creation Ministries International. These organizations avoid association with


id: young-earth-creationism-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Earth_creationism-6.md
category: reference
title: Young Earth creationism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Earth_creationism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:59.346577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: young-earth-creationism-20260505-0
summary:
Many young Earth creationists distinguish their own hypotheses from the "Omphalos hypothesis", today more commonly referred to as the apparent age concept, put forth by the naturalist and science writer Philip Henry Gosse. Omphalos was an unsuccessful mid-19th century attempt to reconcile creationism with geology. Gosse proposed that just as Adam had a navel (omphalos is Greek for navel), evidence of a gestation he never experienced, so also the Earth was created ex nihilo complete with evidence of a prehistoric past that never actually occurred. The Omphalos hypothesis allows for a young Earth without giving rise to any predictions that would contradict scientific findings of an old Earth. Although both logically unassailable and consistent with a literal reading of scripture, Omphalos was rejected at the time by scientists on the grounds that it was completely unfalsifiable and by theologians because it implied to them a deceitful God, which they found theologically unacceptable. Today, in contrast to Gosse, young Earth creationists posit that not only is the Earth young but that the scientific data supports that view. However, the apparent age concept is still used in young Earth creationist literature. There are examples of young Earth creationists arguing that Adam did


id: young-earth-creationism-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Earth_creationism-7.md
category: reference
title: Young Earth creationism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Earth_creationism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:26:59.346577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: young-earth-creationism-20260505-0
summary:
Few modern theologians take the Genesis account of creation literally. Even many Christian evangelicals who reject the notion of purely naturalistic Darwinian evolution often treat the story as a nonliteral saga, as poetry, or as liturgical literature. Genesis contains two accounts of the Creation: in chapter 1 man was created after the animals (Genesis 1:24–26), while in chapter 2 man was created (Genesis 2:7) before the animals (Genesis 2:19). Proponents of the Documentary hypothesis suggest that Genesis 1 was a litany from the Priestly source (possibly from an early Jewish liturgy), while Genesis 2 was assembled from older Jahwist material, holding that, for both stories to be a single account, Adam would have named all the animals, and God would have created Eve from his rib as a suitable mate, all within a single 24 hour period. Creationists responding to this point attribute the view to misunderstanding having arisen from poor translation of the tenses in Genesis 2 in contemporary translations of the Bible (e.g. compare "planted" and "had planted" in the King James Version and New International Version). Some Christians assert that the Bible is free from error only in religious and moral matters, and that, where scientific or


id: zero-balancing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero_balancing-0.md
category: reference
title: Zero balancing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero_balancing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:00.493092+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: zero-balancing-20260505-0
summary:
Zero balancing is a type of manual therapy devised by American osteopathic doctor Frederick "Fritz" Smith in the 1970s. Drawing from principles of osteopathy, Chinese medicine and Structural Integration, Smith proposed that the energy field within the human body could be affected by manual manipulations, thus bringing health benefits. The practice teaches that currents of energy are stored within the human skeleton, and that these affect both physical and mental wellbeing. Zero balancing is pseudoscientific. Article writer and lawyer Jann Bellamy places zero balancing among many vitalism-based practices that exist within the "cornucopia of quackery" of massage therapy. Bellamy writes that in the United States the public are inadequately protected from such practices because of the lack of independent oversight; instead regulation is carried out within a "closed loop" system by massage-focused organizations. Edzard Ernst wrote in 2018 that zero balancing did not appear to have evidence published for its efficacy. == Description == According to Frederick Smith, the founder of zero balancing,Zero balancing teaches that the deepest currents of energy are in bone, that memory can be held in tissue, that energy fields in the body underlie mind, body and emotions, and that imbalances in the field precede pathology.


id: zoetron-therapy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoetron_therapy-0.md
category: reference
title: Zoetron therapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoetron_therapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:01.697894+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: zoetron-therapy-20260505-0
summary:
Zoetron therapy is an ineffective cancer treatment based on a large doughnut-shaped electromagnetic device (the "Zoetron machine"). The device was marketed by the CSCT company (standing for "Cell Specific Cancer Treatment", an alternative name for the therapy). It was claimed to detect cancer, and to "destroy cancer cells without harming adjacent normal cells". The promotion of the machine was backed by the publication of a number of misleading case reports. In 2003 the U.S. Federal Trade Commission took action against CSCT in coordination with the Canadian and Mexican authorities, alleging that the company had been falsely promoting its device as a cancer treatment online, and charging for its use in cancer clinics in Tijuana, Mexico. In 2005 criminal charges were bought against the company's officers for making false or misleading claims about the worth of the Zoetron machine. Patients being treated with the machine had been asked to pay up to US$15,000 in advance, however the treatment had no therapeutic value: on inspection the device was found to consist of weak magnets that could have no effect on cancer. Quackwatch states: "There is no scientific evidence or reason to believe that exposure to weak magnetic fields will kill any cells


id: quantum-mind-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mind-0.md
category: reference
title: Quantum mind
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mind
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:03.281485+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: quantum-mind-20260505-0
summary:
The quantum mind or quantum consciousness is a group of hypotheses proposing that local physical laws and interactions from classical mechanics or connections between neurons alone cannot explain consciousness. These hypotheses posit instead that quantum-mechanical phenomena, such as entanglement and superposition that cause nonlocalized quantum effects, interacting in smaller features of the brain than cells, may play an important part in the brain's function and could explain critical aspects of consciousness. These scientific hypotheses are as yet unvalidated, and they can overlap with quantum mysticism. == History == Eugene Wigner developed the idea that quantum mechanics has something to do with the workings of the mind. He proposed that the wave function collapses due to its interaction with consciousness. Freeman Dyson argued that "mind, as manifested by the capacity to make choices, is to some extent inherent in every electron". Other contemporary physicists and philosophers considered these arguments unconvincing. Victor Stenger characterized quantum consciousness as a "myth" having "no scientific basis" that "should take its place along with gods, unicorns and dragons". David Chalmers argues against quantum consciousness. He instead discusses how quantum mechanics may relate to dualistic consciousness. Chalmers is skeptical that any new physics can resolve the hard


id: quantum-mind-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mind-1.md
category: reference
title: Quantum mind
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mind
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:03.281485+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: quantum-mind-20260505-0
summary:
Theoretical physicist Roger Penrose and anaesthesiologist Stuart Hameroff collaborated to produce the theory known as "orchestrated objective reduction" (Orch-OR). Penrose and Hameroff initially developed their ideas separately and later collaborated to produce Orch-OR in the early 1990s. They reviewed and updated their theory in 2013. Penrose's argument stemmed from Gödel's incompleteness theorems. In his first book on consciousness, The Emperor's New Mind (1989), he argued that while a formal system cannot prove its own consistency, Gödel's unprovable results are provable by human mathematicians. Penrose took this to mean that human mathematicians are not formal proof systems and not running a computable algorithm. According to Bringsjord and Xiao, this line of reasoning is based on fallacious equivocation on the meaning of computation. In the same book, Penrose wrote: "One might speculate, however, that somewhere deep in the brain, cells are to be found of single quantum sensitivity. If this proves to be the case, then quantum mechanics will be significantly involved in brain activity." Penrose determined that wave function collapse was the only possible physical basis for a non-computable process. Dissatisfied with its randomness, he proposed a new form of wave function collapse that occurs in isolation and called it objective


id: quantum-mind-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mind-2.md
category: reference
title: Quantum mind
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mind
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:03.281485+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: quantum-mind-20260505-0
summary:
A lot of what the brain does you could do on a computer. I'm not saying that all the brain's action is completely different from what you do on a computer. I am claiming that the actions of consciousness are something different. I'm not saying that consciousness is beyond physics, either—although I'm saying that it's beyond the physics we know now.... My claim is that there has to be something in physics that we don't yet understand, which is very important, and which is of a noncomputational character. It's not specific to our brains; it's out there, in the physical world. But it usually plays a totally insignificant role. It would have to be in the bridge between quantum and classical levels of behavior—that is, where quantum measurement comes in. === Umezawa, Vitiello, Freeman === Hiroomi Umezawa and collaborators proposed a quantum field theory of memory storage. Giuseppe Vitiello and Walter Freeman proposed a dialog model of the mind. This dialog takes place between the classical and the quantum parts of the brain. Their quantum field theory models of brain dynamics are fundamentally different from the Penrose–Hameroff theory. ==== Quantum brain dynamics ==== As described by Harald Atmanspacher, "Since quantum


id: quantum-mind-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mind-3.md
category: reference
title: Quantum mind
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mind
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:03.281485+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: quantum-mind-20260505-0
summary:
=== Catecholaminergic neuron electron transport (CNET) === CNET is a hypothesized neural signaling mechanism in catecholaminergic neurons that would use quantum mechanical electron transport. The hypothesis is based in part on the observation by many independent researchers that electron tunneling occurs in ferritin, an iron storage protein that is prevalent in those neurons, at room temperature and ambient conditions. The hypothesized function of this mechanism is to assist in action selection, but the mechanism itself would be capable of integrating millions of cognitive and sensory neural signals using a physical mechanism associated with strong electron-electron interactions. Each tunneling event would involve a collapse of an electron wave function, but the collapse would be incidental to the physical effect created by strong electron-electron interactions. CNET predicted a number of physical properties of these neurons that have been subsequently observed experimentally, such as electron tunneling in substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) tissue and the presence of disordered arrays of ferritin in SNc tissue. The hypothesis also predicted that disordered ferritin arrays like those found in SNc tissue should be capable of supporting long-range electron transport and providing a switching or routing function, both of which have also been subsequently observed. Another prediction


id: quantum-mind-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mind-4.md
category: reference
title: Quantum mind
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mind
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:03.281485+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: quantum-mind-20260505-0
summary:
=== Conceptual problems === The idea that a quantum effect is necessary for consciousness to function is still in the realm of philosophy. Penrose proposes that it is necessary, but other theories of consciousness do not indicate that it is needed. For example, Daniel Dennett proposed a theory called multiple drafts model, which doesn't indicate that quantum effects are needed, in his 1991 book Consciousness Explained. A philosophical argument on either side is not a scientific proof, although philosophical analysis can indicate key differences in the types of models and show what type of experimental differences might be observed. But since there is no clear consensus among philosophers, there is no conceptual support that a quantum mind theory is needed. A possible conceptual approach is to use quantum mechanics as an analogy to understand a different field of study like consciousness, without expecting that the laws of quantum physics will apply. An example of this approach is the idea of Schrödinger's cat. Erwin Schrödinger described how one could, in principle, create entanglement of a large-scale system by making it dependent on an elementary particle in a superposition. He proposed a scenario with a cat in a locked steel chamber, wherein


id: quantum-mind-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mind-5.md
category: reference
title: Quantum mind
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mind
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:03.281485+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: quantum-mind-20260505-0
summary:
The problem with trying to use quantum mechanics in the action of the brain is that if it were a matter of quantum nerve signals, these nerve signals would disturb the rest of the material in the brain, to the extent that the quantum coherence would get lost very quickly. You couldn't even attempt to build a quantum computer out of ordinary nerve signals, because they're just too big and in an environment that's too disorganized. Ordinary nerve signals have to be treated classically. But if you go down to the level of the microtubules, then there's an extremely good chance that you can get quantum-level activity inside them. For my picture, I need this quantum-level activity in the microtubules; the activity has to be a large-scale thing that goes not just from one microtubule to the next but from one nerve cell to the next, across large areas of the brain. We need some kind of coherent activity of a quantum nature which is weakly coupled to the computational activity that Hameroff argues is taking place along the microtubules. There are various avenues of attack. One is directly on the physics, on quantum theory, and there are certain experiments


id: karl-h-pribram-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_H._Pribram-0.md
category: reference
title: Karl H. Pribram
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_H._Pribram
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:04.515998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: karl-h-pribram-20260505-0
summary:
Karl Harry Pribram ([ˈpr̝̊iːbram]) (February 25, 1919 – January 19, 2015) was an American-Austrian researcher in the fields of cognitive psychology, cognitive science, neuropsychology, holonomic brain theory, and holographic consciousness. He was a professor at Georgetown University and an emeritus professor at Stanford University at the time of his death. Before moving to Georgetown, he was the James P. and Anna King Distinguished Professor at Radford University. He was best known for his work on the holonomic brain theory. == Major Contributions == === Cognitive revolution in psychology === Plans and the Structure of Behavior (1960), co-written with George Armitage Miller and Eugene Galanter, is widely credited as a seminal work in the development of the field of cognitive psychology. This work fueled the cognitive revolution, which established cognitive psychology as the dominant trend in psychology, replacing behaviorism. === Emotional processes and the limbic system === In the late 1940s and early 1950s, Pribram became "recognized for pioneering research defining the boundaries of the limbic system." Through more than 50 surgical experiments, Pribram's laboratory was able to establish that the limbic system, governing emotions, also interacted with the executive functions of the prefrontal cortex, governing personality, decision making, and social


id: karl-h-pribram-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_H._Pribram-1.md
category: reference
title: Karl H. Pribram
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_H._Pribram
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:04.515998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: karl-h-pribram-20260505-0
summary:
=== Private practice and Yerkes === In the 1940s, Pribram became one of the first 300 board-certified neurosurgeons in the world after receiving his MD from University of Chicago at the age of 22. During his education and residency, he studied under or collaborated with such luminaries as Anton Carlson, Ralph Gerard, Percival Bailey, and Warren McCullock. At Chicago Memorial Hospital Pribram was the first resident under Paul Bucy, the pioneer in the study of the temporal lobe, which later influenced Pribram's discoveries in that field. Bucy arranged for Pribram to complete his residency with Eric Oldberg, the last of Harvey Cushing's residents who received individual training by Cushing. Throughout his life, Pribram would engage in pioneering work on the definition of the limbic system, the relationship of the frontal cortex to the limbic system, the sensory-specific association cortex of the parietal and temporal lobes, and the classical motor cortex of the human brain. During his first ten years of residency and as a practicing brain surgeon in Memphis, TN, and Jacksonville, FL, Pribram became concerned about the then-accepted practice of lobotomy and set out to discover the true function of the frontal lobes, which was unknown at that time.


id: karl-h-pribram-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_H._Pribram-2.md
category: reference
title: Karl H. Pribram
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_H._Pribram
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:04.515998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: karl-h-pribram-20260505-0
summary:
=== Stanford University (1959-1989) === After his tenure at Yale, Pribram moved to the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences at Stanford University. For the next 30 years he taught neurophysiology and physiological psychology at Stanford with joint appointments in the Department of Psychiatry (Medical School Faculty) and of Psychology (Arts and Sciences Faculty). During this time, Pribram pioneered the field of neuropsychology, leading groundbreaking research into the interrelations of the brain, behavior, and cognition. At Stanford, a part-time secretary, Barbara Honegger, filed a complaint alleging that Pribram had "denied [her] a job rank she was entitled to" while further alleging that Pribram had "struck her in the head." Pribram was placed on temporary probation by Stanford, while Honegger received a parting out-of-court settlement from the school. While a professor at Stanford, with joint appointments in the departments of Psychology and Psychiatry, Pribram was honored with a Lifetime Grant from the US Office of Naval Research as well as a Lifetime Research Career Award from the National Institutes of Health. Upon becoming emeritus at Stanford University, Pribram accepted the position of the James P. and Anna King Distinguished Professor at Radford University and, in 1989, was appointed Eminent


id: karl-h-pribram-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_H._Pribram-3.md
category: reference
title: Karl H. Pribram
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_H._Pribram
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:04.515998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: karl-h-pribram-20260505-0
summary:
== Selected books == Hamburg, D. A., Pribram, K. H., and Stunkard, A. J. (Eds.) (1970) Perception and Its Disorders. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins. Hyden, H., Lorenz, K., Magoun, H.W., Penfield, W., and Pribram, K.H. (Eds) (1969) On the Biology of Learning. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc. King, J. S., and Pribram, K.H., (Eds.) (1995) Scale in Conscious Experience: Is the Brain Too Important to be Left to Specialists to Study?, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. ISBN 0-8058-2178-3 Miller, G. A., Galanter, E., and Pribram, K. H. (1960) Plans and the Structure of Behavior. New York: Henry Holt, 1960. (Russian trans; also in Japanese, German, Spanish, Italian.) ISBN 0-03-010075-5 Isaacson, R. L., and Pribram, K. H. (Eds.) (1975) The Hippocampus, Volumes I and II. New York: Plenum. ISBN 0-306-37535-4 Isaacson, R. L., and Pribram, K. H. (Eds.) (1986) The Hippocampus, Volumes III and IV. New York: Plenum. Pribram, K. H., and Broadbent, D. (Eds.) (1970) Biology of Memory. New York: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-564350-0 Pribram, K. H., and Gill, M. M. (1976) Freud's `Project' Re-Assessed: Preface to Contemporary Cognitive Theory and Neuropsychology. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-02569-2 Pribram, K.H., and King, J.S. (Eds.) (1996) Learning as


id: david-bohm-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Bohm-0.md
category: reference
title: David Bohm
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Bohm
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:05.696760+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: david-bohm-20260505-0
summary:
David Joseph Bohm (; 20 December 1917 – 27 October 1992) was an American physicist who has been described as one of the most significant theoretical physicists of the 20th century and who contributed unorthodox ideas to quantum theory, neuropsychology and the philosophy of mind. Among his many contributions to physics is his causal and deterministic interpretation of quantum theory known as De Broglie–Bohm theory. Bohm advanced the view that quantum physics meant that the old Cartesian model of reality—that there are two kinds of substance, the mental and the physical, that somehow interact—was too limited. To complement it, he developed a mathematical and physical theory of "implicate" and "explicate" order. He also believed that the brain, at the cellular level, works according to the mathematics of some quantum effects, and postulated that thought is distributed and non-localised just as quantum entities are. Bohm's main concern was with understanding the nature of reality in general and of consciousness in particular as a coherent whole, which according to Bohm is never static or complete. Bohm warned of the dangers of rampant reason and technology, advocating instead the need for genuine supportive dialogue, which he claimed could bridge and unify conflicting and


id: david-bohm-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Bohm-1.md
category: reference
title: David Bohm
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Bohm
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:05.696760+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: david-bohm-20260505-0
summary:
During his early period, Bohm made a number of significant contributions to physics, particularly quantum mechanics and relativity theory. As a postgraduate at Berkeley, he developed a theory of plasmas, discovering the electron phenomenon known as Bohm diffusion. His first book, Quantum Theory, published in 1951, was well received by Einstein, among others. But Bohm became dissatisfied with the orthodox interpretation of quantum theory he wrote about in that book. Starting from the realization that the WKB approximation of quantum mechanics leads to deterministic equations and convinced that a mere approximation could not turn a probabilistic theory into a deterministic theory, he doubted the inevitability of the conventional approach to quantum mechanics. Bohm's aim was not to set out a deterministic, mechanical viewpoint but to show that it was possible to attribute properties to an underlying reality, in contrast to the conventional approach. He began to develop his own interpretation (the De Broglie–Bohm theory, also called the pilot wave theory), the predictions of which agreed perfectly with the non-deterministic quantum theory. He initially called his approach a hidden variable theory, but he later called it ontological theory, reflecting his view that a stochastic process underlying the phenomena described by his


id: david-bohm-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Bohm-2.md
category: reference
title: David Bohm
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Bohm
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:05.696760+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: david-bohm-20260505-0
summary:
=== Consciousness and thought === In addition to his scientific work, Bohm was deeply interested in exploring the nature of consciousness, with particular attention to the role of thought as it relates to attention, motivation, and conflict in the individual and in society. Those concerns were a natural extension of his earlier interest in Marxist ideology and Hegelian philosophy. His views were brought into sharper focus through extensive interactions with the philosopher, speaker, and writer Jiddu Krishnamurti, beginning in 1961. Their collaboration lasted a quarter of a century, and their recorded dialogues were published in several volumes. Bohm's prolonged involvement with the philosophy of Krishnamurti was regarded somewhat skeptically by some of his scientific peers. An examination in 2017 of the relationship between the two men presents it in a more positive light and shows that Bohm's work in the psychological field was complementary to and compatible with his contributions to theoretical physics. The mature expression of Bohm's views in the psychological field was presented in a seminar conducted in 1990 at the Oak Grove School, founded by Krishnamurti in Ojai, California. It was one of a series of seminars held by Bohm at Oak Grove School, and it was


id: david-bohm-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Bohm-3.md
category: reference
title: David Bohm
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Bohm
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:05.696760+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: david-bohm-20260505-0
summary:
== Later life == Bohm continued his work in quantum physics after his retirement, in 1987. His final work, the posthumously published The Undivided Universe: An Ontological Interpretation of Quantum Theory (1993), resulted from a decades-long collaboration with Basil Hiley. He also spoke to audiences across Europe and North America on the importance of dialogue as a form of sociotherapy, a concept he borrowed from London psychiatrist and practitioner of Group Analysis Patrick de Maré, and he had a series of meetings with the Dalai Lama. He was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1990. Near the end of his life, Bohm began to experience a recurrence of the depression that he had suffered earlier in life. He was admitted to the Maudsley Hospital in South London on 10 May 1991. His condition worsened and it was decided that the only treatment that might help him was electroconvulsive therapy. Bohm's wife consulted psychiatrist David Shainberg, Bohm's longtime friend and collaborator, who agreed that electroconvulsive treatments were probably his only option. Bohm showed improvement from the treatments and was released on 29 August, but his depression returned and was treated with medication. On the day he died, Bohm said: "You


id: david-bohm-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Bohm-4.md
category: reference
title: David Bohm
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Bohm
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:05.696760+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: david-bohm-20260505-0
summary:
The David Bohm Society The Bohm Krishnamurti Project: Exploring the Legacy of the David Bohm and Jiddu Krishnamurti Relationship David Bohm's ideas about Dialogue the David_Bohm_Hub. Includes compilations of David Bohm's life and work in form of texts, audio, video, and pictures Lifework of David Bohm: River of Truth at the Wayback Machine (archived 25 January 2021): Article by Will Keepin (PDF-version at the Wayback Machine (archived 22 February 2016)) Interview with David Bohm provided and conducted by F. David Peat along with John Briggs, first issued in Omni magazine, January 1987 Archive of papers at Birkbeck College relating to David Bohm and David Bohm at the National Archives David Bohm at the Mathematics Genealogy Project 1979 Audio Interview with David Bohm by Martin Sherwin at Voices of the Manhattan Project The Bohm Documentary by David Peat and Paul Howard (in production) The Best David Bohm Interview about "The Nature of Things" by David Suzuki 26 May 1979 Oral History interview transcript with David Bohm on 8 May 1981, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library and Archives – interview conducted by Lillian Hoddeson in Edgware, London, England Oral History interview transcript with David Bohm on 6 June 1986, American


id: david-chalmers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Chalmers-0.md
category: reference
title: David Chalmers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Chalmers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:06.849858+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: david-chalmers-20260505-0
summary:
David John Chalmers (; born 20 April 1966) is an Australian philosopher and cognitive scientist, specializing in philosophy of mind and philosophy of language. He is a professor of philosophy and neural science at New York University (NYU), as well as co-director of NYU's Center for Mind, Brain and Consciousness (along with Ned Block). In 2006, he was elected a fellow of the Australian Academy of the Humanities. In 2013, he was elected as a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Chalmers is best known for formulating the hard problem of consciousness, and for popularizing the philosophical zombie thought experiment. Chalmers and David Bourget co-founded PhilPapers; a database of journal articles for philosophers. == Early life and education == David Chalmers was born in Sydney, New South Wales, and subsequently grew up in Adelaide, South Australia, where he attended Unley High School. As a child, he experienced synesthesia. He began coding and playing computer games at the age of 10 on a PDP-10 at a medical center. He also performed exceptionally in mathematics, and secured a bronze medal in the International Mathematical Olympiad. When Chalmers was 13, he read Douglas Hofstadter's 1979 book Gödel, Escher, Bach, which


id: david-chalmers-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Chalmers-1.md
category: reference
title: David Chalmers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Chalmers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:06.849858+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: david-chalmers-20260505-0
summary:
Chalmers is best known for formulating what he calls the "hard problem of consciousness," in both his 1995 paper "Facing Up to the Problem of Consciousness" and his 1996 book The Conscious Mind. He makes a distinction between "easy" problems of consciousness, such as explaining object discrimination or verbal reports, and the single hard problem, which could be stated "why does the feeling which accompanies awareness of sensory information exist at all?" The essential difference between the (cognitive) easy problems and the (phenomenal) hard problem is that the former are at least theoretically answerable via the dominant strategy in the philosophy of mind: physicalism. Chalmers argues for an "explanatory gap" from the objective to the subjective, and criticizes physicalist explanations of mental experience, making him a dualist. Chalmers characterizes his view as "naturalistic dualism": naturalistic because he believes mental states supervene "naturally" on physical systems (such as brains); dualist because he believes mental states are ontologically distinct from and not reducible to physical systems. He has also characterized his view by more traditional formulations such as property dualism. In support of this, Chalmers is famous for his commitment to the logical (though, not natural) possibility of philosophical zombies. These zombies


id: david-chalmers-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Chalmers-2.md
category: reference
title: David Chalmers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Chalmers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:06.849858+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: david-chalmers-20260505-0
summary:
==== Two-dimensional semantics ==== Chalmers disagrees with Kripke, and direct reference theorists in general. He thinks that there are two kinds of intension of a natural kind term, a stance called two-dimensionalism. For example, the statement "Water is H2O" expresses two distinct propositions, often referred to as a primary intension and a secondary intension, which together form its meaning. The primary intension of a word or sentence is its sense, i.e., is the idea or method by which we find its referent. The primary intension of "water" might be a description, such as "the substance with water-like properties". The entity identified by this intension could vary in different hypothetical worlds. In the twin Earth thought experiment, for example, inhabitants might use "water" to mean their equivalent of water, even if its chemical composition is not H2O. Thus, for that world, "water" does not refer to H2O. The secondary intension of "water" is whatever "water" refers to in this world. When considered according to its secondary intension, water means H2O in every world. Through this concept, Chalmers provides a way to explain how reference is determined by distinguishing between epistemic possibilities (primary intension) and metaphysical necessities (secondary intension), ensuring that the


id: the-emperor-s-new-mind-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Emperor's_New_Mind-0.md
category: reference
title: The Emperor's New Mind
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Emperor's_New_Mind
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:08.018764+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-emperor-s-new-mind-20260505-0
summary:
The Emperor's New Mind: Concerning Computers, Minds and The Laws of Physics is a 1989 book by the mathematical physicist Roger Penrose that posits a quantum mind theory. Penrose argues that human consciousness is non-algorithmic, and thus is not capable of being modeled by a conventional Turing machine, which includes a digital computer. Penrose hypothesizes that quantum mechanics plays an essential role in the understanding of human consciousness. The collapse of the quantum wavefunction is seen as playing an important role in brain function. Most of the book is spent reviewing, for the scientifically-minded lay-reader, a plethora of interrelated subjects such as Newtonian physics, special and general relativity, the philosophy and limitations of mathematics, quantum physics, cosmology, and the nature of time. Penrose intermittently describes how each of these bears on his developing theme: that consciousness is not "algorithmic". Only the later portions of the book address the thesis directly. == Overview == Penrose states that his ideas on the nature of consciousness are speculative, and his thesis is considered erroneous by some experts in the fields of philosophy, computer science, and robotics. The Emperor's New Mind attacks the claims of artificial intelligence using the physics of computing: Penrose notes


id: endophysics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endophysics-0.md
category: reference
title: Endophysics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endophysics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:09.182403+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: endophysics-20260505-0
summary:
The term endophysics (lit. “physics from within”) was coined by the American physicist David Finkelstein in a letter to the German biochemist Otto E. Rössler, who originally came up with the concept. It refers to the study of how observations are affected and limited by the observer being within the universe. This is in contrast with "exophysics," which assumes a system observed from the “outside”. == See also == Physics Internal measurement (This notion is very similar to endophysics.) == References == R. J. Boskovich, De spacio et tempore, ut a nobis cognoscuntur, partial English translation in: J. M. Child (Ed.), A Theory of Natural Philosophy, Open Court (1922) and MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1966, pp. 203–205. T. Toffoli, The role of the observer in uniform systems, in: G. J. Klir (Ed.), Applied General Systems Research, Recent Developments and Trends, Plenum Press, New York, London, 1978, pp. 395–400. K. Svozil, Connections between deviations from Lorentz transformation and relativistic energy-momentum relation, Europhysics Letters 2 (1986) 83–85. O. E. Rössler, Endophysics, in: J. L. Casti, A. Karlquist (Eds.), Real Brains, Artificial Minds, North-Holland, New York, 1987, p. 25. O. E. Rössler, Endophysics. Die Welt des inneren Beobachters, Merwe Verlag, Berlin, 1992, with


id: epistemological-letters-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemological_Letters-0.md
category: reference
title: Epistemological Letters
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemological_Letters
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:10.373743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: epistemological-letters-20260505-0
summary:
Epistemological Letters (French: Lettres Épistémologiques) was a hand-typed, mimeographed "underground" newsletter about quantum physics that was distributed to a private mailing list, described by the physicist and Nobel laureate John Clauser as a "quantum subculture", between 1973 and 1984. Distributed by a Swiss foundation, the newsletter was created because mainstream academic journals were reluctant to publish articles about the philosophy of quantum mechanics, especially anything that implied support for ideas such as action at a distance. Thirty-six or thirty-seven issues of Epistemological Letters appeared, each between four and eighty-nine pages long. Several well-known scientists published their work there, including the physicist John Bell, the originator of Bell's theorem. According to John Clauser, much of the early work on Bell's theorem was published only in Epistemological Letters. == Interpretations of quantum physics == According to the Irish physicist Andrew Whitaker, a powerful group of physicists centred on Niels Bohr, Wolfgang Pauli and Werner Heisenberg made clear that "there was no place in physics – no jobs in physics! – for anybody who dared to question the Copenhagen interpretation" (Bohr's interpretation) of quantum theory. John Clauser writes that any inquiry into the "wonders and peculiarities" of quantum mechanics and quantum entanglement that


id: federico-faggin-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federico_Faggin-0.md
category: reference
title: Federico Faggin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federico_Faggin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:11.564117+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: federico-faggin-20260505-0
summary:
Federico Faggin (Italian pronunciation: [fedeˈriːko fadˈdʒin], Venetian: [faˈdʒiŋ]; born 1 December 1941) is an Italian-American physicist, engineer, inventor and entrepreneur. He is best known for designing the first commercial microprocessor, the Intel 4004. He led the 4004 (MCS-4) project and the design group during the first five years of Intel's microprocessor effort. Faggin also created, while working at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1968, the self-aligned MOS (metal–oxide–semiconductor) silicon-gate technology (SGT), which made possible MOS semiconductor memory chips, CCD image sensors, and the microprocessor. After the 4004, he led development of the Intel 8008 and 8080, using his SGT methodology for random logic chip design, which was essential to the creation of early Intel microprocessors. He was co-founder (with Ralph Ungermann) and CEO of Zilog, the first company solely dedicated to microprocessors, and led the development of the Zilog Z80 and Z8 processors. He was later the co-founder and CEO of Cygnet Technologies, and then Synaptics. In 2010, he received the 2009 National Medal of Technology and Innovation, the highest honor the United States confers for achievements related to technological progress. In 2011, Faggin founded the Federico and Elvia Faggin Foundation to support the scientific study of consciousness at US universities and


id: federico-faggin-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federico_Faggin-1.md
category: reference
title: Federico Faggin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federico_Faggin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:11.564117+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: federico-faggin-20260505-0
summary:
Federico Faggin joined Intel from Fairchild in 1970 as the project leader and designer of the MCS-4 family of microprocessors, which included the 4004, the world's first single-chip microprocessor. Fairchild was not taking advantage of the SGT and Faggin wanted to use his new technology to design advanced chips. The 4004 (1971) was made possible by the advanced capabilities of the silicon gate technology (SGT) being enhanced through the novel random logic chip design methodology that Faggin created at Intel. It was this new methodology, together with his several design innovations, that allowed him to fit the microprocessor in one small chip. A single-chip microprocessor – an idea that was expected to occur many years in the future – became possible in 1971 by using SGT with two additional innovations: (1) "buried contacts" that doubled the circuit density, and (2) the use of bootstrap loads with 2-phase clocks—previously considered impossible with SGT— that improved the speed 5 times, while reducing the chip area by half compared with metal-gate MOS. The design methodology created by Faggin was utilized for the implementation of all Intel's early microprocessors and later also for Zilog's Z80. The Intel 4004 – a 4-bit CPU (central processing


id: federico-faggin-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federico_Faggin-2.md
category: reference
title: Federico Faggin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federico_Faggin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:11.564117+00:00
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parent: federico-faggin-20260505-0
summary:
=== Zilog === The Zilog Z80 was the first microprocessor created by Zilog, the first company entirely dedicated to microprocessors. It was started by Federico Faggin and Ralph Ungermann in November 1974. Faggin was Zilog's president and CEO until the end of 1980 and he conceived and designed the Z80 CPU and its family of programmable peripheral components. He also co-designed the CPU whose project leader was Masatoshi Shima. The Z80-CPU was a major improvement over the 8080, yet it retained software compatibility with it. Much faster and with more than twice as many registers and instructions of the 8080, it was part of a family of components that included several intelligent peripherals (the Z80-PIO, a programmable parallel input-output controller; the Z80-CTC, a programmable counter-timer; the Z80-SIO, programmable serial communications interface controller, and the Z80-DMA, programmable direct memory access controller). This chip family allowed the design of powerful and low-cost microcomputers with performance comparable to minicomputers. The Z80-CPU had a substantially better bus structure and interrupt structure than the 8080 and could interface directly with dynamic RAM, since it included an internal memory-refresh controller. The Z80 was used in many of early personal computers, as well as in video game


id: federico-faggin-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federico_Faggin-3.md
category: reference
title: Federico Faggin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federico_Faggin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:11.564117+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: federico-faggin-20260505-0
summary:
=== On the MOS silicon-gate technology (SGT) for IC and the Fairchild 3708 (the first application of SGT) === Faggin, F., Klein, T., and Vadasz, L.: Insulated Gate Field Effect Transistor Integrated Circuits with Silicon Gates. The Silicon Gate Technology with self-aligned gates was presented by its developer Federico Faggin at the IEEE International Electron Device Meeting on 23 October 1968, in Washington D.C. This new technology empowered the design of dynamic RAM memories, non-volatile memories, CCD sensors and the microprocessor. Federico Faggin and Thomas Klein.: "A Faster Generation of MOS Devices with Low Thresholds is Riding the Crest of the New Wave, Silicon-Gate IC's". The article published in Electronics (29 September 1969) introduces the Fairchild 3708, the world's first commercial integrated circuit using Silicon Gate Technology, designed by Federico Faggin at Fairchild in 1968. F. Faggin, T. Klein: Silicon-Gate Technology. "Solid State Electronics", 1970, Vol. 13, pp. 1125–1144 === On the Intel 4004 microprocessor === F. Faggin and M. E. Hoff: "Standard Parts and Custom Design Merge in a Four-chip Processor Kit". Electronics, 24 April 1972 F. Faggin, et al.: "The MCS-4 An LSI Microcomputer System". IEEE 1972 Region Six Conference. Faggin, Federico; Capocaccia, F. "A New Integrated MOS


id: stuart-hameroff-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuart_Hameroff-0.md
category: reference
title: Stuart Hameroff
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuart_Hameroff
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:12.732043+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stuart-hameroff-20260505-0
summary:
Stuart Hameroff (born July 16, 1947) is an American anesthesiologist and professor at the University of Arizona known for his studies of consciousness and his controversial contention that consciousness originates from quantum states in neural microtubules. He is the lead organizer of the Science of Consciousness conference. == Career == Hameroff received his BS degree from the University of Pittsburgh and his MD degree from Hahnemann University Hospital, where he studied before it became part of the Drexel University College of Medicine. He took an internship at the Tucson Medical Center in 1973. From 1975 onwards, he has spent the whole of his career at the University of Arizona, becoming professor in the Department of Anesthesiology and Psychology and director for the Center for Consciousness Studies, both in 1999, and finally Emeritus professor for Anesthesiology and Psychology in 2003. == Theory == At the very beginning of Hameroff's career, while he was at Hahnemann, cancer-related research work piqued his interest in the part played by microtubules in cell division, and led him to speculate that they were controlled by some form of computing. It also suggested to him that part of the solution of the problem of consciousness might lie


id: holomovement-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holomovement-0.md
category: reference
title: Holomovement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holomovement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:13.993666+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: holomovement-20260505-0
summary:
Holomovement is a theoretical concept proposed by physicist David Bohm to describe a dynamic and unbroken totality that underlies all of reality. It forms the foundation of Bohm's interpretation of quantum mechanics and his metaphysical model, particularly as articulated in his book Wholeness and the Implicate Order (1980). The holomovement integrates two key ideas: undivided wholeness and constant process. It suggests that everything in the universe is interconnected and in continual motion, with all forms and structures being temporary abstractions from this deeper, flowing unity. Critics have described holomovement as a type of metaphysical mysticism. == Origins and background == Louis de Broglie introduced a formalism for quantum mechanics at the 1927 Solvay Congress which explained quantum effects in terms of underlying processes such as a hypothesized pilot wave. This was met with strong criticism, particularly by Wolfgang Pauli, which caused de Broglie to abandon this suggestion. In 1952, Bohm revived the notion of a pilot wave guiding elementary particles in a way that withstood Pauli's criticism. Bohm and Basil Hiley criticized a solely epistemological model which only accounts for what can be known about physical processes; developing this pilot-wave theory into an ontological interpretation. Bohm felt the extended version


id: holonomic-brain-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holonomic_brain_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Holonomic brain theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holonomic_brain_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:15.207716+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: holonomic-brain-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Holonomic brain theory is a branch of neuroscience investigating the idea that consciousness is formed by quantum effects in or between brain cells. Holonomic refers to representations in a Hilbert phase space defined by both spectral and space-time coordinates. Holonomic brain theory is opposed by traditional neuroscience, which investigates the brain's behavior by looking at patterns of neurons and the surrounding chemistry. This specific theory of quantum consciousness was developed by neuroscientist Karl Pribram initially in collaboration with physicist David Bohm building on the initial theories of holograms originally formulated by Dennis Gabor. It describes human cognition by modeling the brain as a holographic storage network. Pribram suggests these processes involve electric oscillations in the brain's fine-fibered dendritic webs, which are different from the more commonly known action potentials involving axons and synapses. These oscillations are waves and create wave interference patterns in which memory is encoded naturally, and the wave function may be analyzed by a Fourier transform. Gabor, Pribram and others noted the similarities between these brain processes and the storage of information in a hologram, which can also be analyzed with a Fourier transform. In a hologram, any part of the hologram with sufficient size contains the


id: holonomic-brain-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holonomic_brain_theory-1.md
category: reference
title: Holonomic brain theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holonomic_brain_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:15.207716+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: holonomic-brain-theory-20260505-0
summary:
A main characteristic of a hologram is that every part of the stored information is distributed over the entire hologram. Both processes of storage and retrieval are carried out in a way described by Fourier transformation equations. As long as a part of the hologram is large enough to contain the interference pattern, that part can recreate the entirety of the stored image, but the image may have unwanted changes, called noise. An analogy to this is the broadcasting region of a radio antenna. In each smaller individual location within the entire area it is possible to access every channel, similar to how the entirety of the information of a hologram is contained within a part. Another analogy of a hologram is the way sunlight illuminates objects in the visual field of an observer. It doesn't matter how narrow the beam of sunlight is. The beam always contains all the information of the object, and when conjugated by a lens of a camera or the eyeball, produces the same full three-dimensional image. The Fourier transform formula converts spatial forms to spatial wave frequencies and vice versa, as all objects are in essence vibratory structures. Different types of lenses, acting similarly


id: holonomic-brain-theory-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holonomic_brain_theory-2.md
category: reference
title: Holonomic brain theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holonomic_brain_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:15.207716+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: holonomic-brain-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Deep and surface structure of memory === Pribram suggests that there are two layers of cortical processing: a surface structure of separated and localized neural circuits and a deep structure of the dendritic arborization that binds the surface structure together. The deep structure contains distributed memory, while the surface structure acts as the retrieval mechanism. Binding occurs through the temporal synchronization of the oscillating polarizations in the synaptodendritic web. It had been thought that binding only occurred when there was no phase lead or lag present, but a study by Saul and Humphrey found that cells in the lateral geniculate nucleus do in fact produce these. Here phase lead and lag act to enhance sensory discrimination, acting as a frame to capture important features. These filters are also similar to the lenses necessary for holographic functioning. Pribram notes that holographic memories show large capacities, parallel processing and content addressability for rapid recognition, associative storage for perceptual completion and for associative recall. In systems endowed with memory storage, these interactions therefore lead to progressively more self-determination. == Recent studies == While Pribram originally developed the holonomic brain theory as an analogy for certain brain processes, several papers (including some more


id: brian-josephson-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Josephson-0.md
category: reference
title: Brian Josephson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Josephson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:16.307860+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: brian-josephson-20260505-0
summary:
Brian David Josephson (born 4 January 1940) is a British theoretical physicist and emeritus professor at the University of Cambridge. He shared the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physics with Leo Esaki and Ivar Giaever for his discovery of the Josephson effect, made in 1962 when he was a Ph.D. student at Cambridge. Josephson has spent his academic career as a member of the Theory of Condensed Matter Group in Cambridge's Cavendish Laboratory. He has been a Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, since 1962, and served as Professor of Physics from 1974 until 2007. In the early 1970s, Josephson took up Transcendental Meditation and turned his attention to issues outside the boundaries of mainstream science. He set up the Mind–Matter Unification Project at Cavendish to explore the idea of intelligence in nature, the relationship between quantum mechanics and consciousness, and the synthesis of science and Eastern mysticism, broadly known as quantum mysticism. He has expressed support for topics such as parapsychology, water memory and cold fusion, which has made him a focus of criticism from fellow scientists. == Education == Brian David Josephson was born on 4 January 1940 in Cardiff, Wales, to Jewish parents, Abraham Josephson and Mimi Weisbard. He


id: brian-josephson-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Josephson-1.md
category: reference
title: Brian Josephson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Josephson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:16.307860+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: brian-josephson-20260505-0
summary:
Josephson was 22-years-old when he did the work on quantum tunnelling that earned him the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1973. He discovered that a supercurrent could tunnel through a thin barrier, predicting, according to physicist Andrew Whitaker, that "at a junction of two superconductors, a current will flow even if there is no drop in voltage; that when there is a voltage drop, the current should oscillate at a frequency related to the drop in voltage; and that there is a dependence on any magnetic field." This became known as the Josephson effect and the junction as a Josephson junction. Josephson's calculations were published in Physics Letters (chosen by Pippard because it was a new journal) in a paper titled "Possible new effects in superconductive tunnelling," received on 8 June 1962 and published on 1 July. They were confirmed experimentally by Philip Anderson and John Rowell of Bell Labs in Princeton; this appeared in their paper, "Probable Observation of the Josephson Superconducting Tunneling Effect," submitted to Physical Review Letters in January 1963. Before Anderson and Rowell confirmed the calculations, the American physicist John Bardeen, who had shared the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics (and who shared it again in


id: brian-josephson-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Josephson-2.md
category: reference
title: Brian Josephson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Josephson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:16.307860+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: brian-josephson-20260505-0
summary:
Josephson became involved in the mid-1970s with a group of physicists associated with the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory at the University of California, Berkeley, who were investigating paranormal claims. They had organized themselves loosely into the Fundamental Fysiks Group, and had effectively become the Stanford Research Institute's (SRI) "house theorists," according to historian of science David Kaiser. Core members in the group were Elizabeth Rauscher, George Weissmann, John Clauser, Jack Sarfatti, Saul-Paul Sirag, Nick Herbert, Fred Alan Wolf, Fritjof Capra, Henry Stapp, Philippe Eberhard and Gary Zukav. There was significant government interest at the time in quantum mechanics – the American government was financing research at SRI into telepathy – and physicists able to understand it found themselves in demand. The Fundamental Fysiks Group used ideas from quantum physics, particularly Bell's theorem and quantum entanglement, to explore issues such as action at a distance, clairvoyance, precognition, remote viewing and psychokinesis. In 1976, Josephson travelled to California at the invitation of one of the Fundamental Fysiks Group members, Jack Sarfatti, who introduced him to others including laser physicists Russell Targ and Harold Puthoff, and quantum physicist Henry Stapp. The San Francisco Chronicle covered Josephson's visit. Josephson co-organised a symposium on consciousness at


id: brian-josephson-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Josephson-3.md
category: reference
title: Brian Josephson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Josephson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:16.307860+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: brian-josephson-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == Brian Josephson's home page, University of Cambridge. Brian Josephson, academia.edu. "bdj50: Conference in Cambridge to mark the 50th Anniversary of the Publication of Brian Josephson’s Seminal Work", Department of Physics, University of Cambridge. Anderson, Philip. "How Josephson Discovered His Effect", Physics Today, November 1970. Anderson's account of Josephson's discovery; he taught the graduate course in solid-state/many-body theory in which Josephson was a student. Barone, A. and Paterno, G. Physics and Applications of the Josephson Effect, Wiley, 1982. Bertlmann, R. A. and Zeilinger, A. (eds.), Quantum (Un)speakables: From Bell to Quantum Information, Springer, 2002. Buckel, Werner and Kleiner, Reinhold. Superconductivity: Fundamentals and Applications, VCH, 1991. Jibu, Mari and Yasue, Kunio. Quantum Brain Dynamics and Consciousness: An Introduction, John Benjamins Publishing, 1995. Josephson, Brian; Rubik, Beverly A.; Fontana, David; Lorimer, David. "Defining consciousness", Nature, 358(618), 20 August 1992. Rosen, Joe. "Josephson, Brian David," Encyclopedia of Physics, Infobase Publishing, 2009, pp. 165–166. Stapp, Henry. "Quantum Approaches to Consciousness," in Philip David Zelazo, Morris Moscovitch and Evan Thompson (eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness, 2007. Stenger, Victor J. The Unconscious Quantum: Metaphysics in Modern Physics and Cosmology, Prometheus Books, 1995. == External links == Brian Josephson on Nobelprize.org including the


id: ervin-l-szl-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ervin_László-0.md
category: reference
title: Ervin László
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ervin_László
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:17.472647+00:00
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parent: ervin-l-szl-20260505-0
summary:
Ervin László (Hungarian: [ˈɛrvin ˈlaːsloː]; born 12 June 1932) is an American philosopher of science, systems theorist, integral theorist, originally a classical pianist. He is an advocate of the theory of quantum consciousness. == Early life, family and education == László was born in Budapest, Hungary. His father was a shoe manufacturer, and his mother played the piano. László started playing the piano when he was five years old. His first piano concert was with the Budapest Symphony Orchestra when he was nine years old. After World War II, László relocated to the US. == Career == László is a visiting faculty member at the Graduate Institute Bethany. He has published about 75 books and over 400 papers, and is editor of World Futures: The Journal of General Evolution. László participated in the Stock Exchange of Visions project in 2006. In 2010, he was elected an external member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. In Hungary, the minister of environment appointed Laszlo as one of the leaders of the ministry's campaign concerning global warming. == Awards and honors == In 2002, László received an honorary doctorate from the University of Pécs. == Personal life == László married Carita Jägerhorn af


id: many-minds-interpretation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Many-minds_interpretation-0.md
category: reference
title: Many-minds interpretation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Many-minds_interpretation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:18.682284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: many-minds-interpretation-20260505-0
summary:
The many-minds interpretation of quantum mechanics extends the many-worlds interpretation by proposing that the distinction between worlds should be made at the level of the mind of an individual observer. The concept was first introduced in 1970 by H. Dieter Zeh as a variant of the Hugh Everett interpretation in connection with quantum decoherence, and later (in 1981) explicitly called a many or multi-consciousness interpretation. The name many-minds interpretation was first used by David Albert and Barry Loewer in 1988. == History == === Interpretations of quantum mechanics === The various interpretations of quantum mechanics typically involve explaining the mathematical formalism of quantum mechanics, or to create a physical picture of the theory. While the mathematical structure has a strong foundation, there is still much debate about the physical and philosophical interpretation of the theory. These interpretations aim to tackle various concepts such as: Evolution of the state of a quantum system (given by the wavefunction), typically through the use of the Schrödinger equation. This concept is almost universally accepted, and is rarely put to debate. The measurement problem, which relates to what is called wavefunction collapse – the collapse of a quantum state into a definite measurement (i.e. a


id: many-minds-interpretation-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Many-minds_interpretation-1.md
category: reference
title: Many-minds interpretation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Many-minds_interpretation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:18.682284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: many-minds-interpretation-20260505-0
summary:
Consider an experiment that measures the polarization of two photons. When the photon is created, it has an indeterminate polarization. If a stream of these photons is passed through a polarization filter, 50% of the light is passed through. This corresponds to each photon having a 50% chance of aligning with the filter and thus passing, or being misaligned (by 90 degrees relative to the polarization filter) and being absorbed. Quantum mechanically, this means the photon is in a superposition of states where it is either passed or absorbed. Now, consider the inclusion of another photon and polarization detector. Now, the photons are created in such a way that they are entangled. That is, when one photon takes on a polarization state, the other photon will always behave as if it has the same polarization. For simplicity, take the second filter to either be perfectly aligned with the first, or to be perfectly misaligned (90 degree difference in angle, such that it is absorbed). If the detectors are aligned, both photons are passed (i.e. they are said to agree). If they are misaligned, only the first passes and the second is absorbed (now they disagree). Thus, the entanglement causes perfect


id: many-minds-interpretation-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Many-minds_interpretation-2.md
category: reference
title: Many-minds interpretation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Many-minds_interpretation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:18.682284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: many-minds-interpretation-20260505-0
summary:
== Objections == Nothing within quantum theory itself requires each possibility within a wave function to complement a mental state. As all physical states (i.e. brain states) are quantum states, their associated mental states should be also. Nonetheless, it is not what one experiences within physical reality. Albert and Loewer argue that the mind must be intrinsically different than the physical reality as described by quantum theory. Thereby, they reject type-identity physicalism in favour of a non-reductive stance. However, Lockwood saves materialism through the notion of supervenience of the mental on the physical. Nonetheless, the many-minds interpretation does not solve the mindless hulks problem as a problem of supervenience. Mental states do not supervene on brain states as a given brain state is compatible with different configurations of mental states. Another serious objection is that workers in no collapse interpretations have produced no more than elementary models based on the definite existence of specific measuring devices. They have assumed, for example, that the Hilbert space of the universe splits naturally into a tensor product structure compatible with the measurement under consideration. They have also assumed, even when describing the behaviour of macroscopic objects, that it is appropriate to employ models


id: orchestrated-objective-reduction-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchestrated_objective_reduction-0.md
category: reference
title: Orchestrated objective reduction
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchestrated_objective_reduction
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:19.889818+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: orchestrated-objective-reduction-20260505-0
summary:
Orchestrated objective reduction (Orch OR) is a controversial theory postulating that consciousness originates at the quantum level inside neurons (rather than being a product of neural connections). The mechanism is held to be a quantum process called objective reduction that is orchestrated by cellular structures called microtubules. It is proposed that the theory may answer the hard problem of consciousness and provide a mechanism for free will. The hypothesis was put forward in the 1990s by physicist Roger Penrose and anesthesiologist Stuart Hameroff; it combines molecular biology, neuroscience, pharmacology, philosophy, quantum information theory, and quantum gravity. While some other theories assert that consciousness emerges as the complexity of the computations performed by cerebral neurons increases, Orch OR posits that consciousness is based on non-computable quantum processing performed by qubits formed collectively on cellular microtubules, a process significantly amplified in the neurons. The qubits are based on oscillating dipoles forming superposed resonance rings in helical pathways throughout lattices of microtubules. The oscillations are either electric, due to charge separation from London forces, or magnetic, due to electron spin—and possibly also due to nuclear spins (that can remain isolated for longer periods) that occur in gigahertz, megahertz, and kilohertz frequency ranges. Orchestration


id: orchestrated-objective-reduction-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchestrated_objective_reduction-1.md
category: reference
title: Orchestrated objective reduction
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchestrated_objective_reduction
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:19.889818+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: orchestrated-objective-reduction-20260505-0
summary:
== Orch OR == Penrose outlined a predecessor to Orch OR in The Emperor's New Mind, coming to the problem from a mathematical viewpoint and in particular Gödel's theorem, but it lacked a detailed proposal for how quantum processes could be implemented in the brain. Stuart Hameroff separately worked in cancer research and anesthesia, which gave him an interest in brain processes. Hameroff read Penrose's book and suggested to him that microtubules within neurons were suitable candidate sites for quantum processing, and ultimately for consciousness. Throughout the 1990s, the two collaborated on the Orch OR theory, which Penrose published in Shadows of the Mind (1994). Hameroff's contribution to the theory derived from his study of the neural cytoskeleton, and particularly on microtubules. As neuroscience has progressed, the role of the cytoskeleton and microtubules has assumed greater importance. In addition to providing structural support, microtubule functions include axoplasmic transport and control of the cell's movement, growth, and shape. Orch OR combines the Penrose–Lucas argument with Hameroff's hypothesis on quantum processing in microtubules. It proposes that when condensates in the brain undergo an objective wave function reduction, their collapse connects noncomputational decision-making to experiences embedded in spacetime's fundamental geometry. The theory further


id: orchestrated-objective-reduction-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchestrated_objective_reduction-2.md
category: reference
title: Orchestrated objective reduction
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchestrated_objective_reduction
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:19.889818+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: orchestrated-objective-reduction-20260505-0
summary:
=== Microtubule quantum vibration theory of anesthetic action === In an experiment, Gregory D. Scholes and Aarat Kalra of Princeton University used lasers to excite molecules within tubulins, causing a prolonged excitation to diffuse through microtubules farther than expected, which did not occur when repeated under anesthesia. However, diffusion results have to be interpreted carefully, since even classical diffusion can be very complex due to the wide range of length scales in the fluid-filled extracellular space. At high concentrations (~5 MAC), the anesthetic gas halothane causes reversible depolymerization of microtubules. This cannot be the mechanism of anesthetic action, however, because human anesthesia is performed at 1 MAC. (Neither Penrose or Hameroff claim that depolymerization is the mechanism of action for Orch OR.) At ~1 MAC halothane, reported minor changes in tubulin protein expression (~1.3-fold) in primary cortical neurons after exposure to halothane and isoflurane are not evidence that tubulin directly interacts with general anesthetics, but rather shows that the proteins controlling tubulin production are possible anesthetic targets. Further proteomic study reports 0.5 mM [14C]halothane binding to tubulin monomers alongside three dozens of other proteins. In addition, modulation of microtubule stability has been reported during anthracene general anesthesia of tadpoles. The


id: orchestrated-objective-reduction-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchestrated_objective_reduction-3.md
category: reference
title: Orchestrated objective reduction
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchestrated_objective_reduction
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:19.889818+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: orchestrated-objective-reduction-20260505-0
summary:
While some of the studies mentioned above purport to show superradiance and an influence of anesthetics on decreasing excitation diffusion through microtubules, those studies were performed under artificial conditions that failed to include proteins associated with microtubules like ferritin, which quenches microtubule superradiance. Evidence published prior to those studies establishes that ferritin interacts with microtubules in vivo and is essential for microtubule stability and function. For instance, those studies overlooked that: Studies of biophotons in the human body fail to find any evidence of ultraviolet (UV) biophotons. In contrast, at least one of the studies cited above that is relied on as evidence of microtubule superradiance in support of Orch-OR relies on earlier studies of UV biophotons measured in single-celled organisms like E. coli and respiratory deficient yeast as the basis for its contention that such biophotons are present in cells. That study also used UV-vis equipment with a light source that can generate 1020 photons per second, which is not representative of neurons' environment. Ferritin in the human body absorbs UV from external sources at least in the skin and in the cornea, where the levels of UV photons are much higher than measured biophoton levels of UV even


id: roger-penrose-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Penrose-0.md
category: reference
title: Roger Penrose
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Penrose
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:21.027224+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: roger-penrose-20260505-0
summary:
Sir Roger Penrose (born 8 August 1931) is an English mathematician, mathematical physicist, and philosopher of science. He is Emeritus Rouse Ball Professor of Mathematics at the University of Oxford, an emeritus fellow of Wadham College, Oxford, and an honorary fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, and University College London. He shared the 1988 Wolf Prize in Physics with Stephen Hawking for the Penrose–Hawking singularity theorems, and the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics "for the discovery that black hole formation is a robust prediction of the general theory of relativity". He proposed the Penrose triangle and corresponded with M. C. Escher, influencing his Waterfall and Ascending and Descending. Penrose's eponymous aperiodic tiling presaged the discovery of quasicrystals by Dan Shechtman. Penrose won the Royal Society Science Books Prize for The Emperor's New Mind (1989), which outlines his views on physics and consciousness. He followed it with The Road to Reality (2004), billed as "A Complete Guide to the Laws of the Universe". == Early life and education == Born in Colchester, Essex, Roger Penrose is a son of Margaret (née Leathes), a physician, and Lionel Penrose, a psychiatrist and geneticist. His paternal grandparents were J. Doyle Penrose, an Irish-born painter,


id: roger-penrose-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Penrose-1.md
category: reference
title: Roger Penrose
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Penrose
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:21.027224+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: roger-penrose-20260505-0
summary:
It was in the local context of gravitational collapse that the contribution of Penrose was most decisive, starting with his 1969 cosmic censorship conjecture, to the effect that any ensuing singularities would be confined within a well-behaved event horizon surrounding a hidden space-time region for which Wheeler coined the term black hole, leaving a visible exterior region with strong but finite curvature, from which some of the gravitational energy may be extractable by what is known as the Penrose process, while accretion of surrounding matter may release further energy that can account for astrophysical phenomena such as quasars. Following up his "weak cosmic censorship hypothesis", Penrose went on, in 1979, to formulate a stronger version called the "strong censorship hypothesis". Together with the Belinski–Khalatnikov–Lifshitz conjecture and issues of nonlinear stability, settling the censorship conjectures is one of the most important outstanding problems in general relativity. Also from 1979 dates Penrose's influential Weyl curvature hypothesis on the initial conditions of the observable part of the universe and the origin of the second law of thermodynamics. Penrose and James Terrell independently realised that objects travelling near the speed of light will appear to undergo a peculiar skewing or rotation. This effect has


id: roger-penrose-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Penrose-2.md
category: reference
title: Roger Penrose
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Penrose
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:21.027224+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: roger-penrose-20260505-0
summary:
Penrose has written books on the connection between fundamental physics and human (or animal) consciousness. In The Emperor's New Mind (1989), he argues that known laws of physics are inadequate to explain the phenomenon of consciousness. Penrose proposes the characteristics this new physics may have and specifies the requirements for a bridge between classical and quantum mechanics (what he calls correct quantum gravity). Penrose uses a variant of Turing's halting theorem to demonstrate that a system can be deterministic without being algorithmic. (For example, imagine a system with only two states, ON and OFF. If the system's state is ON when a given Turing machine halts and OFF when the Turing machine does not halt, then the system's state is completely determined by the machine; nevertheless, there is no algorithmic way to determine whether the Turing machine stops.) Penrose believes that such deterministic yet non-algorithmic processes may come into play in the quantum mechanical wave function reduction, and may be harnessed by the brain. He argues that computers today are unable to have intelligence because they are algorithmically deterministic systems. He argues against the viewpoint that the rational processes of the mind are completely algorithmic and can thus be duplicated


id: roger-penrose-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Penrose-3.md
category: reference
title: Roger Penrose
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Penrose
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:21.027224+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: roger-penrose-20260505-0
summary:
Penrose has been awarded many prizes for his contributions to science. In 1971 he was awarded the Dannie Heineman Prize for Astrophysics by the American Astronomical Society and American Institute of Physics. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1972. In 1975 Hawking and Penrose were jointly awarded the Eddington Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society. In 1985 he was awarded the Royal Society Royal Medal. Along with Hawking, he was awarded the prestigious Wolf Prize in Physics by the Wolf Foundation (Israel) in 1988. In 1989 Penrose was awarded the Dirac Medal and Prize of the British Institute of Physics. He was also made an Honorary Fellow of the Institute of Physics (HonFInstP). In 1990 Penrose was awarded the Albert Einstein Medal for outstanding work related to the work of Albert Einstein by the Albert Einstein Society (Switzerland). In 1991, he was awarded the Naylor Prize of the London Mathematical Society. Penrose was awarded an honorary Doctor of Science degree (DSc) from the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 1992, and an honorary degree from the University of Surrey in 1993. From 1992 to 1995 he served as President of the International Society on General


id: roger-penrose-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Penrose-4.md
category: reference
title: Roger Penrose
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Penrose
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:21.027224+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: roger-penrose-20260505-0
summary:
== Notes == == References == == Further reading == Barss, Patchen (2024). The Impossible Man: Roger Penrose and the Cost of Genius. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-1-5416-0366-0. == External links == Awake in the Universe – Penrose debates how creativity, the most elusive of faculties, has helped us unlock the country of the mind and the mysteries of the cosmos with Bonnie Greer. Works by or about Roger Penrose at the Internet Archive Dangerous Knowledge on YouTube – Penrose was one of the principal interviewees in a BBC documentary about the mathematics of infinity directed by David Malone Penrose's new theory "Aeons Before the Big Bang?": Original 2005 lecture: "Before the Big Bang? A new perspective on the Weyl curvature hypothesis" Archived 7 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine (Isaac Newton Institute for Mathematical Sciences, Cambridge, 11 November 2005). Original publication: "Before the Big Bang: an outrageous new perspective and its implications for particle physics". Proceedings of EPAC 2006. Edinburgh. 2759–2762 (cf. also Hill, C.D. & Nurowski, P. (2007) "On Penrose's 'Before the Big Bang' ideas". Ithaca) Revised 2009 lecture: "Aeons Before the Big Bang?" (Georgia Institute of Technology, Center for Relativistic Astrophysics) BBC interview on the new


id: paavo-pylkk-nen-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paavo_Pylkkänen-0.md
category: reference
title: Paavo Pylkkänen
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paavo_Pylkkänen
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:22.201024+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: paavo-pylkk-nen-20260505-0
summary:
Paavo Pylkkänen (born 1959) is a Finnish philosopher of mind. He is an Associate Professor of Philosophy at the University of Skövde and a university lecturer in theoretical philosophy at the University of Helsinki. He is known for his work on mind-body studies, building on David Bohm's interpretation of quantum mechanics, in particular Bohm's view of the cosmos as an enfolding and unfolding whole including mind and matter. == Work == Pylkkänen's areas of specialization are the mind-body problem, the basis of cognitive science, philosophy of physics, the philosophy of David Bohm and the foundations of quantum theory. Since 1996 he has been employed at the University of Skövde in Skövde, Sweden, where he initiated a consciousness studies program combining philosophy and cognitive neuroscience. He is currently a temporary university lecturer in theoretical philosophy at the Department of Philosophy, History, Culture and Art Studies, at University of Helsinki, where he has regularly worked since 2008. Pylkkänen has worked and published together with theoretical physicist Basil Hiley, a close co-worker of David Bohm over three decades. Hiley and Pylkkänen together addressed the question of the relation between mind and matter by the hypothesis of an active information within the conceptual framework


id: quantum-cognition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_cognition-0.md
category: reference
title: Quantum cognition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_cognition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:23.396116+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: quantum-cognition-20260505-0
summary:
Quantum cognition uses the mathematical formalism of quantum probability theory to model psychology phenomena when classical probability theory fails. The field focuses on modeling phenomena in cognitive science that have resisted traditional techniques or where traditional models seem to have reached a barrier (e.g., human memory), and modeling preferences in decision theory that seem paradoxical from a traditional rational point of view (e.g., preference reversals). Since the use of a quantum-theoretic framework is for modeling purposes, the identification of quantum structures in cognitive phenomena does not presuppose the existence of microscopic quantum processes in the human brain. Quantum cognition can be applied to model cognitive phenomena such as information processing by the human brain, language, decision making, human memory, concepts and conceptual reasoning, human judgment, and perception. == Challenges for classical probability theory == Classical probability theory is a rational approach to inference which does not easily explain some observations of human inference in psychology. Some cases where quantum probability theory has advantages include the conjunction fallacy, the disjunction fallacy, the failures of the sure-thing principle, and question-order bias in judgement. === Conjunction fallacy === If participants in a psychology experiment are told about "Linda", described as looking like a


id: quantum-cognition-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_cognition-1.md
category: reference
title: Quantum cognition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_cognition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:23.396116+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: quantum-cognition-20260505-0
summary:
=== Human probability judgments === Quantum probability provides a new way to explain human probability judgment errors including the conjunction and disjunction errors. A conjunction error occurs when a person judges the probability of a likely event L and an unlikely event U to be greater than the unlikely event U; a disjunction error occurs when a person judges the probability of a likely event L to be greater than the probability of the likely event L or an unlikely event U. Quantum probability theory is a generalization of Bayesian probability theory because it is based on a set of von Neumann axioms that relax some of the classic Kolmogorov axioms. The quantum model introduces a new fundamental concept to cognition—the compatibility versus incompatibility of questions and the effect this can have on the sequential order of judgments. Quantum probability provides a simple account of conjunction and disjunction errors as well as many other findings such as order effects on probability judgments. The liar paradox - The contextual influence of a human subject on the truth behavior of a cognitive entity is explicitly exhibited by the so-called liar paradox, that is, the truth value of a sentence like "this sentence


id: the-road-to-reality-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Road_to_Reality-0.md
category: reference
title: The Road to Reality
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Road_to_Reality
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:24.538944+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-road-to-reality-20260505-0
summary:
The Road to Reality: A Complete Guide to the Laws of the Universe is a popular science book on modern physics by the British mathematical physicist Roger Penrose, published in 2004. It covers the basics of the Standard Model of particle physics, discussing general relativity and quantum mechanics, and discusses the possible unification of these two theories. == Overview == The book discusses the physical world. Many fields that 19th century scientists believed were separate, such as electricity and magnetism, are aspects of more fundamental properties. Some texts, both popular and university level, introduce these topics as separate concepts, and then reveal their combination much later. The Road to Reality reverses this process, first expounding the underlying mathematics of space–time, then showing how electromagnetism and other phenomena fall out fully formed. The book is just over 1100 pages, of which the first 383 are dedicated to mathematics—Penrose's goal is to acquaint inquisitive readers with the mathematical tools needed to understand the remainder of the book in depth. Physics enters the discussion on page 383 with the topic of spacetime. From there it moves on to fields in spacetime, deriving the classical electrical and magnetic forces from first principles; that is,


id: prem-saran-satsangi-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prem_Saran_Satsangi-0.md
category: reference
title: Prem Saran Satsangi
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prem_Saran_Satsangi
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:25.712556+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: prem-saran-satsangi-20260505-0
summary:
Prem Saran Satsangi (born 9 March 1937) is the current sant satguru of Radha Soami Sect, Dayalbagh or Radhasoami Satsang Dayalbagh who succeeded Param Guru Lal Sahab, seventh Sant Satguru in 2003. He is also the founder and first president of the System Society of India, a professional body of system scientists. He holds the emeritus chair from the East of the Integrated East-West Forum at The Science of Consciousness Conferences since 2012. He is the chairman of Advisory Committee on Education (ACE), Dayalbagh Educational Institute (deemed to be university). == Birth == He was born on the campus of Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi on the day of Indian festival of Holi on 9 March 1937, to Krishna Kumar, a professor of botany at Agriculture College, Banaras Hindu University and Bhakt Saheli. == Education and early career == He studied electrical engineering at the Banaras Hindu University, now Indian Institute of Technology (BHU) Varanasi, and graduated in 1957. He was initiated into Radhasoami faith on 13 February 1958. In 1960 he accepted a scholarship at Michigan State University, where he received his M.S. in electrical engineering in 1961. The USAID extended his fellowship for PhD, but Satsangi declined the offer


id: shadows-of-the-mind-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadows_of_the_Mind-0.md
category: reference
title: Shadows of the Mind
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadows_of_the_Mind
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:26.935830+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: shadows-of-the-mind-20260505-0
summary:
Shadows of the Mind: A Search for the Missing Science of Consciousness is a 1994 book by mathematical physicist Roger Penrose that serves as a followup to his 1989 book The Emperor's New Mind: Concerning Computers, Minds and The Laws of Physics. Penrose hypothesizes that: Human consciousness is non-algorithmic, and thus is not capable of being modelled by a conventional Turing machine type of digital computer. Quantum mechanics plays an essential role in the understanding of human consciousness; specifically, he believes that microtubules within neurons support quantum superpositions. The objective collapse of the quantum wavefunction of the microtubules is critical for consciousness. The collapse in question is physical behaviour that is non-algorithmic and transcends the limits of computability. The human mind has abilities that no Turing machine could possess because of this mechanism of non-computable physics. == Argument == === Mathematical thought === In 1931, the mathematician and logician Kurt Gödel proved his incompleteness theorems, showing that any effectively generated theory capable of expressing elementary arithmetic cannot be both consistent and complete. Further to that, for any consistent formal theory that proves certain basic arithmetic truths, there is an arithmetical statement that is true, but not provable in the theory.


id: shadows-of-the-mind-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadows_of_the_Mind-1.md
category: reference
title: Shadows of the Mind
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadows_of_the_Mind
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:26.935830+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: shadows-of-the-mind-20260505-0
summary:
=== Microtubule hypothesis === Penrose and Stuart Hameroff have constructed the Orch-OR theory in which human consciousness is the result of quantum gravity effects in microtubules. However, in 2000, Max Tegmark calculated in an article he published in Physical Review E that the time scale of neuron firing and excitations in microtubules is slower than the decoherence time by a factor of at least 1010. Tegmark's article has been widely cited by critics of the Penrose-Hameroff hypothesis. The reception of the article is summed up by this statement in his support: "Physicists outside the fray, such as IBM's John Smolin, say the calculations confirm what they had suspected all along. 'We're not working with a brain that's near absolute zero. It's reasonably unlikely that the brain evolved quantum behavior', he says." In other words, there is a missing link between physics and neuroscience, and to date, it is too premature to claim that the Orch-OR hypothesis is right. In response to Tegmark's claims, Hagan, Tuszynski and Hameroff claimed that Tegmark did not address the Orch-OR model, but instead a model of his own construction. This involved superpositions of quanta separated by 24 nm rather than the much smaller separations stipulated


id: henry-stapp-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Stapp-0.md
category: reference
title: Henry Stapp
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Stapp
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:28.142922+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: henry-stapp-20260505-0
summary:
Henry Pierce Stapp (born March 23, 1928) is an American mathematical physicist, known for his work in quantum mechanics, particularly the development of axiomatic S-matrix theory, the proofs of strong nonlocality properties, and the place of free will in the orthodox quantum mechanics of John von Neumann. He is considered a member of the Fundamental Fysiks Group. == Biography == Stapp received his PhD in particle physics at the University of California, Berkeley, under the supervision of Nobel laureates Emilio Segrè and Owen Chamberlain. In 1958, Stapp was invited by Wolfgang Pauli to ETH Zurich to work with him personally on basic problems in quantum mechanics. When Pauli died in December 1958, Stapp studied von Neumann's book on quantum mechanics, and on the basis of that work composed an article entitled "Mind, Matter and Quantum Mechanics", which was not submitted for publication; but the title became the title of his 1993 book. In 1969 Stapp was invited by Werner Heisenberg to work with him at the Max Planck Institute in Munich. In 1976 Stapp was invited by J.A. Wheeler to work with him on problems in the foundations of quantum mechanics. Dr. Stapp has published many papers pertaining to the


id: max-tegmark-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Tegmark-0.md
category: reference
title: Max Tegmark
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Tegmark
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:29.273945+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: max-tegmark-20260505-0
summary:
Max Tegmark (born 5 May 1967) is a Swedish-American physicist, machine learning researcher and author. He is a professor of physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He co-founded and leads the Future of Life Institute, a nonprofit focused on reducing global catastrophic risks from advanced technologies. Originally a cosmologist, Tegmark's focus shifted toward artificial intelligence (AI). His 2017 book Life 3.0 presents scenarios for what the world might look like as AI continues to develop. Tegmark advocates for a halt on the development of artificial superintelligence. == Early life == Max Erik Tegmark was born Max Erik Shapiro in Stockholm, Sweden, on 5 May 1967, to Karin Tegmark and mathematician Harold S. Shapiro. Tegmark grew up in Bromma, Stockholm. During his studies at Blackeberg's high school, he worked as a volunteer for the Swedish Peace and Arbitration Society, campaigning for nuclear disarmament. While studying at the University of California at Berkeley, he adopted his mother's surname Tegmark, as there were many astronomers named Shapiro, including one of his professors. While in high school, Tegmark and a friend, Magnus Bodin, created and sold a word processor, Teddy, written in machine code for the Swedish eight-bit computer ABC 80 as a


id: max-tegmark-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Tegmark-1.md
category: reference
title: Max Tegmark
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Tegmark
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:29.273945+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: max-tegmark-20260505-0
summary:
=== Controversy === In 2023, Tegmark was the focus of a controversy when he was alleged to have signed a letter of intent on behalf of the Future of Life Institute for a $100,000 grant—ultimately rejected—to far-right media outlet Nya Dagbladet, an outlet for which Tegmark's brother wrote, an allegation to which the Institute formally responded. Tegmark later said that the Institute "ultimately decided to reject it because of what our subsequent due diligence uncovered", that they rejected it long before the media became involved, and that the institute "finds Nazi, neo-Nazi or pro-Nazi groups or ideologies despicable and would never knowingly support them". An official statement from the Future of Life Institute further expands on this: "FLI finds groups or ideologies espousing antisemitism, white supremacy, or racism despicable and would never knowingly support any such group". == Awards and recognition == Tegmark was elected Fellow of the American Physical Society in 2012 for, according to the citation, "his contributions to cosmology, including precision measurements from cosmic microwave background and galaxy clustering data, tests of inflation and gravitation theories, and the development of a new technology for low-frequency radio interferometry". He was awarded the Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Science's


id: consciousness-causes-collapse-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness_causes_collapse-0.md
category: reference
title: Consciousness causes collapse
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness_causes_collapse
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:30.406153+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: consciousness-causes-collapse-20260505-0
summary:
The postulate that consciousness causes collapse is an interpretation of quantum mechanics in which consciousness is postulated to be the main mechanism behind the process of measurement in quantum mechanics. It is a historical interpretation of quantum mechanics that is largely discarded by modern physicists. The idea is attributed to Eugene Wigner who wrote about it in the 1960s, but traces of the idea appear as early as the 1930s. Wigner later rejected this interpretation in the 1970s and 1980s. This interpretation has been tied to the origin of pseudoscientific currents and New Age movements, specifically quantum mysticism. == History == === Earlier work === According to Werner Heisenberg’s recollections in Physics and Beyond, Niels Bohr is said to have rejected the necessity of a conscious observer in quantum mechanics as early as 1927. In his 1932 book Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics, John von Neumann argued that the mathematics of quantum mechanics allows the collapse of the wave function to be placed at any position in the causal chain from the measurement device to the "subjective perception" of the human observer. However von Neumann did not explicitly relate measurement with consciousness. In 1939, Fritz London and Edmond Bauer argued


id: consciousness-causes-collapse-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness_causes_collapse-1.md
category: reference
title: Consciousness causes collapse
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness_causes_collapse
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:30.406153+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: consciousness-causes-collapse-20260505-0
summary:
The only form of interactionist dualism that has seemed even remotely tenable in the contemporary picture is one that exploits certain properties of quantum mechanics. There are two ways this might go. First, some [e.g., Eccles 1986] have appealed to the existence of quantum indeterminacy, and have suggested that a nonphysical consciousness might be responsible for filling the resultant causal gaps, determining which values some physical magnitudes might take within an apparently "probabilistic" distribution... This is an audacious and interesting suggestion, but it has a number of problems... A second way in which quantum mechanics bears on the issue of causal closure lies with the fact that in some interpretations of the quantum formalism, consciousness itself plays a vital causal role, being required to bring about the so-called "collapse of the wave-function." This collapse is supposed to occur upon any act of measurement; and in one interpretation, the only way to distinguish a measurement from a nonmeasurement is via the presence of consciousness. This theory is certainly not universally accepted (for a start, it presupposes that consciousness is not itself physical, surely contrary to the views of most physicists), and I do not accept it myself, but in any case


id: historiography-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiography_of_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Historiography of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiography_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:32.266326+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: historiography-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The historiography of science is the study of the history and methodology of the sub-discipline of history known as the history of science, including its disciplinary aspects and practices (methods, theories, schools), and controversies. Its subject is the variety of ways that science's past has been written about. The earliest histories of science were written by scientists largely as celebrations of scientific progress. Scholars in the 19th and early 20th century frequently treated the history and philosophy of science as a single scholarly undertaking but the fields began to diverge under the influence of logical positivism, which demarcated scientific justification as the proper concern of philosophy, leaving scientific discovery to the historians. The increasing professionalization of science history (i.e. the emergence of "history of science" as an independent field) in the 20th century and the entry of sociologists into the field caused friction with scientists and "practitioner" historians (practicing or retired scientists writing about their own fields). The divide has often centered on a disagreement over whether the history of science should be an accounting of scientific progress or a critical analysis of science as a cultural activity, a split in point-of-view that has been both exacerbated and reinforced by


id: historiography-of-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiography_of_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Historiography of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiography_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:32.266326+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: historiography-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The origins of the philosophy of science as a field of inquiry distinct from epistemology extend back to Francis Bacon's (1561-1626) Novum Organum ("true directions concerning the interpretation of nature") and René Descartes' (1596-1650) Discourse on Method (full title: "Discourse on the Method of Rightly Conducting One's Reason and of Seeking Truth in the Sciences") and then continue with the 2nd edition of Isaac Newton's (1643-1727) Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica and David Hume's (1711-1776) An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding in the 18th century. 19th-century scholars, including the philosopher and mathematician (and "father of sociology") Auguste Comte (1798-1857) and the physicist and philosopher Ernst Mach (1838-1916), frequently treated the history and philosophy of science as a single scholarly undertaking where the study of what science had been (its history) and what science ought to be (its methods and justifications) were productively intermingled. Comte and Mach were associated with the philosophical school of positivism, which also advanced ideas for the reform of history generally. "Historical" positivists argued that historians should pursue the objective truth of the past by allowing historical sources to "speak for themselves", without additional interpretation. The heavy emphasis placed by historical positivists on documentary sources led to the development


id: historiography-of-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiography_of_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Historiography of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiography_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:32.266326+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: historiography-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
...the result [of whig history] is that to many of us [historical figures] seem much more modern than they really were, and even when we have corrected this impression by closer study we find it difficult to keep in mind the differences between their world and ours. Whig history also easily lends itself to a view of history that is populated by heroes on the side of progress (or some other cherished modern value) while their confused or misguided opponents are portrayed, at best, as a "dummy that acts as a better foil to the grand whig virtues". In place of a view of history as following some sort of inevitable or structural pattern, Butterfield urged historians to pay attention to the accidental and contingent nature of historical events and "to evoke a certain sensibility towards the past, the sensibility which studies the past 'for the sake of the past', which delights in the concrete and the complex, which 'goes out to meet the past', which searches for 'unlikenesses between past and present'". === Specialization === Influenced by Butterfield, many of the professionalizing mid 20th-century historians of science saw the entire previous history of the history of science, written primarily


id: historiography-of-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiography_of_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Historiography of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiography_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:32.266326+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: historiography-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Science of sociology === Just as sociologists have turned a skeptical eye on science, many scientists have returned the favor, accusing sociologists of deep ignorance about and hostility towards the field they are purporting to study, and a multi-generational intellectual laziness and complacency that has left their entire field unequipped to offer anything more than a primitive caricature of the vast intellectual landscape they have never bothered to map. == Terminology == As early as the eleventh edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica (1910-1911), the word "science" had acquired an extremely broad meaning in English: ...science may be defined as ordered knowledge of natural phenomena and of the relations between them...The beginnings of physical science are to be sought in the slow and unconscious observation by primitive races of men of natural occurrences, such as the apparent movements of the heavenly bodies... More recently, the historian of computing R. Anthony Hyman (1928-2011) has warned against inappropriate use of the word "science": One may be reasonably clear what "science" means in the 19th century and most of the 18th century. In the 17th century "science" has very different meaning. Chemistry, for example, was then inextricably mixed up with alchemy. Before the


id: historiography-of-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiography_of_science-4.md
category: reference
title: Historiography of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historiography_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:32.266326+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: historiography-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== References == Agassi, Joseph. Towards an Historiography of Science Wesleyan University Press. 1963 Bennett, J. A. (1997). "Museums and the Establishment of the History of Science at Oxford and Cambridge". British Journal for the History of Science. 30 (104 Pt 1): 29–46. doi:10.1017/s0007087496002889. PMID 11618881. S2CID 5697866. Bowler, Peter J; Morus, Iwan Rhys (2005). Making Modern Science: A Historical Survey (1st ed.). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-06861-9. Retrieved 2021-04-25. Buchdahl, Gerd (1965). "A Revolution in Historiography of Science". History of Science. 4: 55–69. Bibcode:1965HisSc...4...55B. doi:10.1177/007327536500400103. S2CID 142838889. Butterfield, Herbert (1965) [1931]. The Whig Interpretation of History. New York: WW Norton and Company. Cronon, William (1 Sep 2012). "Two Cheers for the Whig Interpretation of History". Perspectives on History. American Historical Association. Retrieved 2026-04-30. Dennis, Michael Aaron. "Historiography of Science: An American Perspective," in John Krige and Dominique Pestre, eds., Science in the Twentieth Century, Amsterdam: Harwood, 1997, pp. 1–26. von Engelhardt, Dietrich. Historisches Bewußtsein in der Naturwissenschaft : von der Aufklärung bis zum Positivismus, Freiburg [u.a.] : Alber, 1979. Fleck, Ludwik, Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact, Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1979. Gavroglu, Kostas. O Passado das Ciências como História, Porto: Porto Editora,


id: history-of-science-and-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:33.454256+00:00
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parent: history-of-science-and-technology-20260505-0
summary:
The history of science and technology (HST) is a field of history that examines the development of the understanding of the natural world (science) and humans' ability to manipulate it (technology) at different points in time. This academic discipline also examines the cultural, economic, and political context and impacts of scientific practices; it likewise may study the consequences of new technologies on existing scientific fields. == Academic study of history of science == History of science is an academic discipline with an international community of specialists. Main professional organizations for this field include the History of Science Society, the British Society for the History of Science, and the European Society for the History of Science. Much of the study of the history of science has been devoted to answering questions about what science is, how it functions, and whether it exhibits large-scale patterns and trends. === History of the academic study of history of science === Histories of science were originally written by practicing and retired scientists, starting primarily with William Whewell's History of the Inductive Sciences (1837), as a way to communicate the virtues of science to the public. Auguste Comte proposed that there should be a specific discipline


id: history-of-science-and-technology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology-1.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:33.454256+00:00
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parent: history-of-science-and-technology-20260505-0
summary:
=== India === History of science and technology is a well-developed field in India. At least three generations of scholars can be identified. The first generation includes D.D.Kosambi, Dharmpal, Debiprasad Chattopadhyay and Rahman. The second generation mainly consists of Ashis Nandy, Deepak Kumar, Dhruv Raina, S. Irfan Habib, Shiv Visvanathan, Gyan Prakash, Stan Lourdswamy, V.V. Krishna, Itty Abraham, Richard Grove, Kavita Philip, Mira Nanda and Rob Anderson. There is an emergent third generation that includes scholars like Abha Sur and Jahnavi Phalkey. Departments and Programmes The National Institute of Science, Technology and Development Studies had a research group active in the 1990s which consolidated social history of science as a field of research in India. Currently there are several institutes and university departments offering HST programmes. Jawaharlal Nehru University has an Mphil-PhD program that offers specialisation in Social History of Science. It is at the History of Science and Education group of the Zakir Husain Centre for Educational Studies (ZHCES) in the School of Social Sciences. Renowned Indian science historians Deepak Kumar and Dhruv Raina teach here. Also, *Centre for Studies in Science Policy has an Mphil-PhD program that offers specialization in Science, Technology, and Society along with various allied


id: history-of-science-and-technology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology-2.md
category: reference
title: History of science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T09:27:33.454256+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-science-and-technology-20260505-0
summary:
=== United States === Academic study of the history of science as an independent discipline was launched by George Sarton at Harvard with his book Introduction to the History of Science (1927) and the Isis journal (founded in 1912). Sarton exemplified the early 20th century view of the history of science as the history of great men and great ideas. He shared with many of his contemporaries a Whiggish belief in history as a record of the advances and delays in the march of progress. The History of Science was not a recognized subfield of American history in this period, and most of the work was carried out by interested scientists and physicians rather than professional historians. With the work of I. Bernard Cohen at Harvard, the history of Science became an established subdiscipline of history after 1945. Arizona State University's Center for Biology and Society offers several paths for MS or PhD students who are interested in issues surrounding the history and philosophy of the science. California Institute of Technology offers courses in the History and Philosophy of Science to fulfill its core humanities requirements. Case Western Reserve University has an undergraduate interdisciplinary program in the History and Philosophy


